'.y^ ■«it* &^ % . '' ^^- I ^^ _ w m\y '^^ N, ^-^ A HISTORY OP GERMAN LITERATURE BY v» W. SCHERER TRANSLATED FROM THE THIRD GERMAN EDITION BY MRS. F. C. CONYBEARE EDITED BY F. MAX MULLER 111...°''^^^ '^ A VOLUME II. NEW YORK CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS 1901 [All rights reserved "} CONTENTS OF VOL. II. CHAPTER XI. The Age of Frederick the Great Frederick and the national life, i. The Seven Years* War, l. The Saxon Poets, i. Iieipzig 2 Relations of Frederick with Gottsched and Gellert, 2. Gottsched, 3. Gellert, 8. The 'Bremer Beitrage,' 12, Rabener, 13. Zacharia, 14. Ellas Schlegel, 15. Younger dramatists, Cronegk and Brawe, 16. Christian Felix Weisse, and the Operetta, 16. Revival of German popular song, 18. Zurich and Berlin 19 Bodmer and Breitinger, 22. Frederick the Great, 24. Poets in Halle, 28. Poets in Berlin, 29. Klopstock, 30. Ewald von Kleist, 38. Salomon Gessner, 39. Wieland, 40. Leasing 47 First period (to 1755), 47. Connection with Voltaire, 49. 'Miss Sara Samson,' 52. — Second peiiod (to 1772"), 53. Seven Years' War, 54. Gleim's War Songs, 54. Foreign popular poetry and ballads. 55. 'The Litteralurbriefe,' 58. 'Minna von Earnhelm,' 69. German Novels, 61. Revival of Classical influence 52. W^inckel- mann 67. Lessing's Laokoon, 65. ' The Hamburgische Dramaturgic,' 67. The Antiquarian letters, 69. 'Emilia Galotti,' 71. — Third period (to 1 781 ), 72. Theological controversy, 75. ' Nathan der Weise,' 77. Herder and Goethe 8a Essays on ' German style and art,' and the literary revolution, 82. Justus Moser, 83. J. G. Hamann, 85. Herder, 86. Goethe's youth (to 1775), 91. Herder's influence on Goethe, 94. *Gotz,' 96. Other poems, 99. Religious and moral development, 102. Werthcr, 107. German letter- writing, no. J 03606 VI Contents The Literary Bevolution and the lUuminati . . . .114 Dramatists of the Storm and Stress Period, Lenz, Klinger, Wagner, Maler Miiller, Torring, 115: Schiller, 116. Gottingen brotherhood, 119 : Boie, Miller, Holty. The Stolbergs, 120. Voss, 121. Biirger, 122, Revival of early German poetry, 123. Herder's Storm and Stress period, 124. Lavater, Jung Stilling, Claudius, 126. Fritz Jacobi, 127. Heinse, 128. Wieland at Weimar, 129, ' Oberon,' 131. Lessing, Lichtenberg and Nicolai, 132. Frederick the Great's ' De la litterature AUemande.' 132. Berlin, 133. Moses Mendelssohn, 135. Kant, 136. Herder's ' Ideen,' 139. CHAPTER XII. "Weimar 142 Goethe at the Wartburg, 142. Anna Amalia and Karl August, 143. Goethe's Masque for Dec. 18, 181 8, 144. Goethe 145 Official work, and court life in Weimar, 145. Frau von Stein, 146. Scientific studies, 148. Edition of his early works, 150. 'Egmont,' 151. ' Iphigenie,' 152. 'Tasso,' 156, Poems written at Weimar, 158. Travels, 161. Goethe's Italian journey, 162. Studies in physics, 163. Views on Art, 164. Christiane Vulpius, i66. Roman Elegies, 167. Schiller and Goethe 170 The * Horen,' 172. ' Xenien,' 173. Goethe as director of the Court Theatre, 174. His dramatic writings, 179. 'Natural Daughter,' 179. ' Wilhelm Meister,' 181. Tales, 186. 'Alexis und Dora,' 187. 'Hermann und Dorothea,' 187. 'Achilleis,' 194. Ballads, 195. Social Songs, 196. Allegorical Dramas, 197. Schiller . 199 Youthful poems, 200. * Don Carlos,' 201. Political opinions, 203. Philosophy and History, 204. Poems, 206. Dramas, 208. ' Wallen- stein,' 208. 'Maria Stuart,' 215. ' Maid of Orleans,' 218. 'Bride of Messina,' 220. ' Wilhelm Tell,' 224. 'Demetrius,' 228. CHAPTER XIII. Bomanticism 229 Poet-families, 229. Storm and Stress, 230. Classical taste, 230. Romanticism, 230. Science 231 German prose, 231. Literary women, 232. Philosophy, 233. Mathematics and Natural Philosophy, 235. Cosmology and Alex- of Volicme II, vii PAGE. ander von Humboldt, 236. Wilhelm von Humboldt and the Science of Man 238. Theology, 241. Philology and History, 243. (Critical spirit, comparative method, 244. Historical method, 245. History, 24;. Philology. 247.) The older Romantic school, 248. Tieck, 249. A. W. Schlegel 250, Fr. Schlegel, 251. Later Romantic School, 2 = 2. Arnim and Brentano, 252. Gorres, 252. Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm, 253. Uhland. 255. Goethe, 256. Iijrric Poetry 259 School of Hagedom, 259. School of Haller, 259. Matthisson, 260. Holderlin, 261. Poetry in local dialects, 262. Hebel, 262. Usteri, 263. Older romantic school, 263. Novalis, 263. Tieck, 264. The Schlegels, 264. Patriotic poetry, 265. Arnim ; Collin ; H. v. Kleist ; Fouque ; Schenkendorf ; Stagemann; Riickert ; Komer, 265. E. M. Amdt, ?66. The Swabian school, 2^8. Justinus Kemer, 269. Uhland, 269. North Germans, Chamisso, Eichen- dorff, Wilhelm Muller, 271. Goethe, 272. (' Westostlicher Divan,' 273. * Trilogie der Leidenschaft,' 275.) Riickert, 275. Platen, 277. Heinrich Heine, 278. ' Reisebilder' 280. Songs set to music, Franz Schubert, 281. Narrative writing 282 Epics, 282. Novels, 283. Semi- Historical, 284. Classical and chivalrous Novels, 285. Ghost Stories, 287. Didactic Novels, 287. Novels of domestic life. 288. Satirical and humorous romances, 289. Hippel, 289. Jean Paul, 290. Tales, 293. H. v. Kleist, 295. Arnim, Fouque, Chamisso. 295. Hoffmann, 296. Eichendorff. 297. Goethe, 297, 'Wilhelm Meister,' 297. *Wahlverwandschaften,' 298. The Drama 301 Goethe, 301. 'Pandora,' 302. Korner, Ohlenschlager, Zacharias Werner, 303. The* P'ate-tragedies,' 304. Historical plays, 305. Platen, 306. Kleist, 306. Drama in Vienna, 310. Grillparzer, 312. Ferdinand Raimund, 314. — 'Faust, '316. History of the legend, 316. Popular Drama of Faust, 317. Treatment of the Faust Legend by Lessing and others, 318. First part of Goethe's Faust, 319. Analysis of Faust, 320. Second part, 323. Metre and style, 326. Gretchen, 327. Helena, 330. Male characters, 331. Mephisto, 332. Faust, 332. Appendix . 337 Chronological Table 337 Bibliographical Appendix .....,.: 353 Index ...••.,••••*. 405 CHAPTER XI. THE AGE OF FREDERICK THE GREAT. Frederick the Great reigned from 1740 to 1786. When he began to reign Gottsched was the leading German writer; when he died Goethe was preparing for his ItaHan journey, and was just completing his 'Iphigenie.' This interval of forty-six years is a period of unparalleled literary and aesthetic progress, and though personally the king rather held aloof from progress in the movement, yet his home and foreign policy contri- Frederick's buted powerfully to its advancement. Everywhere we reign, find traces of his influence ; everywhere men's eyes were fixed upon one, who could so stir their minds and stimulate their zeal, who could incite other rulers to follow his example, and awaken even the admiration of his enemies. The rise of modern German literature is connected with the Seven Years' War, just as the rise of Middle High-German chivalrous poetry was connected with the first Italian campaigns of Frederick Barbaro'ssa. Poets were to be found among the officers of the Prussian king just as among the knightly followers of the old emperor. And though Frederick the Great gathered French writers around him, and had no great confidence in Frederick's the literary powers of his own people, yet the very French annoyance which this caused them was but a new tastes, incitement to exert their powers to the utmost, and prove to the King that he was mistaken in his judgment. A small group of Saxon poets alone remained unaff"ected either directly or indirectly by Frederick's influence; but these very poets were in point of taste most akin to him, for their culture, like his, was chiefly derived from the French ; it owed its characteristic features to that phase of German taste which had been inaugurated VOL. II. fi 2 The Age of Frederick the Great. [ch. xi. under Frederick's grandfather, and which had subsequently diffused rpjjg itself more and more. It was in Prussia that French Leipzig Classicism first found a sympathetic reception, and poets. Prussians like Wernicke and Gottsched were its most devoted apostles; but it was in Leipzig that it established its head-quarters. Leipzig. During the Seven Years* War Frederick the Great paid repeated Belations of visits to Leipzig, and did not neglect the opportunity Frederick of acquainting himself, a little with the state of contem- G tt h d poraneous German poetry. He sent for the two Pro- and fessors, Gottsched and Gellert ; the former he received GeUert. on October 15, 1 757, the latter on December 1 8, 1 760. Gottsched he frequ^tly saw after this; Gellert too received a friendly invitation to come again, but never availed himself of it. Gottsched read him his translation of Racine's ' Iphig^nie,' but the king was not much impressed by it. Gellert was made to recite one of his fables, and this gained the Royal favour. ' That is beautiful,' he said to Gellert, ' very beautiful ; there is such a lilt about it (' so was Coulantes '), I can understand all that ; but there was Gottsched now, who read me his translation of " Iphigenie," and though I had the French in my hand at the same time, I could not understand a word. They also brought another poet to me, one Pietsch, but I dismissed him.' * Your majesty,' answered Gellert, ' him I also dismiss.' We remember that Gottsched de- clared this very Pietsch, his teacher, to be the greatest poet of the eighteenth century. When Gellert was gone, Frederick remarked, 'That is quite a different man from Gottsched.' And the next day at table he called him the most sensible among all the German scholars. Three years before this, the king had written a French poem to Gottsched, in which he eulogized him as the Saxon swan, and assigned to him the task of founding the literary reputation of Germany. Gottsched hastened to have these verses published and translated into several European languages. But when they appeared among the king's collected works, they bore the inscrip- Ch. XI.] Leipzig. 3 tion: ' Au Sieur Gellert.' The author had meanwhile altered the address. The German public agreed with their great king in thinking Gellert quite a different man from Gottsched. Even ^ „ - Gellert before the end of his life Gottsched was looked upon preferred as a fallen hero, while Gellert is esteemed even in our to days. Gottsched aimed at making an impression in ^^"sched. high circles, but he only succeeded in making his way into a few small German courts; Gellert sought his readers in the middle- classes, and found them in all ranks of society. Gottsched wac only acquainted with the outward tricks of poetry ; Gellert was a true poet, though in a narrow sphere. Gottsched wished to make Leipzig the centre of German literature, and the place could not have been better . , chosen. Leipzig united the features of a large town of Leipzig with those of a flourishing University. It was the as a literary most important commercial emporium of the Saxon- centre. Polish Empire, and the centre of the trade between the Romanic West and the Slavic East. In the eighteenth century it became the centre of the book-trade, ousting Frankfort from the leading position which it had hitherto occupied. Its fairs were the scene of most varied life, collecting, as they did, men of all nationalities, and bringing long caravans of merchants from a great distance. The best troops of actors in Germany always went to the ' Leipziger Messe.' Everyone liked going to ' gallant ' Leipzig, as it was called, to Litde Paris on the Pleisse, where the whok world was to be found in miniature. As early as the fifteenth century Leipzig was famed for its politeness, and even its students acquired some- thing of its refinement. The rude manners of the smaller Uni- versity towns were tabooed there, and young aristocrats studied by preference in Leipzig. The town had no court, no local aris- tocracy, no garrison ; but its burghers strove after moral and intellectual culture, and Leipzig was considered the most educated town in Germany. The University, with its hereditary oligarchy of Professors, orthodox and conservative, proud of their vast knowledge, which ihey were perhaps more intent on transmitting than on increasing, was yet alive to the general interests of culture. 4 The Age of Fi^ederick the Great. [Ch. xr. The book-trade drew into its service scholars, both old and young, and was of great advantage to authors on the spot. Nowhere did literary journalism flourish as in Leipzig, and nowhere else was it so easy to become an author as there. Gottsched knew how to make the best of such a favourable Gottsched's situation, and put forth all his great personal energy literary and his wonderful power of organization, in order to aspirations, ^.^j.^.^ ^^^ j^-g ^^^ ^jj^g_ p^^ noticed that French literature was centralised, subjected to fixed rules, and protected, as it were, by an Academy ; this Academy kept guard over the purity of the language, and saw that the rules were followed; it pro- duced a grammar and a dictionary, it taught the right use of synonymous terms, it distributed honours, and decided what was beautiful. Gottsched wished to make Leipzig, in a literary aspect, the German Paris, and to raise the Leipzig ' German Society ' to the jjjg rank of an Academic Allemande ; he himself, its senior German member, wished to have been the president of the Academy. Academy, and to have stood at the head of the German world of letters. Ambition and patriotism pointed to the same goal, and he taxed his energies to the utmost to gain for German literature what the French already possessed. He was, as we know, a disciple of WcJffj^ His ' World- Wisdom ' (1734) is a text*book of the Wolffian philosophy. . "Welt- Clearness and intelligibility, the ideals of the Wolffian ■weisheit,' philosophy and the special attributes of the French and his mind, were by Gottsched transferred to German Ian- Grammar. 1 , TT ^ guage and style. He wrote a German grammar, or * Art of language,' a book which had the widest influence, and which in many points fixed the rules of language as they have remained to our day. He furnished some teaching on the use of synonyms, and planned a dictionary such as Adelung afterwards carried out ; the latter was a scholar of great versatility, but of limited aesthetic culture, like Gottsched himself, and succeeded him as legislator in language. But good taste and correct style were regarded as even more important than a fixed grammar. Gottsched wrote an '■ Art of Rhe- toric' and a * Critical Art of Poetry,' based on classical and French Ch. XI.] Leipzig. ^ models. Horace and Boileau were to him what Scaliger and Ron- sard had been to Opitz. He compiled a small dic- tionary o^ bellts-leilres and liberal arts, a book full of « j^g^j^j^^^^^ . useful information. He wrote many papers and essays and ' Kri- on literary history ; he tried to survey the whole field ^^^^■^^ Dicht- of German literature, and till the present century, till Jacob Grimm and his associates, no one showed such an ex- tensive knowledge of early German literature as Gott- „. ° ^ His study sched. He gave his attention both to Old High- of early German and jNIiddle High-German poetry and prose, German wrote papers on Veldecke's jEneid and on Old-German ^^erature. morals, and translated * Reinecke Fuchs ' into modern German prose. He devoted some of the articles in his small dictionary to Walther von der Vogelweide and other Minnesingers; he in- tended to write a history of the German drama, and he gathered together the materials for it and arranged them chronologically. In all these endeavours he was actuated by the same motives of national pride and patriotic emulation which had animated the scholars of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries ; he held up all the treasures of a past literature before the eyes of those who despised the Germans, to show them what his country could achieve. (aA Gottsched exercised a practical influence by his example and by his teaching; the more so as he was not too proud to take a warm, indeed a supreme interest in contemporary literature. He thought it no dishonour to his professorial chair to try his hand at writing German poems, or for the advancement of German poetry to associate with actors and give them his advice. He succeeded in persuading the Leipzig actors to adopt an improved ujg form of stage, after the French model, and by his own dramatic activity, by inciting others to help him, and by reforms, numerous translations, he enriched their repertoire of plays. He made tragedy his speciality, and only wrote one somewhat clumsy pastoral-play ; comedy he left to the lighter talent of his wife, the much-extolled 'clever friend,' Luise Adelgunde Victoria, ne'e Kulmus. Other original German writers were net altogether want- ing at this time, but their works were almost all indifferent or bad. ■V-. "^ 6 The Age of Frederick the Great. [Ch. xi. Corneille, Racine, and Voltaire now became the presiding geniuses of German tragedy; Moliere, Dufresny, and Destouches supplied the audience with merriment, and even the coarser farces of the Danish writer, Holberg, were welcomed on the German stage, since they were the productions of a celebrated scholar. Gottsched was also an assiduous journalist, and this enabled him '^ His to bring all his various literary interests before the journalism, world. During thirty-four years of his Hfe he pub- lished newspapers, which he skilfully edited, and for the most part wrote himself His position at the University enabled him to gather young men around him, or to employ them as collaborators. He had numerous translations made, and in so doing he rendered a service not only to literature, but to the cause of general en- lightenment. The most important English weekly papers, Bayle's Dictionary, Leibniz's ' Th^odicee,' the works of Fontenelle, were through his labours, and through those of his wife and other fellow- workers, rendered accessible to German reader^fV^If we pass in review his work in this direction, his contributions to the history of literature, his strong interest in the Drama, his union of theory and history, of poetical and journalistic activity, and of original work and translation, and if we ask who was his successor in all these respects, as Adelung was in his linguistic labours, the answet cannot be doubtful. Lessing was Gottsched's heir, Lessing, the greatest literary and art critic, the greatest translator, dramatist and dramaturgist in Germany in the period following Gottsched. But Lessing was not only Gottsched's heir, but Gottsched's de- stroyer. He felt that Gottsched's influence fettered and hindered him, and in order to free himself from it, no means seemed to him too strong, no words too bitter, no judgment too harsh. Down to the last years of his life Gottsched continued to render G ttsched's '^^^^ services to the German language and to the history decline of German literature. But step by step the nation begins about had deserted him, and the authors who would have nothing to do with him became more and more numerous. As a creative poet he had never accomplished any- thing worthy of notice; his poems are absurd; his dramas are either not original or else quite useless, a miserable patchwork of Ch. XL] Leipzig. 7 borrowed ideas badly cobbled together, and far removed from that correctness which he was always advocating as all-important. His labours as a literary and art critic lost more and more in importance as German literature grew strong enough to dispense with the French leading-strings, and passed from imitation to original production. His stand-point was the same as that which had been adopted by Canitz, Besser, Neukirch, and Pietsch, and he wished to impose this stand-point permanently on the whole nation. He attacked the Lo- hensteinian taste as Wernicke had done, and he scented Lohenstein wherever he met with a loftier flight of fancy, a more exalted style of diction, or an unusual figure of speech. His influence was at its height between the years 1730 and 1740, but after that it gradually declined ; he still sought to play the dictator, but no one obeyed him except a few insignificant people, who, along with himself, excited general contempt. In the year 1739 he quar- relled with his Academy, the German Society in \-^^ I * Leipzig. In the year 1740 his celebrated dispute with began with the Zurich scholars, Bodmer and Breitin- Bodmer ger, and their adherents. In 174 1 the Neuber 'troupe' ^ fl^ caricatured him on the Leipzig stage under the name of ' Fault-finder ' (' Tadler '). This action was much applauded from Dresden, where Gottsched had never gained any firm footing, and Rost, a former pupil of the dictator's, celebrated the event in a satirical epic. In the year 1744 the most talented Leipzig poets, Gellert, Rabener, and Zacharia, ceased to '^^® contribute as hitherto to the * Belustigungen des Ver- Bei^rage ' standes und Witzes,' a paper conducted by Magister started in Schwabe, a disciple of Gottsched's, agreeably to his opposition master's views and in the interest of his party, and Gottsched started on their own account a paper entitled the 1744, 'Bremen Contributions.' In 1748 appeared Klop- stock's ' Messias,' and the violent attack which Gottsched made on him only proved detrimental to his own reputation. , In the year 1752 Koch, a theatre-manager at Leipzig, quarrel with produced on his stage an operetta of English origin, Klopstock ' Per Teufel ist los.' Gottsched could not tolerate this apparent revival of the German opera, which he hated, and 8 The Age of Frederick the Great. [Ch. xi. accordingly he attacked it himself and persuaded others to attack it in pamphlets. Koch answered, speaking from his own stage, and had the laughers on his side. A long literary war now began ; Rost was at once ready with his pen, and wrote in doggrel verses a witty Epistle from the Devil to Gottsched; this he caused to be dis- tributed gratuitously, and also arranged that Gottsched himself, who was just then on a journey to the Palatinate, should have a sealed nJ packet, containing several copies, handed to him at every post- station on his route. Gottsched made a personal complaint to the Minister Briihl, whose secretary Rost was, but the minister had the cruelty to pretend he knew nothing about it ; Gottsched had him- self to read out the lampoon in Rost's presence, and was then only told, by way of good advice, that it was surely better simply to ignore such practical jokes altogether. After that he took no further active interest in the German stage, and in 1769 Lessing denied that the stage owed anything to his efforts. Six years later, at the time when young Goethe was studying in Leipzig, he could thus report of the quondam dictator, who had just given new offence by a second marriage with a very young girl : * All Leipzig despises him ; no one associates with him.' Goethe himself, how- ever, paid him a visit, of which, in later years, he gave a most amusing description. The former and the future leader of German literature, whose lives together embrace the years from 1700 to 1832, did thus once meet and converse together. At the time when Goethe was in Leipzig, Gellert set the literary Gellert's tone in the University, where he was professor extra- influence, ordinarius. Though he was of sickly appearance and lectured in a hollow and whining tone, still he gathered a large circle of listeners around him, whom he exhorted alike to purity of morals and purity of style. His authority was great both in Pro- testant and in Catholic Germany, and he had correspondents, male and female, both among the aristocracy and the middle-classes. The soldiers of Frederick the Great, as well as their Austrian opponents, did him homage. As Melanchthon may be said to have founded the German school- system, so Gellert may be said to have fashioned German taste. Men came to him for literary as for moral advice; he was consulted about tutors and governesses, and A Ch. XI.] Leipzig. 9 his advice was sought in the choice of wives or husbands. ' To believe in Gellert,' said a later critic, * is among our people almost the same thing as believing in virtue and religion.' But the general confidence which he enjoyed as a man and a teacher was due really to his extraordinary popularity as a writer. Gellert tried his hand in many branches of literature. He wrote pastoral plays, well meant but crude in style, comedies, awkwardly \^ composed, yet giving a faithful reflection of German jjjg ^ middle-class life, and a novel which rambles through and distant lands, and piles up extraordinary phenomena lectiires, of the moral world in a somewhat repulsive manner. All these / works had a certain success ; his manual of epistolary style too was ■^ well received by the public, and his * Moral Lectures,' published after his death, seem to have found readers to appreciate them^ in spite of what we should consider their commonplaces. But his fame really rested on his poetic fables and tales, which appeared in a collected edition in the years 1746 and 1748, almost at the same time as the first cantos of Klopstock's ' Messias,' and his re- ligious odes and hymns, which were published in 1757. V D Gellert's poetic fables and tales belong to the same school as the writings of Hagedorn and his models. They set out QeUert's with the purpose of * telling the truth in a figure to Fables, ^ those who have not much understanding.' They were 1746 and meant accordingly to be popular and didactic, simple and useful. ' Where hast thou learnt to write thus ? ' said Frederick the Great to Gellert. 'In the school of Nature,' answered the poet. ' Thou hast imitated Lafontaine ? ' * No, your Majesty, I am / an original writer,' Still, we cannot speak of Gellert without being reminded of Lafontaine, though at the same time we cannot give to the German poet the unqualified praise lavished by French critics on their great fable-writer. The bourgeois-literature of the sixteenth century was continued in Gellert, and he formed a just and appreci- ative judgment of the older German fable-poetry. He himself wrote more tales than genuine fables : his heroes are more often men than animals, and the types of character which he brings before us have no symbolical and general value, but are only true in their particular context. They are not types of humanity as it lo The Age of Frederick the Great. [Ch. xi. exists in all ages, but are the men of that particular age, described by a poet who formed his style on Lafontaine, and who tells, in a natural and artistic manner, stories full of the charm of innocence and cheerfulness. His versification is free and flowing, and his rhymes so unaffected that they seem almost to come in by chance. His easy and flexible style seems to be but an idealised form of the conversational lano^ua his teachers, and found that in the literary traditions there prevalent there was much to fight against and overthrow, many inveterate and time-honoured prejudices to root up, in order to pave the way for the final triumph of a self-dependent German literature. Zurich and Berlin. We have already noticed the opposed characteristics of Haller's and Hagedorn's poetry (see vol. i. pp. 376 seq.). There schools of was no personal opposition between them, and Haller and their differences did not exclude mutual appreciation. Hagedom. Haller himself has drawn a just comparison between himself and c 2 20 The Age of Frederick the Great. [Ch. xr. Hagedorn, and Hagedorn was undoubtedly influenced by Haller's poetry. In ihe same way an author might be, as a rule, subject to Gottsched's or Hagedorn's influence, without being therefore neces- sarily blind to Haller's merits. The Saxon, Kastner, who had been educated under Gottsched's influence, tried his skill in didactic poetry afier Haller's style, and bore eloquent witness to Haller's greatness. This Kastner was a Professor in Leipzig, and afterwards in Gottin- gen. a mathematician and an astronomer, known to German litera- ture chiefly as a writer of epigrams. Gellert too used frequently to adorn his moral lectures with quotations from Haller, and even Frau Gottsched cited him in private letters as her favourite poet. Nevertheless, Haller and Hagedorn did represent two important and naturally opposed tendencits in poetry and philosophy, views which, not only in the time of these writers, but subsequently, separated whole groups of German poets. Hamburg and Switzer- land were the centres of two diff'erent circles of culture, which were gradually extended, now meeting, now intersecting, now hostile to each other, now mingling together, till at last they were both obliterated by new disturbing forces. Hagedorn's school of poetry had spread to Leipzig, and it was he -J , , who moulded the literature of Lower and Upper Saxony. or the Haller's literary canons on the other hand were adopted Leipzig by the Zurich scholars, who developed them theoreti- cally, and through their Prussian colleagues trans- planted them to Prussia, to Halle, and to Berlin, while in the South Haller's, ^hey held sway over the whole Allemannic district, that or the is to say, over Switzerland, Alsace, Swabia, and the "Bar"" Upper Rhine. school. The Allemannic Upper Rhine, the cradle of the • ^^ ^ Hohenstaufen, had in the twelfth century led German Character- ■' istics progress, while the Saxons had remained conserva- ofthe tive. Now, in the eighteenth century, we find iho literatTiro Saxons inclined to progress, and the people of the Al- of South . r o » r r Germany lemannic districts conservative. At that earlier period and the centre of German intellectual life lay in the Switzerland. South-West ; now it had been transferred to the North. But when those Southern provinces, with their traditions of an- Cli. XI.] Zurich and Berlin, 2i cicnt culture, began once more to take an active interest in literature, they presented, in contrast with the international polish of the North, a stronger originality, a greater power of language and a surer instinct for developing the distinctively Germanic ten- dencies of the modern spirit. The literature of Hamburg and Leipzig was based on a mingling of English, French, and popular elements; it was thoroughly modern, progressive and open to the latest between influences. The Swiss, too, were thoroughly imbued the Leipzig with French culture, and their upper classes were at and the one time more at home in French than in literary High schools German ; but when they threw off the fetters of French influence, and in their search for freedom turned their glance on England, their attention first fell, as though by elective affinity, on Shakspeare and Milton, who embodied in a supreme degree Germanic power and art. Gottsched had a thorough acquaintance with the older German literature, but his chief interest was the modern drama in the French style. The South-Germans and Swiss concerned themselves little about an artistic form of drama ; but in Strassburg Schilter, Scherz, and Oberlin rendered great services to the study of the old German literature and language, while, thanks to Swiss scholars, the Minnesang, the Nibelungenlied, and the chivalrous epics were recommended anew to the attention of the public. In Hamburg and Leipzig the religious life and the aesthetic were carefully separated. Gellert purged his comedies of all allusion to divine things, and biblical phrases, such ^jg^/of as the young Goethe brought with him from Frankfort, Leipzig, and were tabooed in pohte conversation. But with the Puritanism Leipzig poets, as with Hagedorn, a vein of blithe love- \ a ' poetry and drinking-songs ran peacefully side by side with religious hymns and prayers in verse. A cheerful view of the world was quite compatible with sincere religion, if each was strictly confined to its own sphere. No doubt Gellert did give offence to some pious souls by his comedy, * Die Retschwester' (The female devotee), but on the whole, religion nnd the C'Trch had now lost their undivided sway over men's mmds. in the Allemannic ^2 The Age of Frederick the Great. [ch. xi. provinces, on the contrary, this dominion was as powerful as in the time of the Reformation. The University of Strassburg was a stronghold of Prussian orthodoxy ; in Wurtemberg, pietism had struck deep root ; the magistrates of Swiss towns exercised a rigid censorship in religious matters, and imposed, whenever they could, the yoke of theology upon science. No doubt, superstition was often mistaken for faith, and honoured as such ; still, great stress was laid on upright living, austere morals, and Puritanic bearing. Wieland declared that the idea of a ball was enough to alarm all the patriots of Zurich, and to call forth, even from the mouths of babes and sucklings, prophecies of the destruction of such a second Nineveh. This spirit of seriousness and often of gloom in matters of Bodmer religion and morality pervades Haller's poetry, and and offers a striking contrast to the cheerfulness of the Leip- Breitinger zig school. The same spirit animated the literary cham- o xiric . pjQj^g Qf Zurich, Bodmer, and Breitinger, and led them to consider the religious epic as the highest possible form of poetry. Bodmer and Breitinger were much of the same age as Gottsched; Bodmer was born in 1698, Breitinger in 1701. The former was a busy, ambitious, and contentious literary propagandist ; the latter was a modest, thorough, and original thinker. The- former was a historian, a translator, a poet of little talent, but a very voluminous writer, inclined to satire, and continually finding fault with other writers ; the latter was a theologian and a philologist, a scholar of great learning, who exercised important local influence. These two writers were accustomed to have their work and interests in common, and combined to publish a weekly paper ; they also worked together at the development of a scientific theory of art. They both defended the merits of Haller and Milton, and fought against Gottsched's dictatorship in literary taste ; and, like Haller, they both advocated comparative freedom in religion, in opposition to ^ , the narrow ecclesiasticism of the Swiss. In the same Bodmer translates y^3,r in which Goitsched's ' Cato ' and Haller's poems Milton's were published, in 1732, there appeared a German ' l*aradise ^^^^ version bv Bodmer of Milton's ' Paradise Lo^t.' Lost,' 1732. ^ In the preface the translator refers to Addison, to whom was due the credit of having revived the appreciation of Milton in Ch. XI.] Zurich and Berlin. 23 the eighteenth century. He also speaks with reverence of Shak- speare, calling him the English Sophocles, who introduced the metre of Milton, namely, blank verse, into England, and was Milton's model in point of language. Bodmer had from the first the greatest distaste for rhyme, which he considered as a remnant of * the barbarous poetry of our forefathers.' In this point, as in all others, he thinks Milton's poem a masterpiece of poetic genius, the leading work of modern times, as the Bible was the leading work of ancient times. All his criticisms and aesthetic writings, as also those of his colleague, Breitinger, are inspired by a study of Milton. The most important of these aesthetic papers — appeared in 1740: Bodmer's Treatise on the Marvel- ^nd lous in Poetry, and Breitinger's Treatise on Similes, Breitinger's and Critical Art of Poetry. Two editions of Gott- critical "works sched's * Kritische Dichlkunst ' had been published by that time, in 1730 and 17-37, and in this work Gottsched often referred with approval to Bodmer's labours. Nor, indeed, were the stand-points of the two writers so essentially different as one might suppose. Neither attached much value to rhyme, and both attached a very great deal to imaginative power in poj^tg of poetry. But Gottsched studied to attain great clear- agreement ness, and also, as far as his means would allow him, ^^^ a certain elegance in writing; he made poetry an art between the to be acquired by systematic instruction, and appealed Leipzig and to the rules of the Greeks as authoritative canons in Zurich matters of taste. The Zurich writers, on the con- trary, were more clumsy in form, but showed greater depth of thought; their theory was less systematic, and their aim was not to make a receipt-book for the various classes of poetry, but to discover the fountain-heads of poetic beauty. They did not succeed in their object, and their thoughts may be found also in Gottsched's writings, only more incidentally introduced and not so thoroughly worked out. Both parties were agreed in this : that poetry was an 'imitation,' or, as we should rather say, 'representa- tion,' of nature ; that what was new and above the ordinary was alone beautiful and worthy of representation, and that the highest function of poetry was to depict the marvellous. In depicting 24 The Age of Frederick the Great. [Ch. xi. the marvellous, however, the poet must not transcend the bounds of probability, and accordingly we find the adherents of the two rival schools divided upon the question of how far the marvellous 'v may be allowed to be probable, and therefore permissible in poetry ; whether, for instance. Homer's walking tripods and JMilton's devils were admissible or n. t. Gottsched was inclined to narrow the scope of the imagination ; he brought up again the threadbare objections to Homer ; he impugned, with Boileau and Voltaire, the aesthetic propriety of the devil, and protested in the name of enlightenment against the supernatural creations of Milton. On such points the Zurich school sharply Feud ^^^ j^-^ ^^ rights, and hence the feud between them. Gottsched The quarrel turned chiefly on the merits of Homer and the and Milton, though many other questions were in- ^."° volved in it : and since in th's matter the Swiss writers. . scholars represented the more universal taste, since they defended the cause of beauty against narrow dogmatism and pedantry, the victory remained theirs. They found their best allies in Halle and Berlin, and in Klopstock Prussia furnished them with i.he German Berlin Milton whose advent they so ardently desired. While under the spirit of Enlightenment was reigning supreme, Frederick f^gj-e arose a pure poetic soul, moulded by the senti- the Great. r • i_ • j • ( l- i ments of pietism, who carried away with him the noblest of the nation, and roused the highest religious and poetic enthusiasm for that very Messiah whom Frederick the Great had termed only a Jewish carpenter's son. Frederick the Great granted liberty of conscience and freedom of the press within certain limits. In his reign, church influence lost its power, and philosophy was left comparatively free to carry out its speculations to their logical conclusion. The king was thoroughly in sympathy with the scien- tific and religious movements of the age. Wolff", the leader of German rationalism, had the greatest influence on his mental development. The disciples of the Wolffian philosophy had already in the last years of Frederick William I begun to gain new ground in Prussia. The Provost Reinbeck in Berlin was a Wolffian. Halle counted among its teachers the two brothers Baumgarten ; Ch. XI.] Zurich and Berlin. 25 of these the eKler, Siegmund, was a liberal theologian, who had started wiih Wolffian views, but was now in complete sympathy with Enirlish science, while the voune^er, ^Z^^^ ■ ^ ^ " ' . fe > -Wolffian Alexander, later on Professor at Frank fort-on- the- influence. Oder, first developed more fully the theory of sensu- The ous perception, and of beauty as perfect sensuous per- ^^o^^^ers ception, within the system of the Wolffian philosophy, and gave to this theory the name of Esthetic. Under Frederick the Great the philosopher Wolff himself was recalled to his old chair, from wh'ch he had been so shamefully banished. Wolff left Marburg and returned to Halle, and his philosophy now promised to domi- nate the Universities even more thin before ; but it had to divide its influence with other forces. Among the tendencies spirits to whom Frederick rendered enthusiastic homage of thought were Locke, whose views Leibniz had attacked; ^^ Newton, Leibniz's rival; the English free-thinkers and reign deists, who left of Christianity hardly anything but bare generalities ; the moral philosopher Shaftesbury, who, as a disciple of the Greeks, taught the identity of the good and the beautiful, of virtue and happiness; the sceptic Bayle, who, in his celebrated Dictionnaire, led the revolt of reason against revealed faith ; and, above all, the arch-sceptic, Voltaire, who carried on the work of Bayle, with redoubled force, with inimitable freshness and precision of language, with all the weapons of relentless mockery, and all the cheerful assurance of an imperturbable conviction — Vohaire, who popularised the ideas of Newton, Locke, and Shaftesbury, who taught that God is only known through Nature, and who founded morality on belief in God, at the same time that he assailed all positive religion. It was these spirits who threw the Prussian Wolff, Frederick's early teacher, into the shade, and who for a long time exercised a potent influence on the best minds of the nation. Berlin clergymen of high position, such as Sack and Spalding, sought to modernise Christianity, to explain away the dogmas, to remove, as far as possible, all that could give r^^^ offence to reason, and to lay chief stress on virtuous Berlin conduct. These liberal tendencies were focussed in °* emy. the Berlin Academy, which had been re-organized by Frederick, 26 The Age of Frederick the Great. [ch. XT. and which gathered together distinguished French and German scholars and men of the world. This Academy counted among its members natural historians like Maupertuis, mathematicians like Euler and Lagrange, statisticians like Siissmilch, philosophers like Merian, Sulzer, Wegelin, Lambert, Premontval. But the liberal tendencies which it represented were not pushed so far as to become subversive of religion; for, in truth, mere scoffing has always been alien to the German intellect, and has never been more than a passing fashion, even the bitterest enemies of faith assailing it seriously and with reverence. Though many Germans were members of the Berlin Academy, yet it contributed nothing directly to German literature. Its trans- actions appeared in French, the language which the king wrote in, and which was still for the German nobility and for the German courts the language of the highest culture. * From my youth up, I have not read a German book,' said Frederick to Gottsched, ' and je park comme un cocher ; but now I am an old fellow of forty-six, Frederick ^"^ ^^^^ "^ longer time for such things.' Frederick the Great must be reckoned among the most original and bril- as a writer. \y^^\^ writers of the Germany of his day. His poems and letters are a living picture of a remarkable individuality ; , . in his * Anti-Machiavelli ' he set up a new ideal of His ' Anti- ^ Machiavelli * ^ prince, full of moral elevation ; his historical works and take a high rank in the historical writings of all historical nations in all ae^es. Seldom has such a compre- works. hensive knowledge of facts in all departments of politics and government been united with such unflinching love of truth, with such philosophic grasp, and with a style equally fascinating, whether he is unfolding the condition of affairs, appraising men's characters, or relating measures taken in peace or war. No king ever judged his ancestors so impartially ; no states- man ever revealed his motives of action so openly, or acknowledj^ed his faults so freely. As a poet, he most resembles Horace, and among the Germans, Hagedorn might be compared with him; but the king is more profound in his re- flections than Hagedorn, as we should expect of one who had wrestled seriously with the great problems of existence, and had led Ch. XI.] Zurich and Berlin. 27 a life full of responsibilities, successes, and dangers. When he is encompassed with perils, as at the beginning of the Seven Years' War, he imagines himself succumbing to misfortune, and utters the gloomiest forebodings. His poems and letters bear witness that he felt and underwent much that no other man of that His age did. He liked calling himself a disciple of Epi- character. curus, but in reality, it was the Stoic view of life which moulded his character. * The shield of Zeno,' he would say, ' is for misfortunes; the wreaths from the garden of Epicurus are for happiness.' It was from the doctrines of the Stoa that he derived his high sense of duty and his firm resolution not to survive the misery of his Father- land. It was Marcus Aurelius, the Stoic Emperor of Rome, whom he revered and made his example, and, like him, he was pene- trated by the enthusiasm of humanity. The elevated sentiments of a genial ruler, of a faithful friend, of a distinguished man who devoted bis best powers to the common weal, the anger and scorn of the satirist who looked down with contempt from his own pinnacle of wisdom and lofty resolution on the weaker creatures below him. who attacked stupidity and egoism, and was least of all indulgent to his princely colleagues — all these found expression in Frederick's writings, and caused the nation which produced him to be held in honour throughout the whole civilised world. The Germans had a classic in their great King, but unfortunately, a classic in the French language. He did not address -' himself 10 his people, but to the nobility and the courts ^^' writings of Europe ; he strove to gain the approval of French prench. writers, and especially of that Voltaire, whom he wished to retain at his Court, and who really did remain for a time, till his vices made it impossible to keep him there any longer. But though Frederick's writings cannot be Li^erar reckoned as belonging to German literature, except influence through translations, yet the spirit which they breathed °^ Frederick had a favourable effect on German literature. As Frederick introduced greater latitude in religious matters, so in the poetry of his reign the secular spirit became more and more pre- dominant ; cheerfulness, unquestioning enjoyment of life, worship of friendship, and the Horatian delight in rustic life became more 28 The Age of Frederick the Great. [ch. xi. and more strongly marked features in the Prussian poetry of this period. The pride of belonging to such a State and such an army also found poetic expression, and the great warlike achievements of the king soon furnished poetry with a most worthy theme. Two groups of poets which sprang up among the students of Schools of H^^l^ show us most clearly the change in the spirit of poetry the times. Both were opposed to Gottsched and on in Halle. ^^ gj^j^ ^j- ^^ ^^^ Zurich friends ; but while the elder group, formed about 1735, and consisting mainly of Jacob Immanuel Pyra and Samuel Gotthold Lange, was still subject to the influence of Pietism, the younger poets, Gleim, Uz, and Gotz, who joined together in Halle about 1740, clearly evidence the liberal tendencies of a new period. Pyra, who died young, was a worshipper of Milton, and planned a Biblical epic and Biblical tragedies ; he also trans- Pietistic ^^^^^ ^^^ ^^^^ book of the ^Eneid, wished to retain the school. ancient chorus in the drama, and was a strenuous Pyra and advocate of rhymeless verse. Lange, whose father was a Halle Professor, and the chief opponent of Wolff, was a lyric poet, and chose Horace as his model ; still his poems breathe religious fervour, and were meant to imitate the style of the Psalms. Pyra and Lange were the first representatives of that school of poetry in which Klopstock gained such renown ; they wished to give a classical setting to Biblical subjects. Gleim and his friends also adopted a classical form, but for the most part only the easy, four-footed trochaic verse of rFho Anacreontic Anacreon ; and in this metre they, like their Greek school, prototype, wrote songs of love and wine. The reli- Gleira, Uz, gJQus seriousness disappeared in their verse, and the spirit of Epicurus triumphed. Whereas Pyra and Lani>e approach in the tone of their poetry to Haller, these fol- hnvers of Anacreon must be classed with Hagedorn and the most cheerful of the Leipzig poets. Their poetry was not burdened with many thoughts ; love, wine, and roses are their only themes, and rather narrow ones ; still their increasing reiteration led the imagina- tion of these poets to be fertile in small details, and what had originally been simple outpourings of student merriment became ch. XI.] Zurich and Berlin, 29 most elegant poetical creations, full of a tender regard for the taste of the ladies, and emulating the most graceful productions of the Alexandrian age. The members of this brotherhood of Anacreontic poets in Halle were in later life scattered somewhat far apart from each other. Gleim became a canon in Halberstadt, and for many years devoted his energies to helping on young poets ; ua>g 'Pruh- Uz attained to the rank of privy councillor in the ling,»i742; principality of Ansbach, and Gotz ended his days as Q-leim's .0 • , , . 1 T^ , . TT , c ■ , *Versuchin a bupermtendent m the Palatmate. Uz s * Sprmg scherzhaften appeared in 1742; Gleim's 'Essays in Humorous Liedern/ Poetry' in 1744, and the translation of Anacreon by 1744. '^ ^ Translation Uz and Gotz in 1746. These works first brought this of Anacreon group of poets before the general public. Gleim was by Uz and then in Berlin and Potsdam, and was rejoicing to see ^*^^' 1746. that the Prussian capital was gradually becoming a rendezvous for German poets and authors. Pyra came there as a schoolmaster ; one of the King's officers, Christian Ewald Kleist, was Poets in destined to be the classic poet of spring; KarlWilhelm Berlin. Ramler, a teacher at the Cadet-School, evinced a rare sense of out- ward form in poetry; Professor Sulzer, a true apostle of Bodmer, defended the aesthetic views of the Zurich scholars ; Swiss youths like Solomon Gessner and Kaspar Hirzel the physician stayed for a time in the Prussian capital, and the Court preacher, Sack, took all aspiring poets under his wing. Serious endeavours were made to interest the king in German literature. Canitz, it is true, had pleased his taste, and „ ^ . ^, ^ Frederick s he had called him the German Pope ; it seemed as contempt though it might be possible to convince him that im- -for German portant advances had been made since Canitz, and ^^^ ®"* that the literary glory, which he too desired for his country, was really beginning. Sulzer lost no opportunity in this respect, and sent conscientious reports on the result of his efforts to Zurich. But in 1747 he could not say more than that at least the ladies at court were beginning to read German works. It was in vain that Pastor Lange sang the battles of the second Silesian war, and laid himself out to gain applause at court ; it was in vain that the king's atten- tion was called to Haller's poems ; he refused to read them, though 30 The Age of Frederick the Great. [ch. xi. he thought very highly of Haller as a scholar, and repeatedly tried to win him, first for Berlin and then for Halle. It was useless even for Sulzer to pay homage to the omnipotent French, in order through them to influence the king. The Swiss longed to bring under Frederick's notice the gifted young poet Klopstock, author of the ' Messias,' the creator of Biblical epic poetry, who was a true disciple of their own, and at the same time a subject of the great king. But it was folly to turn to Maupertuis and Voltaire in hopes of achieving this object. A French translation of the ' Messias' only brought Sulzer into thorough contempt with Mau- pertuis, and Voltaire roundly declared that a new ' Messias ' was quite unnecessary, since no one even read the old one. Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock was twenty-four years old, when in Klopstock ^ 75^ ^^ published the three first cantos of the ' Messias' 1724-1803. in the fourth volume of the ' Bremer Beitrage.' It w^as not First three ^j| j ^^^ ^j^g^j. jj^ brout2ht the great work to an end with cantos ^ ^" ^ of his ^^^ twentieth canto. Klopstock was born in 1724, and ' Messias ' died in 1803 ; though he thus lived nearly eighty years, published, ^^^ ^^ j^jg twenty-fourth year he had reached, if not 'Messias' ^^^ height of his fame, yet the height of his poetic finished, achievement. Subsequently he wrote many odes and 1773. religious poems. Biblical and national tragedies, pro- pounded an extraordinary system of poetics, and absorbed himself in metrical, grarfimatical, and orthographical speculations, but in all these later efforts he rarely or never transcended the first three cantos of his * Messias.' Klopstock came from Quedlinburg, the scene of Christian Klopstock's Scriver's (see vol. i. p. 345) last years of labour, the life and place where Gottfried Arnold (vol. i. p. 347) had com- character. pigj-^^^ h^g Church history, and where Pietists and Separatists had found a home. Religious fervour was traditional in his family, as in his birth-place. His father, a man of strong and courageous character, finding himself once in a company of religious scoffers, is said to have struck his hand on his sword and exclaimed : ' Gendemen, if anyone says anything against the good God, I take it as an insult to myself, and challenge him.' The son inherited the strong self-reliant spirit of his father, and if we com- Ch. XI.] Zurich and Bci-lin. 31 pare this spirit with the hesitating and timorous manner of Gellert, we see at once the difference between the Prussian and the Saxon character. Young Klopstock grew up in the country, where he was able to take the hard bodily exercise which his athletic nature de- manded. The liberty which he enjoyed in his early youth had great influence in forming his character. He had no special inclination to develop his mind on all sides ; his emotions were very strong, and the most striking feature in his life is the energetic concentration of his powers on one narrow sphere, on one purpose which he con- ceived in early years, and afterwards unwaveringly adhered to. He remained for ever young, and could never quite get rid of a certain unripeness in his judgments of the world. He was at school for six years at Pfona, one of the princely institutions in Saxony; thence he went to study at Jena, and afterwards at Leipzig, but could not bring himself to choose any special branch of study. Neither theology nor philosophy had sufficient attractions for him ; he wished merely to be a poet, and Providence happily granted his wish. The King of Denmark, and later on the Margrave of Baden, provided for his outward needs, so that poetry gained him not only the glory he had desired, but also such patrons as he had wished for. While he was still at school, Breitinger's ' Critical Art of Poetry ' formed his canons of taste, and he became a poet after the notions of the Swiss critics. Bodmer had written a kind of German literary history in Alexandrines, in which he foretold the advent of the future epic poet of Germany. Klopstock made up his mind to fulfil the prophecy in himself When he left school in 1745, he had already conceived the plan of the 'Messias,' and in his farewell speech on the nature and office of < Messias ' the epic poet, he distinctly alludes to the great work planned as which he contemplated. The most sublime theme, and early as 1745. the dearest to a religious mind, the centre of the Christian faith, the sufferings and death, the resurrection and ascension of the Saviour — this was to be the subject of his poem. The epic attempts of the early Christian and of the humanistic poets, the Messiads of the ninth century, the religious plays of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, the epic, lyric, and prose treatises of the seventeenth, and the oratorios of the eighteenth 32 The Age of Frederick the Great. [Ch. xi. century, had prepared the way for him ; it was the most popular subject that he could choose, and as yet no poet had exhausted it or brought it once and for ail into definite shape, as Milton had the history of the Fall, to the exclusion of all possible rivals on the •u-i X x., same arround. It was the vision of Milton that floated Klopstock*s o ' Messias,' before the poet's eyes, and indeed he could not have suggested had a better model, for Milton had achieved the by Milton, j^jgj^^g^ ^^^ could be done for the Biblical tradition. Milton's ' Paradise Lost ' stood unrivalled in grandeur of conception and effective development of the theme. Amid Klopstock's many debts to Milton, the following may be mentioned : the detailed description of hell, the council of the devils, the differences of opinion amongst them, their punishment by metamorphosis, the paths through the universe along which devils and angels wander and fly, and the vision of the Last Judgment at the close of the poem. But Klopslock did not profit half enough by Milton's Klopstock's example. While Milton leads us from hell into inferiority paradise, and thus relieves a gloomy scene by a to Milton, bj-igjit Qne^ Klopstock, on the contrary, begins with the glories of heaven, and then keeps us in his irksome limbo of disembodied spirits till we long for a change out of very weariness. Milton exerts himself to the utmost not to let the interest flag, and pays particular attention to unity of composition, steady unfold- ing of the plot, and graphic narration ; Klopstock, on the other hand, lets the thread of his narrative decidedly drag, and accom- panies each step of the gradual denouement with the sentiments of all the spectators. His chief interest lies in the spiritual life of the Messiah, and in the sentiments which that life awakens in the souls of the spectators in heaven, earth, and hell ; and since these sentiments would necessarily range over a somewhat narrow scale, Klopstock had to resort to endless repetition of the same few ideas. The emotional speeches are drawn out to a tedious length, and, instead of letting the characters reveal themselves in action, the author naively sets himself to tell us about them in a way altogether out of keeping with the best traditions of epic poetry. He relates inc idents in such a confused manner that we often do not know what has happened. The constant resort Ch. XI.] Zurich mid Berlin. 33 to supernatural regions causes a constant change of scene, and angels are constantly appearing to disturb the natural course of events. Such an incident as the scourging is not made nearly so impressive as it might be, because the poet himself is too much overpowered, and can only sing^* with a weeping tone ' just where he ought to pourtray with a firm hand ; in the critical moment he declares that he is unable to sing all the sufferings of the Eternal Son. When he tries to rise to the sublime, Klopstock Defects becomes stilted and unnatural ; his poetry is full of of the the very faults which Milton condemned, and, however poem, much Milton may have been his model, yet his * Messias ' is more closely related to the religious oratorios than to ' Paradise Lost.' The life of Jesus had touched the hearts and stimulated the reflec- tion of earlier poets than Klopstock, of Otfried and Father Cochem for example. But these earlier poets took care in their works on the subject to keep pure narrative distinct from such alien elements ks their own prayers or moral teaching. Even in the Passion- oratorios the epic element was duly kept apart from sentiment and reflection ; in Klopstock, on the contrary, narrative and reflection are hopelessly mixed up together to the great prejudice of the former. Klopstock is really a lyric poet, masquerading as a writer of epic. It is a pity that he did not remain a lyric poet, and, like Angelus Silesius, for example, confine himself to a sym- pathetic commentary upon the sufferings of Christ. As it is, even Father Cochem stands, as a narrator, above Klopstock, for he has done what Klopstock neglected ; he has filled in the details of the Saviour's life where the traditional records leave a blank, and has really tried to give his readers a clear idea of places, and a graphic picture of events. Klop-tock ought to have tried to realise the state of Palestine as it was in the time of Christ ; he ought at least to have read the descriptions of modern travellers ; he ought to have studied the people around him in order to pick up some traits wherewith to characterize the Jewish populace of old. But he did not think of anything of the kind. He painted without making any preliminary studies either from life or from bocks, and evolved everything out of his own unassisted consciousness. For this very reason, however, his poem has certain redeeming VOL. II. D 34 The Age of Frederick the Great. [Ch. xi. qualities, for he invests his characters with his own nobility of soul, and dignity of language and action ; he sends a ray of sympathy even into hell itself, and thus, like the sacred poets of the twelfth century, divests the religious sentiment of its gloomy severity. He lingers over the tender and poetic scenes, and his work in many parts has rather the tone of lyric than of epic poetry. ^ Klopstock's rhymeless religious odes and also his rhymed hymns Klopstock's ^^^ spoilt by the same excess of sentiment which mars hymns and his ' Messias.' His hymns, although set to old and religious well-known melodies, were written in a style utterly different from that of the old and approved Protestant hymns. Klopstock was bold enough to lay his hands on these, and try to re-write them to suit his own one-sided taste, thus setting an example which was generally followed, of improving these sterling old religious songs. This so-called improvement consisted in banishing terse, picturesque, and popular phrases, and in substituting empty and conventional ones. Klopstock rendered great services to the development of the _, , German language and prosody. His own verses Klopstock's . r ] improve- ^^ balanced, polished, and elaborated with unweary- ments in ing care. He was the first to gain a clear idea of the metre an difference in accent between the various syllables in poetic style. •' German words, on which difference all imitation of classical metres is based. Following in the steps of Haller, he im- mensely enriched the poetic vocabulary, but his style was far from popular. The hexameters even of the ' Messias,' the elegiac metre, Defects of the Horatian or original stanzas, and free rhythms his style. q{ hjg odes repelled a public accustomed to Gellert or to Christian Felix Weisse ; moreover, in the odes as well as in the * Messias,' there is a want of solid subject-matter, and everything is vague and impalpable. Klopstock was seldom able to discern the poetry latent in real life ; he was under the necessity of first transferring reality to an unreal region, of imagining living men as dead, and those before him as being far away, of transforming the present into a visionary future, before he could begin poetic creation. In his odes, which are imitations of Horace, he sought to carry out the rules of the theorists, who insisted in this class of poetry Ch. xifl ^ zicrich and Berlin. '>^^ upon a headlong sty^ a wild beauty, intense feeling, striking metaphors, and stardin^urns and digressions. But this artificial passion and irregularity lA to all kinds of obscurity and confusion, and it was quite impossmle that such a style should attract the simple reader, who did not bring to it a mind imbued with classical culture. Complete control could not be at once acquired over the unwonted form and the novel diction, so that many stiff and awk- Mard phrases naturally crept in, and few of Klopstock's odes can be enjoyed throughout as pure, finished works of art. Yet they are full of beautiful details, many of which were now introduced into German poetry for the first time, and moreover they con- summate that revival of the serious form of lyric poetry which had been begun by Haller and carried on by Pyra and Lange, in marked contrast to the light and popular lyrics produced by Hage- dorn and the Anacreontic School (see p. 28). Klopstock's poetry gave the first impulse to that remarkable out- break of sentimentality to which modern German „ ^ Emotional literature owes all its fire and inspiration. Klop- character stock's particular art lies in his power of calling forth of his emotion. He seeks to express the unutterable feelings Po®^ry. which shake the very foundations of our being, and he succeeds to a certain extent. He not unfrequently introduces physical desig- nations of emotion such as ' shaking,' * trembling ; ' he says that his heart beats loud, and that a soft shudder runs through his whole frame. Spiritual conceptions are brought together in wonderfully affecting combinations, and a descriptive rhythm heightens the effect of the whole, which is almost like that produced by music. Still more affecting are often the very words which Klopstock uses ; he knew that the mere word bv the very charm of its sound will often throw all arts of paraphrase into the shade. Yet he is far from despising paraphrase, and is very happy in his choice of descriptive epithets. The opening lines of some of his odes move us deeply, though the sequel is often disappointing. He can with a few strokes draw the most impressive natural scenes. In these descriptions of nature some particular scene floats before his eyes, and keeps him from wandering into vague and indefinite regions. Among his love-odes too, those are most successful in D 2 36 TJic Age of Frederick the Great. [ch. xr. which he not only wishes to express feeling, but also to describe a situation, an action. Two or three of them are addressed to his lady sleeping, a very favourite motive in the poetry of that time. He is fond of introducing the conventional roses of lyric poetry ; at one time he throws dewy rose-buds into his lady's curls to awaken her, at another he binds her brow with a wreath of roses ; in the latter case he writes in a simple style and produces a very charming poem. We cannot help regretting that Klopstock so seldom touched the "Want of ^3,rth in his poetry, and thus threw away his best chances reality in of success. There was one form of writing by which his poetry, j^^ might have appealed to wider and more popular circles, namely, patriotic songs. In his youth he had been animated by a strong patriotism which, like his religious spirit, he derived from his father, who was enthusiastically devoted to Frederick the Great. The patriotism of young Klopstock found expression in an Klopstock's excellent 'War Song' written in 1749, in honour of 'Kriegslied,' Frederick the Great. This song is full of real life ^'^'*^- and fire, and is written in the bold metre of the ballad of Chevy Chase, which Klopstock knew through Addison's two essays in the ' Spectator.' It speaks of the Prussian king in terms of enthusiastic admiration. But this enthusiasm was not to last. The jj. . ardour and ambition of the poet in Klopstock sup- of sympathy pressed the patriotism of the citizen. Because Frederick with his disappointed the hopes which were set on him, because own age. j^^ failed to patronise German poets, and favoured French free-thinkers instead, Klopstock felt himself called upon His to avenge German poetry of her king, and religion of devotion her scorner. He accordingly set himself to draw his ° ° patriotic inspiration not from the living present, but history and from the dead past. The ' War-Song ' was dedicated mythology, afresh, this time to Henry the Fowler, and Arminius, chief of the Cheruski, was celebrated in odes and dramas. By such methods the German Muse was to be schooled to indepen- dence. Nor was this all. Imitation of the ancient writers was to cease ; the Northern gods, whom no one knew, whose names Klopstock himself was only just learning to pronounce, and Ch. XI.] ZiiricJi and Berlin. 37 which he had to explain to his reader in notes, were to take the place of the well-known figures of ancient mythology. The battle-cry of the old Teutons, the harditus mentioned by Tacitus, was supposed by Klopstock to refer to battle-songs sung by bards ; he knew of such bards from Celtic poetry, and supposed that they were also to be found among the early Germans. Accord- ingly, he gave to his dramas, founded on early German history, the sounding title of 'Bardiete.' The Ode 'Her- Klopstock's mann und Thusnelda,' written in 1752, is one of 'Bardiete.' his happiest inspirations, showing, as it does, powerful situ- ations and action revealed in the speeches ; the whole is a kind of ballad in dialogue-form, full of incident and character-drawing. But his three Bardiete, 'Hermann's Schlacht,' 'Hermann und die Prinzen,' and 'Hermann's Tod,' completed in 1769, 1784, and 1787 respectively, were quite useless as plays for acting, and the first of them alone contained a few really poetic incidents. Though many of Klopstock's literary experiments may seem to us very strange, yet they all give expression to some ^^ , , wide-spread tendency of the age, and in most of them influence he found imitators. In his worship of Hermann he on other was the connecting link between the friends of his youth at Leipzig, and the poets of the war of Liberation. His classical Odes found imitators in Giseke, Ramler, Gotz, and many of his younger contemporaries. Goethe learnt from him the use of free unrhymed rhythms. His biblical epic found successors chiefly in Zurich, where the idea had really originated. The Swiss critics and their partisans greeted Klopstock with enthusiasm, and quickly made him famous. Bodmer Klopstock had some time before published the outline for an *^^ Bodmer. epic on 'Noah,' and he now set to work to develop it; he also turned several other Bible stories in rapid succession into bad hexameters. In the summer of 1750, Klopstock, at Bodmer's in- vitation, came to Zurich. A short time before he had made the acquaintance of the Anacreontic poet Gleim, who had rejoiced to find in him not a Homer with a prophet's mien, but a man ' Hke one of us.' Bodmer, on the contrary, expected at least a divine youth, who would think of nothing but his great work, and who 38 The Age of Frederick iJie Great. [Ch. xi. in intercourse with worthy men would strive to become more and more worthy of his task. But Klopstock kept with the young people, went much into society, drank and smoked, kissed girls and women whom he saw for the first time, worked very little at the ' Messias,' and took no interest in ' Noah.' Klopstock was just fresh from the gallantry of Leipzig and the pleasures of student-life ; he was no stranger to the Anacreontic mood ; he sang the praises of wine, and declared in one of his Odes that a single glance, a sigh, an inspiring kiss was worth more than a hundred cantos with all their long immortality. Such a frank determination to enjoy life was all very wtll in North Germany and among poets of the Hagedorn scliool, but it shocked the Swiss puritans, even when exhibited by the poet of the ' Messias.' Bodmer was soon awakened from his illusion, and a rupture be- tween him and Klopstock was only just avoided. Klopstock went to Kopenhagen, and other poets took up their abode by the Lake of Zurich, about which he had written so many beautiful lines. In the summer of 1752 Ewald von Kleist, the poet of spring, Other poets came to Zurich as Prussian recruiting-officer ; Solo- at Zairicli. j^^j^ Gessner published there his first literary efforts ; Gessner ^^<^ Bodmer soon thought he had found in young "Wieland. Wieland all that he had missed in Klopstock. Kleist's 'Spring' had appeared in 1749, a year after the first Kleist's cantos of the ' Messias ;' it describes, through the *Fruhling,' medium of a country walk, field, wood, lake, island, ^'^^^- cultivated shores, rain, and sun, and the labour and homes of the peasants. It extends over four hundred and sixty hexameters, each hexameter having an extra syllable at the begin- ning. The description is rather too detailed ; still it is not dull, but written throughout in an exalted style, and combined with much praise of the Deity. Kleist's ' Friihling ' was one of the poems which this period of the dawn of modern literary glory was most proud of. It was a new variation of that old yearning of the townsman for simpler conditions of life, to which Horace, and, following in his- steps, Fischart and Opitz had given expression. It was a new essay in the way of a poetic description of Nature, less in the diffuse style of Brookes than in the more concise manner of Haller. It was cer- Ch.xi.] Zurich and Berlin. 39 tainly influenced by Thomson's celebrated poem on the ' Seasons,' which was then being translated by Brockes, and which still lives on in Germany in the selection of it set to music by Haydn. Kleist's descriptive poetry was entirely after the heart of the Zurich critics, and the idyllic elements of his poem Influence could nowhere reckon on a warmer welcome than in of Swiss Switzerland. Haller had found pure, uncorrupted scsnery on nati re in the shepherds of the Alps. Bodmer, charmed ^^®^«* *^^ others, by the idyllic beauty of Milton's * Paradise,' had sought the same in the patriarchs of the Old Testament, and some of the characters in his biblical epics were esteemed very highly by his friends for their unaffected simplicity. Solomon Gessner, of Zurich, a bookseller, poet, and landscape-painter, acquired the art of poetic landscape-pamting in part from his friend Kleist, and gained Euro- pean renown as an elegant imitator of Theocritus by Gessner's his prose-idylls, published in 1756. Gessner's shep- idylls, 1756. herds are honest rustics with Greek names, such as appeared in the pastoral-plays performed at Leipzig ; in small carefully finished pic- tures he described a golden age of generosity, virtue, and innocence, and his primitive sons of Nature are remarkable for their tender sentiment and elegance of speech. It is true that we find in these idylls few touches of true unadulterated Swiss scenery ; still we may suppose that love of it, and feeling for its striking contrasts, helped to mould the taste of both Haller and Gessner. For was not Rousseau also a Swiss, and did not he also call upon men to abandon the fictions of civilisation, of arts and sciences, and to re- turn to Nature } In his * Devin de Village/ a dramatised village- story, Rousseau gave an idyllic turn to the French operetta, and in his ' Nouvelle H^loise ' he described the grandeur of the Alps in impressive language, that reminds us strongly of Haller. In France, as in Germany, the Swiss nature showed itself to be emotional and enthusiastic, and was in conse- Opposition quence opposed to the cold logic of modern ration- between the alism. The intellectual opposition which was so , , marked between Voltaire and Rousseau, was antici- sentimental pated in Germany, where ' it afterwards exercised school, such a strong influence. Haller, Bodmer, and Klopstock, took up 40 The Age of Frederick the Great. [ch. XI. a hostile attitude towards Voltaire, while Gottsched translated him, flattered him, and sought to make use of him for his own purposes. And though it did not at first follow that the enemies of Voltaire were necessarily friends of Rousseau, though an orthodox Bernese aristocrat like Haller could only see in the Theist democrat of Geneva a madman or a criminal, yet the sentimental school both in Switzerland and in Germany soon attracted to itself younger men, who did not recoil from Rousseau's levelling conclusions. Pietism and rationalism, enthusiasm and frivolity, the straitlaced and the pleasure-seeking life, Haller and Hagedorn, Klopstock and Voltaire, strove together for mastery over the soul of a young Christopli ^'^^t)ian in this period — Christoph Martin Wieland. Martin Wieland learnt to write in a brilliant and imaginative Wieland, y^^ay in the school of dreamy enthusiasm, but he X733-1813 finally threw himself into the arms of enlightenment and became one of the greatest German epic poets. He was nine years younger than Klopstock, and was the son of a clergyman in the Swabian village of Oberholzheim, four hours from the town of Biberach. His father, a Pietist of the Halle school, was his instructor from his third year, and sent him in 1747 to Kloster- bergen, a college near Magdeburg, in which rigid Pietism was the rule. There his emotional nature was subjected to the prescribed course of contemplation, repentance, and ecstacy, not, however, Pietistic and without experiencing an early and vehement attack of sentimental doubt. As early as his fifteenth year he was tossed phase in about between the opposing views of the age. In his sevenieenth year his newly-awakened religious en- thusiasm found an earthly object to concentrate itself upon, in Sophie Gutermann, a young relative, whom he translated to the region of the Klopstockian angels, and glorified in prose and verse. While he was still at the University, his marvellous ease in writing began to show itself, as well as his extraordinary capacity for absorbing knowledge and his facility in reproducing it under a new form. Wieland was both a didactic and an epic poet : precept and narrative, philosophizing and story-telling, were what his literary talent was inclined to throughout his life. Like Haller or Hage- dorn, he sang of a perfect world ; he joined with Kleist and ch. XL] Ztiricft and Berlin. 41 Thomson in the praise of Spring, and Hermann and Thusnelda were destined to be his heroes as well as Klopslock's. A hymn of praise to Love, moralizing letters, and an ' Anti-Ovid ' were com- mitted in rapid succession to paper by young Wieland, His early and he also produced short tales in blank verse, such writings, as Bodmer copied from Thomson. The subjects for some of these tales were borrowed from the English w'eekly papers, such as the ' Spectator' and the 'Guardian;' their style reminds us of Gellert, while their great sentimentality, their psychological analysis and sympathetic description betray the influence of Thomson' and Klopstock. Wieland delighted in the idyllic form of poetry, and considered innocence the subject most worthy of poetic treatment. The lofty idealism of his poems reminds us of Klopstock, but Wieland's writing is free from the harshness, obscurities, and exaggerations which disfigure Klopstock's poetry. In August, 1751, Wieland sent his heroic poem 'Hermann' anonymously to Bodmer, to receive his judgment on wieland at it -y^ this gave rise to a correspondence which led to an Zurich, invitation to Zurich. There he at first lived with Bodmer, and wrote at the same table with him ; he satisfied Bodmer's passion for biblical epics by the production of a poem on the trial of Abraham ; he openly attacked the Anacreontic poets, denouncing them as cor- rupters of morals ; he found great delight in holding intercourse with Breitinger and other old gentlemen, he drank water and did not smoke like Klopstock, and, in short, lived lor a lime thoroughly after Bodmer's own heart. Then he accepted an appointment as private tutor, and, being removed from the direct influence of his Menior, he became gradually more and more estranged from him, so that the honest Bodmer had at last to lament a new and much more bitter disillusioning than he had suflfered a short time before in the case of Klopstock. Nor was our young poet without his sorrows ; his Sophie, who had inspired his earliest poetic eff"orts, whom he had sung of as Doris and pourtrayed as Thusnelda, jilted him and gave her hand to a certam Herr von La Roche. But Wieland's im- pressionable mind soon recovered its equanimity ; he declared that his love for her had always been a Platonic love, that her marriage need not make the slightest difference in his affection, and thus the 42 '^ The Age of Frederick the Great. [Ch. xi. thread of old acquaintance was not snapt. But his poetry now assumed more and more the tone of extravagant Christian enthusi- _, ,. . asm. His letters from the dead to friends left behind, Religious enthusiasm the idea of which he borrowed from an English writer, in his show clearly to what an extent Heaven must draw wri mgs. ypQj^ ^j^g delights of earth in order to become beautiful and attractive! Simple, spiritual religion is as much lacking here as in Klopstock's religious poems; but Wieland could describe in a more graphic and picturesque manner than Klopstock, and in his wealth and colour of diction he is hardly surpassed by any other German poet. We seem to hear the voice of Goethe in some of his verses — for instance, in the following: * Thou weavest deftly a halo of truth around thy cherished error/ Wieland could not dispense with the society of women, and even in puritanical Zurich there were a few fair souls in whom his religious enthusiasm awakened an answering chord, and whom he transfigured in several of his religious writings. But by the year 1754 he had begun to run his thoughts and Influence of ^^^^^^^ into Greek moulds. Shaftesbury directed him Greek on to Plato and Xenophon ; this gave rise to a Socratic "Wieland's dialogue, and he also commenced discourses on ^ ^ ^ ^^' beauty and love. Greek influence combined with the great historical events of the age and with the entanglements of his susceptible heart to bring him back to earth. One of his Platonic friendships carried him too far ; the tender-hearted enthusiast sud- denly felt himself a human lover, and had to be checked and rebuffed. 'Araspes and Panthea,' an episode taken from Xenophon's g.. Cyrus-Romance, is the poetic memorial of this affair, 'Arapses and the idea which here appears for the first time und juns through the whole of Wieland's subsequent lite- rary activity : the transition from spiritual enthusiasm to earthly passion. Xenophon's hero was also to become his own. When at the ]Deginning of the Seven Years' War all eyes were directed towards the King of Pru.^sia, Wieland began an epic , entitled * Cyrus ; ' Cyrus was only Frederick the Great in Persian disguise, and the epic was undertaken in the hopes that it would bring him some appointment in Prussia, Ch. XL] Zurich and Berlin. 43 either a place in the Academy or the Directorship of some school. Bodmer corresponded with Sulzer on the subject, but Wieland's hope in this direction was destined to be disappointed, like many others. In June, 1759, Wieland went to Berne, where he was fortunate enough to fall into varied and stimulating society, and -vvieland where he gained the undeserved love of a noble and goes to highly intellectual girl, Julia Bondeli by name. At Berne, 1759. the end of May, 1760, he returned to his native Biberach, where he was given a small legal appointment, and hastened to break his faith with the excellent Bernese girl, and to fall into the meshes of a common coquette. He compromised his honour in one more love-affair after that, and then brought the history of his loves to a close by marrying the daughter of an Augsburg tradesman, a worthy but insignificant girl. The weak, fantastic, susceptible, and fickle youth became henceforth a model husband and father. Meanwhile, as a writer, he had entirely freed himself from the old fit of extravagant enthusiasm, and passed into the •Wieland opposite extreme, into frivolity. * Don Sylvio von gives up Rosalva ' (1764) and the * Humorous Tales' (1766) ^^^ 'Don bear eloquent witness to this change. The castle of Syivio von Warihausen, distant an hour from Biberach, had since Bosalva,' 1 76 1 been the residence of Count Stadion, an old man «Komische of much culture, and with a thorough knowledge of Erzah- the world; he was the patron of Herr von La Roche ^^^sen,'i76e. and his wife, Wieland's youthful love, who both lived with him. Nothing was more natural than that Wieland should have frequent intercourse with them, and that the tone of the cultivated world, which, under French influence, and especially since the Regency, had taken a perceptibly frivolous turn, should affect him too, and according to his usual tendency incite him at once to literary pro- duction. Wieland, who in his youth had so vehemently attacked the Anacreontic school, now became himself an Epicurean ; he, who had been a disciple of Bodmer, began to follow in the footsteps of Voltaire and the younger Crebillon, and gave himself up to the poetry of humour and innuendo. But in so doing he won over to the cause of national literature the German aristocracy, who found 44 The Age of Fj-ederick the Great. [Ch. XL a further attraction in his flexible, eloquent, and finished style of writing, which had much to offer beyond the jests and mockery of the French style. This transiiion from extravagant enthusiasm to nature, also turned his attention to Shakspeare, the master of naturalness and truth of delineation. Between the His translation years 1762 and 1766 he translated either the whole or of Shak- parts of twenty-two of the plays. The golden age of speare, Athens, the epoch of Socrates, Pericles, Xenophon, and Plato, became henceforth the ideal region which took the place in his imagination of those paradisaic fields of the blessed, where his muse had wandered in his earlier years. Now he sought, instead of an imaginary innocence, plain, unvarnished human nature, men such as he himself was, full of kindness, and with susceptible hearts. Around these he wove the history of his "Wi 1 d' ^^^ experiences in love and Hfe, and the * Story of novels. Agathon ' (1766-67) is really the story of himself. In 'Agathon,* t^js book he conducts us to Delphi, Athens, Smyrna, Syracuse, and Tarentum ; the ' Ion ' of Euripides sup- plied a few incidents for the history of the hero's youth ; we follow his inward development from childhood to mature manhood, and trace in his love-experiences and in his public career a gradual reaction from the extravagant enthusiasm and Quixotism of his early youth. While he was in Zurich Wieland had been a rapturous admirer of Richardson's novels ; he joined with Gellert and many others in admiring the faultless heroes set before the world by this novelist, Pamela and Clarissa and Grandison, and he even took the materials for a drama from one of these stories. But in England Fielding had headed a reactioji against heroic untruth, while in Germany Musaus had written a parody on Grandison ; and Wieland now became a follower of Fielding and fell in with the principles of Shaftesbury, who declared perfect characters in the .^ epic and the drama to be simply monstrous. Still Wieland's cha- racters are not of the solid motley texture that belongs to real men, but are thin impersonations of the opposed stages of morality through which Wieland had himself passed. These one-sided ideals are set forth by his heroes in long dialogues, so that his novels became at the same time philosophical disquisitions. Even in the Ch. XI.] Zurich and Berlin. 45 charming poetic narrative * Musarion,' where a misanthropic Athe- nian philosopher is converted to pleasure and unre- ,,, . , . J . rir . 1- , • v 'Musarion. stramed enjoyment of lite, we notice a didactic arriere- pensee, and the very title of the book recommends it as a philosophy of the graces. In another book, half novel, half history, he chose the cynic Diogenes as his hero, and most inappropriately grafted an Anacreontic element on the stern old philosopher. 'Die The * Abderites,' on the contrary, begun in 1774, Abderiten.' must be reckoned among the best things that he ever wrote ; it is a satirical romance, in which contemporary German events and in- cidents from Wieland's ow^n life are pourtrayed and ridiculed, under a Greek mask. In the light and playful *Die * Graces,' in which, as in the old pastoral romance and Qrazien.' in many modern French epistles, verse alternates with prose, Wieland directed his steps back to the Arcadian regions which he had forsaken, but it was only because the happy mood of the idyll, the rosy dream of innocence^ and simplicity seemed the proper medium in which to set delicaie mythological beings such as the Graces. Wieland, we see, rose from Greek men to the eternally fair ideals of Greek art, to the gods and heroes. And though in his youth he had made a miserable failure in Christian tragedies, such as * Lady Jane Grey ' and * Clementine von Poretta,* yet he now determined to try his hand once more at dramatic WTJting. This time he resolved to choose some pre-Christian legend and to employ the fashionable form of the operetta. Accordingly in 1773 he entered the lists against operettas of Euripides with another * Alcestis,' and in * The 'Alcestis' Choice of Hercules' gave a rhythmical version in a ^^^ few scenes of Xenophon's well-known story. Though ®^°^ ^^" these pieces had no lasting success, and though the former of them excited the angry scorn of young Goethe, yet they were not without effect on the further development of German poetry, and on Goethe in particular, for the ' Alcestis ' suggested his ' Iphigenie,' while his * Faust ' seems to echo some of the tones struck in the * Hercules.' Wieland's versatility is apparent in every epoch of his life, till age begran to lay its fetters on him. Parallel with his Greek current 46 The Age of Fre.^crick the Great. [ch. xi. there runs a strong romantic one in 'Idris' (1768), and 'The New Amadis' (1771), for which Ariosto and Hamilton sup- ri'fes*^ plied him with models. His remarkable epic talent and ' Der was not content with prose or with the easy versifica- neue tion of Gellert, or with original metres ; he wished to l\in\\ ^^^' ^^^ ^^ ^^ "^ forms, and therefore adopted the Italian stanza in order to add the charm of its inter- laced rhymes to his highly coloured and sensuous style of description. And again, with his popular philosophic propensities Wieland could not resist the temptation of turning his attention to political questions ; already in * Agathon ' he had introduced his hero into the field of political activity, and he himself had a share in the administration of a small state, extremely small it is true, with its little intrigues and rivalries, and its storms in a tea-cup. No sooner had Haller in his novel * Usong ' made use of an oriental garb in which to clothe political thoughts, than Wieland '^SpTegfr""^ followed his example in ' The Golden Mirror' (1772) (1772), and and its sequel 'The Danishmend ' (1775). In these * Der works the idea which had inspired his ' Cyrus ' revived *^i775f ^ again ; as in the earlier work Frederick the Great was to be his hero, so now the enlightened despotism of the eighteenth century floated before his eyes as the best possible constitution, and Frederick's imitator, Joseph II, as its most happy representative. But this time his high conception of the princely calling really brought Kim into contact with a princely house ; after T^^ieland having been made in 1769 Professor of philosophy and called literature at Erfurt, he was called in 1772 to Weimar to "Weiinar. ^g Hofrath and tutor to the young prince Karl August. There he was soon allowed to devote himself again exclusively to literary activity, and he lived in comfortable circumstances till his death in 181 3. At the very commencement of this Weimar period he started a quarterly magazine, which for many 'Teutsefee 7^^^^ secured him great influence; this was the Merkur,' ' Teutsche Merkur,' in which he used his powers to started by promote the cause of enlightenment and pure taste, and gave expression to that moderate optimism which had gradually become his view of life. If he did not always find Ch. XI.] Lcssiug. 47 favour with the younger generation, which in the last quarter of the century began to strike out powerfully in all directions, yet the best of these hot-headed youths soon rallied round him, and he on his part was always ready to welcome true genius with enthusiasm. But his ripest works were still to come (see p. 131); they were not produced until new impulses had awakened in France and Germany a new love for the Middle Ages, so that Wieland could rely on public sympathy and appreciation for his own romantic tendencies. Wieland had gradually freed himself from the bonds of literary partisanship which had trammeled him as a youth at Zurich. He had entirely outgrown the opposition between Gottsched and Bodmer, between the Leipzig and the Swiss school, and though he was now good friends with the Anacreontic writers, the tender and delicate ladies' poets, yet, as an epic writer, his horizon necessarily extended further than this, while, as an editor, his interests forbade his becoming one-sided in his tendencies. He at- "vvieland tained somewhat later to that independent standpoint and which Lessing took up from the first. Lessing began I'^ssmg. as an enemy of Gottsched's. but was not therefore a partisan of Bodmer's ; on the contrary, he proved himself from the first to be an independent critic. He carefully watched Wieland's develop- ment, ridiculed his dreamy extravagance, refuted his polemics, annihilated his dramatic efforts, praised his ' Agathon,' and shared his enthusiasm for the Periclean age ; and in German literature he did for the drama what Wieland had done for the epic, he raised it from mere good intentions to real merit. Lessing. Gotthold Ephraim Lessing was five years younger than Klop- stock, and four years older than Wieland ; he was Lessing born on the 22nd of January, 1729, at Kamenz, in 1729-178I. Upper-Lusatia. He, too, came of a clergyman's His early- family, and was brought up in the Lutheran faith ; but he never had anything in common with pietism, and in his poetic language we miss the magic solemnity, the sensuous charm, 48 The Age of Frederick the Great. [ch. xi. the imaginative fire which Klopstock and Wieland acquired in the school of emotional religion. Lessing received his public-school training at the princely college of Meissen, matriculated at Leipzig in the autumn of 1746, at the age of seventeen, and as early as 1747 first came before the public with some short poems and a comedy. In January, 1748, another comedy of his, the 'Young Scholar,' was, as we already know, brought out on the His Comedy , • • ^. • ', 'Derjimge Leipzig stage, where it met with great approval. Gelehrte/ Unlike the ' eternal youth ' Klopstock, Lessing quickly performed ^^^^ ^^^ j.jpg manhood; while Klopstock hardly de- veloped at all, but obstinately adhered to his first standpoint, Lessing's life was one of steady progress, and his Lessing's labours, which were many-sided without being diffuse, progressive- continually revealed ever fresh capabilities of his rich ness. nature. He has few points of contact with the writers for the ' Bremer Beitrage,' of whom Klopstock was one. These Saxon poets were, as we have seen, thoroughly moralised writers, good-natured, self-satisfied, and as correct in their style as in their religious and political opinions; they lived as peaceable citizens, without struggles, without conflicts, happy in their mediocrity, and like quiet settlers . cultivated their small field with industry and understanding. Lessing, on the contrary, was full of the spirit,' of enterprise and, far from being a peaceable nature, was inclined to assail mediocrity and give no quarter. It is, therefore, all the more to his honour that he was never revolutionary in his proceed- ings ; he always started from the existing state of things, took account of present facts, and with the genuine zeal of reform aimed only at introducing gradual improvements. Neither in poetry nor in science was he a radical innovator ; he never lost his inner balance, nor that rare tact for distinguishing the possible and the useful, in which a fiery poet's nature is so often deficient. The impulse to go forward, however, drove him from place to place, and he was not comfortably settled till late in life ; though adverse cir- cumstances may have had much to do with this, yet it was mainly the result of his temperament. He did not like to bind himself, he easily entered into relations and quickly broke them off, and was fond of seeking new surroundings and new interests. He passed ch. XI.] Lessiug. 49 through many varied experiences, many illusions and disappoint- ments, and was like a roaming seafarer, gathering treasures from all countries, but finding no fixed habitation anywhere. Lessing's rapid development began early ; even the ' Young Scholar ' is a step in his emancipation, for the very j. ^ , pedantry which he ridicules therein was his own. As early a boy he had loved books, quickly ransacking their emancipa- contents, and school-life at first strengthened his pro- pensity towards unprofitable learning. But nature had endowed him with a cheerful and hvely disposition, and with a fund of healthy mother-wit, which made him turn his pedantic teachers to ridicule, and soon revealed to him his own pedantic tendencies. With him too the spirit of modern enlightenment breathed life into the dry bones of scholarship, while mathematics, natural science and Anacreontic poetry all helped to emancipate him. The great city, whose University he entered, widened his horizon and gave him the wish to become above all a true man, and to learn how to live his life best. He aimed at attaining bodily and mental proficiency, followed his poetic leanings, and sought to develop himself into a German Moli^re. He associated with actors, which gave great offence to his parents and finally he left Leipzig to try his fortunes in Berlin. The opposition between pedantry and human feeling plays the same part in his character as the oppo- sition between extravagant sentiment and nature did in Wieland's ; but while Wieland never got beyond this one problem of his life, in Lessing it was a youthful episode and he soon triumphed over it. He went to Berlin against the will of his parents, and while they were fearing the worst for his religion and morals, he Lessing was earning a scanty but honourable livelihood by his goes to pen, writing reviews, making translations and publish- Berlin, ing original works, poems and dramas. But the apprehensions of his parents were, it must be confessed, not without foundation ; his orthodoxy was put to the test and succumbed. In Becomes November, 1748, he had come to Berlin, and in 1750, acquainted shortly after Voltaire's arrival, he made acquaintance "^^^^ with the great philosopher. Voltaire employed him in making translations, and for a time is said to have invited him VOL. II. E 5© The Age of Frederick the Great. [Ch. xi. daily to dinner. It was, of course, an enormous advantage for a young beginner like Lessing to be the guest of the greatest writer in Europe, and of the King of Prussia's friend. It opened out to him prospects of instruction, advancement, and patronage, and of course, in the opinion of his parents, of spiritual harm. If Lessing ^ had summed up his views and plans at that time, they would probably have borne a great resemblance to Voltaire's. He wished to become a free author, not to influence literature from the professorial chair, but to be independent of the academic tradition, and, like Voltaire, to rely on the intrinsic power of his pen. Voltaire had written some counsels for a journalist, in which he recommended impartiality in all things ; in philosophy he advised respect for greater thinkers, in history he called men's attention to the various grades of civilisation, and laid special stress on the modern periods ; in dramatic criticism he required faithful analysis, moderation in judgment, and a comparison with other extant pieces on the same subject. In aesthetic criticism in general he insisted on the method of comparison, a method as valuable, he declared, in such departments of knowledge as in anatomy. Lessing conducted his journalism in accordance with Xjessing s method of these counsels ; he did not adhere to any particular criticism party ; in philosophy he attached himself, like Voltaire, derived from ^q ^^ greater of his predecessors, and he scrupulously Voltaire. , ,, \ ^ . , j . ^ ^ • followed the mductive and comparative method m sesthetic criticism. The interest which he then took in history in general was not continued later, but literary history proved a sub- ject of permanent attraction to him. Lessing did not remain faithful to the physical sciences which Voltaire popularised, and neither tried his skill in the epic nor in the novel ; but he shared Voltaire's pre-eminent delight in the drama, and, like Voltaire, pro- ceeded cautiously in the reform of the stage. In their disinclination to positive religion and in their demand for religious toleration they were both of one mind ; and Lessing's clear unadorned prose, which fits and follows every nuance of thought, might have been acquired from Voltaire, had it not been natural to himself. For good or evil, Lessing's relation to Voltaire was an important element in his life. Personally he afterwards broke with him ch. XI.] Lessiiig. 