THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LOS ANGELES (ri:ircni)on Jrcss .Series BRACHET'S FRENCH GRAMMAR Hontron MACMILLAN AND CO. PUBLISHERS TO THE UNIVERSITY OF (Bxiox'a (Thu-cnbon press .Series A HISTORICAL GRAMMAR OF THE FRENCH TONGUE BY AUGUSTE BRACHET I.auriat de I'Insliliit tie France TRANSLATED I!Y G. W. KITCHIN, M.A. Fourth Editioa (Ovforb AT THE CLARENDON PRESS M DCCCLXXVII [/I// rights re!.crved'\ ZlOl PREFACE. This Historical Grammar, which has for object the study of the laws of formation of the French tongue, is not meant to be one of the many purely grammatical works which aim at facilitating the practical acquirement of the language. For it is no longer sufficient simply to regard the study of language as an useful preparation for the study of litera- ture. It is now seen that speech, which belongs alike to all the human race, must, like all natural phenomena, follow fixed laws, and pass in its transformations through regular stages. Linguistic studies may, therefore, be an end in themselves ; for instead of pursuing them in a spirit of idle curiosity, we may investigate the manner in which the law of change, which governs all nature, is applied to languages. It is an old saying that languages are not born but trans- muted : philology investigates the law of this transmutation, using for her instruments history and comparison. Let us explain : — in those sciences which are based on observation, such as chemistry or natural history, it is impossil)Ie to account for any fact unless we know what fact preceded it : if we would explain how a tree is formed, we must go back from tree to young shoot, from .shoot to germ or seed ; in other words, we must make out the history of the tree by careful observation of the different c(jndilions and forms through which it has passed. \Vc best discern that which is 726844 VI PREFACE. by knowing that which has been ; the right way to discover the causes of any phenomenon is to look at the same time at those phenomena which have preceded it. So too for philology, which is, if we may hazard the phrase, the botany of language; here also we may best explain words or grammatical facts by the study of their history. A single example will put this in a clearer light. It is well known that before certain feminine substantives, such as ?7iesse, mere, soif, /ai?}i, peur, Sec, the adjective grand keeps its masculine termination, grand' messe „gr and' viere, &c. Why so.? Grammarians, who are puzzled by nothing, tell us without hesitation that grand is here put for grande, and that the apostrophe marks the suppression of the final e. But the good sense of every scholar protests against this : after having learnt in childhood that e mute is cut off before a vowel, and never before a consonant, he is told that the e is here cut off without the slightest reason in such phrases as grand' route, &c. The real explanation is in fact a very different one. In the beginning, French grammar was simply the continuation and prolongation of Latin gram- mar; consequently the Old French adjectives followed in all points the Latin adjective; those adjectives which had two terminations for masculine and feminine in Latin (as bonus, bona) had two in Old French, whereas those which had but one (as grandis, fortis, &c.), had only one in Old French, In the thirteenth century men said tine grand femme, grandis femina ; tine dme mortel, mortalis anima ; iine coutume cruel, eonsuetxido crudelis ; une plaine vert, viridis planities, &c. In the fourteenth century the meaning of this distinction was no longer understood ; and men, deem- ing it a mere irregularity, altered the form of the second PREFACE. VU lo that of the first class of adjectives, and wrote grande, vertt', forte, &c., after the pattern of bomic, &c. A trace of the older and more correct form survives in such expres- sions as grand' mere, grand' rouie, grand'/avn, grand' - garde, Sec, which are the dSn's of the older language. In the seventeenth century, Vaugelas and the grammarians of the age, in their ignorance of the historic reason of this usage, pompously decreed that the form of these words arose from an euphonic suppression of the e mute, which must be indicated by an apostrophe. Here then is a natural explanation founded on history; and even if historical grammar had no other results be- yond that of rendering ordinary grammars more logical and simple, it would still be worth much. But instead of employing this clear and fruitful method of observa- tion, instead of studying the past to get a better under- standing of the present, grammarians, from Vaugelas to M. Girault-Duvivier, have limited themselves to the study of the language in its actual form, and have tried to explain ^ priori (by pure reason and logic) facts which can be explained only by the history of the language and the study of its ancient state. And accordingly, for the last three centuries, they have built up systems which were both learned and puerile, instead of limiting themselves to the simple observation of facts; they persist in treating philology as Voltaire treated geology, when he affirmed that the shells found on mountain-tops had been dropped there by pilgrims on their return from the crusades. The severe judg- ment pa.sscd by an eminent professor at the College of France' on Frcncli grammarians is fully justified: — 'La ' M. Brcal, Dhroiirs tToui'erttirr Jti couri de gramma'irr rom- paree au College de France, 1864. vm PREFACE. grammaire traditionnelle formule ses prescriptions comme les ddcrets d'une volenti aussi impenetrable que d^cousue ; la philologie comparee fait glisser dans ces tenebres un rayon de bon sens, et au lieu d'une docilite machinale elle demande a I'^leve une obeissance raisonnable.' I have illustrated by one example the position that these grammatical facts must be explained by an appeal to history, and that ' the present state of an idiom is but the natural consequence of its previous state, which alone makes it intelligible/ The same is true of words: given, for ex- ample, the word dftie, we will seek for its origin. Before we come to any conclusion, let us see whether the history of the word (i. e. the study of the several forms it has suc- cessively taken) can throw any light on the problem, and shew us which path to follow. The accent on the a shews that some letter has been suppressed : in thirteenth-century texts the word is written anme ; in the eleventh century it is aneme; in the tenth anwie, which leads us without a moment's hesitation to anima. Thus is history the guiding- line of philology, and there is not a single broken link in the long chain which connects the French with the Latin language. When we first look at it, the distance between dtne and anima, between the French of Voltaire and the peasant Latin, seems long enough; and yet it has needed only a series of infinitely small changes spread over a very long period to connect them with one another. Nature, wasteful of time, is sparing of effort ; with slow and almost imper- ceptible modifications she arrives at results far away in appearance from her starting-point ^ ^ M. G. Paris. PREFACE. IX To history, regarded as an instrument of philology, com- parison must be added as a precious ally. By comparison theories are proved, hypotheses verified. Thus, in the ex- ample we have already cited, the comparison of the Italian and Spanish olma with the French ame g^ves to the hypo- thesis we have started an invincible certainty. Armed with this double method, the historical and the comparative, an illustrious German, Friedrich Diez, wrote {.\.D. 1836 to 1842) a comparative grammar of the five languages which spring from Latin ^ : he shewed according to what laws they were formed from the Latin. Starting from the philological principles laid down by him, Bartsch and Matzner in Germany, and in France Littrd, Guessard, P. Meyer, and G. Paris, have applied his principles to the French language in particular, and by means of many detailed investigations have thrown fresh light upon its origin ^. ' The Germans call these five (Italian, Spanish, French, Por- tuguese, W'ailachian) the Romance languages; the name is clear and convenient, has been fully accepted in scientific language, and will be employed throughout this book. ■^ The work of these French philologers is far from being equally good : to say nothing of the very vmcqual compilation published by M. Ampere, or of M. Chevallct's book, an ad- mirable work in its day, but now out of date, we must regard with real sorrow the success which welcomed twenty years ago M. Gcnin's work {I'ariatirjtis de la loji^ue frauqaiie) a collection of paradoxes and startling effects, performed by a juggler with words, \\ho!^c business it is to astonish a dazzled audience. IM. Genin was clever enough to know that his KrLMich readers wouKi always prefer a well-turned epigram to a dry truth, and though he had never in his life read a single line of German, he was ever ready with a pleasantry — rather stale perhaps, but still always applauded in France — on 'the nebulous lucubrations of German trains.' He forgf)t that a bon mot docs not do for an argument, and that in siientific matters it is no (juestion of French or Gcnnan ideas, but of right and wrong ones. X PREFACE. In spite of these incessant efforts, the principles of French philolog}', scarcely recognised even by the learned, are still utterly unknown to the great majority of the literary public. My aim in this little book is to spread the knowledge of these results by freeing them from their scientific dress, and by making them accessible to a wider circle of readers. I have accordingly endeavoured to gather into a small volume the chief laws which have guided the formation of the French tongue. This is the only novelty I have to offer : for such works are not uncommon, at any rate out- side of France. In Germany and England the study of the mother-tongue has won its citizenship in colleges and schools, where it has its undisputed seat by the side of Greek and Latin ^; it has not as yet penetrated into French colleges, even as a branch of higher education. M. Fourtoul, who, among a number of mistakes, hit on several happy discoveries, ordered in 1853 that comparative grammar should be taught in the upper classes of the Lyceum — a step towards the study of the French language which was reversed by his successor. This is much to be regretted, especially since the present ministry^, which has ceased to insist on the study of Greek and Latin, and has established industrial or technical education side by side with literary training, ought all the more to have strengthened ^ It will be enough to cite two elementary works, the numerous editions of which prove their success : in England, Gleig's His- tory of the English Language, in his School Series ; in Germany, Vilmar's German Historical Grammar, intended for the higher forms in the Gymnasia {Anfangsgriinde der deutschen Grammatik, zunachst fiir die obersten Klassen der Gymnasien, by Dr. Vilmar. 6th Edition, 1864). ^ Written in 1867. PREFACE. xi the latter by introducing the study of the three languages, Greek, Latin, and French, together with that of the three national literatures. One Frenchman, I\I. IMonjean, Director of the Chaptal College, has ventured to introduce a course of lectures on the history of the French language in his rhetoric class, with the very best results. May his example embolden the Uni- versity of Paris to spread among the higher classes of our schools the results which have been indisputably obtained by science ! My object will have been gained if rny modest manual of philology can in any way hasten this result. I cannot hope to set forth a complete historical grammar in two hundred pages, when three volumes would scarcely suffice. I have therefore, as far as possible, laid aside all secondary matters and points of detail, and have thought it enough to set forth essential laws and fundamental principles, so as not to overstep the limits of space which I had imposed on myself. Again, the subject of this book is not the grammar of Old French. The French language in its medieval state finds a place in it only so far as it illustrates INIodern French (if I may apply to my little book what M. Littrd said of his Historical Dictionary). Present usage depends on ancient usage, and can only be explained by it. Modern French without Old French is a tree without roots ; Old French by itself is a tree without branches or leaves : the separation of the two is an injustice to both — an injustice constantly done to ihcm up to the present time ; and their proper combination is the only originality claimed for this book, and gives it a right to be called a Historical Grammar. The book is in three distinct parts : first, the Introduction, xii PREFACE. which sketches the history of the French language, of its formation, and of its elements; secondly, the Historical Grammar, which deals with the Letters (Book I), Inflexion (Book II), and the Formation of Words (Book III) ; and lastly, an Appendix containing the rules to be followed in the discovery of etymologies. Finally, I must express my gratitude to MM. Egger, Littre, and Ernest Renan, Members of the Institute, who have kindly given me the advantage of their advice and encou- ragement; to M. Emile Lemoine, formerly pupil of the Ecole Polytechnique; last of all and most of all, to MM. Paul Meyer and G. Paris, whose friendship has strengthened me for my task. If this book has any value, it is to them that it is due. AUGUSTE BRAGHET. May 6, 1867. [The English translation has had throughout the great benefit of the counsel and oversight of Professor Max Miiller, to whom hearty thanks are due for the interest he has taken in its welfare. There are a few Latin words in the work marked with an asterisk, as testonem*; these are late and unclassical] CONTENTS. Preface PAGE V INTRODUCTION. T. History of the French Language .... 11. The Formation of the French Language CHAPTER L The Continuance of the Latin Accent CHAPTER n. Suppression of the Short Vowel . CHAPTER 111. Loss of the Medial Consonant CHAPTER IV. Conclusion 35 38 BOOK I. Phonetics, or the study of the Letters of the Alphabet. PART 1. Pennulation of Letters. CHAPTER 1. llistor)- of the French Alphabet 4O Sect. I. Origin of the French Vowels . 46 § I. Simple Vowels . 46 § 7. Compound Vowels .SI Sect. 11. Origin of the French Consonants .«;5 § I. Liquids .... .';.'; § 2. Labials .... 58 § 3. Dentals .... 60 § 4. Gutturals (r. CHAPTER H. History- of the Latin Alphabet . 66 Sect. 1. History of the Latin Vowels . 67 § I. Tonic Vowels ('1 § 2. Atonic Vowels . 68 (I) 1 'receding the Tonic Syllable 68 (2) Following the Tonic Syllabic 6y Sf.ct. 11. History of the Latin Consonants . 70 § 1. Liquids .... / ' § 2. Denials .... 7.1 § 7,. Gutturals .... 74 § 4. Labials .... 75 XIV CONTENTS. PART II. Transposition, Addition, and Subtraction of Letters. CHAPTER I. Transposition . Sect. I. Of Consonants Sect. II. Of Vowels . CHAPTER II. Addition . Sect. I. Prosthesis § 1 Of Vowels . §2 Of Consonants Sect. II. Epenthesis . Sect. III. Epithesis CHAPTER III. Subtraction Sect. I. Aphaeresis § I. Of Vowels . § 2. Of Consonants Sect. II. Syncope §1. Of Vowels . § 2. Of Consonants Sect. III. Apocope § I. Of Vowels . § 2. Of Consonants PART III. Prosody. I. Tonic Accent .... II. Grammatical Accent III. Oratorical Accent IV. Provincial Accent PAGE 77 77 77 78 78 78 79 79 8o 8o 8o So So So So Si 82 82 82 83 84 85 85 BOOK II. Inflexion, or the study of Grammatical Forms, PART I. Declension. CHAPTER I. The Substantive ...... 88 Sect. I. Case 88 Sect. II. Genders . . . . . . .96 Sect. III. Numbers 98 CHAPTER 11. The Article 100 COXTE NTS. XV CHAPTER III. The Adjective . Sect. I. Qualifying Adjectives . § I. Case and Number § 2. Genders .... § 3 Adjectives used as Substantives §4- Degrees of Comparison Sect. II. Nour>s of Number § I. Cardinals . §2. Ordinals . CHAPTER IV. Pronouns Sect. I. Personal Sect. II. Possessive . Sect. III. Demonstrative Sect. IV. Relative Sect. V. Indefinite PART II. Conjupra tion. Preliminary Remarks .... CHAPTER I. Auxiliary Verbs Sect. I. £tre . Sect. II. Avoir , CHAPTER II. Classification of Verbs Formation of Tenses Irregular Verbs Defective and Anomalous Verbs I. Defective .... Conjugations CHAPTER III. CHAPTER IV. CHAPTER V. Sect. Sect. II. Anomalous PAGE I02 I02 I02 102 104 105 107 109 109 III "3 114 11.=; 118 123 124 127 129 136 142 143 143 148 PART TIT. CHAPTER I. Adverbs .Sect. I. Of Place Sect. II. Sect. Ill Sect. IV, Sect. V CHAPTER II. Particles Of Time Of Manner . CJf Intensity Of Affirmation and Negation Prci)ositions .... Sect. I. Formed frf>ni the Latin Sect. II. Formed from more than one Latin Preposition Sect. III. Formed frouj Prepositions witli Adverbs, &c. 153 154 155 158 ■58 160 •63 "63 '63 164 XVI CONTENTS. Sect. IV Sect. V Sect. VI Sect. VII. Sect. VIII. CHAPTER III. Conjunctions . Sect. I. Simple Sect. II. Compound . Sect. III. Conjunctival phrases CHAPTER IV. Interjections . Such as are really Participles . Formed from Substantives Formed from Participles, Adjectives, and Adverbs Formed from an Article and a Preposition Formed from an Article and a Substantive page 165 165 166 167 167 167 167 168 169 169 BOOK III. Formation of 'Wcrds, CHAPTER I. Compound Words .... Sect. I. Of the Accent on Compound Words Words compounded of Nouns ), „ Adjectives )j „ Verbs ,, made from Phrases „ compounded with Particles Prepositional .... Qualitative .... Quantitative .... Negative ..... On Suffixes or Terminations . Accentuation of Derived Words . Nominal Suffixes Accented in Latin Atonic in Latin Verbal Suffixes .... Accented Atonic Diminutives .... Sect. II. Sect. III. Sect. IV. Sect. V. Sect. VI. §1. §2. §3- §4- CHAPTER II Sect. I. Sect. II. § I. § 2. Sect. III. § I. §2. Sect. IV. Appendix. Rules which must be followed in detecting Derivations Index 172 172 174 175 176 176 176 177 180 181 181 181 182 183 183 183 191 191 192 192 195 205 INTRODUCTION. I. HISTORY OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. Caesar tells us that he found in Gaul three races, differ- ing in speech, manners, and laws : the Belgae in the north, the Aquitani between the Garonne and the Pyrenees, and in the centre the Gallic or Celtic race. But the Belgae and the Celts really belonged to the same race, while the Aquitani were partly Iberian, and their language has perhaps survived in the Basque or Etiskarian tongue. Thus then almost all the soil of France was occupied by the Celtic race ; they were men tajl and fair, eager for excitement and noise, men whose ambition was to fight well and to speak well. Some six hundred years before the Christian era Mar- seilles (Massilia) was founded near the mouths of the Rhone by Phocaean refugees. This city, thanks to her relations with Rome, was destined to be the beginning of woes to the people of Gaul. She called in the Romans to defend her against the Ligurians in b.c. 153. The Romans seized the Rhone valley ; and thence, in Caesar's time, passed on to conquer the rest of the land. The Cells resisteil bravely : Caesar broke their spirit only by the most cruel measures ; he massacred ten thousand women and children at Bourges; B a INTRODUCTION. slew the heads of a tribe at Vannes, and sold the rest by auction; cut oif his prisoners' hands at Uxellodunum. After eight years of this work Gaul was subdued, and Rome began to administer her conquest. The chief secret of Roman foreign politics lay in the perfection of her iron system of colonisation. She had two engines by which to hold down a conquered province, — first, her military colonies set round the frontier, so as to isolate the conquest from all external influences; and, secondly, an energetic ' administration ' within that circle of iron, which soon broke up all local resistance. The language and religion of the conqueror were forced on the subject : all resistance was crushed by extermination or deportation, and the void filled up with colonists and freedmen from Rome. By this method conquerors and conquered were in a few years completely welded into one mass. Within a century after the conquest, Latin was spoken in many parts of Gaul. But this Latin, brought in by colonists and soldiers, was very unlike the Latin of Virgil : it was distinguished from the classical or written Latin by peculiarities of vocabulary and of inflexion which demand our attention. It is a first law of history that all languages (just like the nations that use them), are one at first, but presently split into two parts — the speech of the noble and the speech of the people. Every language has its epoch of division, which comes when the nation opens its eyes to arts and poetry — in a word, to culture and literature. From that time the nation may be divided into- two great classes, the lettered and the unlettered. The Latin language underwent this same division at the time of the second Punic war. The separation increased as time went on. Greek art and Greek manners introduced into the literary language of Rome a crowd of purely Greek HISTOR}' OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 3 words utterly unknown to the popular idiom \ These words, marks of breeding, if servile copies of the Greek, remained as strange to the common people, as the aristo- cratic French-English terms, ' turf,' ' sport,' ' steeple-chase,' &c., or the technical terms of science, ' diluvium,' ' stratifi- cation,' ' ornithologie,' &c., are to the French peasantry at the present day. These borrowed words widened the breach between the literary and the popular Latin, a difference which ever increased until the ' sermo nobilis,' the Uterary, aristocratic, 'classical ' Latin, became in Caesar's day entirely distinct from the ' sermo plebeius,' or ' rusticus,' the ' castrense verbum,' as authors disdainfully styled it, the Latin of the people and the camp. Each had its own grammatical forms and vocabulary. For example. ' to strike ' is verberare in literary Latin ; the popular Latin said batuere : the French words, c/icva/, se- ffiaim, aidc-r. doubler, hatailk, &c., were, in the classical Latin, equus, hebdomas, juvare. duplicare, pugna ; in the po- pular, caballus, septimana, adjutare, duplare, batualia. The popular Latin was unwritten, and we might have remained ignorant of its existence had not the Roman grammarians revealed it to us by exhorting their students to avoid as low and trivial certain expressions which, they tell us, were in common vulgar use. Cassiodorus tells us that the feigned combats of gladiators and exercise-drill of the army were called batalia, ' Quae vulgo batalia dicuntur, exercitationes gladiatorum vel militum significant.' Pugna was the literary term, batalia the popular; pugna has dis- appeared, batalia has survived in bataille. The pedants of that day could not foresee that the literary idiom, which they admired so much, would one day disappear ; and that the ' As afjuPtOtarpov, iTrnodpnfioSf t(f)inTnov, (f)iXoao({)ia, y(u)yf)a(j>ia, &C. B 2 4 INTRODUCTION. despised popular Latin would reign instead, parent of the Italian, French, and Spanish, and strong enough to bear the weight of the literatures of three great nations. Imported into Gaul by soldiers and colonists, the popular idiom soon made itself at home, and, even in the first cen- tury of the Christian era, had supplanted the Celtic speech, except in Armorica and a few isolated spots ^ A hundred years after the conquest, women and children used to sing Latin songs ; and so universal became the use of the language, that in Strabo's time the Celt was no longer regarded as a Barbarian ^. The lengthy sojourn of the Legions, the incessant influx of colonists, the necessity of pleading in Latin before the Roman tribunals, the con- version of the people to Christianity, and lastly, the natural vivacity and love of change ^ which distinguish the Celt, were further causes which contributed to the adoption by the Gallic people of the language of their conquerors. But, at the same time that the Gallic people thus accepted the common Latin, the upper classes in Gaul burned to adopt the literary dialect ; they practised rhetoric, and hoped to rise to political distinction. From the days of Augustus, Gaul became a nursery for rhetoricians and grammarians ; the schools of Autun, Bordeaux, and Lyons were renowned throughout the Empire. PHny boasts that his works were known throughout Gaul*. Caesar admitted Celts to the Senate ; Claudius made them eligible for all public offices, on the sole condition that they knew Latin. It is easy to understand why the Celtic noble forgot his mother- tongue. ^ The Celtic lingered long after this date in Auvergne. ^ That is, the test of language (implied in the word Barbarian) placed the Gaul on the same footing as the average Roman colonist, ^ See Caes. B. G. 4. 5. * Pliny, Ep. 9. 2. HISTOR}- OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 5 That tongue disappeared, leaving a few faint traces as evidences that it had existed. Thus the Romans remarked that the bird they called galerita was called alauda in Gaul ; that beer, in Graeco-Latin zjrthum, was cervisia in Gallic ; they introduced the words into their own tongue, and these new Latin words, passing six centuries later into French, produced the words aloueite ^ and cervoise. These and a few other isolated words, together with certain names of places, are all that the French language owes to the Gallic ; and indeed, if we speak more exactly, the French has borrowed nothing from it, since these words have passed through an intermediate Latin stage, and therefore has not come directly from the Gallic. And even these cases are so very rare, that it may almost be affirmed that the influence of the Celtic tongue on the French has been inappreciable. Thus, while the French nation is really Celtic in race, its language is not so : a very remarkable fact, which shews, better than any history could do, what a strong absorbent was the Roman power. The Celtic language had scarcely accepted its defeat^, when the Latin, from this time forth the true mistress of ' Alauda did not pass directly into alouette, but into the O. Fr. aloue, of which alouette is the diminutive. ■^ The Celtic language, thrust by the Romans back into Ar- morica, survived there for centuries, and was revived by an im- migration of Kymri from \\'alcs in the seventh century. The Bretons resisted the Frank as successfully as they had withstood the Roman; and what is now called the Low Breton patois is the direct dcscendcnt of the Celtic language. It has a con- siderable literature of tales, songs, and plays, which, however, only date back as far as the fourteenth century. Ihit the lan- guage, living thus for a thousand years 'in extremis,' naturally has deviated far from the primitive Celtic tongue : for beside the natural corruption and degradation of eighteen centuries, it has been forced to admit into its ranks a crowd of foreign, that is, of French, terms; and consecpicntly many Breton words present the singular spectacle of having two distinct lorms, the one 6 INTRODUCTION. Gaul, had to enter on a fresh struggle, and to repel a new assailant. The invasion of the German tribes set in. As far back as the second century after Christ the barbarians began slowly to filter through into Gaul : they silently under- mined the dykes of the Roman Empire, and prepared for the final bursting of the barriers, and the terrible inunda- tions of the fifth century. To protect northern Gaul against these German inva- sions the Romans garrisoned its frontiers with a chain of legions or military colonies; and when these veterans were no longer able to defend the sanctity of the Roman territory, the Romans employed an expedient which kept the great invasion at bay for a whole century, and for a few years at least gave peace to the Empire. They determined to let the barbarians settle in Northern Gaul, to attach them to the Empire, and to use them as a new and durable barrier against all further invasions. These were the Leti\ colonies of barbarians who recognised the nominal sovereignty of the ancient and of Celtic origin, the other more modern, borrowed from the French, but modified by a Celtic termination. Thus in Breton we have for just egivirion or just, secretly ekiiz or secretament, troubled enkrezet or troublet, anger buanegez or coler, and so on. Here the middle column is composed of old Celtic words; the third of corrupted French words. It would not have been necessary to insist on so elementary a truth, had not a theory been started in the eighteenth century that these Celtic impor- tations were really the origin of the French language. Le Bri- gant and the well-known La Tour d'Auvergne supported this opinion. Voltaire called this etymological folly Celto-mania: its believers amused the world by extravagant assertions — that Celtic was the original speech of Paradise ; that Adam, Eve, the serpent, all spoke Low Breton. These errors have had a still worse result ; for they have cast unmerited discredit on all Celtic studies. ^ Probably a form of the modern German Zf«/e. SeeDuCange. HIS TOR y OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 7 Emperors, and enjoyed lands granted them under a kind of military tenure. At the same time the Emperors hired Franks, Burgundians, Alans, to fill up the blanks in their legions. The consequence was an ever-increasing introduction of German words into the common Latin ; these terms, as was natural, being chiefly connected with warfare. Vegetius, in his work ' De re militari,' tells us that the Roman soldiers gave the name of burgus to a fortified post '. This is the German Burg. Thus, nearly a century before Clovis, Ger- man terms had got into the Latin language : it is clear that after the German invasion this influence will greatly increase in strength. But we must first note down the chief features of the Latin of the last ages of the Empire. A century after the Roman conquest Gaul was fliourishing and prosperous. The Latin language in its two forms pursued a tranquil course — the common dialect in cities and in the fields, the literary tongue among the aristocracy and learned classes. In the second century after Christ, the time of the highest splen- dour of Roman Gaul, the popular dialect was in the shade, while literary Latin shone with great brilliancy; the Gallic schools produced lawyers and rhetoricians : as (says Juvenal), * Gallia causidicos docuit facunda Britannos' (xv. iii). But in the fifth century, just before the German invasion, the scene is very different : the two dialects have changed places ; literary Latin is dying ; the popular dialect spreads widely, and this even before the invasion of a.d. 407. The institution of the ' Curials ' in the cities, and the extinction of the older municipal bodies, inflicted a deathblow on literature and the literary dialect. The better classes perished, schools were everywhere shut up, literary culture came to an imme- diate stop, and ignorance speedily recovered all the ground ' ♦ Caitcllum parvum, quod burgum vocant.' O INTRODUCTION. she had lost. From this time the use of the written Latin, a dialect which only lived in books and by tradition, was confined to the Gallo-Roman nobles, a handful of men who transmitted to their children a petrified idiom, which had no life, and was destined to perish with them, when their time came. And here again popular Latin won by the losses of the literary dialect. At last the Roman Empire fell under the attacks of the barbarians. In the whirlwind, administration, justice, aris- tocracy, literature, all perished, and with them the language ^ ^ M. Meyer says well that 'the invasion of the Barbarians irrevocably fixed the gulf between these two idioms, between the common Latin, the mistress of Gaul, ready to be the mother of the French language, and the literary dialect, a dead language, used only by the learned, and destined to have no influence in the formation of modern languages. This