51 altogether. Lessing received a copy of Voltaire's ' Siecle de Louis XIV' before publication, and did not keep it Lessine's carefully enough from strange eyes ; Voltaire suspected quarrel with him of dishonourable motives in this, and a breach Voltaire, ensued, which was productive of much harm to Lessing in later years. But even without this breach, it was not in Lessing's nature to resign himself to a foreign influence ; mere scoffing at religion exer- cised no power over his soul, and the weak points in Voltaire were too apparent to escape such a clever observer as he was. Voltaire was to him only a lever by which to raise himself to independence. If Voltaire had learnt from the ancients, Lessing might read them also ; if Voltaire had learnt from the English, Lessing could follow suit there, and draw from the same source as Haller, Hagedorn, f and Klopstock had done. In Berlin Lessing became not dependent I but free ; and, what is more important, he brought about the '^ literary emancipaiion of Berlin from Swiss influence. Lessing's He struck out a new line of criticism, and gathered influence round him young writers such as the Jewish merchant ^^ Berlin. Moses M endels sohn, and the bookseller Nicolai, who were his literary disciples and, like himself, adhered neither to the Swiss school nor to the Gottschedians, neither raved for Klopstock nor for SchonalV:h, and always reserved their own right of judgment. When, in 1755, he published a collected edition of his works, he was already a celebrated man, a dreaded critic and an admired poet. His little Anacrgiuitic poems found great favour as songs, and the powerful drinking-song where Death appears before him and he succeeds in deceiving Death, has lived on among German students 10 this day. In his poetic fables he imitated the easy, conversational tone of Gelleri. His epigrams borrowed much from foreign sources, but were seldom without the true epi- grammatic ring. In certain fragments of didactic poems he has the' conciseness of Haller without his obscurit}\ His * Briefe ' and ' Rettungen ' are works of a scholar, in which he uses his multifarious knowledge to correct old-established errors, to censure contemporary mediocrity, and defend calumniated wor- thies of the past, all in a clear and flexible style. But it was above all as a dramatist that Lessing look the first rank among £ 2 52 The Age of Frederick the Great. [Ch. xi. his colleagues even early in life. His litile comedies were more Leasing s French than those of Gellert ; but by his closer ad- Dramas, herence to a foreign technique, he became a master of technique in general. His plays are written with a sure and correct hand ; the purpose in view is always attained, and the plot is clearly developed and never drags ; his scenes are well contrived, his jokes are good, and his characters, in spite of a lingering con- ventionality, well drawn. But he did not remain content with 1 glit pieces for the amusement of the public ; his idea was to use the stage as a moral influence, and to prove to his father that he was not giving up his life to empty aims. In 'Der Freigeist' Freigeist ' ^^ places a noble theologian and an honourable free- *Die thinker side by side, and shows how the latter w^as Juden,' and cured of his prejud ce against the clergy. In ' Die * Der Schatz ' Juden ' he attacks ihe Christian prejudice aga'nst these unhappy people, who were just beginning to breathe freely under the blessing of Frederick's tolerance, and whose noblest representatives in Berlin Lessing had learnt to honour and love. Hisl extensive historical knowledge of the drama among other nations w;as of benefit to his own productions ; in ' Der Schatz ' (The Treasure) Ave have a modernised version of a comedy of ♦Miss Plautus, and his endeavour to modernise the Greek Sara legend of Medea resulted in the production of his Samson/ ^j.gj. tj-^gedy, ' Miss Sara Samson.' This piece brings before us a fickle lover, who has become unfaithful to his first lady, and elopes with a second, but does not mean to marry her ; his former mistress pursues him, upbraids him, threatens to kill her child, and really does kill her rival. These contemptible and horrible characters are put into English masks, and the play is written after the model of English plays like Lillo's * Merchant of London ; ' the dialogue is in prose, full of gushing sentiment which often becomes offensive. This play was the beginning of middle-class tragedy in Germany, of that iragedie bourgeoise against which Voltaire had raised a warning voice. Under Lessing's influence it now at once came into fashion, supplanted the Alexan- drine tragedy, and began to drive out every other kind of play. Various causes co-operated to call this new style of drama into life, Ch. XL] Lessing. 53 such as the wish felt by authors to be true to nature, their con- viction that characters drawn from modern middle-class or aristo- cratic society would appeal more strongly to the hearts of play- goers than the fates of ancient kings and princes, or the desire to break with the remote idealism of French classical tragedy, a desire which in France had already led to the introduction of a * comedie larmoyank' i. e. a tragedy with characters drawn from private life and with a happy ending. But unfortunately these middle-class plays often degenerate into sensationalism on the one hand, or into the depths of commonplace on the other. ' Miss Sara Samson ' closed an epoch in Lessing's life and in his poetic activity ; while the plaudits of the public still rang in his ears he was already filled with higher aspirations. In order to put himself en rapport with a higher style of drama, Lessing returned to Leipzig in the autumn of 1755. returns to There an opportunity offered itself of making a tour Leipzig, through North Germany to Holland and England in company with a young man of property, Winkler by name. But this tour was soon interrupted by the outbreak of the Seven Years' War; Lessing returned in October, 1756, to Leipzig, and at once became a centre of literary interests there. His old friend Christian Felix Weisse sought to benefit by his teaching as before ; the young Von Brawe chose him as his model ; Ewald von Kleist, now Major, and ordered to Leipzig with his regiment, became his intimate friend. By Lessing's advice Kleist gave up descriptive poetry and took to epic or dramatic poetry, as containing more life and action ; his tragedy * Seneca,' idylls like Kleist's his excellent ' Irin,' full of feeliner and rich in thouerht, 'Seneca,' o ' < Irin, and and a heroic poem from the Greek world entitled . cissides * Cissides and Paches,' bear witness to this change, and Paches.' The war now fired all hearts ; men felt that a national interest was at stake, and the conflxt with the French and the victory of Rossbach excited an indescribable enthusiasm. P^ets all of a sudden found great subjects close at hand, and no longer needed to seek their heroes in a remote past ; and though it was hard on Bodmer, Sulzer, Lessing, and others, that the hard-pressed king should at this very time have given a man like Gottsched an 54 The Age of Frederick the Great. ' [Ch. xi opportunity of publicly glorying in the praise formerly bestowed ^«> . X. on him by Frederick, yet this did not hinder them Effect of . -^ . ' -' the Seven from doing their part in that rise of German litera- Years' "War lure for which Frederick's deeds were the signal. on 1 era ure. Lgggjj^g^ though a Saxon by birth, was in his heart on Frederick's side. Another Saxon, Kastner (see p. 20), then Kastner Professor at Gottingen, glorified the Batde of Ross- Kleist, and bach in German and Latin epigrams. Many were Bamler. ^f opinion that Frederick was greater than Caesar. Kleist sang the praises of his king and of the Prussian army, and the patriotic death which he had desired for himself fell to his lot at the battle of Kunersdorf (1759). Ramler produced solemn and artistic odes in honour of the glorious war, and deserved the name of the 'Prussian Horace.' Johann Gottlieb Willamow attempted to glorify in heavy dithyrambs 'Frederick, "Willamow ^^^ ^^^^> ^^^ prince, the sage,' and aspired to be and Anna the Prussian Pindar. A Prussian Sappho, too, Karschm. according to the exaggerated praises of that time, appeared in the person of Anna Louisa Karschin, who, owing to meagre culture and too great indulgence on the part of her admirers, never got beyond mere rhyming. Many other writers besides these, cultured and uncultured, a few with a vocation for poetry, many with none, made their voices loudly heard. Amongst these Gleim made a decidedly happy hit in his ' Prussian War- songs by a Grenadier,' which first appeared in 1757 and 1758 in flying sheets, and were published in a collected form in 1758, with a preface by Lessing ; these poems really mark a new departure in popular lyric verse. Lighter poetry had never quite lost touch with the popular song Gleim*s ^^^"^ which it had sprung. In Hagedorn we see the ' Grenadier relation clearly, and Gleim, who belongs to Hagedorn's Songs.' school, had in his earlier years written humorous romances in ballad-form ; the Spanish Gongora and the French Moncrif were his models in these poems, which he really wished to be disseminated through ballad-singers. Klopstock, in his song on Frederick the Great, had struck a powerful and popular tone, and had made use of a celebrated English ballad-metre. It was this Ch. Xi.l Lessiiig. ^^ very metre, with lines only rhyming alternately, that Gleim now chose for the descriptions of battle which he put into the mouth of a grenadier, and these War-songs of his were quite as spirited, manly, and rich in action as Klopstock's poem. The artificial obscurity of the classical ode was laid aside, and all digressions and sudden transitions were done away with ; the grenadier-poet renounced all pomp, tinsel, and even decorative epithets, and simply called things by their real names. Though he sometimes becomes too diffuse, and though we meet with harsh and awkward forms of expression in his songs, yet on the whole he gives us happy ideas and striking scenes. Gleim is most successful in his fusion of epic and lyric elements ; he introduces God, or the king, or Frederick's generals as speaking ; his tone is now grand, now naive, now comic, and he never forgets that he must speak as being himself a fighter in the battles which he relates. Lessing might well assign a high special literary place to the grenadier-poet, and expressly reckon him as one of the * people ' who were always at least half a century behind modern refinements of language, and therefore opposed to French canons of criticism. The grenadier, Lessing says, reminds us rather of the German * bards,' the character of whose poems we can divine from those of the old Northern Skalds ; nor does Lessing forget to mention the younger bards of the age of Hohenstaufen, and to cite their style as a parallel to Gleim's. He thus shows his appreciation not only of the value of national and popular poetry, but also of the great epochs of German literature. With these and such-like reflections, Lessing introduced the Grenadier-Songs to the public, and the impulse thus given was partly beneficial, partly injurious ; we soon seem to trace its influence when we see the old Northern poetry and the Minnesingers coming into favour again, and the longing after the Germanic bards feeding itself on the Celtic Ossian. The general j .. .. applause called forth by Gleim's war-lyrics led to of Gleim. many imitations, expressive rather of local patriotism ^?^eisse's than of national feeling. The Saxon Anacreontic 'Amazonen- poet, Christian Felix Weisse, who had no glorious deeds to celebrate, wrote in 1760 his 'Amazon-songs,' without reference to particular battles or to any particular war; by 56 The Age of Fredej'ick the Great. [ch. xi. 'Amazon' he means a girl who has a soldier-lover, and he thus showed that such popularity as lay within his reach could only be at- tained by poetry which appealed not to national but merely to private sentiment, a fact which he later on still furiher attested by the songs Gersten- ^^ ^^^ operettas. The Schleswig-Holstein Anacreontic berg's poet, Heinrich Wilhelm Gerstenberg, published in 'Kriegs- 1762 'War-songs of a Royal Danish Grenadier.' The lieder,' and ,-,.,, ,.t , ,,-t^, ■, Lavater s Zurich theologian Lavater, a disciple of Bodmer and ' Schweizer- Breitinger, produced a great but not a lasting effect lieder. }^y j^jg < Swiss-songs.' And in 1770 an Austrian Cuirassier, in 1778 a Saxon Dragoon followed with limping gait in the steps of the Prussian Grenadier. But these Grenadier-songs also produced another and much wider result. This new form of popular poetry inspired interest in ^^ Germans with a higher esteem for popular poetry foreign in general; Hagedorn and Hoffmanswaldau had al- popular ready taken an interest, half scholarly, half poetical, in the lyric poetry of foreign nations, and especially in the poetry of uncivilised nations. This interest was kept up in Lessing's circle, as is attested by Kleist's * Song of a Laplander.' Lessing himself pubHshed a couple of beautiful Lithuanian * Dainos ' ; he was averse to the very word barbarian, and was glad to prove that there are poets born under every sky, and that strong emotion is not a privilege only of civilized nations. Addison had already directed attention to the English ballad-poetry, and Klopstock, Gleim and others had profited English ^y ^^^ example. Bishop Percy's collection of Eng- ballads and Hsh ballads was, therefore, received with general Macpher- rapture in Germany, and the sentimental heroic son's Ossian. r /-. i.- •• l- l tvt i. poetry of Celtic origin, which Macpherson sent forth under the name of Ossian, was greeted with enthusiastic applause by a race of poets full of sentiment and warlike sym- Scandina- pathies. About the same time part of the Edda was vian poetry, rendered easily accessible in Mallet's 'History of Den- mark' and its German translation; and in 1766 Gerstenberg, by his 'Gedicht eines Skalden,' introduced the Northern mythology into German poetry. Klopstock, who had long designated him- Ch. XI.] Lessing. 57 self and his friends as 'Bards,' followed Gerstenberg's lead, and began to produce his * Bardiete.' The Viennese Jesuit Denis, an admirer of Klopslock, translated Ossian into hexameters, and wrote some poetry in imitation of him ; he and Klopstock were imitated in their turn, and thus there arose — long after the Seven Years' War was over, and when there was, in fact, no war going on anywhere — that vague kind of battle-poetry of which Weisse had set the example, and which has become so notorious under the name of the ' Roaring of the Bards ' {Bardengebriill). Lessing looked somewhat coldly on this whole warlike fit which he himself had helped to induce ; at the same time _ . , ^ ' Lessing s he had long paid much attention to popular poetry, projected and had asked himself whether it would not be pos- play of sible to atone for Gottsched's sins, and restore the *^^*' connection, which Gottsched in his conceit had so wantonly destroyed, between the regular stage and the old forms of drama represented by the wandering comedians. He was acquainted with the popular play of Dr. Faustus, and proposed to make the magical Doctor a character for the regular stage. He meant to endow him with a passionate love of truth, but finally to save him from hell ; an angel was to declare at the end of the play : 'God has not given to man the noblest of impulses in order to make him eternally unhappy.' Lessing began to work out this plan in his mind about the same time as that of ' Miss Sara Samson,' and it occupied his attention for a long time ; he even thought of two ways of treating the subject, one of which was to retain the traditional devil, while the other was to manage with- out him. In peither direction did he get beyond the mere sketch ; for the time being, the present, the Seven Years' War, laid hold on) his imagination, as it also gave new impulses to his life. 1 His odes in prose, addressed to Gleim and Kleist, were disguised eulogies of the Prussian king, with here and there a sarcasm upon the condition of Saxony. A Spartan war-song, laconic and pruned of all superfluous ideas, marks a new departure in , ^ ' Philotas. Lessing's taste. In the little drama ' Philotas ' he draws in the same laconic way the character of a king's son, who kills himself for the weal of his fatherland rather than fall as a valuable 58 TJie Age of Frederick the Great. [Ch. XT. hostage into the hands of the enemy. The same laconic style is Lessing's noticeable in the prose-fables which he now published. Fables. Gellert and Gleim had written fables of epic length ; the Prussian Lichtwer had made the fable the vehicle of his peculiar humour, and the Swiss Meyer von Knonau had embodied in it close observation of nature. Lessing's fables displayed none of these characteristics ; they have just the epigrammatic brevity which pro- perly belongs to so trifling a branch of didactic poetry. In Lessing's hands the fable was curtailed of the exaggerated importance which it had acquired in an age of literary sterility. But Lessing was able to convey very profound matter in his fables in spite of their concise style and meagre form ; we catch in them quiet echoes of the strong emotions of a fiery soul. In these contrasts of true with false greatness., of real with fictitious merit, in the onslaught made I on pretence, hypocrisy, and fanaticism, we have a reflection of the / views of life, and probably of the life-experiences, of their proud f and self-reliant author ; and this is what raises these poems to the rank of classical masterpieces in their modest sphere. These fables, and still more an essay attacking the established view of the fable, are sufficient evidence that Lessing was dissatisfied with current literary ideals, and filled with the presentiment of a new age and a new art. But the future of poetry seemed to him to be menaced by the stirring political events and interests of the time, which nearly monopolised men's minds and incapacitated them for steady literary work. Accordingly, in various literary essays, he set him- self to divert men's attention to the cause of letters by discouraging bunglers, by setting those who had talent to work on worthy sub- jects, and by rendering men's artistic perceptions more acute. But such an undertaking could at that time be worked from Berlin alone. Lessing had returned to Berlin in 1758, Berlin 1758 ^^^ there his ' Literary Letters ' began to appear in His 1759' Lessing adopted in them the tone of conversa- * liitteratur- tional and witty letter-writing ; he wrote with reckless candour and veracity, caUing a bad thing bad without circumlocution. At an earlier period he had, perhaps with unneces- sary vehemence, held up to ridicule an unsuccessful translation of Horace, and ruined for ever in public opinion the unhappy author, Ch. XI.] Lessing. 59 Pastor Lange of the older Halle school (see vol. i. p. 429), 2i protege of the Swiss school, and a fore-runner of Klopstock. He now set himself to chastise, though with less severity, the bad taste of a I wider circle of scribblers. He delivered his most cruel jj^g judgment on Gottsched, and had a sharp word for literary French tragedy; he made short work with the bad criticisms, translators and . the prolific literary hacks ; he found fault with Klopstock's odes for being so full of feeling that in reading them one is not touched at all ; he attacked the * Nordischer Aufseher ' (Northern Observer), a periodical which was issued by the Klop- stockian circle in Kopenhagen, and which had asserted that no one could be an upright man without religion; he sharply rebuked Wieland for his fanciful extravagance. Yet we must not suppose that his criticisms were wholly negative; there was no want of positive suggestions in them. After the first flush of his reforming ardour had passed off, Lessing, satisfied with the success which had rewarded his efforts, retired from the field and handed over the publication to his friends, Mendelssohn and Nicolai, who were soon joined by Thomas Abbt, a young Swabian by birth, but enthusi- astically Prussian in his sentiments ; Abbt had received his education in Haile and at Frankfort-on-the-Oder, and, fired with rapturous admiration for Frederick and his generals, had written an essay on * Death for the Fatherland.' The * Literary Letters ' continued to be published till 1765; meanwhile Lessing had been since 1760 in Breslau, as secretary of General Tauentzien, whose acquaintance he had made through Kleist. In Breslau, Lessing gave himself up to various diversions, and even to the passion of gambling; at the same time he was carrying on important studies, and was pre- paring himself for t\vo of his greatest achievements, * Laokoon ' and • Minna von Barnhelm,' which he published in 1766 and 1767, during a third sojourn in Berlin. The one reveals his Hellenic tendencies, while the other gives expression to his national senti- ments. The former is connected with general European culture, while the latter is founded on the special interests of the German nation, and marks the culminating point of the influence of the Seven Years' War upon German letters. * Minna von Barnhelm ' was the first really national drama 6o The Age of Frederick the Great. [Ch. xi. dealing with contemporary events, and in it the Prussian soldier . , whom Gleim had introduced into lyric poetry, made a Lessmg s j \r j-> Minna von glorious debut xx^oxi the comic stage. The scene is laid Barnhelm, jn Berlin, immediately after the war; the characters 1*767 are no longer burdened with Greek or English names, and are not typical masks, but living people with individual traits drawn from the author's own experience, and in sympathy with his own character. There is, first of a.l, the Prussian Major Tellheim, a retired and impoverished officer, generous, noble, and sensitive even to excess ; the military element is further represented by the sergeant, Paul Werner, and the Major's servant, Just, whom his master has imbued with his own noble nature. The female cha- racters are : the widow of one of Tellheim's fellow-officers, who finds a friend and benefactor in the Major ; his fiancee, Minna, of whom he no longer thinks himself worthy, and who, therefore, has to woo and wed him in despite of himself; lastly, Minna's maid Francisca, an improved edition of those Liseties whom the poet had introduced as intrigantes in his earlier comedies, written after French models. All these characters are excellent, loveable and thoroughly German people. The play is a homage to German women, and a glorification of the Prussian army, in whose midst Lessing had lived for four years; it is, furthermore, a eulogy of the great king who looms in the background as the administrator of that justice which restores to the Major his lost pride, vindicates his injured honour, and brings everything to a happy conclusion. By way of contrast and as a salve to wounded national feeling, \ Lessing places by the side of the honest German, a French ad- venturer, a contemptible character, who excites the laughter of the audience by his broken German. All this is very happily embodied in scenes, partly mirthful, partly affecting. 'Minna von Barnhelm' was the first of a whole succession of soldier-plays, in which this hobby was driven to death, and finally, in time of peace, became as wearisome as the * Roaring of the Bards.' Lessing, inspired by the great war, and as a voluntary partisan of Prussia, had thus nationalised the German drama, and had made it really popular without the least sacrifice of artistic form. Before long, much the same thing was attempted for the novel, Ch. XI.] Lessing. 61 though by an extremely inferior writer, namely, the theologian Johann Timotheus Hermes. This author, who was a The German Prussian by birth, rescued the novel from those remote Novel, regions which had been alone thought appropriate to it, and made it a story of current events in Germany, as Grimmelshausen had done before him. As Lessing had laid the scene of his play * Miss Sara Samson ' in England, and thus acknowledged his in- debtedness to the English, so Hermes, who was an imitator partly of Richardson and partly of Fielding, first came before Hermes's the public in 1766 with a novel entitled ' Miss Fanny 'Miss Wilkes : ' subsequently, however, he took to trivial and Fanny "Wilkes ' common-place representation of German life in ' So- ^^^ ' phien's Reise von Memel nach Sachsen' (i 769-1 773), 'Sophien's a many-volumed and disconnected medley of adven- Beise. ture, moralisings, and sentiment. Hermes soon found a successor in Lessing's friend Nicolai, whose novel * Sebaldus Nothanker ' (1773) was a continuation of another novel written some time before, Moriz August von Thiimmel's * Wilhelmine,' a burlesque epic in prose, which gained the esteem of Lessing. Lessing had / given a prose form to tragedy, the fable, and the ode, and now, too, 1 the mock-heroic poem was transformed into prose ; it was thus ' assimilated to the novel and the romance, and helped to bring these two forms of literature down to the interests of „^.. Tnummel s every-day life. Thiimmel's ' Wilhelmine,' which ap- . -wiihel- peared in 1764, was an attack on the depravity of the mine,' German courts. The heroine is a chambermaid in a ^ ' reigning prince's household, and marries the good village-clergy- man, Sebaldus. After the appearance of Oliver Gold- j,. , ., smith's 'Vicar of Wakefield ' in 1 766, Nicolai endowed « Sebaldus this same Sebaldus with some qualities derived from Nothanker,' the English country-clergyman, and related his further fortunes after his marriage. Sebaldus comes in contact with orthodox people, pietists and free-thinkers, with noblemen and Prussian sol- diers ; he suffers much on account of his opinions, is persecuted and driven from place to place, but is finally more or less consoled by winning a prize in a lottery. In this book Nicolai supplied the public with a patriotic work, dealing with middle-class life, and 62 The Age of Frederick the Great. [Ch. xr. setting forth enlightened views ; and in spite of its incessant theolo- gical discussions, in spite of the traditional apparatus of robbers, shipwrecks, and slave-merchants, and of many other defects, the book proved not unpalatable reading to those who were not over-critical, for it was full of interesting information about religious conditions in Berlin, it contained a couple of happily- conceived characters, and teemed with protests against aristocratic arrogance, Gallomania, intolerance, and hypocrisy. But at the same time that German poet!}' was establishing ilself Kevival of "^^re and more firmly on German soil, the love of classical classical antiquity was also increasing. The humanis- mflusnce. ^^ element of modern culture gained redoubled force from the general spirit of creative activity which animated the age, and from the increased energy of aesthetic and scientific aspirations. While the war lasted the German nation had shown a Spartan endurance and valour, and had livalled the ancients in its deeds ; now that peace was restored the greatness of Athens seemed a worthy object of emulation. In January, 1771, shortly after the German comedy and the German novel had tendered a solution of the problems of national life, Frederick the Great entrusted the superintendence of Prussian instruction to Baron Zedlitz, who first made the Prussian gymnasium what it is, or what it was in its best times. Zedlitz doubled and trebled the number of hours to be devoted to Greek instruction, substituted for the New Testament the great writers of antiquity, and thus transformed the Gymnasium of the Reformation period into the modern classical school. As a parallel to this we find Lessing, before he completed his ' Minna von Barnhelm,' publishing his ' Laokoon,' a work in which he ranged himself by the side of Winckelmann, and of those writers who not only gave an intellectual justification of the prevalent ten- dency to return to the pure Greek forms, but also educated and developed the taste for classical antiquity. The course of Winckelmann's life was exactly the reverse of Winckel- Lessing's. Lessing was drawn from Saxony to Prussia, mann s there to have his genius moulded by Prussian influ- ^ssicism. gj^(,gg . j_jjg Prussian Winckelmann, on the contrary, left his native province to go to Dresden, and there, in the classic ch. XI.] Lessing. 63 abode of German Rococo, found satisfaction for his aesthetic nature in the treasures of modern and ancient art. jjjg There, in intercourse with the Austrian Oeser, a ' Gedanken many-sided artist and stimulating character, he learnt ^^^^ ^^^ to worship that ideal of noble simplicity and quiet jn^ng der grandeur which he revealed to the world in 1755 Griechischen in his ' Thoughts on the imitation of the Greeks "^^^ke in • . 11 > Ti 1 • TA 1 ing in manu- his ' Fra - ^^^^P^ form, and by him published, as we have seen, a mente eines Tew years after the author's death, under the tide of the Unge- ^ <■ Papers of an Anonymous WolfenbiiLteler.' Reimarus could perceive in the origm of Christianity nothing but the worldly aims of its Founder, and the false pretensions of his disciples. This was too much, not only for the orthodox, but for the Liberal party. Among the former the disputatious Melchior Goeze of Hamburg, and among the latter Semler and many others rose up and challenged these views. All of them made Lessing responsible for the opinions set forth, and he had to answer all attacks. He had been prepared for this, and knew what a storm he was conjuring up. But the frame of mind in which he had published those first cutting fragments was very different from that in which he now set about undertaking the defence of the anonymous Wolfenbutteler. Then, peace and happi- ness had just begun to dawn for him. Alone, and often in struggle with want and debts, he had lived on till his forty-eighth year ; at length fortune seemed to smile upon him, for his outward circum- stances had improved, and a clear-headed and energetic woman, Eva Konig, the widow of a Hamburg friend, had become his wife in October, 1776. She had the best influence upon him, and made him quieter, steadier, and less hasty. But on Christmas Eve, 1777, Death of she gave birth to a son, who died in twenty-four hours, Lessing's and on the loth of January, 1778, she died herself. ^^^®* Lessing wrote heart-rending letters, letters breathing the bitter misanthropic mockery of his Tellheim or his Orsina, letters full of unfathomable misery, and such as no one had ever before written, except Frederick the Great in his most desponding moments. ' My wife is dead,' he writes, ' so this experience, too, I have now made. I am thankful there cannot be still reserved to me many such experiences, and am quite easy.' It was in this frame of mind that Lessing had to begin to answer the polemics against the anonymous author and his publisher. Ch. XI.] Lessing. 75 He wrote his ' Testament of John/ his * Duplik/ his ' Parables,' his 'Axiomata,' and that whole series of scathing Lessing's polemics to which he gave the title of 'Anti-Goeze.' theological He applied all his marvellous powers of language controversy, and keen argument to the task before him ; meta- phors and similes suggested themselves in abundance at his call, / and yet he appeals less to the imagination than to the His ' Anti- ' understanding. His quick transitions of thought keep Goeze.' us continually on the alert ; we seem to be listening to a dis- (ussion carried on in flying haste, and where the objections of the opponent are left to our conjecture. The dramatic vivacity of the Lutheran pamphlets is revived here in the hands of a true dramatist. Now Lessing adopts the form of the dialogue, now of the epistle. At one time he propounds a parable, at another he brings forward a chain of theses; here we have calm evidence and statements, there a storm of query and invective. He has a special style for every separate opponent. Goeze gets the hardest blows, being stamped as a disloyal persecutor and bigot, an intolerant hypo- crite and slanderer. Every weak point which he betrays Lessing at once spies out with eagle eye, and mercilessly assails. But his object is rather defence than attack, and he triumphantly answers the onslaught made upon him for publishing the * Fragments.' Free enquiry, he says, is the right of all Protestants. Luther's spirit demands that no man should be hindered in seeking after truth according to his lights, for the final purpose of Christianity is not that we should be saved in any manner, but that we should be saved through the truth illumining our souls. And the letter is not the spirit, the Bible is not religion; consequently attacks on the Bible arc not necessarily attacks on religion. As a matter of fact Lessing by no means agreed with all the opinions set forth in the * Fragments.' He wished to distinguish the religion of existing Christian Churches from the religion of Jesus, the ' divine friend of man,' the religion which j^Qssius'a his beloved disciple summed up in the words — ' Little real children, love one another.' He was prepared to follow religious Semler's example, and vigorously promote the study of the Gospels as monuments of literary history, and, by a * r 75 The Age of Frederick the Great. [ch. xi. more intimate acquaintance wlt'i primitive Christianity, to bring about that emancipation from a slavish adherence to the letter, which he saw to be so necessary. He would have treated Chris- tianity as Winckelmann had treated Greek art, and would have shown how different climates produced different wants and satis- factions, different manners and customs, different ethics and dif- ferent religions. He considered religions as the products of a necessary but purely human development, and said that their chief importance lay in the moral effect they produced. This was why he regarded as proof against* any refutation the pious feeling which is happy in its faith, and why he so earnestly longed for a new and permanent Gospel, which should recommend virtue for its own sake, and not for the sake of a future happiness. The noblest flower of virtue seemed to him to be that love which unites men and lifts them above the earthly limits of nationalities, states, and religions. Lessing did not find lime to set forth all his thoughts on religious subjects. His controversy with Goeze was only a preliminary*, skirmish ; the real battle was to come. He was not a man who would build up a system in too great haste. His strength lay in discriminating, examining, refuting; in one word, in criticism. But above the particulars which he subjected to a strict in- Lessing's vestigation, his mind rose in anticipation to a view * Ernst \md of the whole. He had formed for himself concep- Falk, j-JQj^g Qf Qq(^^ i^jjg world, and the human soul, in fur Frei- accordance with those of Leibniz and not altogether maurer,' unlike the views held by Spinoza. He gave the 1778, and frankest utterance to what he deemed essentials in his des Mens- * Freemason dialogues' of 1 778 (he had joined the order chenge- in Hamburg), and he set forth the same convictions schlechts,' more covertly, not in his own name, but as an interpre- tation of Christian dogmas, in his ' Education of the Human Race,' published in 1780. These convictions forfti a quiet background to the stormy activity of his controversial writings. Lessing's most violent controversy took place in 1778. Then silence was suddenly imposed on him by a command from Bruns- wick, and the right of free publication was withdrawn from him. He had to lay down the weapons of theological warfare, and Ch. XI.] Lessiug. 77 resorted instead to his old poetical weapons, which were still untar- nished and had never been wielded in a nobler cause, for the question was not the triumph of one opinion over another, but the \ victory of tolerance over intolerance. ' In this very year, 1778, Voltaire had died, and Lessing had written this epitai/h on him : ' Here lieih one, who, if ye truly prate, Ye pious folk, here lieth all too late. Forgive his Henriade, O God of mercies. Forgive his tragedies and little verses ; I will not ask forgiveness for the rest Of what he wrote, for that was much the best.* In the year 1762 Voltaire had published extracts from the Anti- Christian Testament of Pastor Meslier, and in 1763 had written his ' Traits de la Tolerance.' Lessing published the 'Fragments by an Anonymous Wolfenbiitteler ' from 1774 to 1777, 'Nathan and in 1779 wrote 'Nathan the Wise.' In this drama der "Weise,' he returned to a subject which had sugge-^ted itself to 1779. him at the time of his intercourse with Voltaire, and for which Voltaire had even furnished a few ideas. In his comedy of ' The Jews,' Lessing himself had taken a few features from the same story, which in its main oudines was derived from Boccaccio, the great story- teller of the middle ages. The following is a short oudine of the story. Sultan Saladin is in need of money. He sends for a rich Jew, and, in order to entrap him, puts the question to rpj^g story him, which of the three religions he holds to be of the Three the true one — the Jewish, the Mohammedan, or the Bings. Christian. The Jew, who is prudent as well as rich, asks leave to relate a story, and tells of a ring which was in the possession of a noble family, and was handed down from father to son, always exalting the son who had it above the other sons ; this ring came at last into the hands of a father who had three sons, all of whom he loved equally well, so that he did not wish one to be better off than the other two. He therefore had two other rings made, which he himself could hardly distinguish from the original one, and gave a ring to each of his sons. After his death they all raised the same claims, which no one could settle, since no one could find out the true ring. The Jew applies the story to the case of the three yS The Age of Frederick the Great. [Ch. XI. different religions; Saladin recognises the truth of the parable, acknowledges his need, receives what he wants, and treats the Jew henceforth as his friend. This is a short outline of Boccaccio's story, and a similar story- was told of a Spanish king of the eleventh century. In Spain all three religions were represented, and flourished peacefully side by side. The Greek culture which had been revived there by the Arabs had dissipated many of the religious prejudices which sepa- rate men. The story of the three rings became in Spain a customary parabolic expression of tolerant views. The story spread over Europe, and the bigots gave it a diff"erent termina- tion, according to which the true heir is found out by reason of the true ring working miracles. Sometimes the rings are omitted, and we have only a story of three brothers. In the seventeenth cen- tury the brothers went among Lutherans by the names of Peter, Martin, and John, and Martin was of course the true heir. In the eighteenth century Swift availed himself of the story in his ' Tale of a Tub ' in order to mock at all three sects. The poet Gellert followed the same idea in his story of the hat, which was always assuming new shapes, and yet always turned out to be the same old hat ; he was not scoffing at religion, however, but at philosophy with its varying systems. From this allegory of the three rings, Lessing now, in the / eighteenth century, set himself to draw the same moral of toleration I as had already been drawn in the eleventh. But he availed himself! of the old tale not merely as a weapon against intolerance, but also in order to inculcate the gospel of love. He attributes a miraculous power to the ring, and makes the father declare that that power lies in the gift which the ring has of bringing favour with God and man to him who wears it in this assurance ; and the judge gives the fol- lowing counsel to the three brothers who crave justice at his hands: * Test the power of your rival rings by emulating one another in gentleness, concord, benevolence, and zeal in the service of God.' The plot ^^^ Boccaccio only furnished Lessing with a few of ' Nathan scenes, whereas he required a plot of five acts, and, if der "Weise. possible, a crisis in which the character of the Jew should be put to the test and come out triumphant. Lessing's Jew Ch. XI.] Lessing. 79 was to be a wise and good Jew, like Moses Mendelssohn. ' By way of making Nathan yet more interesting, Lessing represents him as a much persecuted man of sorrows, whose wife and seven sons have been all slain in one day by the Christians. Nevertheless, Nathan conforms to the hardest of Christian precepts : he loves his enemies and adopts a Christian child as his own, and Recha, this adopted daughter, turns out to be the Sultan's niece and the sister of a Knight-Templar. Christians and ^Mohammedans are thus united by a family tie, as had already been described by Wolfram von Eschenbach in his 'Parzival' and * Willehalm,' and a Jew is received into their circle, not by a dispensation of nature, but owing to the power of his noble character. In this play, as in ' Emilia,' the action issues naturally from the characters, which are life-like, individual figures, such as Lessing knew well how to draw from his faithful observation of human nature in himself and in those around him. Naihan is character a merchant and philosopher like Moses Mendelssohn ; of he is a man who has been sanctified by sorrow and Nathan, self-denial, an ideal character, who calls forth the highest admira- tion, and yet is never idealised into vagueness, but, on the contrary, leaves on the mind the impression of a portrait. Widely-travell-ed and wise, rich and unselfish, he is invaluable as a guide, philosopher, and friend. In his attitude towards the great ones of this world he is fearless though cautious, and in dealing with noble natures, he has learnt that it is the best policy to appeal to the noblest moral feelings. He extends his tolerance to all except the vicious. He other has educated his adopted daughter Recha to be simple characters and sincere, and has fortified with his enlightened °^ ^^® P^^y- teaching the natural purity of her heart. Child-like in her innocence, she knows nothing of love, and the appeals of a lover awake no echo in her heart ; all the affection of her enthusiastic nature is centred on Nathan, whom she believes to be her real father. Then while Nathan is away there comes a moment of peril, and she is saved by the Templar. She is so infatuated that she regards her deliverer as an angel, until Nathan returns and undeceives her. The Templar is an upright man, and fair-minded, except for a certain arrogance towards the Jew, which, however, vanishes as 8o The Age of Frederick the Great. [Ch. XI. soon as he comes to know him. He is carried away by his youth- ful passion to take a thoughtless step, which imperils Nathan and plunges himself in the bitterest remorse. Saladin is a hearty, impulsive man, as soldiers and men of action often are ; he is easily roused and as easily forgets. He is enthusiastic in his devotion to his brother and sister, and in practical affairs, for which he has no talent, he lets himself be guided by his clear-minded and prudent sister, as Lessing probably was guided by his wife. But her influence is not always for good, and the line of conduct which she suggests should be adopted towards the Jew, turns out to her own and to Saladin's discredit. Nathan's friend the Dervish, ' the wild, good, noble man,' the beggar whom Nathan declares to be the true king, has {)Ut himself as the Sultan's treasurer into a very false position, from which he finally escapes by simply running away ; this creation of Lessing's humour owed its origin to a Jewish mathematician of Mendelssohn's circle. The groom, who had long ago brought the little Christian child to Nathan, finds himself in a similar false position ; he has afterwards to prove his simple piety in the service of an unscrupulous, but happily also stupid Church dignitary. He, hke the rest, becomes Nathan's friend, and exclaims, in ad- miration of him : * By God, you are a Christian ; there never was a better Christian than you.' All these characters share more or less consciously in the views which Nathan, as the wisest among them, is the best able to put into words. These views, Lessing tells us, had been his own from his earliest years, or, to speak more accurately, since Theological ^^ ^^"^^ ^^ ^^^ ^^^^^ sojourn in Berlin. The lead- views in ing characters of the play are all opposed to the 'Nathan, pretensions of positive religion ; they are all of one mind in seeking beyond the differences of creed and nation- ality the common basis of humanity, and in considering good action to be man's aim in life ; but they also all hold fast to Theism, to a general belief in God, and in His government of the world, though not by means of supernatural interference. This faith is their guiding principle. They all, with the exception of the one hero, fall away once, either from noble or ignoble motives, from the way whkh they consider right, and the chief complica- C). XI.] Lessing. 8i tioiis in the play arise from these aberrations. As a contrast to these characters, we have the Patriarch of Jerusalem and Recha's nurse Daja ; these pretend to know the only true way to God, and the Patriarch, a caricalure of Melchior Goeze, is quite prepared to drive the whole world by fire and sword into conformity with his own views. In * Nathan/ differing nationalities and creeds are united by bonds of harmony and peace, a dream which had floated before Lessing's eyes as a Free-mason. But the spirit of peace which breathes throughout this play is also a cheerful spirit. Cheerful characters and incidents alternate, as in * Minna von Barnhelm,* with serious and affecting ones, and this mingling of light and shade brings the play down to the level of real life, instead of keeping it in a purely ideal region of noble sentiment and generous deeds. In one of his pamphlets against Goeze, Lessing casts a retro- spective glance on his stormy period of impetuous ardour, and says he feels himself now driven by softer winds towards the harbour where he hopes to land as happily as his opponent. Three years after he had written this, two years after he had pub- lished ' Nathan,' and in the sentiments of the wise Jew had given a reflection of his own convictions, Lessing died, on the Lessing 15th of February, 1781. His step-daughter, Malchen ^^i^^- 1781. Konig (the oris^inal, as we may suppose, of Nathan's Recha), attended him faithfully on his death-bed. Lessing was a true and resolute man in an effeminate age. He was capable of tender feelings himself, and of love and His sympathy for others, but he had no desire to let the character. , world look into his heart. Not sentiment, nor subtle reasoning, but action seemed to him to be the true end of man ; virtuous action was to him the only touchstone of true religion, and the mature man, who does his duty without regard to reward or dis- tinction, was his moral ideal. He considered action to be the highest theme of poetry, and the drama, which represents action most graphically, the highest form of poetry. When we reflect on his impetuous activity, his restlessness, his delight in animated conversatipn, his readiness to engage in con- \0I.. II, (} 82 The Age of Frederick the Great. [ch. xi. troversy, his Protestant zeal for truth, and then remember that he was also a classical scholar, a patriot, an enemy of tyrants, who refused patronage and worked on in the present, careless of the future, — it seems to us as though Ulrich von Hutten had appeared again in him, only under a more gentle and agreeable aspect. Herder and Goethe. In May, 1773, six years after the publication of 'Minna von Barnlielm,' a small, badly printed, anonymous book 'Vondeut- appeared, entitled ' On German style and art, a few undKunst' Ay-sheets.' It contained essays by three different 1773. writers ; Justus Moser, counsel to the governing body Mdser, qJ- ^^ cathedral foundation of Osnabriick, contributed Goethe ^ highly original sketch of German history, in which he upheld the liberty of the ancient Germans as a vanished ideal ; Xohann Gottfried Herd er, counsel of the Consistory of Buckeburg, celebrated the merits of popular song, advocated a collection of the German * Volkslieder,' extolled the greatness of Shakspeare and prophesied the advent of a German Shakspeare ; Johann Wolfgang Goethe, a lawyer at Frankfort-on-the-Main, who was destined to be tlie~ long-expected German Shakspeare, and whose name was then in everyone's mouth as the author of ' Gotz von . Berlichingen,' gave utterance in the same volume to his delight with the Slrassburg Cathedral, and attacked the Abb^ Laugier, who would recognise nothing but ancient columns as good architecture. Goethe praised the Gothic style as the national German style of architecture, and asst rted that art, to be true, must be characteristic. Moser was at this time fifty-three years old, Hmier twenty-nine, and Goethe twenty-four. Herder and Goethe had made each other's acquaint- ance in the autumn of 1 770, at Strassburg. Moser's essay was taken from the preface to his * History of Osnabriick,' and was probably incorporated at Herder's instigation in these ' Fly-Sheets.' Moser was a man of the older generation, a lawyer and an official, who had long before evinced a sympathy with the patriotic tendencies of German literature. The two younger authors, who took part with him in this publication, were not fanatical partisans of the movement in favour of restoring the old German style of Ch. XI.] Herder and Goethe. 83 writing, and of keeping up ihe popular art of by-gone times ; nevertheless they did for a while lend it their strong support, and by doing so conclusively showed that the stron g curr ent of nati ona l feeling, which had se t in after the Seven Ye ars' War, still retained its force. These patriotic tendencies had condnued to go hand in hand with hostility to France and with a friendly altitude towards England. They now waxed stronger Literary •n i_ • X V. X. revolution and more impetuous, till they acquired the character preluded not of a mere reforming but of a revolutionary force, by the intensifying and exaggerating the spirit which had '^ly-slieets and G oethe s characterised Klopstock and Lessing, and carrying 'Gotz.' along with it all young and enthusiastic minds. National and popular in its tendencies, this great movement was in fact a revulsion from the spirit of Voltaire to that of Rousseau, from th e artificiality of society to the s implicity of natu re, from ^oubt an d rationalism ^ to Jeeling and faith^ ^om a priori notions to history, i from hard and fast aesthetic rule s, to the Jreedorn_ Qfl,g£Iiius^ Goethe's ' Gotz ' was the first revolutionary symptom which really attracted much attention, but the ' Fly-sheets on German style and art ' preceded the publication of * GOtz,' as a kind of programme or manifesto. Moser was born in 1720, at Osnabriick, in the very heart of old Saxony; he Hved there till 1794 and was much M6?er's esteemed. He had no interest in quesdons of inter- life and national politics, for in the district of North Germany c^^aracter. where his home lay, there were no large cities where such questions would be discussed. But the neighbourhood offered him great facilities for making himself acquainted with the every- day life of the I peasants, with its narrow interests and trivial details. Consequently it was the social and economic differences, the traditional laws and customs that were brought within the range of his observation and occupied his attention, much more than the natural equality and rights of man. He devoted himself entirely to the study of his immediate surroundings, and adopted as his literary model the essays on manners in the moralizing weekly papers. He apparently wished to write only for his countrymen, to report their experience, and 10 teach them; but he did this in §uch a thorough and in- Q 2 84 TJie Age of Fi^ederick the Great. [ch. xi. teresting manner, and with so much humour and irony, and, following in the steps of Montesquieu and Voltaire, he adopted such a high historical standard, that his small essays, collected in His 'Patrio- ^774 under the tide of 'Patriotic Fantasies,' furnish tische Phan- a perfect treasure of observation, wit, and reflection, tasien, 1774. ^^ practical, historical, and theoretical wisdom. In these essays he succeeded in generalizing and, as it were, idealizing His * Osna- ^^ local interests in his immediate neighbourhood ; bruckische and in the same manner his ' History of Osnabriick,' Geschichte,' which began to appear in 1768, opened out by its bold conjectures a wide outlook into early German - times, and originated views of German constitutional history, whose influence lasted on far into our own century. Moser's name is mentioned with equal respect by German lawyers, historians, and His Con- polidcal economists. But his conservative attitude, his servatism, respect for existing institutions, and his strong vener- ' -ation of the past put him in opposition to the general tendencies of the eighteenth century. He was an enemy of centralising and levelling tendencies, of enlightened despousm with its meddlesome bureaucracy. He was also incidentally an opponent of philanthropic sentiment, and delighted to utter paradoxical praises of club-law and serfdom. On the other hand he demanded the institution of trial by jury, and foretold the advent of national armaments. England, which he knew from direct experience, seemed to him in many respects a model worthy to be copied. He looked up to the English aristocracy with the same admiration with which Lessing ^ and Herder looked up to Shakspeare, and he sang the praises of early German times with as much enthusiasm as Klopstock. He rder, too, was in opposidon to the spirit of his age. He was Herder, inclined to look at things historically, and the sum and b. 1744. substance of all his speculation and writing was, in a word, the history of the human spirit. He was the son of a schoolmaster, and was born on August 25, 1744 at Mohrungen in East Prussia, in the dominions of Frederick the Great. Tauo^ht during his earlier years by a pedant, then mentally enslaved by a priest, it was not till he went to the University that he won intellectual freedom. Of a very excitable temperament, he early nursed Ch. XL] Herder mid Goethe. 85 ambitious dreams ; as a member of the clerical profession, he looked forward to influencing the great and raising the common people. As a student in Konigsberg, he soon showed a talent for teaching and a decided tendency lo intellectual independence. Th.' philosopher Kant opened to him the wealth of his own knowledge, and led him to suspect the soundness of the fashionable ' enlight- Hamann's ened ' philosophy. But more than any other, Hamann influence attracted him into his strange sphere of thought. °^ ^°^- Johann Georg Hamann, th e * Magus of the North,' as he was called, was a fantast ically original man , and a writer of mystical wo rks ; he was a great reader, had a thorough knowle dge of the Greek writers and of Sh akspe are, and introduced Herder to the study of the latter. He was born in 1730, and after many wanderings at length found rest in his native town of Konigsberg. From 1759, he published a succession of fragmentary writings, full of allusions and with strange titles, ' Sibylline leaves ' people called them. They were dis- connected papers, now oracular, now humorous, never fully wp xksd o ut or d e ductively pro viiig anythipg, but injtheir merely aphoristic and ardent style rather suggestive than convin cing . An enemy of mere analysis and abstraction, he sought to understand man and his faculties as a whole. Nature, he said, workijipnn n^ thrnngh th e senses and the passions, which in turn can neither appreciate nor utter themselves in anything but images ; therefore poetry is the original language of the human race. The passions are the driving force of human nature and the life of all thought and imagination. Hamann adopted a hostile attitude towards the theology and philosophy of the so-called 'Illuminati' or rationalists. -r^ . . • T , r Hamann s Durmg a sojourn m London, m a time of great hostility to inward and outward difficulty, he began to read the the Bible, and this made a turning-point in his life ; ' lUumi- orthodoxy gained a new prophet, who everywhere defended faith against reason, and asserted the insufficiency of the latter for the recognition of the deepest truths. And as on the one hand he mistrusted logical argument, so on the other he attacked aesthetic rules; as he championed revelation, so he aho did homage to unfettered genius in poet and artist. Whereas the lUuminati strove to attain an ordered system of 86 The Age of Frederick the Great. [Ch. XI. knowledge, he revelled in disconnected assertions. Whereas they tried to shut up everything in sweeping general formulae, he laid stress on the radical unlikeness of everything to everytliing else. While they sought to be clear and reasonable in their literary style, Hamann scorned to be merely lo^^ical in what he w rote, and preferred exceptions to rules, imagination to understanding, poetry to prose7~tHe particular to the general. Though any systematic progress in knowledge would be impossible on these lines, yet Hamann's teaching might render it easier for a true poet of original talent and liberal culture to break from the fetters of finite thought, might strengthen his faith in his own powers, and quicken in him the impulse to poetic creation. T he seeds o f H amann's teaching ger minated in Her der, andthrou^hhim bore fruit fo r "QnetHiT" Warmly recommended by Hamann, Herd er, in November, Herder at ^7^4? ^^^^ Konigsberg for Riga, where he soon en- Biga, chanted everyone as a teacher and preacher; but 1761-68. tijig (ji(j i^Qt guij- jjifn as a permanence, and after four years of work he suddenly gave up his office. He was not yet twenty-five, and he wished to see the world. A journey to France confirmed him in his aversion to the French. He was next to go with a German prince to Italy ; but on his way thither he engaged himself to a lady in Darmstadt, and during his stay in Strassburg he received a call to Biickeburg, which he accepted. For five years, from 177 1 to 1776, he remained chained to this little Westphalian town, where in 1773 he made a home for himself and his bride. Thomas Abbt, author of the writings entitled, * Of death for one's Herder at country,' and ' Of Merit,' had been Privy Councillor Buckeburg, and friend of Count Wilhelm of Lippe-Schaumburg, 1771-76. and had died in Buckeburg at an early age, in 1766. Herder, who had a great respect for him, had praised his popular philosophy and his historical gifts in one of his works. This directed Count Wilhelm's attention to him, and he hoped to find in him one who would make up to him for the loss of Thomas Abbt. But the tvv^o did not agree well together and the relation between them remained a cool one. The Countess, whose beautiful character Ch. XI ] Hi rdej' and Goethe, 87 strongly attracted her clerical friend, died in the summer of 1776, and Herder, who had long felt himself an exile at Herder at Biickeburg, was called in the autumn of the same year "Weimar, to Weimar, as Court chaplain and ' Superintendent ' of 1776-1803. the Churcli district of Weimar. There amid varying circumstances he worked till 1803. I^i his sensitive nature there lay a tendency to discontent ; he did not develop freely, boldly, victoriously, but found hindrances everywhere, which were in part due to his own character. He kept silence from sensitiveness wherejigjin ghf tn hi^ y^ gpoken. and then he suffered greatly from awkward situations, which he might have avoided by timely frankness. He attacked his enemies violently, and was surprised when they answered in like manner. His literary production began with great ardour, but easily flagged, and not one of his original great works was carried to completion. His first important works, which he published in Riga, were the ' Fragmente iiber die neuere dp\^fsrhf^ T.iter p t"''' (1767), and the ' Kritische Walder' (1769). The 'Pragmente' former were meant to be a continuation of Lessing's and ' Kri- 'Literaturbriefe,' while the latter stood in close con- Jt^^°^®.^ W^alder. nection with his * Laokoon.' In the former Herder wrote like Hamann, in the latter he sometimes reminds us of Lessing. He showed himself throughout to be a careful, enthusiastic, but at the same time critical reader of Lessing, for whom he cherished all through life the greatest reverence. He con- Herder and tinued to follow in Lessing's steps when he praised Lessing. Shakspeare, Homer, and the popular songs. He showed Lessing's spirit too in the tolerance and wide human sympathies which prompted him to rescue barbarian nationalities, so-called dark ages, despised branches of poetry and forgotten poets from oblivion, and to give them their due honour. He sought to determine the boundaries of poetry and plastic art in a different manner from Lessing, and he went beyond Lessing in his endeavours to define the difference between plastic art and painting. He most suc- cessfully corrected and amended Lessing's theory of fables and epigrams, but he required, quite in Lessing's spirit, that lyric poetry as well as other kinds should above all be full of movement, pro- gress, and action. But whereas Lessing was in the first place an 88 The Age of Fredei^ick the Great. [Ch. xi. ■^ art-critic, and only secondarily a la torian of literature, of Herder the reverse was true : he was first and foremost a historian of literature, and only incidentally an art-critic. Lessing had recourse to his rich literary knowledge in order to find rules of composition and bases „ , . of criticism, but Herder studied the literature of all Herder s ' sympathy nations and periods for its own sake, and with en- with foreign thusiastic appreciation. He tried to transport himself 1 era ures. j^^^^ ^^^^ local and temporary conditions under which literary works had been produced, and to adopt the point of view then prevalent ; he sought to b e a Hebrew with the Hebrews, an Arab with the Arabs, a Skald with the SkalHs^ a Bard with the Bards; and in these endeavours, which were strengthened by kindred efforts among English writers of the same time, he proved himself a true pupil of Montesquieu and Winckelmann ; their power of appreciating the past lived on in him, and bore new fruit in literature. Herder showed his sympathetic appreciation of foreign poetry not only as a historian of literature, but also as a translator. His His powers original poems, which evince a characteristic tendency as a trans- towards didactic narrative, towards allegory, parable, lator. ^^^ sacred legend, do not rise to any great merit, but N his translations must be reckoned among the classical achievements of German literature. From Opitz down to Klopstock and Lessing, foreign influence exerted its sway over German literature ; Herder founded the universal culture of modern Germany on the remains of this foreign dominion, and taught his successors that lesson of open-hearted surrender to the influences of foreign races or of the remote past, which, far from enslaving the learner, really con- firms his independence, while it enriches and strengthens his mind. Herder's art, as a translator, was based on his deep i nsight into His theory language and poetry in general, their origin, their of poetry, development, and their" relation to each other. In this especially he showed himself to be a disciple of Hamann. * Poetry is the mother-tongue of the human race,' Hamann had said ; a whole world of truth is indeed locked up in the pregnant word, and Herder was the man to make it yield up its secret. Pppfry Ja -. jolderjhanprose ; poetry lives in language, lives in myth, and greets Ch. XI.] Hej'der and Goethe. 89 us at the threshold of history. Primitive poetry, the poe try cf Nature, in which all Nature acts and speaks, being personified by man, who is all feeling and passion, poetry such as breathes in the songs of barbaric peoples — this, said Herder, is t rue poetry . The j)aradise of the Scriptures and Rousseau's ide al natural man meet us purifi d and transfigured in Herder's thought. He too is con- vinced t hat a return to Nature alone will regain us our o riginal and JdeaTpe rfectio n. In his MLiterary Fragments,' Herder sang the praises of his mother-tongue, its freedom and native force, and it was then already clear to him that the history of the human soul can only be deciphered from its language. His treatise on the ' Origin of Language ' cast the deepest glances into primitive times. His * Spirit of Hebraic Poetry ' contained his ripest jjia ' Geist thoughts on the connection between language and der Hebrai- poetry. His general views as a historian of litera- schenPoesie. ture were revealed in his prize essay on 'The causes of the lowering of taste amongst various nations once distinguished for it.' His fame as a man of universal sympathies, and as a versatile translator, was established by his collection of * Popular Songs,' published in the years 1778 and 1779. Later publishers gave to His • stim- the work the aflfected title of ' Voices of the Nations men der in Song.* It comprised not only popular songs valker in by unknown authors, but characteristic poems drawn from the literature of all nations alike. All forms of lyric poetry were here represented, and the only principle of classifica- tion which Herder allowed of in this collection was an aesthetic one, namely, community of subject and sentiment. It is marvellous how Herder was able to appreciate the spirit of ihese songs, to strike the right note in his translations and retain it throughout, to reproduce exactly not only the feelings, but even the peculiar metre and style of each poem. The whole collection is a series of gens of poetry, all written in exquisite German, and free from the barrenness which meets us in most anthologies. Herder's scientific work is marked by the same breadth of view and catholic sympathy as his poetry. Many of his thoughts had been uttered before, and few of them are thoroughly worked out ; he furnished more suggestions than results, more questions than 90 The Age of Frederick the Great. [Ch. XI. an'^wers, bold hypotheses, but little argument. But we can well excuse Herder as a ^^ science the imperfection which is confined to details, philosopher and which is but the condition of rising to a wide of History, yj^^^ ^^f j-j^g whole. It may be true that Herder looked at things only from a distance, where the eye deceives and forms melt into one another. Yet his point jofjoew was so well_chosejiv-that he could direct many people to their goals, and indicate the paths which are followed, even in the present day. He took in at a glance the limits and interrelation of the various sciences ; and whoever advances to the highest problems in any of the sciences of the human mind, whoever studies history, or the science of language, mythology, or ethnology, whoever collects popular traditions or explores German or Hebrew antiquity, or would trace the develop- ment of national peculiarities in all spheres of life, and understand the formative influence of nature upon man — each one of these must reverence Herder as a seer of extr aordinary powers. His work teaches on all sldesTEevalue which lhe~union ot separate depart- ments of science has for the progress of knowledge. And more than this ; if the example of Lessing proves how much criticism and poetic activity may advance each other, when combined in one man, the influ£iice of Herder on Goethe shows how much benefit a clear- sighted young poet, thirsting for kn"owI^dge, may derive from an equally clear-sighted critic, who has all the resources of history and theory at his command. Herder's mind seems to have developed with wonderful consis- „ , tency. His earliest works contain all the later ones mental in germ. Nevertheless, he did pass through momen- develop- ^qus changes in mental attitude. In his early youth he "^^^^ ■ was an orthodox Pietist; in Riga his religion took a frcethinking direction ; in Buckeburg he became a Biblical Christian, and in Weimar he returned to liberal views. When at the zenith of his influence in Riga, as we have already said, he suddenly gave up his office there; after this, the new impressions gained from a long i^ea-journey, and also from life in France, among a foreign people and in new circumstances, had a powerful effect on the development of his mind, and set all his ideas in ferment. In a diary which he kept at this period, we find plan after plan proposed. He dreams Ch. XI.] Herder and Goethe. 91 . aUemately of distinction as a teacher or as a statesman, of becoming the Calvin of Riga or the Lycurgus of Russia, but, in spite of him- self, the instinct to be a man of learning triumphs, and all his schemes revert in the end to the books he would like to write. Knergy enough to divert the world from its course, ambitio n, thirst for action, vagueness_abou t details. but^ certairUy about the w hole— ^^ f'f such ' storm and stress ' {Slurm und Drang) of wit and intelH- '^■^^^— gence as we notice still seething at this period in Herder's mind, characterized the German literary Revolution. Herder's ardent im- pulse towards literary creationTiadas yet found no satisfaction, when in Strassburg he made the acquaintance of Goethe, and w^on him as a pupil. Goethe came from Frankfort, from the Rhine and Main district, where the popular poetry of the fourteenth century had , blossomed. The Franconian race to which Hutten birthplace, and Hans Sachs belonged, and the republican city Frankfort which had formerly been the centre of the German **^ * ® *"^ book-trade, had the honour of producing Germany's greatest poet, and some of Goethe's leading characteristics may have been in part called forth by the scenes of his early life. The con- servative city in which the German emperors were crowned, was quite free from that artificial aesthetic and social culture which reigned, for instance, in Leipzig; it looked not to the future but to the past, in which its greatness lay. Goethe's family on the paternal side was one which had risenrapidly in the social scale ; his great-grandfather was a farrier. His his grandfather a sailor, his father a lawyer and a parentage. man of independent means, who lived for self-culture ; the great event of his life was a journey to Italy, which he wrote an account of, and was always referring to ; he was a collector and kind of Maecenas, a man of many-sided interests, literary, scientific, and artistic, with a love of order and regularity amounting almost to pedantry, stern, serious, true to his convictions, a good patriot, an enemy of the French and a worshipper of Frederick the Great. The mother, on the other hand, came of one of the leading families of the town; she was twenty-one years younger than her husband, and had a singularly easy and cheerful nature, 9 2 The Age of Frederick the Great. [ch. xi. pliant and averse to all care ; she bore with cheerful resignation a marriage which had little of happiness, and consoled herself by adorning her life with the charms of imagination, and* lavishing the rich treasures of her heart and mind on her children and especially on the eldest, Wolfgang. Restraint and freedom, serious- ness and cheerfulness, fear and love all helped to educate the boy ; they complemented each other, and so gave him breadth of mind and character, great desires, yet also the necessary discipline to keep his passions in check and direct his extraordinary gifts to a worthy object. From his father he inherited method and the scientific spirit, and it was also his father who turned his thoughts to Italy, and inspired him with zeal for learning and dilettante interests. His poetic talent, his gift of figurative speech, his fiery nature, and his sweeping fancy descended to him from his mother. She herself was gifted with a straightforward, cheerful eloquence; eveiynjiniinporrant noteTRaF she wrote breathes the charm of naturalness and originality; she was an incomparable teller of fairy-tales, andtiy^teliingTlTe boy but half a story and letting him guess the rest, she early trained him to poetic in- vention. His education was somewhat irregularly pursued, but was such as would promote rapid development towards intellectual freedom, and the most important productions of contemporary literature were at an early age put in the boy's hands. Goethe Goethe ^^^ ^^'^^ ^^ ^^ ^^^ °^ August, 1749, when Gellert, b 1749. Gleim, Klopstock, and Lessing had already begun to His early write. His father favoured the rhyming poets, and a friend of the family introduced the * Messias.* The beauty of the Old Testament called forth a willing admiration in the boy, and laid the foundation of those naive, idyllic elements which he soon handled in such a masterly manner. A pantomime to which he was taken gave him the first impulse to dramatic writing, and a translation of Tasso's ' Gerusalemme Liberata ' seems to have furnished him with the f\rst chivalric-heroic subject. Precocious and ambitious as a boy, he had, by the time he was sixteen, tried his hand in all branches of poetic composition, and had learned everything there was to be learned in the Imperial city; he had witnessed an Imperial coronation, had mixed with all sorts and Ch. XL] Herder and Goethe, 93 conditions of men, had looked more than was good for him into social evils, and had loved often and known the disap- pointments of love. At sixteen, following his father's wish and suppressing his own leaning towards philology, he went to the University of Leipzig, with the avowed purpose of studying law; but in fact he dabbled in all Leipzig sciences, and received a really deep and lasting University, impression only from his intercourse with an artist, " * that same Oeser who at an earlier period had influenced Winckel- mann in Dresden. He returned after three years, out of health and depressed in spirits, to his paternal home ; but during his time in Leipzig he had made great advances in taste and in poetic power. A couple of unrhymed odes written at this period are full of happy imagery, and in a number of rhymed poems he comlnned the half-jocose, half-didactic, operetta-like tone of the Leipzig school with a keen appreciation of nature, and thus brought the graceful, frivolous, Anacreontic poetry to its highest perfection. In a pastoral play entitled 'The Humour of the Lover/ he succeeded in giving quite a new rendering to 'DieLaune an old theme, well known in Leipzig ; the interest of des Ver- the old plot is enhanced by the life-like way in which he liebten.' draws the characters, and the whole play is a true and unique work of art, written in the charming but usually somewhat trivial style of the dramatic idyll. Older Frankfort associations of Goethe's are reflected in the disagreeable, but powerful comedy of ' The Accomplices.* In all these productions it is evident 'DieMit- that Goethe had not only imbibed the Leipzig literary schuldigen.' spiiit from Gellert and Weisse, but that Lessing's newly published * Minna ' had greatly benefited his dramatic technique. It is clear also that Klopstock and Wieland had enriched his poetic language and ideas, and that Oeser's teaching had not been thrown away upon him. We may further notice that in all these poems he does what, as a writer of lyrics, he continued to do for many decades, — he treats almost exclusively of matters drawn from his own personal experience, and seeks to alleviate his inward distress by uttering it in verse. His ideal at this time was innocence, and he preferred the 94 The Age of Frederick the Great [ch. xi. cheerful and naive to the exaggerated heroism and stupendous virtue which Welmd had already attacked. But beyond this, Lessing's 'Minna' had directed him to great national subjects; he was also familiar with Shakspeare, and at Strassburg, whither G th d ^^ went in the spring of 1770 to complete his legal Herder in Studies, he made the" acquainiance of Herder, with Strassburg, whom he spent the winter of 1770-71. He oc- 1770 casionally felt himself somewhat roughly treated anil cruellv mocked at by his master, but this stern discipline was whole- some for him. Herder's gods became his gods ; the p)upil of Wieland was taken into the school of nature, and his lyric poetry at once underwent a thorough transformation. To see the difference, one need only compare the Leipzig poem : * Nun verlass ' ich diese Hu.te ' in which he describes himself coming out from the cottage of his beloved into the lonely wood and the moon-light, with the celebrated Strassburg poem : ' Es schlug mein Herz, geschwind zu Pferde.' The former does indeed contain one beautiful metaphor : — * Und die Birken streun mit Neigen Ihr den siissten Weihrauch auf — the first instance of Goethe's incc mparable art of finding a poetical meaning in the appearance of plants. In other re- spects, however, this poem is full of affectation, such as the pastoral fancy and the introduction of ancient mythology ; description takes the place of action and the poem winds up with a very ordinary lover's jest. Very different is the poem written at Strassburg, describing how the lover sets out to see his beloved, his welcome and his farewell. Here, four stanzas give us a succession of dramatic scenes in the fewest words^ and the whole is penetrated by the glowing breath of passion. All fits in exactly with Herder's theory of the song, a theory which he founded on the primitive nature of language, and which may be summed up in the sequence : * verb, life, action, passion.' There is no dragging in of dead mythology here, but actual creating of it anew, as if it had never existed before. While in Strassburg Herder had thus described the genesis of mythology : * the savage saw the lofty tree towering in its majesty, and he marvelled thereat ; Ch. XL] He7'der and Goethe. 95 the tree-top nisiled, and he heard the godhead weaving; the savage fell on his knees and prayed. There you have the history of man as a sensuous being/ Goethe had learnt to look on nature as a' savao^e. He had listened to Herder's advice and thereby made immeasurable progress. He had as it were drunk from the original source whence poetry first sprang, and now he was fortified for every task. But in this Strassburg song Goethe had not created accord- ing to abstract rules alone ; he had also drawn from Qoethe and real life. The beloved one really existed of whom Friederike he sang. In Alsace, in the country parsonage of Bnon. Sesenheim, he had met Friederike Brion. She was a quiet, bright, naive, faithful girl, and was soon devoted with her whole heart to the merry student ; in her Goethe found his long-sought ideal. The pastor's fam ily at Sesenheim seemed to him the Vicar of Wakelield„and~h^ faxnijy i^jreal life ; here was an idyll without affectation, without any false halo; here was pure, beautiful family-life, with all its kindliness and gentle charm, the simple country occupations, the happy atmosphere which good people diffuse around them. Reality, imagination, and love combined to make Friederike the real embodiment of his ideal ; thus Herder's pupil learnt to base his poetical creations upon reality. It was at Sesenheim that he made his preliminary studies for Gretchen and Clarchen, for * Werther ' and for his * Hermann and Dorothea.' But Alsace gave Goethe more than Herder and Friederike. The Strassburg Minster made him an admirer of influences of Gothic architecture. The national enmities apparent Gosthe's in his immediate vicinity, the general tendency of Strassburg German feeling after the Seven Years' War^the re ligious phase he was then passing through, and in this case too. Herder's example, excited in him an aversion to France and French ji^ra- ture. He and several young and turbulent companions vied with each other in passionate patriotic sentiments, and in doing homage to the spirit of Shakspeare. Leipzig gallantry began to be supplanted by free-and-easy, student-like manners, joined with plain speech and coarse jokes, and this spirit even penetrated into 96 - The Age of Frederick the Great. [ch. XI. poetry. Julius Caesar and other great historical characters capti- vated the fancy of the youthful Goethe, whose ?elf-confidence soon soared beyond all limits; Mahomet and Socrates floated before his mind, while Lessing and the marionette-plays had already directed his attention to the fi2:ure of Faust. But chance threw another herojn jiis wa y, who for the time being attracted him more than these, and who could more easily be made the centre of a drama — Gotz von Berlichingen. The historical Gotz, a robber-knight and a leader in the ♦Gotzvon peasant- wars of the sixteenth century, had employed Berlich- the enforced leisure of his later days in writing an ingen,* 1771. autobiography in defence of his life and conduct. He represented himself as an honest but much misunderstood and slandered person, a man who had always followed right and justice, and had never fought but in defence of the weak. His record of him- self was printed, and fcilling into Goethe's hands, was completely believed by him. He took the old knight just as he had described himself, and determined to rescue him from oblivion, just as Lessing was so fond of doing to forgotten worthies. It was the more natural that Goethe should choose such a subject because at that time chivalry was being revived in literature, especially in France. Goethe's early acquaintance with Tasso and with popular romances such as the 'Haimonskinder' had laid a good foundation in this direction, and the subject of Gotz attracted his glance to the most i mportant p e riod of the Rej brmation. as well as to those old imperial relations and conditions which had from old time been fraught with special interest for the imperial town of Frankfort. Protestant svmft aihies are reflected in the piece, and the poet draws a by no means flattering picture of a clerical ro nrt, and gives a lamentable description of the condition of the Empire at that period; no one can find justice, each must shift for himself, and the blame of this disorder lies with the independent princes, against whom even the Emperor can do nothing. Gotz is a good Imperialist, but he hates bad sovereigns, Goethe's and though he should succumb in the struggle, still Liberalism, -^ith \{^ dying breath he will invoke success for the cause of Liberty. In this play Goethe championed the cause Ch. XL] Herder and Goethe. 97 of freedom against the tyrants of Germany, and contrasted the honest, patriotic, chivalrous life of his hero, with the corrupt life of ihe courts. Haller's newly published novel 'Usong' and the criticism of the courts in Thiimmers and Weisse's works were not without influence on Goethe in writing this piece ; but at the same time he was also under the power of a local and family tradition, which urged upon him a certain liberalism in politics. His father was in the habit of warning him against becoming a mere courtier. Herr von Loen, a relative of the Goethe family, had described in a didactic novel the difficulties which an honest man has to overcome at court ; and Frederick Karl von Moser, one of the most eminent German statesmen of the last century, had published at Frankfort in 1759 a book, called * Der Herr und der Diener/ which in bold and passionate language ruthlessly criticised the sovereigns of the smaller German states. Goethe was back in Frankfort, when about the end of j 771 he wrote down the first sketch of his ' Gotz.' On the 28th of August in that year he had been called to the bar. His old interests and connections were taken up again, and new ones were added to them ; yet he was not happy, for he was oppressed by a sense of having injured an innocent person ; Friederike Brion had given him her heart, and though perhaps no formal vows had been ex- changed, they seemed to belong to each other, and Goethe's she might well have expected a declaration from him desertion of after his return home ; instead, there came a letter ^riedenke. taking leave of her altogether. The young lawyer did not dare to introduce the Alsatian clergyman's daughter into the Frankfort patrician family. He reproached himself for his conduct, and could not forgive himself for it, but he did not repent and return to his deserted love. He did not see her again till eight years afterwards, when he was Minister at Weimar; the meeting between them was calm and affectionate, and set him at rest with himself. His poems written during the intervening years testified that he anyhow deeply felt his guilt in the matter; we find him characters in creatnig ^s a foil to his honest Gotz, the cha racter ' G6tz/ of Weislingen, the unfaithful lover of Gotz's gentle sister. Weis- Imgen is a portrait of Goethe himself, and a portrait more honest than VOL. II. H 98 The Age of Frederick the Great. [Ch. xi. w flattering. He is an elegant and seductive young gallant, of weal? character, and spoilt by court- life ; he wavers between two very different women, but is finally drawn away from the gende and good one by a lovely but fiendish rival. Lessing's ' Sara ' was the only important German tragedy which 'G6tz' offered itself to the young poet as a model in written in writing this play, and it was no wonder that so imitation of imperfect a work compared unfavourably with Shak- speare. gp^^j.^^ Shakspeare's name was the standard under which Goethe resolved to win. Addison and Bodmer, Lessing and Herder, Wieland and Gerstenberg, had proclaimed the great dramatist's merits. Christian Felix Weisse's ' Richard III,' though meritorious, could not hold its own by the side of Shakspeare's, and his 'Romeo and Juliet' only awakened a longing for the Shakspearian original. Gerstenberg sought to approach nearer to the real Shak- speare in his * Ugolino,' hut it was impossible to feel any enthu- siasm for a play in which hunger reigned through all five acts. The Strassburg brethren would hear no moreof dJutions of Shakspeare; they wanted to tr ansplant the real Sha kspeare into German litg.rature, and with this object Goethe treated his ' Gotz ' ij iJhejnannex-QJ a Shakspearian historical drama. In this first version of the play iiiSy~of Hme and place is utterly disregarded, and ch ange o f scene occurs for a monologue of three lines or a dialogue _of six. The y^unity ot action is spoilt by the introduction of Weislingen, who thrusts \I himself in as a second hero. Menofjill ranks, citizens, soldiers, ser- vants, and peasants are dragged in ; the variety of character and sentiment is carried to excess, tragedy and comedy being inter- mingled, and a Shakspearian clown and jester set down in the midst of a society of courtiers. Small songs are introduced, and there is much strong language and coarseness, along with far-fetched similes and exaggeration, reminding one of Lohenstein and the old * chief- actions and State-actions ' (cf. vol. i. p. 398), while at the same time many Shakspearian reminiscences occur throughout the play. Over- joyed with this work, which he had accomplished so quickly and easily, Goethe sent it to Herder. But Herder, who was an inexorable opponent of all imitation, summed up his judgment in the following words: 'Shakspeare has quite spoilt you.' Lessing's ' Emilia Galotti/ Ch. XL] Herder and Goethe. 99 which made its appearance about the same time, showed how dif- ferent a conception the master of German drama had formed of the manner in which Shakspeare should be followed. Goethe at once felt that ' EmHi a' w as an original work, while his ' Gotz' was qnl^[_an imitation. Without being discouraged he set to work afresh. He could not now alter the essential features of the piece, but he could weld it into greater unity, and could remove as far as possible all forms" of expression which he was conscious of having borrowed from Shak- speare. He could at the same time am higher than Lessing, for he despised all artificial restraints, all affectation, and high-sounding , language in the dialogue generally, while he retained the ornate language and formal expressions proper to the conversation of courtiers. He often used words merely to indicate actions. and altogether succeed ed in imparting to his dialogue the tone of n atural conversatio n. 'Gotz von Berlichingen ' ap- improved peared before the public in this new and improved version of form in the summer of 1773. It presented a picture '^^'^'^y vil^. drawn from the past h istory of the^nation ; the characters were purely German, such as had never hitherto been seen in German tragedy, and of which Lessing's ' Minna ' offered the only exam- ples in the sphere of comedy. The play is full of life, action, and truth. The noble character of its hero , po werless to stem the w ickedness of the world, is most pathe tic, and the i nterest of the play is enhanced by all the displayof a romantic chiyalryt_and by t he quick succession of exciting inci dents. Goethe's * Gotz ' was the signal for a perfect Shakspeare-mania in Germany, though it marked the end of this same mania in its author. By writing ' Gotz ' Goethe freed himself from the ser- vile imitation of Shakspeare, and learnt from him original and independent dramatic art. Only two of his other plays, 'Faust' and 'Egmont,' both planned simultaneously with or shortly after ' Gotz,' sho w the sam e rapid c hange of scene ^hich is so inc ompatible with our theatrical arrangements. Goethe sought henceforth to put himself in sympathy wiih the living stage, and Lessing's technique, which differed Utile from smaller that of the French, was adopted by him as authori- dramas, tative. By operettas such as * Erwin und Elmire ' and ' Claudine H 2 lOO The Age of Frederick the Great. [Ch. xi, von "VUlabella/ he sought to win the favour of the average theatre- goer by cultivating the' fashionable dramatic form of the day. In his ' Claidga' a tragedy deahng with middle-class life, and in his * Stella,' he countenanced change of scene but once__^ the_utmost within an act, and maintained unity of time also to a certain degree. Buthe~dici not yield himself up entirely to modern subjects and modern treatment. The historical mood in which he had begun this literary Revolution had by no means passed off wjth the appearance of ' Gotz,' and though ' Faust' and ' Egmont' took shape more slowly, yet their author's whole heart was in them. The sixteenth century with its free and active spirit of enquiry and its valiant struggle against intellectual slavery, seemed to him the ideal epoch of history. There he found characters such as he wanted, thoughts and deeds, the study of which might elevate and brace up a more effeminate age, and in addition to these a style of art full of characteristic truth and simple nature. The fame o f Hans Sachs began to be revived about this time. In 1765 he was made the subject of a monograph ; then Kastner put in a good word for him, and the local patriotism of NUrnberg, thus encouraged, burst forth into warm eulogies. Goethe himSelf Influence of considered the poetic shoemaker of Niirnberg of suffi- Hans Sachs cient importance to make his style worth reviving. on Goethe. Goethe's study of Shakspeare enabled him to take up the threads of literature at the point where the Thirty Years' War had suddenly stopped the development of the German drama. Hans Sachs gave him the clue to what Opitz and his school had missed in the seventeenth century ; and while his own _ refined sense of form and beauty pu rified the old shoemaker's easy doggrel verse and realistic style, the influence which Hans Sachs exercised over Goethe is traceable in his satirical dramas such as ' Das Jahr- marktsfest zu Plundersweilen,' or ' Satyros,' or the Carnival play, * Pater Brey ; ' in little didactic plays, such as ' Kunstler's Erden- wallen ' (The artist's earthly wanderings), and 'Kunstler's Vergot- terung' (The artist's apotheosis), in his poem written in praise of the old master himself, and above all in * Faust.' But w hile Goethe was following the se national aspirat ions he was at the same time absorbed in the study of classical antiquity, Ch. XI.] Herder and Goethe, lOi just as Lessing had produced almost simultaneously his * Minna ' and his ' Laokoon,' and Goethe himself, when in classical Leipzig, had been equally influenced by the Dutch tendencies genre-painters and by Oeser's classic grace. At ^^ Goethe. Strassburg, in Herder's company, he began to read H omer, and after he had, under the strong influence of Shakspeare, written down the first sketch for ' Gotz,' he devoted himself to Theo- critus and Pindar. *Gotz' had hardly appeared when he ventured to rival -^schylus with a * Prometheus.' Teutonic and Hellenic elements of culture, with their two opposite styles, gained power over him simultaneously, and each benefited the other. Beside the doggrel verses he employed rhymeless, free rhythms, with beautiful, sonorous epithets. He produced odes, scenes, and fables modelled upon the Greek type, and at the same time rhyming proverbs and sarcasms about correct, style directed against the critics of the day. He united Hans Sachs' method of description with Homer's epic breadth, and was able, as we have seen in the Strassburg song men- tioned above, to clothe pathetic descriptions of travel and wandering, set in the midst of nature's ever-shifting scenes, in the powerful and exalted style of the Pindaric odes. His poem called ' Der 'Wan- *Der Wanderer,' in part suggested by Oliver Gold- derer.' smith's ' Traveller,' deals with motives and incidents of rustic life, full of human interest ; here he followed Theocritus' example, and employed the form of a dialogue in order to suggest a walk pre- senting change of scene and varying objects of nature and art, and to give the reader a glimpse of the conditions of domestic life in the country. In this poem too we can everywhere trace Herder's literary and historical many-sidedness bearing fruit in Goethe, and develop- ing dormant powers in the mind of the young poet. He had now got far beyond the rhymed prettinesses of VVieland's Hellenism, which he had so admired in Leipzig, and he strongly attacked them in his plain-spoken prose farce, entitled * Gotter, 'Getter, Helden und Wieland,' in which the Greeks are made lo Helden und ju- J J iM Wieland,* behave m a rude, braggmg, and student-like manner. ^^^^ i Prome- But his '.Prometheus,' which he began in 1773 theus.' as a drama in blank verse, and which he afterwards cut down to a single monologue, remained free from such extravagances. loa The Age of Frederick the Great. [Ch. XI. and is throughout grand and elevated. Prometheus is a creative artist, who loves his creatures and breathes life into them. He looks to Heaven for nothing, but relies entirely upon his own power; in this respect he expresses one side of Goethe's own religious convictions. The inner life of the poet had already passed through various Goethe' phases. Though from early years, as we have seen, the religious Bible enriched the store of his poetic imagination, yet a develop- superficial religious teaching and unedifying sermons loosened even in school-years the ties binding him to the Church. At the University of Leipzig biblical and dogmatic criticism gave to his mind a thoroughly liberal ten- dency. But an illness and a pious friend were the means of bringing him again nearer to the Gospel ; and on his return home, a friend . of his mother's, Fraulein von Klettenberg, won him as a convert to the Pietism of the Moravians. Mystical ideas struck root in him, and he began to give vent to passionate yearn- ings after deliverance from earthly fetters, and union with God. But this pious mood, which at the beginning o^ his Strassburg career was still strong upon him, did not last long. We learn that in the summer of 1772 Goethe no longer went to church or to the Sacrament and seldom prayed. He was loth to disturb others in their views, being thoroughly tolerant in religion and morals ; sym- pathy for human weakness appeared to him the true theology. But in the very next year this toleration forsook him, and we find him attacking those with whom he had so recently been in close sym- pathy. He not only ridiculed the vulgar rationalism represented by Doctor Bahrdt, who gave much offence by extreme teaching and frivolous living, but he also scoffed at sentimental religiosity and the pietistic worship of the Lamb, at separatism and missionary zeal. He conceived the plan of devoting a religious satirical epic in doggrel to the character of the Wandering Jew. The shoemaker of Jerusalem, who, according to the mediaeval legend, jeered at Christ bearing the cross, and was in consequence condemned to wander until Christ's second coming, was transformed by Goethe into a Moravian and Separatist ; but Goethe makes Christ return, not as the judge of all mankind, but as the ruler of the millennium. Ch. XL] Herder and Goethe. IC3 The moment when deeply moved he beholds the earth once more is one of the grandest things that Goeth - s imnginalion ever pro- duced. With the naivete of a Hans Sachs, and with an unconcerned humanising of divine things, he succeeds in reveahng to us wonder- ful depths of the soul, so that our hearts are touched to the very core. Unfortunately the work never got further than a few fragmentary beginnings, which were not made public till after Goethe's death. When he wrote these fragments Goethe had quite broken with the belief in a Providence arbitrarily interfering with human fate, and retained nothing but the universal Deity of Goethe's Spinoza. His experience seemed to have taught him Spinozism. that in the moments of our life when help is most needed we are thrown upon our own resources. He had discovered, he thought, like Frederick the Great in the exigencies of the Seven Years' War, that God is deaf to our entreaties. His creative talent seemed to him the only thing on which he could now rely. Faith in his artistic power alone did not deceive him, and Beauty w-as his Goddess. His Prometheus rejects the demands of the Gods like the Prometheus of ^schylus, and like the Cyclops of Euripides is devoted to earthly possessions. He knows that nothing is his but the sphere of his activity and influence, 'nothing below that and nothing above.' He says with Spinoza : * Thus I am eternal, for I exist,' and he deems himself on a level with the Gods. But the defiant words which he launches against them were probably not meant to be his last ; if Goethe had finished the drama, he would probably have shown that men do stand in need of the Gods ; the arrogance of the artist would have been humbled, and the result would have been the joy of which his brother suggests the prospect, the bliss when the Gods, Prometheus, his creatures, and the world and heaven shall all feel themselves to be parts of a harmonious whole. Although Goethe no longer looked to Heaven for help, yet he had not wholly lost his reverence for the Deity. That mystic union with God which he had learned from the Moravians, he found echoed in Spinoza's teaching. Goethe too felt himself to be a part of the all-embracing, all-sustaining spirit of the universe, and in in- effable emotion he celebrated his recognition of the Deity. The 104 ^-^^ ^a"^ ^ Frederick the Great. [ch. xr. monologue of Prometheus was completed by a monologue of Ganymede, in which Love of Nature becomes love of God. Our salvation, our happiness, our liberty, consist, according to Spinoza, in constant and eternal love of God, which is nothing else than a part of that infinite love with which God loves him- self. But though Goethe grasped this idea, and recognised in Spinoza himself the free man, who rises above the sea of passion and in happy serenity bids' the storms be still, yet he him- His restless ^^^^ "^^'^^ "^ ^^ ^^"^^ tossing on the wild sea of tur- and turbu- bulent emotions ; he could only long for, not win the lent life. calm of the wise man, and he was on the way to become what he himself designated later on 'a problematic nature,' ^ man whom no sphere of life would satisfy, and who was not good enough for any sphere of life. His barrister's work made no great claims upon him ; he had but few briefs and even in those his father helped him. There were frequent intermissions in his work ; he was often in Darmstadt where he had a valued friend in Merck, a member of the War Ministry, with whom he shared literary, artistic, and personal interests. During the year 1772 Merck had the editing of the Frankfort * Gelehrte Anzeigen,' a critical review to which Herder and Goethe contributed, and in which were heard the first distant notes of the German literary revolution. In the summer of 1772 Goethe passed four months in Wetzlar in order to become acquainted with the procedure of the Imperial Chancery (Reichskammergericht). In the summer of 1774 he travelled down the Rhine to Diisseldorf, and in the summer of 1775 he went to Switzerland. It became more and more manifest that Frankfort was not the right sphere for him. The many distinguished strangers who came to see him there could not compensate him for what he missed at home. He felt himself confined and fettered on every side. The legal profession did not satisfy him, and he could not devote himself exclusively to a poetical career. In addition to this, His love-entanglements of various kinds had brought him love-affairs, jnto equivocal and difficult pos tions. In Wetzlar he fell violently in love with Lotte Buff", the affianced bride of his good friend Kestner; but in tliis case the firm character of the girl, Ch. XI.] Herder and Goethe^ . 105 Goethe's friendship for her betrothed, and finally separation and departure all worked together to quell the passion. In Frankfort, how- ever, he fascinated girls and women, awakened feelings which he could not share, and excited wishes which he might not satisfy. Now it was an excellent, simple girl to whom he seemed so much attached that his parents fully expected an engagement, which how- ever never came to pass ; at another time it was the brilliant vision of Lili Schonemann which irresistibly attracted him, and in spite of many objections an engagement took place, but neither did that end in marriage. Then again, side by side with Lili, another figure appears, a girl whom, according to the expression of his diary, he wore like a spring flower upon his heart. In short, the lovingness and loveableness of his nature were constantly carrying him away and almost turning him into a Don Juan; but all this disturbed his daily life, darkened his pleasures, troubled his conscience, and filled him with the most painful emotions. He was right when, in the October of 1775, he called the months which had just passed the most distracted and confused, the fullest and most empty, the strongest and most foolish epoch of his life. This life of inward and outward unrest Goethe goes was happily cut short in November 1775 by his to "Weimar, accepting an invitation to the court at Weimar, where 1775. he was henceforth to make his home. But however prejudicial these four stormy years of barrister-life at Frankfort may have been to Goethe's moral de- Goethe's velopment, they have left indelible traces in his poetry, lyrics, up to In Strassburg his lyric poetry was only just begin- ^775. ning to free itself from the fetters of the Leipzig style ; simul- taneously with the passionate poem, ' Es schlug mein Herz,' he wrote the charming song, ' Mit einem gemalten Bande,' the flower of German Anacreontic poetry. The poems to Friederike are true lyrics and breathe the pure and peaceful happiness which he found in loving her. But the poems to Lili are more dramatic in their effect (* Neue Liebe, neues Leben,' ' An Belinden,' * Lili's Park') ; we detect in them discord and struggle; now he wishes to tear himself away, now he gives up resistance, but the feelings which she excites are always of a mixed nature. We see what enthrals him here — the youthful freshness. 0^ ic6 Tlie Age of Frederick the Great, [ch. xi. the lovely form, the look full of faithfulness and kindness, the voice, the song. We also discover what vexes him : the frivolous, social life, the unbearable people who surround her, the whole menagerie of her worshippers, the childish coquettries indiscriminately showered around, and which he is to share with the rest. And whether he sets before us the whole painful situation in an elaborate allegory, or whether a single despairing sigh escap s from his breast, still it is always a moment of inner conflict, intense and irreconcileable, which his song reveals. In his poems to Lili Goethe characterizes the object of his passion, but not himself; for the latter purpose he, employed other forms, epic and dramatic, in which he continued the personal confession which he had begun in the character of Weislingen. In his next play this character becomes the hero himself, under the title of Clavigo, a man ot modern times, an author, tossed hither and thither by ambition and love, till he is finally stabbed at the bier of his beloved one, by her brother. Crugantino, the scapegrace in ' Claudine von His Villabella,' a Don Juan and a restless wanderer, 'Clavigo,' fairly reflects Goethe's own character at the time. ,,..,, Fernando too, in 'Stella,' has traits taken from Goethe von Viila- bella.' and himself. Fernando has left his wife Cecilia and has 'Stella.' then seduced Stella; now he would like to return to his duty, yet at the same time shrinks from making Stella unhappy ; in the depths of despair he is saved by the proposal of Cecilia, that they should all three remain together. Goethe has never carried his indulgence towards human weakness, and his sympathy with a loving, suffering heart to suqh lengths as in this piece, to which however he subsequently give a tragic termination by the death of Fernando and Stella. It is worth noticing how disinclined he seems to make use of German surroundings in the modern drama. In both * Clavigo ' and ' Claudine * the scene is laid in Spain. Even the farce of ' Pater Brey ' contains a captain Balandrino ; and even in * Stella,' which is otherwise German, the vacillating, aris- tocratic lover must needs have the sounding name of Fernando. But we are altogether transported to native soil and to the present, namely, to the time of Goethe's youth, in the fullest and most faithful confession which he made at that time, his * Werther/ ch. XI.] Herder and Goethe, 107 ' The Sorrows of young Werther' appeared in 1774, and though thoroughly German in character, the book was known , j^.^ Leiden in a short time over the whole civilised world. It was des jungen translated into all civilised languages, and found imi- 'Werther,' 1774 tators in many literatures. Unlike 'Gotz' it did not presuppose in the reader an interest in the past history of the German nation, but appealed to every warm-hearted man of whatever race. Goethe ventured in this novel to reproduce in an artistic form his experiences at W etzlar. He introduced Lotte Buff into it with her Christian name unaltered, he placed beside her as bridegroom and husband, under the name of Albert, a person who might suggest Kestner, and he drew the character of the hero half from himself, half from a youth called Jerusalem, the son of the Brunswick clergy- man (see p. 70), who shot himself in Wetzlar on the 29th of October, 1772. Jerusalem, like himself, had been in love with the wife of another man, and his death decided Goethe to write the book. By drawing on his own experience, by representing a similar situation in which he had found himself in the same town, Goethe sought to discover what could be the cause of a man's committing suicide. He wished to make the catastrophe result from the character, as Lessing had taught him to do in his * Dramaturgic.' His purpose was to combine consistent and exact development of character with the breadth of treatment which the novel allows of more than the drama. He therefore accentuated to his utmost the character of the hero. Werther is a conscientious, good man, who even as a child loved to indulge in dreams and fancies. School and re- 'Werther's straints of every kind were hateful to him. He lost character, his father young, and we are led to suppose that his mother neither educated him with a strong hand, nor understood him enough to gain his love and confidence. He is not obliged to work for his living, but he has been educated for the bar ; his understanding and talents have been much praised, but he does not care to use them for the public benefit by entering the public service, and still less does he wish to lead a scholar's life. His one idea is to revel in the most refined spiritual pleasures, reading sympathetic poets, listening to good music, drawing, enjoying nature, holding inter- io8 The Age of Frederick the Great, [Ch. xi. course with simple, good people, and revealing his inmost soul, and all his joys and sorrows to a single friend. He writes an ardent and passionate style, reflects on what he observes, and in talking about it easily grows excited. He respects religion, but detixes no support therefrom. He thinks of God as a loving, piti- ful Father, and he is full of love for his fellow-men, provided they do not repel him. He has a deep sense of the evil in the world, and he wishes that men would not arbitrarily poison the pleasures which are granted them. His over-sensitive nature is easily wounded, and feeling himself to be misunderstood by those around him, he seeks solitude, or associates with children and people of the lower classes. He follows every dictate of his heart, has no self-control and no energy, lives a life not of action but of feeling, and like a true child of his age, prides himself on his wealth of sentiment. With all these qualities he has a peculiar attraction for people, and has excited the love of women without returning it ; now it is his fate to be in love himself, but without any prospect of possession, for he loves a woman who is first bride then wife of another. This is the rock on which he is wrecked ; his passion consumes him, and as it is the strongest force in his nature, and he is impotent to fight against his feelings, he chooses to commit suicide rather than endure a life of enforced renunciation. Goethe has introduced a conversation between Werther and "Werther's Albert on the subject of suicide. Werther considers suicide. it as merely the result of an incurable disease, and in this he expresses Goethe's own view of the matter. In this book Goethe gives us the whole pathology of the disease ; we are meant to observe the inner disposition, the causes and the symptoms, and Gradual de- ^° ^o^low their course to the end. The change which veiopment takes place in Werther's mind, the slow development orthecata- q{ his madness is carefully traced by Goethe, and the ^ ' catastrophe is prepared for with great skill, the excite- ment being gradually worked up and the tension increased. Throughout the book Goethe not only traces the natural growth of the disease, but notes the outward circumstances which contri- buted to its development. He tells us that Werther's attempt to employ himself in an official capacity failed, owing to an unplea- Ch. XT.] Herder and Goethe. 109 sant superior, and to the offensive and slighting treatment wh'ch he experienced at the hands of the aristocracy. He supposes that Albert and Lotte have been married in Werther's absence ; Lotte is unhappy in her marriage, and feels herself more strongly drawn to Werther than before. Werther perceives her unhappiness, and is inclined to break through the reserve he has hitherto maintained towards her. By reading aloud to her long passages of the mystical poetry of Ossian he raises himself and her to an unnatural pitch of excitement ; this clouds his reason and goads his feelings, till he loses that delicate reserve which has hitherto characterised all his relations with Lotte ; he embraces her, and she tears herself away and refuses to see him again ; the next day he shoots him- self. Goethe assumes that Werther remains to the end the same moral man, that he reproaches himself bitterly for having disturbed a marriage, and hopes by his death to reconcile husband and wife to each other again. The description of Werther's end. as well as the experiences of his short period of active life, is exactly borrowed Realism of from the fate of young Jerusalem. This close ad- '"Werther.* herence to reality was a guarantee of high poetical truth and probability. But this is not the only respect in which Goethe does his utmost to strengthen the impression that we are here dealing with a story taken from fact. Till near the end he does not speak himself, but lets Werther speak. He makes a pretence of publishing Werther's long journal, written by way of letters to an intimate friend ; occasionally he adds a remark, or pretends that he is suppiessing something, and only takes up the narrative himself where we must suppose that Werther's letters to his friend cease. But even then he apparently has access to Werther's last memor- anda, and the remainder he pretends to have learnt from the mouth of Lotte, Albert, and others. Goethe treats the somewhat exag- gerated and over-strained sentiment with the firm and skilful hand of an artist, and by his clear arrangement of the story helps us to take it in at a glance. It is not very long in itself, and falls natur- ally into two periods, the one prior, the other subsequent to Werther's abortive career as a public official. Jn each of the two divisions into which the story thus falls we may easily distinguish no The Age of Frederick the Great. [ch. XI. three stages : first we meet Werther alone, then Lotte comes upon the scene, and then Albert ; in the second part Werther is absent at the beginning, then he returns, and finally, when the story is approaching its end, narrative takes the place of the letters. Every letter bears its date, and the story lasts exactly from the 4th of May 1 771 to Christmas 1772. Novels in epistolary form had been written before Goethe's time, jfovels in ^^ particular by Richardson and Rousseau. But epistolary whereas till then authors had preferred to make a form. number of people correspond, Goethe on the con- trary only lets the hero speak. By this means our attention is en- gaged more strongly, and focussed on the hero, and in one respect the task was thus rendered easier, since the letters could all be written in the same style, whereas the older form required as many styles as there were writers ; but in another respect the diflficulty was increased, inasmuch as the out-pourings of one mind are much more liable to become monotonous than the utterances of many. Goethe surmounted this difficulty with the greatest ease, and by his ' Werther ' introduced a new style of letter- writing into German hterature. We possess German letters dating as early as the thirteenth cen- German ^^^3" Ulrich von Lichtenstein's memoirs contain a note Letter- addressed to him by the lady of his heart, a mere dry writing, report of events. In the fourteenth century we may find the correspondence between a pious nun and her father-confessor, who interchange presents and spiritual experiences, marked occasionally by sentimental outbursts. At a later epoch we find sterility of imagination helping itself out by external assistance ; for instance, in a love-letter, if a tender phrase was not at command, a drawing of a heart pierced by nn arrow might serve as a sub- stitute. Model letter-writers in the early years of printing suggest forms of address such as : ' Sweet, subtle, benevolent, well- conducted, most dear lady.' We find Luther writing to his ' dear Luther's Sonikin, Hansichen,' or to his wife as his 'kind, Letters. ^^^^ master, Frau Katherine von Bora.' In his letters to his boy he describes Heaven in childish fashion as a beautiful fairy garden, and he greets his wife with all kinds Ch. XI.] Herder aiid Goethe. ni of chaff, and gives her a very amusing account of his travelling adventures, expressing everything in quaint and original language, but without a trace of artificiality. In fact, Luther fills his letters with his own heartiness, vigour and cheery humour, and this popular and original epistolary style started by him was never quite lost; the tradition was reserved down to the Duchess EHsabeth Charlotte of Orleans (see vol. i, p. 374) and to Goethe's mother, though side by side with it the intolerable bombast and foreign affectations of the seventeenth century were fostered by polite letter- writers, and through their influence ultimately became the ruling fashion. In the eighteenth century, on the contrary, efforts were made to attain a natural and yet cultivated style. Madame de S^vignd was considered the great model in letter-writing. Frau Gottsched's letters show a roguish grace which her comedies would not have led one to expect from her. Gellert reduced the new ideal of letter-writing to a theory, and instructed his fellow-countrymen most thoroughly as to how ihey were to set about it in order to appear as natural as possible ; ihey were to follow their own disposition, to strive after variety of style, to seek their matter near at hand, to make reference to ihe small circumstances under which they were writing, and so on. He found in young Goethe a Goethe's willing pupil, who at once grasped the matter with a Letters, boldness which far exceeded the good Gellert's intentions. His first student's letter from Leipzig rises to a dramatic level in its lively and graphic representation of what is passing at the moment he writes. This dramatic enhancement of reality, these true re- flections of his passing moods characterize all his style of youthful letters, and form the basis on which he 'Werther.* worked with conscious art in 'Werther,' arranging and leading up to definite effects. But he took care not to entertain his readers solely with the feelings of his hero. A number of people appear _in the book, who are all briefly characterized. Pictures of nature and of human life are faithfully executed, and everything is made to ber.r upon the hero, and reveal to us his views, tastes, and character. Goethe informs us what Werther read ; the Old Testament, Homer, Goldsmith, Klopstock, Ossian, are his favourite reading, as they were also Goethe's. Shakspeare does not seem to have 113 The Age of Frederick the Great. [ch. xi. attracted him, for Shakspeare would break in too rudely upon the world of such a sentimentalist. But these other writers with their idyllic and emotional elements determine Werther's own views and interests, such as we find them reflected in his letters. He would like to establish patriarchal and Homeric conditions of Hfe around him ; nature and natural characters he describes in terms of deep affection, finding in them inexhaustible variety. But he does not show us idylls only ; his embittered heart can spur him on to satire, and he can also recognise the poeiic side of the prose of everyday life. He describes Lotte knitting a stocking, or cutting bread for her younger brothers and sisters, and himself playing with the children or helping Lotte to gather fruit. He gives us a picture of a rustic ball and its break-up by a storm. He works in ordinary, un- interesting conversations, and introduces us into various households ; and all his experience is drawn from the sphere of middle-class life, the sphere in which Gellert's comedies generally move, and which, one would ihink, could not possibly offer any elements of romance. By his ' Werther' Goethe introduced a new phase into German ^ ^ ^ sentiment ; this kind of sentiment had been fostered by Influence of r C Werther on pietism and by the pastoral poetry of the seventeenth German century, and already in Philipp von Zesen we find an Sentiment, attempt to impart a sentimental colouring to middle- class life; but Goethe was the first to succeed in an endeavour which a hundred and thirty years before seemed a half comic, half pathetic enterprise. He had first to divest Klopstock's characters of their saindy halo, and Gessner's shepherds and Weisse's rustics of their unreality. He succeeded in making his descriptions of nature more animated and varied than those of Haller, Kleist, and Klopstock, and his bourgeois characters and bourgeois sentiments more interesting than those of Gellert or Rabener, by exhibiting them as they ap- peared in the mind of an ardent youth, who had acquired the power of faithful delineation in the school of plastic art. Werther's exalted sentiment and ever-ready reflections are combined with genre- pictures and landscapes in the style of the Dutch school. The whole gives the impression of a realistic sentimentality, whose ideal is to be found in the housewifely Lotte, cheerful and active in her homely life, and yet capable of elevated thoughts and feelings. Ch. xij Herder and Goethe. 113 Though Rousseau is not mentioned among Werther's favourite authors, perhaps owing to Goethe's hostility to French '■w'erther' literature at that time, or to deeper causes, yet and Rousseau's in fluence really exercised gre at power ^o^sseau. over the production of ' Werther.' No book then published was so akin to * Werther ' as Rousseau's ' Nouvelle H^loise ; ' the French romance presents a similar hero, similar ideas and incidents, similar language, and only far inferior art. In * Werther,' too, as in nil Rousseau's writings, there breathes a truly r e volutionary spirit. Goethe's novel is a protest against a state of society which cannQt make worthy use of the brilliant talents of an ardent r y , , , , . Revolution- youth, aga mst mequality o f classes and the haughtmess tenden- of the nobility, as contrasted with Werther's sympathy cies and with the people, against the ruling c ode of mo rals, arbitrary which looked on suicide far otherwise than with mere <-^erther' pity ; it is a protest against conventional pedantr y of style and strict aesthetic rules, though Goethe himself does not break any established rule in the work, and, finally, it is a protest against the dominant mode of expression, for the author expresses himself not only with freedom but with arbitrary licence. By his drama of * Gotz ' G oethe had already questioned the existing stage arrangements, but now even the established grammar was not safe. The unity of the literary language, won by toilsome effort, was imperilled ; the grace and perfection of form, which had been attained thirty years before in the * Bremer Beitrage,' now gave place to personal caprice, provincialisms, phrases forcible but colloquial, an elliptical style, and a novel mode of spelling. Once more a revolution disturbed the quiet and steady develop- ment of German aesthetic culture, in the same way as influence of the Reformation had interfered with the Renaissance ''Werther , /^ . , , and'Gdtz' movement, m the same way as Opitz had unneces- ^^ German sarily broken with the past and Gotischedhad despised literature, the connection with the popular drama. It was Goethe this time who denied all reverence for established rules^ and carried "with hiirTaiT young anTTmpetuous spirits. Butlhis movement differed essentially from the older revolutionary convulsions. The inter- ruption did not last so long this time, and the return was not so VOL. II. I IJ4 The Age of Frederick the Great. [ch. xi. difficult. The leader of the revolution himself returned almost im- mediately to the old lines of development, and subsequently went far in reaction, but he could not quite efface the traces of his youthful performances. * Werther' could, indeed, be easily purged of its faults and transformed into aj^rfect work of art, but it was impossib le to do the same with ^ Gotz ; ' with all its_beauties and with all its depth of feeling it remained what it was, a w^ork of caprice and a bad example to posterity, a standing encouragement to all young poets who thought themselves geniuses^ut disdained the trouble of learning. The Literary Revolution and the Illuminati. * Storm and stress ! The period of genius ! ^ The original geniuses ! ' — These are the terms which are used in praise or in The lite- mockery to designate the German literary revolution rary and and its chief leaders. The movement was a poetic religious and religious one. TheJ[te^rary_£evqlution demanded ema ncipation from rules, and was, in its political as pect, a movement of opposition to established authorities ; the religious revolution was directed against the so-called enlightened school, and was in this respect conservative. Both movements apparently failed. The poets were obliged to submit themselves again to the sway of rules, and their political declamations had not the slightest direct effect ; on the other hand, the Illuminati only became bolder and more radical in their advances, and won back to their side a few of their most decided opponents. Yet the chief effect of the revolution w as, after all , an extraordinary incre ase of poetic and scientific powe r, and the wide extension of literary interests throughout Gerniany ; many of the tendencies, too, which could not assert themselves for the present, r emained dorm ant and aw^ok fi to fresh life in Romanticism. Lessing had only just produced his 'masterpiece in tragedy, his 'Emilia Galotti,' when Goethe's 'Gotz' appeared, and though unable entirely to supplant Lessing's piece, yet considerably thwarted its influence. ' Gotz ' and * Emilia ' reigned side by side, and we have many opportunities of observing how the young Ch. XT.] The Literary Revohition and the Illuminati. \ 15 dramatists of this period formed their style on both ; but ' Gotz ' exercised the greater influeric e of the two ; chiv alrous d ramas became all the fashion, and Shakspeare was copied with untiring zear The extravagance of ' Stella ' also attracted imitators, while the less outrageous ' Clavigo ' was more or less left out of account. German provinces which had as yet played little part in modern literature now sent forth their representatives, and some of the violent Shakspearians, such as Lenz, Klinger, and Wagner be- longed to the circle of Goethe's acquaintance in Strassburg and F"rankfort. Lenz, a German Russian, who ended XjOUZ. his days in madness, often reveals in his short songs and tales a strain of pure and pathetic poetry ; in his dramas he allowed himself the most outrageous extravagances, but even in them we here and there light on a cleverly-drawn character, a simple and innocent girl, a pedant or a kind-hearted reveller. Klinger, a Frankfort man of low origin, began with confused and faulty productions, dramas full of bombastic declama- , , Klinger. tion, coarse language, ravmgs agamst tyrants, and such naturalism as we meet with in Rousseau. Subsequently he abandoned these revolutionary extravagances, and having grown up into a composed and rational man, profited by experience, and ended as a high Russian dignitary. Heinrich h. 'u. Leopold Wagner of Strassburg drew scenes and Wa<^ner. characters from middle-class life with a rude but effective realism. Friedrich Miiller of Kreuznach, poet and painter, and Friedrich hence designated ' Painter Muller,' turned his attention Miiller. to classical and to popular subjects, to Genovefa, Faust and Niobe. He carried realistic treatment into his idylls, which are some of them faithful descripiions of the life of the common people in the Palatinate. Count Torring, of Munich, , Torring. by his ' Agnes Bernauerin,' prepared the way for the chivalrous drama in Bavaria; and in Swabia there arose a political dramatist, who carried on the revolutionary tendencies of ' Gotz ' and ' Emilia Galotti ' with still greater energy : Friedrich Schiller (see Chap. XIL § 3). Political interests had struck deep root in Swabia. The worthy John Jacob Moser, counsel to the Wurtemberg Parliament, boldly 1 2 ii6 The Age of Frederick the Great. [Ch. xi. opposed prnce'y despotism, and his son, Friedrich Carl von Moser, exerted his influence as a minister and writer in favour of enh'ght- Political ^"^^ systems of government, upholding the interests writers. of the State as against the selfishness of kings. We The two have already noticed the works of Wieland and Abbt dealing with political subjects. Among journalists, Wilhelm Ludwig Weckherlin ridiculed the constitution of the Imperial towns. The journalist, poet, and musician, Christian Christian Schubart, a true Bohemian in disposition, but also Schubart. an ardent worshipper of Frederick the Great and of Klopstock, was at once a German and Swabian patriot; he greeted with enthusiasm all the productions of the ' Siorm and Stress' party, and sang their praises in newspaper anicles. His best wrok is to be found in his popular songs His poem entided * Furstengruft ' (The Grave of Princes , was an attack on tyrants, reproaching them with their crimes against humanity. Friedrich Friedrich Schiller, at that time a military surgeon in Schiller. Stuttgart, became a disciple of his ; on the title-page of his first play, ' The Robbers,' he had placed the figure of a lion rampant, with the motto, ' In Tyrannos,' and he put the following words in the mouth of the hero of the piece : ' Put me at the head of a troop of such fellows as myself, and Germany shall be turned into a republic, in contrast with which Sparta and Rome shall seem like nunneries.' These people of Wiirtemberg could speak of the rule of tyrants from personal acquaintance ; the elder Moser had been shut up for five years in the fortress of Hohentwiel, Schubart for ten years in that of Asperg, both unjustly and without trial, only because it was the duke's pleasure. Schiller might well expect the same fate, and therefore took refuge in flight. The iron despotism which weighetl upon his country and upon himself per- sonally, would necessarily ins il revolutionary sentiments into the mind of this disciple of Rousee^iu, who was panting for nature and liberty. Adopting a motto derived from Hippocrates, he recommended blood and iron as the best remedies for a corrupt Schiller's world. The hero of his first drama, the enthu- 'Bauber.' siastic young robber. Moor, like Goethe's Gotz, has recourse to force on his own responsibility. He has all the Ch. XI.] The Literary Revolution and the Illnminati, 1 1 7 feelings of a Werther, and, like Werther, he falls foul of society. Werther lurns the destroying weapon against himself, but Moor directs it against society. He is a rebel, like the Satan of Milton and Klopstock, and a vagabond, like Goethe's Crugantino, but while love and reconciliation lead Crugantino back to the bosom of his family, the shameful intrigues of an unnatural brother turn Moor into a robber and a murderer. Hostile brothers had already been depicted by Fielding in romance, and by Leisewitz and Klinger in tragedy ; the two latter had introduced fratricide upon the stage itself, and (jessner had written a patriarchal romance based on the story of Cain and Abel ; but Schiller far surpasses these writers in power iii the grand scene where the criminal, in fear of the avengers of his crime, pronounces and carries out his own sentence. The jtoet shows, on the whole, dramatic talent of the first order. It is true that he lays on the colours too thick, that he fills the dialogue with bombastic exaggeration, that in trying to be forcible he occa- sionally lapses into coarseness, that he fails to make the connection between action and character sufficiently apparent, that he consist- ently violates the laws of probability, and lastly, that the plot is clumsy and the only woman's part a failure; — still, in spite of all these defects, he manages to retain the attention of his audience from beginning to end; contrast, which can alone animate dia- logue, is never wanting, nor contlict, the essence of dramatic action. The action almost always progresses rapidly and impetuously, and the power of single scenes affects readers and spectators as much to-day as when the play first appeared. Schiller's contemporaries not only applauded the tragic talent and the entrancing interest of the play, but adopted the robber Moor, as they had done young Werther, as a kind of ideal. There was no occasion for Schiller to appeal in self-defence to the authority of Rousseau, who commended Plutarch for having chosen grand criminals as the subjects of his literary portraits ; there was no need for him to cite the example of the noble robber Roque in 'Don Quixote.' His audience was quite ready, without any such authorities, to accord a sympathetic reception to the attractive robber Moor. The public had learnt with Goethe to excuse a suicide and to forgive a Don Juan, with Heinrich Leopold Wagner, to bestow pity on a child- 1 1 8 The Age of Frederick the Great. [Ch. XI. murderess; Lessing had taught them to reverence noble humanity ill Jews and Mohammedans; it was no wonder, therefore, that they should now be so ready to recognise the same humanity even in a robber. Schiller's play appeared in 1781, eight years after ' Gotz,' two years after Lessing's ' Nathan/ Two other tragedies soon followed, ' Fiesco ' in 1783, ' Kabaleund Liebe' in 1784. The scene of the Schiller's former is laid in Genoa, of the latter in modern Ger- ' Fiesco,' many. In ' Fiesco' we have a revolution which fails 1783. jj^ |.|^g moment of success through the death of the leader. The play brings before us the brutal tyranny of Gianettino Doria, the clever dissembling and marvellous fascination of Fiesco, the rude Republicanism of Verrina, the base motives of the lower conspirators ; it is a play of intrigue and crime, of plots and counter-plots, such as the poet had no personal knowledge of, so that he had to draw upon tradition and his own imagination in repre- senting them. The central figure is an ambitious politician, to whom the author attributes fits of devotion to the public welfare in order to make him more attractive, although he thereby .violates the consistency of his character. In ' Intrigue and Love ' the interest centres round a pair of , lovers who are ruined by class-prejudice ; it pictures 'Kabale the well-known misery of the smaller German states und at that time, the Sultan-like prince, the all-powerful Liebe. favourite, the miserable court, the scoundrelly minister and his rascally tools, the immorality of the nobles and their haughty scorn of the bourgeois class, the extortion practised towards the people, the shameful selling of soldiers to foreign rulers, the arbitrariness of justice — all features drawn from sad reality, which the poet could either observe in his own country or learn of from reliable sources. The obvious pur[)Ose of the play was to strengthen the hatred against oppressors and excite pity for the poor and innocent victims. It was no wonder that ' Intrigue and Love' met with a far warmer reception than ' Fiesco.' As regards artistic merit, the two pieces are barely on a level wiih the * Robbers.' The ideas, however, which had been first mooted in 'Emilia Galotti * and 'Gotz' had ripened to maturity in these Ch. XI.] The Literary Revolution and the Illnminati. 1 19 two plays, which embody the very essence of the poetry of the * Storm and Stress ' epoch. The revolutionary party in literature were, as we have already remarked, the parly of opposition in politics. They no longer kept up the pretence of attacking , Italian princes when they really meant to attack revolution- German ones, but boldly knocked at the castle-gates of ary tenden- the petty German sovereigns. On the eve of the French °^^^* Revolution, and while North America was fighting for its freedom, the old Roman ideals of Republican glory stirred in the hearts of German youths. Gottsched had at an earlier time praised the stoical suicide of Cato, and now Brutus, the assassin of Caesar, became the hero of these ardent spirits, and was held up as a worthy example. In Gottingen, political connection with England^ naturally sug- gested comparisons between the two countries, and sharpened men's judgment ; there, from the year 1776 onward, Professor Schlozer published his ' Correspondence,* subse- quently known as the ' Staatsanzeigen,' a political paper which brought existing abuses to light, and soon became the terror of petty German tyrants. In 1772 a few enthusiastic Gottingen students formed a poetic brotherhood, which they called the *Hain' and from which they anticipated extraordinary results. The They assumed each the name of some ancient bard, 'Hain.' swore eternal friendship to one another, glorified God, the Father- land and virtue and venerated Klopstock almost as a deity. They hated the French nation, French poetry, and the Frenchified school of German poets, with its chief representative — the 'mur- derer of innocence' as they termed him — Wieland. They prattled of liberty, despised the slaves and parasites of courts, and set up the Swiss hero Tell by the side of heads the Brutus, Arminius, and Klopstock. In their drinking- Gottingen i^ongs they enumerated the crimes of sovereigns and brotherhood, pictured future battles in which they would be avenged on them, or imagined the hour of triumph when tyrants should have been * Gottingen belongs to the Duchy of Hannover, which, by the accession of GgQrge r, was united with England. The University of Gottingen was founded in 1733 by George II. I20 The Age of Frederick the Great. [ch. xi. swept from the earth. Klopstock gave his blessing to the move- ment. He had a short time before made a collection of his Odes and completed his * Messiah/ and he thought the time had now come for him to set himself upon the throne of German poetry. The members of the ' Hain ' were to disperse themselves through Germany, and to be his lieutenants. The Statute-Book of his new kingdom was to be his own foolish Art of Poetry, published in 1774 under the title of * Gelehrtenrepublik/ in which he treated most contemptuously the hitherto prevalent theory of poetry. But sensible men, who had not yet quite died out in Germany, laughed at the whole thing ; the new Klopstock kingdom had no duration, and the Gottingen Brotherhood, as such, exercised no influence on the further development of German poetry; it was only through the medium of a few able writers among its members that it pro- duced any effect at all. Heinrich Christian Boie was the oldest, maturest, and most moderate member of the society; he produced litde himself, but indirectly, as an editor, he rendered good services to the literary life of Germany. In 1769 he started the ' Musenalmanach ' as a magazine for lyric poetry, and in 1776 the ' Deutsches Museum,' an excellent monthly paper. , . , MarUn Mill er, of Ulm, began as a lyric poet, but soon took to Martin novel-writing, and by his ' Siegwart, a Convent-story,' Miller. he drew many tears from the- eyes of sentimentalists. The consumptive and short-lived Holty, in his lyrics full of gentle contemplation of nature and life, reminds us of Kleist, the author of * Spring ' and of ' Irin.' The two Co unts Stolberg are always mentioned together, and The two also published their works jointly ; but the younger Stolbergs. brother, Fritz, the translator of the Iliad, of ^schylus and Ossian, alone attained to any great distinction. He was an aristocrat through and through, in his extravagances no less than in his conversion to the Catholic faith, in his stormy, blood-thirsty odes against tyrants as well as in his high-sounding but occasionally awkward hexameters. From his youth upwards he felt a profound need of worshipping something above himself, be it Homer or Nature, the heroism of his ancestors or the majestic grandeur of the ^a4 ch. XI.] The Literary Revolution and the Illuminati. 121 sea. But this imaginative and emotional spirit, who needed out- ward symbols and sought for a firm support upon which to lean, could in the end only find the rest which he longed for and the ideal society which he loved in the Roman Caiholic Church and her saints. Johann Heinrich Voss, Boie's brother-in-law, was the best of the many who vied with one another in creating a German Homer. He, like Klopstock, recognised the value of German syllables for metrical and rhythmic pur- poses. Of his manifold and in part mechanical translations from the ancients, none come up to his Homer. The Odyssey appeared in 1781, the Iliad, with a revised version His of the Odyssey, in 1793, but unfortunately this Homer, revision was not an improvement. Frequent attempts had already been made at translating Homer, and in the eighteenth century the German versions of the two great Greek epics became more numerous than ever. Bodmer had produced an uncouth transla- tion, Fritz Stolberg a more successful one, but Voss surpassed all his predecessors in this field. His version is natural and straightfor- ward, neither too exalted nor too commonplace in tone, and repro- duces to a reasonable extent the style of the original ; the Homeric formulas and epithets are successfully preserved, and the whole work is one of devoted industry and serious study, resting through- out on a clear appreciation of old Greek conditions of life. Voss had thoroughly satisfied his countrymen, but not himself; he wanted to improve his work still more. Accordingly, he carried his faithfulness to the original too far, and thus spoilt the Iliad from the first and the Odyssey in the later versions. Voss was a Mecklenburger of plebeian origin, the grandson of an emancipated serf; he had seen with his own eyes the evils of serf- jj^g dom, and his poems against tyrants, exaggerai ed though original they may seem, rest on deeply-rooted convictions. Poems. His whole life long he was in politics and religion an uncom- promising Liberal. His idylls, written partly in Low-German, tell of the sufferings of the people ; they have nothing to do with Arcadian shepherds or with Gessner's drawing-room dolls, but picture the German peasant as he was, but yet not with the crude / 122 The Age of Frederick the Great. [ch. XT. naturalism of the painter-poet Miiller ; Voss was saved from that by his classical culture, and by the classical hexametric form in which he wrote. Voss drew materials for his idylls and songs not only from rustic but from German middle-class life, the sphere in which he himself lived, and in whose domestic interests and simple pleasures he took such delight. Voss, like Goethe, united delight in the Homeric world with the German love of domesticity; but he did not always succeed in raising the ever>-day prosaic life which he chose as his theme into the sphere of pure poetry, and more beautiful idylls than he ever wrote are to be found in his wife Ernestine's records of his and her life, of their intercourse with Fritz Stolberg, of the time of Voss's first schoolmastership, and of their poor little menage. All the band of Gottingen friends found a common sphere of The Got- labour in lyric poetry, and in their hands German lyric tingen poets poetry acquired new forces. Though all the members all lyrical, ^f j^g Gottingen brotherhood tried their hand at clas- sical rhymeless odes after Klopstock's model, yet their strength lay really in rhymed popular songs, and their most successful pro- ductions of this kind, when set to simple attractive melodies, spread quickly through the length and breadth of Germany. The bards of the * Hain' continued the work of Christian Felix Weisse, while in South Germany Schubart,^ and to a certain extent Maler Miiller, laboured in the same direction. But their lyric poetry was mostly of the quiet kind, describing not action, but passive emotion of some kind ; the more stirring and dramatic poetry such as Herder demanded and Goethe created was only represented in any real excellence in one of the poets of the Gottingen brotherhood, in Burger's Gottfried Augus^ J?^""??!; -^^ ^^^ alone Herder's ballads. suggestions really bore fruit. The English Ballads were to him what Shakspeare was to the Strassburg poets, and he became a most enthusiastic admirer and imitator of these ballads as well as of the old German songs and legends. The half-romantic, half-burlesque ballad-form which Gleim had essayed, and which BUrger himself cultivated at first, became later on in his hands a serious and powerful picture of character and emotion. Terror, mystery, and gloom had special attractions for him, and he conjured Ch. xi.l The Literary Revolution and the Illumifiati. 123 up ghosts and spirits in the midst of that enlightened age. His 'Leonore' is perhaps his best production in this respect, with its powerful picture of the furious, ghostly ride to the grave, in the course of which it gradually becomes clear to us that the anxiously expected lover, the soldier who comes and wakes his sweetheart, is none other than death. This poem leaves on us to some degree the impression of an unsolved mystery; all the details are clear, but at the end we have to ask ourselves what has really happened ; was it a dream of the girl, a dream in which she died, or did the ghost really appear and carry her character away? Any incidents causing anxious suspense of his Burger was able to portray with masterly skill, for poetry- instance, a noble deed done in the face of danger, or secret enjoyment with sorrow lurking behind. He describes with great power the conflict between love and caste-prejudice, faithfulness, unfaithfulness, treachery, the dissolute egotism of the higher classes and the despairing rebellion of the lower, while he is also a master of humorous narrative, as is seen in his poems, * Frau Schnips * and * Kaiser und Abt.' In his love-poems he strives after action and striking situations, but his imagination failed him in the world of tender feeling, and he tried to replace the want of poetic motives by high-sounding words and empty jingle, which spoils many a stanza of his best ballads. He ruined his life by pro- fligacy, and the severe form in which he sometimes clothes • passionate feeling, the melody of his sonnets and smooth polish of his verses, could not take the place of inward nobility of feeling. The thought of a genuine revival of the historical and literary past of Germany animated young Goethe during Revival his Slrassburg days, and the same spirit stirred in the of early Gottingen poets and through the whole of North Ger- German many. As early as 1748 Bodmer had published ^°^ ^^* specimens from the Minnesingers, in 1757 he had brought out a ^ ^ -, part of the Nibelungenlied, in 1758 and 1759 a more complete ''- . collection of the Minnesingers, and till 1781, till just before his -^/^-^^r- death, he continued to produce editions of the Middle High-German ..^^^^ poems. Another Swiss writer, Christian Heinrich Myller, a pupil 4. ;/ 124 ^-^^ ^g^ of Frederick the Great. [c'.i. xi, of Bodmer's, who had an appointmenl in Berlin, published in 1784 and 1785 the whole of the Nibelungenlied and the most important of the chivalrous epics. Lessing, in his preface to Gleim's War- songs, called attention to the Middle High-German poets, of whom he continued to be throughout his life an ardent admirer. Justus Moser took great interest in the Minnesingers. About the time when ' Gotz ' appeared, this enthusiasm for early German poetry was at its strongest, and Burger, Voss, Miller, and Holty wrote Minnesongs, in which they imitated the old German lyric poets. In 1773 Gleim published 'Poems after the Minnesingers,' and in 1779 ' Poems after Walther von der Vogelweide/ Some enthu- siasts had already hailed the Nibelungenlied as the German Iliad, and Burger, who vied hard with the rest, but without much success, in turning Homer into German, insisted on dressing up the Greek heroes a little in the Nibelungen style. He and a few other poets loved to give their ballads a chivalrous character. Fritz Stolberg wrote the beautiful song of a German boy, beginning — 'Mein Arm wird stark und gross mein Muth, gib, Vater, mir ein Schwert;' and the song of the old Swabian knight — ' Sohn, da hast du meinen Speer ; meinem Arm wird er zu schwer.' Lessing's ' Nathan,' too, appealed to this enthusiasm for the times of chivalry, and must have strengthened the feeling. An historian like the Swiss, Johannes Muller (see Chap. XIII. §1), began to show the Middle Ages in a fairer light, and even to ascribe great merits to the Papacy. But in doing so, Johannes Muller was only following Herder's Me- in Herder's steps. Herder, while at Biickeburg, had diaevalism. written against the self-conceit of his age, its pride in its enlightenment and achievements. He found in the Middle Ages the reahzation of his aesthetic ideas, namely, strong emotion stirring life and action, everything guided by feeling and instinct, not by morbid thought, religious ardour and chivalrous honour, boldness jjis in love and strong patriotic feeling. This appreciation religious of mediaeval times went with Herder hand in hand revival. ^-^^ ^ stricter form of religion. He gave up his free- thinking views ; when he stood in the pulpit, and still more when he was writing, his feelings were those of a mystic enthusiast. Now, for the first time, the full fervour of his soul poured itself forth. It Ch. XI.] The Literary Revolution and the Ilhtminati. 1 2.5 was only in uncompromising opposition to the so-called enlighten- ment of the age that he could find satisfaction. His share in the literary revolution was not only to call attention to the popular sources of art, not only to sing the praises of Shakspeare and Ossian in the * Letters on German Style and Art,' not only to influence Goethe and Burger, but, above all, to try and reanimate religion by proclaiming, in prophetic and enthusiastic tones, the worth of the Bible and the dignity of the priestly office. His style then became dithyrambic and highly original, full of words arbi- trarily coined, and of phrases fashioned simply for force and effect. His old researches on the origin of mythology and of the Hebraic legends now assumed a new colour. Was not this primitive poetry so much primitive revelation obscured, and was it not his mission to interpret it } Faith founded on Biblical Revelation is the funda- mental basis of preaching. Away with the slanders of the Illu- minati, who dared to hint that the priests of those ancient nations were often liars and deceivers ! The position of the priests should become once more such as Moser had described it among the old Germans. Herder embodied these thoughts in three works produced in the year 1774, viz. the 'Oldest Record of Man,' ' Pro- Herder's vincial Leaflets for Clergymen,' and the pamphlet ® ®^ ® entitled 'Another Philosophy of History with reference der Mensch- to the development of the human race.' In these works heit,' and he does not by any means pose as an orthodox be- , j^*jr^ ^ ' liever of any particular confession. Slight differences Prediger,' of opinion were not now so strictly regarded; the 1774. orthodox party and the pietists had both been thrust into the back- ground ; the dominating views were those of the enlightened school, and a common aversion to them drew together nearly all finely- touched souls. The result was a general reinforcement of faith and pious- feeling, which was further promoted by the increasing worship of Klopstock. Hamann, Lavater, Jung, Claudius, Jacobi, were all religious in spirit; the Catholics were not behind the rest, and though the Jesuit order had been suppressed in 1773, yet this very loss of material power may have stimulated the CathoHcs to redoubled intellectual activity. 126 The Age of Frederick the Gi^eat. [ch.xi. Lavater of Ziirich, a preacher and a Swiss patriot, lived wholly in the Christian faith and in love of Christ. He Lavater. travelled through Germany, and charmed all who became acquainted with him; even Goethe, from his totally dif- ferent worid, extended a friendly hand to him. By his attempt to His ' P^- ^^^*^ ^^^ character of men from their faces, and by his siognomische ' Physiognomical Fragments,' in which he gave an Fragmente. account of his science of physiognomy, and published, with Goethe's co-operation, numerous portraits of contemporaries and of deceased persons, with an interpretation of their characters, he greatly strengthened the feeling for individuality, and stimulated poets to rivalry in the art of characterization ; but he himself, with all his great literary activity, did not succeed in producing a single artistic work of lasting merit. His feeling for individuality and his loving nature and gentle manners must have given him the power of winning hearts ; but his zeal for proselytizing broke down, and his faith degenerated into superstition. He was always hoping for new miracles, and allowed himself to be imposed upon by false miracle-workers, by swindlers and rogues such as Cagliostro and Christoph Kaufmann. Thus we see that it was not in poetry alone that ghosts were reinstated in their former honour ; in real life too they were accredited afresh, and proved a profitable speculation, Jung-Stilling's faith in ghosts was a more innocent one. He was Jung- a friend of Goethe's youth, the acquaintance dating Stilling, from his Strassburg period. He was first a doctor, then a political economist, and he wrote a narrative of his own life, which breathes throughout a simple and religious spirit. He was imbued with a touching faith in a special Providence, which had smoothed his way in difficulties and watched over him with fatherly care. But the purest spirit, the most truly childlike heart, was that of the gentle Claudius, the ' boy of inno- cence,' as Herder called him, ' full of moonlight, and with the lily-scent of immortality in his soul.' One must first get over the tone of affected popularity in which his newspaper, thfe * WandsbecUer Bote,' is written, in order to enjoy the really beauti- ful things which it contains. Peculiar forms of writing still play Ch. XI.] The Literary R e vein t ion and the Illimiinati. 127 a great part in it as in Rabener, Moser, and the older weekly newspapers ; but we cannot help liking this naive humourist, and we read his fables and proverbs with pleasure, and lend a friendly ear to the sentiments expressed in his Vt- • ,T-w AT 1 • r His poems, songs. His evenmg song, ' Der Mond 1st aufge- gangen,' is written in the spirit of Paul Gerhardt, but with that higher appreciation of nature which this later age had acquired. His poem at the grave of his father is remarkable for the love and deep sorrow which it expresses. The poem entitled 'Der Tod und das Madchen * gives us a most powerful picture of the terrified maiden and the consoler, Death. Merriment reigns supreme in the story of the giant Goliath and in the narrative of the travels of Master Urian. Claudius shows the nearest affinity to the poets of the Gottingen brotherhood; like them, he wants to be popular, and sometimes affects a rustic style, and his songs, like theirs, are meant rather for singing than for reading. With him, as with them, we sometimes feel ourselves reminded of the Middle High' German lyric poets, by the absence of all rhetorical ornament, and by the union of natural freshness, humour and piety with a simple and patriotic heart. Like Voss and his wife Ernestine, Claudius, too, sometimes allows us a glimpse of his modest household and his married bliss. Voss and Claudius both found their highest satisfaction in the poetry of domestic life, sanctified by religion, only religion, which was the support of both, assumed a somewhat different colour with each. While Claudius was writing from Hamburg as an independent author, and contributing to the new religious revival, Pritz Jacobi Fritz Jacobi rallied around him the faithful on the in Diissel- lower Rhine at Diisseldorf. He considered Spinozism ^oxf. to be the most consistent philosophy ; but Spinoza's Pantheism seemed to him mere Atheism, and he restored the God whom reason deprived him of, through the means of direct perception, feel- ing, presentiment, and faith. Jacobi was a kindred spirit to Hamann. Later on his chief sphere of influence lay in Munich, and he drew his philosophical disciples mostly from the ranks of the Roman Catholics. In Bavaria the religious revival was led by the ex- Jesuit Michael Sailer, while the North German Catholics gathered 128 The Age of Frederick the Great. [ch. XI. round the Princess Galitzin of Miinster, the * Christian Aspasia/ as they called her, who was also intimate with devout Protest- ants. Hamann died in her house in 1788, and it was through her means that Fritz Stolberg was won over to the Roman Church in 1800. Jacobi occupied a peculiar middle position. He was in- timate with' Wieland, and was a friend of Goethe's, who had met him with enthusiastic affection on his Rhine journey in Jacobi's 1774- He made two weak attempts at novel-writing, novels. jn both of which the heroes are a mixture of Goethe and of himself. His was a tender nature, all feeling and sentiment. Georg His elder brother Georg. a gentle and loving character, Jacobi. and an intimate friend of Gleim's, wrote lyrics and prose works, and knew well how to polish his language, and how to ingratiate himself with the ladies. From 1774 he published a monthly magazine, the * Iris/ to which Goethe also contributed, and under Goethe's influence his poems gained in truth and reality. Wilhelm Heinse, who was co-editor with Georg Jacobi, likewise belonged to the school of Wieland and Gleim, and the wine- and love-songs of the Anacreontic school assumed in his romances a wild and passionate character. Not but what he interwove the highest pleasures with lower forms of enjoyment, and gloried in enthusiastic conversations on sculpture and music quite as much as in the description of luxurious feasts. As Goethe loved the Dutch genre-painters, and praised Diirer and Gothic architecture, so Heinse rebelled against the one-sidedness of Winckelmann and Lessing's ideal, and loved to extol the art of .Ritbens and of the modern landscape-painters as against the taste which did not extend beyond ancient statuary. In this respect, as well as in his poetic extravas^ances, he too reflects the so-called ' Storm and Stress ' spirit. But while the new literary movement Opposition spread to such an extent in Wieland's immediate neigh- to Wieland. bourhood, and even carried away his owm disciples, how did it fare with the master himself.? He was one of the poten- tates of the older literature, one of those ai^ainst whom the Revolu- tion was directed. He was looked upon as the opposite pole to Klopstock, and the Gottingen brotherhood burnt him in efSgy, r Ch Xi.j T/ie Literary Revohttion and the Ilhuninati. 129 while Goethe ridiculed him in his farce entided : * Gods_^ heroes, and Wieland.' ^ In the face of all this opposition Wieland acted with consummate skill. His 'Teutscher ^lerkur' had just be^n to ^^. , appear in the very year of the literary revolution, attitude. 1773, and he felt that he must lose no time in ^^^ defining his position. He accordingly threw out • Teutscher -i» , n 9 feelers in the shape of the articles written by his Merktir,' ) 120 contributors, refusing to acknowledge their views as his own, whenever it suited him so to do. At the same time he could censure writers whom he disapproved of by simply passing them over in silence. He made short work of Hamann's ob- scurities; he distinguished with great discrimination what was valuable and what was merely exaggerated in Herder ; he criticised Goethe's *G6tz/ this 'beautiful monster/ as the most important phenomenon of modern German poetry, freely acknowledged the uncommon talent shown in it, and was altogether so just in both praise and blame that Goethe was obliged to exclaim in amaze- ment, * No one understands me belter than Wieland ; ' he also reviewed with much dispassionateness Goethe's farce directed against himself, and recommended it to his readers as a masterpiece of persiflage. Goethe said, * Now I must let him go for ever. Wieland is gaining as much in the public estimation by the line he takes as I am losing. I am just put to shame.' Such being the attitude on each side, we are not surprised to hear -vvieland at that the meeting in Weimar at once smoothe 'Allgemeine Nicolai Started the ' General German Library ' as a Deutsche kind of continuation and extension of the ' Litteratur- 1 lot e . j3pjgfg ' started by Lessing; it was a critical review which embraced all the various provinces of literature, and continued to exist till the year 1806 ; it did not contribute much to the aesthetic culture of Germany, but it was a great power in the sphere of philo- sophy and religion, attacking with unwearying energy and far-reaching effect all theological tutelage, all religious exaggeration and super- stition. Nicolai's description of a journey through Germany threw light into many a dark corner, and this work was seconded by the * Berlinische Monalschrift/ a publication which he started in the year 1783. In ecclesiastical offices, Spalding and Teller helped to Ch. XL] The Liierai-y Revoliino7i and the Illuminati, 135 further the cause of religious enhghtenment. Outside Prussia an enligh ened theologian like Basedow initiated reforms Basedow's in school-teaching by combining the rationalistic educational demand for a rapid, easy, unimaginative method of ac- reforms, quiring knowledge with Rousseau's principles for a more natural form of education ; and his innovations, in so far as they contained any elements of real progress, now forced their way into Prussia too. Every measure of public benefit, every proposal of general utility, every humanising idea was joyfully greeted and quickly fol- lowed out in Frederick the Great's dominion. As soon as Lessing's * Nathan ' appeared, Dohm wrote on the improvement of the political position of the Jews ; Moses Mendelssohn also uttered „ Moses Men- himself on the subject, recalling to mind the old deissohn's accusations against the Jews and the refutation of writings in them, rebutting charges made in modern times against ^^'^o^^ o^ Jews, and finally, in his work 'Jerusalem,' raising a demand for the total separation of church and state (1784). But he not only struggled to gain a better position for his fellow- believers, but sought to render them more and more worthy of such a position by elevating and improving them. And for these efforts in particular he deserves the greatest praise, for, with all his modesty, he was a great liberator in this sphere, and contributed more than any other man to make the Jews in Germany into Germans. He exerted an influence on the wider German public by his psychological researches, by his * Phaedo ' j^.^ (1767) and his 'Morning Hours' (1785), works 'phaedo' written to prove the immortality of the soul and the and ' Mor- ^ existence of God. He showed himself throughout to ^^^^ ^^ ^^' be a clear writer, but not a thinker of striking originality. After the appearance of Lessing's ' Laokoon ' and ' Minna von Barnhelm,' Berlin did not give birth to any leading aesthetic or scientific ideas under the government of Frederick the Great The focus of German enlightenment lay not in Berlin, but in Konigs- berg and Wolfenbiittel, and its leading representatives were not Mendelssohn and Nicolai, but Lessing and Kant. Lessing, in the last four years of his life, gave a new impulse to theology, and in the year of Lessing's death Kant brought about a revolution in philosophy. 136 The Age of Frederick the Great. [Ch. xi. In the year 1784 Kant wrote a small essay entitled, 'What is Kant's Enlightenment?' He answered the question thus : — views on Enlightenment is intellectual majority ; its motto is : Enlighten- Have the courage to use thine own understanding ! He enquired further : Are we now living in an en- lightened age ? and answered, No, but in an age of enlightenment ; the greater number of men have not yet attained their majority, and are not yet capable of dispensing with the guidance of another in matters of religion ; but they are on the way to dispense with it. And therefore ' this age is the age of enlightenment or the century of Frederick,' for Frederick the Great granted that liberty which enlightenment demands, liberty to make open use of reason in all matters. How Kant himself made use of this liberty may be seen His three in his philosophical works, above all in his three Critiques, epoch-making Critiques, which appeared at the close of the age of Frederick as the most valuable scientific bequests of German Enlightenment : the Critique of Pure Reason in 1781, the Critique of Practical Reason in 1788, and the Critique of the Power of Judgement in 1790. Kant was as old as Klopstock, and five years older than Lessing ; when he published the Critique of Pure Reason he was already fifty-seven years of age. He seemed to develop quickly, but in reality he held back his speculations till they were quite matured. In early years he made great His scien- discoveries in the realm of cosmic physics. Going tific works, gven beyond Newton, he propounded in 1755 a hypothesis on the origin and development of the cosmic system, which has been recognised as correct by the most modern researches in natural science. He sought, at the same time, to work on the imagination of his readers; he drew a grand picture of a burning sun, one of those priceless flames which Nature has lighted as torches to the universe; he spoke of the inhabitants of distant planets and of the possibility that our souls might find new homes in distant heavens. Finally, he says, that if we fill our minds with such reflections, then the aspect of the starry heavens on a clear night affords a pleasure which only noble souls can feel ; in the general calm of nature and with the senses at rest, the hidden intuitive powers of Ch. xi.J The Literary Revolution and the Illuminati. 137 the immortal spirit speak an ineffable language. The * Reflections on the sense of the Beautiful and the Sublime' (1764), almost entirely conceal the philosopher, and show ^^^jj^^j^ ^^ us only the experienced man of the world, who gives iiber das vent to observations, often very acute, on the characters Gefuhi des of races and nations, and, as a side-remark, utters the ^ ^ , , ' ' Ernabenen/ maxim so characteristic of himself, that in order to attain to truth one must not be bold but careful. In the ' Dreams of a Ghost-seer' (1766), he shows a most delicious His 'Traume vein of humour. He gave regular lectures on anthro- eines Geis- pology and physical geography, through which he t^rsehers. hoped to exercise an influence on real life. In fact, he had struck deep roots in the culture of his time; his learning sometimes bears an artistic colouring, and he wrote at first a clear and _ 1 , , r. . , . His style. often energetic, though not exactly flowmg style. In his chief works, however, the language is difficult and often obscure, and moves awkwardly in long, involved sentences. This, from the first, prevented his books from exercising any direct influence on the cultivated public ; the unpleasing race of commentators and popularisers had to lend their services, and among philosophical authors by profession, who aff^ected originality, the opinion gained ground that clearness was incompatible with depth, jjis philo- But the thoughts which Kant set forth in so uncouth sophical a manner were the ripest fruit of the whole philo- works, sophical movement since Leibniz ; only that here, too, perfection meant finality. In many respects Kant belongs rather to the party of his countryman Hamann than to the earlier school of Enlighten- ment. Hamann delighted in quoting the maxim of Hume, that mere reason is not sufficient to convince us of the truth of the Christian religion, and Kant too had received a strong impulse from Hume. Though much of his system is in direct opposition to Hume, yet he was agreed with him in the main jj^g point, in his hostility to so-called natural religion, that religious is, to that popular enlightened philosophy which attitude, arrogated to itself the power of proving the most important truths of religion by the light of reason. Mendelssohn's ' Morning Hours ' had been refuted before they appeared. Kant's * Critique 13H The Age of Frederick the Great. [ch. XT. of Pure Reason' sought to demonstrate that all the usual arguments for the immortality of the soul, the freedom of the human will and the existence of God, were insufficient and even impossible. And, furthermore, he appealed, not like Hamann, to revelation, but, like the same Hamann, to faith. He destroyed the visionary harmony of knowledge and faith ; but he wished, as he said, to uproot know- ledge in order to keep a place for faith, and that other world which he destroyed in the sphere of knowledge he built up again in the sphere of morality. From the voice of reason, which says to man ' Thou shalt,' from that moral ideal which lives in him, Kant thought he might infer liberty, immortality and God, and make this the substance of faith ; and he even went so far as to under- take that philosophical interpretation of Christian dogmas, which Lessing, in his ' Education of the Human Race,' had put into the mouth of a fictitious author. But throughout he held fast to the moral point of view ; Jie rejected all other worship of God than uch as consists in a moral attitude in thought and action; he only recognised positive religion in so far as it could be interpreted in the spirit of a religion of morality, and he looked forward, like Lessing, to a time when all ecclesiastical religion would become unnecessary. In their high conception of a morality which acts only from duty, which does good only for the sake of good, and in which no motive of temporal or eternal advantage tarnishes the purity of the will, in their noble worship of the dignity of the moral man, Lessing and Kant were quite at one, and by their faith they gave to their nation a moral fervour which stood them in good stead in days of trial. But Lessing and Kant were not the only men who, at the end of the age of Frederick, attained to a purer and deeper form of philosophy ; Herder also must be added to them. Not only Wolf- Herder and ^^b^t^^l ^^<^ Konigsberg, but Weimar too was one of Goethe's the classical homes of German Enlightenment. Herder later reli- and Goethe adopted a theory of the universe in har- gious views. jj^Qjjy ^'^^ j.jjg views of Spinoza. Together they built their temple on a height from which Goethe had already, at an earlier period, cast a far-reaching glance into infinite distance. They now separated themselves completely from men like Lavater, Jacobi, Ch. XL] The Literary Revolution and the Illuminati. 139 and Claudius. Herder discarded his ardent prophetic manner, and wrote a clearer and more regular, though still at times somewhat unctuous and rhetorical style ; a style in which we seem to trace Goethe's influence. He gave up his exalted faith, bestowed his respect again on such men as Spalding and Michaelis, whom he had attacked in Biickeburo^, and in an enthusistic necrologue he eulogised Lessing as the true seeker, discoverer, and defender of truth, the courageous enemy of all hypocrisy and half- Herder's truths. In his ' Letters concerning the study of theo- theological logy* he advanced a proposal for reading the Bible works. ' from a human point of view, and laid down the maxim that * theology is a liberal study, and requires no slavishness of soul.' In a succession of theological writings he proved himself to be a gentle disciple of Christ, and in a special volume, entitled ' God,' published in 1787, he set forth his view of Spinoza's doctrine, which is rather a re-modelling of Spinozism for his own use than a faithful reproduction of the same. In the four volumes of his ' Ideas on the Philosophy of the History of man' -^^^ 'iw\^ (1784 to 1 791), he unfolded a grand picture of nature sophie der and humanity, fulfilled with the thought of an all-per- Geschichte vading law. He begins with the position of the earth ^®' Mensch- m the universe, ' a star among stars, then passes from the constitution of our planet on to inorganic and organic nature, and rises from minerals, plants, and animals to man ; he dwells upon man's organization and significance, his dependence on sur- rounding nature and the beginnings of his culture, and describes the development of this culture among various nations, in Eastern and Western Asia, and along the coast of the Mediterranean, in antiquity and in the Middle Ages. He has arranged a wealth of material into an articulate system, with infinite skill and true talent and taste, and has interwoven throughout noble moral reflections. Humanity is the leading and determining thought which runs through the whole ; the history of the nations is represented as a school of probation for the attainment of the fairest crown df human dignity. Reason and wisdom alone last, while senseless- ness and folly destroy themselves, and bring ruin on the earth. Humanity is Herder's last word in history, humanity is his last T40 The Age of Frederick the Great, [Ch. xi. word in religion. His tnoughts have much in common wiih Les- sing's : but the two views which Lessinff carefully dis- Comparison ^ ' a j between tinguishes, the view of a divine education of the human Herder's race, which he himself could not wholly accept, and the andLessings Q^^gj. view of a purely natural development of all cul- views. ture, including religious culture, are often confounded in Herder. In contrast to Lessing's views, as expressed through ihe mouth of the fictitious author of the 'Education of the human race,' Herder does not accord a place of honour to the Hebrews as a nation, but reserves his warmest admiration and esteem for the Greeks. Still he has much reverence for Jesus, and expresses it in a few solemn sentences. Christ is to him a man, a teacher of humanity ; ' as a spiritual Saviour of his race he wished to form divine men, who, under whatever laws it might be, should advance the w^elfare of others from pure principles of right, and willing themselves to suffer, should reign as kings in the realm of truth and benevolence.' But, like Lessing, he distinguishes the religion of Christ from the Christian rehgion ; and while he gives an exalted position to the former, his attitude towards the latter is cold and even Ijostile. At this stage of his development Herder had lost his earlier sympathy with the Middle Ages. His work breaks off at Bis 'Briefe ^^ ^"^ ^^ ^^ Middle Ages ; the fifth book was never zvirBeforde- accomplished, and the disconnected 'Letters for the ^^^"^^ ^®5 advancement of Humanity' (1793 to 1797) were no real compensation for it. ]n these letters Herder connects his old ideals of Reason, Tolerance, and Benevolence with great historical figures of the last centuries, and pays, for in- stance, his tribute of reverence to Frederick the Great, in whose Slate he was born. ' When Frederick died,' he remarks, ' a lofty genius seemed to have left the earth ; both the friends and enemies of his glory were affected at his death ; it was as though even in his garb of mortality he might have been immortal.' types of Kant had reviewed the first and second volume the East- of Herder's ' Ideas,' and had in so doing showed his Prussian superioritv as a philosopher and critic to his coun- character. ' ., , .... , , tryman and pup.l, m a somewhat irritatmg though not violent manner. The East-Prussian character embraces strong con- ch. XI.] The Literary Rcvohition and the Illuminati. 141 trasts ; it has a gentle and imaginative and a hard and rational type. The Konigsberg poets of the seventeenth century, Simon Dach and his friends were of the former, Gottsched of the latter type. Herder, excitable and full of enthusiasm, belongs to the former ; Kant, full of reflection, self-restraint, and calmness of mind, to the latter. In such a character as Hamann these opposite qualities are mingled in the same nature, so that reason is kept in check by imagination, and imagination by reason, and now one and now the other gains the upper hand. As Kant gave a somewhat cold reception to Herder's * Ideas/ so Herder w^as from the first prejudiced against the new ooDosition Kantian doctrine, and at last was so far carried between away by his anger at the growing authority of the Herder critical philosophy, as to make a violent attack upon it in his * Metakritik ' and his * Kalligone.' But though these differ- ences in intellectual temperament led to outspoken hostility between the two parties concerned, they appeared to outsiders and to pos- terity to be rather supplementary each of the other. Kant forced his readers into the grey calm regions of abstraction, pure thought, and metaphysics ; Herder, on the other hand, transported them into the midst of the glories of nature and the activities of history. Kant kept them strictly and seriously on the other side of the senses, where pure reason has her abode, and utters her commands ; Herder opened to their wondering eyes the fair world of sensuous experience, as it reflected itself in his marvellous imagination. While these contrasts were developing themselves, while Kant on the one hand, and Spinoza and Herder on the pounda'ion other, were gaining disciples and followers, and the ©f modern foundation was thus being laid for the science of to- science and day, the greatest German poets were also creating their best works. The heroes of the ' Storm and Stress ' epoch ot l)Oetry, the revolutionisers of the drama, became disciples of the Greeks and the representatives of refined classical poetry. They loo, like Herder, passed through a refining process, and Lessing's ' Nathan ' pointed them the way to greater purity of form. A year after the death of Frederick the Great appeared Goethe's ' Iphigenie' and Schiller's ' Don Carlos.' CHAPTER XII. WEIMAR. 'Your son Goethe sits in the Wartburg, like Dr. Luther a ^ century and a half ago, and is enjoying himself tho- at the roughly, I think, among the ghosts of chivalrv, who "Wartburg, have their home in this noble castle.' Thus Wieland 1777 writes to Goethe's mother on the last of September, 1777. and he adds, after a complaint about his friend's silence: * Still he is and remains, with all his peculiarities, one of the best, noblest, and most splendid creatures on God's earth.' Goelhe was in truth thoroughly enjoying himself in the Wartburg, ' that pure, calm height in the midst of the rushing autumn winds.' His Darmstadt friend IMerck visited him there; the Duke of\ Weimar, the lord of the castle and his own master, was in the neighbourhood. The poet was trying by his sketches to impress the surrounding landscape on his mind, and he wTote to his most intimate lady-friend : ' This is the most delightful dwelling I have ever known, so high and so cheerful that one could only bear to be here on a passing visit, otherwise one would be overpowered by its elevation and cheerfulness.' The Wartburg has several times before this figured in our history of German literature. It was on the Wartburg that Landgrave ^j^Q Hermann of Thuringia, in the thirteenth century, "Wartburg received Wolfram von Eschenbach and Walther von in German (Jer Vogelweide ; it was there that in the fourteenth century one of the earliest German dramas was per- formed in the presence of another Thuringian prince ; there Luther translated the Bible in the sixteenth century ; the ruling princes of Ch. XII.] Weimar. 143 Weimar, who were his patrons, took a prominent part in the labours of the ' Fruit-bringing Society ' in the seventeenth century, and in the eighteenth century acquired the renown of having brought more fruit to German literature than any other princely patrons. German writers had hoped in vain for encouragement from Frederick the Great. In vain had Klopstock and .^ .^ others looked for^vard to the accession of Joseph II. princes as Occasional, but never constant, encouragement had literary been given to literature in Brunswick, Biickeburg, ^* rons. Eutin, Karlsruhe, Dessau and Gotha, but the Weimar princes alone succeeded in permanently attaching to their court a succession of the most distinguished men. The Duchess Anna Amalia, a Guelph princess from Brunswick, who was early left a widow and bur- dened with the care of the little state, called Wieland into her service as a tutor to her son Karl August. This young prince, who assumed the reins of government in 1775, at the age of eighteen, supported the national policy of Frederick the Great, p^ke Karl and proved himself throughout his life one of the August, most patriotic and liberal-minded of German princes ; ^^^^• he followed in the steps of his mother in securing the presence at his court of Goethe, Herder, and Schiller. In the last years of his great-uncle's life, and till 1788, he prosecuted with burning zeal a reform of the German Imperial constitution, in close con- nection with Prussia. The revival of a truly national policy and the brilliant union of the noblest spirits of the German nation were both the work of this noble-minded ruler. The University of Jena, founded in the Reformation period, when Wittenberg was lost to the successors of Frederick the Wise, passed through its most brilliant era under the patronage of Karl August. Herder left the stamp of hiagenius on the ecclesiastical and educational system of the Duchy. Side by side with the great poets and scholars, lesser men also contributed to that wonderful literary activity which now began to develop itself in the little duchy -^^^ ^^ of Weimar. Among the classical scholars there were letters at WTiters such as the busy journalist anJ archaeologist 'W'eimar. Bottij^er, and at an earlier period ^Musaus ; the latter was a story- A'\ 144 Weima?'. [ch. xir. teller of the Wieland type, and his ironical rendering of old German legends, ' Popular Fairy-tales of the Germans,' as he called them, long enjoyed great favour. From 1778 onward Bode lived in in- dependent circumstances in Weimar. He was a friend of Lessing's from his Hamburg days, and had a high reputation as a Free- mason ; he made excellent translations of Montaigne and the English humorists, Sterne, Smollett, Goldsmith, and Fielding. At the court and in its immediate neighbourhood aesthetic and literary interests were represented by Major von Knebel, the chamberlains von Seckendorf and von Einsiedel, and the private secretary Bertuch, who were all distinguished as original writers, translators, or musicians. Bertuch was, in addition, a clever bookseller, and "OJ^ as such started many useful undertakings, in particular, in 1785 the ' Jena General Literary Magazine,' an influential critical journal ; in 1786 he also commenced the publication of the first German fashion-paper, the * Journal of Luxury and Fashions.' We see that Weimar and Jena led the fashion of Germany not only in letters and art, but in all other respects. The ripest productions of Wieland, Goethe, Herder, Schiller were at the same time monuments of Karl August's MasQue for glo^ious rule. Among the written testimonies which the 18th of they themselves bore to the greatness of those times, December, Goethe's Masque for the i8th of December, 1818, 1818 Stands out above the rest. It represents the great master left alone to look back on the past and mourn his lost companions ; he recalls Wieland's * Musarion ' and * Oberon,' and summons up before him the figures of Herder and Schiller along with the creations of their genius ; meanwhile the lime, the river which flows through Weimar, sings the praises of his friends and gives a modest description of the poet himself. But to us more reality and more pathos seem to lie in the epigram in which he praises his duke. * Klein ist unter den Fiirsten Germanien's freilich der meine,' (' Venezianische Epigramme '), who was to him an Augustus and a Maecenas, and who gave him what rulers seldom bestow, sympathy, leisure, trust, fields, and garden and house. Ch. Xii.] Goethe. 145 Goethe. On the 7th of November, 1775, Goethe came to Weimar, and at once created a revolution there. The doctrines of _, ^, troetJie Rousseau and the programme of the ' Storm and comes to Stress ' party, the striving to follow nature in all the Weimar, 1775 concerns of life, took the little court by storm. The duke's own inclinations were strengthened by Goethe. Etiquette [ was altogether discarded, and, instead of the usual court- dress, the Werther costume was adopted — high boots, blue coat, and yellow ' waistcoat. In their enthusiasm they all sought to harden themselves by living much in the open air, by Jipng walks, venturous rides, skating parties at night, and exciting chases. They danced in the ^^ country with the peasant maidens, and- gave up many a night to the magic of wine and poetry, to the grief of the young duchess and her ladies. Goethe himself in later years did not like to look back on this mad time, but it gained him the life-long friendship of the duke. In daily intercourse they opened their hearts to each other, and Karl August, who showed from early manhood great strength of will and sure discernment of character, perceived in Goethe the stuff for making a useful servant of his state. Goethe had only come as a guest of the duke ; in this inde- pendent position he succeeded in getting Herder called , to Weimar. By the i ith of July, 1 776, he himself was official appointed Councillor of the Legation, with a seat and activity in vote in the Privy Council; in January, 1779, he un- w^eimar. dertook the direction of the War Commission and the Highways Commission; in June, 1782, he became provisionally Minister of Finance, the most responsible position in the administration. He put the finances into order, and insisted everywhere on economy. In his official career generally he followed the maxims of his beautiful poem : ' Edel sei der Mensch, hilfreich und gut.' _ He sought to raise the lower classes, and worked hard and inde- fatigably to render the government a truly humane and enlightened despotism, and thus to realise the liberal ideals of his youth. Though at first the old officials looked askance at him, while the duchess saw in him the evil genius of the duke, yet he ended b/ VOL. II. L 146 Weimar. [ch. xii. gaining general confidence. Moreover, this absorption in public affairs was most beneficial to him ; the wide interests and activities of political life gave him that satisfaction which he could never find in the practice of the law. What was 'problematic' in his nature, to use his own expression, disappeared, and public service made him firm and consistent. Surrender to the duties of office , taught him the general duty of self-surrender, and he was but giving voice to his own deepest experience when he wrote in his diary : ' None but he who quite denies himself is worthy to rule and able to rule.' The court-life, too, exercised a good influence on him. Hitherto he had delighted to disregard with student-like free- influence of doni all the customs of society, and in his first months court-life at Weimar he had led with the duke a second student- upon im. ji^g . 1^^^ xiQ)^, in the company of noble women, such as the Duchess Luise and Frau von Stein (wife of the Master of the Horse), he learnt to appreciate the value of social rules and morality. The established forms of refined social intercourse now seemed to him an unmixed good, and the aristocracy, who follow them from youth up, appeared to him the flower of society. He himself had been ennobled by Imperial diploma in April, 1782, and though neither Schiller nor he could possibly feel themselves raised as men by this rise in rank, yet the fact is a valuable external evidence of the increased esteem in which national poetry was beginning to be held. Now once more, as in the classical period of Middle High- German literature, poets moved as equals among equals in the highest grades of society. Now, too, Goethe experienced in himself that ennobling power of love which the Minnesingers praised so His friend- ^^^o^ly \ in the noble character of Charlotte von Stein ship with he seemed to have found everything ' that man in his Prau von earthly limits of high happiness can call by a divine name ' (of. the poems ' An Lida ' and * Fiir ewig '). He reverenced her with deep gratitude, and in one of his short lyrics, ' Zwischen beiden Welten,' he ranks her influence on his life by the side of that of Shakspeare. Goethe's relation to Frau von Stein developed the tenderest side of his nature. She was open and sincere, not passionate, not enthusiastic, but full of intellectual ch. XII.] Goethe. 147 ardour; a gentle seriousness dignified her demeanour; a pure, sound judgment, united with a noble thirst for knowledge, rendered her capable of sharing all Goethe's poetic, scientific, and human interests. We possess innumerable letters and hasty notes which he addressed to her, and which contain germs for a thousand most beautiful poems. His letters to Frau von Stein are as rich in inci- dent, as sincere and pathetic and full of charm as Werther's letters, but much more concise and free from declamation. And in their author we have something better than a Werther ; not a morbid lover, but a true friend and brother. It is wonderful to watch the strange, passionate, extravagant, youthful genius developing into the mature man. The moral and religious forces of his nature were strengthened and elevated by Frau von Stein. Purity is the name he has for that nobler inward life which she awakened in him, and in which he seemed to rise more and more to the passionless wisdom of Spinoza. ' Calm and presentiment of Wisdom ' is one of the entries in his diary at this time. ' Holy fate,' he prays, * let me now, cheerful and self-possessed, know the happiness of being pure.' And further on he expresses this wish : ' May the idea of the pure, which extends even to the food which I take in my mouth, become ever clearer and brighter wiihin me.' His poetry, too, became at this lime a mirror of purity. Court- festivities, and an amateur theatre in which the court improve- took an active interest, made frequent demands on his ments in poetic talents. His new life furnished new problems ; ^^ poetry. . public office and aristocratic society increased his knowledge of human nature, and supplied him with new characters, and the ideal, moral world in which he was now living was reproduced in figures of lasting grandeur. His deep recognition of the blessing of a strict law regulating the life of action made him more inclined again to recognise fixed forms in poetry. The sympathy with others, which he now fostered in his heart, his noble faith in an en- nobled humanity, independent of the finite and accidental differences of rank and circumstance, of religion and nationality, all this had its influence on his style and poetic method ; it is shown by the in- creased earnestness with which he sought to portray general human types rather than the individual and accidental peculiarities of men. L 2 ^3 148 Weimar. [Ch. XIT. Whereas in Werther he had drawn the portrait of a singular and exceptional personality, of one who seemed almost a freak of nature, he now tried to look at the individual as just a single example in which the great essential features of humanity are embodied. He had in former days gone so far as to help Lavater in his attempts to read men's faces, but now he turned from the individual stamp His scientific ^o Study the general type of structure, the anatomy of studies. man. Werther's enthusiasm for nature, his imagina- tive absorption in the phenomena around him, in the character of the landscape, in the changes of the seasons and the weather, now assumed more and more in Goethe's mind the character of a deep scientific interest. The lover of nature, who clung with passion to reality and sought to fix it in his drawings and poetry, was trans- foi-med into the genuine naturaHst. Liie at Weimar, in country, wood and garden, brought natural objects more closely before his eyes. Forestry led to botany, and the Ilmenau mining works, of which he had the official superintendence, led to mineralogy and geology. In an eloquent essay on granite he justified the transition from * the contemplation and description of the human heart — that youngest, most manifold, varying, and changeable of creations — to the obser- vation of the oldest, firmest, deepest, most irhperturbable son of Nature.' The disciple of Spinoza revelled in the contemplation of the universe, eternally changing, but changing according to un- changeable laws. The poet needed to conceive of Nature as an -active and living organism, carrying out its life as a whole into its parts. He believed that Nature is steady and slow in her action, and that the earth is subject to gradual processes of transformation, for which enormous periods of time must be allowed. In the or- ganic world also he believed that gradual changes are going on, resulting over enormous tracts of time in the transformation of vegetable and animal species. Everything sudden and revolutionary was hateful to him, both in the natural and in the moral world. Nature makes no leaps, he said with Leibniz, and he proved his faith by the discovery of the intermaxillary bone in man, by which he got rid of the asserted difference between the human skeleton and that of the ape. In all these studies Herder was his faithful companion, though ch. xn.] Goethe. 149 he was on the whole rather sympathetic than individually active in research. Herder's ' Ideas on the Philosophy of the Goethe and History of Mankind ' derived much benefit from these Herder, common studies. The idea which Kant in his unfavourable review refused to recognise in Herder's book, because it was so stupendous that reason shrunk back before it, the idea namely of a real blood- relationship of all organic beings to one another, by means of which men had developed from animals and animals from plants, — this idea those most nearly concerned in the work believed to be ex- pressed in it. There can be no doubt that Goethe and Herder more or less grasped that point of view which we associate with the name of Darwin. Goethe's first period of public life, comprising the ten years from 1776 to 1786, is marked by important progress in all Qoethe's directions. Poetry and science, friendship and love re- life from ceived new impulses, and he himself became a better ^^76 to 1786. man. Yet in all his circumstances there was something that could not permanently endure. His official labours did not leave sufficient scope for his poetic faculties ; a busy statesman might find time for poetic and scientific sketches, for small essays, poems, and plays for festal occasio is, but not for greater, well worked out and per- fected compositions. Moreover, as a minister he could not get the Duke to carry out everything that he considered necessary ; certain differences in fundamental principles could not be smoothed away. The relation, too, with Frau von Stein suffered from a certain un- naturalness ; love cannot live by alms, and the most intimate friend- ship with the wife of another could not make up for his own want of domestic happiness. Goethe's Italian journey of 1786 to 1788 brought about a thorough change in all directions. The journey itself removed the unnatural strain under which he had been of Goethe's living. In observation, creation, and enjo}'ment he journey to could now entirely follow his inclinations. Rich trea- ^^^> " • sures of nature and art were rendered accessible to him. His views became more settled and more just, and his altered conditions of life left a deep impression on his whole development, moral as well as artistic. For two years he was free from official duties, and on 150 Weimar. [ch. xii his return he only retained the Commissionership of mines, though he soon added to that the supervision of the University of Jena and the superintendence of the State-institutions for science and art; these duties he fulfilled till his death, and in addition he was for twenty-six years director of the Weimar Theatre. His sojourn in Italy and the time immediately following on it also gave him leisure at length to complete the first general edition of his works ; this appeared from 1787 to 1790, in eight volumes, and after a silence of eleven years revealed him to the public, for the most part under a new aspect. In this edition his youthful works were toned down as much as possible, his extravagances were modified or pruned Kevision of ^ ' , , • . . , , , his early away, and no more liberties were taken with the Ian- works in the guage. The greatest care had been bestowed on the edition of . Sorrows of Werther,' which stood first in the collec- 1787-1790. ' . ^ . , J ■, , . , 1 . tion. A riper art had stamped this work as a classic. The characters of Lotte and Albert were elevated, the connection of action with character made more pointed, and the episode was introduced of the peasant youth, who being placed in the same cir- cumstances as Werther, kills his rival. Moreover, in this second edition of the work Goethe sometimes adopts a slightly ironical tone in describing his hero's sentimentality. But besides the old well-known productions, which had already captivated the jjg^^Qj,^g whole German reading-public, new works now ap- in the same peared which were to win the further applause of edition. ^i^g nation. Along with the songs to Friederike and Lili there were now poems to Frau von Stein ; besides the revised operettas ' Erwin ' and ' Claudine ' there appeared other new ones, such as ' Jery und Bately ;* with the old farces in the style of Hans Sachs there was now the new satire of the ' Birds,' written in imita- tion of Aristophanes, and the ' dramatic freak,* as Goethe called it, entitled ' Triumph der Empfindsamkeit ;' by the side of ' Clavigo' and ' Stella,' there were ' Faust ' and ' Egmont,' * Iphigenie ' and * Tasso.' * Faust,' indeed, was still a fragment, but ' Egmont/ \\ hich had been planned in Frankfort, now appeared in iis compjeie form. ' Egmont ' was printed in prose throughout, but the later parts be- tray an iambic rhythm. The original Shakspearian manner gave Ch. XII.] Goethe. 151 place towards the conclusion to a more idealising treatment. The play was planned like ' Gotz ' in the name of Liberty, Goethe's and like ' Gotz ' written against tyrants. But the * E^s^pa.*-* object of attack here was the Spanish violation of Dutch rights, Spanish intolerance of Protestantism, and Spanish betrayal of a noble and confiding hero ; the interest of the piece is thus made cosmopolitan rather than exclusively national. The masses are represented in this drama as easily led away and cowardly^ like the citizens in Shakspeare's 'Julius Caesar ;' this fact shows that even in his youth Goethe did not understand by liberty the rule of the majority. By placing by the side of the_zealous Catholic Regent, IVIargaret of Parma, a sober-minded, worldly councillor, who bears, not without reason, the significant name of Macchiavelli, and by making it clear that it is Orange whose feet are set in the right way, Goethe let it be clearly understood that his own political views were of a very realistic and practical character. This ^la^ is nieant to show ^that^het, delights us^in poetry is by no means what is practical in politics. Egmont character of himself is a creation of poetry, reminding us, though Egmont. distantly, of Goethe's Fernando in * Stella,' or even of Crugantino in * Claudine.' He lives carelessly and gains all hearts. The magical charm of hiis_ affable nature delights the people, captivates a simple giil like Clarchen, wins the Regent, and even overpowers the son of his bitterest enemy. But ruin approaches in the person of Alba, and Egmont perishes because he yields to his innate in- souciance^ and despises the coimsels of prudence. He hopes to the last, and when every hope for his own life is cut off, he still hopes for his people, of whom he bears an ideal picture in his heart, very diff"erent from the reality which we are allowed to see. But the timid burghers of Brussels, who melt away in panic before Alba's soldiers, are not the whole of the Dutch nation ; Clarchen, tco, is one of them, Clarchen who has joined her fate indissolubly with Egmont's, who throws the whole enthusiasm of her nature into the attempt to save him, tries to excite the crowd in the streets to revolt, and when all is in vain, precedes her lover in death. By making Liberty appear in the last scene in a dream, disguised as Clarchen, to solace the hero as he lies in the condemned cell. 1^2 IVetmar. [Ch xii. the poet reconciles us to the issue, and even the introduction of music at the close softens the stern tragedy of an inexorable fate. Goethe's Egmont does not, like the historical Egmont, leave behind him a mourning wife and wailing children ; he passes out of the world with a free, bold step, like a victor, and finds again in the next life those whom he loved in this. While • Egmont' is connected in its origin with 'Gotz,' ' Iphigenie ' jjig and ' Tasso ' sprang directly out of the poet's life at • Iphigenie,' Weimar. ' Iphigenie,' in particular, which was completed 1787. jj^ |-j^g beginning of 1787, marks more than any other work of Goethe's the moral purification experienced by the author, and his return from the revolutionary ideas of his youth to the vener- ableJjaditions of the Renaissance. Though these traditions had not been unknown to his youth, yet he had never hitherto given himself up so entirely to them. The subject which he now chose was one which Euripides had treated, namely, Iphigenia among the Tauri; but ^.