dialect was kept up by Gregory of Tours, Fredegarius, the literary renaissance under Charlemagne, and by scholasticism; it was perpetuated in learned use, and in the sixteenth century experienced, after the great renaissance, a kind of artificial resurrection. Even in our own day it is the official language of the Roman Catholic Church, and, until quite lately, was the language of the learned, especially in Germany.' After the invasion under the Merovingian kings, the public personages, notaries or clergy, too ignorant to write literary Latin correctly, too proud to use the common Latin in their documents, and eager to imitate the fine style of Roman officials, wrote ' a sort of jargon, which is neither literary Latin nor po- pular Latin, but a strange mixture of both, with the common dialect more or less preponderant, according to the ignorance of the writer.' This jargon is what is called Low Latin. It con- tinued to be the language of the French administration up to 1539, when Francis 1 ordered French to be used in all public acts. This distinction between Low Latin, a gross and barren imitation of the Roman literary dialect, and Popular Latin, the living language of the people, and parent of the French tongue, must not be forgotten. It should be added that there is, besides, a second kind of Low Latin, that of the middle ages, which reproduced French words in a servile way: as, for example, missatieiim produced the French message; and again message was retranslated into messagium.. HISTORY OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 9 which they had employed. Then the common dialect entirely supplanted the other. If proof of this were needed, we should find it in the fact that wherever the literary and the common dialect used two different words for the same thing, the French language has invariably taken the latter, and thrown aside the former : an absolute proof that the literary dialect was confined to the upper classes, and flourished and perished with them. Illustrations are innu- merable: thus — LITERARY LATIN. POPULAR LATIN. FREXC H. Hebdomas septimana semahie (0. Fr. sepmaine) Equus caballus cheval Verberare batuere baitre Pugna battalia bataille Osculari basiare baiser Iter viaticum voyage Verti tornare iourner Urbs villa ville Os bucca bouche Felis catua chat Duplicare duplare douhler Sinere laxare laisser Tentamen exagium essat Qulosus glutonem glouton JU8 directus (drictus) droit Minae minaciae menace Edere manducare matigcr I^is focus feu LiuduB jocxia jm Aula curtem cour, &c. These examples shew how incorrect it is to say that l6 INTRODUCTION. French is classical Latin corrupted by an intermixture of popular forms; it is, on the contrary, the popular Latin alone. And this is true wherever the invasion of the barbarians destroyed the literary dialect. The Italian, the Spanish, the Portuguese languages, are products of the slow development of the common Roman speech. Hence the striking likeness often noticed between these sister-tongues — ' Fades non omnibus una, Nee diversa tamen, qualem decet esse sororum.' The German destroyed the literary dialect; but the common Latin was the gainer: eventually it succeeded in absorbing even its conquerors ; it compelled them to forget their own language, and to adopt that of their subjects. There are many causes which led to this result : first, the numerical paucity of the Franks, a few bands of men, scarcely more than twelve thousand in all, in the midst of six millions of Gallo-Romans ; next, if the Franks had not accepted the Latin, what could they have taken for their common tongue? Each German tribe had its own dialect, Frankish, Burgundian, Gothic, &c. Lastly, the con- version of the Franks to Christianity, which, as it were, bound them over to learn Latin, may be reckoned as the special cause which made the adoption of the Latin a necessity. So they all tried to learn Latin ; and, less than a century after the invasion, Fortunatus, Bishop of Poitiers, congratu- lated Haribert on the great success of his efforts : • Quails es in propria docto sermone loquela Qui nos Romano vincis in eloquio ? ' At Strasburg in the year 842, Ludwig the German takes an oath in French in the presence of the army of Karl the Bald ; a clear proof that the Karoling soldiers no longer HISTORV OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. II understood German. In the next century, when Hrolf swore fealty to Karl the Simple (a.d. 911), he had scarcely begun the formula with the words ' Bi Got' (In God's name) when all the company of lords burst out laughing; so utterly was German forgotten, that it actually sounded ridiculous in their ears. Thus the Latin supplanted the German : yet a great number of German words were retained to designate those new institutions which the Franks brought in with them, such as vassal, alien, fief, &c. All terms relating to political or judicial functions, all titles in the feudal hierarchy, are of German origin. The German words mahal, banti, al8d, skepeno, marahscalh, siniscnlh, &c., are formed by the Low Latin into mallum. bannum, alodium, scabinus, mari- scallus, siniscalluB, &c., whence, several centuries later, they passed into the French mall, ban, alien, e'chevin, marechal, se'nichal, &c. Still more is this the case with war terms. The Franks long kept to themselves, as a privileged class, the warlike profession, and the Gallo-Romans accepted the terms which their masters employed: as hahberc, han- berl ; helm, heaume ; heriberg, anberge ; werra, guerre, &c. There are upwards of nine hundred such words which passed from the German into Latin, and thence into French. This invasion touched the vocabulary only : there are no traces of German influence on French syntax. Common Latin was greatly afi"ected by this sudden inroad of barbarous words : its vocabulary became less and less like that of the literary dialect ; its syntax still further widened the breach. Those analytical tendencies which appear in all modern languages, and which cause the use of prepositions instead of inflected cases to mark possession and aim, soon shewed themselves in popular Latin. The literary dialect said, 'Do panem Pa/ois, that is, a spoken idiom, not recognised by the French literary language. And so, in less than three centuries, the Norman, the Picard, and the Burgundian dialects were supplanted by that of the lie de France, and became mere patois ; attentive observation alone can discover in them any characteristic signs of those medieval dialects the monuments of \vhich survive in their respective literatures. But the final triumph of French over the neighbouring dialects was not won without a struggle, in which the victor received many a wound : a certain number of forms borrowed from the defeated dialects entered into the French language. There are words which can be traced in origin to the Norman or the Burgundian ; words not in complete harmony with the proper analogy of the French, and therefore easily recognised as strangers. Thus the hard c of the Latin became ch in the lie de France, and c in Picardy : campvis, cantare, carta, castellum, campania, catus, cappa, can- cellus, carricare, &c., became in French champ, chanter, charte, chastel, champagne, chat, chappe, chancel, charger, &c., but in Picardy camp, canter, carte, castel, campagne, cat, cappe, cancel, carguer, &c. Now in these instances, though modern French has generally followed the ch form, it has not done so always; thus it has taken campagne in preference to cham- pagne. In a few cases it has adopted both forms with dif- ferent senses, though they are in reality the same word : as from campus, champ and camp; from cappa, chappe dLixd cappe ; from cancellus, chancel and cancel ; from carta, charte and carte; from capsa, chifsse and cai'sse; from castellum, chdteau and casttl ; from carricare, charger and carguer. The same might be shewn to l)c true in the case of Norman and Burgun- dian forms; the above, however, form a suflicicnt example '. ' Such double forms as flcunr and Jlorlr, i^riiicit- and t;ri>if/.Yr, 23 INTRODUCTION. This transformation was completed in the fourteenth century; the monarchy, previously so weak, became all- powerful, and with it the dialect of the He de France became the French language. In brief, the popular Latin, transported into Gaul, pro- duced, eight centuries later, the ' Langue d'Oil,' one of whose divisions, or dialects, that of the lie de France, sup- planted all the rest, and, in the fourteenth century, became the French language \ The same process went on in the attaqiier and attacher, ecorcher and ecorcer, laisser and Idcher, char- rier and charroyer, plier and ployer, are also due to the dialects, and were originally the same word. Now that the history of the language has furnished us with the true explanation, it is amusing to see the grammarians decreeing that plier and ployer are different in origin, and have all manner of distinctions between them. ■^ Let us sum up the elements of the language. Its foundation is popular Latin with a strong German element introduced in the fifth century ; a few faint traces of Celtic may be noticed in- it. When this language was fully formed, some oriental elements were thrown in about the thirteenth century ; in the sixteenth were added a number of Italian and Spanish words; in the nineteenth several expressions of English origin were accepted ; to say nothing of the scientific words drawn from the dead languages and brought in by the learned, chiefly in the six- teenth and the nineteenth centuries. The oriental elements are Hebrew and Arabic. It was a favourite theory of old ety- mologists that all languages are derived from the Hebrew ; but modern philology has proved them wrong, and has established as a law that ' the elements of language answer to the elements of races.' Now the Frenchman does not belong to the same race as a Jew; and such resemblances as may exist between their languages are accidental. When Jerome translated the Old Testament into Latin he incorporated into his version certain Hebrew words which had no Latin equivalents, as seraphim, Gehenna, pascha, &c. ; from Latin they passed at a later time into French {jeraphin, gene, pdque). But they entered French from the Latin, not from the Hebrew. The same is the case with the Arabic ; its relations with French have been purely accidental. To say nothing of those words which express oriental things, such as Alcoran, bey, cadi, caravane, derviche, firman, janissaire, &.C., which were brought into the West by HISTORV OF THE FREXCH LANGUAGE. 23 Other Latin countries : the Tuscan in Italy, the Castilian in Spain, supplanted the other dialects, and the Milanais, the Venetian, the Sicilian, or the Andalusian, and the Navarrais, fell from the dignity of written dialects into the position of pa/oi's. We will now study the constitution and forms of the French of the thirteenth century, and take note of the path followed by the popular Latin since the fall of the Empire, and of the distance which lies between this old French and the French of to-day. Every one knows that one great difference between French and Latin is that French expresses the relation of words by their posilion, Latin by their form. The Latin might say equally well ' canis occidit lupum,' or ' lupum occidit canis ' ; but in French ' le chien tua le loup ' is very different from ' le loup tua le chien.' Latin, in fact, has declensions, French has none. We ask, How has this come about .? Were there always six cases in Latin ? Has French never had more than one case ? Let us see what answer history will give. The tendency to simplify and reduce the number of cases appeared early in popular Latin : the rough barbarians could not grasp the more delicate shades of meaning expressed by them. They accordingly constructed a new declension to travellers, the French language received, in the middle ages, many Arabic words from another source: the Crusades, the scientific greatness of the Arabians, the study of oriental phi- losophers, much followed in France between the twelfth and fourteenth centuries, enriched the vocabulary of the language with many words belonging to the three sciences which the Arabians cultivated successfully : in astronomy it gave such words as azimuth, naJir, zenith; in alchemy, alcali, alcool, alnmhic, alchimit, elixir, sirop ; in mathematics, tili^chir, zero, chijfrt. But even s^r2i\)C\Xo;/anlassin, fantaccino; vi/anlerie, infanteria; aUrk, all'erta, &c. And not only war terms : Catharine dei Medici introduced a number of words relating to court life — courlisan from cortigiano; ojfide, aflidato; charlatan, ciarlalano; escorle, scorta ; earner iste, camerista ; brave^ bravo ; rarrosse, carozza, &c. Terms of art also entered with Primaticcio and 2,6 INTR OD UCTION. Leonardo dei Vinci ; as balcoji, balcone ; costume, costume ; baldaquin, baldacchino; cadence, cadenza; c arlouc he, czrinccio, &c. ; and lastly, commercial relations between the countries left some deposits in the language, such as bilan, bilancia ; agio, aggio ; escale, scala ; banque, banca, &c. The Italian party went further still, and tried to shoulder out French words in ordinary speech, and to substitute Italian ones : thus your man of taste would not deign to say suffire, grand revenu, la premiere fois, but baster, grosse intrude, la premiere volte. To this pernicious influence may be added another, the mania for antiquity. It was a time of great classical fervour ; and the admirers of these newly-disclosed treasures despised the more homely French, and wished to bring in the majesty of expression and of thought which they found among the ancients. One of them, Joachim du Bellay, ventured to set forth a celebrated manifesto, entided ' Deffense et illustration de la langue fran9aise ' (a. d. 1548), in which he proposed a plan for the production of a more poetical and nobler lan- guage by the wholesale importation of Latin and Greek words in their natural state. He sought to ennoble the French language by borrowing largely from ancient tongues, and to enrich French poetry by introducing the literary forms employed by classical authors. One of the Duke of Orleans' pages, Pierre de Ronsard, a gendeman of Vendome, resolved to carry out Du Bellay's reform. He threw aside the indigenous French poetry, and abruptly introduced Latin epic poetry and Greek tragedy. Thanks to his efforts, France for two centuries regarded these two ancient forms of narrative and dramatic poetry as the only legitimate ones in point of good taste, and as alone capable of noble inspirations. Ronsard also aspired to re- form the French language, and to destroy all the traditions of the past. He threw literature into a wretched course of HISTORV OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 27 imitation, which nearly proved fatal to its national character; he recklessly seized on Greek and Latin words, and dressed up several hundreds of them with French terminations : lite- rar}' Latin and Greek, which had given nothing to the French language before \ now played their parts, and, thanks to Ronsard's school, learned words, such as orymore, en/e'/Zc/iu; oligochroriicn, &c., passed in from every side. Ronsard's disciples ■ far outstripped their master. Not satisfied with creating handfuls of new words, they wished to reconstruct words already in being, and to bring the whole language nearer to the Latin type. Thus, for example, the Latin otiosus and vindicare had produced oiseux and venger ; but ' \\'e have already shewn this for the literary Latin. As to Greek, the two languages never came in contact with one another. ALirseilles, the only Greek city which could have brought this about, was at an early date absorbed by the Ro- mans. There are indeed some few Greek words in early French, such as chere, parole ; but these do not come straight from the Greek Kupa, Trapa^okr], but through the Latin which first adopted them and handed them on. - We muit distinguish between the master and his school. Ronsard was very far above his followers. He had real poetical genius, and as a reformer of language many of his ideas are happy and just. He recommended the pro'vignenient (the pruning) of old words, the careful study ot patois, and the adoption from them of fresh resources for the language : he was not tout brouille, as Boileau says — Boilcau who treated him as an executioner rather than as a judge. Let us add the verdict of M. Gcruzcz upon him ; it is clear and true. ' Ronsard at Hrsl carried his contemporaries by storm; and their admiration often led him astray. But he has been over- praised and over- blackened : "cY'tait," as Bal/.ac says of him, " le commencement d'un poete." He had enthusiasm without ta^tc. If he has failed utterly in his epic and Pindaric odes, we must not forget the true nobility of his poetry in some passages of his Boca^c- royal, his Hymtuj, and his Discours sur Us wisen-s ilii temps. M. Sainte- Beuve has shewn that in s(jnn(ts and Anacreontic pieces, Ronsard takes very high rank. Malherbc, who has so happily made use ol Ronsard's efforts, ought to have blamed less severely the slips of the poet who w;is the martyr of that cause of which ho himsclt became the hero.' 2,8 INTRODUCTION. these reformers declared such forms null and void, and ordered men to write oh'eux and vindiquer instead, these forms being closer copies of antiquity. This absurdity was received with boundless admiration: literature became the business of a clique, with a learned language understood only by the initiated. At last the good sense of the nation protested against such extravagances : and Malherbe led the reaction. The unnatural words, so rudely thrust in by force, were instantly driven out ; most of these artificial creations were destroyed, and the good old French words reinstated. Still, several hold their own, like incrusier by the side of encroilter, faction and fagon, potion and poison, &c. Malherbe may have often gone too far ; but in the main he was right : he appealed from Latin and Greek to the Parisians. ' If any one asked his opinion about any French words, he always sent him to the street-porters at the Port au Foin, saying that they were his masters in language \' He had scarcely done his work when a new mania attacked the language. The seventeenth century took Spain for its model. The wars of the League, and the Spanish armies in France, spread far and wide the knowledge of the Spanish language. The court of Henry IV was ' Spaniard- ised.' Sully tells us that the courtiers did nothing but utter Castilian cries and exclamations. Hence a new class of words now make their appearance for the first time : capitan from capitan ; duegne, duena ; guitare, guitara; haquen/e, hacanea ; camarade, camarada ; negre, negro ; case, casa, &c. The Hotel de Rambouillet, the Pr^cieuses, the Academy, and the grammarians, Vaugelas, D'Olivet, Thomas Corneille, continued the work which Malherbe had begun ; they exag- Racan, Vie de Malherbe. HISTOR}' OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 29 gerated their principle, and dried up the living sources of the language. Their task of excision and suppression was coji- secrated by the Dictionnaire de I'Acaddmie (first ed. 1694), which is an alphabetical collection of all words admitted into the French language, ' par le bon usage \' This book is the standard of the French language, as it has existed ever since. The language underwent very little change in the eighteenth century. Voltaire made some orthographical reforms (such as ai for oi, /ran(;ais for frangois). Some grammarians (like the Abbd Dangeau) tried to introduce phonetic spell- ing; others dreamt of an universal language, following the lines traced by Bacon, Descartes, and Leibnitz. ' As the philosophers were for grasping what was called " the state of nature " in man, marking down the progress of his sen- timents, passions and intelligences, so did the grammarians follow after the idea of a primitive language'^.' Philosophical grammarians (like De Brosses, Condillac, &c.) conceived that there exists some one language more natural to man- kind than all others ; and they strove to discover it by all means in their power. The introduction of new terms, which seemed to be ar- rested after the sixteenth century, has begun again with great force in our own time. The struggle between the classicists and the romantic school, which has gone on since 1824, the growth of journalism, science, and industry, and the ac- quaintance with foreign literatures, have all contributed to this result. These new words are of two classes, good or bad, useful or pernicious. Under the first class come the fifteen to twenty ' nict. df r ylcad. Franuihr. Ed. iff(j\. Preface. ' De Hrosscs meant by his 'primitive lanj,'iiaj,'i',' not a supposed lan{?uage whence all others were derived, but that whicli nature breathes into all men, as a necessary conbecjuencc of the action of the soul on the bodily organs. 3 O INTR OD UCTION. thousand words introduced by science and industrial neces- sities {photographie, gazometre, telegraphic, &c.) ; and with them those foreign words which arise from international com- munication. Most of these come from the English language, from politics and political economy, as budget, jury, draw- back, warrant, bill, convict, &c.; or from sport, as turf, jockey, 'festival, clown, groom, steeplechase, boxe, &c. ; or from indus- trial pursuits, as drainage, tender, wagon, rail, tunnel, ballast, express, dock, stock. Sec. ; to say nothing of naval terms ^ By the side of these valuable novelties — valuable because they express new ideas— we have also faulty ones, expressing old ideas by new words, where older words were already in existence, and were understood by every one. In the seventeenth century every one said fonder, toucher, tromper, emouvoir, the nineteenth prefers baser, impressiomier, illu- siomier, e'motionner , &c. Journalism and the Assembly have flooded us with these words, and have, besides, produced a new development of old words, by creating a number of heavy ungraceful derivatives, as from regie, re'gler, then reglement, then r/glementer, and at last reglementation ; from constitution, constitutionnel, constitutionnalite', inconstitutionnalite, inconstitutionneUement, &c. It is not easy to predict the future of the French language ; but we may safely feel sure that it will owe its permanence to the balance and harmonious proportion it will establish between novelty and tradition, the necessary foundations of every language ; between novelty, necessary for the expres- sion of new ideas, and tradition, careful guardian of old ideas and of the old words which express them. Two lessons may be learnt from this long history of the ^ It is a curious fact that many of these English words are Old French words imported into England in the eleventh century by the Normans, i:\vc&fasl.non is the oX^faqon; tunnel the O. Fr. tonnel (now tonneau) ; and so on. HISTORV OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 3 1 French tongue : first, that languages are not immovable and petrified, but living, and, like all things living, full of motion. Like plants and animals they spring into life, they grow, and they decay. ' Natura nil facit per saltum ; ' and this is as true of language as of the rest : by slow and almost insensible change it passes, as we have seen, from the rude Latin of Roman peasants to the polished surface of Voltaire's French. And next, we learn that language, being the expression or voice of society, changes with it: the movement of the language and the people is parallel. Hence we see that no language is perfectly rigid or at rest. The critics of the eighteenth century used to speak of the French language as being Ji.vtd at a certain epoch, round which, in a certain narrow circle, all good examples revolve. But philology has shewn us how false it is to speak of a language as fixed ; it changes with society : we may regret the style of Louis XIV, but it would be absurd to try to revive it, and apply it to our own times ; the people (and after all the lan- guage is made for them) would never learn this language of a past age, for it would never be able to throw itself into the same habitual mould and manner of thought. The action of time on language, as on everything, is irreparable; we can no more restore a language to its former state than we can make the oak shrink back into its acorn. The hope of possessing perfection must indeed be renounced ; it is not destined for us. ' C'est qu'en aucune chose, peut-etre, il n'cst donnd a I'homme d'arriver au but ; sa gloire est d'y marcher '.' ' M. Guizot, Civiltjation en Europe, 32 INTRODUCTION, 11. THE FORMATION OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. Whoever looks even superficially at the French language will not fail to notice a distinction between such words as simuler, mobile, ration, which profess to be derived closely from the Latin, and other words like seinhkr, meuble, raison, coming from the same sources, but of a shorter form, and apparently farther removed from their Latin ancestry. We have seen above that these are two distinct formations of words, of very different origin, though both have come from the Latin, the one popular, the other learned ; the former good, formed before the twelfth century, a spontaneous and unconscious product ; the latter modern, chiefly of the six- teenth century, artificial and conscious. But this mark of difference — the greater length affected by the learned words — is a merely exterior and superficial characteristic, with nothing certain or scientific about it. Naturalists never classify by length or size, but by internal signs and qualities ; nor does philology, which is the natural history of language, distinguish popular words by their length, but by certain internal characteristics. These specific characteristics, sure touchstones by which to test popular words and to separate them from words of learned origin, are three: (i) the continuance of the tonic accent; (2) the suppression of the short vowel; (3) the loss of the medial consonant. FORMATION OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 33 CHAPTER I. T/w contintiatice of the La I in Accent. In ever)' polysyllabic word there is always one syllable on which the voice rests more markedly than on the others. This incidence of the voice is called the tonic accent, or simply the accent : thus on the word raison the tonic accent is on the last syllable, but in raisonndble it is on the penultimate. Accordingly the accented or tonic syllable is that on which the voice resist This accent gives each word its proper character, and has been well called ' the soul of the word.' In French it always occupies one of two places : either the last syllable, in words with a masculine termination, as chante'ur, aime'r,finir ; or the penultimate, when the ending is feminine, as rOide, porche voydi^e. Similarly, the accent has one of two places in Latin : penultimate when that syllable is long, as cantorem, amare, finire ; and antepenultimate, when the penultimate is short, as rigidus, porticus, via- ticum. Look at such words carefully, and you will see that the syllable accented in Latin continues to be so in French ; or, in other words, that the accent remains where it was in Latin. This continuance of the accent is a general and ' In every word there is one accented or tome syllable, and only one; the other syllables are unaccented or atonic. Take bd- tonner for an example; in bdtonncr, the accent lies on the c, while the a and the are atonic. Similarly in Latin, in cantorem the o is accented, the a and e are not. The reader is reminded onto for all that instead of saying 'the accented syllable,' we shall speak always of 'the tonic syllable;' and instead of 'the un- accented syllable,' 'the atonic;' terms which will recur over and over again. It is hardly necessary to add that liiis accent has no connexion with what are commonly called accents in French (the grave, acute, and circumflex). These are but granmiatical symboli, which the reader may fmd considered on pp. B5, 86. 34 INTRODUCTION. absolute law : all words belonging to popular and real French respect the Latin accent : all such words as portique from portieus, or viaiique from vid.tieuin, which break this law, will be found to be of learned origin, introduced into the language at a later time by men who were ignorant of the laws which nature had imposed on the passage from Latin to French. We may lay it down as an infallible law, that The Latin accent continues in Fre?tch in all words of popular origifi ; while all words which violate this law are 0/ learned origin : thus — LATIN. POPULAR WORDS. LEARNED WORDS, Alumine alun alumine Angelas dnge angelus Blaspliemum bldnie blaspheme Cancer chdncre cance'r Computum compte co7nptit D6bituni de'tte debit D6cima dime de'cime Decorum decor decorum Examen essaim examen Mobilis meuble mobile 6rganum Srgiie orgdne Polypus poiilpe ^. polype Porticus porche portique, &c. You will notice that the popular forms are shorter than the learned ones ; as, for example, compte than coinput, both from computum. The cause is that the learned comput comes from the classical Latin computum; the popular compte from the popular Latin eomptum. This clearly shews the difference between classical Latin (the original of learned French) and common Latin (parent of popular French). This fall of the penultimate atonic FORMATION OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 35 syllable u (comp[u]tum) always took place in popular Latin, as saeclum, poclum, vinclum, in the Latin comedians : in- scriptions and epitaphs are full of such forms, as frigdvis, virdis. tabla. oraclvun, caldus, digtus, stablvun, anglus, vincre. suspendre, moblis, postus, &c., the French deriva- tives of which are obvious. CHAPTER IL Suppression of the Short Vowel. We have seen that the tonic accent is a sure touchstone by which to distinguish popular from learned words. There is another means, as certain, by which to recognise the age and origin of words — the loss of the short vowel. Every Latin word, as we have said, is made up of one accented vowel, and others not accented — one tonic and others atonic. The tonic always remains ; but of the atonies the short vowel, which immediately precedes the tonic vowel, always disappears in French : as in — Bon(i)tatein bonte San(i)tatem sant/ Po8(i)tura posture Clar(i)t^tem clarte' Sep(ti)mana semaine (C). Fr. sepmaine) Com(i)tatu8 comte' Pop(u)latu8 peuple\ &c. Words such as circukr, circuldre, which break this law and keep the short vowel, are always of learned origin ; all words of pojjular origin lose it, as cerchr. This will be seen from the following examples: — I) 2 36 3 INTRODUCTION. LATIN. POPULAR WORDS. LEARNED WORDS. Ang(u)latus angle anguU Blasph(e)mare bldmeriO.Yx. blasmer) blasphe'mer Cap(i)tale cheptel capital Car(i)tatem cherte' charite' Cire(u)lare cercler circider Com(i)tatus comte comite' Cura(-L)lare combler cumuler Cart(ir )lariiini chartrier cartulaire Hosp(i)tale hotel hopital Ijib(e)rare livrer libe'rer Mast(i)care mocker viastiquer Nav(i)gare nager naviguer Op(e)rare ouvrer opirer Peet(6)rale poitrail pectoral Recup(e)rare recouvrer re'cupe'rer Sep(a)rare sevrer separer Sini(v)lare sembler simuler HevindOcare revenger revendiquer, &c, Whence an invariable rule : The short atonic syllable, which directly precedes the tonic vowel, always disappears in French words of popular origin, but is always preserved in words oj learned origin^. This fact is easily explained: — learned French words come from classical Latin, popular ones from popillar Latin. This short atonic syllable died out of popular Latin long before the fall of the Empire : where the classical writer had alabaster, coagulare, eapuldtor, fistulator, veteranus, tegularius, populares, &c., the popular dialect said, albaster, ^ See my work on this subject, entitled Du role des -voyelles latines atones dans les langnes romanes (Leipzig, 1866). FORMATION OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 37 coaglare, caplator, fistlator, vetranus, teglarius, poplares', &c. Naturally, then, this short syllable found no place whatever in the French language. CHAPTER III. Loss of the Medial Consonant. The third characteristic, serving to distinguish popular from learned words, is the loss of the medial consonant, i. e. of the consonant which stands between two vowels, like the t in matiirus. We will at once give the law of this change: — All French words which drop the medial cotisonani are popular in origin, 7vhile words of learned origin retain it. Thus the Latin vocalis becomes, in popular French, vqyelle, in learned French vocah. There are innumerable examples of this : as — LATIN. POPULAR WORDS. LEARNED WORDS. Au(g)ustus aoiit aiiguste Advo(c)atus avotie avocat Anti(ph)6na antienne antiphone Cre(d)6ntia cr^ance credence Cominuni(c)dre commtinier communiqiier Confi(d )6ntia confiance confidence Defoandtus doyetini de'canat Deli/'c)atu8 . dim de'licat Denu(d)atuB de'nu/ denude Dilaft)dre delayer dilater Do(t)dre doner doter ' These examples arc all taken from an excellent work by Profcs.sor Schuchardt of fiotha, entitled Vocal'umus ihs t'u/i^ijr- lateins. 