^ instead of availinsr himself of the outward and mechani- Diflferences . ° from cal solution of the problem, which the ancient drama Euripides' permitted, Goethe offered that inward reconciliation *"^*' which the modern spirit demands. He could not have recourse to any Deus ex machind, who should dictate the law of wisdom to the hopelessly perplexed human mind; he therefore transformed the human characters themselves, softened the contrast between Greeks and barbarians, and represented the king of the Tauri as so noble a nature that his final conciliation does not seem inconsistent with his previous attitude, and the peaceful conclusion of the play- does not strike us as unnatural. Goethe also gave another interpretation to the oracle which brought Orestes and Pylades to Tauris ; he made the return of Iphigenia to her native land, toge- ther with the recovery of Orestes, the central point in the play, and transformed the pursuing furies into the remorse' which torments Orestes' own soul. He borrowed one fine psychological motive from Sophocles' * Philoctetes : ' Iphigenia allows herself to be per- suaded into taking part in a lie, but she cannot carry out the part she has undertaken ; she speaks the truth just at the most dangerous moment, and by this very act overpowers the opposition of the king. The gloomy Orestes and the pure-minded Iphigenia are alike Ch. XII.] Goethe, 153 in being thus sincere and upright, Pylades, on the contran', the experienced man of the worid, at once bold and prudent, a devoted friend and full of ardour for heroic deeds, has chosen Ulysses as his model ; he accordingly prefers the path of cunning and strata- gem, and thus supplies the foil to the cliaracters of Orestes and Iphigenia. ( Orestes is a diseased mind like Werther. But it is not imaginary evils that pursue him, nor wavering sentiment which character of destroys his power; a dreadful crime weighs upon Orestes. him, and a guilt-laden family seems about to die out in him. The horrors accumulated on the house of Tantalus are first revealed to us in Iphigenia's conversation with King Thoas, when she tells him of the good fortune and the arrogance of her great ancestor Tantalus, the unrestrained passions of his son and grandson, and her own cruel fate, her sacrifice by her father and her rescue by the goddess Diana. Pylades and Orestes later on complete the dreadful tale, and the latter has to acknowledge with his own lips the fearful deed he has wrought, the murder of his mother. The tortures of remorse and self-abhorrence seize on him again at the recital of his crime; his mind seems quite darkened, and madness takes possession of his faculties. The longing for impcRding death gathers like the gloom of night more and more darkly round his head. But he does not like Werther lay violent hands on him- self, and the force of a tortured imagination, which transports. him into the next world, is at the same time his salvation. Death, though only grasped in illusion, is a reconciler ; Orestes thinks he sees Atreus and Thyestes, the two hostile brothers, united again in Elysium, and Agamemnon wandering there hand in hand with Clytemnestra. This visionary glance into the quiet world of the departed calms the storm which is surging in his bosom, and in his sister's arms the guilt-laden man, torn by remorse, is restored again to his former self. But the clouds are not yet all dispersed, and there is still reason for fear; it is yet doubtful whether the returh to Greece will be successfully accomplished. Even Iphigenia's trust in Providence is temporarily shaken ; ' Save me,' she prays to the Olympian gods, ' save me and save your image in my soul.' But from her own pure, childlike heart comes deliverance. Her faith in truth does not 154 Weimar. [Ch. xii, deceive her ; in recovering her own true self she recovers her inward peace, and brings the same peace to her friends. Barbarians and Greeks, gods and men are reconciled, all discords are resolved into harmony, and men's differences forgotten in their common humanity. Orestes returning to life through dreams of death, and cured by the touch of Iphigenia, typifies Goethe freeing himself from morbid thoughts, and finding peace for his soul in the friendship of Frau von Stein. The race of the Tantalidae also, passing from arrogance and passion to submissiveness and self-control, from fear and hatred of the gods to trust and love, may well be taken as symbolical of Goethe himself, who now laid aside the rebellious and defiant attitude of his Prometheus and found happiness in the constant love of God as set forth in the teaching of Spinoza. ^Iphigenia represents the power of ideal womanhood. Her , Character of approach brings peace and reconciliation ; her priest- Iphigenia. hood imparts a milder character to the religion of the barbarians, and the soft tone of her voice propitiates the harsh king. The weak woman overcomes all resistance, but she is not really weak, for she knows no fear ; the pure instinct which she follows makes her bold, and she remains constant to the idea of right which she has formed. In the school of obedience and misfortune, in the separation from home and family, and in the service of the virgin goddess she has acquired that firmness of character by which she gains her purpose. Her noble character lifts her into the atmosphere of a still higher general goodness ; and the maxims and reflections on the nature of man and woman, on the blessings of friendship, on sincerity and prudence, which run through the whole play, continually reveal an insight into the highest principles of the moral world. The Hellenic style of some of Goethe's youthful poems appears Style of in this play purified, toned down and raised to an even Goethe's level of artistic perfection ; this perfection was wanting 'Iphigenie -^^ ^j^^ original prose sketches for the play, and was Wieland's only attained in the blank verse of the final version. ' Aiceste.' The Style of Goethe's * Iphigenie ' had already been anticipated 'to some extent in a work which Goethcw in his Ch.xii] Goethe, 155 youth had unsparingly scoffed at, in Wieland's opera ' Alceste,' which has some Hnes bearing a marked resemblance to passages in Goethe's drama. The Renaissance-drama of Italian and French hterature had, after the appearance of Lessing's * Sara,' more and more lost its power in Germany; the Alexandrine tragedy had been long ago discarded, and the Opera alone remained faithful to classical subjects, and continued the spirit and the style of the Renaissance-drama. Gluck composed an ' Orpheus,' an 'Alcestis,' an ' Iphigenia in Aulis,' and an ' Iphigenia in Tauris.' Wieland followed the example of the Italian and French librettists ; in order to raise the level of German opera he lookup a mythological theme, the story of Alcestis, and in his treatment of it hit upon the tone which Goethe had only to follow out consistently in order to make his ' Iphigenie ' the noblest work which revived classicism can show in all modern literatures. \ Goethe introduced the spirit of the opera into the spoken drama, and succeeded in gaining for the German stage the favour of the higher classes who were still under the traditions of French classicism. 'He observed the strictest laws of form, and adhered most rigorously to unity of time, place, and action throughout all the five acts. In this, too, he laid great restraint on himself, and revealed his power by the very restrictions he laid on it. One might say that Goethe, in his 'Iphigenie,' raised the dramatic art of Racine to a higher level. He made it freer and superiority more original. He despised the conventional introduc- of' iphigenie' tion of the confidante, the convenient but improbable *° Racine's narrations, the affected reserve in the delineation of passion, and many other traditional ideas. Racine, too, had begun an ' Iphigenia in Tauris,' and in some features Goethe's play resembles the fragments of Racine's piece. Racine, too, favoured the inner world, and tender emotions are the leading interest of his dramas ; but with Racine love is almost always the spring which sets in motion outward complications and passionate inward conflicts. ,/\Vith Goethe, on the contrary, love plays a very subordinate part; Thoas, the King of the Taurians, is indeed a suitor for Iphigenia's hand, but Pylades does not, as we might naturally expect, con- ceive a strong passion for her. Selfish desire has here no place. 156 Weimar. - [ch. xii. and it only appears in Thoas in order to yield to renunciation. Those contests of generosity too, which formerly enjoyed such favour, are banished from this piece ; there is no opportunity for Orestes and Pylades each to emulate the other in readiness to die for his friend. Outward action is almost entirely wanting, and the ordinary stage- manager does not know what to do with the . , piece. All the incident there is takes place in the a psycho- souls of natural but morally noble people, and these logical do not struggle with outside evil or vulgarity, but *"^^' only with the wishes, emodons, and convulsions of their own hearts, in order to bring out in the end the victorious power of self-denial and self-conquest. In ' Iphigenie,' Goethe created a new order of drama which might be called psychological drama, and which was peculiarly appropriate to a literary period in which lyric poetry flourished more than dramatic. Germany, which since the Reformation and Pietism had had its attention so much drawn to the inner life, now, in this epoch, turned this introspective tendency to good account in the sphere of poetic creation. The style and technique of 'Iphigenie' are continued in ' Tasso;* Goethe's '^'^^ iri ' Tasso,' too, Goethe gives us a psychological ' Tasso.' drama, a powerful tragedy, in which the catastrophe re- sults purely from character. Tasso was a well-known personality to Goethe from his childhood, one of the first great poets whose name he heard mentioned. Tasso's fate, as traditionally reported, fur- nished the clearest example of the tragedy of a poet's life, and naturally appealed strongly to Goethe's mind, since he had ex- perienced in his own nature how easily a poet is led Goethe's to transfer the images of his own imagination into the own experi- actual world, and how apt he is to misconstrue reality ence. ^^ ^^ demand from it what it cannot grant, and thus to bring about a painful conflict. Tasso suffered from a distrustful sensitiveness, which became a mania of believing himself the special object of conspiracy and persecution ; he conceived a strong passion for a princess who was entirely beyond his reach, and he had finally to be removed from the circle in which alone he found happiness. Goethe had had the opportunity of experiencing personally during Ch. XII.] -- GoeiJie. 157 his first months of Weimar the attitude of the man of the world towards the poet, and he had soon himself to play the part of the prudent, cool and even cruel man of the world, when the unfortunate Lenz came to the court of Weimar. Lenz was treated with the greatest kindness and forbearance, like a sick child, but at last, through sotne foolish act like Tasso's, he drew down on himself an irrevocable sentence of banishment. Lenz and Goethe are both re- presented in Tasso, and Tasso's opponent, the statesman Antonio Montecatino, has also many features drawn from Goethe himself. Goethe, the visionary and turbulent young lawyer at Frankfort, and Goethe, the Weimar Minister, are to a certain extent embodied in Tasso and Antonio, though the latter, who is wanting in the gifts of the Graces, is at the same time a reminiscence of Goethe's opponents in Weimar. In this drama again, self-denial, moderation, and re- nunciation appear as the chief requirements for a wise conduct of life, and women are again the guardians of morality and good manners. The noble, self-possessed princess, who has learnt patience and toleration in the school of suffering, and who gives the poet such delicate sympathy and understanding, who has cured him of every false impulse and has pointed out to him the truest happiness, cannot deny kinship with Iphigenia and Frau von Stein. Her lively, somewhat intriguing friend, Leonore of Sanvitale, furnishes as delicate a contrast asPylades in Tphigenie,' only in quite a different direction ; the slight egoism in all her sympathy with other people, her flattering friendship for Tasso, joined with the after-thought of making the distinguished man whom she wishes to benefit at the same time a pleasure and an ornament to herself, all this renders her one of the most interesting types of the modern female world, and Goethe must certainly himself have often experienced the kind of egoistic sympathy which he here depicts. Tasso's eloquent praises of Ferrara are of course an expression of Goethe's feelings for Weimar. Like Tasso, Goethe had seen the world in his Weimar friends, and had long only written for them; like Tasso, he could say: 'Man is not born to be free,, and for a noble character there is no greater happiness than to serve a prince whom he can honour.' Tasso's patron, the Duke of Ferrara, in his justice, his sincerity, his chivalrous splendour, and his capability 158 Weimar. [ch.xii. of making use of everyone in the right place, may be taken as an idealized picture of Karl August. The whole work was not cast in one mould, and in this respect Style of it is inferior to ' Iphigenie ; ' Goethe had only taken 'Tasso.' two acts in prose with him to Italy, and the trans- formation into iambic verse was only completed in 1789. His strong regret at leaving Italy, his passionate longing to return thither, and the feeling of exile with which he looked back on it, have left their stamp on this drama ; but he did not find it easy to take up the subject again on his return to Weimar, and he went through a careful course of study before completing the play. Numerous events of Tasso's life are skilfully introduced, ghanged, combined, or alluded to, and the whole play moves in an atmosphere of aristocratic refinement, which gives unity to the work. The contrasts are toned down, and the characters have not the distinct- ness of portraits. The grand language which the old Greeks are made to speak in Tphigenie,' here gives place to a smooth, brilliant, courtier-like tone. The figurative style which was peculiar to Goethe from his youth twines itself in golden threads through the artistic web of the dialogue, and grand thoughts are united with charming ease and melody of expression. In spite of the lack of outward incident, the play ought to produce the strongest dramatic effect, if there were actors capable of revealing all the force of suppressed grief which lies hidden in the noble w^ords, and if there were a public whose hearts could fully echo the melting tones which Goethe here drew from his lyre. As in * Iphigenie ' and ' Tasso,' so in Goethe's poems WTitten at _ Weimar till 1786, we notice the same advance to- ■written at wards calmness and wisdom. At first he is still "Weimar restless and troubled, and longs for peace (cf. ' Wan- derer's Nachtlied'). Then he comforts himself in the evening calm of woods and mountains (' Uber alien Gipfeln ist Ruh '). In one poem he still doubts whether he shall go or remain ; in another he is full of hope for the work which he has begun (' Hoffnung '). At one time he compares himself to a skater, who boldly makes a path for himself, and soothes his care in these words : ' Quiet, my love, my heart ! Though it cracks, it does not Ch. xii.] Goethe. 159 break ! Though it breaks, it breads not with thee.' At another time he compares himself to a sailor, and calms the anxiety of his friends; he stands bravely at the helm, wind and waves play with the vessel, but wind and weaves do not disturb his heart. In the poem ' Ilmenau,' he makes a clear confession of the wildness of the first months at Weimar, and at the same time shows how different is the idea which he and the duke now have of the function of government. ' Mieding's Tod ' is a monument to the Weimar amateur-theatre, where ' Iphigenie ' was first acted, Goethe himself taking the part of Orestes to the admiration of all be- holders. Like his 'Iphigenie,' his hymns, too, are now full of the pettiness of mortals, the greatness of the gods, and the love and blessing which they pour on mankind. In the poem called * Zueignung,' he receives the veil of Poetry from the hand of Truth, and in ' Die Geheimnisse,' a poem which was planned 'Die Qeheim- about the time that Herder began his 'Ideas,' but nisse.' which unfortunately remained a fragment, he purposed to reveal to his fellow-men in a poetic form the highest form of truth yet discovered. He meant in melodious stanzas to proclaim humanity as the highest essence of all religions. He assigns personal repre- sentatives to the various religions, who live in a kind of monastic community presided over by a specially eminent man, named Humanus. We recognise here an affinity with Herder's and Lessing's views, and a connection with the deepest thoughts of the Order of Freemasons, to which both Herder and Goethe belonged. But these representatives of different nations and religions in mediaeval costume, half monks and half knights, also involuntarily recall to our minds the Knights Templars, the Holy Grail, and the ties of relationship which in Lessing's ' Nathan,' as in Wolfram's * Parzival,' bind heathens and Christians together. And when at the very beginning of ' Die Geheimnisse ' we are met by the words : * From the power which binds all beings that man can free himself who conquers himself — we are at once reminded of Walther von der Vogelweide's question and answer : ' Who kills the lion ? Who kills the giant .? Who triumphs over this and that ? That does he who subdues himself.' i6o Weimar. [Ch. xii. The humanity which Goethe teaches in ' Die Geheimnisse ' has a Christian colouring ; the arms of Luther, the rose and cross, which Valentin Andrea made the symbols of the imaginary Rosi- crucian fraternity, and which were afterwards adopted in actual secret societies, appear in this poem too as the most sacred symbol ; the cross signifies self sacrifice, 'the first and last virtue, in which all others are included,' as Goethe said in later years; the rose designates the fair blossoms of life which spring from self-sacrifice, and whose blessing Goethe himself experienced in the purification of his life and the ennobling of his art. The intercourse with his Weimar friends raised Goethe's standard of outward poetic form. Whereas Wieland treated ments in the Stanza arbitrarily as it suited him best, Goethe metre and in 'Zueignung' and in ' Die Geheimnisse' endeavoured ^ ■ to construct it according to stricter rules. About the year 1780 Herder began to translate from the Greek anthology, and to reveal the beauties of the Hellenic epigrams at the very time when Voss was rendering Homer into German ; at the same time too Goethe, who had learnt the laws of blank verse from Herder, began to write in distichs and hexameterS; though before this he had never employed purely classical metres. But it was not only in the matter of metric form that Goethe's power had increased ; in poetic conception also his lyric poetry now shows signs of progress. If we compare the poem ' An den Mond ' with the Strassburg song 'Wilkommen und Abschied,' we notice that there is less of outward incident, but the inward emotion aifects us all the more. Out- wardly it is merely a walk in a well-known valley through moon-lit fields towards the river ; but the outward world w'hich unfolds itself to the eye points to an inner world. Nature and the human soul join in a mysterious harmony. However great may be the difference, both in style and matter, between the productions of Goethe's Frankfort or Strassburg periods and ' Iphigenie,' ' Tasso,' the lyric poems we have just noticed, or indeed most of his works written at Weimar before his Italian journey, still we can also recognise a relationship between them. Werther lives on in Tasao, and though in the ' Triumph der Empfindsamkeit,* Goethe might ridicule his * Werther ' and Rousseau's ' Nouvelle H($loise ' Ch. XII.] Goethe. i6i as the ideals of sentimental romance, yet he had not made an end of sentiment ; but his sentiment now assumed a religious colouring, that is to say, if the mere mood of renunciation, an asceticism without dogmatic foundation, a spiritual enthusiasm based on a pantheistic philosophy, may still be called religious. And this renunciation was combined with a certain secret longing for the good things of life, a suppressed emotion, pent-up tears, which complete the peculiar character of this spiritual and finely touched poetry. The spiritualizing tendency of those first years at Weimar asserts itself in nearly all Goethe's works of that period. spiritual- External Nature is now not only loved and described izing ten- for her own sake, but as symbolising and reflecting dency. the inner life of mankind. In one poem, * Harzreise y"cs. im Winter,' all the incident is restricted to a few slight allusions, in order to give the fullest scope to ethical ideas. The Staubbach waterfall in the Lauterbrunnen valley suggested the * Gesang der Geister iiber den Wassern :' Soul of man, thou art like to the water. / ^ 1^ y nrAX- < .^ Fate of man, thou art like to the wind.' w^^ The * Letters from Switzerland ' again enable us clearly to follow the development of this intellectual view of nature. They consist of two series, the first corresponding to the 'Werther period,' the second to the period which schweiz.' produced 'Iphigenie;' the former are a record of First and Goethe's Swiss journey of 1775, the latter were written series on a journey which he undertook with the Duke in 1779, and in which they boldly triumphed over the difficulties of winter. The first series of letters are written in imitation of Sterne's ' Sentimental Journey,' and do not show any special genius ; they are thoroughly subjective, and overflow with declamatory eloquence and fantastic reflections in true Wertherian style, in which the reaj subject, the natural scenery, is often completely lost sight of. All these faults are absent from the second series of lettefs, which i^ highly original and an admirable worlv of art. The tone here i^ much more objective, though still pinglpd to a great extent with subjective elements, These later letters show us the many-side4 vol.. II. |kl v/ 1 62 Weimar, [Qj.xii. statesman and scholar, with ripened judgment and clear glance. Observation of nature is the chief interest, and supplies us with some glorious pictures; but besides the mere description, the author gives us in thoughtful observations an analysis of the impression produced by them on his mind, the comparisons which they sug- gest, or the inward experiences which they remind him of. In the end only, when we come to the most barren regions, does he draw for us the men who belong to them with their peculiar views of life, adding a touching legendary figure who edifies his flock near the St. Gothard, and a zealous Capuchin, who speaks to the travellers of the power, unity, and strength of the Roman Catholic Church. While both parts of the ' Letters from Switzerland ' evidently aim ^j^^ at a certain artistic unity in composition, in the ' Ita- 'Italienische lian Journey,' on the contrary, we have little more than Beise.' carelessly arranged materials, as they lay ready to the poet's hand in his letters and diaries on the journey. Here Goethe has become quite objective, living in things as they are, and in- teresting himself in facts as such. He piles up as much material as he can get, not everything indiscriminately that offers itself, but everything that specially attracts him. He is indifferent to the historical associations of places, for he wishes no web of fancy to interpose itself between him and the real objects ; he wants to see and grasp things himself, to replace the conceptions which he had derived from books and hearsay, by direct personal acquaintance. He does not only see the landscape, but also the elements of which it is composed ; as a geologist he studies the volcanoes, as a botanist he seeks to reduce to order the manifold new forms which crowd under his observation, and thus arrives at the theory of the develop- ment of all parts of the plant from the leaf, a process which he designates as metamorphosis. He enjoys the freedom of Roman life and describes the mjlnners of the people. After he had journeyed hastily through Italy and Sicily he took up his abode for a time in Rome. He did not care about fine society, but livfed with German artists and a few friends. Catholicism was repulsive to him, and even his humanitarianism, which in ' Die Geheimnisse' still wore a Christian colouring, now became anti-Christian and intolepant towards ch. XTi.] Goethe. 163 religious-minded people. He now rejected mediaevalism together with Catholicism. He had long ago become alienated from Gothic architecture, which had once appealed so strongly to his feelings as the essentially German style, but now he went even further and returned wholly to the stand-point of Oeser, Winckelmann, and Lessing. Following the general spirit of the age, he Goethe's no longer believed in one only saving religion, but classicism, he still held to one only perfect art, the one true style which only the ancients and their followers possessed. Classical art and the Renaissance alone attracted his attention, and the somewhat cold Palladio was his model architect. In painting he almost entirely overlooks the mediaeval predecessors of Raphael and Michael-Angelo, while he highly esteems their successors of the Venetian school, Caracci, Domenichino, and Guido Reni. In art, too, he does not care for history, but for the most perfect achieve- ment, the Ideal. After his return from Italy he developed still further the interests which he had there acquired. The ' Metamorphosis < «• ^ of Plants ' appeared as a treatise in 1790, and later on phose der as a poem ; he also gave his serious attention to the Pflanzen ' types of the animal world, and already a new sphere ^ '' of research was attracting him, namely, the science of colour. But successful as he was in adding new ideas to zoology studies in and botany, he quite failed in physics; he strove in physics, vain with the genius of Newton. An opposition, similar to that ^^^l~n, between Herder and Kant, separated him from the enlightened school of the eighteenth century. It was from Mathematics that that school, from Newton down to Kant, drew its chief strength, and Goethe's mathematical training had been totally neglected. It was the tendency of modern natural science, since Copernicus, to get beyond mere sensuous percept'on and to escape its illusions ; but the poet too often took sensuous perception for direct certainty. Against the Newtonian doctrine of the composite nature of white light he cherished somewhat the same kind of hatred which Hamann felt for analysis; * distinguishing and counting,' he himself says, * did not lie in my natre.' 164 Weimar. [Ch. xii. In the year 1791 Goethe first gave utterance to his opposition Goethe's ^° ^^^ Newtonian theories; in 18 10 he completed his 'Farben- investigations, and though they contributed nothing lehre, 1170. ^^ physics, yet they gave a decided impulse to physio- logical optics. The sensuous and moral influence of colour was ably discussed, and the colouring of various painters submitted to examination ; the history of the science of colour was treated as a symbol of the history of all sciences, and the whole was inter- woven with beautiful and pregnant thoughts, everywhere opening wide intellectual vistas. Nature and Art were always connected in Goethe's mind. The consideration of colouring, which had been forced upon him during his sojourn in Italy, had given the impulse to his researches on the theory of colour, and he now sought to systematise and simplify works of art in the same manner as he had surveyed the organic world. We have said that Goethe believed that the manifold Goethe's forms of plant and animal life had been developed views on from primitive forms, from original types ; in the ■^'*- same way he thought he had reason for assorting that the Greek sculptors proceeded after the method followed by nature, that they set out from the general type of man and followed him in all his differences of race, age, character, expression, and that in their ideal gods ihey disregarded the accidental peculiarities of individuals, and only retained the essential, typical features of humanity. His anatomical knowledge and even his old physio- gnomical experiments were a direct advantage to him in his study of art. The various fields of his research thus reaped mutual benefit from each other, and he seemed at this period to feel him- self ' that the sum total of his powers had been reached.' In such a mood we find him writing from Rome, that he would hence- forth only occupy himself with ' lasting conditions,' and thus, following the doctrine of Spinoza, would give immortality to his mind. He interwove his own deepest religious and philosophical convictions with the types of ancient mythology; before the highest achievements of Greek art everything arbitrary and fanciful seemed to him to fall away : ' Here is Necessity,' he exclaimed, 'here is God.' ch. XII.] . Goethe. 165 In his art-studies Goethe had found a companion in the Swiss painter Heinrich Meyer, whom he became acquainted Goethe and with in Rome, and with whom he soon entered into Meyer, perfect sympathy. Together with Meyer he began to study more closely the historical aspect of art. The old German school of art was to be studied in Niirnberg and Augsburg, while in a new journey to Italy in Meyer's company the mediaeval Italian art, as specially exemplified in Florence, was to be carefully investigated. But in the summer and autumn of 1797 Goethe only got as far as Switzerland, where he met Meyer ; the reports which he furnishes us of these months show again a marked advance on the style of the * Italian journey.' In his earlier writings Goethe would set to work without much s ystem ; now everything was carried on methodically, anJlHe'material was arranged asTn a report of a scientific journey. In describing his well-known native town of Frankfort he tries to put himself in the position of a stranger, seeing it for the first time. He uses certain tabulated forms of description in order to gauge easily and accurately peculiarities of country and people, places and individuals, circumstances and works of art. And we find him always inclined to consider all phenomena not only as existing, but as having had their existence developed in accordance^ with law, to trace out their causes and discover the forces which have been at work in their production. The great aim which floated before him in all these enquiries was the composition of comprehensive works on the theory and history of art, works of which only fragments were ever accomplished. The periodical entitled 'The periodical Propylaea' (i 798-1 800) was devoted almost exclusively ' Die Pro- to the same object, while prize-competitions in painting pylaen.' and art-exhibitions supplied practical suggestions in the same direc- tion. The autobiography of Benvenuto Cellini, which Goethe trans- lated, furnished instruction on the subject of Florentine history, art, and skilled handicrafr. The work entitled ' Winck- elmann and his Centurv,' which appeared in 1805, mann und comprised a grand account of VVinckelmann by Goethe, sein Jahr- and a history of art in the eighteenth century from the liundert, pen of Meyer. A history of colourmg by Meyer was in- serted in Goethe's ' Theory of Colour.' In later years the periodical 1 66 Weimar. [ch. xii. entitled ' Art and Antiquity ' became the journalistic organ of the Weimar patrons of art, as these two allies called them- eno ica, j^^g Their views on art suffered no perturbation . * Kunst und ^ AlterthuTD,' from their historical studies, or from the new tendencies published which were coming up around them ; they remained ^ M^ ^ faiihful followers of Winckelmann, and worshipped ancient art as the only ideal. Goethe adhered faithfully to the stand-point which he had not so much gained as confirmed in Italy, and it was only out of friendly sympathy for others that he occasionally returned to the mediaeval tendencies of his youth. In poetry, as in art, be had struck out in the direction of classical antiquity even before his sojourn in Italy. This ten- of his Italian dency became stronger and more fruitful while he was journey on there, though he never carried out some fine dramatic ^™'* projects which floated before his mind's eye during his first days in Italy and Sicily, plans for an ' Iphigenia in Delphi,' and a ' Nausikaa.' But in another respect also Italy marked a great epoch in Goethe's poetry. The inner character of his poetry as- sumed a totally different aspect after the Italian journey, corres- ponding to a complete transformation in his moral character. From his early youth Italy had always been included in his life's programme, and the more the difficulties of his life in Weimar weighed upon him, the stronger grew his yearning for the South ; all his unsatisfied longings became at last concentrated in the wish for this journey. The yearning was now fulfilled, apd though the parting from the land of promise was the cause of new grief, yet no one could deprive him of what he had seen and enjoyed. He rejoiced in the wealth he had acquired, and his circumstances in Weimar were now also arranged in full accordance with his wishes, Goethe and -^^^ "^^^ ^^ ^^^^ ^^^ "^^^ found satisfaction ; from Christiane the summer of 1788 Christiane Vulpius possessed his Vulpius. heart, and afterwards presided over his household ; she was the daughter of a Weimar official, pretty, bright, good-natured, simple-hearted, and devoted with her whole soul to her lover. It was not till the 19th of October, 1806, that she was united to Goethe by a church-ceremony, but from the beginning he looked upon her as his wife, and though this connection lost him the Ch. xiT.] Goethe. i57 friendship of Frau von Stein, a rupture which pained him deeply, yet he found perfect happiness with Christiane. Poems like the * Morgenklagen/ ' Der Besuch,' the Roman elegies and the Vene- tian epigrams freely reveal his feelings. ' I live,' he exclaims, * and were hundreds of years granted to men, I should wish the morrow still to be like to-day.' The gods, he says, have given him all that man can pray for, and he describes his beloved in this beautiful simile : ' I went along the sea-shore, seeking shells ; in one I found a pearl, which now remains treasured near my heart.' (* Venezi- anische Epigramme,' 93, 94, 28.) This final satisfaction, this earthly happiness, estranged him from the refined and delicate sentiment which breathes in His poetry ' Iphigenie ' and ' Tasso.' His poems are no longer full becomes of yearning, nor are they so spiritual in character. The ™°^® '®*^- purely intellectual tone disappeared. Werther and Tasso are more closely akin to each other than Tasso and the Roman elegies. The coarser elements of Goethe's youth came again to the front ; he be- came, to use his own expression, realistic. He was in his thirty-ninth year when he returned from Italy, and he meant henceforth to write nothing which a mature man who knew the world would not read and enjoy. As on his journeys he gazed calmly around him, observed things as they were, and reproduced them without adding to them, so in his poetry he now gave up extravagant sentiment, and sought above all to be true to reality. There is no reference now to the ideal of renunciation, no rosy gleam borrowed from the next world ; his poems now treat of earthly passion and earthly enjoyment, love of the good, the useful, and the beautiful ; they express reverence for what is great, gratefulness to a kind master, faithfulness to friends, and are not sparing in censuring bunglers, enthusiasts, and deceivers of the people. In the Roman elegies, which are modelled after Propertius, the poet transfers to Rome the happiness which he had rphe found at Weimar. With the elegiac metre of the 'BOmisclie ancients the mythological figures appear again, which Elegien. Goethe had discarded in his youth at Herder's demand ; but the beauty of these poems is never disturbed by dry pedantry or piled- up allusions, as is the case sometimes with the Roman poets. Here i68 Weimar. [ch. xii. we have either clear personifications, like Fama and Amor, or sharply-outlined figures whom the poet endows with such real, present life that their name is quite a matter of indifference, or else a revival of some myth under a new form. It is true that even thus the introduction of gods and heroes in these poems prevented their acquiring a wide popularity ; but these plain-spoken love-poems are not meant to be popular ; they presuppose mature manhood, ripe experience of life, and classical culture. To the classical scholar they seem to excel Propertius, for what Propertius only occasionally succeeds in is here characteristic of the whole, namely, graphic scene and action. These Roman elegies are a series of beautiful pictures, with all the added charm of life and movement. None furnishes a more brilliant example of what we mean than the short elegy (No. 1 1) in which Goethe lays these poems on the altar of the Graces, rejoicing that he may do so, since the high ideals of the gods surround him, amongst whom Love should not be absent ; in four distichs he portrays and characterizes seven gods and goddesses, so clearly and yet with such simple words that it is evident that his art was formed more under the influence of Homer than of Propertius. Lessing's and Herder's theory of poetry founded on the study of Homer, which Goethe had imbibed in his youth, here came to reinforce his rich knowledge of classical sculpture, and enabled him to handle the worthiest subject with unsurpassable skill. . ^ „ The highest creations of Greek religion and art had classical been the chief subject of Goethe's studies while in elements in Rome, and in these elegies he shows that the classical IS poe ry. -^^^jg ^f humanity still exercised their power over his mind ; the classical gods now appear again in his poetry, and the artistic conception which he had formed of them now bore the ripest poetic fruit. In reading the Roman elegies we seem indeed to feel that ' the sum total of his powers had been reached.' As in art and nature, so too in poetry he now sought after m • I the typical. Formerly he had turned away from the method in human heart, the most capricious part of creation, art and and m order to make something permanent and im- poe ry. mutable his object of worship had directed his atten- tion to stones; but now he learnt also to discover and portray the Ch. XII.] Goethe. 169 unchangeable, the ' lasting relations ' in the moral world, such as the family, the home, the neighbourhood, the community, the state, the' contrast between the settled and unsettled, or the active and the con- templative life, or the life of selfish pleasure and the life of renuncia- Y tion (' Die Wahlverwandtschaften ') ; and for this very reason the Greek gods assumed new importance for him, since they too denote lasting types in the moral world. At an earlier period Goethe would at once mark the genus to which the individual belonged, as in ' 1 phigenie ' he only used Diana as a name for the Divine gene- rally, and in Iphigenia herself created a type of ideal womanhood; but now, on the contrary, he sought for those typical forms which iie between the individual and the genus. The difference between Goethe's earlier and later method is most apparent rpj^^ in the ' Natural Daughter,' a play produced about the ' Naturiiche year 1 800. Here we have a duke who educates his Toohter. child in seclusion ; the girl fulfils all his expectations, and grows up to be his chief delight, but following an impulse of pride, he shows her too early to the world, and thereby excites the envy of his son, who thinks his interests are prejudiced by her; the son secures her secret removal, and the duke is made to believe that she is dead. We leave him lamenting over the grave of his lost happiness. Here Goethe shows us the typical father from all sides ; whatever else may characterize the man, it is the paternal nature which is made most prominent ; the incidents which are developed before us, the tragic issue which we see approaching, all this results from paternal pride. The typical element is the chief spring of action, and it is a primitive human relation that is presented before our eyes. The new style which Goethe had acquired through his journey to Italy first showed itself in his Roman elegies. The love represented m ' Tasso ' presupposes high culture, between' moral refinement, strong outward restraints, strange ' Tasso ' inward distortion, and the peculiar circumstances of and the a court where the poet is cherished and treated with elegies, much consideration on account of his talent. Tasso's love and its passionate outburst is, like Tasso's whole character, a pathological phenomenon, an abnormal case, a ' rarity in natural i7o Weimar. [Ch. xii. history,' as Fritz Jacobi would have said. The poet, on the con- trary, who in the Roman Elegies sings of his own feeHngs and experiences, reveals himself as a thoroughly healthy and natural human being ; and the love which he describes is the primitive human phenomenon — two people who are attracted to each other, then devoted to each other with body and soul, who overcome all hindrances in order to possess each other, and who forget the world around them, and even defy it where they think it necessary to do so ; it is the thing w^hich repeats itself in all ages, among all nations, in all classes, and here only shines with immortal glory through the charm of art. Schiller and Goethe. V Notwithstanding the high point of development which Goethe's powers had attained, notwithstanding the wonderful co-operation of his various intellectual interests, still, the first years after his return from Italy were not favourable to his activity as a o*^th^'^ poet. His artistic and scientific studies exercised a poetic activ- more powerful attraction over him, and seemed to ab- ity after sorb all his intellectual powers. The more he found s re urn ^^ satisfaction in the intellectual and domestic world from Italy. in which he was now living, the less did he feel the need of disclosing his inner experiences to the outside world. With the departure of those dissatisfied yearnings which had filled his soul in earlier years, his poetry had been deprived of part of the air in which it used to breathe. Yet another reason may be assigned for his poetical barrenness at this time. In the years 1792 and 1793 jjig he took part, in company with his princely master, in military the campaign in Champagne and in the siege of Mainz; experiences. ^^^ ^^^ further expanded his horizon, and the reports which he compiled from his diaries of this period are models of graphic description. They contain nothing but what he has him- self seen, and show the unerring accuracy of observation which he had acquired while in Italy. But these military experiences con- tributed further to strengthen his realism, and in fact at this period of hiS life all his finer and tenderer sentiments and emotions seemed benumbed, and threatened to be extinguished altogether. Then, suddenly, his intercourse with Schiller gave him a new ch.xii.] Schiller and Goethe. ^ 171 poetic impulse, and called him, as he said, out of the charnel-house of science back into the fair garden of life. During Goethe's absence in Italy Schiller had come to Weimar. In the spring of 1789 he was made Professor in Jena, schiller and Goethe had to write the official report of his made Pro- appointment. But no approach towards intimacy lessor in , , J Ml ., Jena, 1789. between the two men was made till the sum- mer of 1794, so long was it before Goethe could overcome the aversion which Schiller's youthful dramas had awakened in him, and which had not been diminished by his * Don Carlos.' Com- mon personal interests and acquaintances, and Schiller's journalistic activity now established an outward connection which soon de- veloped into the closest friendship. While Goethe had for years observed a dignified reserve, contri- buting to hardly any periodicals, and in fact only writing for himself and his nearest circle of acquaintance, Schiller on the contrary was in continual contact with the public. Since 1787 he had published a succession of Year-books and Calendars, and had furnished poems, essays, or reviews for other periodi- gains Goethe cals. Now, in the year 1795, he wished to start a new as a con- monthly magazine, ' die Horen ' (* the Hours '). He t"butor to •^ ° ^ "^ 'die Horen.' first gained the services of a few important collabora- tors, who were friends of Goethe's, and then in his and their name invited Goethe to become one of the contributors. A somewhat cool yet encouraging consent was the result of the petition ; but on Goethe's next visit to Jena an important conversation took place between him and Schiller, in the course of which it became appa- rent to both that there was more sympathy between them than they had supposed. After this visit Goethe wrote, expressing his hope of a further exchange of ideas, and Schiller answered with a letter summins: up Goethe's character and "®° ® ^^ ^ ^ between career, and intended to show him that no German had Schiller so thoroughly understood his whole nature, and so and Goethe. clearly recognised his worth as Schiller. From this e"* cor- ^ ° respondence. moment an alliance was formed between them, and that correspondence was begun which is the best monument of their friendship. Their letters contain unreserved communications on all 172 Weimar. [ch.xir. their aesthetic and scientific labours, reciprocal criticisms, generous advice, frank acknowledgement of one another's merits, manifold judgments on collaborators, opponents, and other contemporaries, detailed discussions on matters of principle and questions of tech- nique in poetry, and especially on the difference between the epic and the drama. For the space of eleven years, from 1794 till Schiller's early death in 1805, there was not a trace of a quarrel between them, not the slightest diminution of personal affection or of sympathy in each other's interests and labours. During these eleven years no one stood so near to Goethe as Schiller. Herder had become estranged from him, and in his aesthetic development no longer advanced but rather retrogressed ; Wieland had passed his best years, while Schiller's highest powers were yet undeveloped. Schiller's grand intellectual and imaginative achieve- incites T^ents spurred his more deliberate friend, older than Goethe to himself by ten years, to fresh poetical activity. As fresh poetic questions of art were discussed with Meyer, so now literary matters were discussed with Schiller. Goethe now sought as it were to conquer the field of poetry anew, both in theory and in practice. Now for the first time he tried to practise poetry with a conscious resort to all rules of art, with a perfect mastery in all its styles, and with a methodical selection of his subjects. He endeavoured to acquire once for all that perfect dominion of the will over the creative power, which he had already manifested in completing his ' Tasso,' when the subject no longer appealed to his sympathy. To use his own words, he learnt to command poetry. The supremacy of Weimar in German literature, for which Wie- land and Herder had helped to lay the foundation, was now an The 'Horen,* accomplished fact. In Weimar alone could a period- 1795-97. ical like Schiller's ' Horen ' have been started. The plan on which it was based showed extreme boldness. The most eminent representatives of German literature dared in this periodical , to run counter to the spirit of the times. According to Kant's testimony, there were at that time no subjects of interest to the general reading public beyond affairs of state and matters of re- ligion. Since 1789 the French Revolution and its consequences had made political discussion in Germany, as elsewhere, the order Ch. X!i.] Schiller and Goethe. 173 of the day; and religion was the great theme of the party of en- lightenment, and was handled with brilliant success by the Berlin journalists. But these very subjects of politics and religion were excluded from the 'Horen/ and all light entertainment was likewise banished. This periodical was to re-unite the politically divided world under the banner of truth and beauty. It was to look beyond the confined interests of the present, and to turn its attention to the purely human elements which are raised above the influence of the age. The new periodical was to be edited from Jena, and was to es- tabhsh itself there as a magazine for original production by the side of the Jena Literary Newspaper, which was a purely critical organ. Schiller enlisted a brilliant force of collaborators ; every department was represented by the highest talents, and yet he over-estimated their power ; in part he credited his readers with a greater capacity for severe thought than they really possessed, in part the articles pre- supposed a higher aesthetic culture than had yet found its way into wider circles. And thus the spirit of the times proved the stronger, and the existence of the ' Horen ' could not be prolonged beyond three years, 1795, 1796, and 1797. The fame of the editor and his colleagues had been exceedingly great, and the first success sur- passed all expectations. But disillusionment soon set in ; the discon- tent of the public was nourished and turned to account by the critics, and the fate of the ' Horen' clearly showed that in dismembered Germany the culture of single individuals and small circles might attain a high level without the whole nation having any share in it. Besides the ' Horen ' Schiller published annually, from the years 1 796-1800, a ' Musenalmanach,' which contained the ^^^ best productions of contemporary lyric poetry. The 'Musen- ' Musenalmanach ' for 1797, published in September almanach.' 1 796, contained Goethe and Schiller's famous ' Xenien,' four hundred and fourteen distichs, mostly of a satirical nature, in which the contrast between the allies of Weimar Q^g^j^g ^^^ and their literary contemporaries found drastic ex- Schiller's pression. These productions of mingled wit and ' Xenien,' J J • u- u 1796. rudeness contained poisonous arrows which were sure to wound, annihilating criticisms, finest traits of characterization, -A 174 Weimar. [Ch. xii. pregnant judgments, all arranged in groups with powerful dramatic effect, and concluded by a grand scene in the lower world. The chastising answers to the critics of the ' Horen ' were here expanded into a satirical picture of the whole of German contemporary litera- ture. Older poets whose power was gone, the lights of the day who pandered to the common taste, the shallow apostles of en- lightenment, the insignificant journals were all shrivelled up and consumed in the fire of the criticism of these two great writers. Lessing had occasionally given utterance to scathing judgments of the same kind, and in fact, such sweeping criticism was essayed by many during the so called period of genius, being fostered by the rapid development of German literature, in which even men of great merits were soon superannuated. The ' Musenalmanach ' for 1797 created an indescribable sensa- Eff3ct ^'°" J ^^^^ thousand copies were immediately bought of the up, and many rejoinders and innumerable criticisms 'Xenien. g^^^ made their appearance. But few of the retorts on the authors of the cruel distichs rose above tame wit and low^ sentiment. The justice of the attack was clearly proved by the miserable weakness of the defence, and a continuation of the war- fare was unnecessary. The fame of Goethe and Schiller increased unchecked. Goethe had compared the state of German literature about 1790 to an aristocratic anarchy, in which Klopstock, Wie- land, Gleim, Herder, and Goethe each ruled his own little kingdom ; but now, this anarchy had to yield completely to a duumvirate, a continuous Consulate. The struggle with the spirit of the times steeled the powers of the two allies. What the ' Horen ' had failed in was accompHshed by the terrible system of the ' Xenien,' by the publication of new poetic works of art, and by a systematic activity in connection with the Weimar stage. From 1791 to 181 7 Goethe was the director of the newly- rpjjQ founded Weimar Court Theatre, which under his German guidance passed through its greatest epoch. Karl stage. August, in erecting this theatre, was following an ex- ample already set by several pther German princes. After the failure of the Hamburg attempt under Lessing's auspices to esta- blish a national theatre, German princes had taken up the cause of Ch.xii.] Schiller and Goethe, 175 the German drama. In Vienna the long patronised French actors were dismissed, and Joseph II, in 1776, gave to the Burg-Theater the title of Court and National Theatre. The Court Theatre at Golha, founded in 1775, had, it is true, but a short-lived existence, but its best members were transferred to the new Mannheim National Theatre, started in 1779. After the death of Frederick the Great the former French play-house, on the Gendarme-market in Berlin, was given up to the German drama, and opened as the Royal National Theatre on the 5th of December, 1 786. Actors and A considerable number of eminent actors and a few play-writers, real geniuses exercised their powers on these and other stages. Ekhof, who died in Gotha, satisfied even Lessing's demands, while Schroder, the step-son of Ackermann (see p. 468), embodied the tendencies of the ' Storm and Stress ' movement. Schroder was director of the Hamburg theatre from 1771 to 1780, and then again from 1786 to 1798 ; between these two periods he acted in Mann- heim and Vienna, and everywhere incited people to emulate him. He produced the master-pieces of Shakspeare on the German stage, he attracted remarkable disciples, and personally he passed through the whole scale of theatrical achievements, from the ballet-dancer and clown to the- first-rate tragedian. Both Ekhof and Schroder considered truth to nature as ihe highest law for the dramatist and the actor. Iffiand, Ekhofs pupil and an admirer of Schroder, was for long the chief ornament of the Mannheim theatre, and afterwards, from 1796 to 18 14, Director of the Berlin theatre ; he surpassed both Ekhof and Schroder in refinement and delicacy of feeling, but being less strong in natural genius, had to replace this want by careful study and skilful calculation of effect. Schroder and Iffland, like many other actors at this time, tried l,heir hand at dramatic authorship, and became most schr6der fertile writers. Both sought chiefly to reproduce in and iffland's their dramas the private life of the middle-classes, and dramas. thereby to supplant the chivalrous dramas which had sprung up like mushrooms in the footsteps of Goethe's ' Gotz.' Schroder borrowed much from English comedies ; he seldom pandered to the fashion- able sentimentality, but on the contrary turned it to ridicule on several occasions. Iffland on the other hand was for the most part an 176 Weimar. [ch. xii. original author, and his chief strength lay in drawing affecting pic- tures of real life. None of Schroder's pieces are now acted, while IfHand's 'Hagestolzen' (Bachelors) and 'Jager' are still always witnessed with pleasure. Contemporary with these two dramatists, Kotzebue*s and after them, August von Kotzebue ruled the German plays. stage till about the end of the eighteenth century. His play entided ' Menschenhass und Reue,' with which he began his career in 1789, at once produced a great sensation, reaching even beyond Germany. No one entered so thoroughly into the ordinary in- stincts of the masses, no one could flatter them so cleverly, and no one' arranged dramatic effects so conveniently for the actor as Kotzebue. He cultivated not only the middle-class drama, but also the chivalrous drama, comedy, and farce. In him as in Iffland the tendencies of the period of the literary Revolution lived on. They were both fol- lowers of Rousseau, taking up the party of nature as against civil- ization, and offering a somewhat tame opposition to the established order of government. But Maud's decided moral tendency gives place in Kotzebue to an apotheosis of licentiousness draped in the guise of virtue. In his plays sentimental toleration and cheap emotion are allowed to overthrow the traditional ideas of morality, and generally recognised rules of conduct are ridiculed as European prejudice. His caricature of humanity renders all great tragic con- j flicts impossible, and his chief idea seems to be to force vice and misery upon us in all their nudity. Lessing's * Minna ' and ' Emilia,' Goethe's ' Gotz,' ' Clavigo,' and * Stella,' and Schiller's youthful dramas emerge as single points of light among the productions of Schroder, Iffland, and Kotzebue, and the other still more insignificant plays which satisfied the shallow taste of this period. ' Nathan,' 'Iphigenie,' and * Tasso ' could not be put upon the stage. Hardly any attempt was made to take up the Iambic tragedy, and prose still asserted its predominance. Under the plea of naturalness common-place reality reigned supreme both in matter and form during the whole second half of the last century. But as the drama had already freed itself from the bom- '-' bastic Alexandrine, so now it was gradually to adopt the nobler iambic metre. Meanwhile the Opera, with German, French, or Italian words, and ch. XII.] Schiller and Goethe, I'j'] music by German composers, attained its highest perfection. The drama had still to compete with the Opera, and could rji-^^ Opera. not free itself or the public from its influence. Com- Gluck and posers of slight, popular talent, such as Dittersdorf Mozart, and Wenzel Muller, followed in Killer's steps in the cultivation of the operetta. Gluck separated himself from the Italian vir- tuoso school, and succeeded in endowing the serious opera with the truth of the drama, giving it expressive declamation and char- acteristic music. Mozart avoided the faults of the Italian school, though he did not entirely separate himself from it ; he learnt much from Gluck, and surpassed all his predecessors in his im- mortal series of musical dramas, ranging from the ' Entfiihrung aus dem Serail ' to the ' Zauberflote.' It was in 1791, the year of the production of the * Zauberflote,' and of Mozart's death, that Goethe undertook the Goethe direction of the Weimar Court Theatre. He too took director of an interest in the opera, and provided good German the Weimar text-books for it, but by the side of the opera he also Theatre, •' ^ . 1791-1817. gradually formed a repertoire o{ good plays. His own theories and practice in art and Heinrich Meyer's counsel and aid were turned to advantage in providing decorations and costumes. Goethe took the best actor as his standard, and sought to train the others up to his level. He extended the warmest personal sym- pathy to willing talents, as, for instance, to the actress Christiane Neumann, whom he trained in the part of Arthur in Shakspeare's * King John,' and whose memory he celebrated after her early death in the beautiful elegy, ' Euphrosyne.' But at first Goethe avoided difficult or hazardous enterprises. The talents which he had at his command were not of first-class order, and his theatre was but little above the average of German theatres, although it produced upon its boards Schiller's ' Don Carlos/ * Egmont ' (in Schiller's arrange- ment), and also a few plays of Shakspeare in a sim- „. , , High level plified form, as acted, for instance, by Schroder. But of the stage with Schiller'*s newly-awakened dramatic activity the under his Weimar theatre rose to a much higher level. Between manage- , , ment. October. 1798, and March, 180^4, 'Wallenstein s Lager,' * Tlie Piccolomini/ ' Wallenstein's Death,' ' Mary Stuart/ * The VOL. 11. N 178 Weimar, [Ch. x i F. Bride of Messina/ the 'Maid of Orleans/ and 'Wilhelm Tell/ were all produced at Weimar. Schiller, who since December 1799 no longer lived in Jena but in Weimar, shared with Goethe the labours of rehearsals and of providing scenery. Goethe now became yet more zealous in his exertions, and his ideas of dramatic art rose still higher. He resolved to introduce upon his stage the most ideal form of drama, the drama in blank verse. After most careful traming of the actors, Lessing's ' Nathan ' and Goethe's iambic plays were produced for the first time on the stage, and soon even Terence, Plautus, and Sophocles were revived by the bold managers of the Weimar Theatre. Shakspeare's plays were revised with a view of bringing them more into harmony with the demands of the ' classical drama, and Calderon also was turned to account. Goethe's *Gotz' underwent several alterations. Masques were first intro- duced in Terence's ' Brothers,' and were after that often made use of; and Schiller made a German version of an Italian Masque, Gozzi's * Turandot.' The desire to extend the reperioire of the ideal drama, and at the same time to meet the tasie of the duke, led Goethe and Schiller to resort to French tragedy. Goethe changed Voltaire's ' Mahomet' and 'Tancred' from Alexandrines into ordi- nary iambics, and Schiller did the same for Racine's * Phedre ;' new versions were also made by other hands of Racine's ' Mithridate ' and Corneille's * Cid.' In the outside world no one followed the progress of the Weimar Theatre with greater interest than Iffland. He was Influence of the ^^ same age as Schiller and had begun his Hterary ■Weimar career about the same time, and Schiller's first triumphs Theatre on ^^ ^^ Mannheim sta^e had been due in part to Iff- others. land's co-operation. He acted frequently in Weimar, and this brought him into personal contact with Goethe. At first his example influenced the young theatre, but later on he himself received suggestions from it. As theatrical manager in Berlin he endeavoured to produce Schiller's new plays on his stage as soon as possible after their representation in Weimar ; the ' Maid of Or- leans ' was performed in Berlin and in a few other places before it appeared on the Weimar stage. After Ifflarid/s death Count Briihl assumed the management of his theatre \ he too was a worshipper ch.xii.] Schiller and Goethe, 179 of Goethe, and endeavoured to work in Goethe's spirit, but he had not the power or the taste to exclude from his stage the miserable French melodramas which were then the fashion everywhere. It was one of these wretched melodramas, the performance of which Karl August commanded and Goethe strenuously opposed, which put an end to the classical period of the Goethe's Weimar stage, for Goethe lost his appointment of dismissal, manager in consequence of his opposition to the duke's wishes. Goethe's own dramatic writings reaped little advantage from his official connection with the stage. His position Dffered ^ , , him, it is true, frequent opportunities, which he always dramatic gladly availed himself of, for composing stage-speeches, writings in prologues and short pieces for special occasions ; but ^^ perio though much that was beautiful thus came to light, still, after ' Tasso,' Goethe did not for several decades achieve any truly great dramatic work. About the end of the century 'Faust' was advanced a few important steps ; and, after his own works, there is perhaps nothing that we owe Schiller greater gratitude for than his incen- tive energy in reviving Goethe's old interest in * Faust.' But this unique poem was not concluded till long after this, and what Goethe further accomplished at this time consisted of trifles like the ' Bur- gergeneral,' or unsatisfactory productions, wanting in inward or outward completeness, like the ' Grosscophta ' and the ' Natiirliche Tochter.' The five act comedy entitled the ' Grosscophta ' (i. e. Cagliostro), was acted for the first time in Weimar on rphe ' Gross- the 17th of December, 1791. It was intended at first cophta,' to be an opera, and it would have been an advantage ■'■'^^■'■• to the piece if this original plan had been adhered to ; as we have it, it is a dramatisation of the well-known Diamond Necklace story, giving a horrible picture of the depravity of the upper classes. The characters are superficial sketches, the dialogue and the develop- ment of the plot are very carelessly handled, and there is an utter want of interest in the character of the arch-swindler. The ' Natural Daughter ' stands on a far higher level than this transformed Opera. It was performed at Weimar on the second of April, 1803, and, like the * Grosscophta,' it bears on the French Revo- lution and the state of things which led to it. Till the present day, N 2 1 80 Weimar. [Ch. xii. this play has not succeeded in winning the favour of the German The public, though it is one of Goethe's most refined and *]sraturliche original works. It introduces us to a state of society in Tochtsr,' which the royal prerogative enjoys an exaggerated ven- 1803 eration, while in realitv it is powerless and exposed to the most shameless abuse on the part of ambitious intriguants. Eugenie, the heroine, an ardent Royalist, and in reality an off- shoot of the royal family, though not yet publicly recognized as such, falls a victim to a base intrigue, and is torn away from her father's home. In the place of concealment to which she has been taken she gives her hand to a man of the bourgeois class, and thereby, presumably, renounces the rights of her birth. With Incomplete- ^^^^ incident the fifth act of the drama closes. The ness of the work, as we now have it, was to have formed the first ^^^^- part of a trilogy, and in its fragmentary condition it cannot produce its full effect, notwithstanding the masterly charac- terization, the powerful situations, and the grand, though occasion- ally somewhat vague language. The sequel was to have shown how the weakness of the government and the ruler's incapacity to remove inherited abuses left the way open for all selfish interests, and how a prince, who believed he was ruling, was really himself but a tool in the hands of designing persons; further, Goethe meant to have depicted the triumph of the lower elements in society, and after party had followed on party, and government on govern- ment, Eugenie woul 1 have re- appeared on the scene of political action with her loyalty towards the king and his family unchanged, and would have remained by their side as a ministering angel in their hour of greatest need ; finally, according to Goethe's plan, after much bloodshed in the conflict of classes the military power was to have at length triumphed. This play was suggested by a French Me- moire, of very doubtful historical and artistic value, but which in Eugenie's experiences offered a convenient thread of connection for the chief events of the French Re\ olution. France, it is true, is never named throughout, but the French Revolution is represented as a typical phenomenon and traced to what Goethe considered to be its causes. He lays bare vvith an unsparing hand the sins of those in power, but at the same time he does npt flatter the people, and Ch. XII.] Schiller and Goethe. i8i he suspects selfish motives behind their enthusiastic words. It is the greatest pity that we only possess the beginning of this grandly- planned poetic work. But though Goethe's dramatic activity was stagnating at the very time when Schiller's skill as a dramatist was developing itself :o the ut rost, it was not till now that he developed his highest power in the sphere of epic poetry. After ' Werther ' he had written no novel or tale, and the period of his life im- mediately preceding his Italian journey has nothing to show in the way of epic beyond a few ballads, such as the < -wilhelm * Fisher ' and the ' Erlking.' But, meanwhile, ' Wil- Meister's helm Meister's Lehrjahre ' was quietly taking shape, Lehrjahre.' and the first good eff'ect of Schiller's sympathy was to persuade Goethe to complete this comprehensive romance; a work which contributed more than any other to spread the fame of its author, and, especially in Berlin, to establish his literary authority for ever. While the readers of * Werther's Sorrows ' had been made lo con- template the world through the eyes of a romantic youth, in ' Wil- helm Meister,' on the contrary, the world was represented as it is, and as unprejudiced men are wont to regard it. The work is divided into eight books, of which the first five appear to have been planned under the influence of the views of Goethe's Frankfort period. Wilhelm is a warm-hearted hero, like Fernando in ' Stella.' He has a susceptible nature, and is a favourite among y ♦ ^ women, but his will is weak and he is too hasty in books, entering into binding relations. He shows a decided 'Wilhelm's striving after the harmonious development of his mind, ^ aracter. taste, and even personal appearance, and he has most exalted ideas of a possible reform of the German stage. He looks more into his own soul than into the outer world, and is constantly pour- ing out his views and feelings to others. His knowledge is derived more from the poets than from experience or observation, and in consequence he is inclined to self-deception. Sometimes, however, there comes over him a recognition of his schoolboy-like nature, and in Shakspeare he finds a leader and a friend who at least stimulates him to get to know the world around him better, and to use this knowledge for the advantage of the German stage. For i82 Weimar. [ch. xii. Wilhelm is wavering -between business and the stage ; bis father wishes to keep him to the former, while his own inclinations impel him to the latter. Throughout we recognize in this character young Goethe himself, the son of the Frankfort citizen, the Shakepearian enthusiast ; only that Goethe's business was law, while Wilhelm, like Goethe's friend, Fritz Jacobi, is a merchant, and secondly, that Goethe benefited the stage solely as a poet, not as an actor, while Wilhelm, though he does also write poetry, feels himself specially attracted by the theatrical career. He is constantly associat- ing with actors and actresses, such as Marianne, a character rather resembling Clarchen, the calculating Melina and his emotional wife, the misogynist Laertes, the frivolous but altogether charming Philine, the stage-manager Serlo and his passionate, deeply injured sister Aurelia, who has been forsaken by an aristocratic lover. Delicious and animated scenes are brought before us, alternating with serious discussions on art, little intrigues, exciting events, and tragic situations. In the fifth book Wilheim's father dies, and then he really goes on the stage ; his first part is Hamlet, in which he pleases the public, and thus his career in life seems decided. But at this very point the author leads us into another world, Last three and takes up a different stand-point. Wilheim's act- books, ing, we are told, was a failure ; we are assured that he had no talent for it, and an aristocratic circle, with which he has till then only come into occasional and slight contact, now takes possession of him. In the first five books the aristocracy does not play a very noble part, being represented by a Baron who dabbles in the drama, a Baroness whose coquetry goes beyond all limits, a somewhat crazy Count and his beautiful but not scrupulously faithful wife. But now in Lothario we are introduced to tiie noblest type of an aristocrat and German gentleman, a character bearing an indubitable resemblance to Karl August. This Lothario is sur- rounded by a circle of devoted friends : the cold, sensible Jarno, whose prototype may have been Merck of Darmstadt, an Abbe, who was perhaps suggested by Herder, Lothario's sister Natalie, a gentle, sympathetic soul, pure and noble-hearted, who might be compared to Frau von Stein, and the practical Theresa, a kindred nature to the active Lothario, whom she afterwards marries. Wil- Ch. XII.] Schiller and Goethe. 183 helm's position with regard to these people is much the same as that of Goethe at the Court of Weimar. A life of action now seems to him the only kind of life worth living ; he considers it a privilege to serve Lothario, and his love-troubles find a happy end- ing in the love of Natalie. Caste prejudices do not appear among these excellent people, and the novel finishes with several mes- alliances. The male members of this aristocratic circle are united in a secret society which had long had its attention directed to the hero, and which at length receives him as one of its members ; here we are again reminded of the Order of Freemasons, to which V the Duke, Herder, and Goethe belonged. The ' Confessions of a beautiful Soul,' inserted at the end of the fifth book, are really a biography of Fraulein von Klettenberg, that Frankfort friend of Goethe's who con - , Bekennt- verted him for a time to Moravian Pietism, and whom nisse einer he now represented as an aunt of Lothario and Na- schonen Seele. talie. These ' Confessions ' complete the picture of morals to which Goethe introduces us in this book. Wilhelm and the actors, as well as Lothario, Jarno and their associates are children of the world, entirely occupied with the present life, finding full satisfaction in their aesthetic calling or in useful activity, and almost all equally ready to take the pleasures of life and love with- out scruple wherever they may find them. Wilhelm, it is true, has higher principles, but without any religious basis. The aunt on the contrary, and her niece Natalie, who is spiritually akin to her, belong to quite a different sphere ; the aunt is the picture of a Moravian Pietist, while Natalie belongs to the humane family of Iphigenia. Two tragic figures are added to these, wandering in a twilight of mystery over the earth — of Mignon Mignon and the harper ; they are daughter and father, and the unknown to each other, exiles from their native coun- arper. try, and united to Wilhelm Meister by ties of love and gratitude. None of Goethe's creations appeal more strongly to the depths of the human soul than these two characters, with their touching songs. Solemn echoes of old mysticism seem revived in these songs full of earthly misery and longing for heaven ; the laments of the loving but unloved maiden, the homeless, friendless child. \'^ 184 Weimar. [ch. xii. who may not reveal her inmost soul because her lips are sealed by a vow, alternate with the tears of the guilty, God-forsaken, lonely and remorseful old man. A deep gloom rests on the head of each, and the future seems to have no dawn of brightness for them. Mignon and the harper are creations of Goethe's earher and ten- derer period. Knowledge derived from observation of real life, for which the court offered such rich opportunity, was combined in ' Wilhelm Meister' with material accumulated some time before, and ♦Wilhelm the free morals which reigned around Goethe at Wei- Meister' ^^^^ ^^^ reflected in the book. We have evidence that begun 1777, , , i • • t- i j • finished "^ began to work at it m r ebruary, 1777, and it was not 1796. finished till almost twenty years later ; the work began to appear in January, 1795, and was completed in October, 1796. The story is supposed to take place about the time of the Bavarian War of Succession. Lothario has fought in the War of American Independence, and is now actively occupied in improving his pea- santry. His liberal reforms seem to realise all Werther's demands ; the aristocracy no longer oppress and scorn the aspiring son of the I people, but receive him into their society. Among the various \ ranks of society special prominence is given to the aristocracy and the trading middle-classes ; the former appear in the best light, The while the latter are almost caricatured in the person theatrical of Wilhelm's friend and brother-in-law. But the chief intirest. interest centres round the actors, who appear now as vagabonds, now in high honour; they have manifold points of contact with those above and below tliem in the social scale, but they form a society by themselves, and have their own peculiar laws and customs. The theatrical life, and everything connected with it, is unfolded before us with almost systematic completeness, and we are all the more astonished when we find this supposed theatrical romance taking quite another direction, and notice at the same time that the new and presumably higher region into which the hero has entered is treated with much less care than the early part of Want of ^^^ work. The long discussion on Hamlet, and the unity in the space and interest devoted to all matters connected work. ^,j|.j^ ^j^g drama and the stage in the first part of the book, seem out of place, if all this is only to illustrate a false ten- Ch. XII.] Schiller and Goethe. 185 dency of the hero's, and if we are not even to perceive the effect on his future hfe of the experiences which he had gathered among the players. Then, too, the aims and objects of Wilhelm's new life are at first so vague. His early life was ruled by a dominating propensity, by a conscious purpose ; but in the circle of Lothario he becomes the tool of other people, and we have no idea what part he will play. Here we light on the defect of the work. The truth is that Goethe hurried the conclusion in order to get the book off his hands. Hence, complete unity of composition is wanting; motives are let drop, inconsistencies may be pointed out, and the style be- comes inferior towards the close. But the descriptive power shown in the whole work, and especially in the earlier parts, is so great, the appeal to the imagination and understanding so Excellences powerful, the style so animated and graphic, the of style and speeches and actions so well calculated, the suspense method, so skilfully excited, protracted or diminished, that neither the slow development of events, nor the theoretical discussions, nor the many purely circumstantial episodes excite the reader's impatience, that on the contrary our interest remains assured bo*h to the hero and to the circumstances which develop themselves around him. Inanimate nature, which plays such an important part in * Werther,' here quite retires into the background ; it is humanity alone that excites the interest of the poet. He does not directly describe the long and varied series of characters which he passes before our eyes, but imparts life to them by the often marvellously skilful invention of characteristic speeches and actions. He treats all his characters with sympathetic toleration, and, like Tolerant nature herself, produces in equal perfection, one might views, almost say with equal love, bad and good, mean and noble char- acters. He was not the first to employ this manner, but he brought to its culmination the mov( ment which was started in protest against Richardson's unnaturally virtuous heroes. Much in the plan of 'Wilhelm IMeister' is derived from Wieland's * Agathon.' In its general scheme, as a romance tracing the gradual education and development of the hero, as well as in many pecu- liarities of technique, ' Agathon' was its prototype ; even the hero's I ^6 Weimar. [Ch. xii. transition from extravagant enthusiasm to common-sense views and practical activity was a feature transferred from the 'Wilhelm ,, , ,' ^ ^ ^ , Meister ' oider work to the newer and more perfect one. Both and these novels are faithful pictures of real life; both Wielands bj-jng before us erring men, lenient in their views, and needing to be judged leniently, and but few elect ones who have attained to virtue and purity. The ideal is not embodied in any one striking personality, and no attempt is made at directly inculcating moral lessons ; but the picture of a circle of talented people, open to all higher interests and exercising a peculiar charm on all who come in contact with them, the revelation of the inexhaustible richness of human nature, and the varied motives in- fluencing its will and action, — all this exercises not only an aesthetic but also a moral influence on our higher nature. The author did not consider this work as terminated; certain passages point to a sequel, which was later on somewhat poorly * TJnterhalt- supplied in ' Wilhelm Meister's Wanderjahre.' During ungen'deut- the interim between these two works, Goethe's activity scher Ausge- f^ the way of prose-narrative is represented by the ' Conversations of German Emigrants ' which appeared in Schiller's ' Horen,' consisting of a few tales and an allegory narrated by a company of emigrants, who have retreated before the French invasion from the left to the right bank of the Rhine. While gaining an acquaintance with the characters and fortunes of these people, we are at the same time enabled to observe the disturbing and deteriorating influence exercised on human relations and forms of social intercourse by that political party-strife which the Revolution had transplanted to Germany. Boccaccio had already employed a similar frame-work, with a public calamity in the back- ground, to hold his tales together ; and, like Boccaccio, Goethe has here given a new form to traditional matter as well as to experience and fiction, and has transfused the whole wath the charm of his art. In the year 1 800, Goethe published ' The good Wives,' a little • Die guten masterpiece, written as the text to some pictures in a Weiber.', small publication. Here again we find dialogue alter- nating with short stories, which can hardly be called tales, but only germs for tales. Thus Goethe tried his hand at all kinds of prose Ch. x:i.] Schiller and Goethe. 187 narrative, from the novel to the tale and to a dialogue furnishing suggestions for a tale ; and at the same time, as \\ e shall see, he exhausted all the forms of narrative poetry from the epic to the ballad with its cognate half-dramatic or half-lyric forms. With the Roman elegies should be classed ' Alexis and Dora/ also written in elegiac metre, and the dialogue entitled *l"he new Pausias and his flower- irirl,' both artistic Poems. ^ ' Alexis una masterpieces of mexhaustible beauty. In the first we Dora,' and have the story of a bond of love entered into at the ' Der neus moment of separation, in the same way as Herder ■^*^!,\^^ ^'^^ sein Blumsn- had found his bride ; one short, hurried moment, big madchen.' with fateful issues, a sudden expansion of the heart, mute wooing and consent, a vow of eternal constancy while the companions of the departing lover are impatiently calling him to the ship, and then the picture of the past, present, and future, wishes, hopes, and doubts passing through the mind of the voyager. The second poem shows us a lover sitting at the feet of his beloved one; she is twining a wreath and he is handing her the flowers, and their conversation reveals to us, in dramatic and passionate language, the circumstances of their first acquaintance and the subsequent short history of their love. Both these poems are clothed in classical garb, but Goethe had in his mind at the same time a story of national interest, namely, * Hermann und Dorothea.' ,^ "^ ' Hermann He began to work at it immediately after the comple- und tion of * VVilhelm Meister s Lehrjahre,' in the Sep- Dorothea,* tember of 1796, and by June, 1797, he had already ^^®^' completed it ; it is his highest achievement in epic poetry, the most perfect product of his cultured realism, the noblest fruit of that style which he had acquired during his sojourn in Italy. He had prac- tised his hand in hexameters by transposing the old Beinecke Low-German * Reinecke Fuchs ' into this metre, in Fuchs, 1793. 1793, and he now employed the same metre as Voss had used in his ' Luise ' and other idylls, in relating a story of Qoethe and German middle-class life. But Voss kept his readers Voss confined within a circle of narrow and petty interests, compared. and entertained them with occurrences of trivial import and con- versations of no consequence ; a mere dry reproduction of every- i88 Weimar. [Ch.xii. day life without any idealizing touch ; at the same time he never succeeded in presenting a clear picture to his readers, and was thus the exact opposite of Homer. Goethe, on the contrary, taught the Germans to see their own domestic life with the eyes of Homer ; he made his characters express their deepest experience, and gave them a wide moral, social, and political background ; he made all the incidental matter bear some relation to the leading idea ; in fact he followed out the strict epic method, which Lessing had deduced from Homer. In * Werther,' Goethe had already furnished a poetically idealized Gt th • picture of middle-class family life, but with much senti- treatment of mental adornment. In 'Faust' and *Egmont' he drew middle-class a succession of appreciative pictures of small civic life, and not very different from these is the description of the interior of a knighdy castle in ' Gotz.' In his operetta, 'Jery und Bately/ which in Scribe's version and with Adam's music still nowadays finds favour on the French and German stage, he re- placed the conventional operetta rustics of the school of Weisse, by real Swiss peasants, such as he had become acquainted with on his Swiss journey in 1779. In 'Wilheim Meister,' it is true, he made the middle classes contrast unfavourably with the aristocracy ; but immediately after he had concluded this novel, he produced in ' Hermann and Dorothea ' a truthful and beautiful picture of the people and family events in a small German town. The great movements in the outside world, which in 'Wilhelm Meister' only incidentally exercise their influence on the narrative, appear in ' Hermann and Dorothea' as an essential element in the story, and the fortunes of the characters introduced are made'dependent on them. In the year 1731, the Archbishop of Salzburg. Graf Firmian, Basis of fact ^^P^'^^<^ some few hundred Protestants from his in 'Hermann territory, and the fugitives passed through South und Doro- Germany ; there was a story that a maiden of the company found favour in the eyes of a rich burgher's son, who had long been in vain pressed to marry, but who now, with sudden resoludon, after having with some difficulty won the approval of his father, his father's friends and the village clergyman, wooed Ch. XII.] Schiller and Goethe. 189 the maiden and brought her happily home. Goelhe took up this story and transformed the burgher's son into his Hermann, while the fugitive Salzburg maiden became his Dorothea. Besides the father, he introduced Hermann's mother ; he kept the character of the clergyman and made an apothecary represent the friends. But he transferred the incident itself to present times, and in place of the homeless Protestants he introduced German emigrants from the left bank of the Rhine, who had been driven from their homes by the plundering French soldiers and the numerous troubles of war. He changed the religious into a political hostility, and viewed the disturbing events of the time from a pre-eminently national stand-point. Both Goethe and his princely master were hostile to the French Revolution, which was everywhere asserting its power, and troubling men's minds in Germany as elsewhere, attitude To uphold the national literature in despite of revolu- towards the tionary influences, and to retain the public sympathy French c . r • , . r /- u o r.„ Bevolution. for it, was a matter of vital interest for Goethe, bchiller, and many like-minded friends. The publication of the ' Horen,' as we have seen, was meant to serve this purpose. But the gigantic phenomenon of the Revolution also forced itself on Goethe's mind in the light of poetic material for his hand to shape. In the ' Venetian epigrams' of 1790. he gave bold utterance to his views, addressing both upper and lower classes in terse, plain-spoken language. In the ' Conversations of Emigrants,' the new opinions afloat form the central interest of the work. * Reinecke Fuchs ' is full of allusions to contemporary events, and Goethe meant to draw a picture of society disorganized in this profane Bible, this low- toned narrative of the triumph of impudence amid the strife of selfish interests. He also planned a political novel after the style of Rabelais. Several of his dramas directly treat of the French Revolution; such are the * Gross- cophta,' the ' Biirgergeneral,' the unfinished play * Die Aufgeregten,' and later on, * Die natiirliche Tochter.' But all these attempts gained but slight popularity, while the patriotic spirit of his ' Her- mann and Dorothea ' kindled enthusiasm in all patriotic hearts. Hermann, despairing of winning the girl he loves, turns his thoughts to the distress of his Fatherland, and thinks of entering iQo Weimar. [Ch. xii. military service, to defend his native soil against the foreigner. And when he has won Dorothea, in exchanging rings Patriotism ^.j^j^ |-,gj.^ j^g utters a solemn vow to live after the temporary example of those nations who fought for God and law, interest in for parents, wives, and children, and offered a firm 'Hermann ^^^ united resistance lo the enemy. Dorothea' Though Goethe thus laid the scene of his poem in the immediate past — for the time of the story is supposed to be about August 1796 — though he carefully interwove in the narrative the passing peculiarities of the age in manners and taste, though he introduced allusions to new fashions in dress, house-decoration, and horticulture, to the rise of prices, to Mozart's * Zauberflote/ and other similar contemporary interests, yet in this work too, his main endeavour was to depict permanent con- ditions of human existence, and to contrast these conditions with the disquieting vicissitudes in public and private affairs. While the characters in ' Wilhelm Meister ' are still for the most part, as in ' Werlher,' so individualised as to produce the impression of por- traits, and only a few are made ideal figures, in * Hermann and Dorothea,* on the contrary, Goethe makes use of the typical method throughout, and thereby produces his best effects. The story was peculiarly adapted for this treatment : from the first, the Contrast ^ , . - r , , between strong and important contrast is forced upon us between fixed and settled and unsetded or wandering life, the one being wandering represented by the established existence of a small town, the other by the homeless condition of the fugitives. All the misery of an uprooted existence is represented in Dorothea; she is poor, an orphan, with no brother or sister, and her lover has Character of fallen under the guillotine in Paris. But her isolation Dorothea, makes her self-reliant, and the distress of her neigh- bours calls forth all the loving-kindness of her heart. She becomes an Amazon in a moment of danger, and she gives thoughtful succour to the sick and the weak. In contrast to Dorothea, Hermann represents settled conditions of life ; he has all that Dorothea lacks, wealth, parents, and a home. Around him he sees developed the regular relations of life : the intimacy of married couples, their care for their children, inter- Ch. XII.] Schiller a7id Goethe. 191 course with neighbours and with the kind counsellor, the clergy- man. The people of the little town, so far as we be- other come acquainted with them personally or by report, characters in seem to be divided into two groups — a progressive party ^^® poem, and a conservative party. Hermann's father, landlord of the Golden Lion, and the apothecary are votaries of fashion and think much ot the good things of this life. The apothecary contemplates the great events of the time as a selfish old bachelor, and rejoices in his iso- lation. The landlord of the Golden Lion, too, is selfish, hates all care and trouble and takes life easily ; he loves show, aims at rising higher in the social scale, wishes his son to be greater than he has been, and, as a first step towards this, to find a rich bride. He and the apothecary gaze in admiration at the greatest trades- man in the place, who always has the latest thing in fashion at his command, and they endeavour as far as possible to imitate him. In contrast to these three, the inn-keeper, the apothecary, and the big tradesman who does not personally appear on the scene, we have as 2, pendant ^t clergyman, the mother, and Hermann. Hermann gives his father but litde satisfaction, for he does not wish to rise above his station. He has litde culture or social talent and does not dress by the fashion ; but he is strong and loves work which gives vigour to his body. He understands horses and agriculture ; he hates wrong and protects the weak, and is a thoroughly good, strong, simple nature, though somewhat distrustful of himself, as is seen in his wooing. He is filled with patriotic feeling, with the instinct of defence against foreigners, but at home he wishes for nothing more than to fill well the sphere allotted to him. On his side stand the mother and the clergyman ; the latter an educated man, of wide, practical views, who rules his flock by judicious dis- cernment ; the former a simple woman, who with wise persistence waits for the right season, and skilfully attains her object. Both recognise Hermann's true worth while the father depreciates him, and both countenance his love for Dorothea. This love, as it appears in him and in the girl, is the primitive phenomenon of instinctive mutual liking, wherein there lies at the same time a mysterious, unfathomable power, a kind of fate. Rapid decision is necessary here as in 'Alexis/ for the opportunity 192 Weimar. [ch. xii. v/ill pass, and if the girl is not secured now, her lover will prob- j^ ^ ably quite lose sight of her in the troublous times. Hermana Notwithstanding the haste with which Hermann forms *^d and carries out his resolution, no doubt arises in our minds as to whether the two will suit each other, so far has the poet permitted us to look into their souls. We feel that no lasting opposition can arise between these two strongly marked characters ; she knows how to serve, and he will not be stern in commanding; she will respect, and he will worship. Both have already shown themselves persistent in the pursuit of good, and trustworthy in their own peculiar sphere of life, she in the troubles of war, he in a life of comfort and peace. But Goethe preserves the typical contrast to the last, and keeps the deepest and most significant words for the end. Dorothea has gained a firm footing in a disturbed world, but her past experience makes her distrustful of her happiness even when it seems so certain. As she says, she is like a sailor who, having landed safe at last, still seems to feel the firm ground rocking beneath his feet. Hermann, on the other hand, from his experience draws confidence in the permanent and unchanging conditions of life. ' All the firmer, Dorothea,' he says, ' let our alliance be in the general convulsion. Our love shall keep strong and last; we will hold fast to each other and to our fair possessions.' The typical contrast, which is the basis of the whole poem, is Condem- further brought out in the reference at the close to nation of the Dorothea's first lover, a man of weak character who Revolution, j^^^ ^^^^ swallowed up in the chaos of the French Revolution. In striking contrast to the enthusiasm which led him to Paris, we have Hermann's sober reflection : * The man who in a tottering age is unsteady in character, only increases the evil and spreads it further and further ; but the man of firm principles shapes the world to his will. It is not for the Germans to carry on the terrible revolution, and to waver h ther and thither.' Goethe preserves a strictly impartial attitude towards the condi- tion of things which he brings before us. He throws no strong shadows on any of his characters ; but he portrays with unrivalled humour the novelty-loving Philistines of the little town, the irascible Ch. XII.] Schiller and Goethe. 193 landlord and the talkative apothecary, and his sympathy is quite unmistakably on the side of the permanent and con- servaiive forces, by means of which a new home and character a new happiness are founded in the midst of the out- of the ward confusion. Though sometimes the initiated reader Poem. may recognise the author himself behind his characters, yet the treatment is perfectly objective throughout, and on the whole we may say that none of his* dramatis personae are made to utter any- thing which is not in harmony with their character and their level of culture. In the story of the Salzburg emigrants, as Goethe received it, it turns out at the last that Dorothy, who is supposed to be so poor, has really a considerable portion to offer with herself; this seemed to Goeihe an ignoble element in the story, and he consequently omitted it in his poem ; but oiherwise he had little to alter, only making the subject more connected and complete. Excellences He has succeeded in arranging the events so well, of style and that he raises us, as the poem goes on, from a "let^od. somewhat prosaic level to the highest regions of poetry. He runs through almost the whole scale of human feelings; even the subject of death is discussed among the friends of the land- lord, who are anxiously awaiting the arrival of Hermann with his bride. The poem is divided into nine cantos which, like the books of Herodotus' history, bear the names of the nine Muses. The tone of each canto is in appropriate relation to the name which it bears, and thus all the various branches of poetry are brought before us. The easy breadth of the epic is here combined with dramatic concentration. Unity of time is adhered to, the whole story taking place in the course of an afternoon. The poet seldom comes forr ward with his own comments, but like a skilful dramatist acquaint^ us with the nature of the chief actors through the medium of the conversation of secondary characters. Hermann is introduped as 3, speaker in the secon 1 canto, Dorothea not till the seventh ; but Goethe manages that we should know the whole lime what all the characters have been doim;. f he somewhat narrow landscape js incidentally describjed, sq tjiat, notwithstanding frequent change of VCL. II. o 194 Weimar. [Ch. xii. scene, a clear and connected picture is presented to our eyes. The whole story is graphic in the highest degree, yet quiet in tone through- out Goethe has expressly abstained from exciting any artificial suspense ; when Hermann is filled with anxious concern on seeing the ring on Dorothea's finger, the reader, on the other hand, has long ago been fully informed as to its history. The style and manner are of the school of Homer, but never betray mere slavish imitation. The simple subject would not bear the splendour of the Homeric diction ; but notwithstanding its simplicity and truth, an inexhaust- ible charm breathes through the whole poem. Instead of outward splendour, there is a depth of spiritual insight, which appeals to simple hearts with irresistible power. The way in which Hermann is misjudged by his father, while his mother thoroughly understands him, seems a reminiscence of _, ^ . . Goethe's own vouth. Hermann's mother bears many Senections ^ of Goethe's points of resemblance to the active Elisabeth von own life in Berlichingen, and Goethe's mother may have supplied e poem, ^j^^ model for both. German family life had a special attraction for Goethe as a subject for poetic treatment, since he himself had become the possessor of home, and wife, and child. This immortal poem was a fruit of that domestic happiness which he now enjoyed. He himself has pointed out this connection in the beautiful elegy entitled ' Hermann und Dorothea,' where he asks of the muse, not laurels, biit roses for the domestic wreath, and calls on his friends to listen to his completed work, inviting them to the domestic hearth, where the wife stirs the fire, while the boy, in busy play, throws twigs upon the flames. The spirit of the modern classical period of German literature, the wished for and accomplished harmony with Greek antiquity, is clearly perceptible throughout this epic of Goethe's. The Homeric tone is immortally linked with the best elements of German middle class life. But Goethe did not stop at this homely subject. Once master of the Homeric style, he longed to apply it Goethe*s to Homer's own world ; he commenced an ' Achil- •Achilleis.* jejs/ beginning where the Iliad ends, and intended to relate the death of Achilles. He only wrote the beginning pf it, aiid even after about five hundred lines we feel somewhat Ch. XII.] Schiller and Goethe. 195 wearied ; but those five hundred lines rank among the best work that he ever produced. The poem opens with a splendid scene, — Achilles gazing over Troy, where Hector's funeral pile is slowly burning down, watching it through the night hours, and rising in the morning with his heart filled with unmitigated hatred of the dead. After this, the Greek gods and goddesses are brought before us in an Olympian assembly. Goethe could here indulge in the miraculous elements which he had had to banish fiom his bourgeois epic; those mythological types of the ancient world, which Italy had brought so near to him, and which he had sought to interpret as an archaeologist, could here be turned to poetic account. He did not, however, simply adopt the gods of Homer, but developed them, and here again surpassed the Greeks in soul, in moral depth, in the inner life. His Zeus is a cheerful, comfort- ing Divinity ; Ares is the thorough type of the stern soldier, and the presentment of Hephaestos, who finds pleasure only in labour, but whose works have to receive their charm from the Graces, is equally characteristic. Thetis is the ideal mother, Venus gentle and feminine. Here hard and ungracious, and only in her jealousy a true woman. The ideal Pallas Athene, in her friendship with Achilles, is a picture of those women who benefit men of genius by their sympathetic friendship and their enthusiastic appreciation. Goethe's genius was still, as in his youth, flexible enough to be occupied at one and the same time wiih the clear cut figures of Greek mythology, and with the shadowy beings of Northern mists and gloom. As he had given poetic embodiment to the cheerful types of German middle class life, eo now in his ballads he turned to artistic account the creations of popular superstition. In the ytar 1797 he and Schiller emulated each other in Goethe's ballad-writing, and Goethe developed a wonderful ballads, variety in this province of poetiy. In most of his ballads human beings are brought into contact with supernatural powers, and are destroyed or exalted, put to shame or warned. Among h.s best productions of this kind we may mention, * Der Erlkoni^, ' Der Fischer,' ' Der Todtentanz,' ' Der Zauberlehrling,' ' Hochzeitlied/ ' Der Schatzgraber,' ' Die Braut von Korinth,' ' Der Gott und die Bajadere.' Sometimes the effect is produced by the mere fact of 19^ Weimar. [ch. xii. the intervention of miraculous powers in human destinies ; some- times such intervention bears a deeper, pymbolical meaning, and the events narrated are of a typical character. Thus the ' Bride of Corinth' symbolises the contrast between paganism and Chris- tianity. Some of Goethe's ballads belong to a purely human sphere ; they are serious or humorous, not always real narratives, but sometimes only significant scenes (cf. ' Das Veilchen ' and *Das Bliimlein Wunderschon '). The ballads of the Miller's daughter, written in part in dialogue, form a complete cycle by themselves. In the ' First Walpurgis-Night,' choruses and single characters speak alternately, Christian watchmen are alarmed by German heathens, and the effect is almost that of a scene in an opera. On the other hand, some poems which Goethe calls ballads are only soliloquies uttered by particular characters in definite situations, such as * Mignon,' or the ' Rattenfanger' (The pied Piper). Goethe's lyric poetry now also took a new departure. Till then the subjects for his songs had always suggested themselves spon- His lyric taneously, being furnished by outside events, or from poetry. j^jy Q^yn inner life ; they resulted from a strong im- pulse to disburden his soul in poetry. Now, however, he began also in his lyric poetry consciously to look out for subjects, and to borrow ideas from popular or other tradition, transforming them and improving them, and thus gaining the same conscious mastery over lyric poetry as he had gained over other forms of writing. A large collection of lyrics written under this influence appeared under the title of ' Social Songs ' in a pocket-calendar for the year 1804, which he published in conjunction with ligkeitgewid- Wieland. This collection is full of products of the mete Lieder,' maturest art, but there is less variety of style and imagination, less of that tone of direct, self-expe- rienced truth which affects the reader so powerfully in the earlier poems. ^1 hese lyrics are in part choruses in part songs put into the mouth of fictitious characters ; all kinds of situations are de- scribed at length, under the most various disguises, but amuse- ment and mere fancy always preponderate. Goethe now no longer chiefly embodied his own joys and sorrows in his lyrics; ch. XII.] Scliille}' and Goethe, 197 in them, too, as in ' Herman and Dorothea,' he has become more objective, and practises that artistic self-forgetfulness for which he had laid the foundation during his sojourn in Italy. And here again he employs his typical method, developing a poetic idea in all directions, and seeking to discover the permanent in the tran- sitory, the eternal in the terrestrial. 'Die glucklichen Gatten,' a picture of an elderly couple, looking back with unaltered affection and sentiment on the beginning of their married life, and proudly and joyfully reviewing in their mind their grown-up children, reminds us of ' Hermann and Dorothea;' and the poem * Wandrer und Pachterin,' in which the daughter of a banished ruling house finds the happiness of love in rustic seclusion, recalls to us the leading idea of * Die natiirliche Tochter.' In boih these poems the warlike and revolutionary convulsions of the time form the background of the picture, contrasting with the firmly-established family relations in the one poem, and with the new bond springing from old ties of friendship in the other. An art which seeks for permanent types will easily tend towards symbolism, and will naturally be inclined to the allegorical form, which represents typical contrasts in the most concise and graphic manner to the understanding and the imagination. The ' happy couple,' whom we have noticed above, appear again as Father Marten and Mother Martha, in the prologue entitled prologue, 'Was wir bringen,' which appeared in 1802. The 'Waswir contrast between conservatism and progress, which we brmgen, noticed in ' Hermann and Dorothea,' is renewed in this couple; Martha clings to the old, while Marten is all for novelty. But these two characters are also meant to remind us of Philemon and Baucis, and it further becomes apparent that in conjunction with other allegorical figures, intended for Naturalism, the Opera and Tragedy, they here represent the Farce and the middle class Drama. Tlie contrast between the old times and the new, between age and youth, is represented once more in allegorical figures in the play entitled ' Palaophron . Paiaophron and Neoterpc,' written in the autumn of 1800, in und celebration of the birthday of the Dowager Duchess ^eotarpe. Anna Amalia, and also of the dawn of the new century. Palao- 198 Weimar ' [Ch.xii. phron, the old man, sends away his comrades Griesgram (Grumbler), and Haberecht (Arguer); Neoterpe, the young girl, also dismisses her companions Gerngross (Brag), and Naseweis (Impudence) ; then age and youth, who were previously at feud, are reconciled. Here, too, the poet preserves his objective attitude, and shows his justice and impartiality. The nineteenth century which Goethe thus greeted made gaps in the ranks of the German poets, and caused Goethe himself some deep griefs. In February 1803, Gleim died; in Deaths March, Klopstock; in December, Herder. 'The among Ger- _. .^ ^• , ,, r ^ -^t ■ x ^ ^ man writers "lussian Grenadier and the poet of the Messiah had at the outlived their powers, and their death was no sensible beginning jQgg. ^j^g former was eighty-four, the latter was century seventy-nine years of age. But Herder had only entered on his sixtieth year, and had just published his translation of the Spanish Romances of the * Cid,' the work which, perhaps, most of all has preserved his fame in the memory of the German nation. His sympathy with the French Revolution and other circumstances had estranged him from Goethe ; he looked with coldness, or even with aversion, on Goethe and Schiller's common labours, and, in order to depreciate their achieve- ments, he exalted the productions of the eighteenth century far above their due. His controversy with Kant had served to isolate him still further. Kant himself died in 1804. at the age of eighty; Schiller's and on May 10, 1805, Schiller, in whose mental death, 1805. development the Kantian philosophy had caused a real ferment, was snatched away in the midst of most successful labours, at the early age of forty-two. To Goethe, Schiller's death was a terrible blow, and greater trials were yet in store for him. In Schiller he had lost the most faithful of friends and colleae^ues, but in the next year, Battle of & ' / ' Jena (1806) ^7 ^^^ Battle of Jena, the future of Germany, and and its even the very existence of the Duchy of Weimar, were conse- hazarded. The nation for which he had lived was queuces, deeply humiliated, and the prince whom he had served was threatened with loss of his throne. But the worst appre- hensions were not realised; the Duke retained his land, and Ch.xii.] Schiller. 199 Goethe rallied his powers for fresh efforts. He was nearly sixty years old, but the struggle against a dreadful fate seemed to give him fresh strength ; he sought to conclude his labours, to round off his literary career, and found that this led him into new creations. He published a complete collection of his works, Goethe's including the first part of ' Faust.' He gave to the later works, world his ' Theory of Colour.' He turned with fresh zeal to his historical studies, and furnished most important contributions to the history of the human mind. He sought to give expression to the great movements of the times in symbolical and allegorical compositions. The necessity of self-renunciation was now particu- larly borne in upon him, and he gave expression to this truth in the ' Wahlverwandschaften ' (Elective Affinities), and in the sequel to ' Wilhelm Meister.' New generations were arising, new views were asserting themselves, or else old ones in a new form, and Goethe embraced or opposed these views with the same energy as he had shown in earlier years. It was not till after 181 5 that age seemed perceptibly to grow upon him ; in 1816 his wife died, and in 181 7 he gave up the management of the theatre. But he still wrote or edited various autobiographical and scientific works, and he com- pleted 'Wilhelm Meister's Wanderjahre.' He was still able to write such a poem as ' die Trilogie der Leidenschaft,' and he was yet to publish the * Westostliche Divan,' and, above all, to complete ' Faust.' Schiller. Schiller was born in lowly circumstances, and dragged on many years in poverty. His father, an officer in the WUr- Schiller's temberg army, held an appointment as park-keeper life and at a country-seat of the Duke of Wurtemberg's. character. Schiller was educated at the Duke's academy, and was destined for the bar, but his dislike of law-siudies led him to renounce the legal career. After slightly studying medicine he was appointed regimental surgeon, but by this time his whole thoughts were really absorbed by literary interests. His publication of the ' Robbers ' (1781) brought down on him the displeasure of the tyrannical Duke of Wiirtemberg, the same who had imprisoned Schubart, 200 Weimar. [ch. xii. (see p. 1 1 6). Schiller resolved to escape from a place so uncongenial to him as Stuttgart,, and fled with a friend to Mannheim. After this he went through many vicissitudes, often finding himself in great want, till in 1787 he came in search of fortune to Weimar. Schiller's wild and turbulent youih was reflected in his early poetry. His poetic talent rushed on regardless of rules ; his first works were inspired by revolutionary zeal and delight in powerful eff"ects. No one counselled him on his way, but the public loudly applauded him, and he found enthusiastic friends. He long strove in vain to gain a firm fooling anywhere, nor did he ever attain a large share of the world's good things. The Duke of Weimar gave him a small professorship in Jena, and later on he led a meagre existence in Weimar. To add to his troubles, soon after his migration to Weimar his health began to fail. But fate granted him three great gifts : the friendship of Goethe, the unfailing love { of his noble wife Charlotte von Lengenfeld, and, what was still ^ more than happiness in friendship and marriage, — inextinguishable nobility of soul. Though he had to wait long and pass through many trials and struggles before a ray of happiness brightened his lot, yet there remained something in his soul untouched by all his troubles, something which could soar above them. The turbulent youth became a man of firm and noble character. Schiller watched with interest the steps in Goethe's develop- ment, and was much influenced by his writings before he became acquainted with him. Like other young poets, Schiller was carried away by the literary revolution inaugurated by ' Gotz.' But from the beginning his fundamental attitude of mind was different from Goethe's. While Goethe found his ideals again in reality, Schiller measured reality by the ideal, and found it want- ing. Reality, the world of sense, the prose of everyday life, what Goethe called * the common ' (das Genuine) — all this Schiller sought from the first to transcend, and transcended. His youthful plays were satirical. In ' Die Rauber,' in ' Fiesco,' His youthful i^ ' Kabale und Liebe,' he painted republican ideals plays and as a contrast to the condition of Germany at that time, poems. ^Q jj^g despotism and oppression which he saw imnie> diately around him. His youthful poems, written for the most part ch.xii.] Schiller. 20 1 in pompous trochees, show all the glaring colours and effective- rhetorical devices of the satirist, strong cQntrasts, exaggerated ^ pictures, and a rich use of high-sounding words. Among them we may mention : ' Eine Leichenphantasie,' ' Die Schlacht,' ' Die Kindesmorderin,' ' Hector's Abschied,' ' Rousseau/ the poems to Laura, ' Die Freundschaft,' and ' Triumph der Liebe.' A Wiirtem- berg war- song, 'Graf Eberhard der Greiner,' reminds us of that patriotic poetry which the Prussian Grenadier brought into vogue. In his earlier poems Schiller seldom struck any gentler tones. Haller, KJopstock, and Burger were his poetic models, and / Rousseau was the philosopher who most strongly appealed to ^ him. He sought to express sublime ideas in grand pictures, but he was held fast by a gloomy pessimism. The desires of his heart rose up in rebellion against the commands of duty. ' I too was V born in Arcadia,' he exclaims, ' but my short spring only brought me tears.' But just as Goethe rose from the pessimism of Werther to the optimistic humanity of ' Iphigeni4pso too for Schiller there came a time of liberation and purification. The happiness of friends^J^ made the world look brighter to him. From the depth of his rejoicing heart he sang that wonderful hymn to Joy : ' Freude, Hymn, / schoner Gotterfunken.' General love of humanity, 'An die tolerance, and reconciliation, a kind Father above the freude.' stars — these thoughts came to him like a grand revelation. He formed for himself a mystical philosophy, entirely built on the idea of love. Without faith in unselfish love, he says, there could be no hope of God, of immortality, or of virtue. Love was God's motive in creating the world of spirits. Love is the ladder by which we attain resemblance to the Divinity. To die for a friend, to die for humanity, these seem the highest proofs of love which the poet can conceive of. At this time his ' Don Carlos ' received that form in which it was presented complete to the public. The titular hero \. , J ,. . r 1- 1 , 'Don Carlos. of the piece, and his passion for his stepmother, lost favour in Schiller's eyes, and ] Uarquis Posa, the representative of liberal ideas, who sacrifices himself for his friend Carlos, was brought into the foreground of the play. This change affected i 202 Weimar, [Ch.xii the whole character of the tragedy. In the earlier version Philip and his son Carlos are inimical to each other, and base intriguers try to widen the breach between them and to hinder a reconcilia- tion ; but Schiller now gave the play; a more refined and spiritual character; a friend with the best possible intention warns Carlos, who thus becomes suspicious of the Marquis, and this suspicion results in the destruction of both. In the earlier version the naturalism of the satirist predominated, but now Schiller sought to ennoble his subject, to raise individual and local elements to a universal level, and Jo give expression to his own ideal of perfection. In * Don Carlos' he made the same transition to idealistic art which Goethe had made in his * Iphigenie/ He struck out the wild and bombastic tirades against the priests, which he had at first put in the mouth of his Don Carlos, and replaced them by an indirect but all the more effective warfare. He abandoned the rhetorical style, and, following Lessing's example, made the play generally more concise. Lessing's ' Nathan,' Goethe's ' Iphigenie,' and Schiller's ' Don 'Nath ' C^^^os' are the first important examples of German ' Iphigenie,' iambic tragedy. AU^three.Me— devo ted to the id eals and ' Don of |rnrnar>ity and \q\ejc\ilqn In eachjjfjhe m ther e is Carlos ' " . ... "; "^ . " . "' one promment scene, m which a despotic sovereign is made to hear the voice of truth, and is unable to resist its force. There is a striking resemblance even in detail between the scene in * Nathan,' where the wise Jew puts the Sultan to shame, and the scene in * Don Carlos,' where the Marquis Posa touches the heart of the Spanish despot. Only we must remember that when Lessing published * Nathan ' he was fifty years old, and that when Schiller published *Don Carlos' he was twenty-eight. There is certainly more probability in the course of things represented in Lessing's drama, and there is no doubt that the sober Nathan ranks as a poetic creation above the enthusiastic youth Posa. __^2l^ pW^*-*rpr -T |iii I ngomrt rpjjnrjpng ir>to ]AjaT]C^ But while Nathan moves the heart of Saladin by appealing to his better nature, to the ideals which are alive also in his breast, Posa looks '- jO£j^^l42SLoLthaugJit.£LQIIlJthfi..pi^^^^ G^.^^t. Inquisitor, and demands from the son of Charles V a statejn which the lawjjiaul4- 2. not be dictated by the will of one individual, and in which the ch . X 1 1 .] Schiller. 203 sovereign'^ chief^aim_. should be the happiness_of_his_people. Schiller wished to portray that * manly pride before king's thrones/ which he had demanded in his * Hymn to Joy,' And character it was just the immaturity of such a character as Posa's of Marquis that appealed to* men's hearts ; in its very psycho- I'osa. logical and poetic faults there lay an irresistible power. Two years before the outbreak of the French Revolution Schiller painted one of those enthusiasts who then appeared in real life, and in part determined the destinies of Europe. In Posa he cheated a political ideal, which, even in the nineteenth century, inspired many popular leaders, and which played its part in revolutions and constitutional struggles. Lessing had used the stage as a pulpit, Schiller made it into an orator's tribune. But changes in his own views led him gradually further and further from the tendencies of his early dramas. The French Revolution filled him with horror : the former « vn » __ ^ soniUers worshipper of Brutus wished to take up his pen in horror at the defence of Louis XVI, and felt that he could no more French seek the majesty of human nature among the masses; ^° ^ ^^^ the events of the times robbed him of all political hopes 'for centuries,' as he said. He now recognised that the ennobling of human character must ^irecede aii~atfempts at the reform of government. Schiller now sought to master Goethe's new poems critically, and to learn from them. He made a thorough study of ' Egmont,' and wrote a detailed criticism of *Iphigenie,' and this latter drama directed him to Euripides. He now first learnt to appreciate the Greeks, and thought they would help him to acquire true simplicity. He translated two plays of Euripides and he read Voss's Homer. In a grand, thoughtful poem, he mourned 'Die Glitter for the Greek deities, and in another he praised the G-"echen- 1 . r 1 n 1 J 1-1 land s/ and glorious vocation of the artist. He had a very high . p^g Kiinst- ideal of what a poet should be. He says, that since ler.' a poet can only give his individuality in his poetry, his first and greatest task should be to ennoble that individuality, to raise it to the level of the purest and grandest humanity. Ripe and perfect productions can only flow from a ripe and perfect mind. ao4 Weimar. [ch. xii. Schiller resolved to raise his own mind to this lofty level, but the consequence was that his poetic activity slumbered for a long period. Between the appearance of ' Don Carlos ' and the corn- Novel pletion of * Wallenstein ' a period of twelve years ' Der Geist- elapsed. A novel entitled * The Ghost-seer ' remained erseher. unfinished. Plans for an epic poem on Frederick the Great or Gustavus Adolphus never got beyond the preliminary metrical exercises. For Schiller, the period from 1787 to 1799 was similar to that whxh Goethe passed through after his Italian journey ; it was a time of distaste for poetry, a time preparation of preparation, research, and reflection, from which and research, he returned with his mmd enriched and ripened to * the cultivation of the drama. Not only was Goethe stirred up through Schiller to fresh poetic creation, but Schiller too was through Goethe's friendship led back from science to poetry. Their friendship was for each the beginning of a new era of pro- ductiveness. While Goethe extended his knowledge by observation, Schiller devoted himself to speculation, and made himself at home in the world of ideas. While Goethe looked around in nature and art, and thereby won for himself a new ideal of cultured poetry, Schiller, during this interval of rest from poetic production, studied history and philosophy and gained thereby new aesthetic principles. Histories "'"^^ larger historical works and several small essays 'Abfallder bear brilliant testimony to his talent as a historian. Nieder- < j^^^ Carlos ' led him on to write the history of the * Dre'issi - * Revolt of the Netherlands,' and the * History of the jahriger Thirty Years' War ' suggested to him the writing of Krieg.' » Wallenstein.* The Kantian philosophy produced a powerful impression on him, and he felt moved to develop it and Schiller's aiso to oppose it. He not only learnt to bear cheer- philosophy, fully a suffering life full of disappointments and privations, but, with a peculiar kind of asceticism, he rose wiih sublime heroism above all earthly suffering into the calm regions of art. He learnt to contemplate without envy the happiness of others which was denied to him, the happiness of such an Olym- pian nature as he saw before him in Goethe. His philosophy was conditioned by the circumstances of his own life. He Ch. XII.] Schiller. 205 depreciated the sensuous world as much as any medieval oppo- nent of Lady World, and he exalted all the higher that divine art which raises men above earthly things. Beauty, according to Schiller, is supersensuous, as everything good and great is with Kant. But \ / whereas Kant would only recognise as good what was done against the natural inclinations, Schiller, on the contrary, praised that con- dition of man where duty and inclination coincide, where the supersensuous and the sensuous worlds are in harmony. Art pro- duces this condition, and to Schiller it seemed realised in the Greek divinities. Schiller, like Goethe, returned to the old mythological ideals. The Greeks, he said, transferred to Olympus what ought to be carried out upon earth ; they banished from the faces of their glorious gods the traces of care and labour which furrow the brow of mortals, as well as the worthless enjoyment which smooths the vacant countenance, and they liberated the eternally placid Olympians from the chains of any duty or high purpose in life. As with Goethe the study of nature and of art each reaped benefit from the other, so history and p^hilosophy did with Schiller. The philosophical ideas in which he found rest furnished him the means for surveying in large outlines the development of the human race, and for detecting the greatest contrasts of style in the history of literature. To him as to Herder the fullest glory in this respect seemed to rest on the Greeks. But the disciple of gchiUer, a Rousseau still believed in a lost ideal state of humanity, disciple of which he calls nature, and which stands in contrast to K-ousseau. civilisation. (See ' Die vier Weltalter,' and ' Das Eleusische Fest.') Plants, minerals, animals, and landscapes, the peculiar conduct of children, the ways of rustics and of primitive man, all seem to him to belong to the same order. They are what we were, and what we ought to become again ; our civilisation is meant to lead us by the paihs of reason and freedom back again to nature. They are pictures of our lost childhood, and at the same time of our highest ideal perfection. 'Naivete" is their common characteristic; the naivete which the child possesses is to be found also in the most perfect women and in the mode of thought of a genius. The Greeks had this na'fvete', and Schiller calls Goethe a * naive ' poet, / 2o6 Weimar. [ch. xii. while he designates himself and kindred spirits as 'sentimental' ♦Naive' ^^^ naive poet is natural; the sentimental poet and 'senti- seeks to be so The former reproduces reality; mental' the latter represents the ideal. The poetry of the former has the advantage in its sensuous reality, that of the latter in its loftier subject. The former exercises a calm- ing influence, the latter an agitating one. The former gives us pleasure in the living present, while the latter makes us discontented with real life. SchAler's philosophy frequently supplied him with material for his poetry. Numbers of his poems have art for their subject, the poetic art in particular. (' Die Theilung der Erde/ ' Dithvrambe,' Poems on * Die Macht des Gesanges,' 'Pegasus im Joche.') The Art, and on beaulilul, says Schiller, lives not in the real world, but the Beau- Q^\y [^ j-j^g heart and the soul. In vain the pilgrim sets out to find the lieavmly and imperishable anywhere on earth. (' Der Pilgrim.') Th^r way lo the ideal leads away from real Hfe. (' Das Ideal und das Leben.') Sometimes, it is true, beauty appears on earth ; * in a vale among poor shepherds,' poetry may find a home. ('Das Madchen aus der Fremde.') Arcadia lies around the child playing in its mother's lap. (' Der Spielende Knabe.') Women and children reveal the perfection, the original destiny of man. The plants too are symbols of this perfection : — 'Suchst du das Hochste, das Grosste ^ Die Pflanze kann es dich lehren. Was sie willenlos ist. sei du es wollend — das ist's ! ' Schiller also likes lo linger over the great stages in the develop- ment of the human race, to trace how the darkness of primitive barbarism was gradually lightened, how the savages became men, how men first lived in harmony with nature and dominated her, how they went astray from nature, and finally returned to her by their own free wiU. (' Das Eleusische Fest.') There is little of deep speculation in all this, but many fruitful General ^^^^^^ to which the poet returns again and again, re- character of producing them under a hundred diff'erent aspects. Schiller's No Other literature possesses a poetry of thought sur- poe ry. passing this in spiritual significance, in wealth of imagination, in power of form. Schiller's vocabulary is not rich, Ch. xiT.] Schiller. 207 but he turns it to the best advantage. Where he makes use of rhyme he inclines to become rhetorical ; but his distichs rank equal with Goethe's, and he surpasses Goethe in his power of coining aphorisms and giving them epigrammatic force. The * Votivtafeln ' are specially remarkable in this respect ; rpjie in their comprehensive treatment of the typical rela- 'Votiv- tions and typical contrasts of life, they almost come up tafeln. to the cultured realism of Goethe. The poet imparts a charm even to subjects whose fitness for poetic treatment one would at first be mclined to doubt, such as the various poetic metres, He shows marvellous power of graphic representation in such poems as * Der Tanz ' or ' Herculaneum und Pompeji.' A poem like 'Der Abend' stands quite by itself; it is a short ode in Klopstockian metre, describing the evening scene in mythological pictures. The sym- bolism by which Schiller sometimes gives to lifeless things a human signification, is quite in Goethe's style ; the ' Song of 'Lied von the Bell ' rises to the highest level possible in this der Giocke.' class of poetry. The realistic description of the casting of the bell which runs throughout the poem, and the constantly recurring pictures of life which are connected with it, the extraordinary skill with which all the important human relations are treated,— childhood, youth, love, marriage, the happy household, the fire which destroys it from without, death which destroys it froin within, the splendid pictures of order and peace, of war and revolution, all contri- bute to render this poem quite unrivalled in literature. Though Schiller's particular views are constantly recurring in these poems, yet his own personality is kept in the background. He wishes to teach universal truths, and even where he represents feelings, it is by means of iinaginary situations and fictitious characters. He endeavours wholly to forget himself in his subject. Classical mythology and hero- legends often supplied poems on him with materials (' Klage der Ceres,' ' Das Sieges- class cal fest,' ' Kassandra,' &c.). The Trojan cycle of legends subjects and possessed from early years the greatest fascination for Schiller ; but now he drove self-renunciation so far as to trans- port himself into the feelings of North-American savages, and to sing their lament for the dead. (' Nadowessier's Todtenlied.'") 2.o8 Weimar. [Ch. xil Not only classical, but also mediaeval subjects transformed them- selves quickly and easily under his hand into a series Ballads. r i. ,. j • r u • j j of ballads, expressive of the most various moods, and often most powerful in depicting a chain of destiny. (' Ritter Toggenburg/ ' Der Kampf init dem Drachen.') The Greek idea of the envy of the gods is. as graphically brought before us in ' Der Ring des Polycrates/ as mediaeval piety is in * Der Gang nach dem Eisenhammer/ or the connection between guilt and punish- ment in ' Die Kraniche des Ibycus.' Schiller repeatedly gives to these narratives the unity of a dramatic scene, but at the same time he affords brilliant evidence of his epic power in the Homeric fulness of detail of his descriptions. He was able to make up for a somewhat narrow field of natural observation by study, and power of imagination. For the splendid description of Charybdis in ' Der Taucher,' the utmost which he had at his command was a few verses of the Odyssey, which he realised by his acquaintance with the rushing and roaring of a mill-stream. Most graphic, too, is his description of the wild animals in 'Der Handschuh/ and of the horrible dragon slain by the Maltese knight in ' Der Kampf mit dem Drachen.' These poems of Schiller's show that he had learnt to appreciate the complex variety of life, instead of contenting himself with mere startling contrasts. He had grasped the history of various periods, S hitler's ^^^ really entered into its spirit. His study and treatment his philosophy were of constant benefit to his poe- becomes try, and he had acquired that power of objective o jec ive. treatment, of self-renunciation, which is the hardest demand of art. This power is particularly apparent in the '"Wallen- dramas which he now produced, and especially in stein.' * Wallenstein,' where the chief characters, with the ex- ception of Max and Thekla, appealed so little to his personal feel- ings, that he. was able t :> be completely objective in his treatment of them. In his ' History of the Thirty Years' War,' Schiller had pictured the mysterious general as free from the religious prejudices of his time, and hence falling a victim to the power of the Church ; it was no great step from this view to making him the representa- tive of Liberalism^ and letting him succumb to the Jesuits, just as Ch Xh.] Schiller. 409 Don Carlos and Marquis Posa succumbed to the Inquisition. But Schiller did not make this the chief motive of his drama, but sub- ordinated it to another point of view. He conceived his hero as the type of the practical realist, such as he had described him in one of his scientific .treatises. Wallenstein's desires Character of draw him down to earth ; power and greatness are to t^e ^q^o. '\ him the highest good, without which life would not be worth living, j Such a character as this was totally out of sympathy with Schiller's personal feelings, and he felt that in so far as his audience was possessed with his own idealistic views, in so far such a character would be repugnant to them. It seemed, therefore, all the more necessary to him to make the * romantic son of fortune,' whom he placed in the centre of his dramatic poem, appeal to the human sympathies in the hearts of his audience. He sought to give him all the moral dignity which he could possibly attribute to a realist, and formed him in part after such models as Karl August and Goethe. He not only endowed him with extraordinary strength of will, an unusual talent for ruling, a generous disposition, which bound noble characters to him and idealized his picture in their souls, but he also attributed to him a mind which recognised in all that happened a lofty necessity, and which desired to subor- dinate itself to nature as a whole. In the peculiar circum- stances of the Thirty Years' War, Wallenstein's object is not to serve the interests of the Emperor, or the interests of the Jesuits, but to seek the jvs'elfare^ qL the Germ ari^ Empire and to bring about a European peace. He only enters into alliance with the Swedes in order to carry out his lofty aims, and careless about differences of creed, he even favours Protestantism where it might promote his objects. Moreover, Schiller brings his hero into pathetic situations, where those whom he loves turn from him, and those whom he trusts forsake him. He also lays bare to us the source of his actions, the thoughts and struggles which precede them. Besides the outer and inner world, he, like Goethe, introduces us to the sphere of fancies, forebodings, visions, superstitions and divine dispensations, and seeks to replace as far as possible by these means the supernatural phenomena of ancient tragedy. He showed a true view of the world in representing VOL. II. p 2 1 o Weimar. [Ch. x 1 1. * man in ihe midst of life's turmoil,' not separated from the general course of the world, but intimately involved in it. He followed his own contemptuous view of life and reality in representing the realist as drawn to destruction by those material advantages to which he clings so strongly, and as attaining himself to the percep- tion that : * The earth belongs to the evil spirit, not to the good.' By these various means Schiller attained deep and powerful effects, and diminished the guilt of his hero by explaining as completely as possible his mode of action. Wallenstein, as Schiller represents him, was as a youth serious "Wallen- beyond his years, solitary and reserved, but sometimes stein's roused to strong feeling. A fall from a high win- career. ^Q^y ^^^ i^lg wonderful escape from death deepened his seriousness ; he became a Roman Catholic, and after that con- sidered himself a being favoured by Providence. In the war he rose quickly to importance ; the Emperor loved him and trusted him, and he was successful in all that he undertook. But horrible deeds were done in the Imperial service. Wallenstein became the scourge of all lands, and drew down a thousand curses on his head. At the Diet of Regensburg the storm which had been gathering burst upon him, and the Emperor sacrificed him to his enemies. From the time of his fall he was a different man, wavering and un- sociable, suspicious, gloomy, and restless. He sought to replace by an outward support the inward reliance which he had lost ; he devoted himself to astrology, and sought counsel from the stars when his own mind wavered. His recall to the supreme command of the troops did not make things better ; it did not result frOm favour or good will, but from the Emperor's need of him, and Wallenstein himself made no secret of his intention to be his own master, and no longer to allow the decrees of the court to be imposed upon him. He used the Imperial authority as an instrument for carrying out his own policy. He negociates with the Swedes, at first only purposing to strengthen his power thereby, to keep all paths open to his ambition, and so finally, in one way or another, to gain a monarch's crown when the peace comes. He dallies with the thought of a tremendous deed, without the serious intention of carrying it out. But the mere evil thought produces strained re- Ch. XII.] Schiller. 211 lations which react on him and interfere with his freedom of choice. He is too proud to conceal his bold, ambitious schemes. Such men as lllo and Terzky urge him on to revolt, because they see that they will reap their own base advantage from the step. In obedi- ence to a false dream-oracle, he puis implicit trust in Octavio Pic- colomini, and it is this very Octavio who reports to Vienna every rebellious utterance and every daring step of the General's. He has also other spies around him, and the court thinks him guilty of high-treason long before he really is. His enemies try to draw away his army from him, and thus to prepare the way for a second deposition ; they stir up his anger and provoke him afresh to dis- obedience. But he still shrinks from treason, and feels the force of duty. He has an evil genius by his side in his sister-in-law, Countess Terzky, and a good one in young Max Piccolomini. His sister-in-law forestalls his good counsellor by a few minutes, and these few minutes decide his fate. He concludes the alliance with the Swedes, and breaks the chains of duty. Wallenstein's whole conduct only becomes intelligible to us when we recognise what enormous power he held in his hands, how much this power was due to his own personal efforts, and how strong the temptation must therefore have been to him. (Cf. Prologue to ' Wallensiein.*) Schiller has made us intimately acquainted with the lower as well as with the upper strata of Wallenstein's army. Eleven acts did not seem to him too much in order to attain his object, and the first of these acts, ' Wallenstein's camp,' shows us the First part, poet at the summit of his art, while it also shows how 'l^^s Lager.' much he had learnt from Goethe. Instead of the naturalism of his youthful dramas he here adopts Goethe's generalising and typical method. All the possible types of military life are embodied in in- dividuals, who are cleverly contrasted with each other. They are characterized by their various condu.t towards civilians and peasants, by their different estimates of Wallenstein, and by their different views of the military profession, as well as by more individual traits. We are led up from the lower to t^ e higher types of mili- tary life, and are introduced to an idealist among all the realists, in the person of the Walloon Cuirassier serving under Max Piccolo- mini. A most varied picture of life is unfolded before us, and the 212 Weimar. [Ch.xii. climax is attained in the splendid soldier's song at the end of the act : ' Frisch auf, Kameraden, aufs Pferd, aufs Pferd !' The various types of soldier somewhat prepare us for the various types among their leaders, as they are brought *v J * before us in the ' Piccolomini ' and in the closino^ tnird. parts, ^ 'Die Piccolo- tragedy : * Wallenstein's death.' The generals are mini,' and not only outwardly classified as those who remain stein's T^d' throughout devoted to Wallenstein, such as Illo and Terzky, those who from the beginning are decidedly against him, such as Octavio Piccolomini, and those who go over from Wallenstein to the Emperor, such as Isolani, Buttler, and Max Piccolomini, but they also furnish among themselves typical contrasts, though less accentuated than in the characters of the ' Camp.' Here again the scale rises from the base to the noble, from egoism to self-sacrifice, and again an idealist. Max Piccolo- mini, stands out prominently amid the ranks of the realists and materialists. However different the motives of action may be in the different individuals, yet the poet has throughout taken care that Wallenstein's departure from his duty should appear as the real cause of the army's defection from him. In * Don Carlos ' even the ideal characters are not over-scrupulous about faithfulness and honesty, when it is a question of advancing the good cause ; but in * Wallenstein ' Schiller ranges himself sternly on the side of duty, loyalty, and law, on the side of the conservative virtues and the old institutions which offer resistance to arbitrary power. He attacks revolution like Goethe, and he also attacks it, like him, by aesthetic means. He maintains an impartial attitude towards his characters, and does not throw all the light on the one side and all the shadow on the other. Only Gordon, commander of Eger, a friend of ^ Wallenstein's youth, unites full sympathy for the general with [ thorough loyalty to the emperor. Of those who remain faithful to law against arbitrary power, some do so out of purely ignoble motives, some out of a mixture of base and noble inducements. Characters of "^^^ P^^'" ^^ lovers in the tragedy, Max Piccolomini, Max and Octavio's son, and Thekla, Wallenstein's daughter, are Thekla. ^j^g j^^gj. consistent idealists in the piece; they are both ruined by the conflict of their own characters with those of Ch.xii.] Schiller, , 213 their respective fathers. When they tear themselves from Wallen- stein's side and flee from the malicious powers of life, his good angels seem to have departed from him. But even these good angels are not quite faultless. Max says he would pardon forcible resistance and even open rebellion in the great hero, when threatened at his post, but he cannot forgive treason, he cannot forgive his allying himself with the enemy. And Thekla is wanting in strength of character, for after Max's death she gives way to the selfish longing of an overwhelming grief, and forsakes her duty, forsakes her mother in the moments of her deepest distress. The realist is one-sided and so is the idealist, and only both in con- junction furnish a complete picture of humanity. This is Schiller's teaching in ' Wallenstein.' Max and , °f '*^ o between Thekla form the necessary supplement to the other idealist in characters. The idealist, Max, stands in striking con- Max, and trast with the realist, Wallenstein, a contrast destined ,_ „ ' ' W^allenstein. to be one of the most momentous features in the tra- gedy. We might consider Max the real hero of the second part of the trilogy, and Wallenstein only the hero of the third part. IVIax is very much younger than Wallenstein ; he has received many kindnesses from him, and carries an idealized picture of him in his soul. Where the realist loves, says Schiller, he will seek to make happy; where the idealist loves he will seek to ennoble. The realist can even forgive baseness in thought and action, only not arbitrariness and eccentricity ; thus Wallenstein suffers such men as lUo and Terzky about him, and does not reckon upon gratitude from an Isolani, but Octavio's unsuspected falseness overwhelms him. * That,' he exclaims, * has happened contrary to the course of the stars and to destiny.' The idealist, on the other hand, will reconcile himself to the extravagant and tremendous, if only it testifies to force of character, to great capabilities ; thus Max would even understand and pardon Wallenstein's open rebellion, but not his treachery. Where the realist would ask what anything is good for, the idealist asks whether it is good in itself. Where Wallen- stein follows expediency, Max follows right. Max sets reason, Wallenstein natural necessity, against established tradition. Max tells his general he need enquire of no other oracle but the \ 214 Weimar. [ch.xii. one in his own conscience; he himself follows the voice of his heart, and his heart decides for duty. Human nature, Schiller teaches, is not capable of a consistent idealism ; even the idealist, in order to act morally, must be fired by enthusiasm, and can do nothing except he be inspired. Then indeed he is able to accomplish great things, and his conduct will be charac- terized by a loftiness and nobleness which will be sought in vain in the actions of the realist. But even Max's soul is not so cons' ituted as to wander in cold serenity along the path of duty; he too has an inward struggle to go through. His inclinations draw him to Wallenstein whom his duly commands him to leave ; Thekla must assure him that he has chosen the right. Then there flashes on his mind a thought in which he sees salvation ; he will fight against the Swedes, and will fall in battle. Acting under the in- fluence of this enthusiasm, he leads his followers to death. ' He is the happy one,' Wallenstein says of him, ' his life is complete and perfected ;' and he feels how much he will miss his noble character :- - *The bloom has now depaited from my life, And cold and colourless it lies before me. He stood beside me like my vanished youth, He made reality seem like a dream, And round the common show of earthly things He threw the golden halo of the dawn.' The rising scale of characters, the systematic representation of Unreality of contrasts, the typical concepiion of the individuals, '"Wallen- all this removes ' VVallensiein ' as a work of art fiom stem.* ^Y\e sphere of reality. Schiller strongly insisted tbat art should furnish only a semblance, a show of things as they are, that the audience should never be allowed to forget this, should never be reminded forcibly in the drama of common-place reality. This idea is here realised in the first instance by the rhymed dog- grel in which all the characters in the ' Camp ' are made to speak. The iambics of the two foilowir.g tragedies serve the same purpose, which is still further strengthened by the traditional dramatic fiction that all the characters should be able to give a detailed and well-expressed exposition of their views and opinions. Schiller did Ch XII.] Schiller, 215 not mind letting the hero and his generals speak with most un- military verbosity. Throughout he effects his characterization more by means of what his dramatis per soncB say about themselves, and what others say of them, than by actions which should reveal their character to the audience. He only occasion- 11 111 1 • • /- T^® charac- aily attempts to make the language characteristic of teristic and the speaker, as for instance in the ' Camp,' and in the idealized the colloquy between Buttler and Wallenstein's mur- dramatic derers ; in the latter scene we are made acquainted with the wild, ruffianly soldier of the ' Thirty Years' War,' and the brutality of the murderers serves to enhance the grandeur of their victim. Perhaps this mixture of the two styles, the characteristic and the idealized, is a mistake in the drama. It might have been better if one or the other had been adhered to consistently through- out. The motley life and the many small though somewhat dis- connected actions in the * Camp,' serve by their brightness and vivacity to dim the interest of the long-sustained speeches in the * Piccolomini ' and * Wallenstein's Death.' ^^ With the conclusion of this tragedy Schiller had discovered the new and classical form for his dramas in general. Though he always modified the treatment ip each play, in accordance with its subject, yet on the whole we may say that henceforward he only applied with full freedom the art which he had, so to speak, newly acquired in writing ' Wallenstein.' Unfortunately he was only able to complete four more original plays : * Mary Siuart,' ' The Maid of Orleans,' * The Bride of Messina,' and * Wilheim Tell.' '- Mary Stuart ' was one o( his older projects, and perhaps originally planned like 'Don Carlos' as an attack 'Maria on Catholic policy. But in his actual execution Stuart.' of the drama Schiller abstained from giving it any sach one- sided tendencv. He had now become tolerant , .„ , ... Schiller s enough to look at Catholicism from a purely artistic impartial point of view, and to subordinate his own religious attitude opinions to the artistic ends of the drama. He ^ towards '^ Catholicism, is perfectly impartial in his representation of the effects of the Jesuit Propaganda upon Mortimer, and equally impartial in his presentment of a Catholic religious function. 2 1 5 Weimar. [Ch. X 1 1. His only object is to exalt his heroine and to gain for her the sympathy of the audience. He does not attempt to conceal the fact that she is supported by the League and the Jesuits, but he does not bring it prominently before us, so as not to detract from her merits in the eyes of a Protestant audience. In other ways too, everything is done, as in ' Wallenstein,' to make the heroine appeal to our human sympathies. Her Character of errors are represented as the result of youthful Mary. inexperience, and she lives to repent them bitterly. Of that which condemns her to death before the law she is really innocent, being only incriminated by the false witness of a former servant. She exercises a magical influence on all who approach her, and there is nothing more touching than the scene in the fifth act, where the love and devotion of her faithful servants makes them throw themselves at her feet in the face of death. Mortimer, too, is fascinated by her, and dares for her sake an attempt on Elizabeth's life * Leicester also falls under the charm, and leaves Elizabeth for her, and many others, whom we only just hear men- tioned, have succumbed to her wonderful attraction. Love and hatred, earthly passion and earthly desires have not been banished from her soul by misfortune. Her meeting with Elizabeth in the garden at Fotheringay reveals her true character. She is transported with delight at being allowed to enjoy the beauties of nature again, and her sanguine character makes her take this favour as an earnest of complete liberty soon to be given her. In her exalted frame of mind she feels she cannot humble herself before Elfzabeth as she ought, and when she stands face to face with the Queen, the woman and the demon break out in her ; she annihilates her victim with words, but in so doing weaves her own destruction, and yet counts herself blessed, since she has tasted revenge. In the face of death, how- ever, all earthly desires forsake her. She forgives those who have done her wrong, and hopes by her innocent death to atone fol" her old crime, her complicity in the murder of her husband and her marriage with the murderer. In this chastened mood she goes to the scaffold. The more Mary's character was exalted, the more her rival had to be degraded. Everything in the outward course of the ch. XII.] Schiller. 217 play turns on the incident of the signing of the de^h-warrant by Elizabeth. It is not human sympathy that makes h<.T character of hesitate to sign it, but only fe.a: of the reprop.^h of Elizabeth, tyranny. The group gf statesmen aro'^xid her is excellently drawn ; Burleigh is hard and unfeeling, desiring Mary's death lor reasons of state policy ; Leicester is miserably weak and faith- less, loving Mary and wishing to save her, yet without sufficient courage for the deed, and at the last, only concerned about his own safety. Elizabeth indirectly incites first Paulet, Mary's keeper at the time, and then Mortimer, his nephew, to the murder of her enemy; but the former is too upright, and the latter is a secret disciple of the Jesuits and ardently devoted to Mary. Jealousy and wounded pride finally persuade Elizabeth to the fatal step. In the scene with Mary in the garden at Fotheringay she feels herself lowered in Leicester's eyes, and this determines her. Under the pretence of yielding to the importunities of the people, and under the impression that Mortimer is going himself to make an attempt on Mary's life, she signs the death-warrant, but even then in a form which shall shield herself and throw the blame on her secretary. She purposely leaves him with the signed warrant in his hands, refusing to give him definite instructions. Burleigh, finding him in perplexity and despair, snatches the paper from him and causes the sentence to be put into execution. And Elizabeth then actually disowns the action of the secretary ! Talbot, the honest man at court, cannot stand this and resigns his office ; Leicester, overwhelmed by Mary's death, goes to France. Schiller has sketched the contrast between the two rivals with great power, but has not carried it very deep. Mary, contrast who has a bad name, is better than her reputation ; between Elizabeth, who is generally respected, is worse than the two. her reputation. Mary is generous and open-hearted, and ready to acknowledge her sins ; Elizabeth is cautious and underhand in action, and a hypocrite. While Mary is chastened and raised to a level where she no longer feels, th"©^ want of earthly delights, Elizabeth sinks in the eyes of her most faithful servants and loses those earthly good things which she thinks so much of. The lower side of feminine nature is made the chief lever of action in 31 8 Weimar. [Ch.xii. the drama, anc^ brings about the catastrophe. Jealousy turns the balance; Mar/ Stuart finds satisfaction in pouring out insulting speeches on her r^«-al'.s head, -?na i^ ^s this that incites Elizabeth to vengeance. ^ ^ To a certain extent this tragedy may be considered as a practical example of Schiller's theoretical dictum, that in the ancient classical Excellences <^r^"^^' which he endeavoured to follow, more importance of composi- was attached to the chain of events than to the present- tion and ation of character. The exposition in the first act of s y e. 'Mary Stuart' is a masterpiece of technique ; it gives us interesting action and dialogue, the dialogue resulting from the ac- tion and also characterizing the speakers, while at the same time it communicates to the audience what is essential for them to know. In ' Mary Stuart' Schiller gave new evidence of that impartiality and objectivity which he had acquired in writing his ballads and ' Wallenstein.' There is no character in the piece which is entirely , after the poet's own heart. The idealism of Max Piccolomini is not to be found here, and Mortimer, who plays very much the same kind of part, is one of those enthusiasts whom Schiller in his mature years judged so hardly, one of those self-willed natures who know no restraint for their turbulent desires, and think that liberty consists in the abrogation of all moral laws. With the same tolerance as he has shown in ' Mary Stuart,' Die 'Jung- Schiller in the 'Maid of Orleans' again chose a frail von Catholic heroine, one of the miraculous figures of the Orleans.' Middle Ages. But his Joan of Arc is also a represent- ative of ideal womanhood, a champion in a good cause, consecrated by religion and by her own pure nature. Schiller throws his whole sympathies into the scale on her side. He meant her to be an embodiment of that ndiveie which he esteemed so h'ghly, and at the same time to picture once more the sad fate of the beautiful upon this earth. (See 'Pas Ideal und das Leben.') Her peace of soul is destroyed as soon as earthly love lays hold on her heart. Schiller's Johanna is no Amazon of heroic bearing and manly Character of disposition, but a simple, pathetic character with a Johanna, childlike imagination, childlike language, and a holy childlike faith, which is the source of her power. She comes from Ch. XII.] Schiller. 219 that idyllic, pastoral region where poetry and beauty have their home. In her the anp^el and the child are united, and as soon as she ceases to be a child, as soon as the woman makes itself felt in her, ihe charm is broken. The supernatural world is made almost as prominent and material in this play as in Goethe's ' Faust.' Johanna herself possesses miraculous power and wisdom, and has visions. After her heart has been touched by human love, she feels that she has fallen from her high vocation, and she receives the accusation condemning her in silence, as a chastening from heaven. At length she overcomes her human passion and finds peace once more. In her imprisonment her heroic strength returns again, and a new miracle comes to her aid ; her heavy chains fall from off her, she liberates the king, triumphs and dies, and the gales of heaven open to receive her. Schiller was not quite equal to the task wliich he set himself in writing the * Maid of Orleans.' He meant to represent in his Johanna the charm of naturalness, but he has not been successful in this. When the Duke of Burgundy is overpowered by ihe child- like simplicity of her words we can only marvel, for what she says does not affect us in the same way. Schiller is unable to express the charm of naivete, and he replaces it by declamatory lyric strains. In many respects the ' Maid of Orleans ' resembles an opera. Even the prelude has an operatic ring about it, and operatic Johanna often gives utterance to what might be called character of arias — lyrical, declamatory soliloquies, sometimes **^® play- written in the recognised aria form of rhymed stanzas. The chief characters, too, are rather types than individuals, and Johanna, the Dauphin and Agnes Sorel together form a lyrical trio, more suited to the opera than the drama. The knights are all cast in the same mould, and are arranged, like a chorus, in two groups, the English and the French, with Buruundy in their midst, who goes over from the former 10 the latter ; and in the English, as in the French group, those who are for the IMaid are distinguished from those who are against her. Doubt is gradually introduced into the French group, while into the English group love gradually makes its way. The evil principle is represented by Queen Isabeau, the implacable enemy -\ 220 Weimar. [ch. xii. of the Maid, and at the same time the moral opposite of all that is good and beautiful. The characters of Talbot, the English general, and Thibaut, Johanna's father, are also meant to stand in contrast to the Maid. Talbot is a sceptical man of the world, Thibaut a selfish realist, who has no faith in the power of God upon earth, and only fears the power of devils. Johanna herself wanders through the play like the spirit of liberty, and succeeds in doing what Goethe's Clarchen failed to do. She' siirs up her nation against the foreign intruders, and the armies which she leads are victorious. She, too, has a Brackenburg by her side in her faithful peasant-lover. Raimond, who remains absolutely devoted to her, and stands by her when all forsake her. The ' Maid of Orleans ' is a chivalrous drama, and in it Schiller General ^^^ ^°^ wholly scorned the usual apparatus of this features of class of drama, such as it developed itself subsequently the play. ^^ ^^ appearance of Goethe's ' Gotz/ But Schiller's play rises far above the level of the ordinary chivalrous drama, in the first place because it deals with occurrences of public importance, not with private outrages and feuds. The technical difficulties arising from the constant fighting are surmounted wiih masterly skill. Fights between large numbers are reported, single conflicts are directly represented, but are always interwoven with human and personal interests. There are some things in this play that remind us strongly of the Iliad, such as the constant fighting, the interference of the supernatural, the equal rank of all the nobles, and their attitude towards their king. The language, the similes, the situations, even the metre itself, sometimes point to Greek models, and something of the Homeric glory seems shed over the whole drama. In his ' Bride of Messina ' Schiller approached more nearly than *Di9Braut ii^ ^^ly Other of his dramas to the classical model, von Messina.' departing, however, from one rule of the ancients (as he had already done in his * Maid of Orleans,' though not in ' Mary Stuart ' or * Wallenstein '), in representing death upon the stage. This play is not based on fact or tradition, as most of Schiller's dramas are. Schiller fully recognised that his special strength lay Ch. XIIJ Schiller, 221 in dramatising historical events, in spiritualising reality, and pre- ferred to make use of some existing; story rather than create a new one. He had long been seeking for a subject which should offer all the advantages of Sophocles' ' CEdipusTyrannus;' but since he could not find one which would fulfil blance to these requirements, he invented the story of the * Bride Sophocles' of Messina,' forming it after the model of Sophocles' ' ^^ip^s. play. In the * Bride of Messina,' as in ' CEdipus,' we have a home lying under a curse, an oracle which a man seeks to flee from and just thereby fulfils, a child which was meant to be killed but which remains alive, unnatural love and murder of a near relation, a hidden deed which in the course of the play comes to light, and a guilty man who punishes himself, only that his guilty deed does not, as in the Greek drama, lie in the far past, but is quickly done, and quickly discovered and expiated in the course of the same day. Numerous details in the style and matter of this drama remind us of ancient tragedy, but the play is also marked by Excellences original talent throughout. In none of Schiller's o^ ^^e play. dramas is the language so carefully moulded and raised to such an even level of perfection as here. He has nowhere else displayed such un ity in character-drawin g, or lifted us into such a pure sphere of poetry. He ventured to make freer use than usual ofthe creations of classical mythology, since his scene was laid on Sicilian soil, where Hellenism lived on in its monuments, and where the superstitious fancy of the Middle Ages could nourish itself, both from classical and Arabian sources. The Sicilians had always been noted for great vigour, heroism and stoicism, but also for jealousy and revengefulness, and Schiller in his play adhered ' to what history recorded of them. Don Caesar's heart burns with jealousy against his brother; thirsting for revenge he slays him, and with stoical heroism afterwards kills himself The * Bride of Messina,' like Schiller's first play, ' The Robbers,' introduces two brothers at enmity with each other. The idea of tragical conflicts between relations was one which had a deep hold on Schiller's imagination, and indeed, in the eighteenth century / 222 PVeimar, [Ch xii. particularly, there were many instances of such conflicts in real life. Quarrel There was an increasing feeling in favour of more between two . . j ^ j • r i , • i • brothers its ii^ii"^acy and tenderness m family relations, but m leading idea, many cases the old, hard relationship had not yet given way to the improved state of opinion. The conflict be- tween Frederick the Great and his father furnishes a notable example of how strained the paternal and filial relation might become ; and Schiller himself, in that age of paternal govern- ment, must on his flight from Stuttgart have felt that he was rebelling against his sovereign like a son against his father. It seemed to him a fruitful idea, to transfer the strongest personal tension into that very family circle which was more and more growing to be considered as the abode of peace and tenderness. We find the incident of conflicts between near relations playing some part in every one of his plays. The two hostile brothers in the ' Bride of Messina,' as in * The Robbers,' are in love with the same woman ; but this woman is, without their knowing it, their own sister, and the father of these three had robbed his father of his bride, and thereby drawn down his curses on his head, which are now fulfilled in his grandchildren. In the past we have a conflict like that between King Philip and Don Carlos; in the present a conflict like that between Karl and Franz Moor, or between Eteocles and Polynices in Euripides. The actors in the ' Bride of Messina ' seem to arrange them- Characters selves in a symmetrical group : — Isabella, the mother, of the play, in the midst, on either side her sons, the two hostile brothers, each of whom is surrounded by his followers. The mother unites the two sons, but there is yet another point of union for all three : Beatrice, the daughter and sister, unknown at first to all three as such, and whose emerging from seclusion conjures up all the misfortune. The two brothers are strongly contrasted, Don Caesar being hasty and wrathful, Don Manuel melancholy and reserved. The whole tragic issue really results from this contrast, for without the hastiness of the younger and without the brooding melancholy of the elder brother, the catastrophe would not have taken place. Their former quarrel, which rose to deadly enmity, may also be attributed to this contrast of their characters. Their Ch.xiT.] Schiller. 223 father, a gloomy despot, only suppressed this quarrel by force, and never tried to heal it by love. In their relation to their mother both show themselves lo\^ng sons ; both fall in love with Beatrice equally suddenly, and both in the same manner. Beatrice and Isabella are not individualised but treated typically. The unnatural separation from her parents poisons Beatrice's young life. She has been secretly saved from death and brought up in seclusion, is secreily loved, and secretly carried off by order of her lover. She syccumbs to feminine weakness, is twice disobedient and follows her own fancy, and her curiosity brings about the fatal denoiiemenf . Isabella is the type of motherhood. Her maternal affection makes her reconcile her two sons, and save her daughter's life by concealing her. But gloomy superstition dominates her as it dominated her husband. She leaves her daughter in concealment, after all danger to her life has been removed through her father's death, simply because she is afraid that a dream of many years ago, of which a monk gave her a terrible interpretation, may be realfsed in this daughter. Gloomy superstition, unbridled desires, haste in / action, are the characteristics which Schiller attributes to the ruling family in Messina. They are of northern descent and rule tyrannically over a Southern people. The subject-people bear the oppression with gloomy hatred ; they fan the quarrel between the brothers, and wibh misfortune to their foreign rulers. Schiller has expressed the feelings of the Sicilian people through the mouths of the prince's followers. He attributes to them the passions of a subject race, but at the same time a wide-ranging reflection, such as would beseem impartial spectators. He united them in a chorus, or rather in two semi-choruses, one of old and one of young men, and thus completed the resemblance to the classical drama. ^ The chorus here occupies a middle position between the chorus V of Greek tragedy and the organized masses or uniform introduction groups which Schiller had introduced in his earlier plays, of a choriis. Tragedies with few actors, such as ' Iphigenie ' or ' Tasso,' were not in his line. He liked to set masses in molio \ In his first play the robbers are grouped like a chorus around their leader. The conspirators in ' Fiesco ' likewise form a homogeneous multitude. :^ 224 Weimar. [Ch.xil. In * Don Carlos * Philip the Second's Court affords us, at least in one scene, a picture rich in figures. Wallenstein's camp and Wallenstein's generals present a grandly organized chorus. The domestics of Mary Stuart and the suite of Queen Elizabeth con- tain the germs for choruses. In the ' Maid of Orleans ' we have two hostile armies in juxta-position. So, too, in the 'Bride of Messina' the semi-choruses represent two hostile armies, the retinue of two princes. They take part in the action, in accord- ance with Schiller's view of the function of a chorus (see Schiller's preface to this play : ' On the use of the chorus in tragedy ') ; but they also utter general reflections, and sometimes speak all together as a whole, thus approximating to the classical tradition, and this for the first time in the history of the modern German stage. They surround the central action with a glorious web of lyric poetry. All the most important facts and conditions of life are touched upon as in the ' Song of the Bell,' and the whole sensuous power of rhythm and rhyme is united with the loftiest thoughts and with an entrancing melody of language. The ' Bride of Messina ' is the highest work of pure art that Schiller has produced. He maintains a perfectly objective attitude towards the characters, but still, a certain political significance may even here be detected. There is an echo in this play of his Schiller the ^^ favourite theme, the struggle against tyranny. poet of Schiller's hatred of despotism finds expression in Liberty, every one of his plays. In ' Wallenstein ' the emperor and his servants are not painted in the best light ; in ' Mary Stuart,' Elizabeth's tyranny is unsparingly laid bare; the' Maid of Orleans' treats directly of a revolt against the oppression of a foreign conqueror ; and so, too, the ' Bride of Messina ' pictures the destruction of a powerful race which could not take root in a cotiquered land. The French Revolution and the events which followed it may very likely have influenced Schiller in the choice of these subjects, and also of the story of* Wilhelm Tell.' * Wilhelm Tell ' represents a conspiracy like ' Fiesco,' and, like ♦"Wilhelm ^he ' Maid of Orleans,' gives the history of a successful Tell.' struggle against foreign tyranny. The poet's attitude is not impartial here ; his whole heart is clearly on the side of the Ch . X 1 1 .] Schiller. 225 oppressed Swiss. In the * Maid of Orleans ' Schiller had repre- sented a peasant-girl leaving the world of idyll to enter the great political world, so as to restore her fatherland to independence. In * Wilhelm Tell ' he shows us a whole nation Hving in the world of idyll till the oppression of tyranny breaks in upon them ; in the end they throw off the hated yoke, and violated nature re-asserts her sway. In the Swiss people, as in Joan of Arc, Schiller wished to portray naivete of character, and he has succeeded better here than in the ' Maid of Orleans.' In ' Wilhelm Tell ' the Swiss people form at once the chorus and the centre of interest of the drama. The Swiss characters nation itself is the hero of the play, only split up of the play, into individuals, and represented in typical characters. In the first place aristocracy and peasantry are distinguished. The peasantry is represented by an old man, a man in the prime of life, and a youth : Walther Fiirst, Werner Stauffacher, and Arnold Melchthal. In introducing them together on the stage, whenever he requires them, Schiller boldly disregards all considerations of dramatic probability. These three men are at the same time re- presentatives of the three Swiss cantons concerned in the struggle, and are all united in their resistance to tyranny and arbitrary force. The old man, Walther Fiirst, is friendly towards the nobility, whilQ the youth is opposed to them. Among the representatives of the aristocracy, too, there is a split betwe'en age and youth, the old limes and the new ; the old Baron of Attinghausen holds with the pea- santry and with liberty ; his nephew Rudenz has joined the foreign- ers. But it is only love of the noble Bertha von Bruneck that has thus led him astray, and the maiden whom he worships directs him herself to the right path, and points out to him his duty to stand by his countrymen. Rudenz and Melchthal, the aristocratic and the peasant youth, are at first hostile to each other, but in the course of the drama they draw nearer and nearer together, ancj their final reconciliation, their mutual co-operation, their bond p{ friendship, signify the reconciliation of classes. Wilhelm Tell stands apart in the midst of all these people, in the same manner as Max Piccolomirji is isolate^ from the chorus of WallcEstein's followers. H^ is ngt repres^nfefi ^§ c^n idealist, 326 ^ ' Weimar. [ch.xii. in contrast with realists, for here all live in the state of harmonious Character ideal nature. Tiell is the combative sportsman in con- ofTell. tj-asj- ^itj^ ^v,g peaceful shepherd; he represents the self-reliant strong men in contrast with more ordinary men who believe themselves stronger when allied with others. Tell acts where others only talk, deliberate, or hesitate. He knows no fear, and does not reflect long where it is a question of immediate action ; at the same time he is humane and benevolent, and trusts God's help in time of need. He is strong and active in body and expert in all manly exercise, a sure shot, a bold sailor, a skilful carpenter, and always ready to help on occasion. He is scanty of words, but on his solitary paths he thinks all kinds of thoughts, and is looked upon as a dreamer. Simple-hearted and unpretending, respectful to those set over him, and less inflamed than the rest against the tyranny of the imperial governors, he is willing to suffer and be silent, to wait and hope, though he will not stand aloof from his friends in case they really want his aid. Then suddenly, tyranny brutally intervenes in his own life. The governor Gessler, the true cold-blooded tyrant of fiction, totally destitute of humane feelings, and resolved to subdue the Swiss people by force, this man compels Tell, on pain of death, to shoot an apple from the head of his own child. Afterwards he treacherously draws a dangerous confession from him, and then causes him to be bound, meaning to imprison him. Tell is almost miraculously delivered from the hand of his oppressor, and at once forms the firm resolve to kill this terrible tyrant. Gessler has sinned against nature in arming the father's hand against his son, and from that moment he is a lawful prey in the natural world, and the outraged father •avenges holy nature,' by killing the tyrant as he would have killed a wild animal which threatened danger to his house. Not the slightest moral doubt rises in his mind. He is firmly convinced' of the justice of his deed ; and though his gentle wife is horrified, and though John Parricida dares to put himself on a level with him, still his clear conviction remains unshaken. * I lift up my pure hands to Heaven,' he exclaims to Parricida, ' and curse thee and thy deed.' The story of Wilhelm Tell has its real origin in an old myth Ch. XII.] Schiller. 227 which was adorned with all the elements of primitive German poetry. The story was related in the sixteenth century, with a ,. . , rTT J , , o • . • , story of Tell. Simplicity worthy of Herodotus, by the Swiss chronicler, Aegidius Tschudi. Wilhelm Tell was one of the traditional heroes of ihe Revolution. Rousseau had mentioned him with honour, and the Gottingen band of poets had sung of him. While in Switzer- land, immediately after the completion of ' Hermann and Dorothea/ Goethe turned his attention to the story, meaning to make an epic out of it ; but he relinquished the plan in Schiller's favour. Schiller endeavoured to free his hero from all connection with the regicides of the French Republic. He endowed him with that naive convic- tion of right which is to be found in a primitive age, and thus by implication established the principle that in less primitive times a similar mode of action must be judged differently. All the Swiss conspirators only wish to defend their wives and children. They all approve Tell's conduct, especially as he killed the tyrant at the very moment when he was cruelly hardening his heart against the pathetic entreaties of a poor woman whose husband he had unjustly imprisoned, and was threatening to employ new measures of violence against the unhappy land. Schiller's ' Wilhelm Tell ' bears some points of resemblance to Goethe's ' Hermann and Dorothea.' Bo.h these ' Wilhelm works defend the good old customs and the liberty ^^^^ ' ^^^ and sacredness of hearth and home. The spirit of ^^^ Doro- Homeric poetry breathes in both, and both arose from thea.' a worship of humanity in a state of nature and innocence. ' Wilhelm Tell ' is the first of Schiller's plays which has a happy ending. The hero does not succumb or die, but rises with fresh strength and frees himself from his oppressors. We ^^ ^.^ still recognise in this play the old fundamental thoughts ideas of of Schiller's poetry, the Rousseauian glorification of 'Wilhelm an ideal primitive state of humanity. In his other ® dramas he had introduced his aud.ence to a world which had grown bevond the state of nature. The world of reality which he depicts will not tolerate what is beautiful and noble, and drasfs down the man who follows his earthly instincts. The good are in harmony with nature and with heaven, and goo.l oracles lead them in the 2 i / 22H Weimar. [Ch. xii. path fo glory. The bad accept evil oracles, and a race which sins against nature is destroyed from the face of the ear^h. In ' Wil- helm Tell ' we are surrounded, for the first time, by pure nature, and introduced to glorious human beings in a glorious country; the unnatural element, which destroys idyllic life, comes, from \\\\h- out, and disappears before the breath of liberty ; nature asserts her eternal rights, and the beautiful is not destroyed, but survives. After the completion of ' Tell ' Schiller had begun a new tragedy, Fragment ' Demetrius,' taking his subject this time from Rus- * Demetrius.' sian history. Again he brings before us a honioge- neous mass of people, skilfully individualised, and a Polish diet is presented with incomparable power. The general drift of the play is similar to that of the ' Maid of Orleans ' — a victorious advance in the consciousness of a good cause, fortune favouring the hero, then sudden doubt, inward conflict and outward defeat. The pre- tender, who believes himself to be the rightful ruler, learns that he is not, but nevertheless continues to play his part as such ; he thus succumbs to the malicious powers of the world, and falls pierced through at the feet of his reputed mother, who repudiates him. Schiller had only begun the second act of ' Demetrius ' when he Schiller dies, ^^as cut off by death at the early age of forty- five. 1805. Glorious as are his achievements,' we feel that if he had been spared he might have presented us with still richer and greater works. CHAPTER XIII. ROMANTICISM. Goethe died on the 22nd of March, 1832, a hundred years after the appearance of Haller's poems, Bodmer's translation Qoethe died of Milton, and Gottsched's *Cato/ — works which must March 22, have been considered at the time as important literary 1832. events. Our survey of German literature will only extend to this point. The figure of Goethe, which has towered above all others since the revolutionary year 1773, will thus still remain the central point of interest in this last period. Goethe lived to see Poet- at least two generations of German poets. When he families, came to Leipzig to study, Elias Schlegel was still in great fame ; when he formed his alliance with Schiller, men were already beginning to speak of Elias Schlegel's two nephews under whose leadership the Romantic school gradually developed itself. Shortly before Goethe planned his * Gotz,' Madame Sophie de la Roche, the youthful friend of Wieland (see vol. ii. p. 40) published her first novel ; shortly before he finished his * Werther,' the daughter of Sophie Laroche married an Italian merchant Brentano, in Frank- fort, and Goethe's mother used to tell ihe Brentano children just as beautiful fairy stories as she had told to her own son in his child- hood. Two of these Brentanos attained literary fame : Clemens joined the Romantic rchool ; Betlina, afterwards the wife of another Romanticist, A_him von Arnim, had an enthusiastic devotion for Goethe, aiui after his death wrote a highly idealised description of himself and his mother. Goethe's long life enabled him to witness several important phases in the intellectual life of Germany. In his youth a love ^ 230 Romanticism* [Ch. xiii. for the historical past of Germany had seized on the minds of j many. Imaginative writers filled the old Teutonic- ree p ases f^j-gg^g ^\^ Bards and Druids, and cherished an / m G-erman ' / intellectual enthusiastic admiration for Gothic cathedrals, and for / life the knights of the Middl^^S^^ ^^^~<^ ^^ sixteenth b^^G^^th century. Herder's interest in the past had the widest range, and he sought out poetry in all forms, in all literatures, among all nations. Classical antiquity was not neglected at this time, but it did not exclusively dominate the general taste. In Goethe's mature years, on the contrary, the interest in classical antiquity dwarfed all other aesthetic interests, and Ger- many and Europe were flooded by the classical fashion for which Winckelmann had given the first strong impulse. The churches became ancient temples, the mechanical arts strove after classical forms, and ladies affected the dress and manners of Greek women. The leaders of German poetry, Goethe and Schiller, both attained the summit of their art in the imitation of classical models. But in Goethe's advancing years, with the beginning of the nine- teenth century, a counter-current again set in. Schiller's ' Maid of Orleans' and his'Wilhelm Tell' marked a return to mediaeval themes. The tendencies of 1770 to 1780, which had never quite dis- appeared, asserted themselves with new and increased force, and the love of classical antiquity became once more but one among many influences. The nations which were groaning under Napoleon's oppression sought comfort in the contemplation of a fairer and grander past. Patriotism and mediaevalism became for a long time the watchwords and the dominating fashion of the day; not that catholic literary sympathies disappeared altogether, any more ^than an increased piety suppressed the freer religious movements. But Herder's spirit now replaced that of Winckelmann, and the literary movement, which had been started some thirty years before against the school of Enlightenment, was now called Romantici>m. Koman- All foreign literatures, but especially the old German ticism. and popular branches of poetry, were drawn upon for sugi;estions ; while the grand achievements of the modern classical period of German literature were of the greatest benefit to the succeeding age. The scientific activity to which Herder had given Ch. XIII.] Science. 231 such encouragement was continued. New efforts were made in all the sciences, new points of view gained, and new forces acquired. But the division of labour now became greater, and what had been united in Herder now separated itself into various currents. The single branches of art, science and learning acquired more representatives, and appealed to wider circles, and parties were now divided by sharper lines. Science. German science and poetry in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries were sometimes ranged in opposition to one Relation of another, sometimes united in an alliance most beneficial science and to each, though not without its dangers, if carried too poetry in Germany in f^*"- the 18th and It cannot be denied that the growth of science gave I9th centu- a strong impulse to the rising school of poetry, but ^^®^- feeling and imagination had to free themselves from the almighty sway of common sense, ere German literature could attain its highest development. This improvement of taste again reacted beneficially on science. The ponderous accumulations of learning which had been not uncommon in the previous century, disappeared, or gave place to convenient, encyclopaedic works of reference. The German genius lost that heaviness which sometimes clings to it, and became lighter, easier and more lively. The improvement of w language produced all the good effects which Leibniz had expected of it ; greater choiceness of expression went hand in hand with greater subtlety of thought, and this improvement gradually spread to all branches of literature, increasing their clearness, and in con- sequence strengthening their influence on the nation. German prose now assumed a more artistic form. Journalism, as it rapidly developed, launched out into all styles, xl from the fiery, metaphorical periods of a Gorres, to the ment of / short, biting sentences of a Borne. The Austrian State- German' papers exhibited the harmonious periods of Friedrich prose- 5^ . , ,. , , r . • writing. Gentz, whose dazzlmg wealth of language sometimes poured itself forth with all too great fluency. Savigny handled v7 233 Romanticism. [Ch. xiii. juristic subjects with a clearness equal to Goethe's. With less success, Varnhagen sought to imitate Goethe's style in his numerous biographical sketches. A farmer, Johann Schwerz, wrote ele- gantly and gracefully on farming matters. General von Clausewitz in his book ' On War,' produced a scientific and literary work of the highest order ; it combines the strict logical analysis of the eighteenth century with the careful criticism and historical learning of the nineteenth; it unites deductive theory with respect for facts of experience, and shows an enchanting originality, together with great clearness of method and a vigorous and picturesque style. Among the writers of this time we recognise sometimes the in- fluence of Schiller, sometimes that of Goethe. A really cultivated style of writing now arose, though at the same time there were not wanting those who followed Klopstock's example in experimenting with the language, and attained a certain uncouth originality. But side by side with these bunglers there were a few writers, like Jacob Grimm for example, who had a natural instinct for language, and who, by appreciative study of their native dialect and thorough understanding of the hidden laws and forces of speech, developed a truly creative power of language. The women of this period were not behind the men in literary activity. Schiller's sister-in-law, Caroline von Wolzogen, produced a novel, 'Agnes von Lilien,' which was taken by professional Literary critics for a work of Goethe's, and poetesses like women. Sophie Mereau and Amalie von Imhoff were thought worthy to contribute to Schiller's * Musenalmanach.' But the letters or memoirs or diaries from the pen of women of th^s period are still more worthy of notice, revealing to us, as they do, the level of feminine conversation at that time. Bettina von Arnim surrounds all objects with her fairy-like fancy, and transfers us from reality into a world of poetry, where truth and fiction are indis- tinguishably merged in each other. Rachel Levin, later on Madame Varnhagen, parades her extravagant wit somewhat too ostentatiously, combining, after the -true manner of the humorist, things most remote from eadi other, and affecting a kind of prophetic insight. Henriette Herz on the contrary, spreads a serene purity around her, and reminds us more than any other of the type of woman Ch. XIII.] Science. 233 which Lessing favoured. Caroline Schelling ranks first among all the literary women of the time ; her graceful chatty letters are full of good sense and imagination, of refined malice and charming raillery, and their clear yet thoughtful descriptions, their charming language, and their hidden poetry raise them to the level of true works of art. Rachel Levin, Henriette Herz, Caroline Schelling, and other women of the same stamp, ruled society in Berlin and Jena, which were the centres of the rising literature. Their circle of friends included the scientific men and poets, who were about twenty or thirty years younger than Goethe, who from the first were under his influence, and continued to work on the foundation which he had laid. They strove to give to their works an artistic value, but they also allowed themselves to be led astray into adopting an oracular tone, transferring the pleasing parodoxes of conversation to the realm of science, and substituting a happy fancy or a telling expression for the solution of the problem itself Such a method was chiefly prejudicial to philosophy and less directly to natural science. Philosophers like Lambert 1 Tr • J J . r T 1 • • Philosophy. and Kant were mdeed true successors of Leibmz, m that they had acquired a complete training in mathematics and- physical science, and had themselves rendered services to the advancement of the exact sciences. But Kant's disciples could not boast of any such training. The master's philosophy thus became a mere fashion, chiefly rife in the University of Jena, and having the Jena Literary Journal for its newspaper organ. In the hands of these apostles Kant's teaching was transformed; his theory of knowledge and the critical side of his philosophy / generally were neglected, and his warning against all attempts to know the unknowable was disregarded. A system was elabo- rated which could be easily taught, and which miglit serve in need as a substitute for religion. Amcng of Kant / these neo-Kantians, Fichte, Schelling and Hegel Fichte, y were the most remarkable. All these three laboured Schelling at first in Jena. Fichte shared Kant's stern morality, *^ ^^® ' and despised the sensuous world to such a degree as to deny it all reality. His bold idealism wished to derive the whole 234 Romanticism. [ch. xiil world from reason, and really approximated more and more to the pantheism of Spinoza. Spinoza became, about the middle of the nineteenth century, the leading spirit of German philosophy. \ Schelling went from Fichte to Spinoza, and from Spinoza even back to Jacob Bohme. Like the older German Spinozists, such as Herder and Goethe, he was inspired by an intense enthu- siasm for nature conceived of as an organic whole. Hegel started from Schelling, but worked out a system at once more consistent and more comprehensive than his ; a system which embraced in its compass not only nature but all spiritual life, and sought to enrich and strengthen all the sciences by reconstructing them a priori out of pure thought. Schelling s an 1 Hegel's writings produced a tremendous effect. ScMeier- Schleiermacher, on the other hand, one of the most niacher. powerful and learned minds that Germany has ever pro- duced, and whose influence among theologians was quite unequalled, was not duly honoured as a philosopher till long after his death. Schopen- Schopenhauer remained unnoticed for many decades, hauer. though as a Stylist he stood highest among the German philosophers. While Schelling's language, at its best, shows a graceful obscurity, and Hegel's is purely barbarous, Schopenhauer was a true master of speech. At the same time he was a man of really deep and original thought, who stood in much closer relation to Kant than ; Other writers, and successfully developed the Kantian philosophy in \ certain directions. Herbart, a calm methodical thinker, obtained only late in hfe a limited recognition of his merits. All other thinkers were eclipsed by Schelling and Hegel, whose daring idealism most appealed to the age, and led natural science astray. As early as the eighteenth century science had suffered from iiiT t f ^^ growing pow^r of poedc imagination. Goethe, in philosophy despising mere analysis and mathematical calculation, \ and poetry was only reaHsing and strengthening the predominant ^ " tendency of the age. Towards the end of the last y century, mathematics, physics and chemistry were almost at a standstill in Germany. The few men who distinguished them- selves in these sciences stood quite alone. The genius of Gauss, who by his * Disquisitiones Arithmeticae ' proved himself the Ch xiii] Science, 235 connecting link between an earlier and a later period of exact science, was but slowly appreciated in the province of mathematics. Men's excited imagination scorned colourless abstractions, and demanded glowing life in everything. Nature's secrets were now no longer to be wrung from her by the forcible method of experi- ments. Even in ai: atomy and physiology no one comparable to Albrecht von Haller arose for some time in Germany. But the stirry heaven never lost its charms for these enthusiasts, and the teleological observation of the minute details in nature led to the most glorious boUnical discoveries. The sensuous perception, which had been quickened and trained by the contemplation of the most sublime works of art, proved of great use in mineralogy. To distinguish and establish the characters of nations and countries was a poetical as much as a geographical task, and the thorough scholarly habits of the eighteenth century, the delight in amassing vast and universal knowledge, the careful accumulation of facts, furnished valuable material for scientific generalization, either in statistics, zoology, or geography. In the first decades of this century it seemed as if the true scientific attitude was in jeopardy in Germany. INIen's imagination, influenced by art, impatiently demanded of science a complete whole with no gaps in it, and metaphysics were ready to con- struct such a whole. Philosophers dreamed of an in- Exact tuitive method, which should easily solve the problems methods that baffled patient investigation. Most provinces of discredited. research in natural science were invaded by those pernicious metaphysical theories which have become so notorious under the name of ' Naturphilosophie.' The capacity for observing in an unprejudiced manner and for rightly philosophy,' estimating the value of an experiment diminished to circa I800- an alarming degree, while systems hastily and care- lessly evolved found a willing acceptance even in the domain of practical medicine. The believers in animal magnetism entered into alliance with t'.e believers in ghosts and in other 'occult powers of nature.' A few romantic and ardent spirits sought the cause of disease in the sinful soul, and recommended the expul- sion of the devil as the most effectual medicine. 2^6 Romanticism. [ch. xiir. But in spite of all this, 'Natural Philosophy' did really strengthen the general interest for natural science, and extend German national culture in this direction. By promising to reveal the secrets of the universe, it attracted many intellectual young men who, when they did not find their hopes fulfilled, sought for sounder knowledge in other paths, and eventually rivalled foreigners, be- cause in their modest devotion to science they were content with firmly establishing some few facts instead of grasping at the whole of knowledge. The reaction against 'Natural Philosophy' began about 1820, simultaneously with a great stirring of new life in all the Keaction c , n aa y against provmces 01 exact science. Germany suddenly pro- Natural duced a whole series of mathematicians, scientists Philosophy, ^^^ doctors of the first order, and Germans now circa 1820. , , , , • , , took the lead m many departments where a short time ago thev had been mere learners. Geography alone had remained untouched by the pernicious influences of Natural Philosophy, and Alexander von eograp y. pj^^j^Qj^jj-^ ^he most brilliant representative of this science, threw the whole weight of his influence into the scale against the dreams of metaphysics. Geography rose together with the rise of German poetry, but did not sink with its decline. Active spirits explored distant regions of the earth with the same joy of discovery with which poets penetrated into the world of the soul. Engelbert Kampfer reported about Japan. German explorers, from Messerschmidt, Gmelin and Pallas down to Alexander von Humboldt, Ehrenberg, Rose and their successors, contributed to the scientific knowledge of Russian Asia. Carsten Niebuhr made us more intimately acquainted with Arabia, Babylonia, and Persia. Hornemann penetrated into the interior of Africa. The two Forsters, father and son, accompanied James Cook on his second journey round the world. In 1799 Alexander von Humboldt went on his own responsibility to America, and his example was followed by many Germans in this century. German explorers were the first to rise above the level of isolated geographical facts, to geographical comparisons and generalisations. The comparative method, of which we \y ch. XTii.] Science. 237 only occasionally find traces in Gmelin and Pallas, became in Reinhold Forster the pervading tendency. His son t^,^^ Georg adopted the same method and handed it on comparative to his friend Alexander von Humboldt, who in his method, turn exercised a decisive influence on Karl Ritter. The com- parative science of the earth, including both comprehensive / physical generalisation, and investigation of the connection be- tween the earth and human life, between geography and history, is a creation of German origin. Georg Forster, who left INIainz in order to take an active part in the French Revolution, and who died in misery in Paris, was endowed with a rare versatility of mind and readiness of pen. His powers of observation and reflection were quite marvellous. He first practised the art of description on nature, \ but afterwards extended it to buildings and pictures, porsLr's to the aspect of towns and of public life. His 'Ansich^en ' Views on the Lower Rhine,' the memorial of a short "^^^ Nieder- journey taken in company with Alexander von Hud^ boldt in the year 1790, bear eloquent testimony to his talent in this direction. Alexander von Humboldt was superior to Georg Forster in universal learning, in clear sysiem and method, and in activity as an explorer and organizer. Humboldt added an in- ^gxander credible number of new facts to science, and used von them all for one end — the comprehensive study of the Humboldt, earth. Comparison was the very soul of his method. He did not entirely confine himself to physical geography ; his descriptions of countries from the standpoint of political economy are models of what such writings should be, and his interest in America led him to make historical investigations about Columbus. Nor were aesthetic interests quite neglected by him ; Georg Forster's descriptions of the tropical world had fired his imagina- tion and awakened his longing, and after he had jj^^ himself seen and enjoyed its wonders, he rivalled ■ Ansichten Bernardin de St. Pierre in his glowing pictures, ^^^ ^ * Views of Nature,' as he called them. His style, rich in epithets and introducing many technical names, does not attain 23^ Romanticism. [ch. xiii. to Goethe's graphic power, but it became the model for most German writers of travels. Here, too, Humboldt did not content himself with the mere picture of things, but penetrated beneath them to the underlying law. Alexander von Humboldt was not at all, or only quite transi- torily, affected by the Natural Philosophy movement. 'I he my- thical idea of a vital force, which he glorified in almost poetic language, was at that time held by many investigators, who were far from being natural philosophers. But he too, like Schelling, Oken or Hegel strove to represent natur \ phenomena as a complete whole. Buffon and Herder had already exhibited the relations in which the earth stands to the universe. Georg Forster conceived a similar plan and Humboldt carried it out. In his cele- brated Berlin lectures, given in the winter of 1827-28, and which His form the foundation of his ' Kosmos,' he drew a picture * Kosmos.' of the universe which nowhere went beyond the limits of fact or justifiable hypothesis ; these lectures formed the truest and most effective retort to the rubbish of the Natural Philosophers. In the same large and comprehensive spirit in which Alexander von Humboldt investigated the nature of the earth, his brother Wiihelm sought to fathom the nature of man. Both brothers moved in the highest ranks of society. Wiihelm was repeatedly Wiihelm von ^ninister and ambassador ; Alexander was repeatedly Humboldt, entrusted with diplomatic missions, and was on inti- 1767-1835. Y[\2ii^ terms with two Prussian king^. Both were personally attached to Goethe, and Wiihelm was besides a devoted friend of Schiller. When the friendship between the two great poets was formed, Wiihelm von Humboldt was living in Jena, and he no doubt did his best to bring Schiller and Goethe closer to jj.g each other. ' Hermann and Dorothea' furnished him ' Aesthe- with the text for his ' ^Esthetic Essays,' in which tische he preached Goethe's theory of the epic, and al^o did Versuche. j^^^j^ ^^ acquaint people with the poet's real cha- racter. A criticism of Schiller, which he wrote a quarter of a century after Schiller's death, was equally successful in revealing to the world the deepest nature of his great friend. Like Schiller and Goethe, he found ideal humanity in the Greek race. He declared ch. XIII.] Science. 