38 INTRODUCTION. LATIN. POPULAR WORDS. LEARNED WORDS, Impli(e)are employer ijnpliquer Iji(g)are Her liguer Ke(g)alis royal regale Rene(g)atus renie' rene'gat Eepli(c)are replier re'pliquer, Sec. Thus the medial Latin consonant disappears as the word passes into French. The two vowels which were separated by this consonant then fall together: ina(t)urus becomes ma-urus. The natural consequence of this clash of fully- sounded vowels' is that they are both dulled, and finally combined into one sound. Thus in maturus, after the Latin t went out, the vowels of ma-urus soon get flattened into meiir (thirteenth century), thence they pass by con- traction from two vowels {eil) into one {u), and the cir- cumflex accent indicates with exactness the suppression of the e^. CHAPTER IV. Conclusion. • We have now considered the three distinctive signs which characterise popular French words ; — the retention of the Latin accent, the suppression of the short atonic syllable, the loss of the medial consonant. Popular words, by thus retaining the tonic accent in its right place, shew that they were formed from the Roman pronunciation while it yet survived ; that they were formed ^ This contraction, or (as grammarians style it) synaercsis, is studied in detail in Book I, below, pp. 80-82. FORMATION OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 39 by the ear, not by the eye. But learned words, which violate the Latin accent and principles of pronunciation, are in reality barbarisms, opposed to the laws of formation of both the Latin and the French. For, long after Latin had be- come a dead language, these words were created by the learned, who drew them out of books, and thrust them, as such, into the French language. Popular words, then, are spontaneous, natural, unconscious; learned words intentional, artificial, consciously fabricated: instinct is the mother of the former, reflexion of the latter. Hence we may understand the exact time at which, as a historical fact, the French language came into being. French was alive and Latin dead from the day that men no longer naturally understood the accent of the latter. This Latin accent died out about the eleventh century. The same epoch is the date of the full creation of the French language : thenceforth whatever words enter in are learned words. These exotics appear in great numbers in the fourteenth century ; Aristotle is translated by Nicolas Oresme, Livy by Bercheure : to express ancient ideas they are compelled to fashion new words, and so they transplant from Latin into French a crowd of words without really changing their original form. Thus, Bercheure writes con- sulat, tribimilien, faction, rnagisiral, Iriomphe, &c. ; and Oresme gives us aristocratic, alteration, democratic, tyrannic, monarchic, animosite, agonie, &c. These words violate the law of accent at every stej). Bercheure writes colonic from colonia ; Oresme agile from agilis, &c. This influx of learned words increases throughout the fifteenth century ; it breaks bounds and floods the sixteenth century. In the earlier part of this Introduction ' it is shewn that this inva- sion, arrested by Malherbe, stood still during the seventeenth ' Above, p. 28. 40 INTRODUCTION. and eighteenth centuries, but moved on again with renewed energy in the nineteenth. These words, a language within a language, are more numerous than the good old words are, and many of them have already passed out of books into the common speech of men. Now, looked at with the eyes of a philologer, a word or phrase is beautiful so far as it is regular, i. e. so far as it obeys the laws of its formation. And therefore learned words, which break the true law of accent, are vexatious blots on the surface of a language formed regularly and logically : they mar the fair arrangement and harmonious analogy of the whole. Not that we ought to erase these words from our dictionaries. ' It would be ridiculous,' says G. Paris, in his work on Latin accent, ' to try to retrace our steps: the language is "Si fait accompli ; we cannot proscribe these lawless words of learned origin ; but we may be allowed to feel regret at their introduction into the language — so much destruction have they caused to the fair frame on which it was constructed.' And consequently the language of the seventeenth century, which has fewer learned words in it than that of the nineteenth, is, in the philologer's sight, more regular, better proportioned, and therefore more beau- tiful than that of our own day. For the same reason, the language of the thirteenth century, which has fewer of these blemishes, seems to the philologer to be still more perfect, for its perfection springs from its obedience to law. But this manner of valuing language can be correct only so far as we distinguish carefully between the form and the expression. The language of the seventeenth century, so interesting to the student in literature and the artist, who examine care- fully the great works it has produced, offers but little that is interesting to the philologer or the historian, who examine FORMATIOiW OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 4I the language itself. In matter of form, if compared with the French of the previous centuries, it is a language already impoverished and overloaded with learned words : the resular structure we admired so much at the outset is alto- gether lost. But considered in its expression, the language of the seventeenth century recovers its supremacy; it is more analytical than that of the thirteenth century, more able to handle abstract ideas, and, as an instrument of expression, the idiom of Racine is far above that of Villehardouin. On the other hand, in matter o{ form, the farther we go back the more the French language improves. In the twelfth century it is quite popular, with not a trace of learned words. We shall see hereafter how this regular structure, so fair at first, has been overgrown in modern French, and how false the views which would call the earlier stages of the language the barbarous ones. Thus Jacob Grimm's principle, that 'the literary period of a language is usually that of its linguistic decadence,' receives another confirmation. One might even say that instinct makes words, and reflexion spoils them ; in a word, that the perfection of languages is in inverse proportion to their civilisation ; as society grows more culti- vated, language becomes more degraded. Again I would remind my reader that this discussion has treated language not artistically but scientifically. Language, like the garden, may and should be studied from two points of view : the artist looks only at the beauty of the rose, the botanist studies the regularity of its structure and the place it holds in the vegetable world. So too with language ; while the literary man ought to consider it as an art, and mark its aesthetic beauty, our task is a difi'ercnt one : the philologcr looks -aX form rather than expression, and seeks to discover the laws of its structure : a form is beautiful in his eyes when it is perfectly regular. This distinction the 4a INTRODUCTION. reader must always bear in mind. Alphabet, inflexions, formation of words — here are the three divisions into which our subject naturally falls. There is a guiding-line through this labyrinth — the strict distinction of popular from learned words ; the former spontaneous and regular, the latter con- scious, the arbitrary and personal work of the learned, not to be referred to any proper laws. One example will ex- plain our meaning. When we say (p, 60) that the Latin et always becomes il in French, as faetus,yaz'// octo, huit, &c., it is clear that we are speaking only of the popular language, and of good old words derived naturally from the ' rustic ' Latin, and that we set aside such modern learned words as traction, /actum, nocturne, Sec, which are servile copies of Latin forms ^. Thus, then, the distinction between popular and learned words forms the foundation of this book: we propose to reject every word introduced since the formation of the language. And, farther, we shall always take care to cite, when necessary, the Old French forms ; for they explain the transition, and mark, like sign-posts, the road along which the Latin has passed on its way towards becoming French. We shall better see how this transit has been accomplished when the successive stages of it are under our eyes. Thus, for instance, at first sight, it is hard to see that dme is derived from anima ; but history, our guiding- line, shews us that in the thirteenth century the word was written anme, in the eleventh atiejne, in the tenth anirne, which leads us straight to the Latin anima. ^ The spellingy«/V/, traict, Sec, is the grotesque and barbarous work of the pedants of the fifteenth century. Medieval French wrote, as now, fait, trait, &c. Wishing to make these words as like Latin as possible, the Latinists put in this c, without think- ing that the it already represented the Latin ct. FORMATION OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 43 These Old French forms, natural go-betweens for the French and Latin languages, are like the runners in Lu- cretius who hand on from one to other the torch of life — ' Et, quasi cursores, vitai lampada tradunt.' The Latin word passes from mouth to mouth, until, in an altered shape, it reaches our own days. How can we do better, if we would find it again without hesitation, than trace it regularly through the course of its whole journey ? We are about to enter in detail on the study of these chief laws which have changed Latin into French. ' To understand the plan of the world,' says Bacon, 'we must patiently dissect nature.' By patient study of particulars we rise to laws, which are as towers up which one climbs by the ladder of experience; from their high top we see out far and wide. Strong in this great authority, we shall not be afraid of being reproached for stooping to the most minute details. The scientific mind, far from being crushed under the mass of Httle facts which it collects and observes, becomes stronger and more comprehensive according to the solidity with which it can found its con- ception of the whole on the knowledge of details. ' Wilt thou understand and enjoy the whole ?' says Goethe ; ' then learn to see it in its smallest parts.' BOOK I. PHONETICS, OR THE STUDY OF THE LETTERS OF THE ALPHABET. Phonetics is that part of grammar which studies the sounds of letters, their modifications and transformations. In the French language this will aim at making out the history of each of the letters transmitted to French from Latin, and will note the changes they have undergone in their transit. Thus, for example, if we take the letter ;/, we shall see that we may have, (i) permutation (that is, change), as orphaninus to orphclin ; (2) transposition, as stagnum to e'lang ; (3) addition, as latema to lanterne : (4) suppression, as infemvim to en/er. We have here a natural division of this study, and will consider in due order (i) the permutation, (2) the transpo- sition, (3) the addition, and (4) the suppression, or subtrac- tion of letters. In dealing with their permutations, we shall first ascend from French to Latin, and then descend in the reverse direction, from Latin to French, thus writing in due order the history of both the French and the Latin letters of the alphabet. PAET I. PERMUTATION OF LETTERS. CHAPTEK I. HISTORY OF THE FRENCH ALPHABET. Imagine that each word is a living organism ; then the consonants will be its skeleton, unable to move without the help of the vowels, which are the muscles that connect the bones with one another. Thus the vowels are the moving and fugitive parts, the consonants the stable and resisting elements of words. Consequently, the permutation of vowels is subjected to less certain laws than that of consonants; they pass more readily from one to another. SECTION I. ORIGIN OF THE FRENCH VOWELS. We will consider successively the simple vowels {a, e, i, 0, u), and then the compound vowels {ai, ei, ot, in ; au, eati, eu, ou, or ceti, ie, ieti). § I. Simple Vowels. Before entering on the study of vowels, let us point out to our reader the essential principle which is the key to the whole book. This is as follows : — The popular French language keeps the LatiJi tonic syllable, and suppresses both the short atonic syllable afid the medial co7iso?iant. Now every Latin word has one accented vowel and others not accented, or, in other words, one tonic and other ORIGIN OF FREXCH VO]VELS. 47 atonic vowels. Let us examine each of these two classes separately. For example, the French a may come either from an accented Latin a {arl^re from drbor), or from an atonic Latin a {amour from amorem). Under each of these classes we must again distinguish (i) the vowels short by nature (schola), (2) those long by nature (amorem), and (3) those long by position, i. e. those followed by two consonants (fortis) \ Now, in order to pursue a methodical plan, and to include every possible case, we will in each instance follow the sub- joined paradigm, or example of method : — O. This letter comes from the Latin o : L Either from an accented o : (i) short, schola, ecole ; (2) long by nature, pomvun, pomme; (3) long by position, fbvtis, fort. II. Or from an atonic (unaccented) o: (1) short, ob6dire, obeir : (2) long by nature, donare, rf'swwr ; (3) long by position, condiicere, co»duire ^. ' Those long by position include, beside such words as fortis, &c., such words as periclum, artic'lus, pon're, contracted from periculum, articulus, ponere. Whereas the literary Lathi wrote viridis, tdbula, ponere, stabulum, &c., popular Latin suppressed the short penultimate (in the case of all words accented on the antepenultimate), and said virdis, tdbla, ponre, st6.- blum, &c., whence come the French words irrt, table, pomire, etnhle, &c. This shorter form brought together two consonants (tabla) ; and we may class these vowels among those which arc long by position. Properly speaking, we ought in all places to substitute the popular for the classical forms of Latin words; but, for fear of confusing our reader, we have not done so. But it should be remembered that, wherever sucli words as tdbula, ponere, positus, &c., occur, they must be read and pronounced as tdb'la, pon're, pos'tus, a«zi?r, panarixun ; sav on, saponem.; {'^) asperge, asparagus ; carre, quadratus. II. From an elementary e : i. Accented : (3) lucarne, lue^ma ; le'zard, lac^rta. ii. Atonic: (i) Mayenne, Meduana; (3) parchemin, pergamenura ; 7?iarcha7td, mercantem.. III. From an elementary i : i. Accented : (3) langue, lingua ; sangle, eingulum ; sans, sine. ii. Atonic: (i) balance, bilancem; calandre, cylindrus; Angoule'me, Iculisma ; (3) sanglot, singultus ; Sancerre, Sin- c6rra ; paresse, pigritia ; sangUer, singularis ; sauvage (Old French salvage), silvaticus \ ^ The reader will remark that these Latin words are accented. I have thought this necessary, in order to point out clearly the Latin accent in each word. Ch. I. Sect. I. FRENCH SIMPLE VOWELS. 49 E. This letter comes from the Latin e, a, i. I. From an elementary e : i. Accented : (2) erne/, crudelis ; esperc, sp6ro ; regie, regula ; chandelk, cand61a. ii. Atonic: (i) legume, legumen ; (3) e'glisi, ecclesia ; semaine (O. Fr. sepmaine), septimana. II. From an elementary a : i. Accented: {i) pere, pdter; chef, caput; (2) inert el, moi'talis ; sel, sal ; amer, amarus ; noyer, necare ; aimer, amare ; gr^, gratum ; nez, nasxis ; 7ief, navis ; (3) alegre, alacrem. ii. Atonic : (2) chenil, canile ; parchemin, pergam6nura ; (3) her mine, Armenia. III. From a primitive i : i. Accented : (i) Irljle, trifolium; (2) sec, siccus ; ferme, finnus ; cep, cippus ; iniche, mjrxa ; crete, crista ; (3) An- gouleme, Iculisma. ii. Atonic : (i) viencr, minare*; menu, minutus ; Uton, bitumen ; (2) deiin, divinus; deluge, diluvium. IV. By ' prosthesis ' [or the prefi.xing of a letter at the beginning of a word], as esprit, spiritus. I. This letter comes from the Latin i, e, c. L From a jjrimitive i : i. Accented: {i)sourcil, supercilium; (2) (vui, amicus /pi, spica ; /pine, spina ; ouir, au(d)ire. ii. Atonic : Her, ligaro ; image, imdginom; rigue, ciciita. E 50 PERMUTATION OF LETTERS. Bk. I. Pt. i. II. From a primitive e : i. Accented: (i) dix, d^eem; mt, m6dius; hermi7ie, Armenia ; (2) are, c6ra ; merci, nierc6dem ; tapis, tap^tum; six, s§x; e'glise, eccl6sia ; Venise, 'ST enx^tia,; Alise, A16sia ; (3) ivre, ebrius. ii. Atonic ; (2) iitnon, temonem. III. From c : It would be inaccurate to assert that the Latin c becomes a French i, or (more generally) that any consonant becomes a vowel ; but it has been observed that the double consonant ct, as in factus, tractus, passes in French into it, fait, trait, under the influence of the vowel that precedes it ^ : traiter, tractare ; /ait, factus ; etroit, strictus ; toit, tectum ; biscuit, biscoctus ; lait, lactem ; duit {re'duit, conduit, produit, se'duii, &c.), ductus ; lit, lecturo. ; fruit, fructus ; laitue, lactuca ; voiture, vectura; Poitiers, Pictavi; poitrail, pectorale; droit. Low Lat. drictus, from direetus^. When the ct in the Latin is not preceded by a vowel, the double consonant is changed simply into /, as point, punctum ; saint, sanctum ; oint, unctam. O. This letter comes from the Latin o, u, au. I. From a primitive o : i. Accented: (2) nom, nomen; raison, veAioneva.; pondre, ponere. ii. Atonic: (i) (^i^/Zr, obedire; honneur, honorem. ^ No notice need here be taken of technical words, such as Jtrict (strictus), reduction, inductioft, protection, &c. [Such words are formed from the literary, not the popular Latin.] 2 The form drictus is frequent in Latin texts from the fifth century downwards, and after a time entirely supplants the more correct form directus. Ch. I. Sect. I. FRENCH COMPOUND VOWELS. 5 1 II. From a primitive u : i. Accented : (i) fiombre, numerus : (2) ponce, purai- cem ; (3) onglc, lingula ; nocis, nuptiae. ii. Atonic : (3) orlu, xirtica. III. From a primitive au: i. Accented : or, aurum ; iresor, thesaurus ; chose, causa ; clore, claudere. ii. Atonic : oser, ausare * ; Orleans, Aurelianos. This letter comes from the Latin, u, i, n. I. From u : i. Accented: (2) nu, niidus ; mur, mums; aigu, acutVLS ; nunit. minutus. ii. Atonic : superbe, Bup6rbus ; mtinir, munire. II. More rarely from an atonic i : as fumier, fimarium ; huvait, bib6bat. III. From a primitive n : In a certain number of words, in which on is softened into ou, just as ol, el are softened to ou, lau : sui h are e'poux, sponsuB ; couvcnt, con v6ntu8 ; Coulances, Constantia ; vwutier, in the- thirteenth century moustier, in the tenth tnonsfur, from mona8t6rium ; cailler (O. Fr. cousUr), from constare. § 2. Compound Vowels. These are nine in number ; four of them {ai, ei, ot, ui) formed by the help of the vowel /, the remaining five by the help of the vowel u (au or tau, cu or au, ou, I'tu). E 2 52 PERMUTATION OF LETTERS. Bk. T. Pt. i. AI. This compound sound comes either from a Latin a, or from a transposition of letters : I. From an accented a: maigre, macrvtm,; aile, ala; caisse, capsa ; aime, amo ; inain, manus ; semaine, septi- mana. II. From a transposition of letters : In this case ai springs from the junction of the two vowels a and i, separated in the Latin by a consonant, which in the transition into French has undergone trans- position, as contrarius, contraire'^. EI. This compound sound comes from the Latin e, i. I. From e: i. Accented : (2) vei7ie, vena ; plem, plenus ; frein, renum ; haleine, halena ; Rei??is, Remi. ii. Atonic : (i) seigneur, seniorem. II. From i : seing, signum ; teigne, tinea ; sein, sinus. or. This compound vowel comes : I. From the reciprocal attraction of the vowels o and i, separated in Latin by a consonant : histoire, historia ; poison, potionem; /twi^zw, testimonium. (Cp. ai, II. above.) II. From a long e : avoine, av6na ; soir, serus ; crois, cr6do ; loile, t6la ; voile, v61ura ; hoir, h6res ; &c. III. From i : voie, via ; soif, sitis ; poil, pilus ; poivre, piper ; pois, pisum ; /oi, fides ; poire, pirum ; &c. ^ See below, the chapter on Transposition, p. 77- Ch. i.Sect. I. FRENCH COMPOUND VOWELS. 53 UI. This compound vowel comes from the Latin o : puis, post ; ciii'r, corium ; mui'd, modius ; hui/rc, ostrea ; /wis, ostium'; ctiirc, coquere ; /;///-, hodie ; Lc Piiy, Podium. In some other cases it is the result of an attraction of the Latin vowels u and i, separated by a consonant : juiii, Junius; aiguiscr, acutiare *. (Cp. ai, IL p. 52.) AU, EAU. Au is a softened form of the Latin al, eau of the Latin el. L From al : autre, alter ; auhe, alba ; saiif, salvus ; auge, alveus ; saiit, saltus ; jaune, galbinus. IL From el : hcau. bellus ; I\Ieaux, Meldi ; chateau, cas- tellum. EU. CEU. This compound vowel comes from an accented o : heure, hora ; seul, solus ; Icur, illorum ; preuve, proba ; a'letil, aviolus ' : ?iez>tu, nepotem ; queux, coquus ; feuille, folia ; mcuk, mola ; ouf, ovum ; caiur, cor ; Meiise, Mosa ; sccur, soror ; maurs, mores ; vasu, votum ; 7iccud, nodus ; ceuvre, opera ; coulcur, colorem ; neuf, novus ; neuf, novem. OU. This compound vowel comes from the Latin o, u, 1. I. From o : i. Accented : couple, copula ; nous, nos ; vous, vos ; roue, rota. ' The f)!^ French huis signifies a 'gate.' Though now obso- lete, it survives in hu'tsiur (properly a porter, Kngl. usbn), and in the phrase ' Jl /mis clos,' ' with closed doors.' - Hui in the word aujourtTbui. For the cxi)Ianation of this word see p. 155. 54 PERMUTATION OF LETTERS. Bk. I. Pt. i. ii. Atonic: (i) coukiir, colorem; (3) y^Zifrw/, formica; moulin, molinum ; soulotr, sol6re ; douleur, dolorem ; cou- ronne, corona. II. From u : i. Accented : coupe, cupa ; outre, uter ; Adour, Aturis ; coude, cubitus ; four, furnus ; ours, ursus ; tour, turris ; sourd, surdus. ii. Ktonic : gouverner, gubemdre; Angouleme, Iculisma. III. From 1 : In this case ou is only a softened form of tlie Latin ol, ul : mou, mollis ; cou, collem. ; ecouter (O. Fr. escolter), auscultare ; poudre, pulverem ; sou/re, sulphurem ; pouce, pollicem; coupable, culpabilis. IE, lEU. I. The compound vowel ie comes from the Latin ia, e : i. From ia accented : veniel, veni^lis ; chre'tien, christi- anus ; Amiefis, Ambiani. ii. From e accented : Jier, ferus ; fiel, fel ; hier, heri ; miel, m.61 ; Men, bene ; lievre, 16porem ; tient, tenet ; fievre, f6bris ; pierre, p6tram ; rien, r6m ; hieblc, 6bulum. For the vowels ie in -ier {premier, primarius), see below, p. 107. II. The compound vowel leu comes from either e, as Dieu, Deus ; or from o, as lieu, locus. Ch, I. Sect. 2. ORIGIN OF FRENCH CONSONANTS. 55 SECTION II. ORIGIN OF THE FRENXH CONSONANTS. The consonants may be divided into natural groups of Liquids, Labials, Dentals, and Gutturals, answering to the different parts of the vocal mechanism. Classification of Consonants. LIQUIDS. . 1 LABLVLS. GUTTURALS. DENTALS. 1, m, n, r. 1 b.V. g. J- d, z (s). soft. P,f. (q, k, c) ch. t, s (x). hard. § I. Liquids: w, ni, I, r, 11, nim,nn, rr. N. This letter comes from the Latin n, m, 1. I. From a primitive n : i. Initial : nous, nos ; non, non ; nez, nasus. ii. Medial : ruine, ruina ; regne, regnum ; mentir, nientiri. iii. Final : son, sonus ; raison, rationem ; t'lain, stag- num. II, From a primitive m : i. Initial: na}>f)C, mappa; nljle, mespilum; natte, matta. ii. Medial: sentc, eemita; canter, computare ; singe, simiufl ; daine, dama ; printanps, primum-tompus. iii. Final : rien, rem ; airain, acramon ; ?iii>ii, ton, son, meum. tuum, suuxd. ^6 PERMUTATION OF LETTERS. Bk. I. Ft. i. III. From a primitive 1 : Niveau (O. Fr. nivel), libella ^ ; poterne (O. Fr. posierne, and very O. Fr. poslerle), posterula ; marne (O. Fr. marie), margula. M. This letter comes from the Latin m, n, b. I. From a primitive m : i. Initial : mer, mare ; main, manus ; mere, mater, ii. Medial : froment, frumentum ; chambre, camera ; compter, computare. iii. Final : daim, dama ; nom, nom.en ; /aim, fames. II. From a primitive n : nomvier, nominare ; charme, carpinus. III. From a primitive b : samedi, sabbati dies. L. This letter comes from the Latin 1, r, n. I. From a primitive 1 : i. Initial : loutre, lutra ; lettre, littera ; langiie, lingua. ii. Medial : aigle, aquila ; fils, filius ; cercle, eirculus ; cable, eapulum. iii. Final : seul, solus ; poll, pilus ; sel, sal ; sourcil, supereilium. II. From a primitive r ; autel, altare ; crible, cribrum. ; palefroi, paraveredus, in the fifth century parafredus ; flair er, fragare. III. From a primitive n: or/^^/zw, orphaninus*; Palerme, Panormus ; Roussillon, Ruscinonem : Bologne, Bononia ; Chdteau-Landon, Castellum-Nantonis. ^ And compare the English lenjel. Ch. I. Sect. 2. FRENCH LIQUIDS. 57 R. This letter comes from the Latin r, 1, s, n. I. From a primitive r: i. Initial: ngfu, regnvun; de'r ou/e, deru'pta,. ii. Medial : souris, soricem ; charme, carmen ; droii, Low Lat. drictus*. iii. Final : vcr, vermis ; cor, comu ; eti/er, infernum ; hirer, hibemum, IL From a primitive 1 : i. Initial : rossigrtol, lusciniola*.^ ii. Medial : or7ne, tilmus ; remorquc, remuJcum ; eschin- dre, scandalum ; chartre, cartula ; chapilrc, capitulum. III. From a primitive s: Marseille, Massilia; or/raie, ossifraga ; varlet, vaasaletus*. IV. From a primitive n : ordre, ordinem ; pampre, pam- pinus ; timbre, tympanvim ; diacre, diaconus ; coffre, cophi- nu8 ; Londres, Londinum. LIj. This double consonant comes from the Latin 11, lia, lea, cl, gl, tl, chl : I. From 11; anguille, anguilla; hoiiillir, bullire ; faillir, fallere. II. From lia, lea ; fiUc, filia ; Marseille, Massilia; paille, palca. III. From cl, gl, tl, chl: oreille, auricula; scille, situla ; veilkr, vigilare ; trcille, trichila ; volaille, volatilia. ' Thi.s chanpc of 1 into r had taken place in the late Latin texts loriK hcfoic tlic hirlh of the Krciicli tongue: thus, wliilc we find lusciniola in Plaiitiis and X'arro, we liiul in the Mero- vingian MSS. only the forms rusciniola, robciniola. 58 PERMUTATION OF LETTERS. Bk. I. Pt. i. MM. This double consonant comes from the Latin mm, m.n. I. From mm : flamme, flam.ma ; somme, sununa. II. From m.n : femme, femina ; somme, som.nus ; sommeil, som.nieulus* ; homme, hom.inem.. This comes from the Latin mn : colo^me, columna ; or from gn : connaitre, cognoseere. KR. This double consonant comes from the Latin tr, dr. I. From a primitive tr: pierre, petra; verre, vitrum; larron, latronem ; pourrir, putrere ; parrain, patrinus ; marraine, matrina. II. From a primitive dr : carre, quadratum ; arriere, adretro; carrefour, quadrifurcus. § 2. Labials: p, b,/{ph), v, w. P. From the Latin p : i. Initial : pain, panis ; pr/, pratum. ii. IVIedial : couple, copxila ; itouppe, stuppa ; sapin, sapinus. iii. Final : loup, lupus ; champ, campus ; cep, cippus. This letter comes from the Latin, b, p, v, m. I. From a primitive b : i. Initial : boire, bibere ; bon, bonus. ii. Medial : diahle, diabolus ; arbre, arbor, iii. Final : plomb, plumbum. Ch. I. Sect. 2. FRENCH LABIALS. 59 II. From a primitive p : double, duplvis ; cdble, capxilvim ; abeille, apicula. III. From a primitive v: cotirbcr, curvare ; brebis, ver- vecem; corbcau,coTve\l\xs; Besangon, 'Veaor^tionem.; Bazas, Vasatae. IV. From m : flamhe, flamiua. F, Ph. The French language contains a great number of scien- tific and learned terms, like physique, phihsophie, Iriomphe, in which the Greek letter ^, Lat. ph, is to be met with. It would be superfluous to enumerate such elementary and obvious derivations ; we will therefore limit ourselves to the remark that the French /comes from the Latin f, ph, v, p. I. From f, ph. i. Initial : /au.w falcem ; faisan, phasianus; fumier, fimarivim. /xu-r-mJC*^ ii. Medial: (?£^a/^ ossifraga ; (Jr/^zr^, aurifaber ; coffre, cophinus. iii. Final : tuf, tofus. II. From a primitive v. i. Initial: fois, vicem. (For the change of the Latin i into oi, see p. 52.) ii. Medial: pakfroi, parafredus*, form of the common Latin for paraveredus. iii. Final : vif, vivus ; suif, sevum ; nef, navis ; ban/, bovis; onf, ovum; sauf, salvus ; serf, eervus ; cerf, cervus. III. I'Vom p: chef, caput; nefle, mespilum ; fresaie, praesaga. 6o PERMUTATION OF LETTERS. Bk. I. Pt. i. V. This letter conies from the Latin v, b, p. I. From a primitive v : i. Initial : viorne, viburnum ; viande, vivenda^. ii. Medial : chauve, ealvus ; gencive, gengiva. II. From a primitive b : /eve, faba ; cheval, caballus ; avoir, habere ; levre, labrum ; souvent, subinde ; ivre, ebrius ; avant, ab-ante ; livre, liber, libra ; niveau, libella ; prouver, probare ; Vervins, Verbinum. III. From a primitive p; rive, ripa; seve, sapa; iouve, lupa ; cheveu, eapillum ; chevre, capra ; savon, saponem ; savoir, sapere ; crever, crepare. § 3. Dentals : /, ih, d, s, z, x. T. This letter comes from the Latin t, d. I. From a primitive t : i. Initial : toison, tonsionem ; taon, tabanus. ii. Medial : viatiere, materia ; ^tat, status ; chateau, castellura. iii. Final : hiiit, oeto ; cuit, coetus ; fait, factus. II. From a primitive d : do7it, de-unde ; vert, viridis ; souvent, subinde ; Escaut, Scaldis. The Greek th is only found in technical and learned terms, such as iMocratie, ihiologie, &c. ^ Originally viande signified vegetable as well as animal nutri- ment. Rabelais tells us ' les poires sont inandes tres salubres ; ' and, so late as 1607, in his tragedy, Le Triomphe de la Ligue, Nereus says, speaking of God, ' II donne la 'viande aux jeunes passereaux ' — a line from which Racine drew his famous *Aux petits des oiseaux il donne la pature.' Ch. I. Sect. 2. FRENCH DENTALS. 6 1 D. This letter comes from the Latin d, t. I. From a primitive d : i. Initial : drcoir, debere ; dans, de-intus ; dime, decimus. ii. Medial: iiedc, tepidus; e'mcraude, smaragdus; vcndiw vendere. iii. Final : soiird, surdum ; miiid, modius ; /raid, frigidus. II. From a primitive t : i. Initial : done, tunc. ii. Medial: coude, cubitus; Adotir, Aturis; Lodevc, Luteva. iii. Final : k'zard, lacerta ; marchand, mercantem *. S. This letter comes from the Latin s. c, t. I. From a primitive s : i. Initial : scnl, solus ; serment, sacramentvim ; sous, subtus. ii. Medial: f^rii'i', cerasus; ww/W/, mansionem ; asperge, asparagus ; Gascogne, Vasconia. iii. Final: mais, magis ; ours, ursus; e'pars, sparsus ; sous, Bubtus ; moins, minuB. II. From t followed by tlie compound vowels ia, ie, io. iu : ii. Medial: poison, \yo\\orxQva.; ra ;>«;/, rationem; oi'seux, otiosuB ; Venise, Venetia ; sai'son, sationem ; trahtson, tra- ditionem ; liaison, ligationem. iii. Final : palais, palatium ; tiirs, tertius. III. From a soft c : i. Initial: sanglc, cingulum. ii. Medial: plaisir, placoro; voisin, vicinus ; moisir. 62 PERMUTATION OF LETTERS. Bk. I. Pt. i. mucere ; oiseau (O. Fr. oisel, from the common Latin form aucellus), avieellus ; Amhoise, Ambaeia. Note that the double consonant ^^ comes either from the Latin x ; as, for example, essai, exagium ; essaim, examen ; laisser, laxare ; essorer, exaurare : or from ss, as casser, quas- sare ; fosse, fossa. Z. This letter comes from the Latin s or soft e. L From s : chez, casa ; nez, nasus ; rez, rasus {rez-de- c halts s e'e) ; aj^^s, ad-satis ; /ifz, latus ; as in P/essi's-lez- Tours, Passy-lez-Paris. IL From a soft c : le'zard, lacerta ; onze, undecim ; douze, duodeeim, &c. X. From the Latin x, s, c. I. From a primitive x : six, sex ; soixante, sexaginta. IL From a primitive s : deux, duos ; toux, tussis : epoux, sponsus ; roux, russus ; oiseux, otiosus ; vmeux, vinosus. IIL From a primitive e : di'x, decern ; voix, vocem ; noix, nucem ; paix, pacem ; chaux, calcem. ; /aux, falcem. § 4. Gutturals: c, q, k, ch, g,j, h. C is pronounced gutturally before a, 0, and u, and is then called hard : before e, i, and ce, it is pronounced as a dental, and is called soft. L C hard. From the hard c of the Latins, or its equi- valent q : CLi.Sect. J. FRENCH GUTTURALS. 63 i. Initial : coque. concha ; coquille, conchylivun ; cai, quare ; casser, quassare ; (('/. quietus. ii. Medial: second, secundus; chacun (O. Fr. chascun), quisque-unus. iii. Final : lacs, laqueus ; one, unquam ; sec, siccus. II. C soft. From the Latin e soft : citnenl, caementum ; ciel. caelum; cite, citatem*, a common Latin form much used under the Empire for civitatem. K. This letter is employed in French terms of mensuration, as the barbarous equivalent for the Greek x. which ought properly to be rendered by c/i : thus kilometre is a double barbarism for chiliometre, x'-^^'^H-^'^pov. Q. This letter comes from the Latin c /lard, q;u, ch. i. Initial: y«t7, qualis ; queue, ca,uda.; q ueu x\ coquua. ii. Medial: tranquille, tTanqMillua; coquille, conchyliuin. iii. Final : cinq, qviinque. CH. From the Latin c Aard^ : i. Initial : che/", caput ; c/iose, causa ; chanddle, can- dela ; chamleletir, candelarum [festa] ; chivre, capra. ii. ]\Iedial : Louche, h\xcc&; j/iic he, mica,; per che, pertica.; fourche, furca ; mouche, musca ; s/chcr, siccare. iii. Final: Auc h, AuBcia.. ' And from the (ircck x in such technical terms as cf}\rosraplx (Xtip('jyi}a(p(){), cbaoj (xuof), &C. 64 PERMUTATION OF LETTERS. Bk. I. Pt. r. G hard. From the Latin g hard, c hard, q, v, n. I. From a primitive g hard : i. Initial : goujon, gobionem ; gouf, gustus. ii. Medial : angoisse, angustia ; sangle, eingulum. iii. Final: /fw^jlongus; //a^^, stagnum ; pohig,-gu^tva.z, II. From c hard : i. Initial : gobelet, eupelletum * ; gras, crassus ; gonfler, conflare. ii. Medial : maigre, macrTiin ; langouste, locusta ; vi- guier, vicarius ; cigogne, eieonia. III. From a primitive v : Gascogne, Vasconia; gui, viscum ; gu/, vadum; game, vagina; guepe, vespa; sergent, ser- vientem ; Gard, Vardo ; Gapengais, Vapineensium ; gdter (O. Fr. gaster), vastare ; giiivre, vipera. IV. From a Latin n followed by a vowel : cigogne, eieonia ; Digne, Dinia; Auvergne, Arvemia; oignon, imionem. ; Boulogne, Bononia. G soft. From the Latin g and the suffixes ia, ea. I. From a primitive g : i. Initial : gencive, gingiva ; geant, gigantem ; geindre, gemere. ii. Medial : large, largus. II. From the diphthongs ia, io — ea, eo. We learn from Quinctilian that the Roman i and j had originally the same sound. For a long time a great uncer- tainty existed as to the use of these two letters. Old MSS. and, after them, printed books down to the middle of the seventeenth century use i and j indifferently : it was not till Ch. I. Sect. 2. FRENCH GUTTURALS. 65 the year 1750 that the French Academy recognisedy in their Dictionar)- as an independent letter. This is why the Latin i in some cases has become 7 in French (or g soft, which is the same thing). Hierosolyma, simia, diumus, vindemia, have passed into Je'nisakm, singe, jour, vcndarige, proving clearly that the popular pronunciation of these words was Hjeroso- lyma, simja, djumus, vindemja. This once granted, it is easy to see how pipionem, tibia, rabies, Dibionem, dilu- vium, cambiare *, abbreviare, &c., have respectively passed into pigeon, tige, rage, Dijon, deluge, changer, abre'ger, &c.^ In these words two successive alterations have taken place : (i) from z'intoy, or (as the Germans call it) the ' consonni fication ' of the letter / (thus pipionem is pronounced pipjo- nem ; rabies, rahjes ; Dibionem, Dihjonem, &c.) ; (2) this change of i intoy brings two consonants together, and into a sort of collision (pipionem becoming pipjonem, Sic). Now (as we will shew later on -) in such cases the first of the two consonants disappears; subjectus becomes sujet, dor- sum, dos ; and similarly pipjonem, tibja, rabjes, &c., become pijonem, tija, rajes, &c., whence again come pigeon, tige, rage, &c. Similarly, ea, eo, eu, pass into je, ge, &c. In the regular Latin forms lanea, commeatus, cavea, hordeum, deusque, the e was soon replaced by /, and, long before Merovingian days, inscriptions give us as the usual forms, lania, com- miatiis, cavia, hordium, diusque. These diphthongs ia, iu, next exchange their i fory after the rule just noticed ; and then lania, commiatus, cavia, hordium, diusque, having become lanja, comjatus, cavja, hordjum, djusque, passed naturally ir^to lange, cong/, cage, orge,jusque, &c. ' It is hardly necessary to remind the reader that the French y is always a soft sibilant, not a soft mute, like our /. ' Sec p. 8 1 . F • 66 PERMUTATION OF LETTERS. Bk. l.Pt. i. J. From the Latin j, g, i. I. From a primitive j : i. Initial : Jean, Johannes ; Jeune, jejunium ; j'eutie, juvenis. ii. Medial : parjure, peijurium. II. From g : Jom'r, gaudere ; jumeau, gemellus ; jaune, galbinus ; Aftj'ou, Andegavi. III. From i : Jerusalem, Hierosolyma ; jour, diumum ; Je'rdme, Hieronymus ; goujon, gobionem. ; Dijon, Dibonem. H. From the Latin h, f. I. From a primitive h : homme, hominem ; hier, heri ; hui (in the word aujourd'hui), hodie. II. From f : hors, foris ; hormis, foris-missum \ CHAPTER II. HISTORY OF THE LATIN ALPHABET. The history of the French Alphabet has led us from effect to cause, from French to Latin ; and we have ascended the stream of transformation to its source. We must now follow the reverse course, in studying the history of the Latin letters, examining and describing the modifications they have under- gone before they have descended into the French Alphabet. To avoid useless repetition, we will give as few examples ^ Hdbler does not come directly from the Latin fabulari, but from the Spanish hablar, and cannot be traced back beyond the sixteenth century. The Latin f followed by a vowel is always commuted into h in Spanish, if at the beginning of a word. Thus fabulari, facere, faba, formica, become hablar, hacer, haba, hormigua. Ch. J. Sect. 1. LATIN TONIC VOWELS. 6y as possible, and will refer our readers back to the paragraphs of the first part of this subject, where he will find a sufficient number of illustrations gathered together. SECTION I. HISTORY OF THE LATIN VOWELS. Every word is composed of an accented or ionic syllable, and of one or more atonic, or unaccented, syllables, which either precede or follow the tonic syllable. For ex'ample, in the word mercatus the a is the ionic vowel ; e and u the atonic vowels. In writing the history of the Latin vowels we may study first the accented or tonic ones, then the unaccented or atonic. § I. Accented or Tonic Voivels. Among accented vowels we may distinguish (i) the short, (2) the long, (3) those long by position (i. e. followed by two consonants). This subdivision may seem too fine and minute ; but it is in reality an important one, as will be seen by an example. Ferum, avena, ferrum, have each an ac- cented e ; but their resultants in French are very different from one another : — the short e becomes ie, as fonts, fier ; the long becomes oi, as avena, avoine ; the e long by posi- tion remains as e, as ferrum, yir. A. (i) a usually becomes ai in French: amo, aimc ; macer, maigre. (2) a becomes e : nasua, nez ; amare, aimer ; mortalis, vwrtcl. (3) a long by position remains a in F"rench : arbor, arbre ; carrus, char ; carmen, charvie. E. (i) e becomes ie : levium, ///^v; ferus, yftr. (2) e becomes oi: regem, roi ; legem, loi. (3) o long !)y position suffers no change : terra, terre ; lepra, l}pre. I. (i) ' becomes oi: pirum, poire ; pilus, poil ; niger^ noir ; fidQa, /oi. (2) " suffers no change: spica, e'pi ; F 2 68 PERMUTATION OF LETTERS. Bk. I. Pt. i. amicus, amz; spina, /pine. (3) i long by position becomes e: siccus, sec ; cippus, cep ; crista, creie ; SnoauSj/erme. O. (1)6 becomes eu: novem, neu/; mola, meu/e ; proba, preuve. (2) 6 gives also eu: mobilis, meuble ; solus, seul ; hora, heure. (3) o long by position remains unchanged : corpus, corps; fortis, fort ; mortem, viori ; ponere, pondre. U. (i) u becomes ou: lupus, hup; jugum, joug ; cubo, couver. (2) i remains unchanged : miirus, viur ; acutus, aigu ; purus, pur. (3) u long by position becomes ou : ursus, ours; gutta, gouUe ; surdus, sourd ; turris, tour ^. AE. ae becomes e or ie: caelum, del ; laeta, lie'''. AU. au becomes : causa, c/iose ; auxum, or ; auricula, orez'lle. § 2. Atonic Vowels. The tonic vowel of a Latin word always survives in French : it is not so with the atonic vowels. If we would understand what happens to them in passing into French, we must study (i) those which precede the tonic syllable (as the e in mercatum), and (2) those which follow it (as the u in m.ercatum). (i) Atonic Vowels which precede the Tonic Syllable. We may subdivide these into two classes : [a) atonies "which immediately precede the tonic syllable (as the second ^ Note here that short accented vowels in Latin are always represented by diphthongs in French : a, e, 1, 6, u, becoming respectively at, ie, oi, eu, ou, "^ Lie, the Old French signifying 'joyful,' has survived in the expression ' faire chere lie ' (literally ' to wear a glad face '), to greet one with a smiling face, give one a warm welcome, and thence to give one a good dinner, a well-known form of welcome. Ch. 2. Sect. I. LATIN ATONIC VOWELS. 69 i in vindicare), and {b) those which precede it, but not immediately (as the first i in vindicare). ((7) Those which inunediakly precede the tonic syllable. These, if long, invariably remain unchanged : peregrinus, pe'lerin ; coemeterium, cimetiere ; &c. If short, they disap- pear'; sanitatem, ja«//; bonitatem, 3(7«/// christianitatem, chre'tiaite' ; positiira, posture ; septimana, semaiTie ; clari- tatem. clarte ; comitatem, comte' ; clericatus, clerge"^; &c. {b) Those which precede the tonic syllable, but not immediately. Short or long, these vowels are always retained in French : vestini6ntum, vetemcnt ; omamenta, ornement ; &c. (2) Atonic Vowels which come after the Tonic Syllable. By the rule of Latin accentuation these vowels can occupy only one of two positions : that is, either in the penultimate (as u in tabula) or in the last syllable (as the u in mer- cAtum). {a) In the penultimate syllable. As this case occurs only when the word is accented on the antepenultimate (third syllable counting from the end of the word), it is always a short syllable in Latin : as sa6culvim, luridus, tumulus, pertica, ponere, legere, facere, &c. This vowel, being overborne by the tonic syllable, was scarcely sounded at all, and, though the high-born Roman may have indicated it in his speech, it is certain the common people dropped all such delicacies of pronunciation. In all the fragments of popular Latin that still remain with us (the ' GrafTiti ' of Pompeii, inscriptions, epitaphs, &c.) the short penultimate is ' This suppression of the short atonic vowel had already (aktn place in vulgar Latin, as we have shewn in the Introtliiction, P- 35- * Except wIkii they arc the vowels of the first syllabic of a word (as bildncom, cabdllus, /mlaticf, chciuil) ; for in this case the first syllable could not disappear without so mutilating the word as to destroy its identity. 70 PERMUTATION OF LETTERS. Bk. I. Pt. i. gone : instead of eomputum, oraculum, tabula, sa^eulum, positus, mobilis, vincere, susp6ndere, &c., we find only eomptum, oraelum, tabla, sa6elura, postus, moblis, vincre, susp6ndre, &c.^ Then, when this common Latin became French, the words thus contracted became in their turn conipte, oracle, table, Steele, paste, nieuble, vaincre, suspendre, &c. It is not necessary to say more about this law: we may simply express it as follows : — When a Latin word is accented on the antepenult, the penultimate vowel always dis- appears in the French word derived from it. (U) In the last syllable. This disappears in French : siecvis, sec ; eaballus, cheval ; porcus, pore ; mare, mer ; mortalis, mortel ; — or else (which comes to the same thing) it drops into an e mute : eupa, coupe ; firmus, /erme ; . &c. SECTION II. HISTORY OF THE LATIN CONSONANTS. As we have seen above, consonants fall into natural groups (Labials, Dentals, and Gutturals), answering to the various parts of the vocal machinery. The permutation that goes on between Latin and French consonants rests upon two principles. I. Permutations take place between consonants of the same class (that is, those formed by the same organ). Given, for example, the group of labials/, b, v,f. We know that these letters will be interchanged, but that permutation will not pass beyond their limits. Thus the Latin b becomes in French either b {arbre from arbor), or v (as couver from cubare) ; but it will never be able to pass into, let us say, z ox g. ^ M. Schuchardt, in his Vokalismus des Vulg'drlateins , ii. 35, has collected a vast number of examples of this law. Ch. 2. Sect. 2. LATIN LIQUIDS. . 7l 2. In addition to this fact of permutation being limited to the groups, we must also notice that even within the limits of each group permutation does not go on by chance. Thus in the labial group />, /', v, /, we have ^ two strong consonants, p and /, and two weak ones, b and v. All transmutation is from strong to weak. Thus the Latin b never becomes p in French, while the contrary transition is frequent. We propose to refer back, as much as we can, to the examples given under the history of the French Alphabet. In addition to the simple letters we will consider also the composite ones (ir, mr, &c.); for they produce in French many interesting combinations. § r. Liquids : 1, m, n, r. Ii. This letter becomes in French /, r, u. For examples we refer the reader to these letters, above, pp. 56, 57. tl becomes // : situla, Bitl'a, scille ; v6tiilus, vet'lus, vieil. In this and the following instances the two consonants are brought together by the loss of the atonic vowel. cl, when initial, is unchanged in French : elarus, clair. When fitial, it becomes il : oculus, ail; apicula, apic'la, abeillc ; axiricula, oreillc. gl, when inilial, is unchanged : gladiolus, ghi'u^ul. When medial, it becomes // : vlgilare, veiller ; coagulare (O. Fr. coaillcr), caillcr ; t6gula, /////(■. pi, when initial, is unchanged : ploraro, plcurer. Final, it becomes il : scopulus, Pencil. bl, fl, always remain unchanged : 6bulum, hiebk ; inflare, enfler, ' See the tabular statement of the consonants on p. 55. 73 ^PERMUTATION OF LETTERS. Bk. I. Pt. i. M. In French m becomes m, n, b. For examples see above, pp. 55, 56, 58- ran becomes mm, m : femina, femme ; hominem, homme ; nominare, nommer ; lamina, lame; domina, dame ; examen, essaim. mt becomes /, nt, mi: dormitorium, dor loir ; comitem, comle ; computare, conler ; semitarium, senlier. TS. In French Ji, r, I. For examples see above, pp. 55-57. nm becomes m : anima, dme ; Hieronymus, Jerdme. ns becomes s : mansionem, 7)iaison ; mensem, mois ; insula (O. Fr. isle), He ; sponsus, e'poux ; constare (O. Fr. cousler), collier ; in all these cases the vowel is also affected. m always drops the n at the end of words : fumum, four ; comu, cor ; djurnum,yc«r/ hibemum, hiver ; alber- num, aubotir ; camem, chair. B. In French r, /. For examples see above, pp. 56, 57. rs or re becomes s : dorsum, dos ; persica (O. Fr. pesche), pe'che ; Lat. quercus. Low Lat. quercinus, O. Fr, caisne, chesne, Fr. chene ^. We must add to these changes another of no small im- portance, which we may call the intercalation, or insertion, of fresh letters between two liquids. Words such as humilis, ctunulus, &c., whose short penultimate dropped away (see above, p. 35) became humlis, cumlus, &c. Now this com- ■^ Quercinus was so early corrupted into casnus that we find this latter word, used for an oak, in a Chartulary dated a.d. 508. From casnus came in the eleventh century the O. Fr. caisne, then chesne, then chene. Ch. 2. Sect. 2. LATIN DENTALS. 73 bination of two liquids being unpleasant to the ear, the letter b was intercalated, and thus humlia became hum{b)le, cumins passed into covi(b)le, &c. These are the intercalations : 1 . ml becomes mbl : simulo, semblc ; insimvil, ensemble. 2. mr becomes mbr: numerus, nombre ; camera, chambre ; Cameracum, Cambrai ; cucumerem, concombre. 3. Ir becomes udr through Idr : molere (O. Fr. moldre), moudre ; fulgvir (O. Fr. /oldre), foudre ; pulver (O. Fr. poldre), poudrc. The Old French forms indicate the method of the change more clearly than the modern forms do. 4. nl becomes ngl: spinula, ipingle. 5. nr becomes ndr : ponere, pondre ; gener, gendre ; tener, iendre ; Portus-Veneris, Port-Vendres ; veneris- dies, vendredi ; minor, vioindre. § 2. Dejilals : t, d, z, s. T. T becomes in French /, d, s. For examples see above, pp. 60, 61. It disappears from the ends of words, whenever, in the Latin, it stands between two vowels : gratum, gre' ; amatum, aim/; minutus, viemi ; virtutem, vcriu ; acutus, aigu ; 8cutiim, ecu ; abbatem, abbe'. It also disappears from the middle of words: catena ((J. Fr. chaene), chaine ; maturus (O. Fr. maiir), mur ; &c. This subject will be treated of more fully when we deal with the Syncopation of Consonants. tr becomes r : fratrem, frire ; matrem, Jiiere ; patrem, p^re ; Matrona, Manic ; — also rr: vitrum, verve ; putrere, pourrir ; nutritus, nmirri ; lutronem, larron ; materiamen, merrain ; matriclarius (O. Fr. tnarreglicr), marguillur. Bt becomes sometimes (but rarely) ss : angustia, angoisse ; testonem * (from testa), lesson. 74 PERMUTATION OF LETTERS. Bk. I. Pt. i. D. In French d, t. For examples see above, pp. 60, 61. dr becomes r : oceidere, oca're ; cathedra, chair e ; cre- dere, croire ; quadragesima (O. Fr. caraesme), careme. dj, dv drop the dental : adjuxtare *, aj outer ; advenire, aveitir. nd becomes nt: subinde, souvent ; -pendere, pente, &c. S, Z, X. s becomes s, c, z. For examples see above, pp. 60-63. sr becomes first sir, then, by dropping the j (indicated by the circumflex accent in the vowel before it), it is reduced to ir : crescere, croitre ; pascere, paitre ; eognoscere, con- 7iailre ; essere*, etre (for this verb see Book II. Chap. I. on the Auxiliary Verbs). st, sp, sc, as iniiiah, become est, esp, esc : stare, ester ; scribere, e'crire (O. Fr. escrire) ; sperare, esperer. This fact is only noticed here ; it will be more fully treated at pp. 78- 80, in the chapter on the Addition of Letters. X becomes ss : exagium*, essai ; examen, essai'm ; laxare, laisser ; axilla, aisselle ; coxa, ctiisse ; exire, I'sszi, past part, of issir. § 3. Gutturals : 0, eh, gh, q, g, j, h. C. The soft c becomes in French f, s, z, x ; the hard e be- comes c, ch, g, i. For examples see above, pp. 50, 61-64. c between two vowels disappears, if at the end of a word : focum, feu ; jocum, jeu ; paucum, peu ; Aucum, Eu ; Saviniaeum, Savigny'^. ■^ The Celtic ak, latinised into aeum, indicated possession. To designate the lands of Albinus or Sabinvis, the Gallo- Romans fabricated the names Albini-acvun, Sabini-aeuja. This Ch.2. Sect.:;. LATIN GUTTURALS AND LABIALS. 75 cl : already treated of, p. 71. ct : already treated of, p. 60. Q. See just above, under the /lard c. Q. g becomes in French g, j, i. For examples see above, pp. 62, 64. gm becomes OT : pigmentum, //ot^w/ / phlegm a, y?6';«w^. gn becomes « : malignum, malin ; benigniim, be'nm. gd becomes d : smaragda, emcraude ; Magdalena, Made- leine ; frigidu8,y;'(i^/. See above, p. 65 See above, p. 66 H. aee aoove, p. 00. This letter is often dropped at the beginning of words: habere, avoir ; homo, on ; hora, or ; hordeum, orge ; hoc- illud (O. Fr. oil), oui. § 4. Labials : p, b, f, ph, v. p l>ecomes p, b, v. For examples see above, pp. 58, 59. ps, pt, pn, as initials. This sound is unknown in French, so that the p is dropped in all these cases : ptisana, tisane ; pneuma, mtnne ; psalmus, O. Fr. saurne. Where we find termination in the south became ac, in the north ny, e, or y. Thus Sabiniacum is in the south of Krancc Sa-viguac ; but in the north it becomes Sairnay, Sevijjne, or Sav'tgny. Albini-acum similarly is ylubi^nac, yltihenaj, Auh'tgne, Auh'tj^ny. Final c scc-ms most common in ihc west ot France; final j in the centre; linal ny in (Ihamp.ignc and the cast. But the distinction is not well marked, and we must not lay too much stress on it. 7^ PERMUTATION OF LETTERS. these sounds reproduced in full, as in psaume, psallette, &c., we may be sure that we have before us words completely modern. pt, in the middle of words, is changed into /, d: captivus, che'tif ; derupta, derouie ; rupta, route ; scriptus, ecrit ; ad- captare *, acheter ; male-aptus ', malade ; grupta * ^, grotie. The words apte, captif, crypie, rupture, &c., are modern. S. b becomes (5, v. For examples see above, pp. 58, 59. bt, bs, bj, bm lose their b when they pass into French, and become }iacalySto'iquc,Scc. ^ For huij and its derivative huisiitr, sec p. 53. * Grenouille in Old French is renouiUe, a form which does not come from the clitssical ranuncula, but from the vulgar Latin ranucla, a word which is (jitcn met with in IMSS. of the sixtli century. On the change of cl into // (ranucla, rrtiouilU), sec abtjvc, p. 71. * ('p. llie luiglisli mint. * Instead of saying le Irndtmain, le Hern; In luettr, wliidi are j.'r(«>s ernjrs of the fifteenth century, tlic more correct forms Pen- tler/miri, I'ierre, I'lullr, were in nsi- throughout l!.c iniil.llc ages. 8o SUBTRACTION OF LETTERS. Bk. I. Pt. 2. 4. r added : fronde, funda ; perdrix, perdieem ; tre'sor, thesaurus. 5. For the addition of a 3 between the liquids, mr, ml, &c. (as chambre, camera, &c.), see above, p. 72. SECTION III. ADDITION AT THE END OF A WORD (ePITHESIs). J added : lis, lilium ; legs, legatum ; tandis, tarn diu ; jadi's, jam diu ; sans, sine ; certes, certe, &c. CHAPTER III. GF THE SUBTRACTION, OR DROPPING, OF LETTERS. Letters withdrawn from the primitive words may be taken from (i) the beginning of the word (aphaeresis, oKJ^aipea-is) ; or (2) from the body of the word {syncope, (TvyKOTrrj) ; or (3) from the end {apocope, onroKOTrfi). SECTION I. OMISSION FROM THE BEGINNING OF THE WORD (aPHAERESIS). § I. Oy Vowels. Boutique, apotheea ; ble', ablatum. ; migraine, fjniKpuvla ; leur, illorum ; riz, oryza ; diamant, adamantem^ ; le, ille ; Gers, Egirius ; sciatique, isehiadicus ; Natolie, Anatolia. §2. Of Consonants. Tisane, ptisana ; pdmer, spasmare * ; loir, gliris ; neunie, pneuma; or, hora; orge, hordeuxa; oti, homo; avoir, habere. SECTION II. OMISSION FROM THE BODY OF THE WORD (sYNCOPe). § I. Syncope of Vowels. We have seen (above, pp. 67, 68) under what law the Latin vowels passed into the French language : the tonic vowel Ch. 3- Sect. J. EPITHESIS, APHAERESIS, SFNCOPE. 8 1 always remained, but the a/onic vowels varied ; if short, they disappeared from either position, i.e. (i) when they stood immediately before the tonic vowel, as the ' in positura, posture; and (2) when they were penultimate, as the u in regula, regie : if long, the atonic vowel always remained. §2. Syncope of Consonants. In ever}' word the consonants can occupy two positions which differ with regard to the vowels: either (i) they are followed by another consonant, as b in submissujn, and then they are called 'non-medial'; or (2) they stand be- tween two vowels, as the b in tabanus, in which case they are called 'medial.' 1. Non-medial Consonants. In the case of two consonants together, like bm in submissum, the former usually dis- appears in the French derivative: as subjectum, sujet; suh- miBBViB, soumis ; Aevw^ta,, d/route ; nuptiae, woff J ; captivus, che'tif; pensare, P'eser ; advocatus, avoue'; conchy lium ', coquille, &c. Similarly, the Latin s which had survived in most French words up to the end of the sixteenth century (cp. the O. Fr. aspre,paslre, paste, from the Lat. asper, pastor, pasta*), disappeared in the seventeenth century, and its suppression was denoted by the introduction of a circumflex accent : dpre, pdtre, pate '^. 2. Medial Consoriants. The dropping out of these is an important element in the formation of the French language. (i) Dentals, d: crudelis, cruel; sudare, sucr ; denu- datus, d/nue; medulla, moelle ; obedire, obe'ir. ' The subject of the syncope of consonants has hitherto been but little studied, and it is not yet known what exact law it follows. ' Kxcfpt in the three words mouche, musca; /',«^/r, luscus; ritenie, ciBtoma, in which liie s disappeared much earlier. G 82 SUBTRACTION OF LETTERS. t : dotare, douer ; mutare, muer ; rotundus, rond ; salutare, saluer. (2) Gutturals, c : plicare, plier ; jocaxe, Jouer ; vocalis, vqyelk ; delieatus, «(?« ; pavorem, /)^«r ; vivenda,^ z'z'rt«fi?(?; aieul, aviolus *. SECTION III. LETTERS DROPPED AT THE END OF THE WORD (aPOCOPe). § I. Apocope of Vowels. On this subject see above, p. 70. § 2, Apocope of Consonants. t : gratum, gre; amatus, aime'; acutus, aigu ; scutumj ecu ; abbatem, abhe'', &c. n : furnus, four ; carnem, chai'r ; eornu, cor ; hibemum, hiver ; diumum, yo?/r; quatemum {O.Yx. quaier), cahier; alburnum, auhour. 1: ho[c]-illud (0. Fr. o'it), out; non-illud (O. Fr. nennit), nenni. ■* See above, p. 33. PAKT III. PROSODY. Prosody is ihat part of grammar which treats of those modi- fications of vowels which are caused by quantity and accent. Vowels can be modified in three ways, (i) In their nature: e.g. a may become o. The study of these modifications will be found under the head of the Permutation of Vowels on pp. 48-54. (2) In their kftglh: they may be short, as in patte, or long, as in pdlre. Here we have the study of quantity. There is but litde to be said about it, except that it is very vague in the French language ; it is never certain except in such words as viur (O. Fr. vieiir, Lat. maturus), which words are contractions ; or in such words as pdtre (O. Fr, paslre), in which the s has been dropped. In these two sets of words the vowel is certainly long. {3) In their elevation or accentuation. They may be Ionic, as the a in cilibat, or atonic, as the a in pardott. This is the study of accent. Now there are four kinds of accent, which must be kept distinct, though they are often confounded together: — Tonic, Grammatical, Oratorical, and Provincial. I. Tonic Accent. In the Introduction we described ' tonic accent,' or more simply ' accent,' as the incidence of the voice upon one of the syllables of a word. Thus in the word rais6n, the tonic accent lies on the last syllable, but in raisonndble it is on the penultimate. G 2 84 PROSODY. Bk, I. The accented or tonic syllable is, therefore, that on which more stress is laid than on any of the others. In Greek this elevation of the voice is called rows or npoa-co^ia, words rendered in Latin by accentus. This tonic accent gives to each word its special character, and has been rightly called ' the soul of the word.' In French the tonic accent always occupies one of two places : either (i) it is on the last vowel, when the termination is mascuhne, as chanteiir, aimer, finir, seigneur; or (2) on the last vowel but one, when the termination is feminine, as sativdge, verre,p6rche. In Latin also the accent occupies one of two places : the penultimate, when that syllable is long, as eantorem, amare, finire, seniorem; or the antepenult, when the penultimate syllable is short, as sylvatieus, porticus. If the reader will compare these French and Latin examples, he will notice at once that the Latin accent survives in the French ; that is to say, the accented syllable in Latin is also the accented syllable in French (eantorem, chanteur; amare, aimer; &a.ire, finir; seniorem, seigneUr). This continuance of the Latin accent is a matter of con- siderable importance, and is, we may fairly say, the key to the formation of the French language. Its importance has been explained in the Introduction, to which (pp. 32-35) the reader is referred. II. Grammatical Accent. In French grammar there are three accents — acute, grave, circumflex. Accent, in this sense, is a grammatical sign, which has three different functions in orthography. (i) Sometimes the accent indicates what is the proper pro- nunciation of certain vowels, as bonte, regie, pole. (2) Some- times it marks the suppression of certain letters, as pastor, pdtre; asper, dpre; asinus, dne ; which words in Old French were pastre, aspre, asne. (3) And lastly it is used Pt. 3. ACCENTUATION. 8,5 to distinguish between words otherwise spelt aUke, but of different significations ; as, du and dil, des and dh, la and A). sur and silr, &c.' III. Oratorical Acunt. The tonic accent affects syllables within words, but ora- torical accent (otherwise styled 'phraseological') influences words within sentences. Thus oratorical accent belongs to the domain of declamation and rhetoric, and naturally has had no influence on the transformation of Latin into French words*. We shall therefore have no need to trouble ourselves with it in this place. 1\'. Provincial Acce?it. By provincial accent we understand the intonation ]iecu- liar to each province, as it differs from the intonation of good Parisian pronunciation, which is taken as the standard. And this is in reality what is meant by the phrase, ' He who speaks French well has no accent' — that is, no provincial accent. The study of these characteristics of the inhabitants of certain districts does not belong to our subject, and is therefore set aside. Let us, however, say that provincial pro- nunciation limits itself to this — it gives a word two accents, and lowers the value of the principal (or proper) one by .subjoining to it a slight half-accent on another syllable. ' Cp. Littrc, Diet. Hist. s. v. ' Accent.' The French gram- matical acccMt-s which act as signs in writing ciifTcr widely from those of the (ircck language, thctiigh borrowed from them. The acute, grave, and circuinlkx accents in Greek simply denote the tonic syllable, and the shaiics of intonation on that syllabic. In French, on the c(jntrary, these accents have no connection with the tonic and etymological accent, and arc purely orthographic symbols. - Sec it. Paris, ylcccnt latin, p. 8. BOOK II. INFLEXION, OR THE STUDY OF GRAINIMATICAL FORMS. Book II will be entirely given up to the study of inflexions; that is to say, of the modifications undergone by a noun when declined, by a verb when Conjugated. Declension of substantive, article, adjective, and pronoun, and Conjuga- tion of verbs, will naturally form the two divisions of this Book. To make the study of the diflferent parts of our subject complete, we will include under this division all invariable, as well as inflected, words. PAET I. DECLENSIONS. CHAPTER I, THE SUBSTANTIVE, Let US take in order (i) case, (2) number, and (3) gender, SECTION I. CASE, Of the six cases of Latin declension, the nominative indicates the subject, the other five the 'government' or relation. Now if we place Latin and French side by side we shall see that the six cases of the mother-tongue are reduced to one in the daughter-language. How has this come about ? Did those six cases exist to the end in Latin, or has the French never had more than one ? We must again turn to the history of the language ; it will provide us with an answer. The tendency to simplify and reduce the number of cases was early felt in the popular Latin : the cases expressed shades of thought too delicate and subtle for the coarse mind of the Barbarian. Being therefore unable to handle the learned and complicated machinery of the Latin declen- sions, he constructed a system of his own, simplifying its springs, and reducing the number of the effects at the price of frequent reproduction of the same form. Thus the Roman distinguished by means of case-terminations the place where THE SUBSTANTIVE. 