239 that in the most solemn and the most cheerful moments, in the happiest and saddest events of life, and even in His love of the hour of death, a few lines of Homer, though the classics, they were only those cataloguing the Greek ships, would make him feel the divine element in human nature more than any other literary work. But his studies of the Greek and other literatures, his careful estimates of modern German poets, his investigation of the contrasts of sex in humanity and in nature, his study of the peculiarities of the French stage in Paris, his visit to the Spanish hermits of IMontserrat — all these labours were only ad- juncts to a comprehensive science of man ; and the study of language, indispensable for this purpose, ended by absorbing his whole interest. He pursued this study with the catholic sympathy characteristic of the eighteenth century, and sought out the various types of grammatical construction, from the admired forms of Greek and Sanskrit literature to the American, Malay, His study of and Polynesian idioms. His posthumous work on language. *The Kawi language in the island of Java,' and especially the in- troduction ' On the variety of construction in language, and its influence on the intellectual development of the human race,' is looked upon as his scientific masterpiece. He retired, when still young, from official life, in order to devote himself to study. In an essay written in 1791, and referring to the new French constitution, he protested against the attempt to build up a state- fabric according to mere principles of reason, jjjg views on In his paper, entitled ' An endeavour to determine the the functions limits of the functions of the State,' he protested against °^ ^^® ^*^^®- the all-powerful bureaucracy of the preceding century, and limited the interference of the State to securing its citizens against inward and outward enemies. Public education and all matters of religion seemed to him to lie outside the sphere of the State's functions. Though in this he rather overshot the mark, yet his opposition to the spirit of the eighteenth century was eminently practical and opportune. The historical and conservative views of Justus Moser now first attained real power. Statesmen like Baron von Stein sought to repel the encroachments of the bureaucracy, and to increase the participation of the citizens in public affairs. But Humboldt / 240 Romanticism. [Ch. xiii. himself could not retain that contemplative leisure in which he found his happiness. The needs of his Fatherland forced him into political activity, and he, who had been the enemy of all State- directed education, was compelled in January 1809 to assume the direction of the education department in the Prussian government. His splendid administration, which lasted a year and a half, formed the culminating point of his public activity, and was a brilliant era in the history of German education generally. 1 * The State must replace by intellectual force what it has lost in physical force,' said King Frederick William III on the loth of August, 1807, in proposing the foundation of a new university; and Queen Louise remarked to a distinguished official : ' Frederick II conquered provinces for Germany ; the present king will make con- quests for Germany in the intellectual kingdom.' No Prussian official did more to fulfil these words than Wilhelm von '^'/*!^.^^"^ Humboldt. He secured the foundation of the Univer- boldt as Prussian sity of Berlin under the most difficult circumstances, and . Minister of in so doing also gave a new lease of life to the Berlin lorllf^o?^' Academy of Sciences. The Prussian gymnasia had X809— 1810. been progressing satisfactorily since the time of Frederick the Great, and with a Hellenist like Humboldt at the head of educational matters, classical studies would naturally receive still greater attention. But Humboldt also favoured the increased wish for physical development and exercise by introducing gymnastics into the school curriculum. At the same time he took an interest in the cultivation of music in schools, and directed elementary instruc- tion into new paths. We have noticed how in Basedow's mind the principles laid down by Rousseau with regard to a natural education were combined with the demands of the Illuminati ; the same views operated in Pestalozzi, who based the earliest instruction on sen- n| suous perception, at the same time assigning more importance to religion and family influences in education than Rousseau had done. From the beginning of the century his method of instruc- tion spread more and more, and when, after the humiliation of ' / Prussia, a better education for the coming generation seemed the highest immediate duty and the only present source of hope, Pesta- Ch. XIII.] Science. 241 lozzi's method, recommended by Fichte and taken up by Hum- boldt, attained predominant influence in the elementary schools of Germany. In the autumn of 18 10, when Humboldt had already resigned office, the Uni\ersity of Berlin was opened, and the q . - Prussian capital became henceforth the chief centre of the Univer- intellecmal life in Germany and the scene of the sity of Berlin, greatest advancement in science. It was chiefly at Berlin that after 1820 the representatives of a new and exact school of natural science were gathered together. From the ^^^ ^^ very beginning Berlin possessed a few of the chiefs of science and that new philosophical and scientific movement which letters in had sprung up in the train of German poetry. Fichte was the second rector of the University, and Hegel settled in Berlin and founded an influential school of philosophy. The University and the Academy counted among their members at different times theologians like Schleiermacher, Marheinecke, De Wette and Neander, jurists like Savigny and Eichhorn, historians like Niebuhr, Riihs, Wiiken, Friedrich von Raumer, Pertz and Ranke, philologists like Bopp and Pott, classical scholars like Friedrich August Wolf, Bockh, Immanuel Bekker, Lachmann and the brothers Grimm. The development of religious life in the nineteenth century was directly opposed to the tendencies of the eighteenth ^ century. The revolt against the school of enlighten- theology in ment, which had been begun by H erder in 1 7 7 4 , became ^^^ 19<^^ more and more marked, till Schleiermacher's 'Addresses *^®^ ^"^* on Religion' in 1799 formed the turning-point of the movement in Germany. In Schleiermacher, as in young Goethe, Schleierma- IVIoravian and Pantheistic elements were mingled. He ^ ^cher s described the union of the soul with God in the poetic die Religion,' language of a mystic, and he did homage at the same 1799. time to the spirit of the ' holy, rejected Spinoza.' He transferred religion into the sphere of feeling, and avoided the name of God, preferring to replace it by World or Universe. He addressed him.- self especially to the cultured among the despisers of religion, and sought to convince the enlightened Berlinese that religion was an essential element of intellectual Ufe. When he printed the third edition VOL. II. R 242 Romanticism. [ch. xiii. of these addresses twenty-two years later, it seemed to him more necessary to direct his words of exhortation to canting Christians and slaves of the letter, to those who ignorantly and uncharitably gave their brethren over to damnation, to the superstitious and over-credulous among the educated classes; so great was the revolution which had accomplished itself in the religious life of Germany during that period. Germany's humiliation, struggle and liberation revived piety in her midst. Even Wilhelm von Humboldt took an interest in the rise of the religious spirit. Contemporary with and after him, Ludwig Nicolovius, who had married Goethe's niece., made his influence felt as Prussian minister of education and public worship. He was personally intimate withHamann and Fritz Jacobi, and shared their religious views. Schleiermacher's sermons kindled a glow of piety in many hearts. In his religious utterances as in his scientific ethics, he sought to appeal to all the various sides of human life. In his most complete work, on ' Dogma ' (Glaubenslehre), he jjjg sought to bring the fundamental views of his ' Addresses 'Glaubens- on Religion' into closer harmony wiih the traditional lehre.' Christian dogmas, to save as many as possible of these by transforming their meaning, and yet to leave everywhere free scope for scientific investigation. On the occasion of the three- hundredth anniversary of the Reformation, King Frederick William III, consistently with the old policy of his house, actually eff"ected a union between the two Protestant confessions, a measure which had often been talked of before. Contemporaneously, however, intoler- ance again raised its head, and orthodoxy persecuted all liberal tendencies as heresy. Catholicism acquired new strength in the nineteenth century ; the Jesuit order was re-established in 1814, and Protestantism and Catholicism attacked each other afresh, though only with the pen. Metaphysicians intervened in vain in this old quarrel. In the intellectual as in the natural sciences they could create nothing per- manent, but only supplied general suggestions which did great harm in particular cases. For several decades metaphysic exercised a baneful dominion over aesthetic and psychology, inasmuch as it re- placed genuine observation and investigation by mere theory. But the philological and historical schools were already arrayed in Ch.xiii.] Science. 243 determined opposition to metaphysic, and their influence in this respect reacted on theology. In spite of single errors, history and philology did make som.e important advances at this time. The classical ten- . Advances in dency of German poetry was as useful to classical as historical the romantic tendency was to national philology ; and and poetry in its turn derived benefi: from philological pl"lolosical ,. ,T iij 1- c • J criticism. Studies. Many hidden achievements of national and foreign literature were now brought to light. In the arrangement of literary material, in collecting and publishing, the Germans showed themselves superior to all other nations, and the improved methods of treating such material have mostly proceeded from them. In the intellectual, as in the natural sciences, a strong criUcal spirit now prevailed. The students of the eighteenth century made short work both in ecclesiastical and in profane history with any- thing which seemed in contradiction to the recognised nature of things. They everywhere scented untruth and deception, and sometimes went too far in their scepticism, thereby evoking in a few Romanticists a certain tendency to over-credulity. But on the whole criticism gained steadily in boldness, prudence and acumen. Wolf doubted the unity of authorship in Homer, and Niebuhr ques- tioned the truth of early Roman history. Not that these new critics imputed conscious deception to pri- Niebuhr,'and mitive writers ; they merely made allowance for the Lachmann's unconscious distortion of legends, for the lower standard ©ones, of probability in early times, for the absence of contemporary written records and the errors which would naturally arise therefrom, for the way the truth might have been obscured to satisfy aesthetic de- mands, or to meet party exigencies or other prejudices They conjectured, as the basis of early history, the existence of old popular ballads, like those which Herder had first brought into general notice. They allowed for the same myihologising element in primitive poetry which Herder had so strongly insisted on; and, again following Herder's example, they adopted worthier, nobler views of the character of the priests among ancient nations. Their criticism was not merely destructive, but also constructive., R 2 ^ 244 Romanticism. [ch. xiii. Though unity of authorship was denied to the Iliad, the Odyssey and the Nibelungenlied, and these great epics were in a certain measure destroyed thereby, yet Lachmann restored them again by means of a process which Herder had applied to the Song of Solomon, i. e. by assuming, as their original basis, a series of ballads of less extent, but of greater artistic merit. Lachmann X| also discovered in the Nibelungenlied a mythical as well as a h storical element, and thus, with truly constructive criticism, recovered a lost chapter of old German mythology. It is true this kind of criticism was sometimes driven too far; Niebuhr was Mistaken mistaken in deriving the traditional history of early criticism. Rome entirely from lost epic poems. The brothers Grimm and others were mistaken when they placed the origin of popular poetry in a mysterious obscurity, and drew a strong con- trast between it and artificial poetry. Savigny again was entirely mistaken when he wrapped the origin of law in the same kind of mys'.erious obscurity, and when he refused to recognise any original creation of law in any except the early epochs of the history of nations. We have seen how geographers sought by means of generalisa- tion and comparison to construct a history of the earth ; similarly in philology and its kindred sciences the historical and compara- tive method, which had hitherto been applied with but slight skill Science or success, now became an important instrument of of language research and criticism. On the other hand, the philo- and history. gQpj^y ^f history, which depends on comparison and generalisation, lost that favour which it had enjoyed for a time in the preceding century. The method of historical analogy was but little applied; the present was seldom invoked to aid in the interpretation of the past. The joy in the newly acquired facts rather blinded men's eyes to the necessity of explaining them if they were to be of any use. But in the science of philology the"] comparison of the grammatical structure of languages apparently / most remote from each other led to the discovery of the primitive Aryan race, and at once puggested s'mihir problems in other groups of languages, problems such as Wilhe m von Humboldt undertook! to solve for the Polynesian and Malay races. Ch. XIII.] Science, rj45 The historical method was applied wherever it could throw light. Enquirers were not so eai^er now to define the ipj^g essence of things as to investigate their origin and historical growth. History now took the place of a priori method. construction. Historical right and theoretical right were clearly distinguished from one another, and all true progress in science was effected by means of adherence to the same historical method. Savigny traced the historical development of Roman law, showing how it had been gradually expanded and distorted. Historians in the same manner traced the history of the authorities on which they had to rely, and thereby learnt to estimate the true value to be assigned to their evidence. Siudents of literature, in publishing texts, first followed up the history of tradition, before undertaking to establish what was genuine. It was through historical research that the grammarians first gained an insight inio the real life of language, and Wilhelm von Humboldt, who was the most eloquent exponent of this newly acquired knowledge, really but confirmed what Herder had surmised as early as his Strassburg period. Even " the Hegelian philosophy owes its success in part to the fact that it seemed to satisfy in the shortest way the desire to understand the origin and growth of things, and also skilfully formulated and generalised a number of superficial reflections about the historical process of development. The studies of the Romanticists were also historical in so far as they no longer cherished a bigoted contempt for whole epochs in the past ; the Middle Ages especially, which had Medieeval- formerly been so depreciated, were now studied Vvith ism. special zeal and enthusiastically admired. In religion, art and music mediaevalism became fashionable, while theoretical as well as practical politics fostered the historical-conservative tendencies of the Romantic school as a useful weapon against parliamentary constitutions, and in defence of the privileged classes. In ecclesiastical and secular history we notice the same objec- tive and impartial attitude, strangely contrasting with the tendencies of the eighteenth century. The most distinguished ecclesiastical and secular historians of the older school were to be found at the University of Gottingen. Such were 246 Roina7tticism. [Ch. xiii. Mosheim, Putter, Gatterer, Schlozer, Spittler, Meiners, Heeren and Planck. In contrast to these Justus Moser prepared the way for the juster historical views of the nineteenth century, and at the same time brought historical style under the laws of epic art. The Swiss historian Iselin belongs to the older school, while his countryman Iselin and Johannes Miiller represents the modern tendencies in Johannes historical writing. While Iselin painted in bold out- Muller, ijj^gg |_]-jg progress of humanity, and dwelt much on the barbarism of the Middle Ages, Miiller, in an ardficial, senten- tious style imitated from Tacitus, drew the first appreciative picture of medi3eval life, and with patriotic enthusiasm traced the history of the Swiss confederation down to the fifteenth century. The twenty-four books of his Universal History formed a triumph of the objective school of historical study. In the art of narration, Archenholz Archenholz and Schiller were fir superior to IMiiller. and Archenholz described the Seven Years' War from the Schiller, standpoint of an enthusiastic admirer of Frederick the Great, without any trouble of research or verification, but in a lively and popular style. Schiller, with a slight amount of learning, showed a rare talent for penetrating criticism, a sure discernment of the inner reladon of events, and a power of graphic description such as one would expect from so great a dramatist. In historical wridng, as in other departments of knowledge, we find the spirit of the eighteenth century continued on into the beginning of the nineteenth, and only gradually losing its power. Rotteck wrote a universal history from the standpoint of a vulgar liberalism, and achieved a great success among the general reading public. But it was only the appreciative objective treatment which really met the demands of the time and satisfied more critical minds. "Wilken ' Friedrich Christoph Schlosser, a stern moral censor Stenzel, and Strictly bourgeois in his manner of looking at Voigt, things, succeeded in appreciaung the greatness of the Middle Ages even from the religious side. Wilken wrote the history of the Crusades, Friedrich von Raumer the history of the Hohenstaufen, and Harald Stenzel that of the Franconian emperors. Johannes Voigt presented Pope Gregory VII in a more pleasing light. Neander gave himself up to the task of Ch. XIII.] Science. 24y delineat'ng the individuality of such men as Julian the Apostate, Bernard of Clairvaux, Chrysostom, and Tertullian. And in the third decide of this century there arose in Germany a truly great and universal historian, Leopold Ranke, a critic and narrator of the first order, a master of characterization, endowed with a marvellous power of sympathy, and possessing a thorough knowledge of politics and literature. His style at first resembled that of Johannes Miiller, but was always more graphic and brilliant, and soon became thoroughly individual. It was the endeavour of the eighteenth century to discover the^ peci liar tendencies, the 'genius' of nations. Winckelmann adhered faithfully to this point of view in his studies of antique art, and Christian Gottlob Heyne later on transplan ed Winckelmann's ideas into the classical teaching of the Univer>iiies. Herder gathered together all the different phases of national character in a whole, not even omitting language in his ob^ervaiions and comparisons. ' In the nineteenth century this class of studies was continued by ' Wilhelm von Humboldt ; and his * Sketch of the Greeks,' which he" sent to his friend Wolf, furnished the latter with a study of basis for a science of antiquity, and thereby for a nationalities, new view of philology generally. Philology in Humboldt's sense^ is the science of nationality ; it investigates all the various' phases of life in a nation, and points out the distinguishing pecuUarity in each. Humboldt's lofty aims in the pursuit of thisj method have not yet been really attained in the study of any nation, and perhaps are unattainable as he intended them. But compre- hensive research into all the aspects of national life became now an object of serious study. It was undertaken with regard to the Greeks by Welcker, Bockh and oihers, and was extended from poetry, art, mythology and science to material interests, to finance and navigation, weights and measures. But their own nationaUty as well as the Greek now forced itself on the attention of German scholars. The German strong I nationality and its distinguishing features was the patriotic : problem which Fichte treated in his ' Addresses,' and tendency, which also occupied Ernst Moriz Arndt and the men of action. It is true they idealized without sufficient investigation, and took ;) 248 Romanticism, [ch. xiii. the existing condition of things for permanent truth; but the glorified picture of the nation which ihey held up to their com- patriots was an enormous moral force, and inspired hope and courage in times of need. Cosmopolitanism everywhere retired, and the national standpoint asserted itself not only in history, but Study of ^^^^ ^"^ politics and political economy. Literary German research in this period was superior to historical ; literature. ^^ study of German literature was represented by men like Jacob Grimm and Georg Gottfried Gervinus, whose ' History of German poetry ' began to appear three years after Goethe's death (1835), and formed, so to speak, the epilogue of the modern classical period of German poetry. f~ Herder gave the initiative in all directions, in history, philology Strong "^^^ literary criticism. He furnished many utterances influence of on German mediaeval poetry, and was peculiarly Herder. successful in discerning the really great minds of the seventeenth cenlury. His idea of Hellenism influenced Schiller. The sceptre of aesthetic criticism passed from Gottsched to Lessing, from Lessing to Herder, and from him lo the brothers Schlegel. The combination in Herder of the study of literary history with the art of the translator, his enthusiastic appreciation of other writers, which sometimes led him into mere slavish imitation, all this lived on in the two Schlegels, while the general plan which they laid down as the basis of literary history was 1 derived from Schiller. They put * classical ' and ' romantic ' in the l)lace of Schiller's contrast of 'naive' and 'sentimental' poetry, and they counted Goethe's ' Hermann and Dorothea,' for instance, as belonging to the classical school of poetry. August Wilhelm Schlegel, Friedrich Schlegel, Ludwig Tieck, Friedrich von Hardenberg, who wrote under the name of Novalis, The older Johann Dietrich Gries, and a few others, form the Bomantic inner circle of the so-called older Romantic school, school. They were friends of Fichte and Schleiermacher at Berlin and Jena, and began to come prominently into notice about the time when Schiller and Goethe commenced their friend- ship, and when Goethe published his 'Wilhelm INIeister' (1795). They attacked the Berlin school of enlightenment, and satirised ch. XIII.] Science. 249 the shallow society-literature, as Schiller and Goethe did in the 'Xenien.' But they went too far in their hostility towards the eighteenth century. In their extreme horror of the fashionable cry for 'nature' in everything, they departed altogether from nature and reality in their writings, and demanded, in accordance with Fichte's views, that a work of art should be a free product of the / inner consciousness. They freed imagination from all restraints,\/^ repudiated all established forms, and confused the various kinds of poetry. They set up the finest principles of objective criticism, and ruthlessly disregarded them in practice. They loudly pro- claimed the praises of Goethe, but they misunderstood Wieland, depreciated Lessing, and did not even recognise Schiller's genius. Nicolai, Kotzebue and their party, the representatives of the school of enlightenment, did not take these attacks in silence. Pas- quinades, criticisms, manifestos and satirical dramas, continuing to a certain extent the warfare of the ' Xenien/ were launched by each side against the other. But the political events of 1805 and 1806, the defeats of Austria and Prussia, put an end to all literary feuds; the Romanticists, like Fichte, returned to reality and national life, and the two Schlegels now gathered their forces together for important achievements in the province of literary history. In the school of the older Romandcists generally the history of literature and the art of translation made great progress. Tieck was a man whose views and education were essentially those of the ' Storm and Stress ' period : he was an Tieck enthusiastic admirer of ' Gotz ' and the ' Robbers,' and he himself never got beyond the formless literary productions of Goethe's youthful companions. He had early become acquainted with the German popular stories, and revived them under various forms. His interest in Shakspeare led him on to the study of the English and German drama in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. He made Siegfried's youth the subject of some early romances; he translated ' Don Quixote' (1799/ ; he His I)roduced a modern version of old German Minne- translaticns. songs (1803), and published the love-memoirs of Ulrich von Lichtenstein (181 2). He uttered, so to speak, the manifesto of Romanticism in the following lines : — 250 Romanticism. [Ch. xui. ' Magical moonlit-night, Holding the senses fettered, Wonderful fairy- world, Arise in thy olden glory.' Wilhelm Schlegel, the elder of the two brothers, acquired pure Wilhelm poetic form through his personal acqu lintance with Schlegel. Burger. He gradually freed himself from Burger's travestying method of translation, and rather adopted Herders principles, uniting the most careful imitation of the original with a truly German character, with fluency of language, unity of style, and pure poetic effect. Wieland's translation of Shakspeare had been made more complete and accurate by Eschenburg, but a prose version of Shakspeare could never hope to find general acceptance. Wilhelm Schlegel was the first to apply those newly developed forces of German language and metrical art, which dated from the appearance of Goethe's first Iambic plays, to making a noble German version of the great English dramatist. Between 1797 and 1801 he translated sixteen of Shakspeare's plays, and in 1 8 1 o there followed yet a further instalment. Schlegel's Shakspeare certainly surpassed Voss' Homer. It d'd not conceal the wide difference between creative and imitative art, but it showed the close kinship between one perfect work and another, and for this reason it may rank directly by the side of Shakspeare the works which Goethe and Schiller produced in the and other period of their common labours. Wilhelm Schlegel translations. g]^(^^,g(-| almost the same perfection in his renderings of Italian, Spanish- and Portuguese poetry, and called forth many imitators in this field, such as Gries for Tasso, Ariosto and Calderon, Kannegiesser, Streckfuss. and King John of Saxony for Dante, Witte and Soltau for Boccaccio and Cervantes; at the same time, many writers rivalled each other in completing the translation of Shakspeare, while new German versions of tHe classics were continually appearing. These trans- lators did not all proceed accord ng to Schlegel's principles; only a few hit on the right mean between faithfulness 10 the original and faithfulness to the German laws of language and form. Willielm von Humboldt's version of -^schylus' 'Agamemnon,' and Schleier- macher's 'Plato,' for instance, possess the former in the highest Ch. xii'i.] Science. 251 degree, but are often deficient in the latter. Wilhelm Schlegel's art of translation was based as much on the devoted study of language as on independent poetic power, as much on wide literary interests as on the highest conceptions of German poetry. He was the critic par excellence among the allies of the Romantic school. His ' Lectures on dramatic art and literature,' which ap- jjjg peared from 1809 to 181 1, show him from his best 'Vorles- side. The chief place is here rightly assigned to the ^^g^n uber Greeks and the English ; but patriotic prejudice K^^gt ^^^^ blinded him in his criticism of the French, and even Litteratur ' led him to condemn Moli^re. ^ (1809-1811). Friedrich Schlegel was pre-eminently the theorist of the older Romantic school, bold and paradoxical to the point of Friedrich absurdity and bad taste, but also a man of many-sided Schlegel. interests, who exercised a strong influence over other minds. In his first studies of Greek poetry, he took Winckel- „. . „ . ^ ■ * His • Sprache niann as his example, while he was in part also und Weis- influenced by Humboldt's principles. He gave a new iieit der impulse to the study of mediaeval art. His essay ^ ^®^' on the ' Language and wisdom of the Indians,' which appeared in the year 1808, paved the way for Indian studies in Germany, and with its bold but suggestive hypotheses was the pioneer for the surer conclusions of comparative philology. In the same year, 1808, Friedrich Schlegel became a Roman Catholic, and there is clear evidence of his change of opinion in his * Lectures jj^g Lectures on the history of old and modern literature' (1815), on German a work of great excellence in many respects. In literature, these lectures Friedrich Schlegel only gave a bare outline of old German poetry. With greater power and enthusiasm Wilhelm Schlegel had addressed the Berlin public on the same subject in the winter of 1803 to 1804. He compared the Nibel- ^ . , ungenlied, as Bodmer's school had already done, with interest in the Iliad. He called it a miracle of nature and a o^d German sublime work of art, which had never since been ^ ^^* ^^^' equalled in German poetry. He himself thought of publishing a new edition of it, and Tieck cherished a similar plan. Both were anticipated by Friedrich Heinrich von der Hagen, who had attended 25^ Romanticism. [ch. xiii. Schlegel's lectures, and who published successively four editions F.H. vender of the Nibelungenlied, and also a modernised version Hagsn and of the poem ; but his labours in this department were Lachmann. afterwards eclipsed by Lachmann. In the winter of 1807 to 1808 old German poetrv became fashion- able among the educated classes in Berlin, and in 1808 a new Later generation of romantic poets who from the first directed Komantic their attention chiefly to the older and popular German schoo . literature, gathered round a small and short-lived news- paper, the ' Zeitung fur Einsiedler ' (Journal for Hermits), published in Heidelberg. This band of poets consisted of Achim von Arnim from Berlin, Joseph Gorres from Coblenz, Clemens Brentano from Frankfort, the brothers Grimm from Hanau, and Ludwig Uhland from Tubingen. Arnim. the editor of the journal above mendoned, and Brentano were at that time living in Heidelberg ; Gorres too was teaching there at the University, which was springing up into new life and vigour under the government of the Elector of Baden. The other authors contributed from a distance. Achim von Arnim planned a comprehensive revival of the old and the popular literature. From 1806 Arnim and Brentano pub- Arnim and lished conjointly a collection of German songs, under Brentano, jj^g peculiar tide of * The Boy's Wonder-Horn/ These *DesKnaben ^ .... Wunder- songs are patriotic in character, in contrast to the horn.* cosmopolitan tone of Herder's people's songs. Arnim revived with more or less freedom narradves and dramas of the fifteenth to the seventeenth century. Brentano revived a tale of Jorg Wickram, and in his light jocose treatise on the ' Philis- tine ' he declares it to be the clearest proof of Philistinism not to understand and admire the marvellous inventive genius and extra- ordinary artistic power displayed in * Schelmuff"sky.' In 1807 Gorres wrote a work on ' The German people's books,' G6rres, and furnished an appreciative survey of that whole * ^^® class of literature which was sold at fairs, and which Voiks- ^s still esteemed among the lower ranks of the nation. biicher.' The * People's Books ' comprised dream-books, medicine-books, and riddle-books, weather-prophecies, craftsmen's proverbs, fabulous travels, legends and romances like those of Gh. XIII.] Science. 253 Genovefa, Magelone, Melusine, the Emperor Octavian, the invulner- able Siegfried, Duke Ernst, Henry the Lion, Eulenspiegel, Doctor Faustus, and the wandering Jew. /~The brothers Grimm, Jacob and Wilhelm (the former born in 1785, the latter in 1786), frequently appeared before the public as joint-authors. In 181 2 and 1815 they "J^.^^ ^^^ published their 'Fairy-tales' in common, in 18 16 Grimm's the 'German Legends,' and from 1852 they both ' Kinder und laboured in producing a 'German Dictionary.' From ausmar- their childhood to the death of Wilhelm, they 'Deutsche lived almost continually together. Wilhelm was mar- Sagen,' ried, Jacob unmarried, but beloved in his brother's '"^^^^^^^^ family like a second father. Their common labours buch.' embraced all departments of German philology in the wide sense given to it by Wilhelm von Humboldt. The power of great discovery was strongest in the elder brother, the power of quiet development in the younger. Jacob seemed at first to wish to attempt a history of German poetry and legends, a comprehensive survey of poetic material. ; But in his * German Grammar,' which he began to publish in 1 819, he furnished a history of all the Teutonic languages, and by his method as well as by his discoveries became one of the founders of the modern science of language. He felt, as no one had felt before, the natural poetry Qrimm's hidden in language. In 1 8 1 6 he wrote an essay on ' Deutsche the poetry in law, and expanded it in 1828 into the ^rammatik/ y J ^ ^ ' Deutsche work entitled ' Antiquities of German Law. In 1835 Rechtsalter- iie published his 'German Mythology,' in which he thiimer,' and traced the vestisres of heathenism in the older poetry ' Deutsche , . . x-r , 1 1-1 Mythologie.* and m popular superstition. He brought to light many noble customs of early German times, and enabled men to enter more thoroughly into the spirit and style of the old Germanic epics. He made a wide study of the productions of popular poetry, and himself translated a few Servian songs. He frequently rose to the highest level of general observations, full of natural philosophy and unadorned wisdom. Even his errors are attractive ; one would rather believe them than repudiate them. 254 Romaftticism. [Ch. xiiL Wilhelm Grimm directed his researches in particular to the "Wilhelm ^^^ German hero-legends; he translated old Danish Grimm's hero-songs, ballads and fairy-tales, published many literary monuments of German poetry and language from the eighth to the thirteenth century, and did the chief work in the collection of German fairy-tales made by him and his brother Jacob. He knew what children liked to hear, and His created the homogeneous style of these stories, with- fairy-tales. out exactly inventing it ; he adopted the best, most naive and most charming traits in the oral narratives current among the people, arranging them according to the measure of his own refined taste. He accomplished for the German fairy-tales what Arnim, Brentano, Tieck and others only attempted for the popular songs and romances. He gave back to the whole nation those innocent children's stories which had taken refuge with the lower classes, and produced a work of art perfect of its kind, and which found favour and imitation even outside Germany. His ' Marchen ' made him rank among the best German popular writers and children's authors, such as Peter Hebel, Christoph Schmid and Ludwig Aurbacher; yet at the same time he always remained a scholar, adhering faithfully to his authorities, while the other writers whom we have mentioned refashioned with poetic licence Biblical stories, or legends, tales, and farces of the older litera- ture, and did not even mind introducing inventions of their own. Genuine devotion to poetry distinguishes the brothers Grimm Ch t ris ^^^"^ many other scholars. We can clearly observe tics of the in them how the high excellence *of German poetry brothers led to a science of German poetry. Like Goethe rimm. ^j^^^ were specially attracted by the idyll, which educated the men of the previous century to appreciate the simple charms of natural everyday life. They were animated by a pathetic optimism, and they possessed that sober imagination which delights in small things and narrow interests, lingering over them with strong affection. They transferred the old philologists' virtue of exactness to the things which lay im- mediately around them. They descended to the most insig- nificant facts, and approached a nonsensical sounding nurseryj Ch. XIII.] Science. 255 rhyme as seriously as though it might contain the deepest revelations of primitive times. Their ' meditation on the in- significant,' as Wilhelm Schlegel mockingly termed it, was really the basis of their scientific greatness and the source of their popu- larity. They, more than any other writers, reaped what Herder had sown, and of the whole multitude of Romanticists, none, except Uhland, was so dear to the German people as the brothers Grimm. Uhland's learned works became known, for the most part, only after his death. He was born in April 1787, and study of already at the University he began to turn his at- literature, tention to the Nibelungenlied'. It was not merely as Utiland and a scholar that he approached Old-German poetry ; it inspired him in his own poetic creation, and early determined his taste. His poetic talent was of advantage to him in his literary researches, as, for instance, when in his ' Walther von der Vogelweide ' he drew the first complete picture of an old German singer, or when, in the spirit of Herder, he explained the northern myths of the Thunder-God as being originally a personifying poetry of nature. He soon extended his studies to mediaeval French, and he and Wilhelm Schlegel were the founders of Romance philo- logy in Germany. What he did for the old French epics was afterward' done by Friedrich Diez for the poetry and life of the Troubadours. With Uhland and Diez also the study of literature went hand in hand with the art of translation, and Karl Simrock Karl of Bonn, from 1827 on, did more than any other Simrock. man to render Middle High-German poetry accessible to the general public thr'ough modern German versions. Philological and\i poetical research was pushing forward in all directions. Friedrich Schlegel had already directed his attention to India, and his brother Willielm and others carried on his work in this direction. Joseph von Harnmer, continuing what Herder had begun, made the Germans acquainted with Persian. Arabic, and . The Turkish poetry ; Friedrich Riickert followed in his schlegels steps and enjoyed his personal direction, but he also Hammer, included Indian, Hebrew, and even Chinese literature, ..^^^ in the sphere of his labours, and made wonderful translations from all of them. A literary conquest seemed to 256 Romanticism. [Ch. xiii. have been made both of the East -and the West, and the most difficult metrical forms, rhythms and rhymes did not refuse to adapt themselves to a language which a hundred years before this was hardly able to stammer Alexandrines, and which was fain to greet a Gottsched as a welcome law -giver. No one followed all these efforts with greater interest than Goethe ; he stood in the midst of the whole scientific svmr>athv "movement of the nineteenth century, and at the same with the time retained his allegiance to the school of Herder. tendencies He was certainly not altogether free from the tend- . , encies of the school of natural philosophy. His theory of colours was influenced by those tendencies, and gave them further encouragement. His theory of the meta- morphosis of plants now first began to find general recognition. Many of the movements then stirring in Germany and elsewhere were in harmony with early ideas of Goethe's to which he had not given public utterance. The brilliant achievements of Alexander von Humboldt filled him with sympathetic admiration, and he repeatedly extended favour and tolerance to the Romanticists. The two unsuccessful dramatic productions of the brothers Schlegel, the 'Ion' of the elder brother and the ' Aiarcos' of the younger, were, through Goethe's recommendation, performed on the Weimar stage even in the lifetime of Schiller. He was much gratified by the dedication of the ' Wunderhorn' to himself, and gave his full approval to the work. He read extracts from the Nibelungenlied in his own circle of friends. In his Masque entiUed ' Romantic poetry,* produced in 18 10, he introduced characters drawn from old German poetry. He showed his sympathy with the Romanticist enthusiasm for old German stories by publishing at this time the first part of ' Faust,' — a work which he had begun in early years in an outburst of national enthusiasm, and whose appearance now threw into the shade all other attempts at modernising or reshaping old German legends. But there is one point which caused him serious anxiety. He could not bear to see Mediaeval- ism acquiring ever greater power not only in historical interests, but in art, religion and life. The faithful Meyer was compelled, in 1807,. to declare war in the name of the joint-firm of the Weimar Ch. xui.] Science. 257 friends of art against the modern German school of religious patriotic art, and against all canting piety. Goethe himself celebrated the Reformation tercentenary by some warning anti-papistical verses, appealing to all Germans lo take care that the old enemy should gain no advantage, and ending with the assurance : * Auch ich soil gottgegebne Kraft nicht ungeniitzt verlieren Und will in Kunst und Wissenscliaft wie immer protestiren.' His scientific activity had in this century taken a perceptibly his- torical and critical direction. Political history, indeed, he hardly touched upon, except in a few isolated instances, gcientiflo But he now followed up his book on Winckelmann with \ and his ' History of the Theory of Colour,' and with several literary writings on the history of literature. His translation of Diderot's dialogue, ' Rameau's Nephew,' was accompanied by an excellent analysis of the French spirit in the eighteenth century. He now began to concern himself more with his own history and past productions. Between the years 1806 and 1808 he published an edition of his works in twelve volumes; between 18 15 and 18 19 one in twenty volumes, and between 1827 and 1830 one in forty volumes, each time making fresh additions. In connection with the first edition he began writing ' Wahrheit und Dichtung,' in which he made the history of literature in the eighteenth century a backgroundj for the history of his own youth. While such a thoughtful investigator of human nature as Wilhelm von Humboldt considered « "vVahrheit genius to be inexplicable, Goethe undertook in this book und to trace the connection of cause and effect, and to ex- Dichtung plain how he had come to be what he was. This auto- autobio- biography was a scientific achievement of the highest graphical order, and, at least in the three first volumes of 181 r, works. 1812, and 18 1 4, a masterpiece of historical art. It is charmingly toll I, and the composition is most successful, with its apparently fortuitous, but in reality cleverly contrived transitions and divisions. It is rich in characters and events, and the interest never flags for a monnent. The fourth volume, published from (joethe's literary remains, con- tains in part disconnecte(i materials, not yet artistically worked up. Further recorcls pf {ijs jif^ ar^ fprni§hed in his reports of his Italian 258 Romanticism, [Ch. xiii. journey, in the war reports of 1792 and 1793, i^i the * History of my Botanical Studies/ in the * Day and Year-books,' in his pub- Essays on Wished correspondence with Schiller, and elsewhere. Oriental He gave an account of his oriental studies in the pre- literature. f^tory essays to his ' West-eastern Divan/ which con- tain valuable contributions to the knowledge of the oriental litera- tures, reports on oriental research in general, besides aesthetic and philosophic opinions. In later life he was fond of putting dov;n in short maxims and reflections the sum of his thoughts on various subjects, and to this habit we owe many precious sayings, highly suggestive and full of the deepest wisdom and loftiest ideas. In 1804 a chance occurrence made him return to criticism, which Goethe's ^^ ^^^ really given up since 1772, in which year he journalistic contributed with Merck and Herder to the * Frankfurter work, 1804. gglehrten Anzeigen.' The editors of the ' Allgemeine Litteraturzeitung ' left Jena, and took their journal with them. Goethe at once wished to replace it, and called a new critical review into existence, in connection with which he developed marvellous journalistic skill, and showed the greatest energy and talent for organization. In articles of his own he furnished some splendid models of objective literary criticism; he did justice equally to '■&b K t ^°^^' po^"^s and to the ' Wunderhorn/ Later on he und used his publications on ' Art and Antiquity,' wh'ch he Aiterthum,' began in 18 16 and continued to his death, as a vehicle forencouragingyoungtalents, attackingfalse tendencies, and showing his sympathy with German and foreign literary pro- ductions by means of reviews, notices, quotations and translations. In these papers he welcomed Riickert and Platen, Manzoni and Byron, Tegndr and the French Romanticists. In these he ex- pressed his delight with the historical works of Niebuhr, Schlosser, and Friedrich von Raumer; in these he published some of Jacob Grimm's translations from the Serbian, and repeatedly manifested his deep interest in the popular poetry of all nations. In these he uttered the hope that Germany might through its zealous activity in translation become, in a measure, the market of universal literature, and that foreign nations would learn German in order to gain Ch. XIII.] Lyric Poetry. ' 259 access to the intellectual achievements of so many ancient and modern nations. The sympathy which he extended on all sides was richly requited. He was in regular correspondence with Berlin ; friends ^ , , of his took care that no important work which ap- large peared in the Prussian capital should escape his notice, correspond- and that his words of approbation should not fail to ^^°^' reach and delight the authors. French, English, Italian, and Polish poets paid him their homage in person and from afar. He was, as it were, ihe president of the European republic of letters, and he placed his nation at the head of the intellectual movement of the century. Lyric Poetry. We can hardly doubt that ihe advance of science and learning which we have noticed, together with the increase of religiosity and the strong development of political activity, gradually undermined the power of German poetry in the nineteenth century as in the thirteenth and weakened the nation's sympathy for serious poetic efforts. But in the first decades of this century, lyrical poetry at least developed a wealth of individuality and style, of subject and form, a depth of feeling and variety of expression far above anything achieved by the Minnesingers, and unparal- jy^ic poetry leled in any other literature. in the The leading contrasts of the older German lyric beginning of T ... J ■ IT 1 ^-^s century, poetry were almost typically expressed m Hagedorn and Haller. The bright light poetry of the former was continued by the Anacreontic poets, the serious and weighty poetry of the latter by Klopstock and his school. The ® ^^' ^ J J f creonti? Anacreontic poets remained in sympathy with the poets, and witty, trivial French poetry, and specially favoured the the school idyll and the burlesque satire; Klopstock and his -g-, °. followers were admirers of Young's melancholy ' Night Thoughts,' and of the misty world of Ossian, and inclined to elegy and biting satire. The former praised in their didact'.c poems the earthly paradise of moderation ; the latter dwelt on the sub- lime awfulness of death, and opened out vistas of eterniiv. These s 2 26o Romanticisrn. [Ch. xiii. contrasts were not strictly marked in every poet, and they were sometimes united in the same person. Goethe began as an Anacreontic poet, and Schiller followed in the steps of Haller ; but each of these poets drew suggestions from many different sources and each developed his own individual style. They were both able to do justice to various metres and various styles, without ever sinking lo the level of mere imitators. Anacreontic poetry really decayed in the eighteenth century, even though many of its representatives lived on into the Anacreontic nineteenth. Georg Jacobi produced a few very G^j^ ^^. beautiful songs, pure in form and sentiment. Klamer Schmidt, Schmidt, of Halberstadt, acquired some fame about G. von 1770 as an imitator of Petrarch and Catullus and as G°tt^r ' ^^^ author of rather trivial versified epistles, chiefly Tiedge. remarkable for the ingenuity of their rhyming. Giinther von Gockingk wrote some poetic epistles somewhat richer in matter and thought than Schmidt's ; his songs between two lovers form a complete romance, often showing great dramatic power. Friedrich Wilhelm Gotter of Gotha was a thorough disciple of the French school, and one of the last repre- sentatives of the Alexandrine tragedy ; he also distinguished him- self by writing epistles, in which clever rhyming takes the place of creative power. August Tiedge was a writer of epistles like Gleim and his friends, to whose band he belonged ; in his language he rather reminds us of Schiller, and in his elegies and his ' Urania,' (1801) a lyrico-didactic poem on God, Immortality and Liberty, he takes us back to Klopstock and Haller. Friedrich Matthison was decidedly of the school of Klopstock, Holty, and Ossian; he became known about 1780, ^nd School of ^^g esteemed as a sentimental poetical landscape- Klopstock. Matthison Pointer, and even praised by Schiller. In his ' Elegy Saiis, written in the ruins of an old castle,' he paints the life Fnederike ^f chivalry and revels in the thought of the past. Brun, TT .T 1 r ^ , • • • r , Bagtjesen ^'^ J^ake 01 Geneva is written in praise of the district which was the cradle of the modern romantic feeling for nature, and in a truly Klopstockian manner introduces alllau, the Minnesinger. 1272 {Dec. 13). Death of Berthold of Regensburg. 1375. The 'Schwabenspiegel.' Z 2 340 Chronological Table. 1276. Rudolf of Hapsburg besieges Vienna. Steimar and other Minnesingers in his army. Bruno von Schonebeck (near Magdeburg) translates the Song of Solomon. 1277- {circa). Death of Mathilde of Magdeburg, 1278. Frauenlob in the army of Rudolf of Hapsburg. 1 280. Death of Albertus Magnus, at Cologne. 1286. Frauenlob at Prague, when Wcnzcl of Bohemia, the Minnesinger, was knighted. 1287. {Aug. 31). Death of Conrad of Wurzburg. 1290 {before). 'Lohengrin.' 1 293. Legend of St. Martina, by Hugo von Langenstein. 1300. Hugo von Trimberg's ' Renner ' (added to, till 1318). 1302 to 1325. Reign of Wizlaw, Duke of Riigen, Minnesinger. 1314. Johannes von Wiirzburg (near Esslingen), ' Wilhelm von Oesterreich.* 1318. {Nov. 29) Death of Frauenlob at Mayence. 1322. Play of the wise and foolish virgins at Eisenach. (?) 1327. Death of Master Eckhart, the Mystic, at Cologne. 1330 («Vf a). Boner's 'Edelstein.' 1336. Claus Wisse and Philipp Colin of Strassburg, by commission of Ulrich von Rappolstein, continue Wolfram's ' Parzival.' 1340 {circa). ' Die Jagd' of Hadamar von Laber. Early New High-German, or the Transition Period. 1348. University of Prague. The Black Death. Flagellants. Persecution of the Jews. 1352. Rulmann Merswin's 'Buch von den neun Felsen.' 1360 {circa). Short songs of three strophes became fashionable, according to the Limburg Chronicle. 1 365. University of Vienna. 1370 {circa). 'There lived on the Main a barefooted friar who became a Leper, and who in word and melody made the best songs and rhymes, so that nobody at that time could compare with him, and everybody gladly sang his poems' (Limburg Chronicle). 1 383. Heinrich of Langenstein in Vienna. 1 386. University of Heidelberg. 1388. University of Cologne. 1392. University of Erfurt. 1399. Ackermann aus Bohmen. i40.>' University of Leipzic. 1414-1418. Council of Constance. * Des Teufel's Netz.* 1419. University of Rostock. 1433, Eberhard Windeck's History of the Emperor Sigismund. 14 43. iEneas Sylvius, Secretary to the Imperial Chaticery (-1455). 1447. RosenblUt s panegyric on the city of Nuremberg. 1450. Printing discovered by John Gutenberg. 1453. Hermann von Sach>enheim's ' Die Mohrin.' Ea7'ly Netu High-Gerfnaii Period. 341 1454. Peuerbach begins humanistic lectures in Vienna. 1456. University of Greifswald. 1457. University of Freiburg. 1460. University of Basle. 1461. Regiomontanus gives humanistic lectures in Vienna. 1 47 2. Albrecht von Eyb, ' Ob einem Manne sei zu nehmen ein ehlichs Weib oder nicht.' University of Ingolstadt (later Landshut, 1802; Munich, 1826). 1474. Niklas von Wyle writes in praise of women. I477. * Parzival ' and ' Titurel ' printed. University of Tubingen. 1480 {circa). Ulrich Fiitrer's 'Buch der Abenteuer.' J 480. Theodorich Schernberg's Play * Frau Jutte.* 1483. ' Eulenspiegel.' 1485' Konrad Celtis began his active work. 1494. Sebastian Brand's ' Narrenschiff.' 1497. Reuchlin's ' Henno,' played. The 'Narrenschiff' in Latin, by Jacob Locher. 1 498. ' Reinke de vos.' 1501. Celtis publishes Roswitha's works. 1502. University of Wittenberg. Celtis' ' Amores.' 1503. Adam Weinher, of Themar, translates Roswitha's 'Abraham,' and dedicates it to the Count Palatine Philipp (Heidelberg). 1505. Augsburg newspaper on Brazil. Wimpfeling's German History. 1506. University of Frankfurt on the Oder. 1507. First evidence of the historical Faust. /508. Luther called to Wittenberg. 1509. Erasmus, ' Encomium Moriae.' 15 10 Reuchlin's dispute with the theologians of Cologne. J 51 1. Albrecht von Eyb's 'Spiegel der Sitten ' printed. 1512. Murner, ' Narrenbeschworung.' 1515. ' Epistolae obscurorum virorum.' 151 7. Luther's Theses against Indulgences. ' Epistolae obscurorum viroram,* second part. 'Theuerdank.' Hans Sachs' first Carnival play. 1519. * Volksbiichlein ' of the Emperor Frederick. 1520. Ulrich von Hutten. ' Dialogi ; ' ' Clag und Vormanung ; ' Pirckheimer, * Eccius dedolatus.' 1 52 1. Luther, ' Passional Christi und Antichristi.' Hutten, ' Ich habs gewagt mit Sinnen.' ' Gesprachbiichlin.' * Dialogi Huttenici novi.' Eberlin von Giinzburg, 'Fiinfzehn Bundsgenossen.' 1522 {Sept.). Luther's New Testament in German. Niklaus Manuel, *Tcd- tenfresser.' ' Unterschied zwischen Papst und Jesus Christus.' Mumer, ' Grosser Lutherischer Narr.' Pauli, ' Schimpf und Ernst.' 1523. Luther's Song on the burning of the martyrs in Brussels. Hans Sachs' ' Wittenbergisch Naclitigall.' Death of Hutten. 1524. Luther's first Hymn-book; the Psalms in German. Hans Sachs' Dialogues, 1535. Manuel, ' Ablasskramer.' 34^ Chronological Table. 15? 7. Hieronymus Eraser'^ New Testament. Hans Sachs' 'Lucretia.' Burkard Waldis, ' Verlorner Sohn.' University of Marburg. 1528. Luther's ' Ein veste Burg ist unser Gott,' in the Wittenberg Hymn-Look of this year. Manuel, ' Krankheit der Mess.' Agricola's Proverbs. 1529. Hutten's posthumous Dialogue 'Arminius.' Gnapheus, 'Acolastus' (the prodigal son). 1 530. Luther's Fables. Hans Sachs' * Virginia.' 15.U. Sebastian Franck, ' Chron ca, Zeitbuch und Geschichtbibel,' 153.'. Sixt Birck, 'Susanna.' Sebastian Franck's first anonymous collection of Proverbs. J 533. 'Fierabras.' Hans Sachs' first biblical diamas. 1534. Luther's Bible finished, Dieten berg's Bible (Roman Catholic). Sebas- tiaii F'ranck, 'Teutscher Nation, aller Teutschen Volcker Her'-:ommen.' ' Jacob und seine Sohne,' Magdeburg Drama, by Greff and Major. The P'ables of Erasmus Alberus. 1535. 'Die vier Haimonskinder;' ' Octavianus ; ' Crocus, 'Joseph; ' Rebhun, * Susanna.' 1536. 'Magelone.' 1537. Johann Eck's Translation of the Bible. Agricola's tragedy, 'Johann Hus.' 1538. Naogeorg, ' Pammachius.' ir39- ' Ritter Galmy.' 1540. Jorg Wickram, ' Verlorner Sohn.' Naogeo'g, 'Mercator.' 1 541. Luther's Bible revised. Naogeorg, * Incendia.' 1543. Copernicus, 'De revolutionibus' Naogeorg, ' Hamanus.' 1544. University of Konigsberg. Chryseus, ' HofteufeL' Beuther's High- German translation of Keineke Fuchs. 1545. Hans Sachs begins to dramatise tragic stories. 1546 Council of Trent. Luther's death. 1547. Charles V takes Wittenberg. 1548. Burkard Waldis' ' Esop.' 1549. Dedekind, * Grobianus.' 1550. Wickram, 'Tobias.' 1551. Scheid, ' Grohianus.' Wickram, ' Gabriotto und Reinhard.' Naogeorg, ' Hieremias.' 1552. Naogeorg, 'Judas Iscariotes.' 1554. Wickram, ' Knabenspiegel,' ' Goldfaden.' 1555. Religious Truce. Sleidanus, ' De statu religionis et reipublicae Carolo V caesare.' Wickram, ' Rollwagenbiichlein.' i.:;s,6. Wickram, ' Gute und bose Nachbarn.' Jacob Frey, ' Gaitengtsell- schaft.' 1557. Montanus, ' Wegkiirzer.' Hans Sachs' Tragedy * Hiirnen Seufrid.' I55«. University of Jena. Hans Sachs' collected works, Vol. I. Lindener, ' Katzipori.' 15 9. Valentin Schumann, ' Nachtbiichlein.' If 60. Hans Sachs, Vol. II. 1561. Hans Sachs, Vol. III. (Scaliger's ' Poetica.') Early New High- German Period. 343 1563. Kirchhof, 'Wendunmuth.' 1566. Mathesius' Life of Luther. Schopper, 'Speculum vitae aulicae ' (Reineke Fuchs). 1569. • Amad is' begins to appear (-1594). Buchanan's 'Jephthes' acted in Strassburg. 1570. Fischart comes forward as a Protestant champion. 1572. Fischart, * Eulenspiegel' rhymed. ' Aller Praktik Grossmutter,' ' Claus Narr.' 1573. Lobwasser's Psalms. Fischart, * Flohhatz.' 1575. Fischart, ' Gargantua.' 1576. Fischart, ' GlUckhaft SchifF.' Frischlin, ' Rebecca.' Death of Hans Sachs. University of Helmstadt. 1577. Fischart, ' Podagrammisch Tiostbiichlein.' Frischlin, ' Susanna.' 1578. Johannes Clajus, ' Grammatica Germanicae linguae.' Fischart, ' Ehe- zuchtbiichlein.' Frischlin, * Priscianus vapulans.' Hans Sachs, Vol IV. 1579. Fischart, ' Bienenkorb.' Frischlin, ' Hildegardis magna,' ' Frau Wen- delgard.' Hans Sachs, Vol. V. 1580. Fischart, ' Jesuiterhiitlein.' Frischlin, * Phasma.' ifSi. University of Allorf. 1584. Frischlin, 'Julius ledivivus.' 1587. Po|)ular books, * Faust,' ' Hans Clauert.' 1588. Fischart on the destruction of the Armada. 1593 4. The Dramas of Duke Henry Julius of Brunswick. 1595. RoUenhagen, ' Froschmauseler.' 1596. Kepler, ' Prodomus dissertationum cosmographicarum, continens : Mys» terium cosmographicum.' 1597. * Die Schildbiirger.' 1599. Widmann's Faust-book. 1605. Johann Amdt, ' Wahres Christenthum' (-1610). 1606. The tragedy of Saul acted in Strassburg. 1607. The ' Conflagratio Sodoraae' of Saurius acted in Strassburg. Wolfhart Spangenbeig, ' Ganskonig.' 1608. The Ajax of Sophocles, recast in Latin, and acted at Strassburg. 1609. Hirtzwig, ' Belsazar' acted in Strassburg. Kepler, ' Astronomia Nova.' 1612. Brdlow, 'Andromeda.' Johann Arndt, ' Paradiesgartlein.' Jacob Bohme, ' Morgeiirothe im Aufgang.' 1613 Briilow, ' Elias.' 161 4. Briilow, ' Chariclia.' 1615. Briilow, ' Nebucadnezar.' 1616. Briilow, 'Julius Caesar.' Cluveiius, ' Germania antiqua.* 1617. Hirtzwig, 'Lutherus' Kielmann, ' Tetzelocramia.' Opitz, ' Aris- tarchus.' August 24. Th- ' Fiuchtbringende' Society. 1618. Beginning of the Thirty Years' War. Weckherlua, * Oden und Gesange' (2nd Book, 1619). 1619. Kepler, ' Harmonice mundi.' 1620. ' Englische Comodien und Tragodien.' 162 1. Last Low German Bible. 344 Chronological Table, 1624. 'Opicii Teutsche Poemata' (Zincgref's collection). Opitz. *Buch von der deutschen Poeterei.' 1627 {April 13). First German Opera. Kepler, 'Tabulae Rudolphinae.' 1630. * Liebeskampf oder ander Theil der Englischen Comodien und Tragodien.' 1633. * Aufrichtige Tannengesellschaft ' of Strassburg. 1634. Johann Rist • Musa teutonica.' 1638. Philipp von Zesen, ' Melpomene.' Jacob Balde, * De vanitate mundi.* 1640 {circa''. Moscherosch, ' Gesichte Philanders von Sittewalt.' 1643. Zesen's 'Deutschgesinnte' Society. Jacob Balde, 'Carmina lyrica.' Hagelgans' * Arm in i us.' 1644. ' Pegnitzschafer.' 1645. Zesen, * Adriatische Rosemund.' 1646. Paul Fleming, 'Teutsche Poemata.' New High-German Period. 1648. The Peace of Westphalia. Paul Gerhardt's first Church Hymns published. 1649. Frederick Spee, 'GUldnes Tugendbuch,' 'Trutz Nachtigall.' 1650. Andreas Gryphius, 'Leo Arminius' (composed 1646). 1652. Lauremberg's Scherzgedichte, 1654. Logan's Epigrams. Schwieger's * Liebesgrillen.' 1657. Angelus Silesius, * Cherubinischer Wandersmann,' * Heilige Seelenlust.' Andreas Gryphius, * Katharina von Georgien,' * Cardenio und Celinde,' 'Carolus Stuardus' (written 1649). 'Peter Squenz' (written between 1647 and 1 50). 1655. Rist's Elb Swan Order. 1659. Andreas Gryphius, ' Papinianus.' 1660 {Oct. 10). The * Dornrose' of Andreas Gryphius first acted. 1663. Scriver, ' Gottholds zufallige Andachten.' Schottelius, * Ausfiihrliche Arbeit von der deutschen Hauptsprache.' Andreas Gryphius, * Horri- bilicribrifax ' (written between 1647 and 1650). 1664. Joachim Rachel, * Satirische Gedichte.' 1665. Franciscus Junius publishes the Gothic Gospels. University of Kiel. 1667. Paul Gerhardt ; first complete edition. 1668. * Simplicissimus.' Christian Weise, ' UberflUssige Gedanken der grii- nenden Jugend ' 1670. Schaubiihne Englischer und Franzosischer Comodianten. (Among these^ plays of Moliere.) I6^7I. Christian Weise, * Die drei Hauptverderber.' 1672. Christian Weise, ' De diei argsten Erznarren.' 1673. Christian Weise, * Die drei klugsten Leute.' 1674. Pfitzer's Faust-book. (Boileau, Art poetique). 1675. Angelus Silesius, * Sinnliche Betrachtung dervier letzten Dinge.' Spener, * Pia desideria.' Scriver, * Seelenschatz ' (-1691). 1678. Christian Weise. Rector in Zittau. German Opera in Hamburg (-1738^ 1679. Christian Weise's first Tragedies. Joachim Neander, ' Bundeslieder und Dankpsalmen.' Abraham a Snncta Clarn. •' Merk>. Wien ' New High-German Period, 345 1682. * Leipzig Acta Eruditorum.' 1685, Dresden Court comedy actors (-1692). 1687 to 168^. Thomasius delivers the first course of German Lectures. - Cochem, ' History-book.' 1688. Thomasius, ' Monatsgesprache' (-1689). Pufendorf in Berlin. Ziegler, * Asiatische Banise.' 1689. Lohenstein, ' Arminius and Thusnelda' (-1690). 1690. Thomasius lectures at the Ritterakademie in Halle. 1 69 1. Spener in Berlin. Cochem, ' Leben Christi.' (?) French Tragedies trans- lated and played in Brunswick (-1699). 1692. Francke in Halle. 1694. University of Halle. 1696. Christian Renter, ' SchelmufTsky.* 1697. Christian Wernicke's Epigrams. 1 700. Berlin Academy. Freiherr von Canitz, * Nebenstunden unterschiedener Gedichte.' 1705. Neumeister, * Geistliche Cantaten.' Christian Weise's last Plays. 1706. Wolff, professor in Halle. 1708. Permanent German Theatre in Vienna. 1709. (Beginning of the English Weekly Newspapers.) 1 710. Leibniz, * Theodicee.' 1 71 1. Johann von Besser, 'Works.' 1712. Brockes' Oratorio of the Passion. 1 713. Frederick William I of Prussia ascends the throne. 1 714. First German weekly newspaper, 'Der Vemiinftler' (Hamburg). 1 716. Death of Leibniz. 1 719. (Robinson Crusoe). 1 721. 'Discourse der Maler' (Zurich). Brockes * Irdisches Vergniigen in Gott,' Vol I (9 vols, to 1748). 1723. Christian Wolff banished from Prussia. Christian Giinther, ' Gedichte.' 1724. Gottsched in Leipzic. Hamburg weekly paper ' Der Patriot.' 1725. Gottsched's ' Vemiinftige Tadlerinnen.' Pradon's 'Regulus,' played in Leipzic. 1727. Gottsched's • Biedermann.' The Neuber troop of actors. 1728. The Faust-book by the author calling himself der Christlich Mein- ende. i;29. Hagedorn, * Versuch einiger Gedichte.' Bach's Passion Music, accord- ing to St. Malthew. 1 730. Gottsched, * Critische Dichtkunst.' 1731. 'Insel Felsenburg' (-1743). 1732. Haller. 'Versuch schweizerischer Gedichte.' Bodmer's prose trans- lation of Paradise Lost. Gottsched, 'Cato;' 'Beitrage zur critischen Historic der deutschen Sprache, Poesie und Beredsamkeit ' (-1744). 1733. Ui.iversity of Gottingen. 1734. Bodmer, 'Charakter der deutschen Gedichte.* 1736. Gottsched's Poems. 1737. Pyra, ' Tempel der wahren Dichtkunst.' 34^ Chronological Table. 1738. Hagedom, 'Fabeln und Erzahlungen.' Frederick the Great, 'Con- siderations sur I'etat present du corps politique de I'Europe.' 173'j. Liscow, Collection of satirical and serious writings. 1740. Frederick the Great ascends the throne. Christian Wolff recalled to Halle. ' L'Antimachiavel' Gottsched, • Deutsche Schaubiihne' (-1743). Breitinger, ' Critische Dichtkun^t ;' ' Critische Abbandlung von den Gleich- nissen.' Eodmer, ' Critische Abhandlung von den Wunderbaren.' 1 741. Handel's Messiah, Shakespeare's Julius Caesar translated by C. W, von Borck. Schwabe. * Belustigungen des Verstandes und Witzes (con- tains Zacharia s * Der Renommist'), 1742. Uz, * Friihling.' 1743. The Opeietta, 'Der Teufel ist los,' 1744. The 'Bremer Beitrage' (-1748). Gleim, 'Scherzhafte Lieder.' Frederick the Great revives the Berlin Academy. 1745. Thyrsis and Damon's (Pyra and Lange) friendly Songs. Gottsched, 'Neuer Biichersaal' (-1754). 1746. Gellert, ' Fabeln und Erzahlunsren ; ' 'Leben der schwedischen Grafin.' Anacreon translated by Uz and Gotz. 1747. Hagedorn, ' Oden und Lieder.' Elias Schlegel, 'Theatrical Works.' The first regular play performed in Vienna. 1748 {Jan.). Lessing's ' Junge Gelehrte' acted. Klopstock's 'Messiah' (the first three books). Brookes' ' Irdisches Vergniigen in Gott.' Vol. ix. Specimens of the Minnesingers (published by Bodmer). Gottsched, • Deutsche Sprachkunst ' The Neuber troop of actors at Vienna. Lessing goes to Berlin. 1749. Kleist, ' Friihling.' 1750. Baumgarten, 'yEsthetica.' Voltaire in Berlin, Hagedom, 'Moralische Gedichte.' Frederick the Great, ' CEuvres du Philosophe de Snns Souci.' 1751. Frederick the Great, 'Memoires de Brandebourg.' Rabener, ' Sammltmg satirischer Schriften' (-1755). Gottsched, 'Das Neueste aus der anmu- thigen Gelehrsamkeit ' (-1762). 1752. 'Der Teufel ist los' revised by Christian Felix Weise, and performed at Leipzic. 1753.' Enlarged edition of Hagedom's 'Moralische Gedichte.' Lessing's Works, Parts I, H 1754. Gessner, 'Daphnis.' Lessing's Works, Parts HI, IV. 1755. Lessing's Works, Parts V. VI : 'Miss Sara Sampson.' Winckelmann, ' Gedanken Uber die Nachahmung der griechischen Werke in der Malerei, und Bildhauerkunst.' Kant, ' Allgemeine Naturgeschichte und Theorie des Himmels.' 1756. Seven Years' War begins. Gessner, ' Idyllen.' 1757. Gleim's first 'Kriegslieder.' Gellert, 'Geistliche Oden und Lieder;' ' Chriemhilden Rache' (the Nibelungenlied, partly published by Bodmer). Bibliothek der schonen Wissenschaften und freitn Kiinste (-1806). 1758. Gleim's ' Kriegslieder,' collected in one work. Klopstock, 'Geistliche Lieder.' ' Sammlung von Minnesingern aus dem schwabischen Zeitpunkte/ by Bodmer (-1759). New High- German Period. 347 1759. Letters on Literature (-T765). Lessing, Scenes from ' Faust,' 'Philotas,' ' Fabeln.' Christian Felix Weise, ' Beitrag zum deutschen Theater' (-1768). Hamann, ' Sokratische Denkwiirdigkeiten.' 1760. Musaus, *Gra disor. der Zweite ' (-1762). 1 76 1. Abt. • Vom Tode fiirs Vaterland.' Wieland. ' Araspes und Panthea.' 1762. Wieland's Shakespeare (^-1766). 1763. Peace of Hubertsburg 1764 Winckelmann, • Geschichte der Kunst des Alterthums.' Kant. 'Beol)- achtungen ii' er c^as Gefiihl des Schonen rnd Erhal enen.' Wieland, 'Don Sylvio von Rosalva.' Thiimmel. ' Wilhelmine.' 1765. Nicolai, 'Allgemeine deutsche Bibliothek' (-1806). Leibniz, 'GEuvres philosophiqiies ' (contains the 'Nouveaux essais sur Tentendement humain'). ,1766. Lessing, 'Laokoon.' Kpnt, 'Traume eines Geistersehers,' Wieland, * Komische Erzahlungen ; ' 'Agalhon' (-1767). Gersttnberg, 'Gedicht eines Skalden.' 1767. Lessing, ' Minna von Barnhelm ;' 'Hamburgische DraTiaturgie' (-1769). Herder, ' Fragmente.' Mendelssohn, 'Phadon.' Chr F. Weisse, 'Ko- mische Opern' (-1771), 1768. Wieland, ' Musarion ; ' ' Idris.' Gerstenberg, • Ugolino.' 'Ossian,' by Denis (-1 769). Sterne's ' Sentimental Journey,' translated by Bode (-1769). 1769. Lessing, ' Wie die Alten den Tod gebildet.' Herder, ' Kritische Walder.' Klopstock, ' Hermann's Schlacht.' Moser begins his * Osnabriickische Geschichte.' Gdttingen and Leipzic ' Musenalmanach ' lor 1770. Hermes, ' Sophiens Reise.' Ayrenhoff, ' Der Poslzug.' 1770. Wieland, 'Die Grazien.' Johann Ceorg Jacobi, Collected Works (-1774). Goethe and Herder in Strassburg. 1771. Klopstock, ' Oden.' Claudius, 'Der Wandsbecker Bote.' Schroder, director of the Theatre in Hamburg, first time (-1780). Haller, 'Usong.* Wieland, Amadis.' Sulzer, 'Allgemeine Theorie der schonen Kiinste' (-1774). Fi^iherr von Zedlitz made Superintendent of Public Instruction in Prussia. 1772. Lessing's 'Emilia Galotti.' The 'Frankfurter gelehrten Anzeigen,' edited by Merck ; with the assistance of Herder and Goethe. Herder, ' Ur- sprung der Sprache,' The Gottingen 'Hain.' Gleim, 'Lieder fiir das Volk.' Wieland, 'Goldner Spiegel.' Wieland in Weimar. 1773. Fly leaves, 'von deutscher Art und Kunst.' Goethe's ' Gota.' Biirger, 'Lenore.' Gleim. 'Gedichte nach den Minnesingern.' Klopstock finishes his Messiah. Wieland, 'Deuiscber Meikur' (-1810); ' Alceste.' Les- sing's contributions ' Zur Qeschichte und Litteratur' (-1781). Nicolai, 'S.baldus Nothanker' (-1776). The Order of the Jesuits suppressed by the Pope. 1774 The First Fragment of the Anonymous Wolfenbiitteler. Moser, ' Pa- triotische Phantasien.' Herder, 'Alteste Urkunde ; ' and other 'Storm and Stress ' writings. Goethe, * Clavigo ; ' ' Werther.' Lenz, ' Hofmeister.' Wieland's ' Abderiten ' begun. Bode translates Sterne's ' Tristram Shandy.* Jacobi, 'Iris.' Klopstock, ' Gelehrtenrepublik.' Basedow, ' Elementar- werk.' =^B R A f?p OF THE UNIVERSITY \ 34^ Chronological Table, I'J'JS. Karl August, Duke of Weimar. Goethe in Weimar. Lavater, 'Pliysio- gnomik' (-1778). Klinger, 'Otto.' Paul Weidmann, 'Johami Faust.' Court Theatre in Gotha. The ' Weisskunig' is printed. 1776. The Burgtheater in Vienna ; 'Court and National Theatre.' Goethe, ' Stella.' Lenz, ' Soldaten.' Klinger, ' Zwillinge ; ' * Sturm und Drang.' Maler Miiller, ' Situation aus P'austs Leben.' H. L. Wagner. ' Kinder- morderin.' — Wieland, 'Gandelin.' Miller, 'Siegwart;' - ' Deutsches Mu- seum' (-1791). 1777. The further Fragments of the Anonymous Wolfenhiitteler (-1778). Wie- land, ' Geron der Adelich.' Jung ' Heinrich Stilling's Jugend.' 1778. Lessing, < Anti-Goeze ; ' 'Ernst und Falk, Gesprache fiir Freimaurer.' Herder, * Volkslieder' (-1779). Biirger, 'Gedichte.' Maler Miiller, 'Faust's Leben dramatisirt,' First Part. Hippel, 'Lebenslaufe' (-1781). Meissner, The ' Skizzen,' begin. 1779. Lessing, 'Nathan der Weise.' Mannheim National Theatre. — Gleim, 'Gedichte nach Walther von der Vogelweide.' Poems by the brothers Stolberg. Gottwerth Miiller, * Siegfried von Lindenberg.' 1780. Lessing, 'Erziehung des Menschengeschlechts.' Wieland, 'Oberon.' Johannes Miiller, 'Geschichten der schweizerischen Eidgenossenschaft * (-1795)- Schlozer's ' Briefwechsel ' begins. Frederick the Great, 'De la litterature allemande.' 1781. (Fed. 15). Death of Lessing. Kant, 'Kritik der reinen Vemunft.' Dohm, On improving the civil position of the Jews. Pestalozzi, ' Lienhard und Gertrud ' (-1785). Schiller, ' Rauber.' Voss, Translation of the Odyssey. 1782. Musaus, ' Volksmarchen ' (-T786). 1783. Schiller, 'Fiesco.' Holty's Poems, published by Stolberg and Voss. Jean Paul, ' Gronlandische Prozesse.' The Berlin ' Monatschrift ' begins. 1784. Schiller, 'Kabale und Liebe.' Voss, ' Luise.' Kortum, 'Jobsiade.' Blumauer's Travesty of the .^neid. Myller, 'Sammlung Deutscher Gedichte aus dem 12, 13, und 14 Jahrhunderte ' (-1785). Herder, • Ideen ' (-1791). Kant, 'Was ist Aufklaning?' Mendelssohn, 'Jeru- salem.' 1785. Goethe's Poems, 'Edel sei der Mensch ' and 'Prometheus,' become known through Fritz Jacobi, Voss, ' Gedichte.' K. Ph. Moritz, ' Anton Reiser' (-1790). Iffiand, ' Die Jager.' Mendelssohn, ' Morgenstunden ; ' ' Allgemeine Litteraturzeitung,' Jena. 1786. Death of Frederick the Great. The Royal National Theatre in Berlin. Schroder director of the Theatre in Hamburg — second time (-1790). Goethe goes to Italy. 1787. Herder, 'Gott.' Goethe's 'Works' (-1790); ' Ipl^igenie.' Schiller, 'Don Carlos.' Heinse, 'Ardinghello.' Matthison, * Gedichte.' Johannes Miiller, ' Darstellung des Fiirstenbundes.' 1788. Frederick the GfeSTT^Histoire de mon temps.' with the continuation. Archenholz, ' Ge^chichte des siebenjahrigen Kriegs.' Schiller, ' Abfall der Niederlande.' Kant, ' Ki itik der praktischen Vemunft ' Goethe, ' Egmont.' Goethe returns to Weimar. New High-German Period. 349 1789. Schiller. Professor in Jena. * Geisterseher;' 'Die Kiinstler.' Kotzebue, ' Menschenhass und Reue.' 1790. Kant, 'Kritik der Urtheilskraft.* Goethe, 'Metamorphose derPflanzen;' Fragment, 'Faust;' 'Tasso.' Schiller begins his history of the Thirty Years' War, Forster, ' Ansichten vom Niederrhein.' Jean Paul, ' Schul- meisterlein Wuz.' 1791. Goethe director of the Weimar Theatre (-1817). Klinger, 'Faust.' 1792. Fichte, ' Kritik aller Offenbarung.' 1793. Voss, ' Homer' (the Iliad new, the Odyssey revised). Schiller, ' Uber Anmuth und Wiirde.' Herder's ' Humanitatsbriefe.' Jean Paul, ' Unsicht- bare Loge.' 1794. Goethe, ' Reineke Fuchs.' Friendship of Schiller and Goethe. Fichte, * Wissenschaftslehre.' ♦ 1795 'Horen' (-97). Schiller's Musenalmanach for 1796 (continued to 1800). Goethe, 'Wilhelm Meister'sLehrjahre' (-1796). ' Unterhaltmigen deutscher Ausgewanderten.' Roman 'Elegien.' ' Schweizen eise von 1779.' Schiller, ' Briefe iiber asthetische Erziehung;' 'Uber das Naive;' 'Die sentimentalischen Dichter.' Friedrich August Wolf, ' Prolegomena ad Homerum.' — Jean Paul, * Hesperus.' Heinrich Zschokke, ' Abellino der grosse Bandit.' 1796. ' Xenien.' Goethe, * Alexis und Dora.' Schiller, ' Beschluss der Abhand- lung iiber naive und sentimentalische Dichter.' Iffland, director of the Berlin Theatre (-18 14). Jean Paul, ' Quintus Fixlein.' 1797- Goethe, ' Hermann und Dorothea;' 'Der neue Pausias.' Balladen-alma- nach (Schiller's Musenalmanach for 1798). Holderlin, 'Hyperion' (-1799). Tieck, ' Volksmarchen.' Schlegel's Shakespeare (-1 801, and 1810^. Count Soden, * Faust.' Schelling, * Ideen zu einer Philosophic der Natur.' 1798 {Oct. 12). ' Wallenstein's Lager,' acted at Weimar. Goethe, 'Propy- laen(-i8oo). Tieck, ' Franz Stembald.' Schelling, ' Weltseele.' 1799 (/"^w- 30). 'Die Piccolomini ' ; (April 20), 'Wallenstein's Tod,' acted at Weimar. (Dec.) ; Schiller moves to Weimar. W. von Humboldt, ' Asthetische Versuche.' Schleiermacher's Discourses, * Uber die Re- ligion.' Schelling, ' Erster Entwurf eines Systems der Naturphiloaophie.* Friedrich Schlegel, ' Lucinde.' 1800 i^Jtme 14). ' Maria Stuart,' acted at Weimar. Jean Paul, ' Titan ' (-1 803). 1801. Schiller, 'Jungfrau von Orleans.' Collin, • Regulus.' Tiedge, 'Urania.' Engel, ' Herr Lorenz Stark.' Gauss, ' Disquisitiones arithmeticae.' 1802. Novalis' W^orks. University of Landshut. \%o->^ {March 19). ' Braut von Messina' acted in Weimar. Heinrich von Kleist, ' Familie Schroflfenstein.' Goethe, ' Der Geselligkeit gewidmete Lieder.' Tieck, 'Minnelieder.' Hebel, ' Alemannische Gedichte' E. M. Amdt, ' Gedichte ; ' ' Germanien und Europa.' The University of Heidel- berg reconstituted by Karl Friedrich of Baden. 1804 {March 17). ' W'ilhelm Tell ' acted in Weimar. ' Jenaische Allgemeine Litteraturzeitung.' Jean Paul, ' Flegeljahre.' Schink, ' Faust.' 1805 {May 10). Death of Schiller. Goethe, * Winckelmann und sein Jahrhun- 350 Chronological Table. dert ; ' * Rameau s Neffe ' of Diderot. Herder, ' Cid,'— (Oct. 1 7). Capitu- lation of Ul n. E M. Arndt begins his ' Geist der Zeit.' Daub and Creuzer, ' Suidien ' .He delberg\ (In the autumn) Amim and Brentano ' Des Knaben Wunderhom' (iSo6-i8o8). 1806 (6><:/ 14). Battle of Jena. Goethe's Works in 12 vols. (-1808). Hegel, •Phanomeno'ogie des Geistes.' i^c *j {Jan. 2q). Johannes Miiller's academical Lecture, ' De la gloire de Frederic II ' translated by Goethe. - (Winter, 1807-8). Fichte delivers his addresses to the German nation. Gorres', ' Volksbiicher.' F. H. von der Hagen, ' Erneuung des Nibelungenlieds.' Wilken begins his ' Geschichte der Kreuzziige.' 18-8. The first part of Goethe's 'Faust' published. Fouque, 'Sigurd der Schlangentodter.' H. von Kleist, ' Penthesilea.' ' Die Einsiedlerzeitung.' * Heidelbergische Jahrbiicher.' K. Fr. Eichhom begins his ' Deutsche Staats-und Rechtsgeschichte.' Fr. Schlegel, ' Sprache und Weisheit der Indier.' A. von Humboldt, ' Ansichten der Natur.' 1809. Goethe, 'Wahlveiwandtschaf en," Pandora.' ZachaiiasWerner, 'Februar 24.' Fr. Schlegel, ' Gedichte.' A. W Schlegel, 'Vorlesungen liber dra- matische Kunst und Litteratur' (-18 ri). (Jan.) W. von Humboldt is made Superintendent of Public Instruction in Prussia. 1810. Goethe. Masque, ' Romantische- Poesie;' 'Farbenlehre.' University of Berlin opened. Amim, 'Grafin Dolores.' H. von Kleist, ' Erzah- lungen' (-1811) ; Kathchen von Heilbronn.' Jahn, ' Deutsches Volks- thum.' 181 1. Goethe, ' Dicbtung und Wahrheit,' vol. i. Fouque, 'Undine.' Amim, * Halle und Jerusalem ; ' ' Isabella von Agypten.' Kleist, * Der zerbro- chene Krug.' Justinus Kemer, ' Reiseschatten.' Niebuhr begins his Roman History. Johannes MUller, ' 24 BUch^r allgemeiner Geschichte.* University of Frankfort moved to Breslau. 181?. Goethe, ' Dichtung und Wahrheit,' vol. ii. Works in 20 vols. (-1819). Tieck, ' Phantasus' (-181 7). Grimm, ' Kinder und Hausmarchen.' Joseph von Hammer, ' Divan des Hafis.' 1813. E. M Arndt, ' Lieder fiir Deutsche;' ' Der Rhein Deutschlands Strom, nicht Deutschlands Grenze.' Milliner, ' Schuld.' 1814. Theodor Korner, 'Leier und Schwert.' Rlickert, 'Deutsche Gedichte von Freimund Raimar.' Chamisso, 'Sohlemihl.' E. T. A. Hoffmann's Tales (-1822). Hegner, 'Saly's Revolutionstage.' Goethe, 'Dichtung und Wahrheit.' vol. iii. Savigny, ' Vom Beruf unsrer Zeit fiir Gesetzge- bung und Rechtswissenschaft.' Gorres, ' Rheinischer Merkur' (-1816). Tiie Order of Jesuits restored. 1815. Goethe, 'Des Epimenides Erwachen.' Schenkendorf, 'Gedichte.' Uhland, * Gedichte.' Klingemann, ' Faust.' Eichendoiff, ' Ahnung und Gegenwart.' Fr. Schlegel, * Vorlesungen liber Geschichte der alten und neuen Litteratur.' 1816. Goethe, ' Italienische Reise,' vol. i. 'Kunst und Alterthum (-1832). Uhland, 'Vaterlandische Gedichte.' Ohlenschlager, ' Corregio.' Clauren, 'Mimili.' — Jacob Grimm, 'Poesie im Recht.' Karl Lachmann. 'Uber New HigJi-Gcnuan Period. 351 die urspriingliche Gestalt des Gedichts von der Nibelungen Noth.' Franz Bopp, ' Uber das Conjui^ationssystem dtr Sanskritsprache in Verglei- chung mit jenem der griechischen, lateinischen, persischen und ger- manischen Sprache.' Schlosser begins his ' \\ eltgeschichle.' 1817. Goethe retires from the direction of the Theatre; ' Neu-deutsche religios-patriotische Kunst ; ' ' Italienische Reise,' vol, ii. Bockh. ' Staats- haushaltung der Athener.' The University of Wittenberg united with Halle. Hegel, ' Encyclopadie.' The Evangelical Union. Amim, *Kro- nenwachter.' Brentano, * Wehmiiller,' ' Kasperl und Annei 1.' Grillparzer, * Ahnfrau.' 1818. Grillparzer, 'Sappho.' Ernst Schulze, 'Bezauberte Rose.' Wilhelra Miiller. ' Miillerlieder '; Translation of Marlowe's 'Faust.' — University of Bonn. 1819 Goethe, ' Westostlicher Divan.' Schopenhauer, 'Die Welt .ils Wille und Vorstellung.' Jacob Grimm begins his ' Deutsche Grammatik.' 1821. Platen. ' Chaselen.' ' Lyrische Blatter.' Wilhelm Miiller. 'Litder der Griechen.' Tieck, 'Gediclite'; his 'Novellen' begun. Goethe, 'Wilhelm Meister's Wanderjahre,' Part I. H. von Kleist's posthumous works: ' Hermannsschlicht,' ' Prinz von Honiburg.' Grillparzer, 'Goldnes Vlicss,' Schleiermacher, ' Der christliche Glaube ' (-1822). 1822. Riickert, 'Ostliche Rosen,' ' Liebesfriihling.' H. Heine, ' Gedichte.' Uhland, ' Walther von der Vogehveide.' 1823. Raimund, ' Barometermacher.' Wilibald Alexis. ' Walladmor,' purport- ing to be a free translation from the English of Sir Walter Scott. Raumer, ' Hohenstaufen ' (1825). Schlosser, 'Geschic'ite des 18" Jahrhunderts.' 1824. Ranke, 'Zur Kritik neuerer Geschichtschreiber,' ' Geschichten der romanischen und germanischen Volker von 1494 bis 1535.' Bockh begins his Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum.' F. G. Welcker. ' Die /Eschy- lische Trilogie Prometheus.' Heiniich Zschokke. 'Sammtliche ausge- wahlte Schriften,' 40 vols (-182^). Eichendorff, ' Krieg den Philistem, dramatisirtes Marchen ' Raimund, * Diamant des Geisttrkonigs.' 1825. Grillparzer, ' Konig Ottokars Gliick und Ende.' Riickert, 'Amaryllis, ein landliches Gedicht' (written i8r2\ 1826. H. Heine, 'Reisebilder' (-1831). Immermann ' Cardenio und Celinde.' Platen, ' Verhangr-isvolle Gabel ' Raimund. ' Madchen aus der Feenwelt.' Holderlin, ' Gedichte.' Justinus Kerner, ' Gedichte.' Eichendorff, ' Tauge- nichts.' Hau ff, ' Lichtens tein.' * Monumeuta Germaniae historica,' vol. i. LacEmann's edition of the ' Nibelungenlied.' T e University of Munich. 1827. Simrock's Translation of the 'Nibelungenlied.' Spindler, 'Der Jude' ^historical Novel). Goethe's Works in 40 vols. (-1S30). (Winter of 1827-28) Humboldt's Cosmos Lectures. 18 -'8. Jacob Grimm, 'Rechtsalteithiimer.' Raupach. 'Der Nibelungen Hort.' Immermann, ' Friedrich der Zweite' Grillparzer, 'Ein treuer Diener seines Herrn.' Raimund ' Alpenkonig und Menschenfeind.' Platen, ' Gedichte.' Goethe publishes his Correspondence with Schiller (-1829). 1829, Goethe, * Wilhelm Meister's Wanderjahre.' Platen, * Romantischer 35 !i Chronological Table. CEdipus.' Grabbe, * Don Juan und Faust.' Ludwig Bome's Collected Works (-1834). Lachmann's ' Critik der Sage von den Nibelungen,' 1830. Kaupach's Hohenstaufen-Dramas (-1837). 1 831. Grillparzer, 'Des Meeres und der Liebe Wellen.' Usteri, * Dichtungen.' 1832 {March 22). Death of Goethe. The second part of ' Faust' published. 1835. Gervinus, 'Geschichte der poetischen Nationallitteratur der Deutschen ' (-1842), since 1853 called ' Geschichte der deutschen Dichlung.' Jacob Grimm's' Deutsche Mythologie' leads us back to the original sources of German Poetry. BIBLIOGRAPHICAL APPENDIX. ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THE FOLLOWING NOTES. A. D.B. = AlWemeine Deutsche Biographic. Leipzic, 1875. Anz. and Zs. Anz. = Anzeiger fur deutsches Alterthum und deutsche Litteratur. Berlin, 1876. Beitr. = Beitrage zur Geschichte der deutschen Sprache nnd Litteratur. H. Paul und W. Braune. Halle, 1874. Denkm. = Denkmaler deutscher Poesie und Prosa. MiillenhofF und Scherer. Berlin, 1873. D. N. L. = Deutsche National-Litteratur. Joseph Kurschner, Berlin and Stuttgart. Ed. = Edition or edited by. Erl. = Erlauterungen zu den deutschen Classikem. Leipzic. Germ. = Germania. Vierteljahrschrift fUr deutsche Alterthumskunde. Stutt- gart, 1856, Vienna, 1^59. Godeke = Grundriss zur Geschichte der deutschen Dichtung. Hanover, 1859. Dresden, 1881. Koberstein = Koberstein's Grundriss der Geschichte der deutschen National- litteratur. Leipzic, 1872-73. Progr. = Programme, a small treatise. Q. F =Quellen und Forschungen zur Sprach- und Culturgeschichte der ger- manischen Volker. B. ten Brink und Scherer. Strassburg, 1874. Sch. = Scherer. Schnorr's Archiv = Archiv fiir Litteraturgeschichte. Leipzic, 1870. Wackemagel = Geschichte der deutschen Litteratur. Basle, 1879. Weim. Jahrb. =\Veimarisches Jahrbuch fiir deutsche Sprache, ^Lfit^eratur vipd Kunst. Hanover, 1854-57. Zs. = Zeitschrift fur deutsches Alterthum, Lfipzic^ 1841. Be^^li^, 185$. Zs. f. d. Phil. = Zeitschrift fuf dgutsche Philolpgie. Halle, 1869. VOL. II. A a 354 Bibliography. I. The Ancient Germans, i. pp. 1-15. For Pytheas; MuUenhoff's Deutsche Alterihumskunde i. 211 seq., and Scherers Vortiage und Aufsatze, p. 21 seq. The explanation of the word ^Germans'' is from Zeuss, Grammatica Celtica, p. 735 (2nd ed. 773). The statement as to the origin of Tacitus' Gei mania is based on an hypothesis of Miillenhoff. On the interest taken by the Romans in the Germans, see A. Riese, • Die Idealisirung der Naturvolker des Nordens in der griechischen und romischen Litteratur.' (Heidelberg, 1875.) 1. The Aryans, pp. 3-6. On the name oi Aryan, H. Zimmer in Bezzenberger's Beitrage iii. 137. On the primitive Aryans, Kuhn, Zur altesten Geschichte indogermani-cher Volker (Weber, Indische Studien i. 321) ; the first chapters of Grimm's Geschichte der deutschen Sprache (1848) ; Pictet, Les origines Indo- Europeennes ou les Aryas primitifs (Paris, 1859) ; Schleicher, in Hildebrand's Jahrbiicher fiir Nationalokonomie und Statistik, vol. i. ; Justi in Raumer's Historisches Taschenbuch, 1862, p. 301 ; Fick, Die ehemalige Spracheinheit der Indogermanen Europa's, p. 266 (Gottlngen, 1873) ; O. Schrader, Sprachvergleichung und Urgeschichte, (Jena, 1883). — On the character oi Aryan poetry, Heinzel Q. F. x. 49. On the origin of mythology, Scherer's Vortrage und Aufsatze, 385. On stories of animals, Zeitschrift fiir osterreichische Gymnasien, 1870, p. 47 seq On anecdotes, fairy stories and short tales, Zs. Anz. iii. 185. On charms in verse, Kuhn, in the Zeitschrift fiir vergleichende Sprachforschung, xiii. 49 seq. and 113 seq —On the origin of Aryan metre, Scherer, Zur G^eschichte der deutschen Sprache, 2nd ed. p. 624. 2. Germanic Religion, pp. 6-9. This section is chiefly based on Miillenhoff in Schmidt's Zeitschrift fiir Geschichtswissenschaft, viii. 209. See also Miillenhoff, Deutsche Alterthums- kunde. On Dyaus, the Aryan Heaven-God, see Max Miiller's Lectures on the Science of Language ii. 4' 8 (8th ed.). On proper names, Miillenhoff, Nor- dalbingische Studien, i. 210 ; Zur Runenlehre, p. 42 seq. (Halle, 1852). 3. Oldest remains of Poetry, pp. 10-15. The Wessobrunner Gebet, Denkm. No. i. The Germanic Accent, Sch. Zur Ge- schichte der deutschen Sprache, p. 86 seq. On the character of the Old High- German Poetry, Heinzel, Q. F. x. On choral poetry, Miillenhoff, De anti- quissima gtrmanorum poesi chorica (Kiliae, 1847^ The explanation of the * barditus' is also from Miillenhotf. The Mecklenburg\tx%^% to Wodan, Grimm's Mythologie. 4lh ed., p. 129. Summer and Winter, ibid. p. 638. The Love- greeting, Denkm. No. 28. Riddles, Denkm. No. 7. The Merseburg charms, Denkm. No. iv. i, 2. — On the priests as proclaimtrs of the law, Sch. Zs. Anz., iv. loi. The three needs, taken f'om Richthofen's Friesische Rechtsqucllen, pp. 44-49. The sentence of banishment, Grimm's Deutsche RechtsalterthU- mer, p. 39. Alliterative formulas ; ibid, p. 6 seq. Heyne, Germ., ix. p. 43? Chapters II-III. ^:^:^ II. Goths and Franks, pp. 16-37. On the division into periods compare Scherer's Geschichte der deutschen Dichtung im elften und zwolften Jahrhundert, Q. F. xii. pp. i-io; Zur Geschichte der deutschen Sprache, pp. 11-15. 1. The Heroic Songs, pp. 19-27. For authorities on the history of the heroic legends, see V.— Employment of Runes, Liliencron and Miillenhoff, Zur Runenlehre (Halle, 1852). — '1 he epic hard, Priscus, p. 205, ii, Bonn; compare Miillenhoff, Zur Geschichte der Nibelunge Not (Brunswick, 1855), p. 11. — The song of Hildebrand, Denkm. No. 2. 2. Ulfilas, pp. 28-32. See Waitz, Uber das Leben und die Lehre des Ulfilas, (Hanover, 1840). Bess 11, tJber das Leben des Ulfilas, (Gottingen, i860). Kaufmann Zs. xxvii. pp 193 seq. — The last and best editions of Gothic li'erary documents are: Bernhardt, Vulfila (Halle, 1875) ; Stamm's Ulfilas, published by Heyne, 8th ed. (Paderbom, 1885). The Gothic toast, correctly explained by Dietrich in his Aussprache des Gothischen, p. 26 (^Marburg, i8''>2). The word vulthrs in the Codex Brixianus of the Gospels: see Haupt, Opuscula ii. 407; Be nhardt Zs. f. d. Phil. ii. 24. The formula /r^/a armes (\.g. frauja armaisi in Augustine, Epistola 178; Holtzmann Germ. ii. 448. ' Fit etiam de l.oidto opus bonum, quod nos graece dicimus alfita, latine vero polentam, Gothi vero barbarice fenea, magnum remedium cum vino calido temperatum'; Anthinii de ob- servatione ciborum epistula ad Theudeiicum regem Francorum, 64 ed. Rose. On the Salzburg MS., Wilhelm Grimm, Kleine Schriften iii. 85 seq., 95 seq. On the historical connection of Gothic with Old High-German Christianity, R. von Raumer Zs. vi. 401. 3. The Merovingians, pp. 32-37. The Irish: see Haureau. Singulariteshistoriques et litteraires, pp. 1-36 (Paris, 1861). It is doubtful whether the Latin hymns made use of really belong to Columban. — On Rhyme Wilhelm Giimm, Zur Geschichte des Reims, Ab- handlungen der Berliner Akademie 1850 (Berlin 1852) ; Uhland, Schriften, i, 366 seq. ; W. Masing, tJber Ursprung und Verbreitung des Reims (Dorpat, iS66>. — The explanation of Grimm s Law, Sch. Zur Geschichte der deutschen Sprache, p. i6'>'. The language of Charlemagne: Miillenhoff, Denkm. p. x. xxiii. 'Yht Strasslmrg Oath: Denkm No. 67. The expression '■ deutsch'' : Jacob Grimm, Grammatik, 3rd Ed. 1.12. III. The Old High-German Period, pp. 38-59. The Anglo-Saxons and their poetry : ten Brink, Geschichte der englischen Litteratur i. 12-8.^ (Berlbi, 187; )v On Charlemagne^ s influence on German A a 2 ^^6 Bibliography. literature: Sch. Vortrage und Aufsatze, p. 71-100, the fuller proofs in the Denkm, — The fragments of the translation of St . Matthew' s Gospel in the Fragmenta theotisca, 2nd ed., by Massmann (Vienna, 1841), and Zs. f. d.Phil. V. 381. — Muspilli : Denkm. No. 3. 1. The First Messia?iic Poejns, pp. 40-46. Fulda: Rettberg, Kirchengeschichte Deutschlands, i. 370 seq.; Wattenbach, Deutschlands Geschichtsquellen im Mittelalter, ch. ii. § 13. Rabanus Maurus'. Ebert, Allegemeine Geschichta der Litteratur des Mittelalters im Abendlande i. 120; A Latin Life of Christ, the so-called Tatian, edited, with the German translation, by Sievers (Paderborn, 1872). — The Heljand : editions by Schmeller (Munich, 1830, 40) ; M. Heyne, 3d ed. (Paderborn, 1883) ; H. Ruckert (Leipzic, 1876) ; Sievers (Halle, 1878); Behaghel (Halle, 1882). Translations by Simrock, Grein. Vilmar, Deutsche Alterthiimer im Heljand, 2nd ed. (Marburg, 1882). Windisch, Der Heljand und seine Quellen (Leipzic, 1 858). Other works on the subject in Sievers — Otfried, newest edition by Kelle(with grammar and glossary, 3 vols., Regensburg, 1856-81) ; Piper (Pader- born, 1878) ; Erdmann (Halle, 1882), and others. Translation by Kelle. Other works in Piper. — Christ and the Woman of Samaria, Denkm. No. 10. — Prologue of the Lex Salica: see the edition by Merkel (Berlin, 1850), p. 93; Waitz, Das alte Rechte der salischen Franken (Kiel, i84^>), p. 37. 2. The MedicEval Renaissance, pp. 46-53. For Otto's visit to the tomb of Charlemagne : Thietmar von Merseburg, iv. 29, Monumenta Germanise, S.S. (i.e. Scriptores) iii. 781. Charlemagne and his learned friends : Haureau, Charlemagne et sa cour (Paris, 1854); Wattenbach, ch. ii. §§ 4-8; Ebert, ii. 3-112. See too, Schnaase, Geschichte der bildenden Kun^te, 2nd ed., iii. 499 seq., 526 seq, 621 seq. The Latin poems in Dlimmler, Poetae latini aevi Carolini (Berlin, 1881). St. Gall. The sources for the history of St. Gall are given by G. Meyer of Knonau, in the Mittheilungen des historischen Vereins von St. Gallen, part 12-17 (1870-1879) : see also the Translation of Ekkehard iv, Casus sancti Galli, in the Geschichtschreiber der deutschen Vorzeit, zehntes Jahr- hundert, vol. xi. (Leipz. 1878). — Psalms in German rhymed verse, Denkm. no. 13. — IValtharius manu fortis, published by J. Grimm in Grimm und Schmeller's Lateinische Gedichte .Gottingen, 1838) ; R. Peiper (Berlin, 1873) 5 J. V. Scheffel und Holder (Stuttgart, 1874), with Scheffel's translation. See also W. Meyer of Speyer, Philologische Bemerkungen zum Waltharius (Miinch- • ner Sitzungsberichte, 1^73. 3). For the Legend, Mlillenhoff, Zs. xii. 273-279. Further accounts in SchefTi:rl und Holder. — Notker \ the works attributed to him are published by Hattemer, St. Gallens altteutsche Sprachschatze, vols. ii. iii. and more recently by Piper. See also Denkm. Nos. 26, 70, 80. Roswitha: Editions by Barack (Niirnberg. 18-8), Bendixen (Liibeck, 1858) ; an excellent translation by Bendixen (Altona, 1850, 1853'. Compare Koplcc; Chapters III-IV. 357 Ottonische Studien, ii. (Berlin, 1869), Kopke, Die alteste deutsche Dichterin (Berlin, 1869). Older works are mentioned in Barack. 3. The Wandering Journalists ^ pp. 53-59. For the Gkenien, see Q.F. xii. 11. — The Ludwigslied, Denkm.No. 11. The satiric poem on a broken-off betrothal, Denkm. No. 28b. Description of the boar, ibid. No. 26. On political minstrel poetry, see Uhland, Schriften, i. 472 ; Wackernagel, i. 96 ; Denkm. No. 8 ; Henning, Q.F., xxxi. 16. Otto with the Beard, see VI, 4. Herzog Ernst, see IV. 3. For the mixed Latin and German poetry in the Song of Otho the Great, and Henry, Denkm. No. 18. Latin songs, Denkm. Nos. 20-25. The Song of St. George, Denkm. No. 17. On the moral characteristics of the period, Q. F. xii. 4. IV. Chivalry and the Church, pp. 60-91. Chivalry : see Weinhold, Die deutschen Frauen in dem Mittelalter, 2nd ed., 2 vols. (Vienna, 1882) ; Alwin Schultz, Das hofische Leben zur Zeit der Minne- sanger, 2 vols. (Leipz., 1879, 1880). This deals chiefly with the eleventh and twelfth centuries. Q. F., xii. 22. 1. Latin Literature^ pp. 62-71. Rudlieb : published by .Schmeller, in Grimm-Schmeller Lateinische Gedichte (1838) ; Seller (.Halle, 1^82). See Zs. Anz., ix. 70. Zs. xxvii 332. The legend joined on to Rudlieb (J. Grimm, Lat Ged., p. 220) is derived from the Eckenlied, Strophe 82 seq., and from the Biterolf, hues 6451 seq. (compare the Klage, 1 108); the Thidrekssaga ch 233-239 contains a more recent form of the same. Grimm recognised its connection with the legend ofWaltherand Hildegund, 1. c. 3^4 seq.— Otto von Freising, published in the Monumenta Germaniae, S.S. XX. 83: (also separately, 1867). See further \Vattenbach,Geschichtsquellen, chap. V. § 4. — The Vagant or Goliard and the Arch-Poet : J. Grimm. Kleinere Schriften, iii. i ; Giesebrecht, Allgemeine Monatschrift, 1853 (p. ro seq., 344 seq.) ; O. Hubatsch, Die Lateinischen Vagantenlieder des Mittelalters (Gorlitz, 1870) ; Barloti, I precursori del Rinascimento (Florence, 1877). Kuno Francke, Zur Geschichte der lateinischen Schulpoesie des 12" and 13" Jahrhunderts (Miinchen, 1879). '^^^ principal collection of their poems is the Carmina Burana, Schmeller's edition (Stuttgart, 1847); a selection, Gaudeamus ! Carmina vagorum selecta, s veral editions (Leipz., 1879). Translation by L. Laistner; Golias (Stuttg., !■ 79)- Older Latin Lyrics of the middle ages in Haupt, Exempla poesis latina.- medii aevi (Vienna, 1834), ^"^ Jaffe, Cambridger Lieder, Zs., xiv, 4<)i seq. — Ihe Dratna of Antichrist, published by Zetzschwitz (Leipz., 1877) ; ^- Meyer of Speyer, (Munich. 1882, Sitzungsberichte). Trans- lations, Zetzschwitz, Wedde. See Sch. Zs., xxiv. 450. 35^ Bibliography. 2. Lady World, pp. 71-79. On Wirent of Grafenberg and Conrad of Wiirzburg see VI. 4. The descrip- tion of Lady World, Wackemagel, Zs. vi. 161. See for fuller details Scherer, Geschichie der deutschen Dichtung ira ii" nnd I2'> Jahrhundert (Strasb,, 1875) Q. F. xii., and compare Sch. Geistliche Poeten der deutschen Kaiserzeit, 2nd, part (Strasb., 1S74-75), Q F. i. vii. Sermons : Denkm. No. 86. Description of Heaven and Hell, ibid. No. 30. — Poems on Old Testament subjects : The Wiener Gene;is (ed. Hoffmann's Fund- gruben, ii. 9; Massmann, Deutsche Gedichte des 12" Jahrhunderts, p 235 ; in modernised style: Genesis and Exodus from the Millstatter MS., by Diemer ; Vienna, 1862) : the Vorauer Genesis (pub. by Diemer, Deutsche Gedichte des II und 12" Jahrhunderts, Vienna, 1 849, p.i^ ; The Wiener Exodus (pub. after the Wiener Genesis) ; Moses, Diemer, 32. 1-69. 6 ; liileam, Diemer, 72. 8-85. 3; Lob Salamos, Denkm. No 35 ; Die diei Jiinglinge im Feuerofen, ibid. 36 ; Judith, ibid. 37; a later Judith, Diemer, 127, 1-180, 29. — Poems on New Testafnent subjects: Johannes. Hoffmann's Fundgruben, i. p. 130, 1-140, 10; Adelbrecht's Johaines, Mones Anz., viii. (1839) 47-5.^' The ' Friedberg Christ und Anti- Christ,' Denkm. No. 83; 'Leben Jesu,' (Diemer, 229. T-276. 4; Hoffmann's Fundgruben, 140, 11-190, 28, this contains the description of the crucifixion mentioned on p. 74.) ; the poem of the nun Ava, Diemer 276-4 seq. Fund- gruben, i. p. 190, 29 stq. ' Hamburger jiingstes Gericht,' Hoffmanns Fundgruben. 2. 135. * Gleinker Entecrist,' Fundgruben, 2. ic6 seq.; ' Ane- genge,' Hahn, Gedichte des 12-' und i.-,*" Jahrhunderts (Quedlinburg, 1840) pp. 1-40, see vSchioder, Q. F. 44. — Legends. Mittelfriinkisches Legendar, pub. by Hugo Busch (Halle, 1879); also German rhymed legends of Silvester, iEgidius, Andreas, Paulus, Veronica, Vespasianus, Margaretha, Juliana, Veit Servatius, Albanus, Tungdalus — ' Annolied,'' ed. Opitz, 1639, republished by Roth 1847, Bezzenberger 184'^. — ' Kaiserchronik' ed. Massmann, 3 vols. (Quedlinburg, 1849, 1854) ; Diemer, (Vienna, 1849). Didactic poems: Meiegarto, Denkm. No. 32; Summa theologiae, ibid. 34 * Von der Siebenzahl, ibid. 44.; Priest Arnold's Poem, Diemer, 33;,. i. — Priestly demagogues : ' Memento mori,' pub. by Barack, Zs. xxiii. 209, compare Zs xxiv. 426, XXV. 188. * Vom Recht,' Karajan, Deutsche Sprachdenkmale des 12" Jahrhundert's (Vienna, 1846), pp. 3-16. Forms of penance, Confessions of faith. Litanies, Prayers ; * Vorauer Siinden- klage,' Ditmer, 295-316 ; 'Millstaiter Siindenklage,' pub. by Rodiger, Zs. xx. 255; Hartmai.n's 'Credo,' Massmann, Deutsche Gedichte des 12" Jahrhun- derts, p. I; Heinrich's * Litanei,' ibid 43, Hoffmann's Fundgiuben, ii. 210; a woman's poetical prayer, Diemer, 375-378. Heinrich von Molk, ed. Heinzel (Berlin, 1867), compare Zs. xix, 24T. Worship of the Virgin. Hymns to Mary, Denkm. 38 -42. ' Frauenlob,' ed. W. Grimm, Zs. x. 1-142. Wernher's poems on the Virgin, ed. Hoffmann, Fundgruben. ii. 145 ; Feifalik (Vienna, i860). Fragment, * Comfort in despair^ Sch. Zs. xx. 346. Chapters IV-V, 359 3. The Crusades, pp. 79-91. For the pilgrimages, Rohricht in Raumer's Historiches Taschenbuch, fth Series, 5 321. — Ezzd's Song, Denkm. No. 31. — Willirafii's Paraphrase of the Song of Solomon, edited by Hoffmann (Breslau, 1827) : Seemiiller, Q. F. 28 (Strassb., 1S7S). ' Lob Sa'omos,' Denkm. No. 35,. ' Salomo und der Drache,' ibid., see also Sch. Zs xxii. 19. The German poems of Solomon and Mar- colfus, published by F. Vogt, vol. i. (Halle, iS8o^. Latnbrechf s Alexander, ed. Diemer, Deutsche Gedichte, 183, i ; Massmann, Deutsche Gedichte, p, 64 ; Weismann (Frankfort, 1850). — Konrad^s Rolandslied, ed.W. Grimm (Gottingen,i'^'38) : Bartsch (Leipz., 1874) ; see Weiss, Historiches Jahrbuch der Gorres-Gesellschaft, i. 107 ; Schroder, Zs. xxvii. 70. The Karl- meinet was edited by Keller (Stuttgart, )858), and explained by Bartsch (Niim- berg, 1 861). Shorter Epics. ' Konig Rother^ ed by H. Riickert (Leipz., 1872'); von Bahder (Halle, 18S4). ' Herzog Ernst' ed. by Bartsch (Vienna, 1869). See too, Zs. vii 193, xiv. 2''5. '■St Brandan,' ed. Schroder (Erlangen, 1871). ' Orendel' ed. von der Hagen (Berl., 1844"). Ettmiiller (Zurich, 1858): see Meyer, Zs. xii. 387 ; Harkensee, Untersuchungen iiber das Spielmannsgedicht Oiendel (Kiel, 1879); ^"^ ^^^ ^^ Myth, Mlillenhoff, Alterthumskunde, i. 32. 'St. Oswald^ ed. Ettmiiller (Zurich, 1835), Zs. ii. 92; see Strobl, Wiener Sitzungsberichte, 64, 457 ; Edzardi, Unte'rsuchungen iiber das Gedicht von St. Oswald, (Hanover, 18761 ; Rodiger, Zs. xx. Anz. 245. Graf Rudolf , ed. W. Grimm, 1828, 2nd ed. 1834 ^^^ von Sybel, Zs. ii. 235. On mediaeval tolerance, see Renan, Averroes et rAverroisme, 2nd ed. (Paris, i*-'65) ; H. Reuter, Geschichte der religiosen Aufklanmg im Mittelalter, 2 vols. (Berlin, 1875-77^.— On ^^^ legend of the sleeping emperor and its application to Frederick H, see George Voigt, in Sybel's Historische Zeitschrift xxvi. 139; also his Essay 'Die Kiffhausersage ' (Leipz., 1871). V. Middle High-German Popular Epics, pp. 92- 134. National Epics, W'ilhelm Grimm, Deutsche Heldensage, 2nd ed. Berlin, 1867; Mlillenhoff, Zeugnisse und Excurse, Zs. xii. 753, 413; see Zs. xv. 310. On the influence of various German districts on the literature, see Q. F., xii. 20 seq. L The Revival of Heroic Poetry, pp. 93-101. See chap. ii. of Henning's Nibelungenstudien, Q. F. xxxi, also Q. F., xii. 92, x\o\.Q.— Saxon popular songs \ Saga DiSriks konuni^s af Bern uf'givet af C. R. Unger (Christiania, 1*^53) ; this Thidreks saga, formerly called the Wilkinasaga, is translated by Rassmann, Deutsche Heldensage, No. 12 (Hanover, 1858). The clerical reaction has not been fully studied, see Q. F., xii. 19 seq.— For the recitation of the Heroic poems, Lachmann, tjber Singen und Sagep, Kleine Schriften, i. 461. — F'or pp. g7-ioi, see especially Uhland, Schriften zur Geschichte der Dich'ung und Sage, vol. i. ^Stuttg., 1865). 360 Bibliography, 2. The Nibelungenlied, pp. 101-115. See Lachmann, Anmerkungen zu den Nibelungen, p. 3.^3 seq. ' Kritik der Sage von den Nibelungen ' ; Miillenhoff, Zs. x. 146, xxiii. 113. Max Rieger, Germ. iii. 163. Scherer, Vorlrage and Aufsatze p. loi. The MSS. of the Nibelungen form three classes, represented by the Hohenems-Munich MS. (A") which stands alone, the St. Gall MS. (B) and the Hohenems-Lassberg MS. (C . Lachmann considers A as representing the oiiginal text, B as a revision of a MS. of class A, C as a revision of a MS. of class B. He took A for the foundation of his edition (' Der Nibelungen Noth und die Klage' pub. by Lachmann, 3rd ed. Berlin, 1851, also a vol. of notes, Berlin, 1836). Holtzmann, ( Untersuchungen iiber das Nibelungenlied, 1854^ and Zarncke (Zur Nibelungenfrage, 1854) declared class C to be the oldest, and took MS. C as their authority. That C is the latest rendering has however been proved by R. von Liliencron (Uber die Nibelungenhandschrift C, Weimar, 1856). See too, Rieger, Zur Kritik der Nibelunge (Giessen, 1855) 5 C. Hof- mann, Zur Textkritik der Nibelungen (Miinchen, 1872).— One of the Minne- singer MSS. ascribes a number of ancient songs veith uncertain rhymes to a Knight of Kiirenberg. Franz Pfeiffer (Der Dichter des Nibelungenlieds, 1862,) considers this knight to be the author of the Nibelungenlied. Bartsch (Untersuchungen liber das Nibelungenlied, Vienna, 1865,) agrees with him, whilst trying to establish a lost original form of the poem in uncertain rhymes ; B, cited as the oldest text, is the foundation of Bartsch's edition. In opposition to this, see Zupilza, Uber Franz Pfeiffer's Versuch (Oppeln, 1867) ; VoUmoller, Kurnberg und die Nibelungen (Stuttgart, 1874) ; Sch. Zs. xvii. 561, xviii. 150, also Paul, Zur Nibelungenfrage (Halle, 1877). Hermann Fischer, Die For- schungen iiber das Nibelungenlied seit Karl Lachmann (Leipzic, 1874), supports the theory of Bartsch. The distinction of the genuine from the spurious, and the real songs from the continuations, which Lachmann undertook in his edition, he established' in the ' Anmerkungen.' His views on the origin of the poem are partly confirmed, partly modified by Miillenhoff, Zur Geschichte der Nibelunge Not (Brunswick, 1855, intended also to disprove the views of Holtzmann and Zarncke, 1854), also by R. Henning, Nibelungen Studien, Q.F. xxxi. (Strassb., 1883), and Rodiger, Kritische Bemerkungen (Berl. 1884^; see also Sch. Zs. 24, 274. Heinrich Fischer, Nibelungenlied, oder Nibelimgenlicder ? (Hanover, 1859), tries to refute these opinions. One particular point of view, in accordance with Lachmann's arguments, is represented in Wilmanns' Beitrage zur Erklarung land Geschichte des Nibelungenliedes (Halle, 1877). See, too, Hugo Busch, Die urspriinglichen Lieder vom Ende der Nibelungen (Halle, 1882). Translations by Simrock and others. Zarncke gives a convenient list of the works on the subject in the introduction to his edition. See too, R. von Muth, Einleitung in das Nibelungenlied Paderbom, 18-7). * A song about KriemhilcCs disloyalty to her brothers,^ for this see Grimm's Heldensage, p. 49. A Saxon bard sings it as a warning to a man who is in danger ; speciosissimi carminis contextu notissimam Grimildae erga fratres perfidiam de industria memorare adorsus, famosae fraudis exemplo similium ei Chapter V. 361 metum ingenerare tentabat.— The account of a Latin Nibelungenlied composed by order of Bishop Piligrim, of Passau, in the tenth century, .^-tarts with the assertion that this Piligrim was uncle to the Burgundian Kings murdered by the Hvms, and has not therefore the least guarantee of probability. 3. Dietrich von Bern, pp. 1 15-120. The ' Klage,^ pub. by Lachmann after the Nibelungenlied; separate editions by Holtzmann, Edzardi, Bai tsch. — The ' Saxon legends ' follow the Thidrekssaga (see V i). The various Middle High-German poems, pp. ii6, seq., are col- lected in 'Das Deutsche Heldenbuch' (started by Miillenhoffi, vols, i, a, 3 (Berlin, 1866, 1870). Vol. 6 will contain the Kosengarten and other poems men- tioned p. 118. For the present Wilhelm Grimm's edition of the Rosengartea (Gottingen, 1836) is sufficient authority. Now, for the 'very late tradition,' p. 119, see Das Deutsche Heldenbuch, A. von Keller (Stuttgart, 1867), P- ^o- The * Hiirnen Seifried,' Von der Hagen's Deutsches Heldenbuch, in 4°, vol. 2 (Berlin, 1825). The later ' Hildebrattdslied,' in Uhland's Volkslieder, No. 132. *■ Ermenrichs Tod,' pub. by K. Godeke (Hanover, 1851); also in Von der Hagen's Heldenbuch, in S", vol. ii, 537 (Leipzic, 1855). 4. Ortnit and IVot/dietrich, pp. 120-123. On myth and legend, see Miillenhoff, Zs. vi, 435 ; xii, 346 seq. The his- torical element, compare tixt with Gregory of Tours, 3, 23-25. — 'Ortnit,^ Miillenhoff, Zs. xiii, 185. Deutsches Heldenbuch, vol. iii (Berl. 1871). — ' Wolf- dietrich,' Miillenhoff, Zur Geschichte der Nibelungen Not, p. 23. Deutsches Heldenbuch, vols. 3, 4 (Berl. 1871-73). 5. Hitde and Gudrun, pp. 124-134. The legend, cf. Klee, Zur Hildesage (Leipzic, 1S73). The myth is con- nected with that on which the legend of Walther and Hildtgunde is based. On the Norman leader Siegfried, see Diimmler, Ostfrankisches Reich, ii, 271, 274 seq. Proofs that the story was known in Bavaria about iioo, Miillenhoff, Zs. xii, 314. On the lost poem of the twelfth century, Sch., Q. F. vii, 63, as also on the probable home of the ' Gudrun.' This has been preserved to us only in the famous Ambras MS. of Maximilian I (see p. 258). Ed. by Vollmer (^Leipzic, 184^), Bartsch (Leipzic, 1865, see Germ, x, 41, 148), Martin ;,Halle, i'^72, with explanation and commentary: small edition 1883), Symons (Halle, 1883, see too, Beitr. ix, i). Separation of the unauthentic portions : Ettmiiller, Gudrun Lieder (Leipzic, 1841) ; Miillenhoff, Kudrun, die echten Theile des Gedichtes, with a critical introduction (Kiel, 1845); Plonnies (Leipzic, i8.;3). Martin agrees generally with Miillenhoff as to the interpolations. Translations : Sim- rock, A. v. Keller, Niendorf, Koch (only the authentic portions, according to Miillenhoff), Klee, &c. Gervinus began an edition in hexameters (Leipzic, 1836). The author of Gudrun belonged certainly to the Austro- Bavarian tribe, and is therefore, as a countryman, nearly connected with Wolfram and Walther. 36 a Bibliography. VI. The Epics of Chivalry, pp. 135-186. The 'Flore'' of a poet of the lowtr Rhineland is called by him ' Floyris.' Fragments of the poem are published by Steinmeyer, Zs. xxi, 320. The 'Tristan,' or rather ' Tix-iXx-xat^' oi Eilhard von Oherge is edited by F. Lichten- stein, Q.F. 19 (Strassburg, 1877). See Zs. xxvi, i. 1. Heinrich von Veldeke, pp. 137-145. For Heinrich VI, and his Love Songs, see Scherer's Deutsche Studien it, 10 seq. Heinrich von Veldeke. For the Counts of Looz and Rineck, Hegel, For- schungen zur deutschen Geschichte xix, 569. Veldeke's dialect, Braune, Zs. f. d. Phil, iv, 249. Veldeke's St. Servatius, Bormann's edition (Maestricht, 1858), see Bartsch, Germ, v, 410. Meyer, Zs. xxvii, 146. — '^neide,' ed.Ettmiiller (Leipz. 1852), Behaghel (Heilbronn, i882\ For his sources — Pey, in Ebert's Jahrbuch fiir romanische und englische Litteratur ii, i ; see too Womer, Zs. f. d. Phil, iii, 106. Virgil in the Middle Ages, see a work by Comparetti (in German, Leipzic 1875'). Veldeke's Songs, ed. Lachmann und Haupt, Minne- sangs Friihling, No. 9, see Sch., Deutsche Studien ii, 71. Veldeke'' s followers. In and arovmd Mainz (V) '■ Moriz von Craon,' edit, by Haupt in the Feslgaben fiir Homeyer (Berlin, 1871), p. 27 ; see Bech, Germ, xvii, 170. — ' Pilatus^ ed. Massmann, Deutsche Gedichte, p. 145 ; Weinhold, Zs. f. d. Phil, viii, 253 ; for the legend, see Creizenach, Beitr. i, 89 ; Schonbach, Zs. Anz. ii, 166. — In Thuringia, Heinrich von Moningen, see the Minnesangs Friihling, No. 18, comp. Michel, Q.F. 38, Gottschau, Beitr. vii, 335. Herbort von Fritzlar, pub. by Frommann (Quedlinburg, 1837), comp. Germ, ii, 49, 177, 307, also H. Dunger, Die Sage vom trojanischen Kriege (Leipz. 1S691, Korting, Dictys und Dares (Halle, 1874') . Herbort's original ' Benolt de Si. More et le ronian de Troie,' A. Joly (Paris, 1870). — Albrecht von Halberstadt. Fragments of his poems, Zs. xi, 358, Germ, x, 237. The whole is preserved only in Jorg Wickram's revised edition (Mainz, 1545); from this Haupt restored the Prologue, Zs. iii, 289; further attempts at restoration by Bartsch, Albrecht von Halberstadt (Quedlinburg, 1861) ; see J. Grimm, Zs. viii, 10, 397, 464 -Here belong 'their disciples,' p. 143 ; Otte, author of ' Eraclius,' (pub- lished by Graef, Q. F. 50), the unknown author of ' Athis und Frophilias' (the fragments pub. by W. Grimm, in the Abhandlungen der Berliner Akademie, 1846, 1852 ; comp. Zs. xii, 185, and Grimm's Kleine Schriften ii, 212 seq.) 2. Hartmann von Aue and Gottfried von Strassburg^ pp. 145-161. For the importance of the Upper Rhine in literary development, see Nitzsch, Deutsche Studien (Berl. 1879), P- ^25. — Heinrich der Glichezare, fragments of his poems in J. Grimm, Sendschreiben an Lachmann (Leipz. 1840), the whole in more modem rendering in J. Grimm, Reinhart Fuchs (Berlin, 1834^, p. 2fi. Friedrich von Hansen. Minnesangs Friihling, No. 8. See MiillenhoflF. Zs. xiv, 133; Lehfcld, Beitr. ii, 345. Baumgarten, Zs. xxvi, 105. — Reinmar von Chapter VL 363 Hagenau. Minnesangs Friihling, No. 20 ; see Erich Schmidt, Q. F, 4, (Strass- burg, 1874'!; Kegel, Germ, xix, 149. Becker, ibid, xxii, 70, T95. Burdach, Reinmar der Alte, und Walther von der Vogelweide (Leipz. 1880). Harttnann von Aue. Schieyer, Das Leben und die Dichtungen H. v. A. (Program. Schulpforte, 1874) ; Bauer, Germ, xvi, 155. Von Ow, ibid. 162 ; Schmidt, H. v. A. Stand, Heimat und Geschlecht (Tiibingen, 1875) ; see Mar- tin, Zs. Anz. i, 126. On the sequence of his writings, Naumann, Zs. xxii, 25. Collected Works, published by Bech, 3 vols (Leipz. 1867-69, &c). For char- acteristics, see Wackernagel, pp. 209, 245, 254. The Songs, Minnesangs PViihling, No. 21 ; see Zs. xiv, 144 ; xv, 125. The * Biichlein,' with ' Der aimer Heinrich,' published by Haupt. See O. Jacob, Das zweite Biichlein ein Hart- mannisches (Naumburg, 1879). — * Gregorius^ ed. Lachmann (Berl. 1838, see Zs. V, },2)\ Paul (Halle, 1873, 1882). See Lippold, Uber die Quelle des Gregorius, Hartmann's von Aue (, Leipz. 1869). The original (?), Vie du Papa Gregoire le Grand, edited by Luzarche (Tours, 1857). — ' Der arme Heinrich^ ed. by the brothers Grimm, 1815 ; Lachmann, Auswahl, 1820; \V. Miiller, 1842 ; Haupt (Le=pz. 1842, 2nd ed. 1881) ; Paul (Halle, 1882). Translated by Simrock. See P. Cassel, Die Symbolik des Blutes, und der arme Heinrich des H. v. A. (Berlin, 1882). — * Ereck,' edited by Haupt (Leipzic, 1839, 2nd edit. 1 871). Translated by Fistes. For the original, Bekker, Zs. x, 373. See F>artsch, Germ, vii, 141. — ^ Iwein,' edited by Benecke und Lachmann (Berl. 1827, 2nd edit. 1843, &c)- Translated by Count Baudissin. Original (?), Li romans dou chevalier au lyon, edited by Holland ; Hanover, 1862). See Rauch, Die walische, franzobische, and deutsche Bearbeitung der Iweinsage (Berl. 1869 1 ; Giith, Herrigs Archiv 46 (1870^ 251. Settegast, llartmann s Iwein verglichen mit seiner altfranzdsichen Quelle (Marburg, ii'^73) ; Gartner, Der Iwein Hart- manns von Aue, ui;d der Chevalier au lion des Chrestien de Troies (Breslau, 1875"); Blume, tjber den Iwein (Vienna, 1879). Htinzel, Osterreichische Wochenschrift, new series ii, 385, 427, 460, 469 seq. For the characteristics of the Arthur romances, see Uhland, Schriften ii, 112-127. Edition of Geoffrey of Monmouth, by Giles (London, 1844), by San-Marte (Halle, 1854). For the development of the epic style from the tenth to the thirteenth cen- tury, see W. Grimm, Kleine Schriften iii, 241 seq. Lichtenstein, Q. F. xix, 150 seq. Gottfried von Strassburg. Pub. by E. von Groote (Berlin, 182 1), v. d. Hagen (Breslau, 1823), Massmann (Leipz 1843), Bechstein (Leipz. 1869). Translated by Simrock, Kurtz, but best by Wilhelm Hertz (Stuttg. 1877). On the originals, Bossert, Tristan et Iseult (Paris, 1865); Heinzel, Zs. xiv, 272 ; compare Zs. xxvi Anz. 211 seq. It was nearly connected with the English Sir Tristrem, and a northern Saga, both published by E. Kolbing, Die nordische und die englische Version der Tristan Saga, 2 vols. 1 Heilbrcnn, 1878, 1883). — Gottfried's characteristics; Heinzel, Zs. fiir osterreichische Gymnasien, 1868, P- .533 : Preuss, Strassburger Studien i, 1-75. For his life, K. Schmidt, 1st G. V. S. Strassburger Stadtschreiber gewesen ? (Strassb. 1876). — Bergemann, Das hofische Leben nach G. v. S. (Berl. 1876) ; Lobedanz, Das franzosische Element in G. V S'r Tristan ''Schwerin. 1878^ 3^4 Bibliography. 3. Wolfram von Eschenbach, pp. 161-176. His works were published by Lachmann (Berl. 1883). Parzival and Titurel^ Barisch, 3 vols. (.Leipz 1870-71). Parzival translated by Simrock and San- Marte. See too, San-Marte ' Leben und Dichten W. von E.' (Magdeburg, 1836, 41), and his ' Parzival-Studien,' .- parts (Halle, i860, 62). Domanig, * Parzival-Studien,' 2 parts (Paderbom, 1878,80). — Biographical: Schmeller, Abhandlungen der Miinchener Akademie, 1837 ! Frommann, Anzeiger fUr Kunde de: deutschen Vorzeit, iSOi, p. 355 ; Haupt, Zs. vi, 187 ; xi, 42. For the date of the works, Herforth, Zs xviii. 281. Wolfram's Style: Janicke, De dicendi usu Wolframi de E. (Halle, i860) ; Kinzel, Zs. f. d. Phil, v, i ; Forster, Zur Sprache and Poesie W. von E. (Leipzic, 1874) : Botticher, Germ, xxi, 257. Katit, Scherz und Humor in W. von E. Dichtungen (Heilbronn, 1878). Stein- meyer in the A. D. B. vi, 340.— Karl Reichel, Studien zu Wolfram's Parzival (Vienna, 1858). On the Legend of the Graal, and Wolfram's authorities: Bartsch, Germanische Studien ii, 2 14 ; Zarncke, Beitr. iii, 304 ; Birch-Hiischfeld, Die Sage vom Gral (Leipz. 1877); Martin, Zur Gralsage, Q.F. 42 (Strass. 1880) ; W. Hertz, Die Sage vom Parzival und dem Gral (Breslau, 1882). For Willehalni\ Jonckbloet, Guillaume d'Orange (Amsterdam, 1867). Compared with Wolfram by San-Marte, tjbtr W. von E. Rittergedicht Wllhelm von Orange (Qaedlinburg, 1871). On the Tagelied see Bartsch, Gesammelte Vortrage und Aufsatze (Frei- burg, 1883), p. 250 seq. Sch., Deutsche Studien ii, 51-60. Johannes Schmidt, Zs. f. d. Phil, xii, 333. 4. Successors of the Great Chivalrous Poets, pp. 176-186. Epics after a foreign original. The ' Lanzelet^ of Ulrich von Zelzikon, edited by Hahn (.Franf. 1845) ; original proofs, Bachiold, Germania, xix, 424 ; see Schilling De dicendi usu U. de Z (Halle, 1866). — Konrad von Fusses- brunnen, edited by Kochendorffer, Q.F. 43. — Wirent von Grafenberg {com^. p. 71), edited by Benecke (Berl. 1819), Peiffer (Leipz. 1847) ; Bethge, W. von G. (Berl. 1881), where the other authorities are g\\tn. — Strieker, 'Daniel,' see Strieker's Charlemagne, edited by Bartsch, Preface. — Konrad Fleck, td. Som- mer (Quedlinburg, 1846) ; see Sundmacher, Die altfranzosische and mittelhoch- deutsche Bearbeitung der Sage von Flore und Blancheflur (Gottingen, 1882) ; Hcrzog, Germ. 29, ii'j.—Heinrich von dem Tiirlin, edited by Scholl (Stuttg. 1852}, see Reissenherger, Zur Krone (Gratz, 1879); Warnatsch, Der Mantel (Breslau. 188 ■, ; Weinholds Germanist. Abh. 2). Freshly invented Epics : the ' Garel vom bliihenden Thai,' by Pleier ex- amined by Waltz (\'ienna, 1881). Characteristics of the poet: E. H. Meyer, Zs. xii, ^lo.— Wigamur, the Knight with the Eagle; Sarrazin, Q.F. 35 — ' Gauriel von Montavel,' the Knight with the Goat, by Konrad von Stoffeln ; Jeitteles, Gei mania, vi, ^^c^.- Apollonius of Tyre, see Strobl, Heinrich von Neustadt (Vienna, 1875). Realistic Epics : see Rudolf von Ems, ' W^ilhelm von Orlens ' Rhymed Chronicles : The Styrian of Ottokar. as yet only published in Pet, Chapter VI. 365 Scriptores rertim austriacarum, iii. See Schacht, Aus und iiber Ottokars von Horneck Reimchronik (Mainz, 1821) ; Theod, Jacobi, De Ottokar ch:onico austriaco (Breslau, 1839) > Lortnz, Deutschlands Geschichtsquellen, 3rd edit, i, 242. Continuations of Wolfram'' s and Gottfried's works: UlHch von Tiirhdm (1233-66), continued Gottfried's ' Tristan,' (see von der Hagen und Massmann's edition), and Wolfram's ' Willehalm ' (for the sources of the latter see Suchier, Dber die Quelle U. v. d. T. p. 32). — Ulrich von dem Tiirlin added the in- troductory history of ' Willehalm ' between 1261 and 1275; Suchier, tjber die Quelle U. v. d. T. (Paderbom, 1873). — Heinrich von Freiberg (Toischer, Mittheilungen des Vereins fiir Geschichte der Deutschen in Bohmen, xv, 149) continued * Tristan' about 1300, ed. Bechstein (Leipz. 1877). Rudolf von Ems : 'Der gute Gerhard,' ed. Haupt (Leipzic, 1840). ' Barlaam and Josaphat,' ed. Pfeiffer (Leipz., 1843) ; on the subject-matter, §ee Liebrecht in Eberts Jahrbuch ii. 314 — Wilhelm von Orlem, table of Contents, Mones' Anz. 1835, p. 27. * Alexander "" never printed. 'Universal Chronicle^ : Vilmar, Die zwei Recensionen vmd die Handschriftenfamilien der Weltchronik R. von E. (Marburg, i839\ Konradvon Wiirzburg. ' Der Welt Lohn' (p. 72), ed Roth (Frankf, 1843). •Otto mit dem Bart,' ed Hahn (Quedlinburg. 1838) ; * Schwanritter,' ed. Roth (Frankf., 1861); 'Engelhard,' ed. Haupt (Leipz. 1844). French legend, Herzmare, ed. Roth (Frankf. 1846). — Legends-. 'Alexius,' ed Haupt, Zs iii. 534; 'Pantaleon,' ed. Haupt, Zs. vi. 193; 'Silvester,' ed. W. Grimm (Gottin- gen, i84«)— * Goldene Schmiede,' ed. W. Grimm (Berl. 1^40); ' Partonopier und Meliur,' ed. Bartsch (Vienna. 1871) — ' Trojanerkrieg,' ed. Roth, Keller, Bartsch (Stuttg. Litter.-Verein, 1858, 77).— ' Klage der Kunst' ed. Eugen Joseph Q. F. liii. (Strassburg, 1^55"). The disciples of Wolfram von Eschenbach : a ^L S. of the later Titurel was printed in 1477, and another by Hahn (Quedlinburg, 1842% the description of the Grail-castle was published by Zarncke (Der Gialtempel Leipz., i>'76). The author is not Albrecht von Scharfenberg: from a later poet of this name we possess a ' Merlin ' and a ' Seifrid de Ardemont ' in Ulrich Fulrers Epitome; see Spiller, Zs. xxvii. 158. 'Lohengrin,' ed. H. Riickert (Qued- linburg, 1858) : 'Lorengel,' ed. Sieinmeytr, Zs. xv. 181 — Hadamar von Laber, ed. Stejskal (Vienna, i<*^8o). — ' Der heilige Georg,' written by Reinbot von Durne, by wish of Otto II. of Bavaria (1231-53), ed. v. d. Hagen and Bii- sching, Deutsche Gedichte des Mittelalters u8o8). Clerical Poetry. Hugo von Langenstein 'Martina,' ed. Keller (Stuttg., 1856) ; see Kohler, Germ. viii. 15. — Collections of Z^^^w^j :—* Passional' (ed. Hahn, Frankf, 1845: ' Marienlegenden,' by Pfeiffer. Stuttg., 1846, the third part, ed. Kopke, Quedlinburg, 1852, and ' Der Vater Buch ' (ed. Franke, Pctderbom, begun 1S80, see Zs. 23. Anz. 164 ; J. Haupt. Sitzungsberichte der Wiener Akad. C9, 71).— 'Elizabeth,' ed Rieger, (Stuttg. 1868), and 'Erlosung' ed. Bartsch, (Quedlinburg, 1858). — ' Marien Himmelfahrt,' Zs. v, 515 — Legendary poetry in Cologne. Brother Hermans 'lolante' (specimens in PfeifFers Ubungsbuch, p. 103). — Bruno von Schonebeck, see Chroniken der deutschen Stadte, viii, 168 : Graters Bra^ur. ii. 324 — Literary activitv of the Knijjhts of the German 3^6 Bibliography. Orders in Prussia ; see Pfeiffer, Jeroschin p. xxiv. et seq. ; Zacher, Zs. xiii. h'A- Middle High-German Artistic Epics: Nicolas von Jeroschin, ed, Pfeiffer (Stiittg. 1854, only extracts); Strehlke in the Scriptores rerum prussicarum, i. 291 — Henry of Mtinich: see Wackernagel, p. 22},— Seifried's ' Alexandreis * finished 1352 : Ferd, Wolf, Wiener Jahrbiicher 57, Anzeigeblatt pp. iy-24 Karajan Zs. iv. 248. VII. Poets and Preachers, pp. 187-234. The ' Wartburgkrieg' ed. SimrocV (Stuttgart, 1858.) Rise of the Minnesang : Lachmann and Haupt, Des Minnesangs Friihling (Leipz. 1857 ^^d later); see Sch., Deutsche Studien ii. (Vienna, 1874). We must distinguish between three groups: i. The Austro-Bavarian, nearly con- nected with the popular German Lyrics, mentioned on pp. i94-i()6, see Minne- sangs Friihling Nos. i, 2, 4, and p. 37, 4-29, Dietniar von Aist, ibid. No 7. See Burdach, Zs. xxv.i 343; Anz. x 13; Pecker Germ, xxix 360.— 2 The Lower Rhenish, chiefly influenced by northern French models : Veldeke, who founded a school in Thuringia.— ^. 7^he Upper Rhenish connected with the Troubadours : Hansen ami Reinniar ; the latter came to Austria, and pro- pagated there his ov\n mode of composilioa. 1. Walther von der Vogelweide, pp. 189-201. Ed. Lachmann (Berl. i8-'7 and later) ; Wackemagel and Rieger (Giessen,i8j2); Pfeiffer (Ltipz. 1864 and later) ; Wilmanns (Halle. i8'>9, 1883) ; Simrock (Bonn, 187 ;). Translated by Simrock (Berl. 1833 ^.nd later\ Koch,Weiske, and Pannier. See Uhland, Walther v. d. V. (Stutt^^. 1822, also Schriften, v. 1) ; Rieger. Leben W.v. d. V. (Giessen, 1863); Menzel, Leben W.v d V. (Leipz, 1865) ; Lucae, Leben und Dichten W. v. d. V. (Halle, 1867) Lexer, Uber W. v. d. V. (Wurz- burg, 1873) ; Burdach, Reinmar der Alte und W. v. d. V. (Leipz., 1880) ; Wil- manns Leben und Dichten W. v, d V, (Bonn, 1882)— For p. 189, see I,ijnaz V. Ziigerle, Reiserechnungen Wolfgers von Ellenbrechtskirchen, Bischofs vou Passau, Patriarchen von Aquileja (Heilbronn, 1877) p. 9, 14; and also Kal- koff, Wolfger von Passau, 1191-1204 (Weimar, 1882).- Further accounts in Leo, Die gesammte Litteratur W.v. d. V. (Vienna. 1880). The older poet of unknown rame, mentioned p. 191, and again p. 217, gots by the name oi Anony^notis Spervogel\ some think his name was Heriger\ Minnesangs Friihling, No. 6 ; Sch., Deutsche Studien i. (Vienna, 1870). 2. MinnesanjT and Meistersang^ pp. 201-212. Jacob Grimm has proved that the Meistersang is only a continuation, though in the end a very lifeless one, of the Minnesang; Uber den altdeut- schen Meistergt sang (Gottingen, i8n) -The M.!>. C (p. 201) is the one errone- ously called * Mane.-sische ' and it is the authority used by von der Hagen for his ' Minnesinger,' Part iv (Leipz., i8.,8). Another illuminated MS. is the Weingartner, B, printed by Pfeiffer (Stuttg., 1843). B and C, are founded Chapter VII. 367 on an illuminated MS. of the thirteenth century. The Heidelberg MS. A, printed (Stuttg. 1844) — Selection : Bartsch, Deutsche Liederdichter, 2nd ed. Stuttg., 1879). Translation, Sinnrock, Lieder der Minnesinger (Elberfeld, 1857). See Uhland, Der Minnesang. Schriften v. 11 1-282. Ulrich von Lichtenstein ed. Lachmann (Berl. 1841) ; see KnorrQ. F. ix. Sch., Zs. Anz. i, 248 : Schonbach, Zs. xxvi. ;o7. Reininar von Zweter, ed. Rothe (Leipz.. 1887), see Wilmanns Zs. xiii. ^i^.—Neidhart von Reuenthal, ed. M. Haupt (Leipz., 1858) see Liliencron Zs. vi. 69 ; Tischer, Uber Neidhart von Reuenthal (Leipz., 1872) : Schmolke, Leben und Dichten N. von R. (Potsdam, 1875); Richard Meyer, Chronologic der Gedichte N. von R. (Berl, 1883) — Tannhduser in v. d. Hagen, No. 90. — Burkard von Hohenfels V. d. Hagen, No. 38. — Gottfried von Neifen, ed. M. Haupt (Leipz. 1851), see Knod, G von N. und seine Lieder (Tiibingen, 1877). — .S"/«war, v. d. Hagen, No. 103 ; Werner von Homberg, ibid. No. 19 ; King Wenzel, Otto of Brandenburg, Henry of Breslau ibid, Nos. 4-6 : on Henry of Breslau, see H. Riickert, Kleine Schriften i. 211; Wizlau, ed. Ettmiiller (Quedlinbuig, 1852) For the culture of the Meistersingers, see Liliencron, Uber den Inhalt der allgemeinen Bildung in der Zcit der Scholastik (Munich, 1876); Jacobs- thai, Die musikalische Bildung der Meistersinger, Zs. xx 69. — Mamer, ed. Strauch, Q. F. xiv. — Frauenlob, ed., Ettmiiller (Quedlinburg, 1843). Regen- bogen, see v. d Hagen, No. 126. The wild Alexander, ibid. No. 11^,—Johann Hadlaub, ed. Ettmiiller (Zurich, 1841). 3. Didactic Poetry, Satire and Tales, pp. 212-222. Didactic poetry, the Winsbeke, ed M. Haupt (Leipz., 1845); see too, Zs. XV. 261. — ' Massigung',"" diu Maze, ed. Bartsch, Germ. viii. 97. — The Wild Man : Wernher von Niederrhein, pub. by W. Grimm (Gottingen, 18.^9) : see too, Pfeiffer, Germ. i. 223. Werner von Elmendorf, Zs. iv. 284, see xxvi. 87, Q. F. xii. 124 — Thomasin of Zirclaria, ed. H. Riickert (Quedlinburg. 1852) : see Zs. f d. Phil. ii. 431. — Freidank, ed. W. Grimm (Gottingen, 1834, i860); Bezzenberger (Halle, 1872). See W. Grimm, Kleine Schriften, iv. ; Paul, tj ber die uispriingliche Anordnung von Freidank's Bescheidenheit, (Leipz. 1870). — Hugo von Triinberg Bamberg, 1833, Zs. xxviii. i ^s^.— Jacobus a Cessolis: the original, ed Kopke (Brandenburg, 1879 Progr.), For the trans- lations, see Zimmermann, Das Schachgedicht Heinrichs von Bemgen (Wolfen- biittel, 1875), p. "j.— UMch Boner, ed. Benecke (Berl., 1816;, Pfeiffer, (Leipz., 1844^; see Zs.f. d. Phil. xi. 324 Tales and Satires. Collections of Middle High German Tales : v d. Hagen, Gesammtabenteuer, 3 vols. (Stuttg., 1850): Mailath und Koffinger, Kolo- czaer Codex altdeutscher Gedichte, (Pesth, 1817); Lassberg, Liedersaal, 3 vols. (St. Gall and Constance, 1846) ; Keller, Altdeutsche Gedichte (Tubingen, 1846) ; Erzahlungen aus altdeutschen Handschriften (Stuttg., 1855). A selection: Lambel, Erzahlungen and Schwanke (Leipz., 1872). On the Eastern origin of many of the European Tales and Fables, see Loiseleur Delongchamps, Essai sur les fables indiennes et leur introduction en Europe, (Paris, 1838). Benfey, Paachatantra (Leipz., 1859). 368 Bibliography, Strieker. Smaller poems published by Hahn (Quedlinburg, 1839); on the decline of poetry in Austria, Hagen's Germania, ii, 82 ; on the Gauhiihner (P eiffer, Germ, vi, 457) ; the ' Priest Amis ' in Lambel, No. i. — The so-called Seifried Helbling, Ed. Karajan (Zs. iv, 1) ; see Martin, Zs. xiii, 464 : Seemiiller, Wiener Sitzungsberichte, 102, 567. — ' Meier Helmbrecht,' by Werner der Gart- ner in Lambel, No. 3. — ' The bad wife' ed. M. Haupt (Leipz 1871). — Enen- kel, really, hern Jaiisen enkel ^see Sch. in Litterarisches Centralblatt, 1868, Sp. 978). His ' Fiirstenbuch,' ed. Megiser, 1618 (new ed. 1740), from the * Weltchronik,' extracts in v. d. Hagen, Gesammtabenteuer. —The ' Wiener Meerfahrt' in Lambel, No. 5. — The ' Weinschwelg," Grimm, Altdeutsche Walder, iii, 13; Germ, iii, 210. 4. The Mendicant Orders, pp. 222-234. The date given for the * SachsenspiegeV is only approximate. Eiice is men- tioned in documents of 1209 to 1233. Ed. Homeyer ; First Part (3rd ed., Berlin, 1861); Second Part, 2 vols. (Berl. 1842-44). The date of the 'Schwa- benspiegeV is given by Ficker, Wiener Sitzungsberichte, 77, 795. Ed. Wacker- nagel (ZUrich, 1S40) ; von Lassberg (TUbingen, 1840); one in preparation by Rockinger. On the economic revolution in the thirteenth century, see Schmoller, Q.F. 6 (Strasb. 1874). On the Heretics. Zs. ix 63, 65. Preger, Der Tractat des David von Augsburg uberdie Waldesier ^Munich, 1878, Abh. der bayr. Akad.), p 7, 39. — The story of the abbot, who woke his monks by naming King Arthur, is told by Casarius veq. Godeke in the Introduction to his edition of the ' Narrenbeschworung ' (^Leipz. 1879). Short account in Lorenz and Scherer, Geschichte des Elsasses, 2nd ed. Berl. 1872), p. 167. Schmidt, ii. 209. PUterich von Reicherzhausen, Zs. vi. 31 ; Q. F. xxi. 16. Ulrich Fiitrer ; Hamburger, Untersuchungen iiljer U F. (Strassb. 1882) ; Spiller, Zs. xxvii. 262. i]/ajfzwz7m« /,' Theuerdank,' ed. Hallaus (Quedlinburg, 1836); Godeke (Leipz. 1878). For the ' Weisskunig^ Liliencron in Raumer's Historisches Taschenbuch, v. Folge, 3. 321. — The prose of Herzog Ernst ^ see Bartsch, Herzog Ernst (Vienna, 1869), p. 227 ; Tristrant and Isalde, ed. Pfaff (Tiibin- gen, 1881). 4. Prose, pp. 259-264. Prose Romances. A convenient sketch is given by Godeke, §§ 105-108. Reproductions in Simrock's Deutsche Volksbiic.iern. See Bobertag, Geschichte des Romans, i. (Breslau, 1877) and Scherer's critique, Q. F. xxi, (Strassb. 1877). On the Lanzelot romances, see Peter, Germ, xxviii. 129. ' Parables of the old Sages' ed. Holland (Stuttg. i86o)- ' Decamerone,' of which the translation is not by Steinhowel, ed. Keller (Stuttg. i860). For Dr Johannes Hartlieb, see Ofele, A. D. B. 670. On ThUring von Ringoltingen and Wilhelm Ziely, see Bachtold in the Bemer Taschenbuch, 1^78. Eulenspiegel, ed. Lappenberg (Leipz. 1854), Q. F. xxi. 26. 78. Other prose writings : Serjnons. Wackernagel, Altdeutsche Predigten und Gebete (Basle, 1876), with an Essay by M. Rieger on old German preaching; Cruel, Geschichte der deutschea Pietligt im Mittelalter (Detmold, 1879). Juristic prose : Stobbe, Geschichte der deutschen Rechtsquellen, 2 vols. (Berl. i860, 1864). Scientific prose works : see Albertus Magnus, in text p. 229. Pre- Chapter VIII, ■ 373 icriptions : Denkm. 62, Medicinal books: Hoffmann, Fundgruben, i. 317; Pfcifer, Wiener Sitzungsberichte, 42, no; Joseph Haupt, ibid, 71, 451 ; Haser, Geschchte der Medicin (3rd ed ), i. 697, 818. History : see O. Lorenz, Dcutsch- lands Geschichtsquellen im Mittelalter (2nd ed ), 2 vols. (Berl. 187^1-77); The Saxon Universal Chi'onicle, ed. Weiland, in ihe Mon. Germ. Deutsche Chro- niken, ii. (Hanover, 1877). On Windeck, Droysen (Leipz. 1853); Kern, in the Zs. fiir CultuigLSchichte, 1875, p. 349. On the German versio s of Latin histories ior the laity, see Waitz on Hermann Kon.er (Gottingen, 1851), j). 16. Dialogues. ' Ackermannaus Bohmen^ ed. Knieschek (Prague, 1877). Niclas von Wyle, ed. Keller (Stuttg. 1861). Mathilda of Austria. Martin, Erzherzogin Mechthild (Freiburg, 1871); Strauch, Pfa'zgrahn Mechthild (Tiibingen, 1883). For Heidelberg, see Wilken, Geschichte der Heidelb. Biichers.ammlungen (Heidelberg, 1817), pp. 308, 35', 394- 5. Hujnanis?n, pp. 264-270. There is no good history of the German Universitits. For the character- istics of the German Universities in the Middle Ages, see Paulsen in von Sybel's Historische Zs. N. F. vol. ix. For Prague, see Friedjung, Kaiser Karl iv. (Vienna, 1876), p. 127. On the Humanists in general: Meiners' Lebens- beschreibungen beriihmter Manner aus den Zciteu der Wiedeiherstellung der Wisse.ichaften, 3 vols. (Zurich, 1795-97); H. A. Erhard, Geschichte des W.ederaufbliihens wissenschafllicher Bildung, 3 vols. (Magdeburg, 1827-32); Karl Hagen, Deutschlands religiose und lilteiaiische Verhaltnisse m Zeitalier der Re ormation, 3 vols. (Eilangen, 1841 44) ; G. Voigt, Die Wiederbelebung des classischen Alterttiii.ms (2nd ed.), 2 vols. (Berl 1S80-1); J. Burckhardt, Die Cultur der Renaissance in Italien (3rd ed. by L. Geiger), 2 vols. (Leipz. 1877-78; L Geiger, Renais-ance und Humanismus in Iialien und Deutschland (Berl. 1882). Heinrich von Langenstein : O. Hartvvig, H. v. L. (Marburg, 1858). On Gutenberg, v. d. Linde, Gutenberg (Stuttg 1878). On Pcuerbach and Regio- montanus, Wolf, Geschichte der Astrcnomie (Munich, 1877) ; on their Lectuies in Vienna, Kink, Gesch. der kais. Uiiiv. Wien, i. (Vienna, 18A4), 182 ; Ascli- bach, Gesch. der Wiener Univ. i. (Vienna, 1865), 480, 353 ; Peter Luder, Wat- tenbach P. L. (Karlsruh, 1869) p. 11. yEneas Sylvius in Vienna, Voigt, Enea Silvio de* Piccolomini, ii. (Berlin, 1862). 342. Celtis, Aschbach, Gesch. der Wiener Univ. ii. 189-270 ; Hartfelder, Sybel's Hist. Zs. 47. 15. Gerhard Groote : K. v. Raumer, Gesch. der Padagogik (4th ed.) i. 54; A D. B. ix. 730 Erasmus, A. D. B. vi. 160, where other works are mentioned ; Horawitz, Wiener Sitzungsberi hte, 93, 387. 95, 575. i.o, 665. 102, 755 Reuch- lin: L Geiger, Joiiann Keuchlin (Leipz. 1871); Reuchlin, Briefwechsel (Tiib- ingen, 1875). Bebel: Zapf, Heinrich Bebel (Augsburg, 1802); see H. B. Pioverbia Germanica, ed. Suringar (Leyden, 1879). On the Erfurt circle: Kampschulie, Universitat Erfurt, 2 parts (Treves, 1858-60). Also Kampschulte ' i9 C. Krause, Euricius Cf>rio) ; Die deutschen Historienbibeln des Mittelalters, ed. Merzdorf (Tubingen, i87o\ Luther's Translation, critical edition, Bindseil und Niemeyer, 7 Parts (Halle, 1850-55). Facsimile of the so Qfilled September Bible, (tne New Ttstament of Sept. 1522), (Berl. 1883). See 1. G. Palm, Historic der deutschen Bibeliiber- setzung D. Martini Lutheri von 1517 bis 1534 (Halle, 1772); J, .M. Goeze. Verzeichnis seiner Sammlung seltener und merkwUrdiger Bibeln ^ Halle, 17 7), Fortsetzung des Verzeichnisses (Hamburg and 1-alherstadt, 1778). Neue fiir die Kritik und Historic der Bibeliibersetzung lutheri wichtige Entdeckungen (Hamburg and Leipzig, 1777) ; Panzer, Entwurf einer vollstandigen Geschichte der deutschen Bibeliibersetzung M, L, (Nuremberg, 1783; 2nd ed. 1791); Chapter IX. 375 Schott, Geschichte der deutschen Bibeliibersetzun^r M. L. (Leipzic, 183-;); Hopf, Wurdigung der Lutherischen Bibeliibersetzung (Nuremberg, 1*^47) ; Kehrein. Zur Geschichte der deutschen Bibelubers. von Luther (Stuttg. 1851) ; J M, Goeze. Historic der gedruckten niedersachsischen Bibeln von \^^o to 1621 (Halle, 1775); Mez-er, Geschichte der deutschen Bibeliibersetzungen in der schweizerisch-reformirten Kirche (.Basle, 1876V Language. MiillenhofTs Preface to the Denkmaler : Sch., Vortrage und Auf- satze, p 45 ; H. Riickert, Geschichte der neuhochdtut-chen Schrifisprache, 2 vols (Leipz. 1875) For Luther's language especially: Monckeberg, Bei- Irage zur wiirdigen Herstellung des Texte^ der Lutherischen Bib- lUbersetzung (Hamburg, 1855). Wetzel, Die Sprache Luthers (Stuttg. 1850); From- mann, Vorschlage zur Revision von M. L. Bibelubers. sprachlicher Theil (Halle, 1862); Opitz. Uber die Sprache Luthers (Halle, 1869); Dietz, Worterbuch zu M. L deutschen Schriften, vol i (Leipz. 1870, not finished) ; Lehmann, I>uther's Sprache (Halle, 1873); Wiilcker Gem. xxviii. 191. On modernized forms : Godeke Grundriss, § 143. I. On Grammars, see Joh. Miiller, Quellenschtiften und Geschichte des deutschsprachlichen Unterrichtes bis zur Mitte des 16 Jahrh. (Gotha, 1882^ Of Fabiun Frangk, the most distinguished of all the old Grammarians, Miiller (p. 393), says. ' He is the father of the newer classical language, the German of Luther.' For Olinger and Clajus see R. v. Raumer, Unteiricht im Deutschen (4th ed. Giitersloh, 1873). p. 20. Sermons. See Cruel's work named above VHL 4 : Jonas, Die Kanzel- beredsamkeit Luther's (Berlin. 1852). On Geiler von Kaisersherg see Lorenz und Sch.. Geschichte des Elsasses, p. 150, and Martin A D. B. viii. 509; Schmidt, Hist. litt. i. 335. Church Song. Hoffmann von Fallersleben, Geschichte des deutschen Kirchen- liedes bis auf Luthers Zeit, 2nd ed. (Hanover, 1854); E E. Koch. Geschichte des Kirchenliec'es und Kirchengesangs der christlichen inbesonders der deutschen evangel. Kirche, 3rd ed. 8 vols. (Stuttg. 1866-76 ; Phil. Wacker- nagel, Bibliographic zur Gesch. des deutschen Kirchenlicdcs im 16 Jahrh. (Frankfort, 1855). I^^s deutsche Kirchciilied von der altcsten Zeit bis zu Anfang des 17 Jahrh 5 vols (Leipz. 186^-77). '■ Ein Feste Burg!' See Schneider ; M. L geistliche Lieder, 2nd ed. (Berl. 1856), p. xlii ; Knaake Luthardts Zs. fiir kirchliche Wisscnschaft und kirohl. Leben i. (1&81), p. 39. 2. Luther's Associates and Successors, pp. 282-290. Luther s opponents. For the Anabaptists, see Cornelius, Gesch. des Miin- sterisc! en Aufruhrs, Book 11 (Leipz 1S60). 1-98. Hase, Sebastian Franck von Word (Leipz. 1869). Schneider, Zur Litteratur der Schwenckfeldischen Litderdichter bis Daniel Sudermann (Berlin, 1857). 3/ur/ters ' Grosser Lu- theiischer Narr,' Ed. Kurz (Ziirich. 1848) Ulrich von Hutten (see above, VHL 5, Erfurt circled Strauss has trans- lated and explained the ' Gesprache von U. v. H.' (Leipz. 1860). Pirkheimer^s F.ccius dedolatus is in Bocking's Huticn iv. 515. Hans Sachs' Dialogues have 3 7 6 Bibliography, been published by Reinhold Kohler (Weimar, i^5^). There is a monograph on Ebei'lin von Giinzburg, by B. Riggenbach (Tubingen, 1874). On Niclas Manuel, see below, IX. 4. On Utz Eckstein, see Sch. A. D. B. v. 636. ' Karst- haus' in Booking iv. 615. Consult O. vSchade, Satiren und Pasquille aus der Reformationszeit, 2nd ed. 3 vols. (Hanover, 1863). A. Baur, Deutschland in den Jahren 151 7-1525 (Ulm, 187 i). Newspapers. Th. Sickel, Weimar Jahrbuch i. 344, E. Weller, Die ersten deutschen Zeitungen (Tubingen, 1872); R. Grasshoff, Die briefliche Zeitung des 16 Jahrh. (Leipz. 1877). See Liliencron, Mittheilungen aus dem Gebiete der offentlichen Meinung in Deutschland wahrend der zweiten Halfte des in Jahrh. (Munich, 1874, 75. Abhandlungen der bayer.-Akademie). Meistersong. Schnorr von Carolsfeld, Zur Geschichte des deutschen Meis- tergesangs (Bed. 1872). Luther's Hymn-book of 1528 was discovered by Knaake in a later reprint. Bartholomdus Ringwald, see Hoffmann, Spenden zur deutschen Litteraturgeschichte, ii. 17. Marofs Psalms. See Hopfner Reform bestrebungen auf dem Gebiete der deutschen Dichtung des 16 and 17 Jahih. (Berl. 1866), pp. 24-29. Kasper Scheid: his ' Grobianus' was lately printed (Halle, 1882), with an Introduction by Milchsack. On Dedekind see Sch. A. D. B. v. 12. Johann Fischart, Erich Schmidt, A. D. B. vii. 31, where earlier works are given. See Wendeler. Die Fischartstudien des Freiherm von Meusebach (Halle, 1879) ! Johann Fischart sammtliche Dichtungen, ed. Kurz, 3 vols. (Leipz. 1866-67) ; Dichtungen von J. F. ed. Godeke (Leipz. 1880). For the ' Gliickhaftes Schiff^ see Bachtold in the Mittheilungen der Antiquarischen Gesellschaft in Ziirich 44 (Zurich, 1880). 3. Secidar Literature, pp. 290-300. Melanchthon '. Monograph, by C. Schmidt (Elberfeld, 1861). See K. von Raumer, Gesch. der Padagogik, I, 145 : Paur, Zur Litteratur und Kultur- geschichte (.Ltipzic, 1 876) p. 169. ' Melanchthons Naturauffassung ; ' Slintzing, Gesch, der deutschen Rechtswissenschaft i. 28.^. — Gcsner\ Carus, Gesch. der Zoologie p 274. — Theophj-astus Paracelstis \ Kopp, Entwickelung der Chemie (Munich, 1873) p. 22; Haser ii. 71. — Flacius; Preger, Mathias Flacius lUyricus und seine Zeit, 2 vols. (Leipzic, 1859, ^i) ' Schulte, Beitrag zur Ent- slehungsgeschichte der Magdeburger Centurien vNeisse, 1877) ; Baur, Epochen (!er kirchlichen Geschichtschrcibung (, Tubingen i'^52). — Dahlmann in his ,^,Quellenkunde (Gottingen, 1830) p. 19, was the first to see that Wimpfelings Epitome rerum Germanicarum was the first German History. On Wimpfeling see Lorenz qnd Sch. Gesch. des Elsasses, p. 160, Schmidt, Hist Lilt. i. i, and the monographs by Wiskowatoff (Berl. 1867^ and by Schwartz (Gotha, 1^75^ .. — For Sleidanus see Kampschulte in the Forschungen zur deutschen Gesch. iv. 57. — For Biographies , the best authority is Melch. Adam, Vitae Theologorum, Jure consultorum et Politicorum, Medicorum, atque Philosophorum, maximam ; paitem Germanorum. Ed. tertia (Francof. 1706). y^) ; Lyric poems, ed. Tittmann (Leipz. ^ 1880) ; Sunday and Holiday Sonnets pub. by Welti (Halle, 1883) in Braune's Neudrucke, in Nos. 3 and 6 of which ' Horribilicribrifax' and 'Peter vSquence' are printed; * Olivetum,' translated by Slrehlke (Weimar, 1862). See Strehlke in Herrigs Archiv, xxii. 81. J. Hermann on A. G. (Leipz., 185 1) ; O Klopp, A. G. als Dramatiker (Hanover, 1852); Klix, A. G. (a Speech, Glogau, 1^64); Th. Paur, Zur Litteratur und Kulturgeschichte, p. 263 ; KoUewijn, IJber den Einfluss des hoUandischen Dramas auf A. G. (Amsterdam and Heilbronn) ; also Schnorrs Archiv ix, 56,445; xii. 219; Zs. XXV, 130; xxvi, 244; Aug. vii, 315. X. The Dawn of Modern Literature, pp. 331-401. Hettner's History of German Literature in the 18th century (4 vols., Bruns- wick, 1862-1S70) begins at the Peace of Westphalia ; as dots Julian Schmidt, Geschichte des geistigen Lebens in Deutschland (2 vols., Leipz., 1862-63). 1. Religion and Science^ pp. 335-359. Joachim Jungius. Monograph by Guhrauer (Stuttg., 1850). Balthasar Schuppius, Monograph by Vial (Mainz, 1857) > Oelze (Hamburg, 1863) ; Bloch (Berl. 1863, Progr.) ; see Weicker, Schuppius in seinem Verhaltnis zur Padagogik des i7n Jh. (Weissenfels, 1874, Progr.). Reprint of 'Der Freund in der Nolh ' (Halle, 1878). Gcorg Calixtus ; Henke, G. C and seine Zeit, 2 vols. (Halle, 1^-5.-60); see Henke, G. C. Briefwechsel (Halle, 1883). Her- mann Conring, H. C. der Begriinder der deutschen Rechtsgeschichte (Berlin, 1870) ; Bresslau, A. D, B. iv., 446. Justus Georg Schottelius ; Schmarsow, Q. F. 23 ; R. V. Raumer, Geschichte der germanischen Philologie, p. 72 ; Lemcke, p. 259. Roman Catholics. Jacob Balde ; Herder's Terpsichore, Sammtliche Werke, ed. Suphan, vol. 27 ; Westermayer, J. B. sein Leben und seine Werke (Munich, 1868). Friedrich Spee, Trutz-Nachtigall von Friedrich Spee, ed. Balke (Leipz, 1879); see p. liv. for more works on the subject. Johann Schejfler, ed. Rosenthal, 2 vols. (Regensburg, 1862) ; see Weimar Jahrb, i, 2S7 ; Schrader, Angelus Silesius und seine Mystik (Erfurt, 1853, Progr); Kahlert, A. S (Breslau, 1853) ; Kern, Johann Schtffler's Cherubinischer Wandersmann (Leipz. 1866). Martin von Cochem. He died, according to Bern, a Bononia Bibl. Scriptorum ordinis minorum S Francisci Capuccinorum (Venet., 1747), on Sept. 10, 1712 ; and, according to the samj book, hi> Life of Christ appeared at Frankfort in 1691; 2nd ed. at Frankfort and Augs- burg 1708 and 1 7 10, &c. Abraham a Sancta Clara, Monograph Karajan (Vienna, 1867) : Sch. VortrJige und Aulsatze, p. 147; Zs. fiir dieosterr. Gymn., Chapter X, 381 1867. p. 49 ; Zs xxi, Anz. 279. Reprint of ' Auf. auf, ihr Christen ' in the * Wie- ner Neudrucke,' ed. A Sauer. Heft i (Vienna, 1883V Protestants. Paul Gerhardt. Historical and criical edition by J. F. Bachn.ann (Berlin, 1866) ; an edition arranged chronologically according to the oldest edi ions, by Godeke (Leipz , 1877). See Bachmann, P. G. (Berl., 1863). Philip Jacob Spener\ Hossbach, Ph. J. S und seine Zeit, 2 parts, 3rd ed. (Berl., 1861), Joachim Neander. Iken, J. N., scin Leben und seine Lieder (Bremen, 1880). Gottfried Arnold. Ed. Ehmann (Stuttg , 1856), in two separate volumes, ' Sammtliche geistliche Lieder,' and 'Geistliche Minne-Lieder,' comp. Dibelius, G. A. (Berlin, 1873). Gerhard Tersteegen. Collected writings, 8 vols. (Stuttg., 1844) ; Selection Kapp (Essen, 1841). The 'Geistliche Lieder,' ed. Barthel (Bielefeld, 1853); compare Barthel, Leben G. T., (Bielefeld, 1852) ; Kerlen, G. T. (Mulheim a. d. Ruhr, 1853). Zinzendorf. His poems ed. by Knapp (Stuttg., 1845); see Vamhagen, Biographische Denkmaler, vol. v. (2nd ed. Berl., 1846). Benjamin Schmolck. Hoffmann, Spenden zur Deutschen Litteraturgeschichte ii, 73 Barthold Heinrich Brockes \ Monograph, A. Brandl (Innsbruck, 1878). For the Passion Oratorio, see Chrysander, Handel i, 433 ; also Chrysander in the A. D. B. xii, 777, and Gervinus, Handel und Shakespeare (Leipz., i8j8), p. 373, 472. Secular learning. How the various authors follow each other, and which, from the date of their birth, or the influences which affected them, are the most nearly connected with one another, can be conveniently seen in Guden's * Chronologische Tabellen zur Geschichte der deutschen Sprache und National Litteratur' (3 parts, Leipz., 187,1), For Pufendorf. see von Treitschke, Preuss. Jahrb. 35, 614; 36, 61. For Stieler, Schilter, Morhof, see R. v. Raumur, Ges- chichte der germ Phil. For Leibniz and IVolff, and later on for Kant, Fichte, Schelling, and Hegel, Ubervvegs Grundriss der Gesch. der Philosophie ; Zeller's Geschichte der deutschen Philosophie seit Leibniz (Munich, 1873). Schmarsow has republished the ' unvorgreiflichen Gedanken,' w ith explanations. Q. F. xxiii. Thomasius, see Windelband, Gesch. der neueren Philosophie i, 490 ; Bluntschli, Gesch. des allgem. Staatsrechts und der Politik, p. 181 ; Biedermann, Deutsch- land im 18 Jh li, 34S ; Ro.scher, Gesch. der Nationalokonomik, p. 340; Prutz, Gesch. der deutschen Journali-mus i, 286 ; B. A.Wagner, Christian Thomasius (Berl., 1872). August Hermann Francke, Kramer, Biographic. 2 vols. (Halle, 1880-82^ ; see Kramer, Beitr. zur Geschichte A. H. F. (Halle, 1861), with additions (Halle, 1875). 2. The Rejinement oj Popular Taste, pp. 359-382. Idyllic Poetry ; comp X, 3. Bombast. There is no monograph on Hoffmannswaldau ; on Lohenstein more than he deserves ; see Passaw, Daniel Caspar von L. (Meiningen, 1852) ; Kerckhoffs. Daniel Casper von L. Tragedies (Paderborn, 1877) ; Conrad Miiller. Beitr. zum Leben und Dichten D. C. von L. (Breslau, 1882 ; Wein- hold's Germanist Abh. i). Patriots and Satirists. See Creizenach ' Armin in Poesie und Litteraturge- ochichte' Preuss. Jahrb. 36, 332 ; Spalatinus published a book in 1535, * Von 382 Bibliography. dem thewern Deutschen Fursten Arminio ; Ein kurtzer auszug aus glaubwir- digen latinischen Historien.' Hans Michael Moscherosch. Ed, Dittmar (Berl, 1830) ; Bobert:ig (Berl and vStuttg.) ; see E. Schmidt Zs xxiii, 71 ; R. Kohler, Schnorr's Archiv i, 291 ; Lorenz and Sch , Gesch, des Elsasses, p. 309. Johanit Lanrembcrg. Ed. Lnppenlierg (Stuttg., 1861); Braune (Halle, 1879). j foachim Rachel, see Aug Sach, J. R. (Schlesvvig, 1859). Friedrich von Lcgaji. Ed. G. P2it;;er (Tubingen, 1872) ; Selections (Leipz., 1870). See Erich Schmidt, Der Kampf gegen die Mode in der deutschen Litt. der 17 Jh. in den Char- akteristiken (Berlin, 1686). Popular Songs. Collection ' Venus-gartlein ' (1659) ; * Gesechste Tugend- und Laster-Rose,' by Holdlieb (Nurembeg, 1665) ; ' Tugendhafter Jungfrauen und Ju; ggesellen Zeit-Vertreiber ' (see Serapeum, 1870, p. 145); 'Hans Guck in die Welt' and others. The poets mentioned on page 3:0 are treated o< by Lemcke, p. 238 in connection with Fleming ; the Bibliothek deutscher Dichter des 17. Jh. of Wilhelm Miillvr and Karl Forster only gives a selection from Schwieger (vol. xi, Leipz., 1828). For Finckelthaus, see Prohle, Schnorr's Archiv iii, 66, and VI, 127. For Grejlinger, see Gruppe, Leben und Werke deutscher Dichter i, 264 ; von Ottingen Q. F, 49 (Strassburg, 1882) ; Walther Anz, x. 73. Christian Weise. See Palm, Beitr. zur Gesch. der deutschen Litt. (Breslau, 1877), p. 1 — 83 ; comp. Erich Schmidt, Zs. xxiii, Anz. 141. French influence, and the opposition to it in Prussia. (Frederick I, and Frederick William I). For Frederick /, see Ranke, Zwolf Biicher preu-sischer Geschichte i, 451. For Frederick W^dliam I.'s tutor, Joh. Fried. Cramer, see A. D. B. iv, 548. Leipzic literature. On the' ^^/a Eruditorum^ see Prutz, Joumalismus, p. 275. Burkard Menke, Monograph byTreitschke(i842). Johann Christian Giinther. Selection byTittmann (Leipz., 1874); Litzmann (Leipz., Reclamsche Universal- bibliothek. No. 1295, 96) ; see Hoffmann, Spenden ii, 115 ; O. Roquette, Leben und Dichten J. Chr. G. (Stuttg., i860) ; Kalbeck, Neue Beitr. zur Biographic, J. Chr. G. (Leipz., 1879) ; Litzmann, Im Neuen Reich, 1879 ; ii, 517 ; Zur Text- kritik und Biographic J. Chr. G. (Frankfort, 1880). For Gottsched, see XI, i. English influence. See Kawczynski Studien zur Litteraturgeschichte des 18 Jh. Moralische Zeitschriften (Leipz., i''8o) ; Milberg, Die moralischen Wochen- schriften des 18 Jh. (Meissen). Brandl Zs. xxvi, Anz. p. 26. Albrecht von Haller. A. v. H., a Memoir published by an appointed com- mittee (Bern, 1877) ; Adolf Frey, A. v. H. und seine Bedeutung fiir die deutsche Litteratur (Leipz., 1879) ; A. v. H. Poems, published by Ludwig Hirzel (Frauenfeld, 18S2) ; A. v. H. Journals of his Journey to Germany, Holland, and England, 1 723-1727, pub. by L. Hirzel (Leipz., 1883). On Haller's scientific knowledge, see Henle in the ' GdttingerProfessoren' (Gotha, 1872), p. 29. Friedrich von Hagedom. Ed. Eschenburg. 5 parts (Hamburg, 1802); Reprint of the * Versuch einiger Gedichte of 1729, by Sauer, in Seuffert's Deutsche Litteraturdenkmale des t8 Jh. (Heilbronn, 1883) ; Characteristic letters in Helbig's Liscow, p. 41. See Schmitt, in Henneberger's Jahrb. i, 63. Christian Ludwig Liscow. K. G. Helbig, Chr. L. L. (Dresden, 1844") ; Lisch, Li>cows Leben (Schwerin, 1845) ; Classen, tjber Chr. L. L. Leben and Schrifien (LUbeck, 1846) ; LitzmanjQ, Chr. L. L. (^Hamburg and Leipz. 1883). Chapter X. 383 3. The Novell pp. 382-393. See John Dunlop, Histon' of Fiction (Edinburgh, 1814) ; Cholevius, Die bedeutendsten deutschen Romane dcs 1 7 Jh. (Leipz., 1 866~) ; Bobertag, Gesch. des Romans, ii, i (Breslau, 1879); comp. E. Schmidt, Schnorr's Archiv ix, 405. Pastoral Romances. Cholevius, p. 64 ; where extracts are given of Zesen's * Adriatische Rosemunde.' Hero and love romances. For Bucholtz, see Cholevius, p. 117. Duke Anton Ulrich of Brunswick, Cholevius, p. 176. H. A. von Ziegler und Klipphausen, Cholevius, p. 152 : Lohenstein, Cholevius, p. 311. Yox the characteristics oi the historical novels of this time, see Gosche in his i^afterwards Schnorr's) Archiv i, loi. Allegorical Tales. Johann Ludwig Prasch ; a German translation of his •Psyche cretica' was published in 1705. Popular Tales. On Martin von Cochem as the author of Griseldis, Genovefa und Hirlanda, Reinhold Kohler's article on Griseldis in Ersch und Gruber's Encyclopadie, and in the Zs. f. deutsche Phil v. 59 ; Seuffert, Die Legende von der Pfalzgrafin Genovefa (Wiirtzburg, 1877), P- ^9- ^'^ ^^ popular story of the ifivulnerable Siegfried, see Jacob Grimm, Zs. viii, i. Spanish Influence. Hans Michael Moscherosch, see X, 2. Grimmelshausen, see Duncker, Zs. des Vereins f. hess Gesch., new series, ix, 389. Zs. xxvi, 287. Ed. Keller, 4 vols. (Stuttg , 1854, ^>2) ; Kurz, 4 vols. (Leipz , 1863-64) : Re- print of '■ Simplicissimus ' by Kogel (Halle, 1880). School of Moscherosch and Grimmelshausen; Christian IVeise ', Reprint of the Erznarren (Halle, 1878). Schelmuffsky. There are several reprints ; see Zanicke, Christian Renter (Leipzic, 1884). Robinson Crusoe. Hettner, Robinson and the Robinsonaden (Berl. 1854^. The Island of Felsenburg has been reproduced by Tieck. 6 vols. (Breslau, 1827). On the author see Stern, Hisicr. Tashenb. 5. Folge 10. 317. 4. The Dramay pp. 393-401. The opera. Arrey v. Dommer, Handbuch der Musik Geschichte (Leipzig 1S68), p 263 ; on the German Opera in Hamburg, p. 404 : see Lindner, Die eiste stehende deutsche Oper (Bcrl. 1855 ) Artistic and School Drama. For J. Chr, Hallmann, see E. Schmidt, A D.B X. 444 — Christian VVeise. see X. 2. His peasant comedy of Tobias und Schwalbe has been reproduced by R. Genee (Beilin 1882). Gottscheds Nothiger Vorrath goes to 1760, the Chronologic des deutschen Theaters (1775, by Chr. Heinr, Schmidt") to 1775. See W. Creizenach, Zur Entstehungs- ^eschichte des r.eueren deutschen Lustspiels (Halle 1879). J. Bayer, Von Gottsched bis Schiller, 3 vols. (Prague 1863) Popular Drama. See ' Liebeskampf, oder ander Theil der Englischen Comodien und Tragodien' (1630), a..d Schau-Biihne Englischer und Franzo- sischer Comodianten (Frankf 1670). Godeke, Giund. 4 10. Also Lindner, Karl XII vor Friedrichshall, eine Haupt und Staats-Action (Dessau 1845). K Weiss, Die Wiener Haupt und Staats-Actionea (Vienna 1^54} : E. Schnud:, 384 Bibliography. Zs. XXV. 2 34 — On Magister Velthen see Fiirstenau, Zur Geschichte der Musik und des Theaters am Hofe zu Dresden, I. (Dresden 1861). 269. XI. The Age of Frederick the Great, ii. pp. 1-141. See Koberstein's remarks on the great influence of Prussia on German literature since the beginning of the seventeenth century (Vermischte Auf->atze zur Litteraturgeschichte und Asthetik, Leipz. 1^58, p. 249); K. Bieder- mann. Friedrich der Gr und sein Verhaltnis zur Entwicklung des deut>chen Geisteslebeiis (Brunswick 1859) ; Julian Schmidt. Der Einfluss des preus-i- schen Staats auf die deutsche Litteratur ( 1 869 ; Bilder aus dem geisligen Lebeu unserer Zeit Leipz 18-0, p 4?): H. Prohle. Friedrich d. Gr. und die deutsche Litteratur (Berl. 1872) ; see Suphan Zs. f. d Phil. v. 238 ; D Jacoby, F. d. Gr. und die deutsche Litt. (Basle, 1875); Krause, F. d. Gr. und die deutsche Poesie (Halle, 1884). \. Leipzic^ ii. pp. 2-19. Gottsched*5 Conversations ivith Frederick the Great. Neuestes aus der an- muthigen Gelehrsamkeit, viii. 122, 389. c,z,2. Jul. Schmidt, Gesch. des geis- tigen Lebens, ii. 137. — Gellert's Conversations; Gellert's Sammt. Schriften ix. (Berl. 1867), 13 etseq. Johann Christoph Gottsched. Danzel, Gottschedund seine Zeit (Leipz. 1848) : For his writings see Jordens, Lexicon deutscher Dichter und Prosaisten ii. 212. See. too M. Bemays A.D B. ix. 4<>7. Christian Fiirchtegott Gellert: ed. Klee, 10 vols. (Leipz. 1839). Briefe an Fraulein Erdmuth voa Schonfeld (Leipz. 1S61); Tagebuch aus dem J. 1761. (Leipz. iS62). SeeE Schmidt, A.D.B. viii. 544. On Fables, E. Schmidt, Zs. XX. Anz 38 (compare p. 3*^0 in text). On the Bremer Beitrdger see the various articles in the A.D.B., and also Schiller, Braunschweigs schone Litteratur in den Jahren 1745 1800. (Wolfenbiittel, 1845^ -^^^o the Leipzic weekly journal, ' Der Jiingling,' communication by Erich Schmidt, Q F. 39. 50-73. Letters of Giseke and J. A. Schlegel. Schnorrs Archiv. v. 41, 575. Gellert's followers: Johann Friedrich von Cronegk; see H. Feuerbach, Uz und Cronegk (Leipz 18^16). Joachim Wilhelm von Brawe, Monograph by A. Sauer, Q. F. 30 (Strassb. i%i%).— Christian Felix Weisse: Monograph ly J. Minor (Innspruch, 1880). Revival of German Popular Song: see Hoffmann von Fallersleben, Unsere volksthUmlichen Lieder. 3rd ed (Leipz. 1869). 2. Zurich and Berlin^ ii. pp. 19-47. For Swiss literature in general consult Morikofer, Die Schweizerische Litt. des iS Jh. (Leipz. iS'6i) : A. Frey, in the Neue Zurcher Zeitung, 1882, Nos. 207-212. For Bodmer and his circle, Zehnder, Peslalozzi (Gotha 1875): see too Staudlin. Briefe beriihmter und edle. D.u;schtfn an Bodmer (Sluttg , 1794)- . Chapter XL 385 Reprint of Bod mer's writings in Seuffert's Deutsche Litteraturdenkra. des 18 Jh Nos. 9. 12 Frederick the Great. The works on Frederick the Great as a writer are given by Wiegand, Q.F.v. (Strassh 1874). See, too, Posner. Zur litterarischen Thatigheit F.d.G. in the Miscellaneen zur Geschichte Konig F d G. (Berl., 1S78), p. 205,-4(^0. It contains a list of all the editions and translations of his books. For his poems Haupt, Opuscula III. 137. Herders Humanitatsbriefe, and the extracts he gives (Herder's Sammtl. Werke. ed.Suphan xvii. 28 et seq.) are vvonh reading. For the Academy, see Bartholmess, Histoire philosophique de I'Academie de Pru>se, 2 vols. (Paris, 1850-51). Halle. See Waniek, Immanuel Pyra, und sein Einfluss auf die deutsche Litteratur des 18 Jh. (Leipz. 1882). For Uz see H. Feuerbach, Uz und Cronegk (Leipz. 1866). Gleim. Collected Works, ed. Korte, 7 vols. (Halberstadt, 181 1 -181 3), vol. 8 (Leipz. 1S41); also Korte, Gleims Le ben (Halberst. 1811). He also edited from Gleim's papers, Briefe der Schweizer Bodmer, Sulzer, Gessuer (Zurich 1804) ; Briefe zwischen Gleim, Wm. Heinse und Joh. v. MUller, 2 vols, (Zurich 1806). Prohle, Aus dem Briefwechsel zwischen Gleim und Jacobi (Zs f. preuss. Geschichte i88r. Heft 11, 12). See Schnorr's Aichiv iv. 9, V. 191. Reprint of the Kriegslieder by Sauer, in Seuffert No. 4 (Heilbronn, 1882). Ewald Christian von Kleist : Critical edition by A. Sauer, 3 vols. (Berlin) with Biography and Utters. See Schnorr's Archiv. xi. 457. Sulzer : Hirzel an Gleim iiber bulzer den Weltweisen, 3 parts (Zurich and Winterthur 1779). ^^is ; Monatschrift von deutschen und schweizerischen C elehrten. vols. v. vi. (Zurich, 1807). See Weim. Jahrb. iv. 1^4. Klopstock. For the editions of his works see Godeke, p 601. Eosse, KlopstockischeStudien(Cothen, i866Progr). Hamel, Klopstock-Studien, 3 parts (Rostock 1879. 80); see Anz ix. ^6 ; Pawel, Kloj stocks Oden, Leipziger Periode (Vienna, 1S80). Erich Schmidt. Eeltrage zur Kenntnis der Klopsiock- schen Jugendlyrik, Q.F. 39. Reprint of the first three Cantos of the Messiah in their original form, by Muncker, in Seuffert, No. ii. (Heilbr. 1883). A Commentary on the Odes exists, by H Diintzer, 6 parts (Leipz. and Wenigen- Jena, i86j). Collections of letters ; Klamer Schmidt, Klopstock und seine Freunde, 2 vols. (Halberstadt. 1810); (Clodius) Auswahl aus Klo; stocks nachgelassenem Briefwechsel, part 1 (Leipz. 1821); Schmidlin, Klopsiocks sammtliche Werke, 3 vols. (Stuttg. 1839) ^'o^- ^ \ Lappenberg, Briefe von und an Klopstock (Brunswick, 1867). See Cropp in the Hamburg Schriftsteller- lexikon iv. 4-61; Strauss, Kleine Schriften, new series pp. 1-230. Klopstocks Jagendgeschichte : Erich Schmidt, tjber Klopstock (Im neuen Reich, 1881, Nos. 2, 3). Ein Hofling iiber Klopstock (ibid. 1878, ii.. p. 741, c^mp. Strauss, Kleine Schriften, p. 23) ; Loise, Etudes sur I'Allemagne moderne (Brussels, 1878), p. 85-193; Muncker, Lessings personlichesund litt^ Verhaltnis zu Klopstock (Frankfort, 1880). Wieland. There is no critical edition. W^ieland himself prepared small collections of his prose works, or of selected and newest poems, and in 1704- 1802 he published his collected works in 39 vols, with supplements. After his 385 Bibliography, death, Gruber edited the collected works in 53 vols. (Leipz. 1818-28). Wieland's * Hermann first became known through Muncker (SeufFerts Litteraturdenkm. No. vi., Heilbronn, 1882). For ' Oheron^ there are explanations by Diintzer, and a criticism by Max Koch, Das Quellenverhaltnis von Wielands Oberon (Marburg 1880). For the motives of other poems see R. Kohler in Schnorrs Archiv iii. 416, v. 78. For the * Abderites'' ?ee Seuffert's Discourse, Wieland's Abderiten (Berlin, 1878). Letters. Auswahl denkwUrdiger Brie^-, ed. Ludwig Wieland, 2 vols. (Vienna 1815) ; Ausgewahlte Briefe, 4 vols. (Zurich, 1815, 16) ; Briefe an Sophie von La Roche (Berl., 1820). Buchner, Wieland und die Weidmannsche Buchhandlung (Berl. 187 1) ; Wieland und Georg Joachim Go- schen (Stuttg. 1874). Funck, Beitrage zur Wieland-Biographie (Freib. 1882). List of other letters in Doring, Chr. M. W^ieland ein biogr. Denkmal. (Sangerhausen, 1840) p. 439 ; Zs. xx. 358. See Gruber, CM W. geschildert, 2 vols. (Leipz. 1819); Wieland's Leben, 4 parts (Leipz. 1827); consult R. A. Bottiger, Litt. Zustanden und Zeitgenossen, 2 vols. (Leipz. 1838) ; and Raumer's Hist. Taschenbuch, x. 359. Lobell, Entwickelung der deutschen Poesie, vol. ii. (Brunswick, 1858) is devoted to Wieland ; Hallberg, Wieland (Paris. 1869). For Wielands youth, Sch. Zs. Anz. i. 25, Zs. xx. 355 ; Hoche, Ein Schulheft Wielands, Jahns Jahrbiicher, 88 (1863), 253-259, Prohle, Lessing, Wieland, Heinse (Berl. 1877). Julie Bondeli, Schadelin, J.B. die Freundin Rousseaus und Wielands (Bern, 1838) ; E. Bodemann, J. v. B. and ihr Freundeskreis (Hanover, 1874). 3. Lessing, ii. pp. 47-82. Collected Editions. G. E. Lessings Schriften, 6 parts, (Berl. 1753-55); ■ Lustspiele von G.E.L., 2 parts (Berl. 1767); Trauerspiele (Berl. 1772) ; G.E.L. Vermischte Schriften, parti. (Berl. 1771), parts 2-4 (Berl. 1784-85); parts 5-30 (Berl. 1791-94) part 31 (Lessings Leben, von Schink, Berl. 1825). Ed. Schink, 32 vols. (Berl. 1825-28) ; K. Lachmann, 13 vols. (Berl. 1838-40) ; W. von Maltzahn, 12 vols. (Leipz. 1853-57; Lachmann's edition revised, omitting all letters to Lessing) ; Hempel's edition, so named from the publisher, a veiy valuable one, 20 vols. (Berl., no date). Consult vol. 19, 673. Redlich, Lessing-Bibliothek. B. A. Wagner gave supplements : Lessing Forschungen Berlin 1881); Zu Lessings spanischen Studien (Berl., 1883 Progr"). Lessing's correspondence is given most fully in Hempel's edition ; see, too. Schnorr's Archiv xi. 517. A, Schone published Lessing"s letters to his wife (Leipz. 1870); Wattenbach published letters from his circle of friends, Neues Lausitzisches Magazin 38. 193. Biographies and Criticisms. K. G. Lessing, G. E. L.'s Leben, 3 Parts (Berl. 179.^» 9.-); Fr. Schlegel, Lessing's Gcist aus seinen Schriften, 3 vols. (Leipz. T804) ; Schink, Charakteristik L. t, Leipz. 181 7) ; L. Leben (Berl. 1825) ; Danzel und Guhrauer, G. E. L. sein Leben und seine Werke, 2 vols. (Leipz. 1850, 54. 2nd ed. by v. Maltzahn and Boxberger, Berl. 1880-81) ; Lobell, Entwickelung der deutschen Poesie, vol. 3, (i865\ pub. by Kobenstein; Sch. in ths Deutsche Rundschau, Feb. 1881, by Eiich Schmidt, Lessing i. (Berlin, 1884) ; Popular accounts, by A. Stahr (Berl, 1859); Crousle (Paris, 1863I; Sime (London, 1877); Zimmern (London, i878>; Fischer (Stuttg. if=^88); Duntzer (Leipz. 1882). Consult Cherbuliez, l^tudes de litterature (Paris, 1873), pp. 1-119; Chapter XL 387 Loise, Etudes, p. 194. — Hebler, Lessing-Studien (Bern, 1S62); Philosophische Aufsatze (Leipz. 1869), p. 79. Peter, Lessing and S. Afra (Deutsche Rundschau, March 1881 ; see Schnon's Archiv x. 285') ; Uhde, Lessing und die Komodi- anten der Neuberin, (^Hammann und Henzen Dramaturgische Blatter, Parts 7, 8); O. V, Heinemann, Ziir Erinnerung an G. E. L. ^^ Leipz. 1870); Prohle, Lessing, Wieland, Heinse (Berl. 1877). - Lehmann, Forschungen Uber Lessings Sprache (Brunswick, 1875); see E. Schmidt, Anz. ii, 38; M. v. Waldberg, Studien zu Lessings Stil (Berl. 1882). Philosophy and Theology. Guhrauer, Lessing's Erziehung des Menschen- geschlechts (Berl 1841); H. Riiter, Uber Le-sing's philosophische und religiose Grundsatze (Gott. 1847); Schwarz, L. als Theolog (Halle. 1854); Dilthey in the Preuss. Jahrb. 19, 1 17, 271 (comp. 20, 268, 439) ; Zeller, L. als Theolog, Vortrage und Abhandlungen, 2, 283-327; Rehom. Lessing's Stellung zur Philosophic des Spinoza (Fra.ikf. 1877); Witte, die Philosophic unserer Dichterheroen I (Bonn, 1880', 25-234 ; Monckeborg, L. als Freimaurer (Hanib. 1880). Reimarus, D. F. Strauss, H. S. Reimams und seine Schutzschrift fiir die vemiinftigen Verehrer Gottes (Leipz. 1862). — Goeze, G. R. Rope, J. M. Goeze, eine Rettung (Hamburg, j8jo) ; Boden, Lessing imd Goeze (Leipz. and Heildeberg, 1862). ^Esthetic. Lessing's Laokoon, ed. H. Bliinmer, 2nd. ed. (Berl. 18F0) ; see Sch., Zs. XX, Anz. 85. — Winckelmann. K. J. Winckelmann, sein Leben, seine Werke und seine Zeitgenossen, 2 vols. (Leipz. 1866-72). Cosack, Materialien zu G. E. L. Hamburgisclier Dramaturgic (Paderb. 1876); Schroter und Thiele, L. Hamb. Dramat. eilautert (Halle, 1877); see Bollman, Anmerkungen zu L. Hamb. Dram. ^Berl. 1874); Gotschlich, L.'s Ari totelische Studien (Berl.^ 1876) ; Baumgait, Arisioteles, Lessing und Gotthe (Leipz. 1877) ; E.Schmidt, Anz. V. 133. Dramas. Nodnagel, L's. Dramen e lautert (Darmstadt, 1842) ; Diintzer, L. als Dramatiker und Dramatuig (Wenigen-Jena, 1S62); Sierke, L. als angehender DramatiUer (Konigsberg, 1869 Diss.); Motz, L.'s Bedeutung lur das deutsche Drama (Basle, 1872). — On the influence of Miss Sara Sampson, see Sauer, Q. F. XXX. 80. — Minna von Barmhelm, Diintzer Kr\.— Emilia Galotti, Hebler, Lessingiana (Bern, 1877^ 5 ^- Arnold, Lessing's Em. Gal. in ihrem Verhaltnis zur Poetik des Aristoteles und zur Hamb. Dramat. (Chemnitz, 1 8 -ioProgr.'; see Zs. XXV. 241, Diintzer Erl. — Nathan der PVeise, see Naumann Litteratur liber Les- sing's Nathan (Dresdei, 1867 Progr.); Bohtz, Lessings Protestantismus und Na- than der Weise (Gottingen, 1854) ; Wackernagel, Kl. Schriften, ii. 452 ; Strauss, Lessings N. d. W. (Berl 1864); Caro, Lessing und Swift (Jena, 1869); Sch., Vortrage und Aufsatze, p. 328 ; Pabst, Vorlesungen iiber Nathan (Bern, 1 881); Diintzer Erl For Boccaccio's tale, see Landau, Quellen des De- camerone ;Vitnna, 1869), pp. 62, 142 ; for the similar story, Wackernagel, p. 471 (Gosche Jahrb. f. Litteraturgesch. i 199). There is a fine reprint ot the first edition of Nathan (Berl. 1881). Schiller's edition, Schiller's sammtl. S^hrilten, 15 b, 85 Godeke. For Nicolai and Mendelssohn see below, XL 5. Gleim and Klcist ha\ e been mentioned above, XL 2. For Denis, see vo.i Hofn.ann-Wellenhof Michael Denis (Innsbruck, 1881). For Abbt, Thomas Abbts vermischte Werke, 6 vols. C C 2 3^^ Bibliography. (Berl. 1 772 8 1 ) ; Nicolai, Ehrengedachtnis Th. Abbts (Berl. 1 767) ; Herder, ii, 249 ; Prulz, litterar. Histor. Taschenb. 1846, p. 371. For Johann Timothem Hermes, Prutz, Menschen and BUcher (Leipz. 1862), ii, i, et seq. 4. Herder and Goethe, ii. pp. 82-114. Justus M'dser'. Sammtliche Werke, ed. Abeken, 10 Vols. (Berl. 1842, 4^), compare Kreyssig, J. M. ('Berl. 1857). Hamann: Schriften, ed. Friedrich Roth, 8 Parts (Berl. 1821-43); see Gildemeister, Hamann's Leben und Schriften, 6 vols. (Gotha, 1857-73); Minor, J. G. Hamann in seiner Bedeuturg fiir die Sturm und Drangperiode (Frankf. 1881). Herder. Sammtliche Werke, 45 vols. (Stuttg. 1805-20), 60 vols (Stut'g. 1827-30), not good ; an excellent edition is coming out by Bernhaid Suphan (Berl. 1877). Separate vforks, ^ Denknial Johann Wine ke Imanns, ' hy Herder, written 1778, publ. by Albert Duncker (Cassel, 1882). ^ ' Cid,^ with notes by Diintzer (18 o) ; Reinhold Kohler, H eiders Cid und seine franzosische Quelle (Leipz. 1867); Herders Cid, die franzosische und spanische Quelle, zusammen- gestellt von Vogelin, \,Heilbr. 1879)- ' Legenden,' Y)\X\\iztx, Erl — Letters. Aus Herder's Nachlass, 3 vols. (Frankf 1856, 57). Herder's Reise nach Italien (Giessen, 18.-9). ^on und an Herder, 3 vols. (Leipz. 1861, 62) ; all published by H. Dlintzer and F. G. von Herder; see too G enzboten, 18 7, L 289. Im neuen Reich, 1879, No. 26, 1880, I. 685. — Biographical and literary authori- ties, Danz and Gruber, Chamcteristik J. G. von Herders (Leipz. 1805) ; Caro- line von Herder, Erinnerungen aus dem Lei en, J. G. v. H., 2 vols. (Sti ttg. 1820); Weimarisches Herder Album (Jena, 1845); J. G. v. H. Lebensbild Herder s early Correspondence and tvritings, 6 vols. (Erlangen, 1846) ; Julian Schmidt, on Herder in the Bibliothek der deutschen Nationallitteratur dts 18 und 19 Jh. (Leipz., Brockhaus) ; and in the Preuss. Jahrb. 44. 536; Ch. Joret, Herder et la renaissance litteraire en A lemagne au 18® siecle (Paris, i875\ R. Haym, Herder nach seintm Leben und seinen Werken, vol. i (Berl. 1880) ; Suphan, Zs. f. d. Phil. iii. 365, 458, 490, iv. 225, vi. 45, 165 ; Preuss. Jalirb, 43, 85, 142, 411; 50, 593. See too Eachlold, Aus dem Herderschen Hause (Berl. 1881); A. Werner, Herder als Theologe (Berl. 1871); Renner, Herders Verhaltnis zur Schule (Gott. 1871 Prog.) ; Moires, H. als Padagog (Eisenach); Lehmann, H. in seiner Bedeutung liir die Geographic (Berl. 1883 Proq:r.); R. Lincemann, Eeitrage zur Charakteiistik K. A. Bottigers und stiner Stellung zu Herder (Gorlitz, 1883). Goethe's Youth. In general, see XH. i. Goethe's Works and letters before he settled at W^eimar : (S. Hirzel), Der junge Goethe, 3 vols. (Leipz. 1875). ^^e too, Scholl, iBriefe und Aufsatze von Goethe aus den Jahren 1766 bis 1786 (2nd ed. Weimar, 1857) ; see Sch. Aus Goethe's Friihzeit, Q. F. 34 (Strassb. 1879) ; Minor and Sriuer, Studien zur Goethe-Philologie (Vienna, 1 880). Goethe's Auto- biography, ' Dichtung und Wahrheit,' comes down to 1775 ; it is well to con- sult Lopers' remarks in his edition (Berl. Ilempel). — For Goethe's family, and some of his youthful friends, consult Kriegk, Die Bruder Senckenberg (Frankf. 1869), p. 313; O. Volger, Goethes Vateihaus (Frankf. 1863); Weismann, Chapter XL 389 Aus Goethe's Knabenzeit (Frankf. 1846). Goethe's Mother, Frau Rath, Briefwechsel von Katharina Elisabeth Goethe, ed. R. Keil (Leipz. 1871), see V. Biedermann, Goethe Forschungen (Frankf. 1879), p. 385. Schnorr's Archiv iii. 109.— The ^ Mitschuldigen^ Sch. Zs. xxiv. 231. — Goethe's work as a lawyer, Kriegk, Deutsche Kulturbilder aus dem 18 Jh. (Leipz. 1874), p. 263, Goelhe als Kechlsanwalt. — The Frankfurter gelehrte Anzeigen of 1772 are repiinted in Seufft rts Litteraturdenkm. (Heilbronn, 1883) ; a valuable authority for Goethe's development — Giitz, ed. Bachtold (Freib. 1882); the two oldest editions of Gotz are compared in Minor and Sauer, p. 117; see Diintzer, Goiz und Egmont (Brunswick-, 1854), Erl. For the histoiical Gotz, Wegele, Zs. f. Culturgesch. 1874, p. 129. For chivalrous Dramas, see O. Brahm, Das deutsche Ritterdrairares 18 Jh. Q. F. 40 (Stra>sb. 1880). For Shakespeare's influence, see Koberstein, Vermisch'e Aufsatze, p- 163 ; R. Genee, Geschichte der Shakespeaeschen Dramen in Deutschland (Leipz. 18 o). — Prometheus, Diintzer, Goethes Prometheus unl Pandora (Leipz. 1*^705 ^^^ original text publ. by Erich Schmidt, in the Goethe Jahrbuch, i. 290. — Clavigo and Stella, Diintzer Erl. For Stella, see Sch. in the Deutsche Rundschau, vi 66 ; for Clavigo, Danzel, Gesnmmelte Aufsatze (Leipz. 1855). \>. 152. Werlher, Diintzer, Erl. ; Erich Schmidt, Richardson, Rousseau, Goethe (Jena, 1875) ; Appell, Werther und stine Zeit, 3rd ed. (Older. burg, i88i). 5. The Literary Revolution and tJie Illuminati, ii. pp. 11 4-1 41. J. M. R. Lenz. Gesammelte Sciriften, ed. Tieck, 3 vols. (Berl. 1828) : ' Dei Waldbruder,' reprint by M. v. Waldberg (Berl. 1882) ; Drei Gedichte, prepared for Christmas, 1882, by K. Weinhold ; see A. Siober, Der Dichter I^nz und Friedericke von vSesenheim (Basle, 1842) ; E. Dorer-Egloff, J. M. R. Lenz und seine Schriften (Baden, 1857); ^- ^- ^rwpP^' J^- Lenz, Leben und Werke (Berl. 1861); P. T. Falck, Der Dichter J. M R. Lenz i.i Livlapd (Winterthur, 1878) ; E. Schmidt, Lenz und Klinger. zwei Dichter der Geniezeit (Berl. 1878). F. M. Klinger. Theater, 4 Parts (Riga, 1786-87) ; Neues Theater (Leipz. 1790); Werke, 12 vols. (Konigsb. 1809-15; Sammtl. Werke, 12 vols. (Stuttg. 1847); see M. Rieger, Klinger in der Sturm and Drangperiode (Dirmstadt, 1880); E. Schmidt, Lenz und Klinger (Berl. 1878); O. Erdmnnn, Uber Klingers dramatische Dichtungen (Konigsb. 1877) ; on the attitude of Klinger towards Kant's philosophy, see Altpreuss. Monatschrift, 15, 37. There is a re- print of the play ' Sturm und Drang.' in the Reclamsche Universalbibliothek, No. 248, and of the tragedy 'Otto' in SeufTert's Litteraturdenkm. Part i. (Heilbronn, 1881). H. L. Wagner. E. Schmidt H L. W. Goethe's Jugendgenosse, 2nd ed. (Jena. 1879V Reprint of hi> ' Kinderm.orderin,' by August Sauer, J. M R. Lenz und H L. Wagt er (Berl. and Stuttg.\ p 283, and ibid., p. 359. the Satire ' Proniethtus Dcukalion and seine Rccensenten,' once attributed to Goelhe Seuffeit. No 13 ^Heibroun. i883>. Mater Miiller. Werke, 3 vols. (Heidelb. 1825^ see B. Seuffert. M. M. (]'>c 1. i"77V Reprint of ' Fausts Leben,' Seuffert's Litteraturdenkm. No. 3 390 Bibliography, Graf Torring. O. Brahm, Das deutFche Ritterdrama des i8 Jh. ; Studien iiber J. A. V. Torring, seine Vorganger und Nachfolger, Q. F. 40 (Strassb. 1880). Schiller. See below, XII. 3. For his political background, Adolf Wohhvill, WeltbUrgerthum und Vaterlandsliebe der Schwaben (^Hamburg, 1875). C. F. D. Schubart. Gesammelte Schriflen, 8 vols. (Stuttg. 1839, ^o) ; D. F. Strauss, Schubart's Leben in seinen Briefen, 2 vols. (Berl. 1S49); A. Wohlwill, Schnorr's Archiv vi. 343 ; ix. 17 ; x. 188, 2S2. H. C. Roie. Weinhold, H. C. B. (Halle. 1868) ; Zs. f. d Phil. i. 378.— Martin Miller, E. Schmidt, Deutsche Rundschau, 28, 450 ; Kamprath, Das Siegwartfieber (Wiener Neustadt, 1877 Progr.).— Z. H. C. Holly; Ed. Karl Halm (Leipz 1869) ; Schnorr's Archiv. 7. 187. — Stolberg. Der Briider C.and F. L Grafen zu Stolberg gesammelte Werke, 20 vols. (Hamburg, 1820, 25) ; Alfred Nicolovius F. L. Graf zu S. (Mainz. 1846) ; W. v. Bippen, Eutiner Skizzen (Weimar, 1859), PP 5^? 18=;. T. Menge, Der Graf F. L. S. and seine Zeitge- nossen, 2 vols. (Gotha, 1862) ; Hennes, F. L. Graf zu S. und Herzog Peter F. L. von Oldenburg (Mainz, 1870). St"lberg in den zwei letzten Jahrzehnten seines Lebens (Mainz, 1875); aus F. L. von S. Jugendjahren (Frankf. 187^1); J. Jansen, F. L. Giaf zu S. 2 vols. (Freib. 1877); 2nd ed. in i vol. (Freib. 1882).—/. H. Voss. Sammtl. poet. Werke, ed. Abraham Voss (Leipz. 1835); Reprint of the Odyssee of 17"^!, by M. Bernays (Stuttg. 1881 ; also E. Schmidt, Zs. 26, Anz. 52 ; also Schroter, Gesch. der deutschen Homer- tjbersetzung, Jena, 1882) ; see. the letters with notes, pub. by A, Voss, 4 vols. (Halberstadt, 1829-33, containing the beautiful notice of Ernestine Voss) ; Wilhelm Herbst, J. H. v., 3 vols (Leipz. 1872-76) ; Julian Schmidt, Preuss. Jahrb. 38. 628. On the Homer, A. W. Schlegel, 10, 115. See Prutz, Der Gottinger Dichterbund (Leipz. 1 841). G. A. BUrger. His poems were published first at Gottingen, 1778. Best edition by A. Sauer (Berlin and Stuttgart, s, a.) Sammtl. Schriften, 4 vols. (Gott. 1796-9?); Selection by Grisebach (Berl. 1872); see Daniel Biirger on the school (Halle, 1845 Progr.) ; Prohle, G. A. B (Leipz. 1856); Ebeling, G. A. B. und Elise Hahn (Leipz. 1868) ; Godeke, G. A. B. in Gottingen und Gellie- hausen (Hanover, 1873) ; A. Strodtmann, Briefe von und an G. A. B., 4 vols. (Berl. 1874). — Fo^ ' Lenore,' Wackernagel, Kleine Schriften, ii, 399. J. K. Lavater. Gesner, Lavaters Ltbensbeschreibung, 3 vols. (Win- therthur, 1802, 3); Hegner, Beitrage zur naheren Kenntnis und wahren Darstellung J. K. L. (Leipz. 1836). Eodemann, J. K. L. (Gotha, 1856); Ehmann, Briefwechsel zwischen Lavater und Hasenkamp (Basle, 1870); E. Schmidt, Im neuen Reich, 1873, i. p 368. M. Claudius. Ed. Redlich (Gotha, 1871); Ungedruckte Jugendbriefe des Wandsbecker Boten. ed Redlich (Hamb. 1881) ; cf. Herbst, M. C.der Wandsb. B. (Gotha, 1857) 5 Monckeberg, (Hamb. 1869). F. H. Jacobi. Werke, 6 vols. (Leipz. 1812-24; Auserlesener Briefwechsel, 2 vols. (Leipz. 1825-27 ; Zoppritz, Aus F. H.J. Nachbss, 2 vols. (Leipz. i86c;); Briefe an Bouterwek, pub. by Meyer (Gott. 1868); Deycks. F. H. J. im Ver- ha.tnis zu seiner Zeiigenosseii (Frank. 1848) ; Zimgiebl, F. H. J. Leben, Dichten und Denken (Vienna, 1867); Harms, tJber die Lehre von F. H.J. (Berl. 1876 Abh. der Akad.). A. Hoitzmann, Uber Eduard Allwills Brief. Chapters XI-XII. 391 sammlung (Jena, 1878).—/. G.Jacobi. E. Martin, Ungednickte Briefe von und an J. G. J., Q. F. 2 (Strassb. 1 874^ , see Zs: xx, 324 ; Daniel Jacoby in the A. D. B , 13, 587. Wilhelm Heinse. W. H. sammtliche Schriften, ed. H. Laube, 10 vols. (Leipz. 1838); Prohle, Lessing, Wieland, Heinse, (Berl, 1877); J. Schober, W. H. (Leipz. 1882) ; Schnorr"s Aichiv x. 30, 372, 479. Berlin. Berlin not only possessed a Public, but the word first arose there, as is shown in Gottsched's Neuesies aus der anmuth. Gelehrsamkeit, x, 751, in the year 1 760 : ' that portion of the German world (in Berlin it is now called Public) which has hitherto admired him.'— C. F. Nicolai. v. Gockingk, Nico- lais Leben und litterar. Nachl. (Berl. 1820) ; Foss, in Schnorr's Archiv ii. 374; J. Minor, Lessing's Jugendfreunde (Berl. and Sluttg.), p. 275. On the Ber- liner Monatschrift, see Meyen, in Priitz Litterarhistor. Taschenb. 1847, p. 151. Moses Mendelssohn. Gesammelte Schriften, 7 vols, (Leipz. 1843-45). XIL Weimar, ii. pp. 142-228. Anna Amalia. Carl Freiherr v. Beaulieu-Marconnay, Anna Amalia, Carl August and der Minister von Fritsch (Weimar, 1874). — Karl August'. Wegele, K. A. (Leipz. 1850); A. D. B., 15. 338. Scholl, Carl-August-Buchlein (Weimar, 1857): specially Droysen, C. A. und die deutsche Politik (Jena, 1857-) L Goethe^ ii. pp. 145-170. Collected Editions. S. Hirzel gives a chronologicnl table of all Goethe's writings, Verzeichnis einerGoethe-Bibliothek,ed.byLudwig Hirzel (Leipz. 1884) ; see too, W. v. Biedermann from time to time in Schnorrs Archiv. The first attempt at a collected edition of Goethe's works was made by the Berlin book- seller, Himburg (vols. I, II, 1 775 ; HI, 1 776 ; a 3rd ed. in 4 vols. 1 779). Goethe's own editions, 'Schriften,' 8 vols. * Leipz. by Goschen, 1787-90): ' Neue Schriften.' 7 vols. (^Berl., by linger, 1792-1800^: the three editions, by Cotta, of the 'Werke' (TUbingen or Stuttg. and Tiibingen) : 12 vols. 1806-8, with 1810, the * Wahlverwandschaften * (which had appeared alone in 1809) as vol.13; 20 vols. 1815-19; 40 vols. (' Vollstandige Ausgabe letzter Hand,' 1827-31K Lastly, 'Goethe's Nachgelassene Werke,' 15 vols. 18.^2-34; with 5 further vols. 1842. ' Goethe's poetische und prosaische Werke (Stuttg. and Tubingen, Cotta,) 2 vols., and Hempels ed. (Berl.) in 36 vols., with notes and explanations by W. v. Biedermann, H. Diintzer, S. Kalischer, G. v. Loper, and F. Strehlke. A new ed. is in progress, 3 vols, published. Biographies, Characteristics, etc. Abeken, Ein StUck aus G. Leben (Berl. 1S45): G. in den Jahren 1771-75 (2 ed. Hanover, 1 865 1 ; Albrecht, Zum Sprachgebrauch Goethes (Crimmitschau, 1876 Progr.) ; Bernays, Uber Kritik uiid Geschiclite des GoetheschiU Textes (^Berl. 1866); A. D. B. 1x413-438, (separately printed Leipz. i">8o') ; W. v. Biedermann, Goelhe-Forschungen (Frankt.' I^79^ ; H. Blaze de Bury, Les Mattresses de Goethe (Paris, 1873); Bossert, Goethe (Paris, 1872); G. et Schiller vParis, 1873); Bratranek, Zwei Polen in Weimar (Vienna, 1870); Braun, G. im Urtheile seiner Zeitgenossen 39^ Bibliography, (Berl. i88.^); C. A. H. Burkhardt, Das Tiefurter Journal (Grenzboten, 1871, ii. 281); Das herzogl. Liebhabertheater (^ibid. 1873, iii. 1); Clas-i-che Find- linge (ibid. 1873, iii. 2.^3, iv. 79, 91, 1S74, i. 201); Cams, Goethe (Vienna, 1^63); Diezmann, Aus Weimars Glanzzeit (Leipz, 1855); G. und die lustige Zeit in Weimar (Leip. 18:7); Goethe-Schiller Museum (Leipz. 185^); Weimar Album (Leipz. i85o) ; Dlintzer, Studiea zu Goethes Werken (Elberfeld, 1849); Neue Goethestudien (Nuremberg, 1861); Frauenbilder aus G.'s Jugendzeit (Stuttg. 1852) I^reundesbildtr aus G.'s Leben (Leipz. 1853) ; Aus G.'s Freundeskreise (^Brunswick, 1868) ; G.'s Leben (Leipz. 1880) ; Fielitz, G. studien (Wittenberg, 1881, Progr.); L. Geiger, G. Jahrbuch (Frankfort, each year since 1880); G. Gerland, Uber G.'s historiche Stellung (Nordhausen, 18 '^5); Godeke, G.'s Leben und Schriften (Stuttg. 1874); H. Grimm, Goethe (Berl. 4th ed. 1888) ; Grosse, G. und das deutsche Alterthum (Dramburg. 1S75, Diss.) ; Henkel, Das Goethesche Gleichniss (Halle, 1886, Progr.); Keil, Vor hundert Jahren, 2 vols. (Leipz. 1875); Goethe, Weimar und Jena in i8o6 (Leipz. 1882); Lehmann, G.'s Sprache und ihr Geist (Berl. 1852); Lewes, Life an 1 Works of G. (London, 1855) ; Mezieres, W. Goethe, 2d ed. 2 vols. (Paris, 1874); Minor and Sauer, Studien zur G. Philologie (Vienna, 1880) ; K. W. Miiller, G.'s letzte litteiarische Thatigkeit (Jena, 1832) ; Fr. V. Miiller, G. in seiner praktischen Wirksamkeit (Weimar, 1832); Nico- lovius, Uber Goethe (Leipz. 1828) ; Pietsch, G. als Freimaurer (Leipz. 1850) ; Ein Englander (Henry Crabb Robinson) iiber deutsches Geistesleben, von K. Eitner (Weimar, 1871) ; H. Rollett, Die G. Bildnisse (Vienna, 188.O; Rosen- kranz, G. und seine Werke (Konigsb. 1847) ; J. W. Schafer, G.'s Leben, 2 vols. (3rd ed. Leipz. 1877) ; SchoU, G. in Hauptziigen seines Lebens und Wirkens (Berl. 1882) ; A. Stahr, Weimar und Jena, 2 vols. (Oldenb. 1852) ; G.'s Frauen- gestalten (5th ed. Berl. 1875): Kl. Schriften, vol. 3 (Berl. 1875); Varnhagen, G. in den Zeugnissen der Mitlebenden (Berl. 1823); H. Viehoff, G.'s Leben, Geistesentwicklung und Werke, 4 vols. (4th ed. Stuttg. 1877); O. Vilmar, Zum Verstandnisse G's., 4th ed. (Marburg, 1879); Vogel, G. in amtlichen Ver- haltnissen (Jena, 1834); W\ Wachsmuth, Weimars Musenhof in den Jahren 17-2 bis 1807 (Berl. 1844); Winter, G.'s deutsche Gesinnung (Leipz. 1880).— Schafer and Herman Grimm's books are very useful. Letters and Conversations, connection with persons and places. General collections of Letters. — Doring, G.'s Briefe 1768 bis 1832 (Leipz. 1837); Riemer, Briefe von und an G. (Leipz. 1846); G.'s Briefe, 4 vols. (Berl., no date); Strehlke, G's Briefe (Berl. i88i). See Gervinus, tjber den Goethe- schen Britfwechsel (Leipz. 1836). — Bettina von Arnim, nee Brentano, G.'s Briefwechsel mit einem Kinde, 3 vols, (^rd ed. Berl. 1881); G. in Berlin (Berl. 1849); O. Erahm, G. und Berlin (Berl. 1880); Sulpiz, Boisseree (Stuttg. 1862); Lucius. Fiederick Brion von Stssenheim (Strass. 1877); see too, E. Schmidt, Im neuen Reich, 1877, ii. 441 ; also Nake, Wallfahrt nach Sesenheira (Berl. 1840): Kruse, Deutsche Rundschau, 17, 218; Kraus, ibid. 20, 158; A. Baier, Das Heidenroslein (Heidelberg, 1877) ; Briefe von Karl August und G. an Dobereiner, pub. by O. Schade (Weimar, 1856) ; Domburg, R. A. C. Schell, G. in Dornburg (Jena and Leipzig, 1864) ; L. Geiger in the Goethe Jahrbuch, ii, 316; Dresden, W. v. Biedermann, G. und Dresden (Berl. 1875) ; Eckermann, Chapter XII. 393 Gesprache mit Goethe, 3 vols. (3rd. ed. Leipz. 1868) : G.'s letters to Eichstddt, pub. by W. V. Bitdeimann (Berl. 1S75) ; G. und das sachsische Erzgcburge, by W. V. Biedennann (Siutt. 1877) ; Letters from G. to JoJiatma Fahbner, pub. by Urlichs (Leipz. 1875, see Sch, Im n. Reich, 1875, No. 48); Joh. Falk, G. aus riaherem pei-sonlichen Umgange dargestellt (3rd ed. Leipz. 1856) ; F. J. Frora- maan, Das Fronwiansche Haus und seine Freunde (-'nd ed. Jtna, 1872); Letters from G. to Gottling, pub. by K. Fischer (Munich, 1880); Letters f'om G. to Rath Griiner (Leipz. 1833") : Aus Herders Nachlass, i. 1-177; G.'s letters to the brotliers Humboldt, pub. by Bratranek (Leipz. 1876) ; Letters from G. to F. H. Jacobi, pub. by Max Jacobi (Leipz. 1846); Briefwechsel des Qxo%'^G.xzo^% Karl August mit G. 2 vols. (Weimar. 1863: see Diintzer, G. und K. August, 2 vols Leipz. 1861, 65) ; Hlawaczek, G. in Karl shad \K^r\%~ bad, 1877); G. and the composer, P. C. Kayser, pub. by Burkhardt (Leipz. 1879); Kestner, G. und Weither, pub. by A. Kestner (2nd ed. Stutt. 185:;); Lappenberg, Reliquien des Frl. v. Klettenberg (Hamburg, 1849: see F. De- litzsch, Philemon, 3rd ed. Gotha, 1878) ; Short letters from G. to Klopstock in 1776 (Leipz. 1833; see Lyon, G.'s Verhaltnis zu Klopstock. Dobeln, Diss.) ; Letters from G. to Knebel, pub. by G. E. Guhrauer 2 vols. (Leipz. 1851 : see Knebel's Litt. Nachlass, pub. by Varnhagen and Mundt, 3 vols. Leipzig, 1840); Knebel's letters to his Sister, pub. by Duntzer. Jena, 1S58 ; Zur deutschen Lilteratur und Geschichte, Briefe aus Knebels Nachlass, pub. by Diintzer, 2 vols. (Nuremberg. 1858) ; Letters of G. to S. von La Roche, and Bettina Brentano, pub. by G. von Loper (Berl. 1879: see Schnorrs Archiv. 10, ^3); Letters from G. to Lavater. ed. by H. Hirzel (Leipz. 1833); Leipzi;;, O. Jahn, G.'s Briefe an Leipziger Freunde (2 ed. Leipz. 1867) ; W. v. Bieder- mann, G. und Leipzig, 2 Parts (Leipz I8^5) ; Tomaschek, G. als Student in Leipzig (Zs. f. osteir. Gymn 1873, p. 1181) ; Lili, E. Jiigel, Das Puppenhnus (Frankf. 1857), p. 323 ; Graf Diirckhtim, Lillis Eild (Nordlingen, 1879): H. Luden, Riickblicke in mein Leben (Jena. 1847), pp. 1-132 ; G. and F. Mendels- sohn- Bart holdy, by K. Mendtlssohn-B. (Leipz. 1871) ; Merck (Letters to J. H. Merck, Darmstadt. 1835 ^^^ 1838 ; Britfe aus dem Freundeskieise von Goethe, Herder. Hopfner und Merck, Leipz. 1847, ^^^ P^''- ^y K.\Vagner) ; Freundschaft- liche Briefe von G. und seiner Frau an Nicolaus Meyer (Leipz. 1856); G's Unteihaltungen m\i F. vojt Miillerhy "QwiVhsirdx (Stuttg. 1870^; A7r£'/<7z^/Kj-,Denk- schrift aut G. H. L. Nicolovius, by Alfred Nicolovius (Bonn. 1841); Goethe, /. G. von Quandt, und der Sachsische Kunstverein, by H. Uhde (Stutt. 1878); Iv W. Neumann, G. in Kegensburg i^f^noxx^ Arch. iv. 185^ ; Letters from G. to Feinhard (Stutt. 1850) ; Riemcr, Mittheilungen liber G. 2 vols. (Berlin, 1841); A. Stober, Der Actuar Sahmann (MUhlhausen, 185=1); Aus Schellings Leben, 3 vols. (Leipz. i86q, 70) ; Letters from Schiller to G. (4th ed. Stutt. 1881 ; see Duntzer, Sch. und G., Stutt. 1859) ; Schiller's and Goethe's letters \.oA..V^.Schlegel (Leipz. 1S46) ; H.Wenzel, G. in Schlesien (Oppeln, 1 867) ; Schonborn und seine Ztitgenossen (Hamburg, 1S36; see Weinhold, Schonborn's Aufzeichnungen iiber Erlebtes, Zs. der Gesellsch. fiir die Gesch. der Herzogth. Sch'eswig- Holstein und Lauenburg, 1870, vol. i. Redl'ch, Zum 29 Januar 187!^, Hamb. 1878); G. and Y\i, Seidel {\m neuen Reich, 1871) ; Goethe-Briefe aus F. Schlossers Nachlass, pub. by J. Frese 'Stutt. 1877); Briefw. zwischen G. und 394 Bibliography. Staatsrath Schulz, pub. by Duntzer (Leipz. 1853); Leben der Malerin Louise Seidler, hy Yi.Vhdie (2nd ed. Berl. 1875: see H. Grimm, Fiinfzehn Essays, p. 288) ; G.'s letters to Soret, pub. by H. Uhde (Stutt. 1877) ; G.'s letters to Frau von Stein, pub. by A. SchoU, 3 vols. (Weimar, 1848, 51, 2nd ed. by W. Fielitz, vol. i, Frankf. 1883: see Duntzer, Charlotte von Stein, 2 vols. Stutt. 1874; Duntzer, C. v. Stein, und Corona Schroter, Stutt. 1876); Letters from.G. and his Mother to Freiherr v. Stein, ed. by Ebers and Kahlert (Leipz. 1846); Letters from G. to K. Graf v, Sternberg, pub. by Bratranek (Vienna, 1866) ; Goethe's letters to Grafin A. zu Stolberg (2nd ed. by W. Arndt. Leipz. 1881); Strassburg, Leyser, G. zu Stiassbusg (Neustadt a d. H. 1871); for G.'s journey to Lorraine, see Godeke, in the ' Gegenwart,' 13, 5 ; v. Loper in Schnorr's Archiv. 7, 529, 8, 225 ; G.'s letters to C. G. v. Voigt, ed. by O. Jahn (Leipz. 1868); W. Herbst, G. in Wetzlar (^Gotha, 1881); Seuffert, Der junge G. und Wieland, Zs. 26, 252 ; Letters from G. to M. v. Willemer (Suleika), pub. by Th. Creizenach (2nd ed. Stuttg. 1878; see H. Grimm^ P'Unfzehn Essays, p. 258); G.'s letters to F. A. Wolf, pub. by M. Bemays (Berl. 1868); letters from G. to Zelter, pub. by Riemer, 6 vols. (Berlin, 1833-34. Religion and Science. L. v. LancizoUe, tjber G.'s Verhaltnis zu Religion imd Christenthum (Berlin, 1855); van Oosterzee, G.'s Stellung zum Christen- thum (Bielefeld, 1858) ; J. Bayer, G.'s Verhaltnis zu religiosen Fragen, (Prague, 1869); R. Jobst, G.'s religiose Entwickelung bis 1775 (Stettin, 1877, Progr.) ; E. Filtsch, G.'s Stellung zur Religion (Langensalza, 1879, Diss.) ; Steck, G.'s religioser Entwicklungsgang (Protestanlische Kirchenzeitung, 1880, Nos. 22, 23); J. Schmidt, G.'s Stellung zum Christenthum (G. Jahrbuch, 1881, p. 49) ; O. Pfleiderer, G.'s religiose Weltanschauung (Protest. Kirchenz. 1883, No. 15); F. K. J. Schiitz, G.'s Philosophic, 7 Vols. (Hamburg, 1825, 26); E. Caro, La Philosophic dc Goethe (Paris, 1866); A. Harpf, G.'s Erkenntnisprincip (Philosoph. Monatsheftc, 1883) ; Danzel, tJber G.'s Spinozismus, (Hamb. 1850); Jellinek, Die Beziehungen G.'s zu Spinoza (Vienna, 1878); Heyder, tJber das Verhaltnis G.'s zu Spinoza (Zs. f die Lutherische Theologie und Kirche, 27, 261) ; Suphan, G. und Spinoza in der Festschrift zur zweiten Sacular- feier des Friedrichs-Werderschen Gymn. zu Berlin (Berl. 1881). — Oscar Schmidt, G's. Verhaltnis zu den organi^chen Naturwissenschaften (Berl. 1853); Virchow, G. als Naturforscher (Berl. 1861); Helmholtz, tJber G.'s natuiwissenschaft- liche Arbeiten (Populare wissenschaftliche Vortrage, i. 31); Hackel, Natiir- liche Schopfungsgeschichte : O. Schmidt, War G. ein Darwinianer? (1871); F. Cohn, G. als Botaniker (Deutsche Rundschan, 28, 26) ; S. Kalischer, Ein- leitungen zu Bd. 33-36 der Henipelschen Ausgabe ; Du Bois-Reymond, G. und kein Ende (Leipz. 1883); S. Kalischer, G. als Naturforscher (iJerl. 18S3). G.'s letters on Natural Science were pub. by Bratranek, in 2 vols. (Leipz. 1874)— Wegele, G- ^.Is Historiker (Wiirzb. 1876). Poems. G.'s lyric poems, explained by Diintzer, 2nd ed. 3 vols. (Leipz. i8;5-77); G.'s poems explained by H. Viehoff, 2nd ed. 2 vols. (Stutt. 1869-70); G.'s Werke, Vol. i: Poems, Part i, with notes by G. v. Loper (Berl. ih82). See Kannegiesser, Vortrage Uber eine Auswahl von G.'s lyrischen Gedichten (Breslau, 1835); Bergk, Acht Lieder von G. (Wetzlar, 1S57); W. v. Biedermann, Zu G.'s Gedichten (Leipz. 1870); Masing, Uber Chapter XII. 395 ein Goethesches Lied. (Leipz. 1872); Miklosich (Uber G.'s Klaggesang von der edlen Frauen des Asan Aga. (Vienna, 1883, Sitzungsberichte) ; E. Lichtenberger, Etude sur les poesies lyriques de Goethe, 2nd ed. (Paris, 1882). Egm ont^ See Diintzer, Gotz und Egmont, Erl. \ Bratrar.ekj G.'s EgmonL und SchilleTs Wallenstein (Stuttg, 1862); Schillers Critique, 6. 80. G. ; Schiller's Edition, 15 b, i G. Jphigenie. The fourfold text published by J. Bachtold, (Freib. 1883) ; see Schiller 6. 239 G. ; Diintzer, Die drei altesten Bearbeitungen von G.'s Iphigenie (Stutt. 1854), Erl. ; Danzel, Gesammelte Aufsatze, p. 146 ; O. Jahn, Aus der Alterihumswissenschalt (Bonn, 1868), p. 35 • ; W. v. Biedermann was the first to observe the connection with Sophocles' Philoctetes ; see Imelmann, Anmerkungen zu deutschen Dichtern (out of the Symbolae Joachimicae), p. 27. On the origin of the Iphigenie, Grimm, p. 269. Tasso. Fully explained by Diintzer ( Leip. 1854), Erl. ; Lewitz, Uber G's. Torquato Tasso (Konigsb. 1839); Hasper, Uber G.'s T. T. (Miihlhausen i. Th. IN62, Progr.); A. F. C. Vilmar, Uber G.'s Tasso (Frankf. 1869); J. Schmidt, Preuss. Jahrb. 46, 174. See Th. Jacobi, Tasso und Leonore (Prutz, Litterarhistor. Taschenb. 1848, p. i). For Lenz see Gruppe's Leben und Werke deutscher Dichter, iv. 256. For Leonore Sanvitale, Schnorrs Archiv iv. 215. Italian Journey. Grimm, Fiinfzehn Essays, p. 137 ; L. Hirzel, G.'s Italienische Reise (Basle, 1871); Th. Cart, G. en Italic (Paris, 1881).— ^r/ Studies. Danzel, G. und die Weimarischen Kunstfreunde in ihrem Verhaltnis zu Winckelmann (Gesammelte Aufsatze p. 118); Grimm, G.'s Verhaltnis zur bildenden Kunst (Zehn Essays, p. 192). See also Stichling, G. und die freie Zeicht nschule zu Weimar (Weimarische Beitrage, Weimar, 1865, p. 33). — Iphigenie in Delphi, Sch. in Westermanns Monatshefte, 46, 73. — Nausikaa, ibid. 46, 726. — Roman Elegies. H. J. Heller, Neue Jahrbiicher fiir Philol. und Padagogik, 1S63, ii. Part 8-1 1 ; Diintzer, ibid. 1864, Part 4. 2. Schiller and Goethe^ ii. pp. 170-199. Xenien. E. Boas, S. and G. im Xenienkampf, 2 Parts (Stuttg. 1851) ; die S. and G. Xenien, erlautert von E.J. Saupe (Leipz. 1852); see S. and G.'s Xenien Manuscript, published by W. v. Maltzahn (Bed. 1856). The Theatre. Theatre Letters of G., and Iriendly letters of Jean Paul, by Pietmar (Berlin, 1835); SchoU, Goethe, p. 280, ' Goethes Verhaltnis zum Theater'; E. Genast, Aus dem Tagebuche eines alten Schauspielers, Vol. i. (Leipz. 1862); H. Schmidt, Erinnerungen eines Weimarischen Veteranen (Leipz. 1856); E. Pasque, G.'s Theaterleitung in Weimar, 2 vols. (Leipz. 1863); W. G. Gotlhardi, Weimarische Theaterbilder aus G.'s Zeit. 2 vols. (1865): E. W. W'eber, Zur Geschichte des Weimarischen Theaters (W^eimar, iZd^^.—Ekhof, Uhdein Neuer I lutarch, iv. 121. — Schroder, F. L. W. Meyer, F. L. Schroder, 2 Parts (Hamb. 1819); see letters of Iffland and Schroder to the actor Werdy, pub. by O. Devrient (Frankf. 1881). — Iffland: Iffland, Meine theatralische Laufbahn (Leipz. 1 798) ; Z. Funck, Aus dem Leben 39^ Bibliography. zweier Schauspieler, Iffllands und Devrients (Leipz. 1838). — Kotzebue: Leben A. V. Kotzebues (Leipz. 1820); A. v. Kotzebue, Urtheile der Zeitgenossen und der Gegenwart, by W. v. Kotzebue (Dresden, 18S1) ; other works in Godeke, p. 1064.—/*. A. Wolff: Monogr. Martersteig (Leipz. 1879). The Natural Daughter. Duntzer, Erl. ; for the authority : Memoires his- toriques de Stephanie-Louise de Bourbon-Conti, 2 vols. (Paris, Floreal, an. vi.) Wilhelm Meister. See Schiller and Goethe's letters; Komer, Gesamm. Schr. p. 107; Fried. Schlegel, 2. 165. M. Jenisch, Uber die hervorstechend- sten Eigenthiimlichkeiten von Meisters Lehrjahren (Berl. 1797) ; Diintzer, Erl. Conversations of German Emigrants. Duntzer, G.'s Reise der Sohne Mega- prazons und Unterh. d. Ausg. (Leipz. 1873) in the Erl. Hermann und Dorothea. W. von Humboldt's asthetische Versuche, ist Part, tjber G.'s H. und D. (Brunswick, 1799); A. W. Schlegel, 11. 183, Cholevius, Asthet. und histor. Einleitung zu G.'s H. und D. (2nd ed. Leipz. 1877) ; Diintzer, Erl. See too, RUmelin, Reden und Aufsatze, p. 382. Achilleis. Strehlke, Uber G.'s Elpenor und Achilleis (Marienburg, 1870, Progr.). 3. Schiller^ ii. pp. 199-228. Editions. An historical and critical ed. under Godeke's direction, 15 Farts, in 17 Vols. (Stuttg. 1867-18^6); R. Boxberger's ed. (2nd ed. Beil. 1S82, 8 vols.); Schiller's Calendar, July 18, 1795-1805, pub. by Emilie v. Gleichen-Russwurm (Stuttg. 1865); Notes to the poems by Diintzer and Viehoff, and to the Dramas by Diintzer and Eckardt, in the Erl. — Letters. S. s Letters, with historical notes, 2 vols. (Berlin) ; letters to his wife, S. and Lotte, 1 788-1805, 3rd ed. corrected by W. Fielitz, 3 Books (^Stuttg. 1879); See Charlotte von S. und ihre Freunde (pub. by L. Urlichs), 3 vols. (Stuttg. i860); Briefe von S.'s Gattin an einen vertrauten Freund (von Knebel), pub. by Diintzer (Leipz. 1856); Hennes Fischenich und C. von S. (Frankf. 1875); W. Toischer, Lotte S. (Vienna, 1881). Other letters: S.'s Beziehungen zu Eltern, Geschwistem, und der Familie von Wolzogen (Stuttg. 185^^) ; S.'s Briefwechsel mit seiner Schwester Christophine und seinem Schwager Rein- wald (Leipz. 1875); S.'s Geschaftsbi iefe, ed. by K. Godeke (Leipz. 1875); Briefw. zwischen S. und Cotta, ed. by W. Vollmer (Stutt. 1876) ; Briefe an S., ed. by L. Urlichs (Stutt. 1877). Many letters to S. are in the Neue freie Presse, No. 42 20. The most important are S.'s Briefwechsel mit Komer, 2nd ed. pub. by K. Godeke, 2 Parts (Leipz. 1874; comp. C. G. Korner's Gesam- melte Schriften, pub. by A. Stern Leipz. 1881 ; F. Jonas, C. G. Komer, Berl, i>'82); Briefvv. zwischen S. und W. von Humboldt, 2nd ed. (Stuttg. 1876); Briefw. mit Goethe (see XH i) ; S.'s Briefw. mit dem Herzog von Schleswig- Holstein-Auj^ustenburg, pub. Vy F. Max Miiller (Berlin, 1875, see Deutsche Rundschau, Oct. 1881, p. 156); Briefe von S. an Herzog F. C. von Schleswig- Holstein-Augustenburg, pub. by A. L. J. Michelsen (Berlin, 1876). See Breul, Zs. xxviii. 358. Biographies, Characteristics, t\z. Belling, Metrik S.'s (Breslau, 1883); E. Boas, S.'s Jugendjahre, 2 vols. (Hanover, 1856); Boxberger, S. und ilaller (Erfurt, 1869, Progr); also Schnorrs Archiv 2. 198; 4. 2.;2, 494; Chapter XII. 397 Braun, S. im Urtheile seiner Zeitgenossen, 2 vols. (Leipz. 1882) ; Brosin, S.'s Verhaltnis zu dem Publicum seiner Zeit (Leipz. 1875) ; S.'s Vater (Leipz. 1879); E. L. Bulwer, S.'s Life and Works; Tb Carlyle, The Life of S. (.825, Supplement, 1872, London, 1873); W. Deecke, Uber S.'s AufTassung des Kiinstlerberufs (Liibeck, 1862) ; Diintzer, S.'s Leben (Leipz. 1881); Egger, S. in Marbach (Vienna, 1868) Fielitz, Studien zu S.s Dramen (Leipz. 1876); Kuno Fischer, S. Festival Speech (Leipz. i86d) ; S. Three Lectures (Leipz, 1868) ; Jacob Grimm, Rede auf S. (Berl. 1859) ; G. Hauff, S. Studien (Stuttg. 1880) ; L. Hirzel, Uber S.'s Beziehungen zum Alterthume (Aarau, 1872); K. Hofmeister, S.'s Leben, Geistesentwickelung und Werke im Zusammenhange, 5 Parts ^.Stuttg. 1838-42) ; D. Jacoby, S. and Garve, Schnorr's Aichiv 7. 95 ; A. v. Keller, Beitrage zur Schillerlitteratur (Tub. 1859, i860); E. Palleske, S.'s Leben und Werke, 2 vols. (Berlin, 1858, 1859); J. Reuper, S.'s Dramen im Lichte d.r zeitgenossichen Kritik (Bielitz, 1874, Progr.) ; Riimelin, Rede iiber S.'> politische Ansichten (Heilbronn, 1850) ; Schlossberger, Archivalische Nachlese zur Schillerlitteratur (Stuttg. 1877) ; G. Schwab, S.'s Leben (Stuttg. 1840); Streicher, S.'s Flucht von Stuttgart und Aufenthalt in Mannheim (Stutt. i836'> ; K. Tomaschek, S. in seinem Verhaltnisse zur Wissenschaft (Vienna, 1862); K. Twesten, S. in seinem Verhaltnis zur Wissenschaft dargestellt (Berl. 1863); H. Viehoflf, S.'s Leben, Geistesentwickelung und Werke, 3 Parts (Stuttg. 1875) ; Fr. Vischer, Fest Rede (Zurich, 1859) 5 K. Weinhold, Festrede auf S. (Gratz, 1859); C. v. Wol- zogen, S.'s Leben (see Schnorr's Archiv i. 452, 4. 482), 2 Parts (Stuttg. 1830). The best work is Hoffmeisters. The Dramas. The Robbers. A sheet of the first suppressed Edition is pub. by A. Cohn in Schnorrs Archiv 9. 277; Boxberger, ibid. 3. 283, 4. 496; Minor, ibid. 10. 97; Boxberger, Die Sprache der Bibel in S.'s Raubern (Erfuit, 1867, Progr.) ; K. Richter, S. und seine Rauber in der franzosischen Revolu- tion (Griinberg, 1865). — Fresco: J. Franck, Zs. 20, 366. — Bon Carlos: Re- print of 1st ed. by W. Vollmer (Stuttg. 1880); see Levy, Zs. 21. 277.— Wallenstein : Siivcni, Uber S.'s W. in Hinsicht auf griechi>che Tragodie (Beil. 1800); K. Tomaschek, S.'s W. (Vienna, 1858); Fie'itz, Studien, p. 7; Schnorr's Archiv ii. 150, 402, viii. 544, ix. 560. — Maria Stuart : Fielitz, p. 44. Maid of Orleans: Fielitz, p. 71 ; Peppmiiller in Schnorr's Archiv 2, 179; Rompler, Bermerkungen zur Schiller's J. v. O. (Plauen, 1872, Progr.) ; E. F. Kummer, Die J. v. O. in der Dichtung (Vienna, i^^j^).— Bride of Messina: Gerlinger, Die griechischen Elemente in S.'s B. v. M. (Augsb. 185S); Gevers, tjber S.'s B. v. M. und den Konig CEdipus des Sophokles (Verden, 1873, Progr.); Liebrecht, Zur Volkskunde (Heilbronn, 1^79), p. 471; Imelmann, Anm. zu deutschen Dichtem, p. 16. — Wilhelm Tell: notes by W. E. Weber (18 9, 2nd ed. Bremen, 1852); see Joachim Meyer, S.'s W. T. auf seine Quellen zuriickgefiihrt (Nuremberg, i8io); Schnorr's Archiv i. 461, 2.539, 544; Imelmann, Anmerkungen p. 19. For the legend, W, Fischer, Die Sage von der Befreiung der Waldstadte nach ihrer allmaligen Ausbildung (Leipzig, 1S67) ; E. L. Rochholz, Tell und Gessler in Sage und Geschichte (Heilbronn, 1877). 59^ Bibliography. XIII. Romanticism, ii. pp. 229-335. R. Haym's work, Die roinantische Schule (Berl., 1870) only gives the older Romanticism, and does not extend much beyond the beginning of the 19th century. The same applies to Dilthey's Lebei) Schleiermachers (Berl , 1870). I have extended the term Romanticism so as to include Heinrich Heine, and have named the whole period between Schillers death and thedea'h of Goethe after the prevailing tone of ideas. For the connection between the * Period of Genius,' and Romanticism, see Deutsche Litteraturre^olution, Sch 's Voitrage und Au'"satze, p. 337. The great example of this connection is Goethe's Faust. F'or divisions 2 to 4, see J. v. Eichendoiff, Gesch. der poet. Litt. Deutschlands, vol. 2 (Paderb. i8j6). H, Hettner, Die romantische Schule (Brunswick, 1850). 1. Science^ ii. pp. 231-259. For the persons here mentioned, see Godeke 3, 81-124. The imp7-ovement of the language. With the exception of Andersen's Uber die Sprache Jacob Grimm's (Ltipz 1869), little has been written on this sub- ject, and indeed, the history of German prose writing is very imperfect. For Fr. L Jahn, see the Monograph by Luler (St>ttg, 1881), p. 441. Women. SchiLer's sister-in-law, Caroline v. Wolzogen, the authoress of the novel Ai,nes von Lilien, see Litterarischer Nachlass der Frau C. v. W., 2 vols., 2d ed. (Leipz , 1867). For Bettina, see G. v Loper, A D. B. ii. 578, and Hermann Grimm (above, XII. i). Rahel v. Varnhagen. ' Rahel, ein Buch des Andenkens fiir ihre FVeunde ' (Berl., J833, in 3 vols ; Berl., 1834). Letters to David Veit. 2 vols (l.eipz., i8ji) ; to Varnhagen, 6 vols, (Leipz, 1874, 75' ; Aus kahels Herzensleben (Leipz , 1877); see Godeke iii., 79. Henrietta Herz. J. Fiirst, H. H. ihr Leben und ihr Erinnerimgen, 2d ed. iBerl., 1858); Briefe desjungen Borne an H H. (Ldpz., 1861) Caroline Schelling, nee Michaelis, G. Waitz, Caroline, 2 vols. (Leipz., 187 1). Caroline und ihre Freunde (Leipz., 1882). See R. Haym, Preuss. Jahrb. vol. 28, 356 ; Sch. Vortrage und Auf'^atze, p. 356. Philosophy. Among the philosophers the history of literature is most occupied with Schopenhauer for style, and Schelling for poetry. For Schelling, besides the well-known terza rima, ' Die letzten Worte des Pfarrers zu Drottning auf Seeland ' (Aus Schellings Leben i. 293), and some other poems in Schle.<,'el and Tieck's Musenalmanach for 1802, see also the ' Epikurisch Glaubensbe- kenntnis Heinz Widerporstens' (aus Schelling s Ltben i 182, where, however, it is not noted that II. W. is a character from Hans Sachs, Keller v, 321) ; and ' Nachtwachen von Bo aventura ' (Reprint, Lindau and Leipz., 1877; see Zs. xxiii. 203). Mathematics and Natural Sciences. I have gathered my information chiefly from Whewell's Inductive Sciences, from Haser's Geschichte der Medicin, from Articles in the A. D. B , and especially from the Geschichte der Wissen- schaften in Deutschland, brought out by the Munich Historical Commission. Cosmology and A. v. Humboldt. O. Peschel, Geschichte der Erdkunde (Munich, 1865^ G. Forster's Sammtliche Schriften, 9 vols. (Leipz., 1843); Chapter XIII. 399 Briefwechsel mit Sommerring, pub, by Hettner (Bruns , 1877) '■> on A. v. Hum- boldt, the Monograph edited by Bruhns, 3 vols. (Leipz., 1^72); H. W. Dove, Gedachtnisrede auf A. v. H. (Berl., 18^19) ; see A. v. H. Letters to Varnhagen (Leipz., i860); to Bunsen, (Leipz., 1869); to Gauss (Leipz, 1877); ^^ his brother Wilhelm (^Stuttg., 1880); on A. v, H. and the two Forsters, A. Dove, A. D. B , vii. 166, 172; xiii., 338. On Aar/ filter, the Monograph by Kramer, 2 parts (Halle, 1875), Wilhelm von Humboldt. W, v. H. Gesammelte Werke, 7 vols. (Berl., 1841- 52) ; Uber die Verschiedenheit des menschlichen Sprachbaues ;,reprint by Pott, 2 vols., Berl., 1S76). Die sprachphilosophischen Werke W. v. H , ed. H. Steinthal (Berl., 1883, also Zs. f. Volkerpsychologie, xiii. 201) ; Briefe an F. G. Welcker, ed. R. Haym (Berl , 1859) ; Ansichten iiber Asthetik und Litteratur von W. V. H., ed F. Jonas (^Berl , 18S0) ; Briefe an eine Freundin (Leipz., 1847) ; Briefe an Henriette Herz (Varnhagen, Br von Chamisso, Gneisenau, &c , i 1-132). See G. Schlesier Erinnerungen an W. v, H., 2 vols. (Stuttg., 1843, 45). R. Haym. W. v. H. Lebensbild und Charakteristik (Berl, 1856) ; H. Steinthal, Gedachtnisrede auf W. v H. (Berl., 1867) ; A Dove, A. D. B. xiii. 338. Moral Science. For Schleiennouhcr , besides Dilthey's Life, see Sigwart, Kleine Schriften, i, 221. — For History, see Baur, Die Epochen der kirchlichen Ge- schichtschreibung (Tiib., 1852) ; Waitz, Gottinger Historiker von Kohler bis Dahlmann (Gotiinger Professoren, p. 231 ^. Gervinus, F. C. Schlosser (Leipz., 1861) ; especially p. 53, Gesjhichte des neunzehnten Jh. viii. 65. Ludwig Tieck. Phantasus, 3 vols. (Berl, 1812-17) ; Works, 20 vols (Berl., 1828-46^; Poems, 3 vols. (Dresden, 1821-2^ ; 2d ed. 1834; "^^ ed. Berl., 1841). Kritische Schriften (Leipz., 1848-52); Gesammelte Novellen, 12 vols. (Berl. 1852-54) ; Nachgelassene Schriften, 2 vols. (Leipz., 1855) ; see R. Kopke, L. T., 2 parts (Leipz., 1855) ; von Friesen, L. T., 2 vols. (Vienna, 1871). A. Stern, Zur Litteratur der Gegenwart (Leipz., 1880), p. 1-44 : Briefe an Tieck, ed. K. v. Holtei, 4 vols. (Breslau, 1^64). A. W. Schlegel. Ed. E. Bocking, Sammt. Werke, 12 vols. (Leipz., 1846-47); CEuvres ecrites en fran9ais, 3 vols. (Leipz., 1846); Opuscula latina (Leipz., 1848); Vorlesungen iibei- schone Litteratur und Kunst, ed. by J. Minor, in Seuffert, No. 17, 19 (Heilbr. 