89 one is from the place to which one is going : ' veniunt ad domum,' ' sunt in domo.' But the Barbarian, unable to grasp these finer shades, saw no use in this distinction, and said, in either case alike, ' sum in domum,' ' venio ad domum.' Thus, from the fifth century downwards, long before the first written records of the French language, popular Latin reduced the number of cases to two: (i) the nominative to mark the subject; and (2) that case which occurred most frequently in conversation', the accusative, to mark the object or relation. From that time onwards the Latin declension was reduced to this : — subject, muru-s ; object, muru-m. The French language is the product of the slow develop- ment of popular Latin; and French grammar, which was originally nothing but a continuation of the Latin grammar, inherited, and in fact possessed from its infancy, a com- pletely regular declension : subject, ?nur-s, muru-s ; object wwr, muru-m : and people said ' ce murs est haut;' ' j'ai construit un murV This declension in two cases forms the exact difference between ancient and modern French. It disappeared in the fourteenth century (as we will explain later on), not without leaving many traces in the language, which look like so many insoluble exceptions, but find their explanation and ' The fact (which had previously been pointed out by Ray- nouard) was coniplctely established by M. Paul IMeyer in i860, in an Kssay before the ' tcole des (]liartes,' with proofs drawn Irom the study of Latin MSS. of the IMerovinpian era, '•' (Jne can sec at a glance the consetjuence of this distinction of cases: so long as the sense of a word is given by its form (as in F,atin) and not by its pf)sition (as in Modern Frenclil, inversions arc possible. Consequently they are Ireciuent in old French. One could say equally well, 'Ic rou conduit le cheval ' ; or, as in Latin, ' Ic cheval conduit Ic roij (caballMv/ condiicit /w).' The j which marked the subject (rou, rex), made ambiguity impossible. 90 DECLENSIONS. Bk. II. Pt. I. historic justificatio^i in our knowledge of the Old French declension. This Old French declension takes three forms, answering to the three Latin declensions : — „. ( Subjective rosa . . I Objective rosa-/;/ Plur. . . rose . . rose Subjective rosae roses Objective rosa-i- .... roses Sing. Plur. ( Subjective muru-j. ( Objective m.uru-?« ( Subjective mur-z' . ( Objective rrmr-os . . murs . mur . mur . murs Sing. Plur. J Subjective pastor . . . . pat re {pastre^) \ Objective pastor-^w . . pasieur [ Subjective pastor-^j . . pasieurs \ Objective pastor-^i' . . pasteurs. In the subjective it ran thus : ' la rose est belle' ; ' le murs est haut' ; ' le />a'/r^ est venu ' ; ^ in the objective, 'j'ai vu la rose, le vitir, \q pasteur', &c. On looking into these declensions one is struck with the facts that (i) the Latin accent is always respected; and (2) that (with exception of one case) Old French takes ^ ^ Pdtre, in Old French pastre. Pastre and pasteur were not in Old French two distinct words, but only the two cases of the same word. ^ In all these examples of Old French, we ought to have written // murs, li pastre, not le murs, le pdtre, li being the nomi- native singular, and le the accusative (as may be seen below, p. 100, in the chapter on the Article): but as we wish to pass gradually from the known to the unknown, we have for the moment sacrificed correctness to convenience. Ch. I. Sect. I. THE SUBSTANTIVE. 9 1 whenever the Latin had it : or, to express the matter more briefly, French declension rests on the natural laws of derivation. Between Latin, a s)Tithetic language, and INIodern French, which is anahtic, there is an intermediate, or half-synthetic, period. This transition period is marked by the Old French declension, which indicates a resting-point between synthesis and analysis^ But this system was still too complicated for the minds of men in the thirteenth century : though the Barbarians had reduced the six Latin cases to two, it was conceived that it would be far more regular to re- duce the three French declensions to one. Accordingly, the second declension was taken as the common form, as it was the most generally used, and its laws were applied to both the others. Now the characteristic of this second declension was an s in the subjective case of the singular — ' mur^,' mums; and accordingly, in violation of the genius of the language and of the laws of Latin deriva- tion, men took to saying ' le pastre.y,' as they were wont to say ' le murj.' The laws of derivation were broken, because the Latin pastor has no s in the nominative ; nor has it any need of that letter, since it is itself distinguished from the ' R.iynouard, who in a.fj. i8ii developed the laws of French declension, gave thcin the general name of ' the rule of the j,' by reason of the j which so commonly marks the subject. This discovery is one of the greatest services ever rendered to the study of Old French, and to the history of the language. ' With- out this key,' Littre says most truly, 'everything seemed to be an exception or a barbarism ; with it there is brought to light a system, far shorter indeed than the Latin, but still neat and regular.' Much discussion has taken place as to the usefulness and exact application of this 'rule of the j' during the middle ages : its practical utility is doubtless restricted, and it has often been broken through: but the existence of the rule (even more than its utility) is a fact of extreme interest, as it allows us to mark the stages of transition from Latin to Krench, and is, as it were, a halt in the passage from synthesis to analysis. 92 DECLENSIONS. Bk. II. Pt. i, accusative pastorem by the position of the tonic accent. This addition of an s to the nominative of all such words as pastor, which has two forms in French {pas/re, pasfeur), seemed to simplify the inflexion of nouns; but in reality complicated it, and has in fact destroyed the whole system of French declension. For hereby the French declension, which had previously rested on the natural laws of deriva- tion, came to be founded on this suffix s, which is nothing but an arbitrary and artificial form. In its first period (ninth to twelfth century) this declension depended on etymology; in its second (twelfth to fourteenth century) it rested on mere analogy: the former is natural, the latter artificial; the former came from the ear, the latter from the eye. Thus then, in its first epoch, the declension was, as we have just seen, natural, based on etymology and the laws of derivation ; but for that very reason it was specially fragile, ' since its rules were only second-hand, — in other words, it had relations with Latin forms and accentuation, but had no stability or guarantee in the proper junction and knitting together of its own tongue \' And so French declension was destined to perish forthwith, and the unlucky reform, which consisted in combining the three declensions in one by sacrificing the rarer and more individual forms to the more general ones, did not save it from ruin. Rejected from the speech of the populace, from the thirteenth cen- tury downwards, and constantly violated even by the learned, French declension was thoroughly ruined by the time it reached the fourteenth century. It disappeared, and the distinction between the subjective and objective cases perished : thenceforward one case alone was used for each number. And this was the objective (or accusative) case (falconem, faiicoii) ; for it was usually longer and more ^ M. Llttre. Ch. I. Sect. I. THE SUBSTANTIVE. 93 consistent than the subjective (or nominative), and occurred more frequently in course of conversation. Thenceforth the subjective case (falco, O. Fr. /^mc) vanished, and modern declension was established. This adoption of the objective case as the type and form of the Latin substantive had a curious result in the forma- tion of the numbers. In the older declension we had — SINGULAR. PLURAL. Subject m.urus murs muri ffiur Object m^urum mur muros murs where the objective case was in the singular mur, in the plural ?fiurs. In the fourteenth century the new declension took, as we have said, the objective for its type, and con- sequently the s of the older objective case murs (muros) became the mark of the plural, while the absence of ^ for ihe objective singular mur (murum) became the mark of the singular. But had the subjective case been taken as the type, and the objective abandoned, instead of the contrary, we should have had murs (murus) in the singular, and ?/iur (muri) in the plural ; so that the s, which now marks the plural, would in that case have distinguished the singular instead. From the moment that final s ceased to be the character- istic of the cases, and became the distinctive mark of the plural number, the French medix'val system of declensions ceased to exist ; the fifteenth century utterly rejected it ; and when, in the time of Louis XI, Villon attempted to imitate in a Ijallad the language of the thirteenth century, he failed to observe the ' rule of s,' and his imitation consequently wants the distinctive mark of the middle ages. It is curious to see in the nineteenth century the detection of the mistakes < ommilled by a writer \\\u> in the fifteenth iri.d to write .1 ballad in the mani.er of the thirteenth. 94 DECLENSIONS. Bk, II. Pt. i. Since declension in two cases was, as we have seen, the distinctive and fundamental characteristic of Old French, the loss of these cases immediately established between Old and Modern French a line of demarcation far more distinct than any which exists in Italy or Spain between the language of the thirteenth and that of the nineteenth centuries. There survived, however, some important traces of the Old French declension, which look to us like inexplicable anomalies — explicable, in truth, only by a knowledge of the history of the language. Before entering on the study of gender let us re-state the consideration of the Old French declensions one by one, and so discover the traces they have left in Modern French. I. Second Declension. Here the subjective case is sup- pressed, and the objective retained {mur from murum, serf from servum, &c.). Still, some relics of the subjective case are retained in the nine following words : filius,_y?/j; fundus, fonds ; laqueus, lacs ; legatus, legs ; lilius *, lis ; latus,' lez ; puteus, puits ; retis, rets ; coquus, qiceux. In Old French all these words had also the objective case — filivim, fil\ fundum, y^w^; laqueum, lac; legatura, leg\ lilium, li\ latum, le; puteum, ptdt; retem, ret; coquura, queu. In these instances, then, the objective case has disappeared, while the subjective has survived^. In this way we may explain by the history of the second declension the formation of the plural in aux : mal, maiix ; cheval, chevaux, &c. ^ J, X, z, regarded as orthographic signs, are equivalents in Old French ; voix was written indifferently voix, njois, or -voiz. A trace of this usage remains in w^z, nasus; /fz, latus; and in those plurals which end in x {cailloux,feux, maux^, which used in Old French to be written with either an s or an x. ^ It is just the same in the case of certain proper names, Charles, Carolus ; Louis, Lodovicus ; Fewins, Verbinus ; Orleans, Aurelianus ; &c. Ch. i.Sect. 1. THE SUBSTANTIVE. 95 In the thirteenth century the second declension was as follows : — SINGVLAR. PLURAL. ffid/s raalus fnal mali mill malum ?na/s malos. But the / is softened into u when it is followed by a con- sonant {'a.s paume, palma ; au6e, alba; sati/, salvus), and so ma/s became maus. It then stood : — SINGULAR. PLURAL. ?naus malus mal mali mai malum niaus malos. Then, when the fourteenth century abolished declension by abandoning the subjective case, and keeping only the objec- tive, they had only mal (malum) in the singular, and maus or maux (malos) in the plural. So too chcvaux, iravaux. Sec. may be traced. 2. Third Declcnsioti. In this declension in Latin the accent is displaced in the oblique cases (pdstor, pastorem) ; whence it follows, as we have seen, that the third French declension had a double form : the one pastre (pdstor) in the subjective case ; the other pasteur (pastorem) for the objective. In this declension, as in the second, the objective case got the master}' at the same epoch, as may be seen b)- looking at a few instances : — SUBJECTIVK. OBJF.CTIVE. abbas abbe abbdtem abb/ falco /auc falconem faucon latro lerre latronem larron sdrpons serpe Berp6ntom str/'tiii infans tn/e infantem en/ani In all these the subjective case has perished, while the objective case has survived. 96 DECLENSIONS. Bk. II. Pt. 1, There are a very few instances to the contrary, in which the subjective case has been retained : — SUBJECTIVE. OBJECTIVE. soror sceiir sororem seror pictor pemtre pictorem painteur antecessor ancetre anteeessorem ancesseur traditor traitre (O. Fr. tra'itre) traditorem traiteur. In many other words the two forms have survived side by side ; but instead of continuing to be the two cases of one word, they have become two different words : as — cantor chantre cantorem chanteur senior sire (O. Fr. sinre) seniorem seigneur ^ SECTION II. GENDERS. The French language has adopted only the masculine and feminine genders, rejecting the third Latin gender, the neuter. The student of grammar must approve of this suppression of the neuter, for the Latin tongue had utterly lost all appreciation of the reasons which had originally made this or that object neuter rather than masculine ; and furthermore Low Latin, by uniting these two genders in one, had prepared the way for this simplification of language, which was afterwards adopted in the Romance languages. The neuter is useless except when, as in the case of English, it belongs exclusively to whatsoever is neither male nor female. ^ The Latin genitive left some traces in Old French. It is vain to quote these forms, as Modern French has rejected them all with the exception of leur, illorum, and chanJeleur, cande- larum (festa). Ch. I. Sect. 2. THE SUBSTANTIVE. 97 This suppression of the neuter, which dates very far back, — long indeed before the irruptions of the Barbarians, — was brought about in two ways : — 1. Neuter substantives were made masculines. Even in riautus we find dorsus, aevus, collus, gutturem. cubitus, &c. : in inscriptions dating back beyond the fourth ceniur}-, we have brachius. monumentus. collegius, fatus, metallus, s had a singular, as we see from a couplet of Malherbe : * Oh ! combien lors aura do veuves La gent qui porte Ic turban ; * and La Fontaine has '/a gent trotte-mcnue.' Aniclr< was employed as a singular throughout the middle ages, and even by Voltaire, Montesquieu, and Chateaubriand. The same is true of the word plcurs. I^ossuet followed the seventeenth century when he wrote ' U pUur dlcrncl.' ' Littr6, ii. 357. >i 2 lOO DECLENSIONS. Bk. II. Pt. i. CHAPTER II. THE ARTICLE. There is no article in Latin ; and, though Quinctilian pretended that the language lost nothing thereby^, it is certain that this was a real deficiency, and that, in order to supply it, the Romans often used the demonstrative pronoun ille, for the sake of distinctness, where the French now has /e, /a, les. There are plenty of examples: Cicero says, ' Annus ille quo;'. 'Ille alter;' 'Ilia rerum domina fortuna.' Apuleius has ' Quorsum ducis asinum ilium .? ' Jerome writes, ' Vae autem homini illi per quem,' &c. Though not rare in classical Latin, this usage is infinitely more common in the popular Latin, especially after the reduction of the six cases to two^ ; a change which made the use of an article necessary. Popular Latin appropriated to this use the pronoun ille : ' Dicebant ille teloneus de illo mercado ad illos necuciantes^.' This pronoun thus transformed, and also i-educed to two cases, became in Old French as follows: — Singular. MASC. FEM. Subject ille li ilia la Object ilium le illam la Plural. Subject iUi // illae les Object illos les illas les ^ He says, ' Noster sermo articulos non desiderat ' {De Instit, Orat. i. 4). Of all the Indo-Germanic languages, Greek and the Teutonic languages alone have an article. Latin and Sclavonic have none ; Sanskrit only a rudimentary one. * About the fifth century. See above, p. 89. ' From a chartulary of the seventh century. Ch. 2. THE ARTICLE. lOI So they said, distinguishing carefully between the two cases : ' nie caballus est fortis ' ' Li chevaU est fort ' ' Ulum vidi caballum ' ' J'ai vu !e cheval.' And consequently when, in due time, the subjective case disappeared, the masculine article became Ic, ilium, and les, illos. and the feminine la, illam, and les, illas. Thus we get to the modern article'. Combined with the prepositions de, a, en, the masculine article in Old French gives us : — Singular. 1. del {de k), which became deu^, and thence du, as now. 2. al {^ le), „ ail, as now. 3. cnl ((■;; It), which has disappeared. Pliral. 1. dels {de les), which became des. 2. als {a les), ,, attx. 3. es {en les), which has disappeared, with the exception of a few traces, as in viaitrc-es-arls, docteiir-es-scieticcs. h-viains, S. Pierre-h-Uens. ^ The reader has doubtless noticed that the article is a remarkable exception to the rule of the continuance of the Latin accent in French. M. G. Paris explains this diHicuity thus: — ' The Latin comic writers reckon the first syllable of ille, ilia, ilium, as short; and these words may be regarded simi)ly as enclitics, as is shewn by the compound elluin = en ilium. I lad the accent been marked, llie first syllabic would never have been shortened or suppressed in composition. (Consequently it is not wonderful that, by a solitary exception, the French language has retained only the latter syllable of this word ; il-le = h- ; il-la =■= In ; U-li ^lui; il-loa --/fj.' ' For this softening of the final / into u, see above, p. 53. 102 DECLENSIONS. Bk. II. Pt. i. CHAPTER III. THE ADJECTIVE. SECTION I. QUALIFYING ADJECTIVES. § I. Case and Number. Adjectives in Old French followed the same rules of declen- sion as substantives, and had at first two distinct cases : — Singular. Plural. Subjective bon-us = tons boni = bo7i. Objective bonum = bon bonos = hons. They also followed the same course in the fourteenth century, abandoning the subjective case. We need not therefore reproduce the remarks given above (pp. 92-95), which the student may apply for himself to the adjective. § 2. Genders. We have laid it down as a general principle, that at the outset French Grammar is nothing but a continuation of Latin grammar ; consequently French adjectives follow the Latin ones in every way. Those adjectives which in Latin had two different terminations for the masculine and the feminine (as bonus, bona) used also to have two in French ; and those which had only one termination for these genders in Latin (as grandis) had but one in French also. Thus in the thirteenth century men said ' une grand femme, une ame viorteV, &c. In the fourteenth century, the reason of this distinction not being understood, it was supposed to be a mere irregularity, and accordingly, in defiance of Ch. 3- Sect. I. QVALIFViyG ADJECTIVES. 103 ctymologv, this second class of adjectives was reduced to the form of the first class, and granJc, crudle, morlclle, &c., wore written to correspond to bonne, &c. A trace of this older form remains in the expressions grattd'niere, grand' route, crandyaim, grand' garde, grand' hale, grand' chcre, &c. — phrases which are relics of the older language. Vaugclas and the seventeenth-century grammarians, ignorant of the historic ground for this usage, decreed, with their usual pedantry and dulness, that this form came from the euphonic suppression of the e, and that the omission must be noted by an apostrophe, as is still done. § 3. Adjectives used as Substantives. Certain words, now substantives in French, but springing from Latin adjectives, domesticus, doinestique ; singularis, sanglier; buccularium, bouclier; granatum, grenade; lineus, linge ; cursorius. coursier, &c., were adjectives in Old French, following their Latin origin. In Old French the phrase ran thus: — Un serviteur domestique, i.e. a man attached to the service of the house (domus). In Old French (w^ith the usual regu- larity of formation) it was written domesche, so as not to neglect the Latin accent (domesticus). Un pore sanglier, porcus singularis, a wild pig, which is of solitary habits. Un e'cu bouclier, scutum buccularium. literally an arched or bowed shield (or buckler). Une pomnie grcnadi . pomum grenatuin, i. c. a fruil lillcd with pips or seeds. Une retement linge, vestimentum lineum, i. e. a linen robe'. ' For the change from Ihiriu io Ihr^r, i. c. ot -nu io -ge, see p. 66. 104 DECLENSIONS. Bk. II. Ft. i. Un cheval coursier, i.e. a horse kept for racing only, as opposed to carriage-horses, &c. In these expressions the epithet in course of time ejected the substantive, and took its place. Then people began to say, * un domeslique,' ' un sanglier,' &c., just as one now speaks of ' un mor/,' meaning ' un homme mort,' ' un morsel,' for ' un etre mortel,' &c. § 4. Degrees of Comparison. In this, as in all other parts of French declension, par- ticles have taken the place of the inflections -or, -imus, which mark in the Latin the degrees of comparison. Here, as elsewhere, we may note the analytic tendencies of the Romance tongues. I. The Comparative is formed by the addition of the adverbs plus, moins, atissi, to the positive, in both Old and Modern French. There is one peculiarity of the Old French which must be noted : beside the form plus . . . que, it possessed, Hke the Italian, the form plus . . . de — ' il est plus grand de moi.' It would do equally well to say, ' il est plus grand de moi,' or 'il est plus grand que moi;' just as, in Italian, we have ' piii grande del mio libro.' A few French adjectives have kept the Latin synthetic form ; as meilleur, meliorem. As the accent is displaced in the objective case (m61ior, meliorem), there has arisen (as we have seen) a declension with two cases, which are re- solved either into a single case, or into the retention of the two cases with different significations. The five adjectives ban, mal, grand, petit, moult, have retained the old comparatives. 1. Bon: O. Fr. rnieldre, m61ior; meilleur, m.eli6rem. 2. Mal: pire, pejor ; O. Yx. pejeur, pejorem. 3. Grand: mair e, mk^or ', majeur, raaiorem.. 4. Petit: moindre, xainor ; mineur, minovem.. Ch. 3. Sect. 2. NOUNS OF NUMBER. lOj 5. Moult, mviltus : plusieurs, pluriores. The forms derived from the neuter are rnoins, minus ; pis, pejus ; flus, plus ; mieux, melius (O. Fr. micls). We may add senior to this list ; senior has given us the O. Fr. sifire\ and seniorem gives us seigneur. II. The SiPERLATivE is formed by adding le plus, or /res, 10 the positive. In Old French ' mou// (multum) leau ' was as correct as /res-beau. Some Latin superlatives lingered on into Old French. In the twelfth century men said, saifii-isme, sanctissimus ; alt- isnii, altissimus. These vanished in the fourteenth century. Those words ending in issime", &c., which are still found in French, are technical terms, not older than the sixteenth century : like all words which do not come from the popular and spontaneous period of the language, they are very ill- formed, and break the law of accent ; ge/ie'ra/issime, reveren- dissime, illuslrissimc, &c. SECTION 11. NOUNS OF NUMBER. § I . Cardinals. Unus and duo, which are declined in Latin, passed through the same changes in Old French as did substantives ' This word sinre has passed into sire, just as prins (Lat. pre- hensus) has become pris. '■' Six centuries before the birth o\ the l-rcnch language, the superlative had already been contractt-d, in common L;itin, to iamus Ironi issimus, showing the growing energy ami inllu- encc of the Latin accent. The 'Graffiti' of I'ompcii and the ins( ri[)f if)ns of the earlier Empire give us carismo, dulcisma, felicismuB, BplendidismuH, pientismus, viresnm, iVi ., tor carisBimo, dulcisBima, felieisaimu, Bplendidi»Bimu8, pion- tlBBimuB, vicoBima, t^c. lo6 DECLENSIONS. Bk. II. Pt. i. and adjectives of quality. They had two cases down to the end of the thirteenth century. Subjective uns unus dut duo. Objective un unum dt-nx duos. The phrase then ran thus : — ' Uns chevak et dtd boeuf.$- moururent ' (unus caballus et duo boves) : and again, ' il tua un cheval ^/ deux hcen(s ' (unum caballum et duos boves). In the fourteenth century the subjective case was lost, and here, as elsewhere, the objective remained in force. There is nothing in particular to be said about the num- bers /ro/s, tres ; quatre, quatuor ; cinq^ quinque ; six, sex ; sept, septem; huit, oeto (O. Fr. oit^'); neuf, novem; dix, decern. In the words onze, undecim ; doiize, duodeeim ; ireize, tredecim ; quatorze, quatuordeeim ; quinze, quindecim ; seize, sedecim, the position of the tonic accent has brought about the disappearance of the word decern, which gave their real force to the words undecim, duodeeim, &c. ^ The words which serve to mark the decades, — vingt, viginti ; irente, triginta ; quarante, quadraginta j cinquante, quinquaginta ; soixante, sexaginta ; septante, septuaginta ; octante, octoginta; nonante, nonaginta, — in which the Latin g has disappeared, were originally ve'int, Ire'ajtle, qtiare'ank, &c., whence came the modern contracted form vingt, trenle, quaratite, &c. Above one hundred, to express the even decades (120, 140, 160, &c.). Old French used multiples of twenty, and wrote six-vingt (120), sept-vingt (140), &c. — meaning six times, seven times, &c. twenty; just as to this day 'eighty' is expressed by quatre-vingt (4 x 20). Traces of this ancient ' Octo = huit ; for the change of et into it see above, p. 50. ^ See G. Paris, Accent latin, p. 6 1 . Ch. 3- Sect. 2. NOUXS OF NUMBER. lOJ usage remain even in our day, as in the hospital 'des Qiiinze- I'ingls' (15 X 20 = 300), which was founded to support 300 blind persons; so also Bossuet and Voltaire wrote 'il y a u'x-virigls ans.' The Latin ambo( = two together) produced in Old French the adjective ambf ; and the phrases ran, ' amdis mains,' amies parts,' instead of ' les deux mains,' ' les deux parts': and the word still survives at the gaming-table, 'j'ai gagnd un ar/iie a la loterie ' ; that is to say, ' I have won a pair,' i. e. on two figures. § 2. Ordinals. With the exception of premier, primarius ; second, secun- dus, which come straight from the Latin, all the French ordi- nals are formed by the addition of the sufhx -ieme, -6siinu3, to the corresponding cardinals : deux-/i?w^, ixo\%-iemc, &c. But the system adopted in Old French for the first ten rdinals differed from that now in use. They were drawn straight from the Latin, instead of being formed from the French cardinals : thus it had tiers, t6rtiu8, instead of Irois- i'emi: ; quint, qviintus, instead of cinquihne. These ten ordi- nals, prime, primus ; second, secundus ; tiers, tertius ; quart, quartus ; quint, quintus ; sixte, sextus ; sitiiie, septimus ; oitave, octavua; none, nonus; disme or dime, decimus, have had interesting fortunes of their own in the histor)' of the I'rcnch tongue : — Prime, primus. Thii word, which has been supplantcil by its diminutive premier, primarius, survives still in the phrases ' prime-z.hoTf\,' ' prime-szni,' ' parer en prime,' &c. Second, seciindus, has not been suppressed by deuxieme, but has a concurrent existence. Tiers, t6rtiu8, remains in ' //>rj-dtat,' ' //V/J-parti,' and (in the feminine) in ' //t-nr-pcrsonne,' ' parer en tierce.' I08 DECLENSIONS. Bk. II. Pt. i. Quart, quartus, remains in ' fihwrt-quarte! So late as the seventeenth century, La Fontaine wrote ' Un quart voleur survint,' where quart represents the modern quatrieme. Quint, quintus. ' Charles- (3«/«/,' for 'Charles le cinquieme' ; _ 'Xdiquinte musicale' ; and the word quiti tessef ice {qvdnt& es- sentia), formerly written 'qjn'nte-essenee,' is a term of alchemy, signifying the fifth or highest degree of essence, or of dis- tillation. St'xt, sextus. 'La st'xte musicale,' &c. Setme, s6ptimus, has disappeared altogether, giving place to septihne. So too oitave, oetavus, is lost, and hiiitihne fills its place. The word octave is modern and Italian. No7ie, nonus. In the middle ages the ordinals marked the hours : 'il est prime ^ 'il est tierce,' 'il est dime,' for one, three, ten, o'clock. Traces of this way of reckoning survive in the Breviary, in which there are different prayers marked off to be recited at prime or at none, i. e. at the first or ninth hour of the day. Dime, d^cimus. ' Le di?ne jour,' 'la dime heure,' were phrases used in the twelfth century for ' le dixihne jour,' &c. So also 'la dime des recoltes,' for 'la dixihne (partie) des rdcoltes.' Ch. 4. Sect. I. PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 109 CHAPTER IV. PRONOUNS. Before bes;inninff a detailed examination of the six classes of pronouns (i.e. the Personal, Possessive, Demonstrative, Relative, Interrogative, and Indefinite), it should be noticed that here also, as before, the Old French had a declension in two cases, distinguishing subject from object, down to the close of the thirteenth century. SECTION I. PERSONAL PRONOUNS. The Latin personal pronouns gave to Old French the following forms : — CASE. I St Pers. 2nd Pars. 3rd Pers. Sing. Subjective . Ego jc- tu til ille // ilia elle. Obj. direct . Me me te te illiun le illam In. Obj. indirect Mi vioi 1 tibi toi ilU ha. Plur. Subjective . Nos nouj vos 'VOUS illi lis. Obj. direct . N08 nouj vos vous illos Us "■ illas elles. ^ Mot, ml ; tot. tibi ; sot, sibi, were mi, ti, si in the eleventh century. To this form tlie suffix en was attached, and the possessivcs mi-en, ti-en, si-en formed. Unlike IModcrn French, the possessive pronouns in Old French were followed by the object possessed : thus they said * Ic mien frcre,' * la mienne tcrrc,' 'un tien vassal,' &c. This rule died out in tlie lourtcentli century; but some relics of it remain in the following expres- sions : ' un mien cousin,' ' Ic tien propre,' ' une sienne tante,' etc. ' IllOB is al.so the parent ui eux, which was ils in the thirteenth century, and earlier still was ils. I lO DECLENSIONS. Bk. II. Pt. i. Down to the end of the thirteenth century the declension in two cases was carefully followed : Je, ego ; /u, tu ; t7, ille, expressed the subject only ; jfie, me ; /e, te ; k, ilium, the direct object; mot, mihi, ml; M, tibi; hii, illi, the indirect object. Modern French, by a strange mistake, says, ' moi qui lis,' ' /ot qui chantes,' ' /ui qui vient,' using the object for the subject ; but Old French said, correctly, 'Je qui lis,' ego qui lego ; ' /u qui chantes,' tu qui cantas ; ' t7 qui vient,' ille qui venit, &c. It was not till the beginning of the fourteenth century that the distinction between sub- ject and object began to grow dim, and confusion arose : now we have no longer any forms peculiar to the subject, since in certain cases we express it by je, /u, ?7, in others, by 7/101, toi, lui. There is a fragment of the ancient use in the commercial phrase, '_/(?, soussigne, declare,' &c. Though the formation of the personal pronoun offers no peculiar difficulties, we will say a few words about their origin and development. 1. Je and ego, which seem so far apart, are really one and the same word. Je is jo in MSS. of the thirteenth cen- tury ^ In the tenth century it is w, and in the famous oaths of A.D. 842, we find the form eo; as ' eo salvarai cest meon fradre Karlo,'ego salvabo eccistum meum. fratrem Karolum^. Here ego has lost its g and become eo (just as ligo becomes lie; nego, nie; nigella, nielle ; gigantem, ge'ant, &c.). There are numerous examples of the change of eo into io "^ : io be- comesyc, as Divionem becomes Dijon, gobionem., goujon ^. 2. En. The Latin inde obtained, in common Latin, the sense of ex illo, ab illo ; as in Plautus, Amphytr. i. i, we have ' Cadus erat vini ; inde implevi Cirneam.' In Low Latin this use of inde became very common, and ' In Villehardouin, for example. "^ See above, p. 66. ' See above, p. 65. Ch. 4. Sect. -'. POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 1 1 1 examples are plentiful in MSS. of the ^Merovingian period : ■ Si potis inde manducare,' = ' si tu jjcux en manger,' occurs in a formula of the seventh century : ' Ut mater nostra ecclesia Viennensis inde nostra haeres liat ' (in a diploma of A.D. 543), &c. Inde then became /«/ in very early French (as is found in the oath of a.d. 842) : in the tenth century it is «•«/', in the twelfth e/i. 3. J 'was in Old French /, originally I'v", which is simply the Latin ibi, a word ol'ien used in common Latin for illi, illis : • Dono ibi terram ' ; ' tradimus ibi tc rram ' (in a chartulary of a.d. 5583). The change of 6 into v {tv from ibi) is common enough ; it occurs in coiiver from cubare, Hire from libra or liber, yt'zv from faba, &c. SECTION IL POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. In the Old French declension these were as follows : — Singular. Subjective meus, wis ; mea, ma. Objective meum, mon; meam, via. Plural. Subjective mei, vii ; meae, me. Objective meos, mcs ; meas, mes^. In the fourteenth century this declension faded out (for reasons explained elsewhere), and the subjects mis, meus ; ' This form ent is retained in th? word souvent, derived from the Latin subinde. ' In the oaihs of a.d. 842, 'in nulla adjiidlia contra Lodliuwig nun li i-v cr;' that is to say in llie Latin ol the day, 'in niillani adjutam contra Ludovicum non illi ibi em.' ' The same formula holds ^'ood for ton, it/, trs, and for ion, ja, ifi. I^ur, which comes from illorum, was in c3 O o a •H o o d I o o <: o I— > o o CO o c c/> O) ts^ O ^ *U Pi O c» -^ ^ O Q Z H H Pi PU u 05 K N a CO '*s» O ^ ^ O «! -M +3 2 Pi b c M a) © ® ^0) ■ I I I I a CO .CO .•».» W1 (/I c^ C/1 Co r T , '-0 1 .'^ 1 o c4 I o W .CO .■*^ 'o 'S S ■ s a: d d.2^ c3 c8 Co ^c3 ^ c3 ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ VQ) viD *.(D QJ (1) MD "o ,0) o a d 03 c3 ^cS ^ c3 fi fi Xi ^Xi fi vc3 '■d ^ w cd ^rf 8 W) V. - . ^ .■^ s 1 J 1 1 1 u i ■ 2 .a 1 1 %1 1 W3 s O 1 T V 1 W3 1 3 1 1 on K a a: 3 2 *» SB © A ri ■«-* »1 »3 n B CO lO X ^1^ X s g el m m OO M X 09 O a n •iH 'i-l a> ni? > > > > > > > > > f» > u o 1 0> • 0) • o 1 0) 1 ? ■ 1 o • ® ■ ? I 4) 1 ■ 1 1 1 0) 1 1 1 1 «s If K? 1 ->5 MS r 1 1 O 1 .to .1 ■ T a w > § > H o z B M • o a V, u o D H U U u > •< « ■ (o • > H S .V. i u ■< Oh © - S ■ ^. ,>• & V. •5? 1 .to 2 ■a ♦J* to N '5 to to •2 -52 ' 00 a 43 s ori « a .2 -^ a .^ y © ID (C SB - tr ^ d 71 CO M m CO 05 ■S 00 y) w 1 V© ^ ^ i-» ** J> t> ^ C* c: (S c3 rt c3 t> > > > ^ > ' ' 1 • A • • • 1 • 1 1 1 1 1 ■ 1 1 1 • I 5 *^ O ■S « ^ r • 1 r rt t 1 r Y V t •2 1 .a 1 1 c . o ( 1 Y !? X K ■*:* a 05 *. a tQ 4j .^^ 3 a> 0) © SD -o ® a > 3 s tn to in 05 CO > > X a ■> w » 4-* a Bl m n « 05 n 1) »4 © 05 c3 > > t* &• > > t» ",' y Y 1 (2 * eS 1 1 o 1 ® 1 • « • cS ( c8 eS • 1 iis, misi ; pris, pr6ndi ; plus, placvii ; tus, tacui ; ris, risi ; lis, 16gi ; cms, eredidi. CHAPTER V. DEFECTIVE AND ANOMALOUS VERBS. Defective verbs are those which, like faillir, are deficient in some tenses, moods, or persons. Anomalous verbs are those whose irregularities forbid them to be arranged under any class. These are the true ' irregular verbs.' « SECTION I. DEFFXTIVE VERBS. Two in the first conjugation — ester and tisser ; six in the second— /ail lir, fe'rir, issir, otu'r, (jn/rir, ^hir ; thirteen in The accent on the verbs placere, ticere, ridere, came at last to override the force of tht- long penulliiiiate. See above, p. 133. 144 CONJUGATION. Bk. H. Pt. 2. the third — hraire, /rire, tislre, clore, soudre, sourdre, traire, paitre, soidoir,falloir^ chaloir, choir, seoir'^. 1. Ester. Used in the infinitive only in certain judicial formulae, as ^ ester en jugement' (to bring an action, to institute a suit) ; ' La femme ne peut ester en jugement sans I'autorisation de son mari^.' This verb, which comes from the Latin stare (see above, p. 125), remains still in the compounds contr aster, eontra-stare ; r ester, re -stare ; arreter (O. Fr. arrester), ad-re-stare ; and in the participles constant, eon-stare ; distant, di-stare ; instant, in-stare ; non-ob-stant, ob-stare. The past participle este', status, has been bor- rowed by the verb etre, and contracted into ///. See above, p. 126. 2. Tisser and tisire. These two verbs come from the Latin texere. The strong form, tistre, t6xere, which is the Old French one, has disappeared, leaving only its participle tissu (which comes from tistre, just as rendu from rendre). The weak form tisser (which comes, as it were, from texere) violates the law of Latin accent, and is a modern word : it has prevailed over the other though it has adopted its strong past participle. 3. Faillir. The persons of the singular je faux,' tu faux, il faut, have almost fallen into disuse, and we may regret the fact. They remain in the phrases, ' le coeur me faut' ; ' au bout de I'aune faut le drap,' i. e. ' the cloth fails at the end of the ell ' =■ ' all things come to an end.' The future and conditional faudrai, faudrais, are also being forgotten, and have been almost entirely replaced by the compounds faillir-ai, faillir-ais. Listead of 'je ne ' These verbs, which are now defective, had in Old French all their tenses and persons ; and consequently they have no real right to form a separate class. It is in fact a historical accident, which may affect verbs of any conjugation. 2 Code Napoleon, Art. 215. Ch. 5- Sect. r. DEFECTIVE VERBS. 145 fijudrai ^omi )l mon devoir,' people now begin to say, ' je ne faillirai point.' 4. Fe'rir. From the Latin ferire. It survives in the phrase ' sans coupy^'r/r' — ' D'Harcourt prit Turin sans coup fe'rir! In Old French this verb was conjugated throughout, and was. in the indicative present, je/rr<7/; participles, oyanl, audi6ntein ; ou'i\ auditus. The Old French future orra, now lost, was still in use in the seventeenth century : Malherbe wrote — ' Et le peuple lasse des fureurs de la guerre, Si ce n'est pour danser, n'orra plus de tambours.' Later still, the imperfect ojais is playfully employed by J. J. Rousseau in an epigram: — ' Par passe-temps un cardinal ojait Lire les vers de Psyche, comedie, It les oyant, plcurait ct larmoyait.* The past participle survives in law terms ^: ' Oui'e la lecture de I'arret,' i. e. ' the reading of the judgment having been heard.' ' This word remains in a few heraldic legends. The house of Solar had as its motto, ' Tc\ fieri, qui ne tuc pa*-.' ' [So the Norman- French yrz survives in the English crier's ' O yes, O yes! ' and in the law phrase ' o^rr et terminer.*] 146 CONJUGATION. Bk. 11. Pt. 2. 7. Que'rir. As to this word, of which the compounds are acquerir, reque'rir, and conquerir, see above, p. 140. The strong conjugation had querre as the infinitive (as may be seen as late as La Fontaine) : present indie, quiers, qiie'rons ; fut. querrai ; pret. quis ; p. p. quis {requis, conquis, &c.). 8. Ge'sir, gisir. From the Latin jacere. The present part, of gisir survives, gisant. It has a derivative also, ge'sine : ' La laie dtait en gesine ^.' 9. Br aire. Only used (according to the French Aca- demy) in the infinitive and in the 3rd persons of the present indie, brait, braieni ; of the future, braira, brairont ; and of the conditional, brairail, brairaient. But M. Littrd shews clearly that this verdict of the Academy is too severe, and he proposes to employ all the forms of this verb which existed in Old French (il brayait, il a brait, &c.). Braire, from the Low Latin bragii-e, a word whose derivation is obscure, bore in Old French the general sense of ' to cry out,' and was applied to man as well as to animals. It is only in later days that it has been limited to the braying of the ass ^. 10. Fr ire. From the Latin frigere. This verb still keeps all its tenses {fris, frirai, frit, &c.) except the imperfect friais, the participle y>-/<3«/, subjunctive yr/>, and the three persons plural of the present 'm.d\C2i\}ive,/rions, friez, frient (as rire makes rions, riez, rient). All these forms are to be found in Old French. 11. Clore. From the Latin elaudere : O. Fr. dor re retains the d in the first r (for the change from dr to rr, see above, p. 74). CIos, clorai, and in Old French closais, closant. Its compounds are e'clore (O. Fr. esclore, Latin ex-elaudere), en- clore (in-claudere), and the O. Yr./ors-clore (foris- elaudere). The form cludere in ex-cludere, eon-cludere, re-eludere. ^ La Fontaine, Fables, iii. 6. ^ This is also true of the English verb ' to bray,' which is still used of the trumpet as well as of the ass. Ch. 5. Sect. I. DEFECTIVE VERBS. I47 has produced the French forms, exdure, conclure, reclure, of which the past participle, reclus, recluse, still survives. 1 2. Soudre (O. Fr. soldre, Latin solvere) ; like moudre, from molere. The past participle was sous. The compounds ahsoudre, absolvere ; dissoudre, dissolvere ; rhoudre, resol- vere, also form their past participles in the same way, absous, dissous : re'sous has gi\'en way to re'solu, though it remains in ' brouillard re'sous en pluie,' ' fog turned into rain.' 13. Sourdre. From the Latin surgere. The strong par- ticiple source (as we have seen on p. 141) has survived as a substantive, and has a compound, ressource. 14. Traire. From the Latin trahere. In Old French thi^ word had the same sense as the Latin verb ; and it is only lately that it has been restricted to the sense of milking. Compounds — obsirai'rc, abs-trahere; exiraire, ex-traliere ; sous fr aire, sub-traliere. In addition to these there are, ii Old French, the words par traire, pro-trahere ; retraire, re- trahere ; attrairc, at-trahere, the participles of which have given us the substantives portrait, retrait, retraite, and t'le adjective atlrayant. 15. Paitre. O. Yx.paistre, Latin pascere. The past;'ar- ticiple, pu, survives in the language of falconry, — ' un f'ucon qui a pu', and in the compound repu from repaitre. 1 6. Souloir. From the Latin solere. It had all «ts tenses in Old French ; but is now used only in the 3rd person imperfect indicative ; ' il soulait,' i. e. ' he wa^ wont. La Fontaine says in his Epitaph — ' Deux parts en fit, dont il souhiit passer L'une il dormir, ct I'autrc a ne "cn fairc.' 17. Falloir. For this word, which crAies from fallorc, and only differs Uom/,iillir in its conjugat^n, sec above, p. 144- 18. Chaloir. From the Latin cf^'ere. Now used only in the 3rd sing. pros, indie. : ' il -ic m'en ch.iut,' ' it docs not trouble me,' ' is no affair -^f mine.' Still extant in La I 2 J 48 CONJUGATION. Bk. II. Pt. 2. Fontaine, Moliere, Pascal : ' Soit de bond, soit de volee, que nous en chaul-il, pourvu que nous prenions la ville de gloire^' Voltaire, too, has 'Peu 771 en diauV, ' little care I ! ' In Old French this verb had all its tenses : chalait, chalut, chaud7-ai, chaille, chalu ^. 19. CJ1017'. O. Fr. cheoir, and in very early French chaer, caer, cade)-, Lat. cadere, wrongly accented as cadere (as we have seen above, p. 132). Scarcely used except in the in- finitive. But the Old French conjugated the whole verb {chois, che'ais, cherrai, chut, chea7it, cJm). The future, cherrat, was used in the seventeenth century : ' Tirez la chevillette, et k bobinette che7-ra^'; also the preterit chut: 'Get insolent chui du ciel en terre * ' ; also the participle chu, as in Moliere, Femmes Savantes, iv. 3 : — ' Un monde pres de nous a passe tout du long, Est chu tout a travers de notre tourbillon.' Its compounds are dechoi'7- and e'choir (de- and ex-cadere). In Old French there was also me'choi/-, mescheoir (from minus- eadere, see below, p. 180), of which the pres. part, survives in th^ adjective mecha7it (O. Fr. 77iescha7it, i7iescheant). 20. Seoir. O. Fr. seoi/', and in very early Fr. sedeir, Lat. sedei^,. Thg participles se'ant, sedentem ; si's, sue, situs, sita, are stiLin use. Compounds, asseoir, ad-sedere; I'asseoir and su7-s£0ir, la.^ a(j_^ 2aid super-sedere ; also hie7i-sea7it, mal-se'a7it. SECTION II. ANOMALOUS VERBS. We have alrearly said that the anomalous verbs are the true irregulars, as tf.ey cannot be brought under any common classification. \ They are the folio wii^ : ^ Prc-vinciales, Lettre ix. ' 2 jj. survives in non-cbalan. Perrault. 4 Bossuet, Demonstr. ii. 2. Ch. 5- Sect. 2. ANOMALOUS VERBS. 149 1. AlUr. This verb has borrowed its conjugation from three different Latin verbs: (i) ist, 2nd, and 3rd sing. pros, indie, from vadere — je z'ais, vado; tu vas, vadis ; il 7V2 (O. Fr. /■/ z'c7/'), vadit. (2) The future and conditional {j'irai, j'lrais) come from the Lat. ire, by the usual forma- tion of the future (see pp. 119, 120). (3) All other tenses {a//ais, allai, allasse, aille, (S:c.) come from the same root with the infinitive alkr. Whence then this allerl In Old French it was written akr and a7ur. Ancr leads us to the Low Lat. anare, Lat. adnare-. (The change of n into /, anare to alcr, is not uncommon, as may be seen from such forms as orphelin from orphaninus, &c. ; see above, p. 56). 2. Convojer, de'voyer, envoyer, fourvoyer. The Latin via, which has produced the French voie, formed in Low Latin a verb viare, whence O. Fr. viier-, antique form of the modern voyiv, preserved in the compounds given above. Cotivoyer, con-viare, to escort, travel with any one. A merchant-ship is still said to be ' convoye par deux vaisscaux de guerre.' Devoyer, O. Fr. desviier, Lat. de-ex-viare. It has another form in de'vicr. Envoyer, O. Fr. entveier, comes from inde- viare. Fuurvoyer, O. Fr. /orviitr, from foris-viare, to go out of the way '. ' The / of this form luit is etymologically valuable. ^ Adnare and enare, which rightly mean 'to go by water,' soon came \.u express the action of coining ant! going in anyway : whether by flying, as in Virgil (/ten. vi. r6), ' Daedalus . . . gclidas enavit ad Arctos;' or by walking, as in Silius Itaiicus, 'Enavi- mu8 has vallcs.' It is curious that this transition from sea to land has also befallen the verb arrher. The Low Lat. adripare signified originally 'to reach the shore,' of a traveller on board ship; thence it has got the wider meaning of 'attaining to any end in view' i)i arri'vhig. [By a reverse process the wayfaring viaggio, T'fyv/^^, o( Ita!v and France, has in the hands of the sea- faring Knglish been limited to the paths of the ocean.) ' It must he a typographical error that makes ]\I. Littr^- derive Hei'ier from deviare, and eni'oyer from inviare. lie knows better than any one else the Old Vr{:nc\i ionws desiuer, cnt-voyer, which preclude such derivations. 150 CONJUGATION. Bk. II. Pt. 2. 3. Be'nir. As dieere has become dire, benedieere became henedt'r, or bene'ir. This, the Old French form, which shews the continuance of the tonic accent, disappears by contrac- tion, and is replaced by the modern benir. The pretended difference set up by French grammarians between benite and be'nie is illusory, and has no foundation in the history of the language. Participles ending in -it (as be'nii,finit, r^ussii) dropped the / in the fourteenth century, and became betii, fini, reussi. The form benit survives in the phrases ' pain be'nil, eau benite' 4. Coiirir. For this verb see above, p. 140. 5. Mourir. From the Low Lat. morire, a late active form of the deponent verb mori. See above, p. 119. 6. Vivre. From the Lat. vivere. The perf. ve'cus (0. Fr. vescus, vesqui), is ' singularly anomalous. 7. Boire. O. Fr. boivre, Lat. bibere. 8. Voir. O. Fr. ve'oir, Lat. videre. The Old French form displays the force of the Latin accent, and the loss of the medial consonant d. Li eleventh-century texts the form vedeir is met with. In Old French the future was voir-ai ; and this, which is a better form than verrai, is preserved in the compounds pour- voirai, pr^-voirai, &c. It would seem, at first sight, that vis, vidisti ; vimes, vidimus ; vites, vidistis ; visse, vidissem, violate the law of the force of the Latin accent; but this is not so, as is shewn by the Old French forms veis, vidisti ; ve'ifJies, vidimus ; ve'istes, vidistis ; ve'isse, vidissem, &c. The same is true of ti7is, tenuisti ; vitis, venisti ; titmse, vinnse ; which are all not exceptions to the law of accent, but cori- tractions from Old French regular forms, tern's, tenuisti; vem's, venisti ; te/iisse, tenuissem ; venisse, venissem. 9. Mouvoir. The Lat. mov6re produced at first the form mover (still in use in central France), for which mouvoir was afterwards substituted. Ch. 5. Sect. 2. ANOMALOUS VERBS. 151 10. Savoi'r. O. Fr. savtr, Lat. sapere. This earlier form savir gave the future siwer-ai\ which, afterwards contracted into savrai, became satirat in the fourteenth century, just as habere produced aver-ai, avrai, aurai. 11. Valoir. From the Lat. valere. The pres. part, z'az'/- lani survives as an adjective. 12. £cn're. The O. Fr. escrivre, preser\-ed the final b of the Lat. scribere. All the anomalous forms, such as ecrivons, scribemus ; t'cn'vai's, 8crib6bam, are etymologically correct, and come from the corresponding Latin forms. Its com- pounds are d/crire, circonscri're, prescrire, proscrire, souscrire, transcrire. 13. Natlre. The common Latin converted all deponents into active verbs, as we have seen (p. 119). Thus nasci became nascere, whence natlre, like pailre from paseere. The barbarous perfect nascivi produced the O. Fr. iiasqtii, now naquis. 14. Verbs ending in -tiire^. Diiire, dueere (in its com- pounds conduire, deduire, reduire, indm're, traduire, produire, introduire) ; ciiire, coquere ; miire, nocere ; luirc, liicere, and the compounds of strutre, struere ; consfruire, vislruire, ditruire, destruere. 15. Verbs ending in -ndre. These verbs, whose d does not belong to the Latin root ^ as ceindre, cingere, drop the d in the indie, pres. [cehis, cci'ni, cei'guotis, Sec), and have a strong past part, ainl, cinctus, which retains the Latin t. On this model are conjugated the following: dkindre, ex- stinguero ; itreindre, stringere ; contraindre, constringere ; astraindre, astringere ; rcstrcindre, restringore ; fcindrc, ' All these verbs have .1 weak perfect, which hinders us from placing them urulL-r the irrcKu'ar verbs. ''■ Thus the d of rmdre (r6ddore) belongs to the Latin ; that of ce'mdn- (cingerej docs not. 153 CONJUGATION. fingere ; enfreindre, infringere ; peindre, pingere ; plaindre, plaxigere ; ieindre, tingere ; atteindre, attingere ; joindre, jungere, with its compound ; oindre, ungere ; poindre, pirn- gere ; e'preindre, exprimere ; empreindre, imprimere ; geindre, gemere. PART III. PARTICLES. Under this head wc will consider the four classes of in- variable words which have been handed down to us by the Latins : Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, Interjections. Before we go through them, two remarkable facts must be noted: (i) the addition of i- to the termination of most of the invariable words, which had no such final letter in Latin — as tandis, tarn diu ; jadis, jam diu ; sans, sine ; ctrks, certe, &c., and the O. Fr. oticqiics, unquam; sanpres, semper ; and (2) the suppression of the final e in the two substantives casa, chez, and hora, or, whose proper French forms would have been chhe and ore, just as rosa has pro- duced rose. Let us add that with the exception of two adverbs, gueres and irop, which come from the German, all French particles are of Latin origin. CHAPTER I. ADVERBS. The Latin suffixes, -e, -ter, which marked the adverb (docte, prudenter, &c.), disappeared because they were not accented ; and, in order to produce a class of words which should bear the grammatical mark of the adverb, the French language adopted other suffixes. It took for this purpose the substantive mens, which under ihe Empire had come to mean 'manner,' 'fa.shion,' &c.,as in Quinclilian, 'bonamente factum'; in Claudian, 'devota mente tuenlur ' ; in Gregory of Tours, ' iniqua mcnto concupiscit,' &c. This ablative 154 PARTICLES. Bk. II. Pt. 3. mente, joined with the ablative feminine of the adjective, produced the French adverbial ending -ment : bona, cara, devota, mente ; bonne-, chere-, devote-, ment. But those Latin adjectives which had different termina- tions for masculine and feminine (as bonus, bona) had also two in French (bon, bonne) ; while those Latin words which had but one termination for these genders, had also only one in Old French : thus grandis, legalis, prudens, regalis, viridis, fortis, &c., became in French grand, loyal, prudent, royal, vert, fort, &c., which adjectives are invariable in Old French. Consequently, in the case we are studying, adverbs formed by means of the former class (such as bon, bonne) always retained the e of the feminine in their root (bonne- ment, cherement, devotement), while those formed with the latter class [grand, royal, &c.) never had e in the radical ; and accordingly, in the thirteenth century, these adverbs were loyal-ment, gr a7id- ment, for t-ment, &c. But in the four- teenth century people, no longer understanding the origin of this distinction, and not seeing why, in certain adverbs, the adjective was feminine, while in others it seemed to be masculine, inserted the e, loyal-e-ment, vil-e-ment, &c. — bar- barisms opposed both to the history of the words, and to the logical development of the language. SECTION I. ADVERBS OF PLACE. Ou, Lat. ubi, O. Fr. u. AiUeiirs, aliorsum. Ca, ecce hac, and la, iliac (already treated of on p. 113); their com- pounds are de fa, de la. Ici, ecce hie (see p. 113). Partout, per totum; dont, de unde (see p. 114) ; loin, longe ; dans, O. Fr. deris. In Old French intus became ens, and de-intus, dei7is or dens, — compound, de-dans ; en, O. Fr. ent, inde (see above, p. no). Ch. I. Sect. 2. ADVERBS. 1 55 Ceans, O. Fr. cauns, or ca-ens, i. e. ecce-hac-intus. The O. Fr. leans or laicns, illac-intus, was the corresponding adverb. Aknlour, O. Fr. a Fcnlour, whence its etj-mology is clear enough. Amonl, ad montem, i.e. 'up stream'; its opposite is aval, ad vallem, ' down stream.' The verb avakr used originally to mean ' to descend ' ; only in later times has it been limited to its present sense of swallow- ing down food. A trace of the original meaning survives in Modern French in the phrase, ' les bateaux avalcnt le fleuve.' For the adverbs avanl, da'ant, derrihe, dessus, dessous, dehors, see below, pp. 163, 164. To these simple adverbs must be added adverbial expres- sions like nul/e part, la-haul, la-das, en dedans, jusqtcc-la, &c., which are compounded of simple adverbs : and finally there is the adverb eniiron, compounded of f« and the O. Fr. viron, a substantive derived from vircr (' to veer ' or ' turn round ') ; environ is therefore literally the same with alenlour. This old word is still to be seen in the substantive aviron, i. e. ' the instrument with which one turns or veers about.' SECTION II. ADVERBS OF TIME. A pr/senl, ad praesentem. Or, hora (for the suppres- sion of /i, see p. 81). AfainlcTianl in OKI French meant 'in- stantly ' (' manu tenente rem '). Ilui, hodie, which lingers in the legal ' d'hui en un an.' Aujourd'hui, Old French, more correctly written aujour d'hui, is a pleonasm, for it signifies literally ' on the day of this day.' Hier, hori. Jadis, jamdiu. F'ois, O. Yx./ds, /is, ves, from Latin vice (for the change of V inloy, see p. 59). Its compounds are, autre-, par-, quclque-, touti-, fois. Nagueres, O. Fr. na guercs, is a compound of avoir and gueres, which originally meant ' much ' : ' je I'ai vu 156 PARTICLES. Bk. II. Pt. 3. n'a gubres,' i.e. 'I have seen him no long time ago.' In Old French the verb was not invariable ; in the twelfth century there were such phrases as 'la ville ^tait assi^g^e, n avail gueres, quand elle se rendit/ i. e. ' the town had not long been besieged before it surrendered.' Remark too that the Old French has n'a guere, n'avait giiere, where Modern French would have riy a gueres, 7iy avail gueres : the Old French not saying il y a, but il a (illud habet), according to the rule of the objective case (see above, p. 89). Thus, 'il a un roi qui . . .' (illud liabet regem), ' il n'avait aucuns arbres dans ce pays ' (illud non habebat aliquas arbores). Roi, arbres, are here in the objective case ; in Old French the subjective would have been rois (rex), &c. From the thir- teenth century onwards thej' appears in this phrase. But the old form il a is still to be met with in the seventeenth century, in what is commonly called the Marotic style : Racine writes — 'Entre Leclerc et son ami Coras N'a pas longtemps, s'emurent grands debats.' (For the etymology of gueres see below, p. 160.) Quand, quando. Demai?i, de mane. The Latin mane gives the French substantive 7nai}t : ' II joue du main au soir' i. e. ' from morn to eve.' De mane formed the adverb demain, which meant originally ' early in the morning.' Tot, O. Fr. tost. The origin of this word is obscure. By combining it with the adverbs aussi, bien, plus, lant, have been formed the compounds aussi-lot, bien-lot, plus-lot, tant- tot. Longtemps (from long and temps, Lat. longum tempus). Toujours, in Old French always written tous jours, simply a shortened form of the phrase tous les jours. There was formerly an Old French adverb sempres formed from the Latin semper, which disappeared in the fifteenth century. Encore, in Old French anc ore, from the Latin hane horara, Ch. 1, Sect. 2. ADVERBS. l57 • at this hour.' Tliis was the first moaning of the word, as is seen in the following passage : ' J'ai vu Paris, et j'y retournerai encore, quand je reviendrai en France,' i. e. ' a/ the hour in which I return to France.' De'sormais, O. Fr. des ore mais (see under the prepositions, below, p. 164, for the origin of the word des). Ore is simply hora, and mais from magis, signifies ' further,' ' more ' ( = davanfagc). Thus then des ore mais signifies, word for word, ' from this hour forwards,' or, ' from the present hour to one later,' i. e. ' dating from this present hour.' Dor/navatif, O. Fr. d'ore en avant, from this present time onwards, starting from this present hour'. Jamais. Ja and mais ; ja from jam, ' from this mo- ment,' as we have seen on p. 152, and mais from magis, ' more.' These two words could be separated in Old French ; as, '/() no le ferai viais,' i. e. ' from this moment I will never do it again.' Souvenl, Latin subinde, which had the same sense in the common Latin. For the change of inde into ent, see above, p. I I o. Tandis, tam diu, formerly signified ' during this time.' In the thirteenth century men said, ' Le chasseur s'apprctc a tirer, bande son arc ; mais la corde se rompt, el taridis, le licvre s'enfuit.' As late as Corneillc we have — 'Et tand'u, il m'envoie Faire ofTicc vers vous dc doulcur ct do joie.' Vaugelas and Voltaire, ignorant of the historic authority for this phrase, have blamed it as incorrect. It is quite right. Lars, O. Fr. I'ore, ilia hora, 'at this hour'; its compound is alors, O. Ir. (/ I'ore. ' It may be seen hence how frequently the F.atin hora (under the forms ore, or) occurs in French adverbial phrabcs : or, lors {I'ore), dciormuis, dorenuvantf encore, &t. 158 PARTICLES. Bk. II. Ft. 3, Puis, depuis : see under the prepositions, p. 164. Ensuite, en and suite. Eitfin, en zxv^fijt. Done, tunc. Auparavant, from au and par -av ant. The article an was added in the fifteenth century. Old French Vl's.q^ par-avant : 'Je ne voulus point 6tre ingrat,' says Froissart, 'quand je consid^rai la bontd qu'il me montra par-avant! Deja, de and jam. Tard, tarde. Soudain, O. Fr. soubdain, Lat. subitaneus. Under adverbs of time may also be classed a great variety of adverbial phrases, like tout a coup, d'ordinaire, de bonne heure, T autre jour, &c. SECTION III. ADVERBS OF MANNER. As to the formation of these adverbs, which for the most part end in -ment, see above, p. 154. To this division may be attached a whole class of ad- jectives, like vrai, bon, fort, juste, which do the work of adverbs (as in ' sentir bon^ ' courir /ort,' ' dire ztrai,' ' voir juste,' &c.), and answer to the neuter adjectives of the Latin (as multum, breve, &c.). We need make no remark on this class beyond saying that they were far more numerous in Old French than now : thus, in the thirteenth century men said ' aller lent,' ' agir hid,' ' aimer grafid,' ' faire seul,' Sec, instead of ' aller lentement' ' agir laidement', ' aimer grande- ment,' ' faire seulement', &c. SECTION IV. ADVERBS OF INTENSITY. These are twenty-five in number. Si, sic. Its compounds are — aussi, O. Fr. alsi, Lat. aliud Ch. I. Sect. 4. ADVERBS. 159 sic ; iiifisi, O. Fr. asi, Lat. lioc sic, or perliaps in sic ; see Brachet, Etymological Dictionary, s. v. (Ji'/isi. Assez, adsatis, signified originally 'much,' 'very much,' and was put after the substantive. In every page of the ' Chanson de Roland,' we find such phrases as ' Je vous donnerai or et argaii asscz,' i. e. ' plenty of gold and silver' ; Irop asstz, ' much too much ' ; plus assez, ' much more.' &c. So too the Italian assai is used; presto assai (prestus adsatis), ' very quick indeed ' (but not = assez vite). Tant, tantum. Its compounds are, auiant (O. Fr. al-lanl), aliud tantum ; alant, ad tantum (this word, signifying ■ then,' occurs as late as La Fontaine) ; parlajit, per tan- tum = ' consequently ' (or ' by so much '). So La Fontaine writes — 'Les tourterelles se fuyaient Plus d'aniour, partant plus de joie.' Pourtani, pour and tant. This word, now a synonym with ne'anmoi'ns, ' notwithstanding,' signified in Old French ' pour cctte cause,' ' for this reason.' Montaigne speaks of a soldier who gave no quarter to his foe, and adds, ' Pour tant il ne combattoit que d'une masse,' meaning, ^/or this reason he only foucrht armed with a mace.' Ensemble. O. Fr. ensemle, Lat. in-simul. For the change of ml into nibl, see above, p. 73. Pi's, pejus. Mieux. O. Fr. ynelz, mielz ; Lat. m61ius. Peu from paucum, as Eu from Aucum ; feu from focum ; jiu from jocum. Tclkmait, telle and ment. For telle, see p. 117, and for vicnt, p. 153. Deaucoup, beau and coup. This word is relatively speak- ing new, for it can be traced back only as far as to the four- teenth century. (Jratul coup was a more common phrase ; but alxjvc all the adverb moult, multum, was employed. l6o PARTICLES. Bk. II. Pt. 3. Coiip, O. Fr. colp, is colpus, which is met with in common Latin in the same sense : ' Si quis alterum voluerit occidere, et eolpus praeter fallierit, et ei fuerit adprobatum, 2000 dinarios . . . culpabilis indicetur ^' Colpus was also written eolphus, and is the Lat. colaphus, a box on the ear, blow, slap ; Gr. /cdXa^os. For the change from colaphus to eol- phus, eolpus, see p. 35. Moi7is, minus. Plus, plus. Bten, bene. Afal, male ; whence malse'ant, mal-veiUant, &c. Conihie7i, coimne hieit. Comme, com in Old French, is quo- modo. Comment, from comme, quomodo, with the suffix -ment already treated of. Davantage. O. Fr. d'avantage ; de has here the sense of 'from'; and avantage is from ab-ante,with termination -agium. Guh-e, O. Fr. gaires, which means ' much.' In Provengal this word is spelt gaigre, and comes from the O. H. Germ. weigaro, which is in M. H. Germ, wetger"^. This etymology is sound in its foundations. The German w passes into the French g, as in werra, guerre, Sec, and the Provencal gaigre keeps the medial g of weiger. Trop. Low Lat. troppus, from the O. H. Germ, drupo. Presque. Pres, and que. SECTION V. ADVERBS OF AFFIRMATION AND NEGATION. These are six in number. Oui, O. Fr, oil. In Old French the Latin pronoun hoc became 0, the k disappearing as in orge, hordeum ; or, hora ; avoir, habere, &c. In the thirteenth century ' dire ni ni ^ Salic Laiv, xviii. i. ^ As in the word univeiger ( = not much). Ch. I. Sect. 5. ADVERBS. l6l non' was used to express ' neither yes nor no.' The Latin compound of afllrmation hoc-illud became o-Zi, the medial c disappearing, as it did from plicare, plier ; joc&re, jouer, &c. To this oi'/, or hoc-illud, correspondetl the Old French Jien-i7, lunn-U, or non-illud, which became in Modern French nenni\ just as oil has become «//'. Non^ Lat. non. Ne, O. Fr. ncn, Lat. non. Before going on to the prepositions we must take notice of a number of adverbial phrases which express negation -. To strengthen the expression of our judgments we are wont to join with them an illustration or comparison (thus we say ' as poor as Job,' ' as strong as a lion,' &c.), or an expres- sion of value (as ' not worth a farthing.') So did the Latins: they would say a thing was not wordi an as, a feather, a speck in the bean, hilum. Hence ne hilum, and nihil. 