1854). ^^^ M- Bernays, Zur Entstehungsgeschichte des Schlegel- schen Shakespeare (Leipz., 1872); SchnorrV, Archiv, x. 2.,6: Strauss, Kleine Schriften, p. 122. — Fr. Schlegel. Sammtl. Werke, 10 vols. (Vienna, 1822-25, larger ed., 15 vols., 184^) ; his youthful prose works from 1794-1802, pulx by J. Minor, 2 vols. (Vienna, 1882). S.e Dorothea von Schlegel, nee Mendelssohn, und deren Sohne, Briefwechsel, ed. by Raich, 2 vols, v Mainz, 1881). Later J^omantic School. See K. v. Raumer, Geschichte der Germanischen Philologie (Munich, 1870) ; and Sch., Jacob Grimm (Berl. 1865, 2d ed. 1885) ; also Eichendorff, Litt. Nachlass i^Paderb. 1866), p. 290. — Arnim. Sammtl. Weike (Berl., 1839; i^^w ed., 22 vols., 1853-56). Reprint of Hollins' Liebeleben by J. Minor (Freib , 1883), The Wunderhom has been reprinted several times. — Brentano. ( esammelte Schriften, 9 vols. (Frankf, 18- 1-55). See Diel, S. J. Clemens Brentano, ein Lebensiiild, 2 vols. (Freib., 1S77, 78); J. B. Heinrich. CI. B. (Cologne, 1878) ; Grisebach, Die Deutsche Liiteratur (Vienna, 1 876),p. ai8j Varnhagen, Biogr. Portr. (Leipz., 1871), p. 59. — Gorres. Monograph 400 Bibliography. by Sepp; Gesammelte Briefe, 3 vols. (Munich, 1858-1874). — The Brothers Grimm. Sch. A. D. B., ix. 678, 690. Correspondence between Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm in youth, ed. by H. Grimm and G. Hinrichs (Weimar, 1881). Briefw. des Freiherrn K, H. G. v. Meusebach mit J. und W. Grimm, ed. by C. Wendeler (Heilbronn, 1880) ; see H. Grimm's, Fiinfzehn Essays, 3rd series (Berl., 1882), p. 2%^.— Uhland, see XIII. 2. Translations. See Godeke iii. 215-225, 12^^1-1403. He mentions 532 Translators. See too the letters of H. Voss to P r. Diez, pub. by A. Tobler in the Preuss. Jahrb. 51, 9. 2. Lyric Poetry y ii. 259-282. Fr. V. Matthisson. Gedichte (Mannheim, 1787) ; Schriften, 8 vols. (Zurich, 1825-29). Fr. Holderlin. Gedichte (Stuttg., 1826) : collected works, 2 vols., (Stuttg., 1846). See Godeke ii, 11 24. A. Jung, F. H. und seine Werke (Stuttg., 1848). Hallensleben, Beitr. zur Charakteristik Holderlins (Amstadt, 1849, Progr.) ; W. Hoffner, H. und die Ursachen seines Wahnsinns (Wester- mann's deutsche Monatshefte Mai. 1867, p. 155). J. Volkelt, F, H. (Im neuen Reich, 1880, No. 37) ; Sch. Vortr. und Aufs. p. 346. J. Klaiber, Holderlin, Hegel und Schelling in ihren schwabischen Jugendjahren (Stuttg., 1877); Wilbrandt Hist. Taschenb., v. Folge i, 371, Joh. Peter Hebel. Works 8 vols. (Karls., 1832-34). Briefe von J. P. H. an einen Freund (Mann., i860. Appendix 1862). Aus Hebels Briefwechsel (Freib., i860) ; Fr. Becker, J. P. Hebel (Basel, i860) ; see Langin, J. P. H. (Karls., i%^z).—/oh. Martin Usteri. Poems, ed. Dav. Hess., 3 vols. (Berl. 1 831). For poetry in local dialects, see Godeke, §§ 308, 346. Novalis. (Fr. v. Hardenberg). Works, ed. by P'r. Schlegel and Tieck, 2 vols. (Berl., 1802; 5th ed., 1837); 3rd vol., ed. by Tieck and E. v. BUlow (Berl., 1846) ; F. v. H. eine Nachlese (Gotha, 1873). Novalis, Briefwechsel mit F. und A. W., Charlotte und Caroline Schlegel, ed. by Raich (Mainz, 1880). See Dilthey, Preuss. Jahrb., xv. 596. Patriotic Poetry. Godeke, § 311 (iii. 225-240) ; The songs of the Burschen- schaft, ibid. § 316 (iii, 258-266). — E. M. Arndt. See R. Haym, Preuss. Jahrb. v. G. Freytag, A. D. B., i. 541 ; Monogr. E. Langenberg (Bonn, 1865) ; V. Loper in Schnorr s Archiv ii. 546 ; Amdt's Briefe, Preuss. Jahrb. 34, 589. E. M. A. Briefe an eine Freundin, pub. by E. Langenberg (Berl., 187^). Justi^ms Kemer. See Strauss, Kl. Schriften, new series, p. 298 ; Marie Niethammer, J. K. Jugendliebe (Stuttg, 1877) — Ludwig Uhlatid. There are va ious editions of his poems and dramas, that of 1876 (3 vols., pub. by W. L. Holland^ contains a chronological table of the poems (ii. 316). A. v. Keller, U. als Dramatiker (Stuttg., 1877) ; Uhland's Schriften zur Geschichte der Dichtung und Sage, 8 vols. (Stuttg., 1865-73), See L. U. Leben von seiner Wittwe (Stuttg., 1874): Fr. Fischer, Kritische Gange, new series, iv. 97 (and for the Wiirtemberg authors in general, Krit. Giinge. i 4-78) ; H. v. Treitschke, Histor. und polit. Aufsaize (Leipz., 1865^, p. 278 ; G. Liebert, L. U. (Hamburg, 1857) ; O. Jahn, L. U. (Bonn, 1863) ; F. Notter, L. U. (Stuttg., 1863) ; Gihr. Chapter XIII. 401 U. Leben (Stuttg., 1864) ; K, Mayer, L. U. seine Freunde und Zeitgenossen, 2 vols. (Stuttg., 1867). For tie ballads and romances, Diintzer Erl. (Stuttg., 1876) ; H. Eichholz Quellenstudien zu Uhlands Balladen (Berl., 1879). A, V. Chamisso. Works, 6 vols. (Leipzig, 1836-49) ; see Vamhagen, Briefe von Chamisso, Gneisenau, &c., i. 135 : Fulda, Ch. und seine Zeit. (Leipz., 1S81) : — /. V. Eichendorff. Sammtliche poetische Werke, 4 vols. (3rd ed., Leipz., 1883) : Vermischte Schriften, 5 vols. (Paderborn, 1866). — Wilhelm Midler. Ver- mischte Schriften, ed. G. Schwab, 5 vols. (Leipz., 1830) : Gedichte von W. M. with introduction by F. Max Miiller, 2 parts (Leipz., 1868). Goethe s Westostlicher Divan. Commentary by C. Wurm (Nuremberg, 1834^; von Loper's annotated edition (Berl., Hempel) ; ed. Simrock, with extracts from the book of Kabus (Heilbronn, 1875) ; Diintzer in the Erl. (Leipz., 1878). — Friedrich Riickert. Gesammelte poetische Werke, 12 vols. (Frankf., 1867, 69 ; last ed., 1882). See Fortlage, F. R. und seine Werke (PVankf., 1867) ; C. Beyer, F. R. ein biographisches Denkmal (Frank., 1868); Nachgelassene Gedichte, F. R. und neue Beitrage zu dessen Leben und Schriften (Vienna, 1877) ; G. Voigt, F. R. Gedankenlyrik nach ihrem philosophischen Inhalte dar- gestellt (Annaberg, 1881) ; see too A. Sohr, Heinrich Riickert (Weimar, i^'^Q).— August Graf von Platen- Hallermiinde. Ed., 2 vols. (Stuttg., 1876); 3 vols. (Berl., Hempel) ; see Platen's Tagebuch (Stuttg., i860), and the works mentioned in Godeke (3, 571). Heinrich Heine. Sammtl. Werke, 21 vols. (Hamb., 1861-63); see A. Strodtmann, M. H.'s Leben und Werke, 2 vols. (Berl., 1867, 69). 3. Narrative Writings ii. pp. 282-301. See the passage on narrative poetry in Koberstein, vol. 5, p. 3-155. On romances, Eichendorff, Der deutsche Roman des 18" Jh. in seinem Verhaltnis zum Christenthum (Paderb. 1866). Epics. Ernst Schulze (Sammtl. poet. Werke, 3rd ed., 5 parts, Leipz. 1855, with life by R. Marygraff). A. Blumauer (Die travestirte yEneide, ed. by E. Grisebach, Leipz. 1872), Karl A Kortum (Jobsiade, 13th ed., by Ebeling, Leipz. 1868). Arnim, Gedichte, p. 212. ' Geschichte des Mohrenjun- gen,' from the Dolores i. 233, (ed. 1840). Novels. '■Anton Reiser," see W\ Alexis in Prutz, Lilterarhist. Taschenb. 1847, p 1-71; E. Schmidt, Richardson, Rousseau, und Goethe, p. 289; ' Siegwart^ see E. Schmidt, 302. * Siegfried von Lindenberg^ (latest ed. Leipz., 1867). Jean Paul Friedrich Richter, Siimmliche Werke, 60 vols. (,Berl. 1826- 28), 33 vols. (Berl. 1840-42) : see R. O. Spazier, J. P. ¥. R. ein biographi- scher Commentar zu dessen Wei ken, 5 vols. (Leipz. 1833), and besides the books mentioned by Godeke, ii. 1121, E. Forster, Denkwiirdigkeitin aus dem Leben von J. P F. R., 4 vols. (Munich, 1863) ; P. Nerrlich, J P. und seine Zeitgenossen (Berl. 1876): Briefe von Charlote von Kalb an J. P. und des-en Gattin, ed. P. Nerrlich (Berl. 1882) : K. C Planck, J P 's Dichtung im Lichie unsc;rer nationalen Entwicklung (Berl. 1867) : Fr. Vischer, Kritische Gauge, new series vi. 1 33 Tales. Gottlieb Meissner, (see A. Meissner, Rococobilder, 2iid ed., Lindau and Leipz., 1876). — * Undine,' on its origin, Fouque in his * Musen,' 1812, Part VOL. II. D d 402 Bibliography. iv. p. 198 ; Theophrastus alluded to the Knight of Staufenberg, so that the poem written in rhymed couplets about 1300 by Eckenolt, a follower of Konrad of Wlirzburg, and printed at Strassburg in 1480, and modernised by Fischart in 1588 (ed. Janicke, Altdeutsche Studien, Berl. 1871), still exercised an influence. — ' Schemihl' for its origin see Chamisso, vi. 117, Fulda, p. 125-136. For the superstition see Grimm, Myth. 976 ; Miillenhoff, Schleswig-holstein- ische Sagtn, p. 554: Rochholz, Germ. v. 69, 175 — Hoffmann. Gesammelte Schriften, 12 vols. (Berl., latest 1871-73), see Hitzig, Aus H.'s Leben und Nachlass, 2 vols. (Berl. 1823): Z. Funck, Aus dem Leben zweier Dichter (Bamberg, 1836). Goethe. * Wilhelm Meister ; ' see F. Gregorovius, Goethe's W. M. in seinen socialistischen Elementen entwickelt (Konigsb. 1849) : A. Jung, G. Wander- jahre und die wichtigsten Fragen des 19" Jh. (Mainz, 1854) : Diintzer, Erl. For the astronomical Episode, W. Forster in Wesiermann's Monatshefte 46, 330, see 47. 130. ^ Die Wahlverwandschafte^i,^ ste Rotscher Abh zur Philosophie der Kunst, Part 2, (Berl, 1838) : Diintzer, Erl. ; H. Grimm, Fiinfzehn Essays, p. 239 ; Brahm, Zs. xxvi. 194. A letter by Minchen Herzlieb, the supposed original of Ottilia, has been published by Martin, Zs. xxvi. 376. 4. The Drama, ii. pp. 301-335. Goethe. 'A Christian martyr, in early Saxon tiniest see v. Biedermann, Goethe = Forschun gen, p 1 5^ --'Pandora ' Diintzer, G. Piometheusui d Pandora (Leipz. i8:,o). Erl (1874) Scholl, G. (p. 41S); Sch., Deutsche Rundschau, April, 1879. Theodor Korner. Sammtl. Werke, ed. K. Streckfuss, (Berl. 1834)—.^. Ohlenschlager. Schriften, 18 vols. (Breslau, 1829, 30): Werke, 21 vols. (Breslau, 1839) — Zacharias Werner. Ausgew. Schriften, 13 vols. (Grimma, 1841) : see Hitzig, Lebensabriss F, L. Z. Werners (Berl. 1823) : H. Diintzer, Zwei Bekehrte (Leipz. 1873): E. Schmidt, Schnorrs Archiv vi. 233: A. Hagen, Altpreuss. Monatsschrift xi. 8 p. 625. —'Wo. fate-tragedies, see O. Brahm, Schnorrs Archiv ix. 207 ; J. Minor, Die Schicksals tragodie (F"rankf. 1883). Karl Immermann. K. I. 2 vols. (Berl. 1870); Werke, (Berl., Hempel\ On the ' Frederick II,' see Raupach to Immermann in Holtei, Dreihundeit Briefe aus 2 Jahrhunderten (Hanover, 1872), iii. 60. Christian Grabbe. Gott- schall, 2 vols. (Leipz., 1869) ; Blumenthal, 4 vols. (Detmold, 1874). Raupach. Godtke, iii. 531-553. For the ,Nibelungen in modern poetry see G. R. Rope, Die moderne Nibelungendichtung, (Hamb. 1869) ; H. von Wolzogen, Der Nibelungenmythos in Sage und Litteratur (Berl. 1876) ; K. Rehorn. Die deutsche Sage von den Nibelungen in der deutschen Poesie (Frankf. 1877): J. Stammhammer, Die Nibelungen-Dramen seit 1850 (Leipz. 1878). Heinrich von Kleist. Gesammelte Schriften, ed. Tieck, revised by Julian Schmidt ^Berl. 1859); Werke (Berl. HempeL : see R. Kohler, Zu H. von K. Werken (Weimar, 1862) ; H. v. K. Politische Schriften, ed R. Kopke (Berl. 1862); E. von Eiilow, H. von K. Leben and Briefe (Berl. iS'48); H. von K. Briefe an seine Schwester Ulrike, ed. A. Koberstein (i860): H. von K. Briefe ?n seine Brant, ed. K. Biedermann (Breslau, 1884) ; see A. Wilbrandt H. von K. (Nordlingen, 1863) ; Th. Zoliing, H. v. K. in der Schweiz (Sluttg , 1883) ; Chapter XIII. 4^3 E Schmidt, in the Osterr. Rundschau, Part 2 (Vienna, 1883), p. 127. Julian Schmidt Preuss. Jahrb, 37, 593 ; O. Erahm, H. v. K, E. (Berlin, 1884) ; also Lloyd and Newton, Prussia's representative man (London, 1875). Drama in Vienna. See H. M. Richter, Geistesstromungen (Berl, 1875). Wlassak, Chronik des K. K. Hof Burgtheatc;rs .Vienna. 1876). Godeke has done good service in the history of the popular Theatre (iii. 796-845). Sauer in the ' Wiener Neudrucke * gives in Nos. 2 and 4 pieces by Kurz, and C. G. Klemm.— y^. Schreyvogel {zAo'^Xit^ name. West); see A. Schonbach, J. Schrey- vogel West (Appendix to the Wiener Abendpost 1879, Nos. 52-56). Grillparzer. Sammtliche Werke, 10 vols (Stuttg. 1872) : (Theob. v. Rizy.) Wiener Grillparzer- Album (Stuttg., 1877) : see Sch., Vortr. und Aufs. p. 193- 307, and the works there mentioned, p. 196; Faulhammer, F. G. 'Gratz, 1884); G. Wolf, Grillp. als Archivdirector (Vienna. 1874): L. A. P'rankl Zur Biographic F. G. (Vienna, 1883). Raimiind. Sammtliche Werke, ed. Glossy and Sauer, 3 vols. (Vienna, 1881). A characteristic letter of Raimund on the • Verschwender ' is given in Schnorrs Archiv v. 279. Faust. On the historical Faust : (Text, vol. i. 299) W. Creizenach, in the A. D. B. vi. 583. There is a reprint (Halle. 1878) of the first ed. of the ' His- toric,' and a photographic facsimile in Sch., Deutsche Drucke alterer Zeit, ii. (Berl. 1884), Faust's Leben by G. R. Widmann. pub. by A. v. Keller (Tiib. iS^o) is in fact the Faust- book of Dr. Pfitzer. On the origin of the popular book see Hermann Grimm, Funfzehn Essays, 3rd Series, p. 192 — The Faust of Marlowe was introduced to the German public by W^ilheim Midler, in a translation (Berl. 1818, with a Preface by A. v. Amim). On its history in Germany see W. Creizenach. Versuch einer Gcsohichte des Volksschauspiels vom Dr. Faust (Halle, 1878) ; also F. Lichtenstein. in the Zs. fiir osterr. Gymn. 1879, P- 9^^' There was a performance at Berlin which was perhaps attended by Leasing, June 14, 1754 vSchnoirs Archiv xi. 175): another at Strassburg, where Goethe may have been present, in 1770 (ibid. viii. .^60) — On Lessings Faust. E. Schmidt in the Goethe Jahrbuch ii. 65 (also iii. 77, iv, 127, as an introduction to Goethe's Faust\ The Johann Faust of IVeidmann exists in a reprint by E. Engel (Oldenburg, 1877). For the Faust of Julius v. Voss see W. Menzel's Deutsche Dichtung, iii. 219. Goethe's Faust. Annotated editions by Lbper (2nd ed. Berl. 1870), Schroer (Heilbr. 1881); Diintzer (Berl. and Stuttg.). Commentaries: Schubarth (Berl. 1830): De\cks, (Frankf 1855) ; W E W^eber (Halle, 1836) ; C. H. Weisss Leipz , 1837) ; Leutbecher (Nuremberg, 1838); E. Meyer (Altona, 1847); H. Diintzer (Leipz., 185^ also Erl.) ; Hartu: g (Leipz., 1H55): Kostlin (Tiib. i860); Kreyssig (Berl., 1866); Sengler (Berl., 187-): K. Fischer (Stuttg., 1877); Marbach (Leipz., 1881) ; Schreyer (Halle, 1881). See Julian Schmidt (Pieuss. Jahrb. 39, 361) and ¥r. Vischer, Krit. Gange, ii. 4'): new series, iii. 135; Krit. Bemerkungen liber G.'s Faust, Part i (Ziirich, 1857) ! ^ s Faust, neue Beitrage zur Kritik des Gedichts (Stuttg., 187.^) ; Altes und Neues, ii. (Stuttg., 18S1), p. 1. See Sch., Aus G.'s Friihzeit, Q. F. xxxiv. 76, 94 ; Max Rieger, G.'s F""aust nach seinem religiosen Gehalte ("Heidelberg, 1181), p. 37 ; and also Sch., in Deutsche Rundschau, 1884, May. D (1 2 APPENDIX TO THE BIBLIOGRAPHY. 1. The Aryans, pp. 3-6. On anecdotes, fairy stories and short tales, Scherer's Poetik, p. 14 (Ber lin, 1888). On riddles, Wilmanns, Zs., xx. p. 252. 2. Germanic Religioii, pp. 6-9. On Dyaus, the Aryan Heaven-God, Sitzungsber. d. Berl. Ak., 1884, p. 571. The Conception of Sundgund. See Denkm., p. 276. 3. Oldest Remains of Poetry, pp. 10-15. On the priests as proclaimers of the law, Bninner, Deutsche Rechts- geschichte, i. (Berlin, 1887), p. 143. 1. The Heroic Songs, pp. 19-27, Employment of Runes, Wimmer, Die Runenschrift libers. Von Hol- thausen (Berlin, 1887). 3. The Merovingians, pp. 32-37. On the origin of Irish Christianity, Zimmer, Kettische Studien, ii. p. 197. 2. The Medieval Renaissance, pp. 46-53. Hermann Grimm, Das Reiterstandbild des Theodorich zu Achen (Berlin, 1869). The St. Gall literature of the old high German period is comprehen- sively treated by Baechtold, Gesch. d. dtsch. Litt. in der Schweiz, i. I^ief. (Frauenfeld, 1887). Zeumer shows that Notker Balbulus is the author of the Gesta Karoli, Historische Aufsatze dem Andenken an Georg Waitz gewidmet (Hannover, i886). Roswitha : Studien u. Mittheilungen aus dem Benedictiner-und Cister- cienser-OrdenJahrg., 5. 3. The Wandering Journalists, pp. 53-59. Concerning the expression youmalists, see Breslau Konrad, U. (Leipzig, 1884) 2, 392. Seelmann's correction of Denkm., No. 18, on the mixed Latin Bibliography. 405 and German poetry in the Song of Otho the Great, and Henry, in Nd. Jahrb., 12, 78. 1. Latin Literature, pp. 62-71. Rudlieb, Zs., 29. I. 2. Lady World, pp. 71-79. *yi««<7/zV^,' Wilmanns' Beitr. z. Gesch. d. alt. dtsch. Litt., 2 (Bonn, 1886). ^ Kaiserchronik,' Schroeder, in press. Worship of the Virgin. See NOrrenberg, Beitr., 9, 412. 3. The Crusades, pp. 79-91. Lambrechfs Alexander, Kinzel (Halle, 1884), Konrad's Rolandslied, con- cerning its sources ; Golther, des Rolandslied des Pf. K. (Munich, 1886). Shorter Epics : 'Konig Rother,' see Germ., 29, 257 ; ' Orendel' Berger (Bonn, 1888) ; St. Oswald, Berger, Beitr., il, 365. Graf Rudolf , for the sources, Singer Zs., 30, 379. On the legend of the sleeping emperor and its application to Frederick H., Hausner Kaiser- sagen, Progr. (Bruchsal, 1 881). 2. The Nibelungenlied, pp. 101-115. MS. (A) of the Nibelungenlied (phototype copy, with introduction by Leistner, Munich, 1886). 4. Ortnit and Wolfdietrich, pp. 120-123. * Ortnit,' SeemUller Zs., 26, 201. The Epics of Chivalry, p. 136. The * Tristan ' of Eilhard von Oberge, eine Alt^echische Uebertragung Zs., 28, 261. See Knieschek, Wiener Sitzungsb., loi, 319, und Lichtenstein, Zs., 28. Anzi. For the sources : Romania, 15, 481 ; Golther, Tristan und Isolde (Munich, 1887). 1. Heinrich von Veldeke, pp. 137-145. Veldeke' s followers : Otte, author of ' Eraclius.' See Schroeder, G. G. A., 1884, p. 563. 2. Hartmann von Aue and Gottfried voti Strassburg, pp. 145-161. Heinrich de? Glichezare, Reissenberger (Halle, 1S86). For the sources, Martin, Observations sur le roman de Renart (Strassb., 1887). Friedrich von Hausen, Heimat : Zs. 32, 41. Reinmar von Hagenau. Burdach ; Zs. 28, 13, gegen Becker, Der altheimische Minnesang (Halle, 1885). Schultz, Zs. 31, 185 refers to an imitation of the Trouv^re Auboin de Sezane. 4o6 Appendix. Hartmann von Aue, H. Kauffmann. On Hartmann's Lyrik (Diss. Leipz., 1884), ' Gregotius,' Latin, translated by Arnold von Liibeck (c. 1210), published by Buchwald (Kiel, 1S86). Kolbing, Beitr. z. Gesch. d. romant. Poesie im M-A. (Breslau, 1876). Sulisch, Zs. f. d. Phil. 19, 385. ^ Derarmi Heini'ich.'* Wackemagel (published by Toischer, Basel, 1885). Iwein, Original : Der Lowenritter (Yvain) des Christian v. Troyes. Ed. W. Forster (Halle, 1887); in addition, Rotteken, Die Epische Kunst Hein- richsvon Beldekeu. Hartmanns v. A. (Halle, 1887). Gottfried von Strassburg. Bahnsch, Tristanstudien (Progr. Dantzig, 1885). 3. WolfraiJt von Eschenbach, pp. 161-176. Parzival and Titurel. Botticher, Das Hohelied vom Ritterthum, eine Beleuchtung des Parzival (Berlin, 1886). For the date of the works, Stosch, Zs. 27, 313. On the ' Tagelied* Romer, Volksth. Dichtungsarten der Prov. Lyrik (Marburg, 1884), p. 3 ; de Gruyter, Das deutsche Tagelied, Diss (Leipz. 1887). 4. Successors of the Great Chivalrous Poets, pp. 176-186. The 'Lanzelet^ of Ulrich von Zetzikon. See Schiitze, Das VolksthumL Element im Stile U. v. Z. (Diss Greifswald, 1883). Original, G. Paris, Romania, 10, 465. Freshly invented Epics. The 'Garel vom blahenden Thai,' Steinmeyer, G. G. A., 1887, No. 21. Continuations of. Wolfram's and Gottfried's works. For the MSS. see Lohmeyer (Cassel, 1883). Rudolph von Ems. * Alexander.' see O. Zingerle, Die Quellen zum Alexander des R. v. E. (Breslau, 1885, Weinhold's Germanist, Abh. 4). Konrad von Wiirzburg. On page 180 it is asserted that K. v. W. died at the same time as his wife and daughters. This error has been recently corrected by A. Schulte (Zs. f. die Gesch. des Oberrheins, 40, 495). The disciples of Wolfram von Eschenbach. ' Lorengel,' see Elfter, Beitrage zur Kritik des L. Beitr. 10, 81. ' Der Heilige Georg.'see Zs. 32, Anz. 145. Bruno von Schonebeck. A. Fischer. Das Hohe Lied des B. v. Sch. (Breslau, 1886, Weinhold's Germanist, Abh. 6). VIL Poets and Preachers, pp. 187-234. The ' Wartburghfieg.' Strack, Zur Gesch. d. Gedichtes vom Wkr. Diss. (Berlin, 1883). Wilmanns, Zs. 28, 206, Anz. 326. 2. Minnesang and Meisiersang, pp. 201-212. The Schweitzer Minnesanger, herausg. von Bartsch (Frauenfeld, 1886). Ubich von Lichtenstein. Bechstein (Leipzig, 1887). Johann Hadlaub Bartsch, Schweizer MS. No. 27. Bibliography. 407 3. Didactic Poetry, Satire and Tales, pp. 212-222. Mit Kofiig Tirol. Leitzmann (Halle, 1887). Werner von Elmendcrf, Saueriand, Zs., 30, r. A rich but wholly uncritical selection from the instructive literature of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries is to be found in Vetter 12, 2. The so-called Seifried Helbing. Edited by Seemuller (Halle. 1886). Enenkel. Strauch, Zs. 28, 35. The ' Weinschwelg,' published with a translation, Lucae (Halle, 1886). 4. The Mendicant Orders, pp. 222-234. On the Heretics. K. Muller, Die Waldenser (Gotha, 1886). Brother Berthold of Regensburg. On the tradition, see Schonbach, Zs. 25, Anz. 337 ; Zs. 28, Anz. 31. Meisier Eckkart, Denifle, M. E.'s lateinischen Schriften und die Grundlage s. Lehre im Archiv. f. Litt. und Kirchen- Geschichte des M. A., 2, 417. Opposition to the Papal Power. Of late it has been maintained that the most widely circulated translation of the Bible before Luther was of heretical "Waldensian origin. VIII. The Close of the Middle Ages, pp. 235-270. On the discovery of printing. See further, Kapp, Geschichtedes deutchen Buchhandels bis ins 17 Century (Leipzig, 1886). 1. The Drama, pp. 238-246. Froning, Zur Geschichte u. Beurth d. geistl. Speile des M. A. (Frankf. 1884). Wackemell, Die altesten Passionsspiele in Tyrol (Vienna, 1887). Sterzinger Spiele, ed. O. Zingerle, Vienna, 18S6 (Vienna Neudrucke, 9, II). Mittelniederdeutsche Fastnachtspiele, ed. W. Seilmann (Norden, 1885). Luzerner, Zs. f. d. Phil., 17, 347. Stage and Scenery. Brandstetter, Die Regenz bei der Luzerner Oster- spielen (Lucerne, 1886). Dramatic Varieties. Holthausen, Germ. , 31, no. I. Mysteries, or Miracle Plays, (b) Passion and Easter plays. Lange, Die lateinischen Osterfeiern (Munich, 1887). 4. Macropedius (D. Jacoby, A. D. B. 20, 19, Progr. Berl. t886). Albrecht von Eyb, his Griseldis, ed. Strauch, Zs. 2g, 372 : his translations, Gtinther, Plautusemeuerungen in der D. Litt. d. 15-17 Jh. (Diss. Leipz. 1886). 2. Songs and Ballads, pp. 246-253. Volkslied. Ballads : Meyer von Kronau, Die Schweiz. hist. Volkslieder des 15 Jh. ^Zurich. 1870). 408 Appendix. The evidence afforded by the Limburger Chronicle in the Jahrb. f. musik. Wissenschaft, i, 15, is to be corrected by the new edition of the Chronicle by Wysz in the Mon Germ. Deutsche Chroniken, 4, i (Hanover, 1883). 3. Rhymed Couplets, pp. 253-259. On the middle low German literature in general, see Ltibben in the Jahr- buch des Ver. fur niederdeutsche Sprachforschung, i, 5; Seelmann in s. Ausg. des (falschen) Gerhard von Minden (Bremen, 1878), P. IX. Reineke Fuchs. Ysengrimus, Ausg. Voigt (Halle, 1884); Le Roman de Renart, Martin, 3 vols. (Strassb. 1882-87). Martin, Observations sur le roman de Renart (Strassb. 1887). Prien (Halle, 1887) on the high German translation, Prien (Prog. Neumiinster, 1887). Sebastian Brand. Martin, A. D. B., 23, 67; new edition. ' Miihle von Schwindelsheim,' Strassb. Stud. 2, i; ' Geistliche Badenfahrt,' by Martin (Strassb. 1887). 4. Prose, pp. 259-264. Other Prose Writings: Sermons. Schonbach, Altdeutsche, Predigten I. (Graz. 1886); Linsenmayer, Gesch. der Predigt. in Deutschland bis zum Ausgang des 14 Jh. (Munich, 1886). 5. Humanism,, pp. 264-270. A work, whose lack hitherto has been sorely felt, is just beginning to appear: G. Kaufman, Die Geschichte der deutschen Universitaten, vol. i., Vorgeschichte (Stuttgart, 1888). On the Erfurt Circle. The correspondence of Mutianus Rufus, ed. Krause (Cassel, 1885), Einert, Grotus Rubianus Zs. der Ver. f. thiir. Gesch., 12, 3. 1. Martin Luther, pp. 272-282. Of the great complete critical edition of Luther's works, vols. 1-4 have appeared (Weimar, 1883-S6); of the former issue, published first in Erlangen, tben in Frankfort, now in Calwer, there have appeared vols. T-20 and 24-26. in two editions (Frankfort, 1863-1885). His Position with Regard to the New Learning. Werckshagen, Luther und Hutten (Wittenberg, 1888). Translation of the Bible. L. Keller connected with the Codex Teplen- sis his hypothesis of the Waldensian origin of this most widely circulated translation of the Bible previous to Luther; for the literature of this ques- tion, see Zs. f . d. Phil. 20, iff., W. Kraft, Ueber die d. Bibeliibers. vor L. u. dessen Verdienste um dieselbe (Bonn, 1883). Language. P. Pietsch, Martin Luther und die hochdeutsche Schrift- sprache (Breslau, 1883); K. Burdach, Die Einigung der neuhochdeutschen Bibliography. 409 Schriftsprache (Leipzig, 1884); Kluge, Von Luther bis Lessing (Strassburg, 1888); Schroeder, Gott., Gel. Anz. 1888, No. 7. On Grammars, Reiffer- scheid, A. D. B., 24, 301. 3. Luther's Associates and Successors, pp. 282-290. On Johann Eberlin von Giinzburg. M. Radlkoser (Nordl. 1887). The ' Grobianus ' of Kaspar Scheid, see Strauch, Vierteljahrschr., i, 64. For the Bildergedichten, Wendeler, Schnorr's Archiv, 12, 485; new edition of the Geschichtklitterung v. Alsleben (Halle, 1887), see G. Schwarz, Rabelais und Fischart (Halle, 1885). 3. Secular Literature^ pp. 290-300. On Wimpfeling. Martin, Translation of the Germania W's (Strassburg, 1885) and Strasb. Stud. 3, 470. German Autobiographies. Gotz, von Ber- lichingen, ed. by Franck von Steigerwald, new edition by Bieling (Halle, 1888). The Latin Poets. There is a comprehensive list of them in Goedeke, 2d ed.. § 113. Translations. Harlfelder, Deutsche Uebersetzungen klass. Schriftsteller aus dem Heidelberger Humanistenkreis (Heidel, Progr. 1884). Fables. Luther's Fables. Edited from the manuscript by Thiele (Halle, 1888). For Spangenberg, Ausgew. Dichtungen von W. Sp. (Elsass, Litt. Denkm., 4, Strassburg, 1887). Secular Songs, v. Waldberg, Die Deutsche Renaissancelyrik (Berlin, 1888). 4. The Drama from 1 517-1620, pp. 300-314. Luther and tke Drama. Bolte, Mark. Forsch., 18, 194 f. Various sorts of Drama. For foseph in Egypt, A. von Weilen, Der gegyptische Joseph im Drama des i6th Jh. (Vienna, 1887). Luther's Circle. Thomas Naogeorg, G. Schmidt, A. D. B., 23, 245. English Actors. Meissner, Die Englische ComOdianten in Oesterreich (Vienna, 1S84). Schnorr's Archiv, 13, 315, 14, 113. Landgrave Maurice oi Hesse. Duncker, Deutsche Rundschau Aug. 1886. Goedeke, 2d, 522. 5. The Thirty Years" War, pp. 314-330. Witkowski, Diederich von dem Werder (Leipz. 1887). Borinski, Die Poetik der Renaissance und die Anfange der literar. Kritik in Deutschland (Berlin, 1886). Martin Opitz. Veranek M. O. in seinem Verhaltniss zu Scaliger und Ronsard (Progr. Vienna, 1883). Fritsch, M. O., Buch von der ' Deutschen Poeterei ' (Halle, 1884), Beitr. 10, 591 ; Sievers Beitr. 10, 205 ; Borinski, p. 56, 114. On the German Hiatus. Scherer, Abhandlungen in den Commen- tationes Mommsenianae (Berlin, 1S77, p. 213). 4 1 Appendix. Simon Dock. Gedichte des Konigsberger Dichterkreises, ed. by Fischer (Halle, 1883). Johanii RisU Dichtungen ed. von Goedeke und Gotz. (Leipz. 1885) ; see Gaedertz, Niederdeutsches Schauspiel (Berlin, 1884), i. 34 ; Akad Bll., I. 385, 441 ; \. Walther, Zs. 28, Anz. 103. 1. Religion and Science, pp. 335-359. Justus Georg Schottelius. Jacoby, Zs. 23, Anz. 172. Martin von Cochem. The most reliable account of his life and works is given in the book of the Mentz nun, Maria Bernhardina, P. Martin von Cochem (Mentz, 1886) ; the passage quoted is taken from a Munich edition of the great Life of Christ of the year 1682 (Breslau Stadtbibliothek). "Judas der Ertzschelm," Auswahl von Bobertag (D. N. L.) ; see Mareta on J. d. E. (Vienna, 1875). Protestants. Zinzendorf, Becker, Z. im Verhaltniss zu Philosophic und Kirchenthum s. Zeit (Leipzig, 1886). Fufendorf, Breslau, A. D. B., 26, 701. 1. The Refinement of Popular Taste, pp. 359-382. Bombast. The lyrical poetry of this period is described by Von Wald- berg. Die galante Lyrik, Q. F., 56(Strassb. 1885), and Deutsche Renaissance- Lyrik (Berlin, 1888). Patriots and Satirists. On the ' Arraincultus,' see J. Riffert Herrig's Archiv, 63, 129, 241 ; v. Hofmann, Willenhoff Grazer Progr. (1887). Johann Lauremberg. Monogr. L. Daae Om Humanisten og Satiriken, Johann Lauremberg (Christiana, 1884). Popular Songs. Schwieger's Geharnschte Venus, reprint (Halle, t888). For Grefiinger, Bolte, Zs. 31, Anz. T03. Christian Weise. Fulda, Die Gegner d. 2 Schles. Schule, Bd, 2 (D. N. L.). French Influence and the Opposition to it in Prussia. Canitz, Monogr. Lutz (Munich, 1887). Johann Christian Gunther. Ausg. Fulda, D. N. L. English Influence. K. Jacoby, Die ersten Moral. Wochenschriften Hamburgs (Hambr. Progr. 1S88) ; W. Kawerau, Aus Magdeburgs Ver- gangenheit (Halle, 1886). Further, Th. Vetter. Der Spectator als Quelle der ' Discurse der Maler ' (Frauenfeld, 1887). Albrecht von Haller. Seuffert, Zs. 28, Anz. 239. C. Bodemann, Von u. iiber A. v. H. (Hannover, 1885). See letters from Anna Maria von Hage- dorn to her younger son, Christian Ludwig, 1731-32, edited by Litzmann (Hamburg, 1885) ; Eigenbrodt, H. und die Erzahlung in Reimversen (Ber- lin, t88a). Bibliography. 4II 3. The Novel, pp. 382-393. Bobertag, Gesch. des Romans, ii. 2 (Berlin, 1884). Schelmuffsky. Reprint of the two parts (Halle, 1885) ; see Ber. d. Sachs. Ges. d. Wiss., 1887, pp. 44, 253, 306. On Renter as a playwright, see Schlentlier, Frau Gottsched, p. 123 ; Ellinger, Zs. f, d. Phil., 20, 289. Robinson Crusoe. Strauch, Zs. f. Gesch. u. Politik, 188S, p. 537. 4. The Drama, pp. 393-401. Artistic and School Drama. Gottsched. Schlenther, Frau Gottsched, p. 83. Ruhle, Das Deutsche Schaferspiel im 18 Jh. Diss. (Halle, 1885). Popular Drama. Der Ungliickseelige Todesfall Caroli XII. ed. C. Heine (Halle, 1888), on Magister Velthen, Heine, Johannes Velten (Diss. Halle, 1887). XI. The Age of Frederick the Great, ii. pp. 1-141. A. SchOne, Akad BU. i, 569, and p. 415. 1. Leipzig, ii. pp. 2-19. Krause, Friedrich d. Gr. und die deutsche Poesie (Halle, 18S4), p. 87 ; see also Litzmann, Zs. 30, 204. Johann ihristoph. Gottsched, Litzmann, Liscow, p. 129. H. Peter, Pflege der deutschen Poesie auf den sachs. Fllrstenschulen (Meissen, 1884). Frau Gottsched. P. Schleuther, Frau Gottsched u. die biirgerl. Komodie, (Berlin. 1886) ; her letters edited by Von Frau von Runckel, 3 vols. (Leipzig und Dresden, 1771, 72). Johann Elias Schlegcl. W. SSderhjelm, Om Johann Elias Schlegel (Helsingfors, 1884), his aesthetic and dramatic criticism in Seuffert's Litter- aturdenkm. d. 18 u. 19 Jh. No. 26by Antoniewicz. On the Bremer Beitrager, Letters of the Circle, Prohle, Masius' Jahrbucher, 1876, ff. Gottlieb Wilhelm Rabener, P. Richter, Rabenerund Liscow (Progr. Dresden, 1884), D. Jacoby, A. D. B., 27, 78, f. 2. Zurich and Berlin, ii. pp. 19-47. Bodmer and his Circle. Chronik der Gesellschaft der Mahler (Bodmer, Breitinger, Joh. Meister), 1721-22, ed. byTh. Vetter (Frauenfeld, 1887). Frederick the Great. Reprint of the paper De la litterature allemande, by L. Geiger (Seuffert, 16, Heilbronn, 1883), see B. Suphan, Fr, d. Gr., Schrift uber die Deutsche Litteratur (Berlin, 1888). Th. Vilmar Ueber die Quellen der Histoire de la guerre de sept ans F. d. Gr. (Strassburg, Diss., 188S). Halle. C. Schmidt, A. D. B., 26, 784. Thirsis und Damon's ' Freund- schaftliche Lieder,' by Pyra and Lange. Reprint by Sauer, Seuffert, Na 32 (Heilbronn, 1885). 412 Appendix. Ewald Christian von Kleist. A. Chuquet, De Ewaldi Kleistii vita et scriptis (Parisiis, 1887). Ramler, Schliddekopf K. W. Ramler bis zu s. Verbindung mit Lessing (Lpz. Diss. 1886). Klopstock. A critical edition of the odes, by Muncker and Pawel, is an- nounced for illparzer, 4th ed. by A. Sauer, with Biography (.1887). Laube, F. G., Lebensgeschichte, Stuttg. 1884, R. M. Werner, Allgem. Zeit. Beil. 1884, No. 154-160 ; Volkelt, F. G., als Dichter des Tragischen (Nordl. 1888). Raimund. C. Schmidt, Charakteristiken, p. 381 ; Sauer, A. D. B., 27 Anhang. Faust. K. Engel, Zusammenstellung der Faust-Schriften vom 16 Jh. bis 1884 (Olden, 1885) ; Faligan, Histoire de la legende de Faust (Paris, 1888). On the origin of the popular book, see C. Schmidt, Goethejahrb., 3, 77 ; 4, 127. Ellinger, Zs. 31, Anz. 156, Zs. f. vgl. Littgesch, N. F. i, 166 ; Szama- tolski Vierteljahrschr., i, 161. The Faust of Marlowe. Ed. Alex. Dyce (1850, 1876), W. Wagner (Lon- don, 1877), A. W. Ward (Oxford, 1878), (concerning Marlowe's sources, das engl. Volksbuch, Zarncke Anglia, 9 ; 610), Ereizenach, Der alteste Faust- prolog (Krakau, 1887) ; Liibke, Zs. 31, 105. Goethe' s Faust. Goethe-Jahrb. , 6, 231 ; Aufsatze iiber Goethe, pp. 293-355 ; Erich Schmidt's, Goethe's Faust in ursprunglicher Gestalt nach der Gochhausenschen Abschrift (Weimar, 1887, compare also Vol. 14 of the Weimar Edition). INDEX. Abbt, Thomas, ii. 59, 86, 347, 387. Abraham a Sancta Clara, i. 34O, 359 ; ii 310, 345, 380. Academy della Crusca, i. 317. Ackermarin, Johannes. * Ackennann aus Bohmen,' i. 263, 373. Ackermann, actor, ii. 67, 175. ♦Acta Eruditorum,' i. 373; ii, 345, 383. Adam, Melch, i. 376. Adam Werner ofThemar, see Themar. Addison, i. 375 ; ii 24, 56, 280. Adelung, German Dictionary, ii. 4. Aeneas Sylvius, i. 260 (* Euryalus and Lucretia'), 266; ii. 340, 373. Agricola, Johann. Proverbs, i. 295 ; ii. 342, 347: Tragedy, 'John Huss,' i. 308; ii. 342, 378. Aist, Dietmar von, i. 195, 196; ii. 339, 366. Aix-la-Chapelle, i. 47. Ajax of Sophocles, remodelled at Strassburg, i. 397 ; ii. 343. Albert us Magnus, i. 229, 354; ii. 339, 36S. AlLerus, Erasmus, 1. 294 ; ii. 342, * Albhart 3 death,' i. 117, 252. Albinger, J., ii. 310. Albiecht, author of the later ' Titurel ' i. 182, 183, 188, 210, 259; ii. 339, 365. Albrecht von Eyb, i. 245 ; ii. 341, 371- Albrecht von Halberstadt, translator of Ovid's Metamorphoses, i. 14 r, 142: ii. 339, 362. Albrecht von Scharfenberg, see Schar- fenberg. Alcuin, i. 39, 47, 53. Aldhelm, i. 38. Alexander the Great — in romance and epic, i. 58, 83, 178, 185, 260, * Alexander, the wild,' i. 211 ; ii. 367. Alexis, Willibald, ii. 285, 351. Allied the Grent, of England^ i. .18. Alsace, i. 305 ; ii. 95, 378. Alxinger, Johann, ii. 310. 'Amadis,' i. 298, 315. 382; ii. 343. Amelungen ( = Goths), i. 93, 94. Anacreontic School, ii. 28. Andrea Valentine, i. 314, 336 ; ii. 160, 379- ' Anegenge,' the, ii. 339, 358. Angel bert, i. 47. Angelus Silesius, see Scheffler. Anglo-Saxons, i. 3'<. 42 ; ii. 355. Anna Amalie, Duchess of Weimar, it 143. 391. Anno, Archbishop of Cologne, i. 74 ; ii- 338, 358. Anonymous Spervogel, i. 191, 217; ii- 336, 339- Antichrist, drama of, i. 70, 71, 88; ii. 338. 358. Antonius von Pforr, see Pforr. Anton Ulrich, Duke of Brunswick. author of hymns and tales, i. 334, 3f<4 ; ii 382 : patron of the Drama, i. 3g8, 400. • Apollonius of Tyre/ i. 58, 177, 260 ; ii. 364. Arabians, i. 90. Archenholz, ii. 246. 348. Arch-poet, the, i. 68, 69, 189, 191, 210, 2+8; ii. 338, 357. Aristotle, i. 51, 68, 84, 90. 225, 229 Arius, i. 29 ; extent of the Arian heresy, i. 31 Arminius the Cheruscan, i. 19, 283, 284, 365; ii. 15, 37, 41, 381, 384, 385. Amdt, E. M., ii 247, 266, 280, 349, 35-, 4C0. Arndt, Johann, i. 315. 336, 342, 345 ; ii- 343. 379- Amim, Achim von, ii. 229; 'De^ Knaben Wunderhp-n,' ii. 252, 25*^, 268. 350, 399 ; ' Zeitung fur Eii^- sipdler,' ii. 252 ; Songs, ii. 265 ; Comic Romances, ii. 283; Tale?, ' Hollins Eiebeleben,' ii. 399: ' Gra- 418 Index. fin Dolores,' ii. 286, 350, 4GI ; ' Kronenwachter,' ii. 285, 351 ; Novels, ii, 294 ; ' Isabella of Egypt,' ii. "50 ; his art of narration, ii. 295 ; Dramas, ii. 302 ; ' Cardenio and Celinde,' ii. 305 ; ' Halle and Jeru- salem,' i. 350. Arnim, Bettina von, nee Brentano, ii. 2:9, 232, 3<,2. Arnold, *der Pfingstmontag,' ii. 263. Arnold, Gottfried, i. 347, 348 ; ii. 30, 381. Amstein, Count Ludwig von, and the Arnsteiner Marienleich, ii. 338. Arthur-romance, see Romances. Aryan, i. 3-5, 11, 12, 25; ii. 354 : see also Indians. ' Athanasius, i. 29. ' Athis and Prophilias,' ii. 362. Attila, i. 21-23 ; ii. 337 : the Elzel of the Nibelungen, i. 109, 112-115. Aubry von Besan9on, i. 83. Auersperg, Count, ii. 272. August, the younger, Duke of Bruns- wick, i 334. Augustine, St., i, 66, 69, 220. Austria and the Heroic Songs, i. 22, 95, 99; its princes as patrons of poetry, i. 145 ; home of Walther von der Vogehveide, i. 1 89 ; Au- strian Satires, i. 218 : seealsoNxtnn?,. Ava, i. 75; ii. 3.^8, 358. Aventinus, i. 202. Ayrenhoff, C. H. von, ii. 31 r, 347. Ayrer, J., i. 311, 323, 398 ; ii. 379. Bach, John Sebastian, i. 351, 353, 373- Baggesen, Jens, ii. 261, 273, 280. Balde, J., i. 337 I "• 344» 3^'°. Ballads, i. 251, 253; ii. 283. Barditus, i. ii ; ii. 354. Basedow, ii. 135, 347. Basle, i. 244. Battle of Ravenna, song of the, i. 117. Baumgarten , Siegmund and Alexander, ii. 24, 346. Bavaria, i 10. 24; people of, i. 33, 34, 6^ 85,92,95, 125. Bayle, ii. 25. Eebel, H.. i. 268, 295 ; ii. 373. Bede, i. 38. Beethoven, ii. 281. Beheim, Michel, i. 246. Beheim, Mathias von, ii. 374. ' Beispell ' or Tale. i. 217. Eenno, Bishop of Osnabrtick, 1. 56. Benoit de Saint More, i. 141, 181. Eeowulf, i. r6, 38. Berlin, dramatic activity, i. 309 ; literary, 332, 372; ii. 24, 29; at the time of P>ederick the Great, ii. I33> 391 ; ^t the beginning of the nineteenth century, ii. 241 ; Lessing's residence there, ii. 49 ; Goethe's connection with Berlin, ii. 259 ; Berlin Academy, i. 356 ; fi. 26, 345, 38: ; University, ii. 350 ; Berlin actors, ii. 178. Eernhard of Clairvaux, i. 82. Beitesius, Joh., i. 313; ii. 379. Berthold of Regensburg, i. 226-229, 232, 276, 280; ii. 339, 368. Bertuch, ii. 144. Besser, J. von, i. 372 ; ii. 345. Bettina, see Arnim. Beuther, M., i. 255 ; ii. 342. Beza, Theodore, i. 287. Bible, translations, i. 273; ii. 374; editions, i. 274. Binzer, A., ii. 286. Eirk,- Sixtus, i. 303 ; ii. 342, 378. Birken, S. von, i. 323. Bilerolf, author of a Song of Alex- ander, i. 141. •Biterolf,' i 118. Elicker von Steinach, i. 161. Blumauer, Aloys, ii. 282, 310, 348, 401. Boccaccio, Decamerone, i. 57; ii. 77, 186: translated, i. 260; ii. 372 : by Witte and Soltau, ii. 250. Bockh, Philologist, ii. 241, 247, 351. Bode, ii. 144, 347. Bodmer, J. J., ii. 7, 22, 23, 57, 41, 384 ; * Discourse der Maler,' i. 376 ; ii. 345 : Milton's * Paradise Lost,' ii. 22, 229, 345 ; Treatise on the Marvellous, ii. 23, 346; he publishes the Nibelungen and Minnesingers, ii. 123, 346; epic, ' Noah,' ii. 37 ; * Character der deut- schen Gedichte,' ii. 345. Bohme, Jacob, i. 292, 337; ii. 343, 379 Boie, H. Ch., ii. 120, 390. Eoileau, i. 371, 375 ; ii. 14. Bologna, University of, i. 69. Bondeli, Julie, ii. 43, 386. Boner, Ulrich, i. 221, 222, 259; ii 34=^, 3^7- Index. 419 Boniface, St., i. 34, 39, 41. Bopp, Franz, ii. 351. Borck, von, translates Shakspeare's ' Caesar,' and Coffey's ' The Devil to Pay,' ii. 17. Borne, ii. 231, 293, 352. Bottiger, K. A., ii. ^43. Brand, Sebastian, i. -•56, 2^8, 282, 287, 323- 389 • ii 13^' 34'> 372- Braiidan, St., i. 84, 86 ; ii. 359. Brawe, Joach. WUh. von, ii. i6, 53, 3S4. Brthme, Christian, i. 370. Breitinger, i. 376 ; ii. 7, 22, 23 : Treatise on Similes, ii. 23 ; Critical Art of Poetry, ii. 23, 31, 346. Bremer Beitrage, ii. 7. 12, 346. Brennenberg, see Reinmar. Brentano, Clemens, ii. 229, 268, 27^, 399 ; • Des Knaben Wunderhorn.' see Arnim; Ballad, ' Zu Bacharach am Rheine,' ii. 27S; Romance of Rosenkranz, ii. 2S3; Tales, ii. 294, 3.^1- Breton popular poetry, i. 153. Brockes, Barthold Heinrich, i. 351, 379: ii. 381 ; ' lrdi>ches Vergnli- gen in Gott,' i. 35 1 ; ii. 345 : * Patriot,' i. 376 ; translation of Lamotte's ' Fables,' i. 380, and of Thomson's 'Seasons,' ii 39; his Passion Oratorio, i. 352 ; ii. 345. Briilow, Kaspar, i. 312, 313 ; ii. .-,43. Brun, Friederika, ii. 261. Brunhild, i. 9, r6, 105, ic6. Bruno von Schonebeck, see Schone- beck. Brunswick, ii. 70, Buchanan, i. 311 ; ii. 343. Buchner, Aug., i. 322 ; ii. 379. Bucholtz, Andr. Heinr., i. 333, 383 ; ii. 3«2 Buffon, ii. 2^8. BuUinger, Heinr., i. 303. BUrgtr, Gottfr., Aug., i. 243; ii. 122, .H7» 3QO. Burt^undians, i. 21, 3T, lin history^ ; i. 104-11-!, (in the Nibelungenlied). Burkard von Hohenfels, J^^ Hohenfels. Bylovius, ii 377. Caedmon Anglo-Saxon poet, i. 39. Caesar, i. i. 21. Calderon, how translated, ii. 250 ; his trochees, ii. 304. Calixtus, Georg, i. 337 ; ii. 380. Canitz, Fr. Rud. Ludw. von, i. 373, 381 ; ii. 20, 345. Casarius von Heisterbach, see Heister- bach. Castelli, Ign. Fr., ii. 263. Celtis, Konrad, i. 2'i6 ; ii. 341, 373. Celts, i. 3,6, 92 ; their legends, i. 1.^5, 158, 178. Cervantes, i. 62, 383 ; ii. 289. Chamisso, Adelbert von, ii. 271, 401 ; ' Schlemihl,' ii. 294, 296, 350, 402. Charlemagne, i. 25, 36-41, 46-48, s^i, 53, 68, 273; ii! 337, 338. 356:' in poetrv. i. 48, 61. 69, 82, 85. Charles'lV., i. 264. Charles the Bald, i. 36. Chivalry, characteristics of, i. 61-213 ; % ii- 3.57- Chreslein von Troves, i. 153, 163, 171. Christ, I. Fr., ii. 64. Christ and the woman of Samaria, i. 45 : ii. 3.^6. Chryseus, Joh.. i. 308; ii. 342, 378. Clajus Joh., i. 275 ; ii. 343, 375. Claudius, ii. 125, 262. 347, 390. Clauert, Hans, see Hans. Clauren. ii. 2>^8, 297. 350. Clauseiwitz, General von, ii. 233. 'Claus Narr, Historic des,' i. 298; ii- 343, 37«- . Clement, the Irishman, i. 47. Clovis, i. 21. Cluverius, Phil., i. 367 ; ii. 343. Cochem, Father Martin von, ' Leben Jesu,' i. 339 ; ii. 345, 380 ; Select History-book, i. 386; ii. 35 345, 380. 382. Cochlaus, i 282. Coffey, ' The Devil to Pay,' ii. 17. Colin, Phi'ipp, of Strasburg, ii. 340. Collin, Heinr. Jos von, ' Wehrmanns- litder,' ii. 26^-,;' Regulus,' ii 311, 349 Columban, St., 1. 33, i\, 39; ii. 3.S.^. * Comfort in Despair.' poetical frag- ment of the twelfth century, i. 78 ; ii- 3.^"^ Conrad I., i. 56. Conrad HI., i. So. Conrad the younger (Conradin),i. 201 ; ii- 3.39- Conring, Herm., i. 337 ; ii. 3*^0. Constantinople, i. 29, 224; in poetry, i. 8o. 84, 122. Conz, Kail Phil., ii. 261. 420 Index. Copernicus, Nic, i. 257, 291 ; ii. 163, 342. Cordus. Enricius, i. 269. Comeille, i. 141. Cramer, Joh. Andr., ii. 12, 383. Crebillon, the younger, ii. 43. Crocus, Cornel., i. 303 ; ii. 342. Cronegk, Joh. Friedr. von, ii. 16, 384. Crotus Rubianus, i. 269 ; ii. 373. Cruciger, Elizabeth, i. 286. Crusades, i. 72, 79-89; ii. 359. Cynewulf, i. 39. Dach, Simon, i. 322-325 ; ii. 379. 'Dafne,' opera (text by Rinuccini, music by Peri), i. 394. Damm, rector in Berlin, ii. 64. Danish language, i. 35 ; literature, i. 261. Dante, i. 222; his 'DivinaCommedia,' i. 230, 233. 234; translated, ii. 250. Dassel, Reinald von, Archbishop of Cologne, i. f^S. Dasypodiu>, Petrus, i. 303. Dedekind, Friedr. * Grobianus,' i. 287, 288 ; ii. 342, 376. Defoe, Daniel, ' Robinson Crusoe,' i. 375, 392 ; ii. 288, 345. Deris, Mich., ii. 5-, 310, 347, 387. Denk, Hans, i 282. ' Deutsch,' i. 37 ; ii. 355: see also Ger- mans. Didactic poe*ry. Middle High-Ger- man, i. 212-215, 220, 223, 253, ^18, 375: ii. 358. Dietenberger, Joh., i. 276 ; ii. 342. 1 >ic tniar von Aist, see Aist. Dietrich von Bern, {see Theodoric the Great) : i. 93. 95, in the Norwegian 'Saga:' i. 111-120, in the Nibe- lungenlied — ii. 361. Diez, Friedr , ii, 255. Diltersdorf, ii. 177. Dohm, ii. 135, 348. Drama, in its first beginnings, i. 1 2 ; as sacred, 'Antichrist play,' i. 70; • The Wise and Foolish Virgins,' i. 238; ii. 370: Christmas, Passion, Easter and Corpus Christi plays, i. 2^8-246: ii. 370: of various sorts (mysteries, molalities, farces, sot- ties = Carnival plays, i. 256), i. 242 : ii. 370 : in p-ose, i. 263 ; i creased love of the Drama, i. 272 ; after the Reformation, i. 500-314; in- fluence of the Thirtv Years' War, i. 317, 394; introduction of Alexan- drines by Opitz, i. 319 ; influence of the opera on artistic and popular drama in the seventeenth and eigh- teenth centuries, i. 395-401 ; ii. 382 : the Alexandrine tragedies >up- planted by the popular plays ot Lessing, ii. 52 : tragedies in iambics, ii. 176; the Drama after Schiller's death, ii. 302 ; technical airange- ments of the drama and stage, i. 239-241, 312, 326 ; pastoral drama, i. 364 ; popular plays in Vienna, ii. 310-314; literature on the drama, ii. 378. Diirer, i. 41, 362. Eberlin von Giinzburg, see Giinzburg. Ebert, Joh. Am., ii. 1 2, 70. Ebert, Egon, ballads, ii, 272. Eck, Joh., i. 276, 282, 284 ; ii. 342., Eckard, Meister, i. 2^0-232, 233; ii. Eckenolt, ii. 402. Eckstein., Uz, i. 282, 284. Eginhard, i. 47. Eicnendorff, Joseph von, lyrics, ii. 271, 401 ; tale. ' Ahnung und Ge- genwart,' ii. 286, 350 ; novel, ' Tau- genichts,' ii. 297, 351 ; dramatised fairy tale, 'Krieg den Philistern,' ii- 351- Eichhom, K. Friedr.. ii. 350. Eike von Repkow, see Hepkow. Eilhard von Oberge, see Oberge. Ekhof, Konrad, actor, ii. 175, 305. Ekkehard the First (of St. Gall), 1. 49. ?0' 73 Ekkehart IV., ' casus sancti Galli, ii. 3.^6. Eleonore of Scotland, translates ' Pon- tus and Sidonia,' i. 261. Elizabeth of Lorraine, translates ' L'o- thtr and Mailer,' ' Hug Schapler,' i. 261. Elizabeth Charlotte, Duchess of Or- leans, i. 374 ; ii. III. . Elmendorf, Wen»er von, i. 214; ii. 367 Emser, Hier., i. 276, 282 ; ii. 342. Enenkel, ' Wellchronik,' i. 219; ii. 368 ; ' Fiirstenbuch,' ii. 368. Engel, romance, ' Herr Lorenz Stark,' ii. 2S8, 349. England, English language, i. 35 ; literature, i 261. 375 ; ii. 3'^3 (of Index. 421 the eighteenth century) ; poetry, i. 16, 22 (Beowulf; i. 42 (religious); i. 67 (Latin) ; i. 320 (Renaissance) ; plays and actors, i. 300, 311. 313, 314. 398 ; ii. 343, 379 : England as the home of the sciences, i. 334 ; of piety, i. 34g, 371 ; Euphuism = English style, i. 3O1. Epic poetry, tragic elements of epic poetry, i. 5 ; German national epics, i, 16 ; ii. 359 (their golden age) ; i. 19, 21 (historical backgro'und) ; i. 22, 24 ^(begins with the Ostro- goths) ; 1. 33 (favoured by Chris- tianity) ; i. 62 (passes into tie romances of chivalry ^ ; i. 74 {^see ii. 359\ 97 (overpowered by the re- ligious epics), i. 94-101 ; resirra- tion of the heroic songs, and cha- racteristics of the popular epics of the twelfth century, i. 155, 158; epics of chivalry, i. 185, 186, 223, 261 ; decline of epic poetry, i. 253, 259 ; animal epics, i. 254, 293, 294. Epigram, i. 368. Erasmus, i. 41, 268, 282, 295 ; ii. 341, 373. Erfurt, i. 268, 269 ; ii. 340. 373. Ermanarich, i. 21 ; ii. 337 (in history): i. 22, 03 (in legend) ; i. 116 ( = Er- menrich, for Odoacer) ; 120 (in Gothic songs). * Ermenrichs Tod,' the song of, i. 1 20 ; ii. 361. Emesti, Joh. Aug., ii. 64. 73. Esehenburg translates Shakspeare, ii. 25,0. Eulenspiegel, i. 261, 298 ; ii. 341, 372. Euler, mathematician, ii. 26. Euphuism, see England. Eyb, Albrecht von, see Albrecht. Eyzo, priest, i. 80 ; ii. 338, 359. Fable (and parable), i. 217, 248, 253, 29^, 380 : ii. 377 ; Lessing's opinion, ii. 58. Farces, i. 217, 253, 262. Faro songs, i. 95. Faust, i. 298-300, 313, 330: ii. 57, 100, 316-334, 34', 34r, 4-3- Fauijt, Gerard, ii. 377. Fellenberg's Normal Institute, ii. 297. Felsenburg, the island of, i. 392 ; ii. 345» 382. Fichte, ii. 233, 241. 247, 349, 350. Fielding, ii. 44, 288. 'Fierabras,' i. 297 ; ii. 342. Finckelthaus, Gottfr., i. 370 ; ii. 383. ' Finkenhtier, der,' i. 298, 390 ; ii. 37«- Fischart, Joh., i. 288-290 ; ii. 343, 376 : ' Plohhatz,' i. 294 ; ii. 38, 289, 323* 377- Flacius, Matth., i 292 ; ii. 376. Fleck, Konrad, i. 177 ; ii. 364. Fleming, Paul, i. 322, 364, 373; ii. 344, 379 Flore and Blancheflur, i, 135, 139, 177, 260: ii. 338, 362. Follenius, Karl, ii. 268. Folz, Hans, 323. Forster, Reinhold and Georg, ii. 236, 237, 34Q, 39^)- Fouque, Friedrich, Baron de la Motte, ii. 265 : * Uiidine,' ii. 294, 350, 402 ; ' Musen,' ii. 402 ; * Sigurd der Schlangentodter,' ii. 350. France : French songs on Charle- magne, i. 61 ; permanent home of Romanic culture, i. 92 ; Latin popular poetry, i. 34, 67 ; Latin dramas, i. 301 ; Eulenspiegel as espiigle in French literature, i. 261 ; the hymns of Calvinism under French influence, i. 287 ; lyrics, see Troubadours ; Romance literature, i- i3.-> 259» 296, 316, 3^5 ; les beaux esprits and les Precieuses, i. S''!. 37'; French classicism in Prussia, ii. 402. Franck, Seb., i. 282, 292, 295 ; ii. 342, 375, 377- Francke. Aug. Herm., i. 3=,8, 372 ; ii. 345. 38'. Frangk, Fabian, grammarian, i. 275 ; ii- 375- Franks under the Merovingians, i. 21 ; they spread Christianity, i. 33 ; Ot- fried on the, i. 45. Frauenlob, see Meiszen, Heinrichvoa Frederick Barbarossa, i. 62, 66, 68. 80, 91. i3p, 137. 223, 264. Frederick II, i. 80, 89, 90, 122; ii. 3.39>3--9- Frederick I, King of Prussia, i. 372 ; ii. 382 Frederick William, Kurfurst of Prussia, i. 3.35. Frederick William I, King of Prussia, i- 360, 374 ; ii. 382. 422 Index. Frederick II, the Great, King of Prussia : his influence on German literature, i. 335 ; ii. i, 24, 29, 36, 42, -6, 52, 59, 60, 62, 66, 73, 135, 384: as author, ii. 27, 346, 385; poem, ' Au Sieur Gellert,' ii. 3 ; ' De la litterature Allemande,' ii. 132, 140, 175, 204, 2jo, 334, 341-8. Freidank, Meister, i. 89, 215, 216, 22 j-222, 259, 2;;5 ; ii. 339» 367- Frey, Jacob, i. 295 ; ii. 342. Friedrich Burggraf von Regensburg, minnesinger, li. 339. Friedrich von Hansen, see Hansen. Frischlin, Nicod., i. 309, 310, 312, 316; ii. 343, 378. Frisian law documents, i. 14 ; ii. 354. Fulda, i. 41 ; ii. 56. Fussesbrunnen, Konrad von, i. 176; ii. 3' 4 FUirer, Ulrich, i, 258 ; ii. 341, 372. Galitzin, princess, ii. 128. Gall, St., i. 34, 48, 51, 58, 226; ii. Gallus, i. 34. Galmy, Ritter, see Ritter. Gauss, ii. 234, 349. Geiler von Kaisersberg, i. 276, 280, 282 ; ii. 130, 375. Gellert, i. 360 ; ii. 2. 8, 12, iii, 346, 384 : comedy^ ' die Eetschwester,' i. 422; the 'Story of the Hat,' ii. 78. Genesis, the Vienna, ii. 338, 358. Gentz, Fiiedr., ii. 231. Geoffrey of Monmouth, i. 152 ; ii. 3-3- George, St., epic in praise of, i. 184; ii 365. Gerbert, i. 53. Gerhardt, Paul, i. 333, 337, 342-344. 349, 3.= 3'359. 3^8; ii. 344, 381. Germans (01d\ i. i ; ii. 354: mean- ing of the name, i. 2, 3 ; life and customs, i. 6-15; epochs of their civilisation and of their oldest poetry ; Old German hero legends (as material for the German national epics, see Epic, as hero- poetry, see Poetry), hero-world, i. 19; religion, i 6-0: ii. 354: lan- guage {see also Goths), contrast be- tween Piatt or Low German, and High German, i. 35 : ii. 337, 355 : triumph of High German, i. 275; rise of Middle High-German, i. 62 : its influence, i. 222. Gerson, Joh., i. 265. Gerstenberg, Hein. Wilh. von, ' War- songs of a Royal Danish Grenadier,* ii. 56 : ' Gedicht eines Scalden,' ii. 56, 347 : ' Ugolino,' ii. 98, 317, Gervinus, Georg, Gottf., ' Geschichte der deutschen Dichtung,' ii. 248, 352. 361. Gesner, Conrad, i. 291 ; ii. 376. Gesner, I. M., ii. 64. Gessner, Salomon, ii. 29, 3^, 296. 3 +6. Gleim, J, W. L., ii. 28, 37, 260, 385 ; essays in humorous poetry, ii. 29, 346 ; ' Prussian War Songs by a Grenadier,' ii. 54, 385 (Lessing's pre- face, ii. 1 24), 347 ; comic romances, ii. 54 ; ' Poems after the Minne- singers,' ' Poems after Walther vo i der Vogtlweide,' ii. 124, 347; * Lieder fur das Volk,' ii. 347. Gliick, ii. 55, 177. Gnapheus, i. 30.^ ; ii. 342. Gockingk, Gii .ther von, ii. 260. Goethe, i. 17, 18, 133, 139, 343 (compared with Gerhardt) : ii. 8 (meeting with Gotisched» ; ii. 129 (attitude towards Wieland' : ii. 144 (on Karl Aui^ust) ; his reli ion. ii. 102, 104, 138, 147, 154, 18, 161, 164, 18,^, 257, 273: his youth and first writings, ii, 91-114, 388; in- fluence of the court of Weimar on Goethe, ii. 145-147 ; first period as statesman, ii. 149-160 ; change in Goethe effected by the journey to Italy, ii. 161-169 ; Champagne and Mainz, ii. 1 70 ; Schiller and Goethe, ii- 17^ 349> 395. .^^09; director of the Weimar Court Theatre, ii. 177- 179, 349, 351, 395 ; relations to the Romantic School, historical and critical writings, ii. 256 ; lyric and epic of the period, ii. 273, 274, 298-300; Faust, ii.^2c-3 34 ; bio- graphies, cTiaracteristics. collected letters, ii. 391, 392 ; his Works (complete editions), ii. 150, 257, 350, 3.^T, 391. Poetry : Lyrics. — Poems (edi- tions, ii. 394), ii. 281 : >outhful poems, ii. 93, 105 : poems of the first Weimar period, ii. 158 167 ; poems after the Italian journey; Index. 423 ' Morgenklagen,' * Der Besuch,' ii. i''>7 ; the Roman Elt-gies, ii. 167, 169, 187, 349; the Venetian Epi- grams, ii. 167, 1S9 ; ballads, ii. J 81, 196. Elegies — romische, see above) ' Euphrosyne,' ii. 177; 'Alexis aid Doia,' ii. 187, 349; 'Der neue Pausias uid sein Llu- menmadchen,' ii. 1S7, 349: ' Her- mann imd Dorothea,' ii. 189 Later Poems — 'Sociil Songs.' ii. 196, 272. 349; ' Trilogie der Leiden- schaft,' ii. 190.275; ' We>tostliche Divan.' ii. 190, 273-275, 351, -45r; aphonsms, ii. 275. Epics — ' Reinecke Fuchs,' i. .'55: ii. 187, 349 : ' Hermann und Dorothea,' ii. 9;, T8S-195. 349, 396. Frag- ments — * Achilleis,' ii. 94, 396 ; •The Wandering Jew,' ii. 102. Dramas : Tragedies — ' Clavigo,' ii. 100, 106, 547, 389; 'Egmont/ ii. 100, 1=0, 151, 348, 395 ; ' EaustT" i. 168; ii. 45, 99, 150, I79,~i99, 256, 320-334, 349, 35=>» .^52, 403; ' Gotz von Berlichingen,' i. 314; 'ii. 83, 96, 113, 129, 132, 347, 389: 'Iphigenie,' ii. 1, 152-156, 348, 395 ; 'Natiirliche Tochter,' ii. 169, 179. 3 '6; 'Prometheus,' ii. 101, 103, 348, 389: 'Stella,' ii. 100, 106, 181,348,389: 'Tasso.'ii. 156- 158, 349' 395- Plays — 'Kiinstler's Erdenwallen,' ' Kiinstler's Vergot- tening' (or Apotheoses ii. 100, 303. Comedies — ' Ihe Accom- plices,' ii. < 3, 389 ; • Der Biirger- general,' ' Grosscophta,' ii. 179; 'Pie Aufgeregten,' ii. 189; 'The Humour of the Lover,' ii. if 3; 'Triumph der Empfindsamkeit,' ii. 150, lOo. Satirical Dramas — * Jahrmarksfest zu Plunderswielern,' ii. ICO ; ' Pater Brey.' ii. 100, 106 ; ' Satytos,' ii. 100 ; ' Birds,' ii. 150 ; * Gotter, Helden und Wieland,' ii. 10 1. Operettas — ' Claudine von Villabella,' ii. 99, 106, 151 ; ' Er- win und Elmire,' ii. 90, 150: 'Jery und Bately,' ii. 150, 188. Festival Plays — • Was wir bringen,' ' Palao- phron und Neoterpe,' ii. 197 ; * Prelude ' (.of 180 , ). li. 302 ; ' Pan dora,' ii. 302, 350, 402 ; ' Des Epimenides Erwachen,' ii. 302, 350. Masks— \\. 144, 256, 350. Sketches of Dramas — ' Caesar,' ii. 196 ; ' Iphigenie in Delphi,' ' Nau- sikaa,' ii. 166, 595. Translations — ' Mahomet,' ' Tancred ' (^Voltaire), ii. 178. Prose : Correspondence with Schiller, ii. 171. 258, 351 ; Auto- biographical writings, ii, 257 ; Journey in Switzerland, ii, 161, 162. 349; ' Dichtung und Wahr- heit,' ii. 257, 350; ' Italienische Reise,' ii. 149, 162. 350, 395. Scientific Writings — Goethe as a natural philosopher, ii. 148, 163, 164, 257 394; as an art critic, ii. 164, 257, 395 ; treatises on his 'Divan,' ii. 258 ; • Farbenlehre,' ii. 164, i()5, 257, 350; 'Metamor- phose der Pflanzen,' ii. 163, 256, 349 ; ' Winckelmann xmd sein Jaar- hundeit,' ii. 165. 349. Tales — * Die guten Weiber.' ii 186; 'Unter- haliungen deutscher Ausgewander- ten, ii. r86. 349, 396. Novels— ' Leiden des jurgen Werther,' ii." 95, 107-114, 150, 181, 288, 347, 389; 'Wilhelm Meister's Lehrjahre,' ii. 181-186. 286, 287, 349, 396; * W. M Wanderjahre,' ii. 186, 297, 351 , 402 ; ' Wahlverwandschaften,' ii. 199. 298-301, 350, 391, 402. Aphorisms in Prose — ' Maximen und Reflexionen,' ii. 275. Trans- lations — Benvenuto Cellini, ii. 167; Diderot, 'Rameau's Neffe,' ii. 257, 350 Periodicals — ' Kunst und Alterthum,' ii. i66, 258, 350; 'Pro- pylaen,' ii. 165, 349; Reviews, ii. 104, 258 389 Goeze, Melchior, ii. 74, 3S7. Goldsmith, Oliver, ' Vicar of Wake- field,' ii. 61,95, 288; 'the Traveller,' ii. 101. Gompertz, answer to Frederick the Great's ' De la Litierature alle- mande," ii. 133. Gongora, Spanish poet, i. 36 1 ; comic romances, ii. 54. Gorres, I. T., ii. 231, 252, 350, 399. Gothaid. St., i. 7^. Goths (Ostrogoths and Visigoths), i. 6; their religion, i. 21, 28-31, 60; in history, i. 31; ii. 355: remnants of the Gothic language ii. 338. Gotter, Fr. W., ii. 360. 424 Index. Gottfried von Neifen, see Neifen. Gottfried von Strassburg, i. 17, 139, 145, 157. 163, 164, 181, 198, 259 ; 'Tristan and Isolde,' i. 136. 153. 157, 160, 171, 1 76, 179, 203: ii. 363. Gottingen, ii. 119, 347; Gottinger Hain, ii. 119, 345, 390 (^Uni- versity). Gottsched, Fran L. A, V., ii. 5, 15, III. Gottsched, T. Chr., i. 359, 373, 374, 376, 401 ; ii. I, 8, 20, 21, 23, 228, 311, 345. 346, 384. Go'.z, I. N., ii. 28. Gotz vort Berlichingen, autobio- graphy, i. 292 ; ii. 96, 389. Goudimel, i. 287, Grabbe, Christian, ii. 305, 319, 352, 402. 'Graf Rudolf; i. 88, 89, 178, 338, 359- Grefif, J., i. 307 ; ii. 342. 378. Greflinger, Georg, i. 370 ; ii. 382. Gregory the Great, i. 12, 38. Gregory VII, i. (.1.80. Gries, Joh. Dietrich, ii. 248. Grillparzer, Franz, ii. 301, 310, 312- 3i4» 3.="^. 352.403; 'Ahnfrau,' ii. 304, 312-314. Grimm, the brothers, i. 17; ii. 241, 252, 400: 'Kinder und Hausmar- chen,' ii. 253, 2"4, 350, 351 : ' Deutsche Sagen, Deutsches Wor- terbuch,' ii. 253 ; Jacob G., i. 32, 36, 50 ; ii. 253, 258 : Wilhelm G., ii. 253. Grimmelshausen, Hans Jacob Chris- toffel von, i. 382, 386-389, 391, 392 ; ii. 344, 383. Groote, Gtrh., i. ^67, 373. Griibel, Conr id, ii. 263. Griin, Anastasius, see Auersperg. (iriinwald, Jorg, i. .'4 >. Gryphius, Andreas, i. 326-329, 333, 33^, 394-396 ; ii. 305. 344^ 380. Guarini, ' Der treue Schafer,' i. 363, 364. Gudrun, i. 16, 23, 94, 124-134, 200, 252; ii. 339 361. Guiscard, Robert, i, 61. Guniher, i. 21 ; ii. 337 (as Gundi- carius) in history; i. 22, 49, loi- 115, 118 in leqend. Gunther, Bishop of Bamburg, i. 80. Giinther, Joh. Christ., i. 373, 377 ; ii- 345> 382. Gunzburg, Eberlin von, i. 282, 284; ii- 341 > 376- Guttenberg, i. 265 ; ii. 340. Hadamar, see Laber. Hadawig, Duchess of Suabia, i. 51. Hadlaub, Joh., i. 211, 212 : ii. 367. Hafner, Phil., comic poet, ii. 314. Hagedorn, Frieor. von, i. 376, 379- 381 ; ii. 9, ic, 56, 250, 346, 382. Hagelgans, ' Arminius,' ii. 344. Hagen, Friedr. Heinr. von der, ii. 252, 350. Hagen von Tronje in the heroic song, i. 23, 49, 50, 106, 107, 109-114. Hagenau, Reinmar von, i. 146, 147, 154, 161, 189, 196, 197; ii. 339, 362. ' Haimons Kinder, die vier,' i. 297 ; ii. 96, 342. Hfille, ii. 28, 385. Haller, Albrecht von, i. 377, 378, 381, 382 ; ii. 19, 46, 97, 228, 235, 259, 345, 347, 382. Kallmann, Joh. Chr., 1. 395, 400 ; ii. 383- Hamann, J. G., ii. 85, 128, 290, 347, 388. Hamburg, i. 323, 332, 336, 395; ii 21. Hammer, Jos. von, ii. 255, 273, 350. Handel, i. 352, 353 ; ii. 346, 381. ' Hans Clauert,' popular book, i. 298 ; ii. 343- Hanswurst, i. 399-401 : dies in Vienna, ii. 311J revives as Kasperl, ii. 314. Hardenberg, Friedr. von ( = Novalis), ii. 248, 263, 349, 400 ; ' Heinrich von Ofterdingen, ii. 286, 296. Harsdorfer, G. Ph., i, 323. Hartlich, Dr. Joh , translator, i. 261 ; ii. 372. Hartmann, von Aue, i. 138, 139, 148- 157, 161, 162, 163, 166, 173, 212, 216, 259, 261 ; ii. 339, 363 : ' Biich- lein,' i. 148: ii. 363: * Ereck,' i. 150, 155, 156, 176; ii. 363: 'Gre- gorius,' i. 149, 16S ; ii. 3^3: 'Der arme Heinrich,' i. 149. 176 ; ii. 363 : Mwein,' i. 150, 155, 156, 176; ii. .363. Hartunge, Vandal Kings, i 120. Hatzer, Ludwig, i. 2S2. Hauff, Wilh., ' Lichtenstein,' ii. 285, 35 1 ; * Mann im Mond,' ii. 289. Hausen, Friedr. von, i. 146, 147, Index. 42s 154, 189, 199, 201 ; ii. 339, 362, 366. Ha\dn, ii. 39. Hebel, Peter, ii. 262, 287, 349, 400. Hegel, ii. 233, 35^,351- Hegner, Ulrich, ii. 285, 350. Heidelberg, i- 316 ; ii. 252, 340, 349. Heine, Heinrich, ii. 278-261, 351, 40f. Heinrich ; j^^Langenstein, Laufenberg, Meissen, Molk, Morungen. Mii- geln, Miinchen, Ofterdingen, Tiirlin, Veldeke. Heinrich der Glichezare, i. 145, 254 ; ii- 338, 362. Heinse, Wilh., ii. 128, 34 S, 391. Heinsius, Daniel, philologist, i. 320. Heisterbach, Casarius von, ii. 368. Helbling. Seifrid, i. 218 ; ii. 368. ' Heldenbuch,' i. 259. Heljand {^see Messianic poems), i. 42- 4*, 92. 240: ii. 337, 356. Hell, Theod., ii. 297. Hemmeriin, Felix, humanist, i. 263. Henrici, Chr. Fr., i. 353, 373. Henry the Fowler, i. 56. Herry HI, i. 60. Henry VI, i. 90, 137, 201 ; ii. 339, 362. Henry the Proud, i. 82, 85. Henry the Lion, i. 85, 136. Henry, Duke of Anhalt, i. 187. Henry, Julius, Duke of Brunswick, i. 310, 311, 313. 398 : ii. 343, 379- Henry IV, Duke of Breslau, i. 20S ; ii- 339. .^67. Herbert von Fritzlar, i. 141, 187 ; ii. 362. Htrder, Joh. Gottfr., ii. 82, 84 90, 122, 124, 125, 138-140, 172, 388; ' Volkslieder ' or ' Stimmen der Volker in Liedem,' ii. 89, 283, 34-^ ; as a translator, ii. 88, 198, 248 ; the Spanish romance of the Cid, ii. 283, 350. 3S8 ; * Von deutscher Art und Kunst einige fliegende ] latter,' ii. 82, 125; ' Fragmente iiber die neuere deutsche Litteratur,' ' Kritisclie Walder,' ii. 87, 347 ; * Geist der hebraischen Poesie,' * Causes of the lowering of taste, among various nations once dis- tinguished for it,' ii. S9 ; ' Oldest record o' man,' ' FVovincial Leaflets for Clergymen,' ' Ar other Philo- sophy ol History, with reference to the development of the human race,' ii. 125; ' Letters on the Study of Theology,' ' Gott,' ii. 139, 348 ; ' Ideas on the Philosophy of the History of Man,' ii. J 39, 149, 247, 348 ; ' Letters for the advancement of Humanity,' ii. 140, 349, 385 ; ' Metakritik,' ' Kalligone,' ii. 141. Con'ributor to the ' Teutschen Merkur,' ii. 1 29, and the * Frank- furter gelehrten Anzeigen,' ii, 104, 258 ; 'Legenden,' 'Denkmal Johann Winckelmanns,' ii. 388 ; 'Origin of Language,' ii. 89, 347. Hermann, see Arminius. Hermann, Count Palatine of Saxony, afterwards Landgrave of'lhuringia, i. 139, 141, 145 165,187; ii. 339. Hermann, see Sachsenheim. Hermes, Joh. Timoth.", ii. 61, 347, 3S8. Herz, Henrietta, ii 233, 398. 'Herzog Ernst,' i. 85, 86, 178, 251, 259; ii- 338 3-9. 372. Hessus, Melius EoLanus, i. 269 ; ii. 373. * Hildebrandslied,' i. 25-27, 50: ii. 355 : The later ' H.,' i. 119, 370 ; ii. 361. Hildebrand the Legendary, i. 5, 25- 27, 113-115, T16. 119 Hiller, Joh, Adam, the composer, ii. 17, 177- Hippel, Iheod, Gottl. von, ii, 289- 291, 348. Hirtzwig, ii, 343. Hirztl, Kaspar, ii. 29, History, i. 66, 74, 178, 262, 292 ; ii. 24.5. 399- Hoffmann, E. T A., ii, 296. 350, A02. Hoffmann, T. D., continues Goethe's Faust, ii. 319. Hofmann and his company of actors, i. 400. Hofmannswaldau, i. 366, 372 ; ii. 56, 381. Hohenfels, Burkard von, i. 207 ; ii. 339. 367. Hohenstaufen, their influence on Ger- man poetry, i. 145. 237, Holbein, 1. 362. Holderlin, ii. 261, 262, 285, 341,351, 400, Holtei, Karl von, ii. 263. 320. Holty, Ludw Heinr, Chr., ii, 120, 260, 348, 390. 426 Index. Hcmberg, Werner von, Minnesinger, i. 2oS ; ii. 3'7. Homer in the Middle Ages, i. 47. 49, 6:^, 84, 132, 141 : his epics com- pared to the German heroic songs, 1. 25, !Oi. 102 ; ii. 251 : German translation of, ii. 12. Horaemana. African explorer, ii. 236. * I tugdietrich,' see ' Wolfdietrich.' ' Hugh Schapler,' i. 260. Hugo, see Langenstein, Montfort, Trimberg. Humanism and its literature, i. 264 ; at the time of the Reforma- tion, i. 271 ; ii. 373 : its relation to the ancient classics, i. 293. liumboldi, Alex, von, ii. 236-238, 350. 351, 398; his brother Wil- lielm, ii. 238-241, 242, 24?. 247 ('Skizze der Griechen ') ; ii 250 (translation of the Agamemnon of .^.schylus\ ii. 350, .^96, 398. Hutlen, Ulrich von, i. 263, 269. 270, 2SJ-234; ii. 130, 341, 373, 375. Iceland, i. 61. Iffland, ii. 175, 176, 348, 395. imhoff, Amalie von, ii. 232. Immermann, ii. 283 (' Tulifantchen ') ; ii. 286 (' Epigonen,'' Miinchhausen'), ii. 305 ; dramas, ii. 351. 402. Indians, i. 3, 19 ; old Indian hymns, i. 5; Oid Indian riddle, i. 13; Indian tales, i. 260; ii. 367. Indo-germanic, see Aryan. Irish, i 33, 38, 47 ; ii. 355 : Irish poetry, i. 34. Iselin, historian, ii. 246. Italy, in legend, i. 121 ; in history, i. 21, 22 (Germans in Italy ^ ; i. 47, 80 (time of the Carlovingians^ : i. 53 (time of the Ottos) ; i. 61 (Nor- ma.is in Italy) ; i. 90 (time of Frederick II) : in literature, i. 34, 67 (Latin lyrics): i 92 (home ot Romanic culture) ; i. 259 (Italian romancesV; i 267 (humanism in Italy) ; i. 301 (Latin dramas) ; i 361 (Italian style, ' Marinism ') : i. 3^1, 39 } (Italian ope a and its influence 0:1 German church music, and the German theatre) : i. 399 (harlequin on the Italian and German stage). Jacobi, Fritz (Friedr. Heinr.), ii. 127, 170, 182, 242, 390; his brother Joh. Georg, ii. 128, 347 (editor of 'Iris'), ii. 260 (Anacreontic poet), ii. 2^0 (' Sommerreise,' ' Winter- reise'), ii. 347, 391. Jacobus a Cessolis, i. 221 ; ii. 367. Jahn, ii. ',50. Jean Paul, see ' Richter.' Jeroschin, Nicol. von, i. 185 ; ii. 366. Jerusalem, Abbot in Brunswick, ii. 70. Jerusalem, the city, in poetry, i. 70, 81. 84, 87-89. Johannes von WUrzburg, 'Wilhelm von Oesterreich,' ii. 340. Journal des Scavans, i. 373. Jungius, Joachim, i. 324, 336 ; ii. 380. Jung- Stilling, Heinr., ii. 126, 348. Junius, Franciscus, i. 32 (publisher of the Gothic Bible), ii. 344. ' Kaiserchronik,' i. 74, 94, 178; ii. 358- ' Kaiser Octavianus,' i. 297 ; ii. 342. Kampfer, Engelbert, ii. 236. Kant, ii. 136-138, 233, 347, 348. Kantzow, Pomeranian historian, i. 292. Karl August, Duke of Weimar, i. 335 ; ii. 143-145' 348, 391- * Karlmeinet,' i. 82. Karsch, Anna Louise, ii. 54. Kastner, G. Abr., writer of epigrams, ii. 20, 54. Keise^, Reinhard, Composer, i. 395. Kepler, Joh., i. 314, 335 ; ii. 343, 379. Kemer, Justinus, ii. 268, 280, 350, 40-. Kielmann, ' Tetzelocramia,' ii. 343. Kind, Friedr., ii. 297. Kirchhoff, ' Wendunmuth,' i. 295 ; ii. .343. 377- Klage,' die, the Lament, i. 115, 116; ii. 361. Klaj. Johann, i. 323, 325. Kleist, Ew. Chr, von ' Friihling,' ii. 29, 38, 42, 56, 546 (Song of a Lap- lander), 385. Kleist, Heinr. von ii 2 8 2, 301, 3o5- 310, 350, 351, 402 : Lyrics, ii. 265 ; Nov^s ii. 295 ; Dramas, i. 307-309, Klingemann, Aug., ' Faust,' ii. 319, 3.^o- Klinger, F. M., li. 115, 319, 348, 3'^9- Klopstock. i. 375, 382 ; ii. 30, 38, 64 : ' Messiah,' ii. 9, 12, 30, 34, 120, 346, Index. 427 347, 385 ; * Geistliche Lieder,' ii. 34, 346 ; ' Oden." ii. 34-36, 1 20, 347 (' An meine Freunde,' or ' Wingolf ;' ii. 1 2 : ' Hermann und Thusnelda.' ii. 37 ; ' War Song,' ii. 36) ; ' Bardiete,' "• 37> 57; ' Gelehrtenrepublik,' ii. 1 20, 347 ; Collected letters, ii. 385. Klotz. Chr. Ad., ii. 69. Knonau, Meyer von, Fables, ii. 58. Koch, Theatre director, ii. 7, 8. Konigshofen, see Twinger. Konrad, Priest, translator of the Chanson de Roland, i. 82, 83, 85, 88,94, 139; ii. 338,359. Konrad; see Fleck, Fussesbrunnen, Megenberg, Stoffeln. Konrad of WUrtzburg, i. 179-182, 184, 221, 251, 256, 260; ii. 340, 365 : ' Der Welt Lohn,' i. 72, 180; li- 358, 365: ' Schwanritter,' 183; ii. 365- Komer, Chr. Gottfr., ii. 266, 396. Komer, Theod., ii. 266, 303, 350, 402. Korium, * Jobsiade,' ii. 283, 348, 401. Kotzebue, Aug. von, ii. 1 76, 249, 305, 349' 396. Kress, Hans Wilh., i. 176. Kriemhild, i. 22, 2.'., 96, loi-i 14. 118, 119;' Kriemhild's disloyalty to her brothers', song of, i. 103 ; ii. 360. Kuno, Count of Niederlahngau (called Kurzibold), i. .';5-99. Kiirenberg, Knight, i. 195 ; ii. 360. Laber, Hadamar von, 'die Jadg,' i. 184, 207; ii. 365. Lachmann, Karl, i. 102, 103 ; ii. 244, 252. 350, 352. Lafayette, Countess, Novelist, i. 385. Lafontaine, i. 371, 376, 380; ii. 9. Lafontaine, August, ii. 288. Lambert, Philosopher, ii. 26. Lambrecht. Priest, Translator of the French Song of Alexander, i. 82 - 84,94, 139,338, 359- Lamotte, i. 380. Lange, Sam., Gotth., ii. 28 ; translator ot Horace, ii. 58. Langenstein, Heinrich von, i. 265 ; ii. 340. 373. Langenstein, Hugo von, 'Martina,' i. 185; ii. 340, 365. La Roche, Sophie von, nJe Gutermann, ii. 40, 41, 43, 229, 386, 39^. Laufenberg, Heinr. von, i. 277. Laugier Abbe, ii. 63, 83. Lauremberg, i. 333, 368, 372 ; ii. 344, 382. Lavater, 'Schweizerlieder,' ii. 56; ' Physiognomibche Fragmente,' ii. 26, 348. * Leben Jesu.' i. 42, 74 ; ii. 358. Legendary (Sacred), Poetry, i. 51, 74, 184; ii. 365. Leibnitz, 336, 342, 353, 354-356, 358, 372 ; ii. 345. 347, 381. Leipzig, ii. 3 (Characteristics "^ ; ii. 21 (Literature) ; ii. 53 (Lessing in Leipzig ; ii. 340 (University). Lenz, I. M. R., ii. 115, 347, 389. Lessing, i. 269, 375 ; ii. 6, 47-54. 57, 82, 87, 386, 387 (Editions, Biogra- phies, see ii. 346) : Poetry, ii. 58 ; Anacreontic poems. Poetical Fables, Epigrams and Didactic poems, ii. 5 1 ; Prose Fables, i. 2 1 7 ; ii. 58, 347 : Odes, ii. 57 ; Spartan War-song. ii. 57; As dramatist, ii. 52, 387; 'Der junge Gelehrte,' ii. 16. 48, 346; * Freigeist,' 'die Juden,' 'derSchatz,' ii. 52 ; * Miss Sara Sampson,' ii. 52, 98, 310. 346, 387 ; ' Philotas,' ii. 57,- 347 ; ' Minna von Bamhelm,' ii. 60, 99,347, 387; * Emilia Galotti,'ii. 71, 72,98, 347, 387 ;' Nathan derWeise,' ii. 77-81, 348, 387 ; Plan for Faust, ii- 57. 318, 347, 403; Science and Criticism. Letters, Fragments, ii. 5 1 ; Preface to Gleim's ' Kriegs- liedem.' ii. 1 24 ; Literary Letters, ii. 58, 59, 87 ; 'Laocoon.' ii. 59, 62, 65, 68, 87. 347, 387; • Hamburgische Dramaturgic,' ii. 67-69, 347, 387 ; ' Antiquarische Briefe,' ii. 69 ; ' How the Ancients depicted death,' ii. 65, 347 ; ' Beitrage zur Geschichte und Litteratur aus den Schatzen der Wolfenbiittelschen Bibliothek,' ii. 72; * Anligoeze,' ii. 75. 348; 'Free- mason dialogues,' ii. 76 ; ' Erzie- hung des Menschengeschlechts,' ii. 76, 1 38, 348 ; Lessing on Wieland's Agathon, ii. 284 ; Lessing and the Court Theatre at Vienna, ii. 311. Letters in German Prose, ii. 110. Lex Salica. i. 4*^, Lichtenberg. G. Chr., ii. 132. Lichtenstein, Ulrich von, i. 202, 207 ; ii. 367. Lichtwer, Magn. G., ii. 58. Lillo, * Kaufmann von London,' ii. 52. Limburg Chronicle, see Tilemann. 428 Index. Lindener, Michael, i. 295 ; ii. 342, 377- Liscow, Christ. Ludwig, i. 381 ; ii. 346. 3^"^ 2. Literary history, Epochs and Charac- teristics of German Literature, i. in- 19, 36 ^see ii. 355, 380, 398) ; Influence of the Thirty Years' War, i. 317; later development, i. 331; changes about A. D. 1600, i. 360 {sec also h'oitry)^ Lobwasser, Ambrosius, i. 287; ii. 343. Locher, Jac, translates the ' Narren- schiff ' into Latin, ii. 341, Locke, ii 25. Logau, Fried, von, i. 369 ; ii. 344, 383. •Lohengrin' (afterwards ♦ Lorengel'), i. 183, 188; ii. 340, 365. Lohenstein, Daniel Casper, i. 366. 371, 384 (• Arminius'), i. 395 (as Drama- tist) ; ii. 345' 3^1- Longobards, i. 12, 22, 31, 35, 47. Lothar, the Emperor, i. 85 ; ii. 388. *Lothar and Mailer,' i. 260. Louis the Child, i. 55. Louis the Bavarian, i. 232. Louis the German, i. 36, 44. Louis the Pious, i. 36, 42. Louis the Stern, Duke, i. 182. Louis, Prince of Anhalt, i. 317, 332. LUbeck, i. 244; ii. 371. Luder, Peter, Humanist, ii. 373. Ludolfs revolt against Otto, i, 56, 86. Ludwigslied, i. 54; ii. 357. Luther, i. 31, 2m8, 270, 271, 272-281, 282, 284, 286, 287, 290; ii. 341, 342, 374-376 : Luther and the Fable, i. 293 ; Luther and Proverbs, 295 ; popular songs, i. 296 ; Prose Romance, i. 296 ; Luther and Faust, 1. 299 ; Luther and the Drama, i. 301, 302, 307, 309 ; ii. 343, 378 : Luther on Nuremberg, i. 304 ; comparison with Paul Gerhard t, i. 343 ;^ Fis- chart and Thomasius continue his pamphleteering, i. 289, 357 ; Char- acteristics of style, i. 358, 367 ; German letter- vs^riting, ii. 1 10 ; ' Ein feste Burg,' i. 278 ; ii. 342, 375 : ' Wider Hans Worst,' i. 308, 334. Lyly, John, 361. Macpherson, • Ossian,' ii. 55, 56. Mainz, i. 137, 145; ii. 339, 362. Major Joh., ii. 342, 377. ' Magelone, die schone,' i. 297 ; ii. 342. Mallet, 'Geschichte Danemarks,' ii. 56. Maness, Riidiger, Collector of Song Books, i. 212. Manuel, Niclas, i. 282, 284, 303 ; ii. 341. 378- Marinelli, Karl von. Founder of the Leopoldstadt Theatre, ii. 314. Marini, Italian poet, i. 361. Marlowe, Christopher, ' Faust,' i. 310, 313, 330; ii- 3^7* 321, 350j 403- Marner, i. 209 ; ii. 367. Marnix, Phil., ' Bee-hive,' i. 2S9. Marot, Clement, i. 287, 346 ; ii. 376. Mathesius, Joh., i. 281 ; ii. 343. Matilda of Austria, i. 264 ; li. 373. Matilda of Magdeburg, i. 231 ; ii. 340, 368. Matthew, St., Gospel of, translated, i. 40, 273 ; ii. 356, 374 : commentary on it, i. 41. Matthison, Friedr., ii. 260, 348, 400. Maupertuis, ii. 26, 30. Maurice, Landgrave of Hesse, i. 310, 313; ii. 379- Maximilian L, i. 258, 266, 383 ; ii. 372. Mecklenburg, ii. 312, 350; ii. 354. Megenberg, Konrad von, i. 229; ii. 368. Meistersingers, i. 209, 244, 246, 247, 313; ii. 366, 371. Meiszen, Heinr. von, surnamed Frau- enlob, i. 210, 222 ; ii. 340, 367. Meiszner, Gottl., ' Skizzen,' ii. 293, 348. Melanchthon, i. 274, 281 , 291 ; ii. 376. Melissus, see Schede. Mendelssohn, Moses, ii. 51, 391 ; * Jerusalem,' ii. 137, 348 ; * Phado,' ii. 135, 347; ' Morgenstunden,' ii. 135/137. .H^- Mendicant Orders, Dominicans and Franciscans, i. 226. Menke, Burkard, i. 373 ; ii. 382. Merck, ii. 104, 258, 347, 393. Mereau, Sophie, ii. 232. Merian, ii 26. Merovingians, i. 21, 23, 32-37, 58, 62, 97, 121. Merseburg charm, i. 13,354. Merswin, Rultnann, i. 233, 235 ; ii. 34o> 3<^9- Messianic Poems, i. 40-46; ii. 31 : set also Heljand. Metre, connection with Music, i. 5. 34; Index, 429 ii. 354 : among the Minnesingers, i. 202 ; Metre of the last period of the Middle Ages, i 243 ; Reformed by Opitz, i. 319; Improved by Klopstock, ii. 34 : Alexandrines, introduced, i. 319: in the Drama, i. 396,400; Alliteration, i 10, 15, 34, 42, ()2 ; Hexameters, Latin, i. 49 ; German in the Messias, ii. 34 ; Iambics, blank- verse, ii. 23, 160 ; in Dramns, i. 313 ; Long- verses in the Heroic poems, i. 25, 115; Rhyme, its origin, i. 34, 35 ; ii. 355 : among the Goliards and in Church poetry, i. 67 ; drives out alliteration, i. 92 ; the transition from mere assonance to pure rhyme, i. 1 38 ; originally only used in strophes, and later on in the same way in the popular epics, i. 155 ; the Chivalrous Epic, Didactic poems, Novels, Farces, &c., in * epic rhymed couplets,' 1. 155. 253) 285,318; Stanzas, i. },(i\ ; Strophes, i. 5 ; Invention of the Nibelungenstroph, i. 195 ; Varying Strophes of the ' Leich,' i. 203 ; De- velopment by the Meistersingers, i. 209; Strophic Church Music, i. 351 (especially Passion Music, i. 352, 353 ; see Opera). Meyer von Knonau, see Knonau. Meyer, Heinr, ii. 165, 172, 177, 256. Michaelis, J. D., ii. 73, 139. Miller, Martin, ii. 1 20, 348, 390. Milton, ii. 21, 23, 32. Minnesinger, i. 34, 68, 194-196 (the Minnesang of the nobles in Austria), i. 201-209, 223 ; Decline, i. 246 ; ii. 3^. Moliere, i. 361, 371, 398, 399 ; ii. 314, 315- Molk, Heinr. von, i. 76, 217 ; ii. 338, .^58. Moncrif, poet, wrote comic romances, ii. 54. Montaigne, ii. 289, Montanus, i. 295 ; ii. 342. Montemayor, ' Diana,' i. 364. Montesquieu, ii. 84, 88. Montfort, Hugo von. Minnesinger, i. 247. Morhof, Daniel, i. 354; ii. 381. * Moringer, Song of the noble,' i. 251 ; ii. 372. Moritz, Karl Philipp, ii. 284, 348, 401. 'Moriz von Craon,' i. 143, 152; ii. 362. Morungen, Heinr. von, i. 141, 189, 251; ii. 362. Moscherosch, Hans Mich., i. 367, 386 ; ii. 344, 381. Moser, Justus, ii. 82-84, 239, 246 ; ii. 347, 388. Moser, Joh. Jacob, ii. 115. Moser, Friedr. Karl von, ii. 97, 115. Mozart, ii. 177, 311. Miigeln, Heinr. von, 246. Miiller, Friedr. (Maler Miiller), ii. 115,318,348,380. Miiller, Gottwerth, * Siegfried von Lindenberg,' ii. 288, 289, 348, 40 1 ; continues Musaus' ' Straussfedem,' ii. 294. Miiller, Johannes, Historian, ii. 124, 246, 247, 34N, 350. Miiller, Johannes, see Regiomontanns. Miiller, Joh. Heinr. Friedr., Actor, ii. 311- Miiller, Wenzel, vaudeville, ii. 177. Miiller, W'ilh., ii. 271, 272, 280, 351, 382, 401. Miillner, A. G., Barrister, ii. 304, 350. Munich, Henry of. Universal Chronicle, i. 185; ii. 366. Murillo, i. 386. Mumer, Thomas, i. 323, 367, 389 ; ii. 372 : ' Narrenbeschworung,' i. 257; »• 34i» 372: *E>er Grosze Lutherische Narr,' i. 282; ii. 341, 375- Musaus, ii. 44 ; * Volksmarchen der Deutschen,' ii. 143, 294, 348; * Grandison der Zweite,' ii. 289, 347 ; 'Straussfedem,' ii. 294. * Muspilli,' i. 40 {see also 7) ; ii. 356. Mutianus, Konrad, Humanist, i. 269. Myller, Christ. Heinr., editor of the Nibelungenlied and of the Chival- rous Epics, ii. 123, 348. Myth, origin of certain elements of, i. 4 ; ii. 354 : Mythology of the Germans {see Germ % Myths of the Sun, i. 9 ; of the struggle between summer and winter, i. 12 ; ii. 354, Naogeorg, Thomas, author of Protest- ant dramas, i. 308, 312; ii. 342, 378. Neander, T. Aug. W., Church historian, ii. 246. Neander, Joachim, i. 346; ii. 345, 381. VOL. II. E e 430 Index. Neidhart von Reuenthal, i. 204-206, ^ 218, 249, 259, 365 ; ii. 339, 367. Neifen, Gottfr. von, i. 207, 251 ; ii. 339> 367- Netherlands, i. 35 (Language) ; i. 125, original home of ' Gudrun ;' i. 253 (Animal epics) ; i. 261 (Till Eulenspiegel in the Literature of the Netherlands) ; i. 267 (Brothers of common Life); i. 301 (Latin Drama) ; i 326 (Dramatic writings of the Renaissance). Neuber, Caroline, and her troop of actors, i. 400; ii. 310, 345. Neuffer, Chr. Ludw., ii, 261. Neukirch, Benj., i. 372, 373, 381. Neumark, Georg, i. 359, Neumeister, Erdmann, composer of Cantatas, i. 351, 373 ; ii. 345. Newspapers and Periodicals, i. 285, 375 ; ii- 345. 349. 376- Newton, ii. 25, 163. ' Nibelungenlied,' i. 16, 17, 22, 95, 97, loi-i 15, 118, 125, 127, 130, 132, 139, 200, 252 ; ii. 339, 360. Nicolai, Friedr., ii. 51, 249, 391 ; 'Sebaldus Nothanker,' ii. 61, 290, 347 ; ' Freuden des jungen Werther,' ii. 132, 289 ; * Allgemeine Deutsche Bibliothek,' ii. 134, 347; 'Berlin- ische Monatschrift,' ii. 134. Nicolaus, see Jeroschin, Wyle. Nicolovius, Ludw., ii. 242, 393. Niebuhr, Carsten, ii. 236. Niebuhr, Barth. Georg, ii. 24 r , 243, 350. Nisami, Persian poet, i. 135. Normans and Normandy, i. 54, 60, 61, 126; ii. 338. Norwegian Language, i. 35 ; ' Saga,' 95 (= * Saxon legends,' see ii. 361), 116; ii. 359. Notker, Labeo or Teutonicus, i. 49, 51 ; 'Psalms,' i. 51, 273; ii. 338. Novalis, see Hardenberg. Novels, Tales and Stories, i. 4 (comp. ii. 354), 217, 220, 253, 263; Poetical Novels since Hagedorn and Gellert, ii. 282 ; Novels in the 19th Century, ii. 294; Collections, ii. 367. Nuremberg, i. 244-246, 304, 323; ii. 37^379- Oberge, Eilhard von, i. 136, 144, 155, 158, 161, 259; ii. 338, 362. Odoacer, in history, i. 21 ; ii. 337 : in legend, i. 22, 116. Oehlinschlager, Adam, ii. 303, 350, 402, Oelinger, Albert, Grammarian, i. 275 ; ii- 375- Ofterdingen, Heinr. von, i, 188. Opera, i. 351 ; Influence of Italian Opera on German Church Music and the German Theatre — German Opera, ii. 344 : (First German O.) i. 394; ii. 155: its culminating point, ii. 177,383. Opitz, Martin, i. 316, 319-322, 323, 364 (* Hercynia,' see i. 321), 366, 370, 394 (' Dafne') ; ii. 38, 344, 379. 'Orendel,' i. 22, 84, 87, 177; ii. 339, 359. 'Ortnit,' i. 120-123, 259; ii. 339, 361. Ostrogotha, King of the Goths, i. 21, 22 ; ii. 337. Oswald, St., i. 84, 87, 128, 177; ii. 359. Oswald of Wolkenstein, see Wolken- stein, Otfried von Weissenburg, 1. 40, 42, 44-46, 296 ; ii. 33, 338, 356. Otte, ' Eraclius,' ii. 362. Otto, Bishop of Freising, i. 66 ; ii. 338, 357- Otto, the Great, i. 46, 53, 56, 57, 85, 86 ; ii. 357- Otto IL, i. 53, 57, Otto III., i. 46, 53 ; ii. 357. Otto IV., Margrave of Brandenburg, Minnesinger, i. 208 ; ii. 339, 367. Ottokar of Styria, i. 178. Pamphlet Literature, i. 263. ' Pantschatantra,' collection of Indian Tales, translated into German, i. 260. Parables, see Fables. Paracelsus, see Theophrastus. Passion Music, see Metre and Opera. Patrick, St., i. 3:^. Pauli, Joh. * Schimpf und Ernst,' i. 295; ii, 341, 377- Paulinus of Pisa, i. 47. Paulus Diaconus, i. 47, * People's Books,' i. 260 ; ii. 341, 378. * Volksbiichlein vom Kaiser Fried- rich,' ii. 290, 386: < Volksbiichlein vom Gehomten Siegfried,' ii. 383. People's Songs, see Poetry. Percy, Bishop, Collection of Ballads, ii. 56. Pestalozzi, ii. 240, 287, 388, 348, Petrarch, i. 200, 263, 330, 3^3. Index. 431 Petnis of Pisa, i, 47. Peuerbach, Georg, Astronomer, i. 265, 266,267; ii. 341, 373. Pfefferkom, i. 269. Printzing, Melchior, i. 258. Pfitzer, John Nic, ii. 316, 344, 403. Pforr, Ant. von. Translator, i. 261. Pierre de St. Cloud, i. 255. Pietists and their Poetry, i. 344-350, 382. Pietsch, J. Val., i. 372 ; ii. 2. Pilatus, Legend of, i. 144. Piljgrim, Bishop of Passau, ii. 361. Pirkheimer, Wilibald, Humanist, i. 282 ; * Eccius dedolatus,' i. 284; ii. 34i> 375- Platen, August., Count von, ii. 275, 277> 283, 302, 306, 351, 401. Platter, Thomas and Felix, Auto- biographies, i. 292 ; ii. 377. Plays, see Drama. Pleier, 'Garel,' i. 177 ; ii. 364. Poetry, i. 5 (primitive forms) ; Differ- ent sorts of, i. 5, 10-15 ; in the service of woman, i. 18 ; as the organ of tradition, i. 21 ; Charac- teristics of the Poetry of the loth and 1 6th centuries, i. 17 ; Special- ities of the 1 6th century Middle High-German Poetry, i. 223, 259 ; Characteristics of the Poetry of the 19th century, ii. 259: The oldest forms of Poetry chiefly choral, i. 5. 11; ii. 354: Poetry in laws (es- pecially in all solemn legal proceed- ings), i. 14, 15; ii. 354: Poetical love letters, i. 148, 253 ; Love songs, i' 5> 293, 370 : Riddles, i. 12, 248 ; ii. 354 :*Streitgedichte,'i. 47, 148, 248; Charms and Proverbs, i. 7, 13, 14. ii. 354: Clerical Poetry, i. 77-79 {see Epic Poetry and Singers) ; Christian Hymns, i. 34; Prayers, Poetical Confessions, Litanies, i. 40, 75, et seq. ; ii. 358 : Sacred Songs, i- 277, 322, 359 ;' ii. 376 : Hymns, i. 285, 286, 315, 350, 382 ; ii. 376 {see Pietists) : Songs for social gather- ings, i. 12, 2>6, 315, 322, 369; ii. 37^!, 382: Heroic songs, i. 19, 21, 48 ; Revival of Heroic poetry, i. 93- loi ; ii. 359 : Chivalrous poetry, i. 82, 145, 185, 257; 'People's songs,' i. 53, 248, 249, 252 (histor- ical and political popular songs), ii. 37i»377. 382. Pomerania, i. 292, 312. 'Pontus and Sidonia,' i. 261. Pope i. 375. 376; ii. 14. Pradon, * Regulus,' i. 400 ; ii. 345. Prague, University of, i. 235, 264; it 340- Prasch, Joh. Ludwig, i. 385 ; ii. 383. Premontval, philosopher, ii. 26. Priscus, i. 24 ; ii. 355. Proper names of both sexes, meaning of, i. 8, 19 ; ii. 354. Proverbs, collections of, 1. 295 ; ii. 377- Psalms in German rhymed verse, i. 48 ; ii- 356. Pufendorf, Sam., i. 354, 356, 359, 372 ; ii. 345, 381. Piiterich, Jacob, von Reicherzhausen, i. 258; ii. 372. Pyra, Jac. Imm., ii. 28, 64; ii. 345, 385- Pyiheas of Massilia, i. i ; ii. 354. Rabanus Maurus, i. 41, 44; ii. 337, 356. Rabelais, i. 288, 375 ; ii. 289. Rabener, i. 360 ; ii. 13, 14, 346. Rachel, Joachim, i. 369 ; ii. 344, 382. Racine, i. 371; ii. 2, 155, 178. Raimund, Ferd., ii. 314, 315, 326, 351,403. Ramler, Karl Wilh., ii. 29, 54. Ranke, Leop., ii. 247, 351. Rappoltstein, Uliich von, ii. 340. Raumer, Friedr. von, ii. 246, 351. Raupach, Ernst., ii. 305, 351, 402. Ravenna, Song of the Battle of, i. 117. Rebhun, Paul, Dramatist, i. 308, 313; ii- 342, 378- Regenbogen, Mastersinger, i. 210; ii. 367. r"' ^ Regiomontanus, Astronomer, ^ 205- 267 ;ii 341,377- Reimarus, Herm. Sam., ii. 74, 387. - Reinald von Dassel, see Dassel. Reinbeck, Provost in Berlin, ii. 24. Reineke the Fox, i. 146, 254, 255, 293; ii 187, 189. 372. Reinmar der Alte, see Hagenau. Reinmar von Brennenberg, i. 251. . Reinmar von Zweter, see Zweter. Renaissance, medigeval, i. 35, 46, 51, 52, 59, 68, 92, 237, 271; ii. 356; modern, i 271. Repkow, Eike von, * Sachsenspiegel, i. 223; ii. 339, 368. £62 432 Index. Reuchlin, i. 244 (' Henno,' comp. ii. 341, 371) ; i. 268, 269, 283; ii. 373. Reval, i. 244 ; ii. 371. Richardson, ii. 44 no, 288, 289. Richter, Jean Paul Friedr., ii. 282, 290-203, 349, 401. Ringwald, Barthol,, i. 286; ii. 376. Rist, Joh., i. 324, 325, 370; ii. 344, 379- * Ritter Galmy, i. 297 ; ii. 342. Ritter, Karl, Geographer; ii. 237, 399- Robinson Crusoe, imitations of, i. 392 {see Defoe) ; ii. 383. Roger, Covmt of Sicily, i. 85. * Rolandslied,' i 82, 174, 17;. Rollenhagen, Georg, i. 294, 383 ; ii. 343, 377- Romances, i. 58, 62-68, 237 ; Arthur romances, i. 151-154, 166,170, 176, 261 ; ii. 363 : The romances pass into prose {see * Popular Books'), i. 256, 297, 382; ii. 372, 378, 383: and flourish as heroic and love ro- mances, i. 383 ; ii. 383 : Historical and Chivalrous romances, ii. 285, 383 ; Comic romances, ii. 289, 383 ; Romances of travel, i. 390-302 ; Pastoral romances, i 316, 363, 364. 383; ii. 383: Romances written as letters, ii. no. Romanic nations, influence of their culture on Germany, i. 18, 34, 92 ; Italian Academies, i, 317. Rome, see Italy. Ronsard, i. 320. Rosen bliit, Hans, i. 244, 246, 323 ; ii. 34^, 37 1- * Rosengarten,' i. 118, 361. Rost, |. Chr.,ii. 7, 8. Rosvitha von Gandersheim, i. 51, 52 ; ii- 338, 341. 35^ 371. * Rother, Konig,' i. 84, 85, 94, 177 ; ii. 338, 359- Rotteck, ii. 246. Rousseau, ii. 39, no, 113, 287. Rubin, Minnesinger, i. 204. Riickert, Friedr , ii. 351, 401 ; Trans- lator, ii. 255 ; Lyrics, ii. 226, 272, 275 ; Epics, ii. 272. Rudiger, Markgrave, i 22 ; Character- istics, i. 23 ; In the Heroic Songs, i. 111-115. •Rudlieb,' i. 62-65, 67, 73, 124, 38; ii. 357- Rudolf von Ems, i. 179, 180, 183, 185 ; ii- 339, 365. Runic writing, i. 20 ; ii. 355. Sachs, Hans, i. 304-307, 323 ; ii. 341 -343, 378 : follower of Rosenblut and Folz, i. 244; first carnival play, i. 300; adapted Reuchlin's * Henno,' i. 245 ; ' Hiirnen Siefried,' i. 119; influence on the Drama of Elsass., i. 304 ; Sachs and Ayrer, i. 311 ; Reform writings, i. 282, 284; ii' 375 • Fables and poetic tales, i. 294 ; style, i. 362, 367 ; anthropo- morphism, ii. 103. 273, 320 ; re- newied influence in the 1 8th century, ii. 100, 130, 263. Sachsenheim, Herm. von, i.,256; ii. 343, 372- Sachsenspiegel, i. 223. Sack, Court preacher, ii. 29, 70. Salis, J G. von, ii. 261. • Salomon und Morold ' (or Marcol- fus^, i. 81, 84, 260 ; ii. 359. Salzburg, i. 32 ; ii. 355 ; Monk of, i. 277. Sastrow, Barthol., * Autobiography,' i. 292; ii. 377. Satires, i. 216-220, 254-256, 359, 368, 382. 'Saul,' Strassburg Drama, i. 312; ii. 343- Saurius, 'Conflagratio Sodomae,* ii. 344- Savigny, ii. 244, 350. Saxons, i. 33, 36; their subjection and conversion, i. 36, 41 ; ii. 337 : in literature, i. lo (' Wessobrunner Gebet ') ; i. 44 ('Messianic poem ') ; i. 93-95 (Singers and Songs); i. 262 (Universal Chronicle), i. 350, 359. (great influence in the beginning of the 1 8th century). Scaliger, Jul. Caesar, 'Poetik,' i. 319; ii- .342. Scandinavir.ns, i. 33, 60. Scharfenberg, Albrecht von, ii. 365. Schartlin v. Burtenbach, Sebast., ' Autobiography,' i. 292 ; ii. 377. Schede, Paul (called Melissus), i. 287. Scheffler, Johann (Angelus Silesius), i- 338, 339, 347, 359 ; ii- 344, 380. Scheid, Kaspar, i. 287 ; ii. 342, 376. Schelling, Caroline, ii. 233, 398. Swhelling, F. W. J., ii. 333, 234, 349, 398. Index, 433 * Schelmuffsky,' i. 390; ii. 252, 383, Schenkendorf, Max von, ii. 265, 350, Schemberg, Theodorich, * Spiel von Frau Jutten,' i. 242 ; ii. 341, 370. * Schildbiirger die,' i. 292 ; ii. 343. Schiller, i. 17, 18, 347; ii. 348, 349, 3m6, 397 '- youth, ii. ijifLii.icb 39° ; his work with Goethe ; ii. i 71, 395 : death, ii. 198 ; cliaracteristics, ii. 199-228; journalistic activity, ii. 171; 'Horen,'ii. 172, 173, 189, 349 ; * Musenalmanac,' ii. 173, 349; — Poems', youthful, ii. 118, 200; Hymn to Joy, ii. 201, 203 ; ' Gotter Griechenland'sund Kiinstler,' ii. 203 ; Didactic writings, ii. 205-207; *Xenien,' ii. 173 ; ' Der Abend,' ii. 207 ; Ballads, ii. 208 ; Epic schemes, ii. 202t.— Dramas : ' Robbe rs,' ij. 116, 117, 348, 397; ' Fiesco,' ii. liLSl 311, 348, 397 ; 'Kabale und Lie^,' ii. 118, 348 ; * Don Carlos/ ii. lij, 201-203, 348, 397 J 'Wallen- stem, « 177, 208-215, 349, 397; 'Maria Stuart,' ii. 177, 215-218, 34''> 397 ; ' ^laid of Orleans,' ii. 1 78, 218-221, 311, 349, 397 ; ' Bride of Messina,' ii. 178, 221-224,349, ^^97 ; 'Wilhelm Tell,' ii. 178, 2 24-2 2S, 311, 349, 397 ; ' Demetrius,' ii. 228, 301; Version of * Turandot und Phadra,' ii. i-]^;— Prose : Ghost- seer, ii. 204, 287, 349 ; historical writings, ii. 204, 208, 246, 348, 349; aesthetic and philosophic works, ii. 201, 203, 204, 349 ; Letters, ii. 171, 396. Schilter, Joh., i. 354; ii. 381. Schink, Joh. Friedr., * Johann Faust,' ii. 31Q, 349. Schlegel, tlias, ii. 13, 15, 64. Schlegel, the brothers, (i) Aug. Wilhelm, ii. 250, 264, 399 ; trans- lates Shakspeare, ii. 250, 302, 349; * Vorlesungen iiber dramat. Kunst. und Litt.' ii. 251,350; Drama'Ion,' ii. 25,6, 302 ; IJrsfkhs, Romances, Sonnets, ii. 264. — (2) Friedrich, ii. 251, 265, 399; ' Ueber die Sprache und Weisheit der Indier,' ii. 251 ) 350; ' Vorlesungen iiber Ge- schichte der alten und neuen Litter- atur,'ii. 351,359; Drama, 'Alarcos,' ii. 2 56, 3Q2 ; Novel, ' J^ucipd?,' i;. 386, 349. SchlQiennacher, ^i. 23^, 2^\, 242, 34^,. 35i> 399; Translation of Plato, ii. 250. Schlosser, Friedr. Christ., ii. 246, 258, 351. Schlozer, A. L., ii. 119, 246, 348. Schliiter, Andreas, i. 372. Schmidt, Kla ler Eberh., ii. 260. Schmolck, Benj., i. 349; ii. t^'^i. Schnabel, Joh. Goltfr., 'Die Insel Ftlsenburg,' i. 392. Schoch, J. G., i. 370. Schone, C. C. L., continues Goethe's Faust, ii. 319. _^-' Schone, Karl, ' Faust,' ii. 319. Schonebeck, Bruno von, translator of the ' Song of Solomon,' i. 1 85 ; ii 340. Schopenhauer, ii. 351, 398. Schopper, Hartmann, i. 255 ; ii. 343. Schottelius, i. 334, 337, 356 ; ii. 344, 380. Schreyvogel, ii. 312, 403. Schroder, Fr. Ludwig, actor and dramatist, ii. 175, 347, 348, 395. Schubart, Christ. F. D., ii. 116, 390. Schubert, Franz, ii. 281. Schulze, Professor in Halle, ii. 64. Schulze, Ernst., ' Bazauberte Rose,' ii. 282, 401. Schumann, Valentin, i. 295 ; ii. 34J. Schuppius, Balth., i. 324, 336, 337, 359 ; ii. 380. Schiitz, Heinr., Composer, i. 394. Schwal), Gustav., ii. 272. Sch\\abe, * Belustigungen des Vcr- standes und Witzes,' ii. 7, 346. * Schwabenspiegel,' i. 223 ; ii. 339, 368. Schweinichen, Hans von. Autobio- graphy, i. 292 ; ii. 376. Schwenkfeld, Kaspar von, i. 282, 337 ; ii- 375. Schwerz, Joh., Landowner, ii. 272. Schwieger, Jacob, Lyric poet, i. 370; ii 344. Scott, Walter, ii. 285. Scriver, Chr., i. 345 ; ii. 30, 344. Seifried, ' Alexandreis,' i. 185; ii. 366. Semler, Theologian, ii. 73. Sermons, i. 74, 263, 276; ii. 358, 37^, 375- Seume, Gottfr., ii. 280. Sevigne, Madame, de, ii. iii. Shaftesbury, ii. 25, 44. Shakspeare, i. 52, 272, 313, 326, 305; ii. ii, 23, 44, 9-8, 305, 389 (his imitators in Germany) ; * Cse^^r,' i 434 Index. 3i4;ii.i7: 'Hamlet,* 'Lear,' i.314; 'Romeoand Juliet,'!. 52,314; 'Mid- summer Night's Dream,' i. 328; ♦Tempest,' i. 392 ; 'Timon,' ii. .^15 ; see also ' Schlegel ' and ' Tieck.' Sidney, Philip, ' Arcadia,' i. 364. Siegfried, meaning of the Myth, i. 5, 9, 19; the legend perfected, i. 96; in the Nibelungenlied, i. 101-109 ; in later legends, i. 118, 119. ' Siegfriedslied,' or the ' Hiimen Sei- fried,' i. 119 ; ii. 361, Simrock, Karl, ii. 255 ; as a Ballad writer, ii. 272 ; ' Wieland der Schmiede ' in Nibelungen Strophes, ii. 283 ; translator of the Nibelun- genlied, ii. 351. Singenberg, Ulrich von, Minnesinger, i. 204. Singers (wandering, travelling, Vag- ants, Goliards, Gumpelmen, Glee- men, Journalists), i. 20-23, 28, 53- 59. 67, 73, 84, 246, 247; ii. 357: characteristics of the Gleemen of the 15th and 1 6th centuries, i. 246; Knights as Gleemen, i. 62, 94 {see * Chivalrous poetry ') : clerks and priests as poets, i. 67, 73, 77, 94 {see ' Church poetry '). Slavs, i. 5, 121. Sleidanus, i. 292 ; ii, 342, 376. Society, ' The Upright Society of the Pine-tree,' Strassburg, i. 323 ; ii. 344: 'The Leipzic German,' i. 373; ii. 4, 117,344; 'The Fruit- bringing,' i- 31 7. 323, 330 ; ii. 343» 379 = ' The Pegnitz Shepherds,' i. 323 ; ii. 344, 379- Soden, Count Julius, ' Faust,' ii. 319, 349- Sophocles, see Ajax. Spain, i. 24 ; in literature, i. 34 (Latin rhymed poetry) ; i. 315 (Spanish poetry in Germany) ; i. 361, Spanish style (Gangorism) ; i. 386 ; ii. 383, Spanish influence on the German novel. Spalatinus, i. 296 ; ii. 381. Spalding, Theologian, ii. 134. Spangenberg, Wolfhart, ' Ganskonig,' i. 294,313, 323; ii. 343, 377. Spec, Friedr., i. 337, 347, 343, 359 ; ii. 344, 380. Spener, i. 344, 345 ; ii. 344, 347, 353, 354*372; 381. Spindler, ii. 351. Spinoza, ii. I03, 164. Stagemann, Friedr. Aug. von, ii. 265. Steele, and the Tatler, Spectator and Guardian, i. 375. Steimar, Minnesinger, i. 207, 211 ; ii. MO, 36^. Stein, Freiherr von, ii. 239, 335, 394. Stein, Charlotte von, ii. 147. Steinhowel, Heinr,, i. 261 ; ii. 372, 377- Stenzel, Harald, ii. 246. Sterne, Laurence, ii. 161, 280, 288, 289, 347- Stieler, Kaspar von, i. 354; ii. 381. Stoffeln, Konr. von, i. 177 ; ii. 364. Stolberg, Christian, Count, ii. 120. Stolberg, Friedr. Leop,, Count, ii. 120, 121, 124, 280, 348, 390. Stranitzky, Jos., i. 399. Strassburg, i. 36 ; ii. 338, 355 (Strass- burg Oath) ; ii. 95, 347 ; Goethe in, ii. 122 (Herder). Strieker, i. 176, 217, 218, 294; ii. 364, 368. Sturmi, Abbot of Fulda, i. 41. Sulzer, J. G., ii. 26, 29, 347, 385. Suso, Heinr., Mystic, i. 230; ii. 368. Siissmilch, Statistician, ii. 26. Swift, Jonathan, i. 375 ; ii. 78. Switzerland, i. 303; ii. 19, 24, 378, 384. Tacitus, i. 2, 8, 11, 19, 42, 367; ii. 338, 354- ' Tagelieder,' or * Tageweisen,' i. 165 ; ii. 364. Tales, see Novels. Tannhauser, Minnesinger, i. 206, 250, 252 ; ii- .^67, 372. Tasso, ' Aminta,' i. 364. Tauler, Mystic, i. 230 ; ii. 368. Terence, i. 51, 301 ; ii. 178. Tersteegen, Gerh., Mystic, i. 348 ; ii. 381. ' Teufel's Netz, des Satire,' i. 256 ; ii. 340, 372. Teutons, i. i. Theatre : Academy Theatre in Strass- burg, i. 312; Court Theatre at Cassel, i. 313; Italian Theatre in Paris, i. 399 ; National Theatre in Berlin, ii. 175, 348 : The Court and National (afterwards Eurg") Thentre in Vienna, ii. 311, 348 ; Leopold- stadter Theatre in Vienna, ii. 314. Index, 435 Themar, Adam Werner von, translator of Rosvitha's 'Abraham,' ii. 341. Theodebert, grandson of Clovis, i. 21, 121. Theodoric, son of Clovis, i. 121. Theodoric the Great, in history, i. 21, 33 ; ii- 337 '• the differences be- tween history and legend, i, 22 ; T. the Great in legend, i. 22, 25, 58, 93, 95, 118, 120. Theophrastus Paracelsus, i. 291 ; ii. 295, 376. * Thidreksage,' see Norwegian lan- guage. Thomas Aquinas, St., i. 229. Thoraasinvon Zirclaria, Italian Canon, and German poet, i. 189, 216, 220 ; ii. 367 : *Der Welsche Gast,' i. 214, 215 ; ii. 339- Thomasius, Chr., i. 356 ; ii. 345 (* Mo- natsgesprache) ; i. 359,372 ; ii.345> 381. Thomson's * Seasons,* ii. 39. Thiimmel, Mor. Aug. von,"'Wilhelm- ine,' ii. 61, 347; ' Reise in die mittaglichen Provinzen von Frank- reich,' ii. 280. Thiiring von Ringoltingen, Translator, i. 261 ; ii. 372. Thuringia, i. 33, 55 (conversion) ; i. 40 (change of language) ; i. 92 ^special home of culture) ; i. 1 38-141 (Vel- deke und Morungen). .^ieck, Ludwig, ii. 249, 264, 294, 349, 350, 399 ; ' Franz Stembald's Wand- erungen,' ii. 286, 348 ; ' Dramatur- gische Blatter,' ii. 302 ; edited H. von Kleist's Works, ii. 306. Tiedge, Aug., ii. 260. Tilemann, Elhem von Wolfhagen, writer of the Limburg Chronicle, i. 252 ; ii. 340. Torring, Count, 'Agnes Bemauerin,' ii. 115, 390. Translations, i. 203 ; ii. 377. Treizsauerwein, Marx, i. 258. Tressan, Count, ii. 130. Trim berg, Hugo von, i. 220, 222, 25-) : ii. 340, 367. Troubadours, i. 135, 141, I46, 189, 200, 225. "I schudi i^gidius, i. 292. Tiirlin, Heinr. von dem, * The Crown of Adventures,' i. 177 ; ii. 364.. Twinger von Konigshofen, Jac, i. 262. Uhland, Ludw., i. 98 ; ii. 255, 268 271, 3.^o. 35i» 400. Ulfilas, or Wulfila, i. 29-32, 33, 273; ii- 338, 35.5. Ulrich, Bishop of Ausgburg, in poetry, i. 56. Ulrich ; see Lichtenstein, Rappoltstein, Singenberg, Zetzikon. Urfe, d', ' Astraa,' i. 364. Usteri, Martin, ii. 263, 352, 400. Uz, J. P., ii. 28, 346, 385. * Valentine and Orson,' i. 260. Vandals, i. 6, 31, 120. Varnhagen von Ense, K. A., ii. 232 ; his wife Rahel, nee Levin, ii. 232, .^98- Veldeke, Heinr. von, i. 1 37-141 ; ii. 362 (Legend of St. Servatius, i. 1 38 ; .^Eneid, i. 138-140; Songs, i. 140) ; i. 143, 144, 156, 161, 187, 189, 201 ; ii- 339, .366. Velthen, Magister, i. 391 ; ii. 384. * Verdim, Treaty of, i. 37. Vesalius, Anatomist, i. 267. Vienna, i. 97, 219, 395, 310, 311 ; ii. 345 > 403 (the Theatre in Vienna and its influence "> ; ii. 310, 314 (Burlesques at the Vienna Theatres) ; ii. 340 (University^ Voigt, Joh., Historian, ii. 246. Volker von Alzei, as a type of the Gleemen, i. 99 ; in the Nibelungen- lied, i. Ill, 114. Voltaire, i. 372 ; ii. 25, 40, 49, 50, 177 (' Traite de la tolerance'), ii. 178; (' Mahomet und Tancred' trans- lated and put on the stage by Goethe), ii. 178. Voluspa, i. lo. Vondel, Joost van den, i. 326. Voss, Joh Heinr., ii. 121, 187, 262, 34"^ J 390, 400 Voss, Jul. von, ' Faust,' ii. 319, 403. Vulpius, Christiana, ii. 166. Wagner, Heinr. Leop., ii. 115, 348. Waldis, Burkard, i. 294, 342, 377. Walkyries, i 8, 14 Walther von der Vogelweide, i. 17, 18, 90, 134, 139, 161, 187, 273; ii. 339} 366 ; his Spriiche, i. 89, 1 94 ; Minnesongs, i. 196-201 ; W. and Marner, i. 209 ; Berthold von Regensburg, i. 227; the popular song, i. 249, 251 ; E. M. Arndt, il 436 Index, 266 ; Sacred song, i. 277 ; Luther, i. 279 ; Revival in the i8ih and 19th centuries, li. 124, 255. * Wartburgkrieg,' i. 187, 168, 210; ii. 366. Weber, Karl Maria von, * Freischiitz,' ii. 303- Weckherlin, Rud., i. 316, 320, 364; ii- 343- Weckherlin, Wilh. Ludw., Journalist, ii. 116. Wegelin, ii. 26. ' Weib, das iibel' (The bad wife), Tirolese poem, i. 219. Weidmann, Paul, * Johann Faust,' ii. 318, 34S, 403. Weimar, i. 317 ; ii. 138, 143 et seq., .348, 391- * Weinschwelg, der,' i. 220 ; ii. 36*'. Weise, Christ., i. 370, 371, 373, 380; ii. 344, 345, 382, 383 ; Romances, i. 389 ; Dramas, i. 396, 399. Weisse, Christ, Felix, ii. 16, 17; as opera writer, ii. 17, 55 ; ' Amazon- enlieder,' ii. 53-5.5, 69, 97, 9> (' Richard III.' ' Romeo and Juliet'), ii. 262, 347, 384. Weissenbiirg, Otfried of, i. 40, 42. Welcker, F. G., Philologist, ii. 247, 351- Wenzel, King of Bohemia, Minne- singer, i. 208 ; ii. 340, 367 Werner, der Gartner, ' Meier Helm- brecht,' i. 218, 255 ; ii. 368. W^erner von Elmendorf, see Elmendorf. W^erner von Homberg, see Homberg. Werner, Zacharias, ii. 303, 350 (' Feb. 24') ; ii. 310, 402. Wemher, * Marienlieder,' ii. 338, 358. Wernicke, Christ., i. 372 ; ii. 2, 345. * Wessobmnner Gebet,' i. 10 ; ii. 354. Wickram, Jorg, i. 297, 378; 'Roll- wagenbiichlein,' i. 295 ; Novels, i. 297 ; ii. 252 : * Die guten und die bosen Nachbam,' i. 2i;7 ; Drama of Tobias, i, 304. Widmann, Georg Rud , author of a book of Faust, ii. 316, 343, 403. Wieland, Christoph Martin, i. ^2 ; ii. 22, 40-47, 48, 49, ,128-131, I42 (on Goethe) : ii. 1 72, 287, 347, 348, 385 : Translator of Shakspeare, ii. 44 250. 347 ; and of various clas- sical authors, ii. 131 ; Editor of the ' Teutsche Merkur,' ii. 46, 1 29 347 ; Dramas, ii. 45; ' AlctSte,' ii. 45, 154, 347 : — Epics, poetic tales, and other poems, ' Trial of Abraham,' ii. 41 ; ' Amadis, the new,' ii. 46, 347 ; ' Anti-Ovid,' ii. 41 ; ' Didactic letters,' ii. 41 ; ' Letters from the dead,' ii. 42 ; ' Clelia and Sinibald,' ii. 131 ; ' Cyrus,' ii. 42, 46 ; Short Tales, ii. 41 ; Humorous Tales, ii. 43, 347 ; Spring, ii. 40 ; * Gandalin,' ii 130, 348 ; ' Geron,' ii. 130, 348 ; 'Hermann,' ii. 41, 386; ' Idris,' ii. 46, 347; 'Musarion,' ii. 45, 347; 'Oberon,' ii. 131, 348, 386 :— Prose writings, ' Abderites,' ii. 45, 347, 386; 'Agathon,' ii. 44. 185, 284, 285 ; ' Araspes und Panthea,' ii. 45, 347 ; * The Golden Mirror,' ii. 46, 347; 'Sylvio,'43,i30,347; 'Danisch- mund,' ii. 46 ; ' Graces,' ii. 45. 347. 'Wiener Meerfahrt,' i, 219 ; ii. 3*^8. ' Wigamur,' the Knight with the eagle, i. 177; ii. 364. Wild man, the. Middle High-German poet, i. 214 : ii. 367. Wilken, ' Geschichte de Kreuzziige,' ii. 246, 350- WlUamov, Joh Gotll., 'Dithyramben,' ii. 54. Willem, ' Reinaert,' i. 255. Willemer, Marianne von, ii. 272, 394. William the Conqueror, i. 61. Williram's prose translation of the Song of Solomon, i. 81, 273; ii. 338, 359- Willo, sets Ezzo's song to music, i. 80. Wimpfcling, Jacob, Humanist,!. 292 ; ii. 3^1, 376. Winckelmann, Joh Joach., i. 375 ; ii. 62, 65, 346, 387. Windeck, Eberh., History of the Em- peror Siegmund, i. 263 ; ii. 340. Winsbeke, the, Didactic author, i. 212, 220; ii. 367. Wirent von Grafenberg, i. 71, 72, 79, 176 ; ' Wigalois,' i. 176, 212, 259 ; ii. 339^ 364. Wisse, Claus, ii. 340. Wittenweiler, Heinr., ' Ring,' i. 255; ii. 372. Wizlaw IV., Duke of Riigen, Minne- singer, i. 208 ; ii. 340, 307. Wodan, i. 7 (in diflerent periods') ; i. 9 (his worship originated wilh the Franks) ; i. 13 (in charms) ; i. 19 (as ancestor of various princely lamilies). Index. 437 Wolf, Fr Aug., ii. 241, 243, 347, 349. * Wolfdietrich,' i. 16, 120-123, 259; ii 361. Wolff, Christ., i. 357-359> 372 ; ii. 24, 347, 381. Wolff, Pius, Alex., Actor, ii. 396. Wolfram von Eschenbach, i. 17, 90, 133, '38, i39> 161-176, 179, 183, 187, 188, 198, 212, 258; ii. 339, 364 ; Songs, i. 165, 196 ; ' Parzival,' i. r53, 166-172, 176, 183, 188,259, 387 ; ii. 79, 339, 340, 364: 'Titurel,' i. 1 73, 182 ; ii. 339, 341 : ' Willehalm,' i. 166, 173-176, 179' 187; ii. 79, 339. 364- Wolkenstein, Oswald von, Minne- singer, i. 247. Wolzogen, Caroline von, * Agnes von Lilien,' ii. 232, 398. Worship of the Virgin, i. 77 ; ii. 358. Wycliffe, i. 31. Wyle, Niclas von, i. 261, 264 ; ii. 341. Young, ii. 359. Zacharia, ii. 12-14, 34^- Zedlitz, Baron, ii. 62, 347. Zesen, Phil, von, i. 324, 367 ; ii. 344, 380 : '■ Adriatische Rosamund,' i. 36.S 383, 385 ; ii. 112, 344, 383. Zetzikon, Ulrich von, * Lanzelet,' i. 1 76 ; ii. 364. Ziegler, Heinr. Anshelm von, * Asia- tische Banise,' i. 384 ; ii. 345, 383. Ziely, Wilh., Translator, i. 261 ; ii. 372- Zincgref, Jul. Wilh., i. 316 ; ii. 344, 379- Zinzendorf, Count, i. 348, 349 ; ii. 381. Zschokke, Heinrich, * Abellino. der grosze Bandit.' ii. 349 ; ' Sammtliche ausgewahlte Schritten,' ii. 351. Zweter, Reinmar von, i. 204 ; ii. 367. Zwingli, i. 272, 303. UIBR7 UA// or ^Hi ENU OF VOL. 11. / m^^x ^; RETURN CIRCULATION DEPARTMENT^ ^ ^ TO— ► 202 Main Library 1818 LOAN PERIOD 1 HOME USE ALL BOOKS AAAY BE RECALLED AFTER 7 DAYS 1-month loans may be renewed by cal'inc 842-3405 ' vear loans may be recharged by bringing the books to the Circulation Desk -^cna^al^ anri ror>hargf»i may hp marifl 1 rifty fiata DUE AS STAMPED BELOW MAY o *:5 inqc Rprcix— - FEB ^ 3 i^tst ClRCUl/17 >. ,, --■^ IMil 1 n inr i/nijLJ. 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