'Nil igitur mors est, ad nos neque pcrtinet hilum!! (Lucr. iii. 483.) There are six similar adverbial phrases to express a negative in French : 1 . Pas, Lat. passus : ' ne point faire un/><2J,' ' je ne vais pas! 2. Point, Lat. punctum: ' Je m \d\% point! ' Some old-fashioned etymologists have tried to derive out Irom the verb oiiir (audire), past part, out; but they have not •^cen, on the one side, that this past participle was always, in the middle ages, olt (auditus); and, on the other side, that ',ui was r!il. To change / into / would have been a thing unheard of in the history of the language : and we may say at once that any derivation which pays no attention to the letters which are retained, changed, or thrown out, nnist be rejected. \nd, besides, the analogy between oil (hoc-illud) and mtin-il non-illud) would by itself alone prove the tiutli of the deriva- :,()M we have advanced— a derivation justified also by the strict rule of permutation of letters. - Sec Schwcighauser, l)c la nc^at'ton duns Us luriguis runianes, and Chcvallct, iii. 330-340. M l62 PARTICLES. Bk. II. Pt. ^1 o- 3. Mie, Lat. mica (which signified a speck or grain). It became mie just as urtica became or tie ; vesica, vessie ; pica; pie, &c. Mie was used as a negation up to the end of the sixteenth century, as ' Je ne le vois mie ' ; and the Latin mica was used in the same way. So INIartial (vii. 25) writes, ' Nullaque mica salis.* 4. Goutie, Lat. gutta : also used negatively in Latin, as in Plautus : ' Quoi neque parata gutta certi consilii.' This phrase, which formerly was in general use (so ' ne craindre goutie' ' «' aimer goutte,' &c.) has been restricted since the seventeenth century to the two verbs voir and entendre : ' 71 y voir goutte,' ' riy entendre goutte! 5. Personne, Lat. persona, with 7ie takes the sense of ' no one.' 6. Rien, Lat. rem, was a substantive in Old French, with its original signification of 'thing'; so 'la riens que j'ai vue est fort belle,' and ' une tres-belle riens! Joined with a nega- tive, it signifies ' no-thing,' just as ne . . . personne signifies ' no one,' ' Je ne fais rien^ ' I am doing no-thing.' This usage of rien is very proper, and it only abandoned its natural sense of ' thing ' (as in the phrase ' on m'a donn^ cela pour rien ') to take that of ' nothing,' after having been long used with ne to form a negative expression. This history of the word rien explains that passage of Moliere in which it is both negative and affirmative (Ecole des Femmes, ii. 2) : ' Dans le siecle ou nous sommes On ne donne rieti pour rien' Finally, we may observe generally that at first these ad- verbial phrases pas, mie, goutte, point, &c., were used in a substantival sense, i.e. they were always used in comparison, and had a proper value of their own : ' Je «^ marche pas^ ' I do not move a step ' ; ' Je «(? vois point', ' I do not see a Ch. .'. Sect. 2. PREPOSITIONS. ' 1 63 III'/'; ' Je m- mange r/it'e,' 'I do not eat a scrap'; ' Je tie bois goutk,' ' I do not drink a drop ' ; &c., &c. CHAPTER II. PREPOSITIONS. The Latin jjrcpositions have, for the most part, survived in French : though ab, cis, ex, erga, ob, prae, propter, and some others of less importance, have perished. Such new prepositions as have been formed by the French tongue are either (i) compounds of simple prepositions, as aivers, in- versus ; mcotitre, in-eontra ; dans, de-intus, &c. ; or (2) substantives, as chez, casa; or (3) present participles (or gerunds), as dura til, petidotit, tnnyctitiant, nonobsiatit, &c. SECTION I. PREPOSITIONS DRAWN FROM THE LATIN. These are ten in number : (i) A, ad: (2) cntrc, int^r; (3) cotitre, contra; {4) en, in, whence ai-droii, en-vers, en-conire, &c. ; (5) ou'.re, ultra ; (d) far, per; {"i) pour, O. Fr. par, Lat. pro (for this trans- position see above, p. 77); (8) satis, sine; (9) vers, ver- sus; (10) sur, O. Fr. sour, I>at. super; this form sour .survives in sour-cil, supercilium. SECTION II. PREPOSITIONS FORMED FROM MORE THAN ONE LATIN PREPOSITION. These are four in number : I. AvattI, ab-ante. Abante is not rare in inscriptions'. For the change of b into 7f sec above, j). Oo. ' Wc- have a curious illustration of the use of this form in the old Roman grammarian I'lacidus. He strongly objects to this M 2 164 PARTICLES. Bk. II. Pt. 3. 2. Devant, O. Fr. davayii, compounded of de and avant, which is the Lat. ab-ante. 3. Puis, post, has for its compounds de-puis, and puine; the latter in O. Fr. was puis-ne, from the Lat. post-natus \ 4. Vers, versus, has for a compound en-vers. SECTION III. PREPOSITIONS FORMED FROM LATIN PREPOSITIONS COMBINED WITH ADVERBS, PRONOUNS, OR ADJECTIVES. 1. Dans, O. Fr. dens. Lat. intus, which made e7ts in Old French, became de-intus in composition, whence O. Fr. dens, now dans. 2. Derriere. Retro, O. Fr. ri'ere (as in riWe-fief, &c.), became in composition arriere and derriere (ad-retro and de-retro). 3. Sus, Lat. susum, often used for sursum, and found in Plautus, Cato, Tertullian, &c. Thus Augustine writes, ' Jusum vis facere Deum, et te susum,' ' you wish to de- press God, and exalt yourself.' De-svisum produced dessus. The simple sus survives in such phrases as ' courir sus^ ' en sus,' &c. 4. Dessous, \. e. de and sous ; sous comes from the Lat. subtus. 5. Dega, dela, from de ga and de la. 6. Parmi, O. Fr. par-mi, from par, per, and mi, medium. 7. Selon, O. Fr. sullonc, selonc, Lat. sublongum. 8. Des, Lat. de-ex. vulgar word, and warns his hearers against it — * Ante me fugit dicimus, non Ab-ante me fugit ; nam praepositio praepositioni adjungitur imprudenter: quia ante et ab sunt duae praeposi- tiones.' {Glossae, in Mai, ill. 431.) ^ [Gp. aine, from ante-natus.] Ch. 2. Sect. ;, PREPOSITIONS. 165 SECTION IV. PREPOSITIONS WHICH ARE REALLY PARTICIPLES. Of these the chief are durant, pendant, siiivant, iouchaut, mmobstani, joignant, moyennani, &c. In Old French the participle was often put before the noun to which it was related, in phrases in which it answered to the ablative absolute of the Latins ; as in the passages ' L'esclave fut jetd au feu, voyant k roi,' ' in the king's pre- sence,' vidente rege ; ' Un des parties vient de mourir pendant le proces' re i)endente'. After the sixteenth cen- tury these inversions were no longer understood, and the French Academy, ignorant of the history of the language, treated these participles as prepositions. 1. Durant, from durer. The French Academy decreed that 'sa vie durant' was an inversion of the proper order of words ; wrongly, for ' durant sa vie ' is the real inversion. 2. Mqyennant, pres. part, of the old verb moyenner, ' to give means to one': ' il dchappa moyennant voire aide/ i.e. 'your help giving him the means of doing so.' 3. Nonobstant, non obstante ; i. e. ' nothing hindering.' 4. Pendant, ixom pendre: '/»<.'«ourqitoi\ 'why.' In the thiricenlh century men said 'Je ne sais ni ear ni comment,' ' I kntjw neither why nor how.' l68 PARTICLES. Bk. II. Pt. 3. 2. Comme, O. Fr. cu7ne, Lat. quomodo. 3. Done, Lat. tunc. 4. Et^ Lat. et. 5. Ou, O. Fr. 0, Lat. aut. For the change of au into o see p. 51. 6. Qua fid, Lat. quando. 7. (2?/(?, O. Fr. qued, Lat. quod. 8. Mais, Lat. magis : it formerly bore the sense of plus, ' more' — a sense retained in the phrase ' je n'en peux mais' ' I can do no more,' and in the old adverb desormais, see p. 157- 9. AY, O. Fr. ne, Lat. nee. In Moliere even we find ' ne plus,' ' ne moins.' 10. Or, Lat. hora, signified ' now ' in Old French. ' Oi\ dites-moi,' &c., ' now, tell me.' 11. Si, Lat. si. Compound si-non. In Old French the two particles were separable : ' Je verrai, si lui-meme non, au moins son frere.' SECTION II. COMPOUND CONJUNCTIONS. These are ten in number : 1. Ainsi, O. Fr. asi. Origin unknown. [Perhaps from in-sic ; see Brachet, Etymological Dictionary, s. v.] 2. Aussi, O. Fr. alsi, Lat. aliud sic. 3. Cependant, from ce and pendant, literally ^pendant celce : 'Nous nous amusons, et ce pendant \a. nuit vient.' 4. Eficore, O. Fr. ancore, Lat. hanc lioram (Ital. anc-ord). See p. 156. 5. Lorsque ; lors and que. For lors, see p. 157. This word may still be broken up, as ' lors meme que! 6. Ne'anmoins, O. Fr. neant-moins, from ne'ant and moins. Ne'ant, Lat. nec-entem,* literally = ' nothing.' Thus used by La Fontaine : — Ch. 4- lyTERJECTIOyS. 1 69 ' Car j'ai maints chapitres vus Qui pour fieant se sont tenus.' Xean-moins, is equivalent to • ne pas moins,' ' none the less': ' II est fort jeune, et ue'amnoins s^rieux/ i. e. ' none the less for that.' 7. Plufdl, from//// J and idt. See p. 156. 8. Puisque ; puis and que. See p. 164. 9. Quoique ; quoi ^i-nd. que. Seep. 114. 1 o. Touie/ois, Lat. totam vicem. See p. 59. SECTION III. CON'JUNCTrVAL PHRASES. These are formed by the help of (i) adverbs — taudis^ alors, siiSt, aussilot, ianl, bien, eticore, ofi?i, followed by the conjunction que ; (2) prepositions — saris, des, jusqua ce, apres, avant, also all followed by que. The etymology of these words will be found in their proper places above. CHAPTER IV. INTERJECTIONS. If we set aside such exclamations -as paix ! courage ! &c., which are elliptical propositions (/ai/es) paix ! {ayez) courage 1 &c., rather than interjections properly so called, there will remain but little to be said on this subject : for real interjections are fundamentally common to the speech of all nations (as oh ! ah ! &c.). Two alone, he'las and dame, have (as far as form goes) a real philological interest. ///las, written in Old French ///.' las ! is composed of the interjection he ! and the adjective las, laasua ( = unhappy). In the thirleeiuh century we have ' Cette mere est lassc de la mort dc son fils.' ' lie ! las ! que je suis ! ' ' ah ! sad that I am !' = woe is me ! In the fifteenth century the two words 170 PARTICLES. were joined together in the inseparable he'Ias ! At the same time las lost all its primitive significance, and passed from the sense of sorrow to that of fatigue, as has also happened in the cases of g^ne and ennui, which at first meant ' vexation ' and ' hatred.* Dame ! Lat. Domine-Deus, or Domne-Deus, became in Old French Dame-Dieu, a phrase to be found perpetually in medieval MSS. : ' Dame-Dieu nous aide.' Da?ne-Dieu, first used as a subjective case, came afterwards to be used as an interjection, and was eventually shortened into Dame by itself. BOOK III. ox THE FORMATION OF WORDS.' By the word ' affixes ' we mean whatever parts of words are added to the root with a view to the modification of its meaning. Thus, given the root 'form/ we produce from it the words ' in-form-ation,' ' re-form-ation,' &c., where />/-, re-, -Hon are afiixes (' affixa' fixed to a root). We call them prefixes if they are put before the root {re- in the word ' reform ') ; suffixes if they follow after it {-lion in the word ' reformation '). Prefixes, when joined to roots, form compound words ; suffixes form derivatives. We will take these in order; in other words, we will first review all prefixes, and then all suffixes. 173 COMPOUND WORDS. Bk. III. CHAPTER I. COMPOUND, WORDS. We must distinguish between the composition (i) of nouns, (2) of adjectives, (3) of verbs, (4) of particles, the most numerous and most important of all. And we must also consider the prefixes from two points — that of their origin, and that of their form. 1. As to their origin. They may be either Latin in origin, as re-nier, de-lier, from re-negare, de-ligare ; or French in origin, that is to say, created on the model of Latin prefixes, as in the case of re-change, but having no corresponding word from which they come. 2. As to form. Here it is especially necessary (as also in the study of derivatives) to distinguish clearly between the two classes of words which make up the French lan- guage (see above. Introduction, II, i-iv) ; namely, such compounds as sour-cil (super-eilium.), or sur-venh- (super- venire), which have been formed by the people ; and on the other hand, such as sup^r-iorite\ or super -fe'tatmi, which have been constructed by the learned. SECTION L OF THE ACCENT ON COMPOUNDS. In the case of nouns, adjectives, and verbs, the compound word is accented in the ordinary way, as or-fevre (auri- faber), aub-^pme (alba-spina), viam-tenir (manu-tenere), because these words are so closely attached to one another that they have entirely lost their separate existence. In treating of the composition of particles (such as the de-, re-, in deputare, reputare, de'puter, re'puler) it is needful, if we would explain the part played by the Latin accent, to distinguish between Latin compounds which have come down Ch. I. Sect. I. ACCENTUATION OF COMPOUNDS. 173 into French, and compounds constructed by the French themselves. § I . Lalin Compoutids which have come down mto French. ' In the case of most words borrowed from the Latin, their primitive condition as compounds has been lest sight of, and the French language has treated them as simple words. The result has been that, as the accent often lay on the determining or emphatic particle, the word which followed it has been destroyed or so contracted as to become utterly indistinguishable, while the particle itself has lost its original sense : so sarcophagus came to O. Fr. sarqueu, Fr. cercueil ; trifoliiun, became Ircjlc ; coUoco, couche ; consuo, couds. But, in many words, the French language has wished to express both the force of the determining particle, and also that of the word following it. To accomplish this, in the case of words which would naturally (through the position of the accent) have lost their form, like those we have just • mentioned, the accent was thrown forward a syllable, and the word following the determining syllable received it, just as if it had never been a compound at all : thus 6-levo became e-16vo, whence eleve ; r6-nego, re-n6go, Fr. renic ; com-pater, com-pater, Yv. compere, &c. This shifting of the accent, arising from the importance in sense of the latter part of these compounds, took place no doubt in the time of the ' Rustic Latin,' and before the formation of French. It was a good plan for bringing out the force of simple words, which had almost perished when in composition ; for words regularly formed did not retain a single trace of them '.' § 2. Compounds cons true kd by the French language. ' It was natural that in these cases the second method ■ G. Paris, Accent latin, p. 82. 174 COMPOUND WORDS. Bk. III. of accentuation alone should be employed : no one thought of throwing back on the determining (or emphatic) particle the accent belonging to the word joined to it, in those cases in which it certainly would have been thrown back had the words been combined in the Latin. These compound words were then formed either by uniting particles of Latin origin to words to which they had never been joined in Latin ; or by prefixing to Latin or French words Latin or French par- ticles which had not been used in composition in Latin : as archi-ditc, vi-cofnte (vice-comes) ; eti (from inde), as en- leve, en-fuis, en-voie, &c. ; sous (from subtus) as sou-leve, sous-irais'^,' &c. SECTION IL WORDS COMPOUNDED OF NOUNS. Of compounds formed by means of nouns there are three classes : — I. The combination of two substantives ; IL Of a substantive with an adjective ; III, Of a subsftintive with a verb. I. Of two substantives : such are — oripeaii, auri-pellem ; or/evre, auri-faber; oriflamme, auri-flamma; ustifruil, usus- fructus ; bette-rave, betta-rapa ; pier re-ponce, petra-pumex ; comi^table, comes stabuli ; salpeire, sal petrae ; ban-lieu, bannilocus ; ?7iappemonde, mappa m.iindi. So the names of days are formed : Lmidi, lunae-dies ; Mardi, Martis-dies, &c. So also proper names : as Port- Vendres, Portus-Veneris ; Dampierre, Dominus Petrus ; Abbeville, Abbatis-villa ; Chdtelherault, Castellum Eraldi ; Finisterre, Finis-terrae ; iJ/o^/w/ar/r^, Mons-Martyrum ; Fontevrault,'EointevQ. Evraldi. II. Compounded of a substantive and an adjective. i. Substantive first : banque-route, banca-rupta "^ ; courte- ^ G. Paris, Accent lathi, p. 83. "^ For this word see above, p. 141. Ch. I. Sect. 3. XOUyS, ADJECTIVES. 175 /)(V«/c% culcita-puncta ; raifort, radix-fortis ; 7'vujigre, vinum- acre ; rosmoritt, ros-marinus ; republique, res-publica. We may liere add the compound embonpoint {en-bon-poini), to which the Old French had a corresponding eywialpoint ; and also certain proper names, as Roquefort and Rochcfort, Eocca-fortis ; Chdleaii-Roiix, Forcalquier, Forum ealea- rium ; ]', aijr being dissyllables, and ending with a consonant, could not have come from hora. 176 COMPOUND WORDS. Bk. III. 11. Of an adjective with a verb. The Latin -fieare be- comes -fier in French, and enters into numerous compounds, some direct from the Latin, hke puri-ficare, purifier ; others, created on the same plan, but without Latin cor- respondents, ra?mfier, ratifier, bonifier, &c. SECTION IV. WORDS COMPOUNDED OF VERBS. I. Of two verbs, or two verbal roots : chauffer, cale- ficare ; lique'fier, lique-ficare ; siupefier, stupe-ficare, &c. II. Of an adjective with a verb. See above. Sect. Ill, ii. III. Of a verb and a noun. Add to the ejqamples given above (Sect. II, III), edifier, aedi-fieare ; pacifier, paei- fieare ; versifier, versi-ficare, &c. SECTION V. WORDS MADE FROM PHRASES. In those compound words which are really phrases, the accent lies on the last syllable (though they often have a half-accent, which is commonly neglected) : vaurien (vaui- rien),faine'a7it (^/ait-ne'ani), couvre-cluf, va-et-vient, hochequeue, licou (Jie-coii), iourne-sol, vol-au-vent, passe-avant, &c. The word be'gueule (O. Fr. b/e-gueule) is formed from be'c, ' open,' past participle of the old verb be'er or bayer (which survives in the phrase, ' bayer aux corneilles '), and gtieule, gula. Be'gueule thus signifies ' one who keeps his mouth open ' — a mark of wonder and folly. The word bie is still used for the sluice of a water-mill. SECTION VI. WORDS COMPOUNDED WITH PARTICLES. These will be taken in the following order: — i. Preposi- tional particles ; 2. Qualitative; 3. Quantitative; 4. Negative. Ch. I. Sect. 6. PARTICLES. 1 77 § I. Prtpositional Particles. These are thirty in number : 1. Ab. Fr. a, av. This particle, which carries with it the notion of movement away, furnishes very many compounds : avanl, ab-ante ; avortcr, ab-ortare* \ &c. 2. Ad, Fr. a. In Latin ad gives to the root the sense of drawing together, and thence of augmentation : avertir, ad-vertere ; arriver, ad-ripare", &c. New compounds are : achci'tr (from a chef, i. e. = a bout, ' to the end.' In Old French the phrase ran ' venir a chef = ' venir h bout '), accoucher, abaisser, ave'rer, affui (from a and fut, Latin fustis), appal, affaire (a/aire), &c, 3. Ante, Fr. ans, ains. The Latin ante-natus became ains-ne' in the French of the twelfth century, ais-?te' in the fifteenth. aine"\n the seventeenth. The corresponding word is post-natua, O. Fr. puis-tie', now puifip. The compound ab-ante, Fr. avant, is used as prefix to very many words ; as arant-bras, avant-sce/ie, avant-garde, &c. See above, p. 163. 4. 'AvTi, Fr. anti. This prefix, which must not be con- founded with ante, indicates opposition*, as antipode, anti- pathic, antichrist. 5. Cam, Fr. co, com, con. Cailler (O. Fr. coailiier), coagu- lare (^sce al)Ove, p. 71); couvrir, co-operire ; correspondre, con-respondere. New compounds are complot, compagnon, ' Learned words are ab-juration, ab-ject, ab-latif, &c. ' Learned words arc ad-juJication, aJ->uiuistreition, ad-orer, &C. ' Learned words are untt-J'ilui'ien, anli-dnttr, {inti-cipcr, &C. * We pass by the modern prelixes of technical words derived from (jreek, such as ana-, avd, as in ana-lugie ; epi-, «V(, as in epi-graphie , /jyprr-, vnt'i), as in hyper-trop}}ie. Tlieir ctymoioj,'y offers no diflTu iiltics or [)eculiarities. 'AitI stantis in the text (although it has no rijjht tliere, being solely a learned jjrelix), that there may be no confusion between it and ante. N 178 COMPOUND WORDS. Bk. III. (from cum and panis, ' who eats bread with one'). The Low Latin word was, in the nominative, companio, whence O. Fr- compain ; and in the accusative, companionem ; whence 3Fr. compagnon. 6. Contra, Fr. cofttre. Conireseing, contra-signum ; conire- poids, contre-faire, contre-bande, conlrole - co7itre-r6le \ 7. De, Fr. de, de. Dechoir, declarer, demander, devenir, de'gre', de'Iaisser, dessiner, &c. 8. Dis, di, Fr. de\ de's. Deluge, diluvium ; de'pendre, dis- pendere ; de'plaire, displaeere ^. New compounds are de's-agre'ahle, de's-honneur , &c. 9. E, ex, Fr. e, es. Essoufler, ex-sufflare; essuyer, ex- succare ; essaim, ex-amen ^, &c. New compounds are effacer, ibahir, e'chapper. Sec. 10. Poris, foras, Fr. /or, four. For/ait, foris-factum ; fourvoyer, foris-viare. Foris having produced hors, foris- missimi became hormis {hors-mis). See above, p. 66. 11. In, Fr. en, cm. Ensemble (O. Fr. ensemle), in- simul ; enfler, in-flare ; encourir, in-eurrere ; emplir, im- plere ; empreindre, ini-prim.ere. New compounds are ett- gager, enrichir, embusquer, empirer^, &c. 12. Inde, Fr. en, em. Envoy er (O. Fr. entiwyer), inde-viare. For the change from inde to cnt, see above, p. III. 13. Inter, Fr. enire. Entre-voir, entresol, entre-iien'^, &c. 14. Per, Fr. par. Par/ail, perfectus; parvenir, per- venire; parmi, per-medium. New compounds are par- fumer , pardonner , &c. The Latins used the particle per to mark the highest ' Learned words are contra-dkiion, &c. ^ Learned words are dis-certier, dis-credit, &c. ^ Learned words are ex-cursion, ex-tcnuer, &c. * Learned words are in-cursion, in-time, &c. * Learned words are inter-preter, inter-uenir, Sec. Ch. I. Sect. 6. PARTICLES. 1 79 degree of intensity : per-horridus, per-gratus, per-gracilis, &c. So in French, par-achevcr, par-faire \ &c. 15. Post, Fr. puis. Puinc (O. Fr. puis-7ie), post- natus. (See above, No. 3, Ante.) Such words zs posi-dakr, post-hiaiu\ &c.. are modern. 16. Prae, Fr. pre. Pre'cher, praedicare ; prevoir, pre- server, pre'tendre, &c. 17. Pro, Vr. por, pour. Pour-suivre, pour-chasser, por- trait, pro-tractus. 18. He. Fr. re\ re, r. Reduirc, re-ducere ; re'pondre, re- i ueilUr, re-colligere, &c. New compounds are rebuter {I'ut), rc/iaussir [/laut), rajeunir (^jeutie), renverser {envers), de-re-chef, &c. 19. Retro, 1-r. riere. In Old French retro made riere (Uke petra, pierre) ; this form remains in arriere, ad-retro, a prefix found in such compounds as arrtere-bafi, arriere- boutique, arriere-neveu, &c. [So too derriere, de-retro.] Ritro- ditif, retro-cession, &c., are modern words. 20. Se, Fr. se'. Se'duire, seducere ; se'vrer, separare, &c. 2 I . Sub, Fr. se, su, sou, sous. Sour ire, sub-ridere ; se- lourir, suc-currere ; souvenir, sub- venire. New compound, sejourner (jour). 22. Subtus, Vr. sou, sous. Sous-traire, subtus-trahere ; sous-entindu, subtus-intendere. New compounds are sous- diacre, sous-lieutenant, souterrain. 23. Super, Fr. sur, sour. Surrrfiir, super-venire; sourcil, Buper-ciliiun ; surnomnur, super-nominare. New com- pounds arc sur-saut, sur-humain, sur-face, sur-tout. The words soubre-saut '-. Buper-saltum ; and subr^-cargue, ' In Old French this particle was separable. Thus par sage ( «= trcs sage) niiglit he written in two parts, as ' tant par est sa[^e ' ( --'tant il csl par jai^e'). Similarly uin: may still say ' C'tst fuir tropy&r/.' ■^ Our 'summerset.' N 2 l8o COMPOUND WORDS. Bk. III. super-oarrica (the proper French forms are sursau/, and surcharge), are of Spanish origin. 24. Trans, Fr. /r/, /ra. Traverser, tranBvers&re ; /radm're, trans-dueere, &c. New compounds are irepas, trans- passus ; iressaillir, trans-salire^, &c. 25. Ultra, Fr. outre. Outre-passer, outre-cuidance, outre- mer, &c. Such words as ulira-montain, Sec, are modern. 26. Vice, Fr. vi. Vicomte, vice-comitem ; vidame, vice- dominus. Modern words are vice-roi, vice-consul, &c. § 2. Qualitative Particles. These are four in number : 1. Bene, Fr. bieri. Bieyi-fait, bene-factum ; bien-heureux, hien-venu, &c. 2. Male, Fr. mal, 7nau. Mal-mener, male-minare ; mal- Iraiter, male-tractare ; man-dire, male-dicere; maussade, male-sapidus- ; malade, male-aptus (see above, p. 76); malsaijt, male-sanus. 3. Minus, Fr. mes, me. Me'dire, mefaire, me'prendre, mefier, me'sestimer^ , &c. 4. Magis, Fr. viais. From this word the conjunction viais is derived, though the French plus has taken the proper sense of the Latin magis : the old use remains in the one phrase, ' n'en pouvoir mais' 1 Modern words : trans-cription, trans- fort, &c. ^ Sapidus, O. Fr. sade ; whence male-sapidus, maussade. ^ This prefix mes, me, docs not come from tlie German miss, as has been thought, but from the Latin minus— an etymology confirmed by the old form of the French prefix, as well as by its form in the other Romance languages. Thus the Latin minus- pretiare becomes menos-preciar in Spanish, menos-prezar in Portuguese, mens-prezar in Proven9al, and mes-priser or me-priser in French. Ch. i. SUFFIXES OR TERMINATIONS. l8l § 3. Quautilatire Par licks. 1. Bis, Fr. be, bi. Be'vue, of which the proper sense is = doublevue. Learned words, compounded with bis, keep the Latin form. So bisaiil, bis-coctus ; bis-aienl, bis-aviolus ; bis-coniu. bis-comu, &c. 2. Medius. Fr. mi. Jfi-di. media-die ; mi-nuit, media- nocte ; rui-lieu, medio-loco ; mi-Janvier, vii-careme, &c. From dimidivini we get demi ; so parmi, per medium. § 4. Negative Par licks. 1. Non, Fr. noti. Non-pareil, non-chaloir (of which the present participle, nonchalant, exists — a compound oi chaloir, which has been discussed above, p. 147). 2. In, Fr. en. En-/ant, in-fantem. The learned form is in : in-utik, in-de'cis. CHAPTER II. ON SUFFIXES OR TERMINATIONS. Suffixes, like prefixes, ought to be considered in their origin and ihc'n/orm. 1. As to their origin. They may be either (i) of Latin origin, as prem-ier from prim-arius ; (2) of French origin, that is, built on the lines of the Latin suffixes (as ejicr-ier from French encre), but having no corresponding Latin words. 2. As to form. We must carefully distinguish between suffixes formed by the learned, and those formed by the people: between such th^ prim -aire, s/cul-aire, scol-aire, which are of the former kind, and such as prem-kr, prim-arius ; se'cul-ier, saecul-aris ; e'col-icr, schol-aris, which are of the latter description. 1 82 DERIVED WORDS. Bk, III. SECTION I. OF THE ACCENTUATION OF DERIVED WORDS. Latin suffixes may be classed under two heads : the accentuated, as mort-alis, hum-anus, vulg-aris, &c. ; and the unaccented or atonies, as as-inus, port-icus, mob-iKs. The accented Latin suffixes are retained in the French, as mort-el, hum-ain, vulg-aire. These suffixes (if. reg- ime, rog-imon ; cr-imr, cr-imen ; -umen into -u»ie ; hit-ume, bit-umen ; lei^-ume, leg-umen ; if, schol-aris ; secul-aire,^St&(Svl- aris; calc-aire, calc-ariiun. Ch. 2. Sect 2. NOMIXAL SUFFIXES. 185 voc-atuB ; duch-e, duc-atus ; /~'trh-e, episcop-atus ; che- Tauch-e\\ caballic-ata ; aim-ec, am-ata, &c. Certain derivatives in -ade, as esirap-ade, cavalc-ade, esir- ade, estac-ade, &c., come from the Italian. The French form is naturally -ef, as is seen in cavalcade and chevauch-^e ; estrade and esir-e'e, strata ; escapade (It. scappala), and e'chapp-/e\ At-icus is a suffix formed with icus (see p. 1S9), Fr. age. Voy-age (O. Fr. vial-ge), vi-aticum ; from-age, form-aticum ; vol-agt\ vol-aticum^ ; ombr-age, umbr-aticum ; ram-age, ram.- aticum ; wwj-a'^^, miss-aticum. ; sauv-age , mlv -oXicixxs,^ . Hence come French derivatives : mesur-age, labour-age, alli-age, arros-age, &c. It has been said that these words come from a Low Latin suffix in -agium (as message from mess-agiiun, hom-age from hom-agium). But though mess- agium certainly exists, it is far from being the parent of the Fr. message; on the contrary, it is nothing but the French word latinised by the clergy, at a time when no one knew either the origin of the word (missaticum) or the nature of the suffix which formed it. Aster, Fr. aire. This suffix, which gives to the root the sense of depreciation, has produced numerous French de- rivatives unknown to the Latin, as bell-dlre, douce-dtre, gentil- dlre, opini-dlre, mar-dire, par-d/re, &c. Acem, Fr. ai. Vr-ai, ver-acem ; fii-ais, nid-acem, ;norance of the laws of the formation of the French lan>,'ua>;e could have ever a. lowed ])e()i)ie to derive saui'dge from solivagus. Th.s word could only have produced in French the form sculigc. 1 86 DERIVED WORDS. Bk. III. Ela, Fr. elle. Chand-elle, cand-ela ; quer-elle, quer-§la ; iut-elle, tut-61a, &c. Elis, Fr, el, al. Cru-el, crud-61is ; fe-al, fid-61is. EUus, Fr. el, eau. Jiim-eau, gera-ellus ; b-eau, b-611us, &c. Ensis, Fr. ois, ais, is. Such Latin derivatives as for-6nsis, hort-§nsis, nemor- ensis, have given no words to the French, which has used this termination only for words of modern formation, such as couri-ois, bourg-eois, harn-ois, marqu-is, &c. ; or for proper names, as OrUan-ais, Aureliau-6nsis, Carthagin-ois, Carthagin.i-6nsis, &c. Ecem, from ex, Fr. is. Breb-is, verv-^eem. leem, Fr. is, ix, isse. Perdr-ix, perd-icem ; ge'n-isse, jun-icem. Estus, Fr. e/e. Honn-ete, hon-6stus, &c. Ista, Fr. iste. A suffix very common in French : drogu- iste, e'ben-iste, &c. Ema, Fr. erne. Cit-erne, cist-6rna ; lant-erne, lant-6ma ; tav-erne, tab-§rna. Etum, Fr. ay, aie. Derivatives with this termination in Latin indicated a place or district planted with trees. Though masc. in Latin, they became fem. in French : aun- aie, aln-6tum. ; orm-aie, ulm.-6tiim ; sauss-aie, salic-etum. Hence such proper names as Chaien-ay, Casten-etum ; Rouvr-ay, Robor-etum ; Auhi-ay, Aln-6tuin, &c. French derivatives are chen-aie {chme) ; houss-aie {houx) ; chdiaigner- aie, (chdtaignier) ; roser-aie {rosier), &c. Ills, Fr. il. Puer-il, gent-il, &c. The suffix -ills is joined only to nouns and adverbs ; ills only to verbs. Ignus, Fr. in, ain. Ben-in, ben-ignus ; vial-in, mal-ignus ; de'd-ain, disd-ignum*, &c. Inus, Fr. in. Dev-in, div-inus ; pe'ler-iii, peregr-inus ; vois-in, vic-inus, &c. French derivatives are mai-in, bad-in, cristall-ifi. Ch. 2. Sect. 2. NOMINAL SUFFIXES. 187 lolus, eolus, compound suffixes (for olus, see p. iQo). which were dissyllabic (io, eo) in Latin, were contracted into a long penultimate in the seventh century, io, eo, thence- fonvards accented iolus, eolus, whence came the French terminations u-ul, em'l, iol, ol : thus Ji/l-iul, fil-iolus ; chevr-euil, capr-eoluB ; Unc-eul, lint-eolum ; gla-'feul, gladiolus ; rosstg- nol, luscin-ioluB ; a'ieul, av-iolus. Issa, Fr. esse. Abb-esse, abbat-issa ; prophe't-esse, prophet- issa : venger-esse, traitr-esse, &c. Itia, Fr, esse. Jtisl-esse, just-itia ; moll-esse, moll-itia ; par-esse, pigr-itia ; tn'sl-esse, trist-itia. French derivatives : IV r -esse, polii-esse, iendr-esse. Ivus, Fr. if. Chet-if, capt-ivus ; na-if, nat-ivus. French derivatives are many, pens-if, hdi-i/, craini-if, ois-if, &c. Lentus, Fr. lent, lanl. Vio-leni, vio-l^ntus ; sang-lant, &c. Mentum, Fr. me?it. Veie-nie7it, vesti-m^ntum ; fro-rnent, fru-m6ntuin, &c. ? rcnch derivatives : me'nage-mcnt, change- ment, &c. Orem, Fr. eiir. Chanl-eur, cant-orem ; sauv-eur, salvat- orem ; su-eur, sud-orem ; pasi-eur, past-orem ; pe'ch-eur, peccat-orem, &c. Osus, I"'r. eux. Epin-eux, spin-osus ; picrr-eux, petr- OBUB ; envi-eux, invidi-osus, &c. French derivatives, heur- eux (O. Fr. heur, see p. 175), hid-eux, honl-eux, &c. Onem, Fr. oti. Charb-on, carbonem ; pa-on, pav-onera • larr-07!, latr-onem, &c. lonem, Fr. o?i. Soup(-on, Buspic-ioneru ; pi'ge-OTi, pipi- onem ; poiss-on, L. T^at. pisc-ionem ; vioiss-on, messi-onein ; mais-on, mana-ionem, &c. Tionem, I'"r. sun. Rai-son, ra-tionom ; poi-son, po-tio- nem ; venai-son, vena-tionom ; liai-son, liga-tionem ; sai- son, sa-tionem ; fa-fon, fac-tionem ; li--<;nn, lec-tionem, &c. The f(jrm -lion is of learned orijjin, as in llic weirds ra-li'on, po-lioti, liga-tion, faction, &c. l88 DERIVED WORDS. Bk. III. Tatem, Fr. //. Ci-te, ci-tatem ^ ; sure-ii, securi-tdtem ; pauvre-ie, pauper-tatem ; &c. French derivatives : nouveau-te\ opiniatre-te, &c. leus, Fr. i ; ica, Fr. ie. Am-i, am-icus ; ennem-t, inim- fcus ; fourm-i, form-icus* ; ort-ie, urt-ica ; vess-ie, ves-ica ; vi-ie, m-ica ; p-t'e, p-ica. The learned form is ique : ant-ique, piid-ique, &c. Ucd, Fr. ue. Verr-ue, verr-iica ; lail-ue, lact-uca ; charr-ue, carr-uea ; fel-u, fest-iica. Orius, Fr. oir. Dorl-otr, dormit-oriuin ; press-oir, press- orium ; dol-oire, dolat-orium, &c. French derivatives : parl- oi?-, abbatt-oir, bruniss-oir , mdch-ot're, balang-oire. Undus, Fr. ond. Rotid (O. Fr. roond), rot-undus. UnuB, Fr. un. Je-un (O. Fr. Jeiln), jej-iinus ; Verd-un, Virod-unum. Ura, Fr. we. Mes-ure, mens-ura ; pei'nt-ure, pict-ura, French derivatives : froid-ure, verd-ure, &c. Umus, Fr. our. F-our, f-umus; J- oiir, di-urnus ; aub- onr, alb-umum, &c. Utus, Fr. «. C(?r«-?/, eom-utus ; ^^«-«, can-utus. French derivatives in abundance : barb-u, Jouffl-u, ventr-u, memh'-u, chevel-u, &c. § 2. Suffixes which are Atonic in Latin. 'All these suffixes disappear in the French, and are consequently useless for the purpose of producing new deri- vatives ; they have however recovered their place from the time that men utterly lost sight of the genius of the language, and became ignorant of the rule of accent^.' Thus people began to use such words as portique, fragile, rigide, instead oi porche,/rele, roide, from porticus, fr^gilis, rigidus. ' Common Latin for civi tatem. '^ G. Paris, Accejit latin, p. 92. Ch. 2. Sect. 2. NOMINAL SUFFIXES. 1 89 In considering these Latin atonic suffixes we are bound strictly to reject every word that has been introduced into the French language since the period of its natural forma- tion. Eu3, ius, Fr. ^e, che. Elran-ge, extran-eus ; Itnt-ge, lan-eus ; delu-ge, diluv-ium ; lin-ge, lin-eus ; pro-che, prop- iu8 ; sa-ge, sap-ius ; sin-ge, sim-ius ; or-ge, hord-eum ; rou-ge, rub-eu8 ; au-ge, alv-ea ; son-ge, somn-ium ; Lie-ge, lieod-ium ; Maubeu-ge, Malbod-ium ; cier-ge, cer-eus ^ I' or the change of eus, ius, into ^^, che, see above, p. 66. Ea, Fr. ge, gne. Ca-ge, cav-ea ; gran-gc, gran-ea ; vt-gtie, vin-ea ; ie-gne, lin-ea ; tei-gtie, tin-ea. For the change of ea into ge, see above, p. 66. la, Fr. ge, che, ce ; or it disappears altogether. Vendan-ge, vind6m-ia ; angois-se. angust-ia ; cigo-gnc, cicon-ia ; ^i-ge, tib-ia ; se-che. sep-ia ; sau-ge, salv-ia ; env-ie, invid-ia ; grd-ce, grat-ia ; hisloi-re, histor-ia ; Bourgo-gne, Bur- gund-ia; France, Pranc-ia; Gre-ce, Gra6c-ia ; Brela-gne, Britann-ial For the change of ia into ^.f, see above, p. 65. Icem (from ex, ix),Fr. ce,se,ge: hcr-se,'h6Yi)-iceva. ; pit-ce, piil icem ; ju-ge, jud-icem ; pou-ce, poU-icem ; pon-ce, piim- icem ; e'cor-ce, cort-icem^. IcuB, a, urn, 1-r. che,ge. Por-che, port-icus ; man-che, m4n-ica ; ser-gc, ser-ica ; diman-che, domin-ica ; Sainlon-ge, Santon-ica ; /(?r-^<: (C). Yr. faur-ge), fabr-ica (see p. 76); per -che, p6rt-ica ; pie-ge, p6d-icaV ' Learned form e, as i^n-e, ig^-eus. '■' Learned lorm/r, as chim-ie, philojoph-ie,symphon-ie, j-liutniJ-if. But we nuist not confound tliis termination with the proper French derivatives in />, ds felon -ir i felon), tioniper-'u {tromper), &.C., which arc popular and very numerous. ' Learned form ice: frt/-/>c, cdl-icom. * Learned form irjue : port-ique, i)ort-icU8; fair-ique, fdbr-ica; iHat-ique, vidt-icuni. i90 DERIVED WORDS. Bk. III. Idus disappears in French. Pdk, pall-idus ; nef, nit- idus ; chaud, cal-idus (Low Lat. eal-dus) ; iiede, tep-idus ; roide, rig-idus ; sade, sap-idus ; whence viaussade, male sap-idus^ See p. i8o. Ills, Fr. le. Humb-le, hum-ilis; faib-le (O. Fr. floible), fl^b-ilis ; doiiil-le, duet-ilis ; meub-le, mob-ilis ; frele, frag- ilis ; gre-le, grac-ilis ^. Inus disappears in French. Page, pagina ; jaiine, galb- inus ; femrne, fem-ina ; frene, frax-inus ; dame, dom-ina ; charnie, earp-inus ; coffre, coph-inus ^. Itus, ita, Fr. te. Ven-ie, vendita; ren-te, r^ddita; det-te, d6b-ita ; per-ie, p6rd-ita ; que-te, qua6s-ita (so accented for quaesita in vulgar Latin). . Olus, Fr. le. Diab-le, diab-olus ; apolre (O. Fr. aposl-le), apost-olus. Ulus, Fr. le. Tah-le, tab-ula ; fah-le, fab-vila ; anib-le, amb-vda ; peup-le, p6p-xilus ; hieb-le, 6b-ultini ; seil-le, sit- ula ; sa7tg-le, cing-ulum ; ong-le, ung-ula ; chapii-re, eapit- ulum ; 7ner-le, m^r-ula ; e'ping-le, spin-vda ; ejisoup-le, in- sub-ulum*. The following suffixes are formed from ulus : — 1 . Ac-ulus, Fr. ail. Gouvern-ail, gubern-aculiim ; ten- aille, ten-aculum ; soupir-ail, suspir-aoulum. French deri- vatives : trav-ail,ferm-ail, e'ventai'l, &c. 2. Ee-ulus, Fr. ?7. Goiip-il, vulp-6cula. In Old French this word meant a fox, and survives still in the diminutive goupillon, a sprinkler, originally made of a fox's tail. 3. Ic-ulus, Fr. eil. Ab-eille, ap-icula ; ort-eil (O. Fr, ^ Learned form ide : rig-ide, rig-idus ; sap-ide, sd,p-idus ; ar- ide, ^r-idus; &c. ^ Learned form He : mob-He, mob-ilis ; duct-He, duet-ilis ; fragile, fragilis ; &c. ' Learned form ine : machine, mdchina, &c. * Learned form ule : cell-ule, cell-ula ; calcul, calc-ulus ; fun- amb-ule, funam.b-ulus. Ch. 2. Sect. 3. VERBAL SUFFIXES. I9I arl-til), art-iculum ; somm-ei/, somn-iculus* ; sol-eil, sol- iculus* ; or-eillc, aur-icula ; corn-cillc, corn icula ; ou-aille, ov-icula ; Vtrm-etl, verm-iculus ; aig-ui'lle, ac-icula. 4. tJc-ulus. Fr. ouil. Fen-ouil, fen-iculum ; gren-ouille, ran-ucula ; verr-ou (O. Fr. vcrr-ouil, surviving in verrouiller), ver-iiculvim ; gen-ou (O. Fr. gen-ouil, surviving in agenouiller), gen-uculum. We have seen above (p. 69) that vowels which follow the tonic syllable disappear in French ; consequently the learned forms of atonic suflixes, such ^% fragile, viobik, &c., from frag-ilis, mob-ilia, &c., are incorrect, seeing that they all retain the vowels after the tonic syllable, and in fact displace the Latin accent. One may indeed lay it down as a general rule that, in the case of Latin atonic suffixes, all French words of learned origin break the law of Latin accentuation. SECTION III. VERBAL SUFFIXES. § I . Suffixes accented i}i Latin. Asco, I'r. iiis ; esco, Fr. ois ; isco, Fr. is. A^-ais, n-asco ' ; pais, p-aaco ; far-ais, par-esco ; cr-ois, cr-esco, &c. Ascere, Fr. aitre, O. Fr. aistre. N-aitre, n-ascere ; p-aitre, p-aacere. Ico, igo, Fr. /(-. /,-/,, 1-igo; chdt-ie, cfiBt-igo ; n-ie, n-ego, &c. Hlo, It. t'li. Chatic-ele, gromm-ele, harc-cle, &c. Are, I'r. tr. Pcs-cr, pena-are ; chant-er, cant-are, &c. ' Wc have seen fp. 1 1<>; tliat all deponent verbs became active in form in tlie Lou I.atin. 193 DERIVED WORDS. Bk. III. Tiare, Fr. cer, ser. These are forms peculiar to the common Latin : ira-cer, trac-tiare ; su-cer, suc-tiare ; chas- ser, cap-tiare. § 2. Atonic suffixes. Ico, Fr. che,ge. Ju-ge, jud-ico ; md-che, naast-ico ; ven-ge^ v6nd.-ieo ; ron-ge, rum-igo ; char-ge, carr-ico, &c. The learned form is ique : revend-ique, rev6nd.-ico ; mast-ique, mast-ico. Ere, Fr. re. Sourd-re, surg-ere ; ?noud-re, mol-ere ; tord-re, torqu-ere \ ard-re, ard-ere. This Old French verb, which signified ' to burn,' remains in the participle ardent, and sub- stantive ardeur. lo disappears in French. De'pomlle, despolio. Ulo, Fr. le. Mou-le, mod-ulo ; cojnb-le, ciim-ulo ; trejnb-le, tr6m.-Tilo ; troub-le, turb-ulo. Under ulo we may put : — 1 . Ae-vilo, Fr. aille, as in tir-aille, cri-aille, &c. 2. I-culo, Fr. ilk. Fou-ille, fod-iculo ; saut-ille, tort-ille, &c. 3. U-culo, Fr. ouille. Chat-ouille, bred-oiiille, barb-ouille; &c. SECTION IV. DIMINUTIVES. These are sixteen in number. Aeeus, Fr. ace, asse. Vill-ace, grim-ace {grimer), popul-ace, paper-asse, &c. Iceus, Fr. isse, iche. Coul-isse (couler), pel-isse {peau), can-iche. Oceus, Fr. oche. Epiyi-oche, pi-oche. Uceus, Fr. uche. Pel-uche, guen-uche. Aculus. See above, p. 190. Aldus (from the Germ, wait, Low Lat. oaldus, then Ch. 2. Sect. 4. DIMINUTIVES. ^ 1 93 aldus), Fr. atid. Bad-aud, crap-aud, rouge-aud, lourd-aud, Ircr-out. Alia, Fr. ail, aillc. Bet-ail, besti-alia; poilr-ail, pector- alia ; port-ail, port-alia ; can-ailh\ mur-aiUc, bat-aille, &c. Ardus (from the Germ, hart. Low Lat. ardus), Fr. ard. Bav-ard, bdt-ard, viign-ard, can-ard. See above, p. 184. Aster, Fr. aire. See above, p. 185. At, et, ot. (i) At: aigl-at, louv-at, verr-at. (2) Et, ette : sach-et {sac), coch-d (coq), moll-et {mot), maisonn-ette, aloii-elte, for which see above, p. 5. (3) Ot, otte : billot (billr), cachot {cache), bnil-ot {hriile), il-ot {tie), &c. Elliis. illus, Fr. eau, el, elk. Agfi-eau, agn-611us ; jian-cau, gem-611u3; <7;7;;-rr7«, ann-ellus;~fV«-f//(?, scut-611a; vaiss-eau, vasc-ellus ; ois-eau. avic-6Ilus. Onem, ionem. See above, p. 187. Ulus. See above, p. 190. APPENDIX CONTAINING THE RULES WHICH MUST BE FOLLOWED IN DETECTING DERIVATIONS. Ktymology, which enquires into the origin of words, and the laws of transformation applicable to languages, is a new science. It is only during the last thirty years that it has entered into the cycle of the sciences of observation ; but the services it has rendered have won for it a rank among historical sciences, which it ought never to lose. Before attaining its present precision, etymology, like every other science, — perhaps even more than any other, — passed through a long period of infancy, groping its way with uncertain efforts ; possessing, as its stock-in-trade, only a few arbitrary resemblances, superficial analogies, and L'uesses at combinations. ' It is hard to realise to oneself how arbitrary was the spirit in which men sought for etymologies, so long as tlie method consisted in placing words together at hazard simply because they were like one another. ' The dreams of Plato in his " Cratylus," the absurd etym- ologies of Varro and (^uinctilian, the philological fancies of Manage in the seventeenth century, are matters of notoriety. Thus, for example, no one felt any difliculty in connecting jeune, " fasting," with jeuttc, " young," under the pretext that jou/^ is the morning of life, and one ia/iis/irii^^ when one rises in the morning! The common course () 2 196 APPENDIX. was to connect together two words of totally diflferent forms, and to fill up the gulf between them with fictitious intermediate words. Thus Menage derived the word rat from the Latin mus : " They doubtless first said mus, then murattis, then ratus, and lastly ra//" Nay, people even went so far as to suppose that an object could take its name from a quality the very contrary of that which it possessed, on the ground that " affirmation suggests negation ; " and thus we have the famous lucus a non lucendo, on the pretext that " in a sacred Avood one has no light ^'" In fact, the illusions of etymologists became proverbial, and this branch of historical knowledge was thoroughly dis- credited. Kow then did a science, now established and important, emerge from such a mass of learned bewilder- ment ? The clue is the discovery and application of the comparative method, the true method of natural sciences. ' Comparison is the chief instrument of scientific enquiry. For science is composed of generalisations : to know is to form a group, to establish a law ; consequently, to pick out whatever is general from among particular facts. But if we would compel facts to deliver up to us their inner meaning, we must place them side by side, explain them by one another ; in a word, compare them.' ' Every one is acquainted v/ith the discoveries of com- parative anatomy. We know how the study of the structure of animals, and the comparison of their organs (the infi- nite modifications of which form differentiae of class, order, and genus), have revealed, if we may so speak, the plan of nature, and have given us a firm foundation for our classifications ^' The same is true of the science of language : here, doubt- ^ M. R^ville, Les ancetres des europecns. ^ E. Soberer, Etudes d'histoirs et de critique. APPENDIX. 197 less, as elsewhere, comparison is as old as observation ; but there are two kinds of comparison, or rather, there are two stages of comparison, through which in due succession every mind must pass. Of these the former stage is precipitate and superficial. It governed all natural sciences up to the end of the seven- teenth century, and was content to compare and class together beings or words according to their superficial like- ness. Thus the ancients put the whale and the dolphin into the class of fishes, because of their external form, their habits, and their living in the sea ; similarly the old etym- ologists derived the word paresse from the Greek Tropetrtr, because, among all the languages they knew, this Greek form was most like the French word; and so they con- cluded, without further proof, that it came from the Greek — an easy way indeed of satisfying oneself! To these arbitrary processes has succeeded in our day a period of well-considered and methodical comparison ; a strict and scientific comparison, which does not stop at external resemblance or difference, but dissects objects in order to penetrate even to their very essence and their deepest analogies. The anatomist studies the internal structure of the whale, and instantly sees that the conformation of its organs ex- cludes it from the class of fishes, and places it among the mammalia. And similarly, instead of only studying his word from the outside, the philologist dissects it, reduces it to its elements, i.e. its letters, observes their origin and the manner of their transformation. IJy a strict application of this new method, by letting facts lead instead of trying to leail them, modern philology has been enabled to prove that language is deve!oi)cd according to constant laws, and follows necessary and invariable rules in its transformations. 198 APPENDIX. We have set forth in this book the chief characteristics of this natural history of language. Especially with a view to etymology they furnish the student with unexpected as- sistance, and are, in his eyes, a precious instrument, a powerful microscope with which to observe the most delicate phenomena. Its instruments are these : Phonetics, History, Com- parison. I. Phonetics. In the earlier part of this book^ we divided words into their elements, that is, into their letters, and saw that the transit of the letters from Latin to French followed a regular course, each Latin letter passing into French according to fixed rules : thus e long always becomes oi in French, as regem, roi ; legem, loi ; tela, loik ; velum, voile, &c. The bearings of this discovery are apparent at once : for if we will but observe these laws of change as they aifect each letter in succession, we shall find them a clue to guide our researches, and to keep us from straying into wrong paths ; if the etymology does not satisfy these cour ditions, it is naught. Thus then the possession in detail of the transforma- tion of the Latin letters into French ^ is the first necessity for those who would occupy themselves with etymology. If any one finds this preparatory study too minute or un- interesting, our reply is that anatomy observes and describes muscles, nerves, and vessels most minutely in detail ; and draws out a catalogue of facts which may well seem dry and tiresome ; but yet just as this comparative anatomy is the basis of all physiology, so is this exact knowledge of ^ See above, pp. 45-86. '^ See above, Bk. I. pp. 66-76. APPENDIX. 199 orthography the beginning of all true etymology : nothing else can give it the true character of a compact ami rigorous science. We may state this new principle thus : — IVc' ?nusl reject every elymology, ichich, cchen the rules of permutation have been laid down by orthography, does not account for letters retained, changed, or lost. By the light of this principle let us take as an example the word laitue, and seek for its origin. We have seen above, under ' Phonetics,' p. 50, that the French combination it corresponds to the Latin ct ; as m/a-it from fa-ct-um ; la-it, la-et-em ; tra-it, tra-ct-iun ; fru-it, fru-ct-um ; redu-it, re- du-et-uxa. Therefore the first part of the word lailuc (lait) must answer to a Latin word lact-. What is the origin of the suffix -ue'i Now we have seen (p. 188) that this suffix is derived from the Latin suffix -uca ; as verr-ue from verr-uca ; charr-uc. carr-uca, &c. Thus we arrive at the form lact-uca, which is in fact the Latin word which expresses the idea involved in laitue, the lettuce. This enquiry into etymology is clearly analogous to the operations of chemical anah sis. The chemist puts a sub- stance into his crucible and reduces it to its elements, and finds again the equivalent weight : so here too the elements are the letters, and our anal)sis, i e. our etymology, is liable to suspicion so long as the elements have not been dis- covered again after the process'. We may sum up by saying that etymological research is subject to two rules: — (i) No etymology is admissible which cannot account for all the letters of the word it proposes to explain, without a single exception; and (2) every etymology which assumes a change of letters ought ' M. Littrd. 200 APPENDIX. to have in its favour at least one example of a change quite identical with that which it assumes ; otherwise, if no such testimony can be cited, the attempt is valueless. ' 11. History. Every Latin word on its way into Modern French has gone through two changes; it has passed from Latin into Old French, and thence into the French of to-day : thus festa became first Jes/e, and then in course of time /es/e became /e/e. In finding the origin of a French word we should follow a wrong track if v/e speculated on it in its present state, leaping from Modern French to Latin; we must first enquire whether there are any intermediate forms in Old French which may explain the transition and mark the path followed by the Latin on its way to the present French. And besides, these intermediate forms, by bringing us nearer to the starting-point, help us to see that point more clearly, and often guide us to the word we are seeking without any further researches. An example will best illustrate the difference in this respect between the old and the new methods of etymology. The old etymologists were much divided as to the origin of the word dme : some only thought of the sense, and there- fore declared that it came from the Latin anima, though they could not explain how the transformation had taken place ; others, finding the contraction of anima into dme far too violent a change, held that it was derived from the Gothic ah/ia, ' breath.' The case would be still ' sub judice ' had not modern philology intervened to solve the problem in the natural way. Substituting the observation of facts for the play of imagination, modern philologists have seen that it would be absurd to talk for ever over a word in its modern form, without taking any heed to the changes it has APPENDIX. 201 undergone since the origin of the language; and so they constructed the history of the word by the study of ancient texts, and shewed that in the thirteenth century a//u' was written arime, in the eleventh ariemc, in the tenth anime, whence we pass directly to the Latin anima. If we would obtain a secure foothold, we must move step by step through the intermediate forms ; so as to be able to studv in its gradations the deformation of the Latin word. But even here we must distinguish between two kinds of intermediate forms, — those of the old and those of the new philological school. The former assumed at a venture some improbable word as the origin of the word under considera- tion ; and, in order to join the two ends, imagined fictitious intermediate forms to suit their purpose. Thus, IMdnage pretended that he had found the origin of the French haricot in faba ; and to fill up the gulf between these words he added, ' They must have said first faba, then fabarieus, then fabaricotus. aricotus, and finally haricot! Such lucubra- tions are like a bad dream ; they justify the opinion of those who have laughed at etymology, and deserve the Chevalier d'Accilly's epigram : ' Alfaiia ' vient d'equus sans doute, Mais 11 faut convcnir aussi Qu'a venir de la jusqu'ici, II a bien change sur la route;* for the learned made a mere toy of what they ought to have treated as a science. The intermediate forms, diligently sought out by modern etymology, are very difTerent ; science does not ask what men ' must have said,' but what men did say. There are no more fanciful forms invented, as the case required them ; ' The name given l»y Ariosto to Gradasso's mare. Menage proposed to derive it from oquus. 202 APPENDIX. French philology now limits itself to a diligent passage through old texts running back to the tenth century : then noting the birth of words and the first date of their appear- ance, it marks the changes in them century after century. Exact observation, which leaves no room for conjecture or invention, is a preliminary but essential part of all etymo- logical enquiry : before analysing a French word in its actual form, we must seek to obtain as many examples as we can of the word as it appeared in Old French. M. Littrd has followed this course in his admirable Di'c- tionnaire historique de la la7igue frangaise : instead of invent- ing a series of arbitrary intermediate forms, he collects under each word a series of successive examples drawn from texts, running back to the very beginnings of the French language in the eighth century. These posts once firmly fixed, he goes on to build on them an etymology, which does not arise from the word in its present shape, but from it as it existed at the birthplace of the language. An attentive investigation into intermediate forms is the best help, after phonetics, that philology can have. III. Comparison. While popular Latin was giving birth to the French lan- guage, it also created, as we have seen (p. lo), four sister idioms to it, formed also with astonishing regularity — the permutation of the Latin letters into Italian, Spanish, Portu- guese, that is to say, into what are called the Romance lan- guages, being as regular and unchanging as into French. Consequently, we must compare the French forms with those current in the other Romance languages ; this will be the touchstone by which to try and prove all proposed hypotheses. We have just seen (p. 199) that laitue answers letter for letter to the Latin lactuca. If this etymology is APPEXDIX. 203 correct, it will follow that the Italian lai/uga, and the Spanish lechuga, whose sense is the same, spring also from the same Latin word. And this will shew us that the Italian // and the Spanish ch come from the Latin ct : thus Italian no-tl-e, no-ct-em ; la-tt-c, la-ct-em ; o-il-o, o-ct-o; bisco-tt-o^ bisco- ct-us ; tra-it-o, tra-ct-us, (fcc. — whence la-tt-uga from la-ct- uca : — Spanish tio-ch-e, no-ct-em ; le-ch-c, la-ct-em ; o-ch-o, o-ct-o ; bisco-ch-o, bisco-et-us ; Ire-ch-o, tra-ct-us, &c. — whence k-ch-uga from la-et-uca. Thus we see how the parallel relations of the Romance languages with the French strengthen our previous observations, and serve as verifying tests of our hypotheses. These parallels have another use ; they often shew us the road we ought to follow : — but time and space fail us, and we cannot stay to insist on the advan- tages that etymology can derive from careful comparison ; such details would be in their right place in a ' Manual of French Etymology,' but are beside the mark in tliis short outline of the new philological method, in which we are trying to describe the great revolution which has transferred etymology from the realms of fancy to the solid ground of a historical science. Conclusion. By shewing that words grow and have a history, and that, like plants and animals, they pass through regular transfor- mations — above all by shewing that here, as elsewhere, law reigns, and that we can lay down with certainty the rules of derivation from one language to another, — modern philolo- gists have set comparative etymology on durable founda- tions, and have made a science of what seemed condemned to be confined to the regions of imagination anil individual caprice. The old system of etymology tried to explain the origin of words h priori, following their apparent rcscniblancc or 204 APPENDIX. difference : modern etymology applies the method of the natural sciences, and holds that words ought to explain themselves, and that, instead of inventing systems, we ought to observe facts, by the help of these instruments : — Pho- netics, which give us the rules of transformation from one language to another — rules which we must follow implicitly, or pay the penalty of losing our way; History of words, which passes on by certain and definite stages to the original word we are looking for, or, at any rate, brings us nearly up to it ; and lastly. Comparison, which certifies and .con- firms the results we have arrived at. To the fantastic imaginations of the learned of old days was due the discredit into which etymology had formerly fallen ; but by the strict application of this method and these principles, comparative etymology has risen in our time to the dignity of a science. I N D E X. A, the French, 4S ; the Latin, 67. Abbesse (abbess), 1S7. Abeiile (bee), 71. Accent, continuance of Latin, 33 ; grammatical. 33. 85; en vowels, 67 ; tonic, 84 ; oratorical, 86 ; pro- 1 vmcial, 86; on compounds, 172. Accusative, the Latin, retained in French, 93. Adalhard, St., of Corby, spoke Romance, 12. Addition of letters, 78-So. Adjectives, French, 102-108; used as substantives, 103; compound, 175- Adjulare (to help), 3. \dour, 54. Adverbial phrases. 161. ' Adverbs, 153 163; of place, 154; time, 155; manner, 15S; intensity. 158 ; aflirmativc and negative, 160. Ac, the Latin, 68. A^ieau (a lamb), 193. \i, the Ficnch diphthong, 52. Aider (to help), 3. Aieul (grandfather), 53. A :'lc (eagle), 56. Aigti (sharp). 51, 68. Aiguiscr (10 whet), 53. Ailc (wing). 52. Aillcurs (elsewhere), 154. Aimer (to love), 49, 67. Ain«- (elder). I 77. Ainsi (so), 168. Airain (lirass). 55. Aistcilc (armpit), 74. Ail (let him have), 139. Aiouter (to help\ 74. Ak (Celtic latinised into icum), 74. Alans, 7. Albigensian, 18. Alcuin, 13. Alogre (cheerful), 49. Alcntour (around), 155. Alise, 50. Aller (to go), 142, 149. Alleu (property held absolutely), ll. Alouette (lark), 5. Alphabet, Fruncu and Latin, 46-83. Alun (alum), 34. Amabani. in the Langue d'Oil dialects,. K), 137- Ambes mains (both hands), lo". Ame (.the soul), 42, 72, 200. Amer (bitter), 49. Ami (friend), 49, 68. Amiens, 54. Amont (up stream), 155. Amour (love), 47, 97. Analytical tendencies of modern lan- guages, J I . Ancetre (ancestor), 96. Anc (ass), 48. AuL-e (angel), 48. Anf;l>>-French aristocratic words, 4. Angilbert, 1 3. Augoissc (anguish), 64, 7/,. Anguille (eel), 57. Anjou, 62. Anomalous verbs, 148-15,2. Aont (month August), 37- ApliJercsis, 80. Apiicope, So, 82. Aprc (rough), 81. Aquitani, i. 2o6 INDEX. Arabic words in French, 22, 23. Arbre (tree), 47, 48, 58, 67. Aries (a.d. 51), 14. Armorica, 5. Arriere (behind), 58, 179. Arriver (to arrive), 177. Article, the French, 100. Asperge (asparagus), 48, 61. Assez (enough), 62. Atonic syllables, 68. Au, the French, 53, 68. Aube (dawn), 53. Auch, 64. Aucun (any), 1 15. Auge (trough), 53. Aujourd'hui (to-day), 155- Aula (court), 9. Aunaie (alder plot), 186. Auparavant (before now), 158. Aurone (southern-wood), 76. Aussi (also), 156, 168. Autre (other), 53, 115. Autrui (another), 115. Autun, school of, 4. Aux (to the), loi. Auxiliary verbs, 1 23-1 29. Aval (down stream), 155. Avant-bras (fore-arm), 177, Avare (miser), 48. Avoine (oats), 52, 67, 184. Avoir (to have), 60. Avorter (to miscarry), 177. Avoue (attorney), 37. B. B, French, 58 ; Latin, 76 ; omission of, 82. Bacon, Roger, on French dialects, 19. Badaud (lounger), I93. Baiser (to kiss), 9. Balance (a pair of scales), 48, 183. Bannum (ban), 11. Barbouiller (to daub), 192. Ba iare (to kiss), 9. Basque tongue, I. Bataille (battle), 3, 9. Battre (to beat), 9. Batuere (to beat), 3, 9, Bavard (prattler), I93. Bazas, 59. Beau (fine), 53. Beaucoup (much), J 59. Begueule (haughty prude), 176. Belgae, the, I. Benin (benign), 1S6. Benir (to bless), 150. Bercheure's translation of Livy, 39. Besancon, 59. Betail (cattle), 193. Beton (concrete), 49. Bevue (blunder), 181. Bien (well), 54, 156, 160. Bienvenu (welcome), 180. Biscuit (lit. twice cooked), 50, iSi. Blame (blame), 34. Blamer (to blame), 36. Ble (corn), 80. Boeuf (ox), 59. Boire (to drink), 58, 150. Bologne (Bologna), 56. Bon (good), 58. Bonnement (simply), 154. Bonte (goodness), 35. Bordeaux, school of, 4. Bouche (mouth), 9, 64. Boucher (buckler), 103. Bouillir (to boil), 57. Boulogne, 64. Bourges, I. Braire (to bray), 144, I46. Brebis (ewe), 186. Breton, 5. Brosses, De, 29. Brulot (fireship), 193. Brunetto Latini wrote French, 17. Buanegez, 6. Burgundian French, 18. Burgundians, 7, Burgus (bourg), 7. Buvait (he drank), 5 1. C. C, the French, 63 ; the Latin, 74 ; omitted, 82. ga (here), 154. Cabane (cabin), 13. Caballus (a horse), 3, 9. Cable (cable), 56, 59. Caesar on Gaul, 1. Cage (coop), 48, 66. INDEX. 207 Cailler (to curd), 71, 177. Cailloux (pt;bbles>, 94. Caisse (box>, 52. Calandre (calendar), 48. Calvin, the French of his ' Institution,' 25- Campagne (country), 21. Caniche (poodle\ I92. Capet, Hugh, 16, 70. Car (because V 48, 63, 167. Carabine (carbine), 25. Cardinal numbers, io;-l07. Carre (square), 48, 58. Carrefour (crossways), 58. Cases in French reduced to two, 89- 91 ; thence to one, 93-96. Casser (to smash), 62, 63. Cassiodorus quoted, 3. Caslrense verbum, 3. Catharine dei Medicis, her influence on the French tongue, 25. Catus (cat), 9. C€ (this), 113. Ceans (here within), 155. Ceindre (to surround), 15 I. Celtic language in Armorica, 6. Celts, 1. ( "clui = ecce illc, 1 1 3. . p (stake), 49, 58. cpcndant (however), 168. Ccrcle (circle), 56. (^ercler (to hoop), 36. '\rf(stag), 59. I crise (cherry), 61. ( \rtcs (ctrtaihly), I53. Tcrvoise (beer), 5. Cct (this), 113. Ccttui = cc, 1 14, rh, the French, 64. ' hacun (each), 63. ' hainc (chain), 73. Ciiair (flesh), 82. Chaloir (to matter), 147. '"hanibrc (room), 56. ' hainp (field), 31, 58. Cliancclcr (to totter), I91. Chancre (crab), 34. Chaiidck'ur (Candlemas), 64. Chandelle (candle), 49,64. 186. '^'hansoii dc Roland, the, 17. ( luntcr (to ting), 19I. Chanteur (singer), 33. Chapitre (chapter), 57. Chaqiie (every), 1 15. Char (car), 48, 67. Charge (burden), 192. Charlemagne, 8. Charles VIII, 25. Charme (spell), 56, 57, 67. Charrue (plough), 18S. Chartre (^charter), 57. Chartrier (charter-house), 36. Chasser (to hunt), 192. Chat (cat), 9. Chateau (castle), 53, 60. Chateau-Landon, 56. Chutier (to chastise), 191. Chatouiiler (to tickle), 130. Chauffer (to heat), 176. Chauve (bald), 60. Chaux (lime), 62. Chef (head), 49, 59, 64. ChCne (oak), 72. Chenil (dog-kennel), 49. Chenu (hoary), 188. Cheptel (lease or letting out of cattle), 36. Chi-rement (dearly), 154. Cherte (dcarness), 36. Chetif (mean, sorry), 76. Cheval (horse), 3, 9, ()o. Chevauche (lit. ridden), 14 1. Cheveu (hair), 60. Chevre (she-goat), 60, 64. Chez (to house of, at), 62,153,163,165. Choir (to fall), 148. Chose (thing), 51, 64, 68. Chrotien (Christian), 54. Church, the, adopts the 'Romance' tongue, 12, 13. Cicl (heaven), 63. Cigogne (stork), 64. Ciguii (hemlock), 49. Ciment (cement), 63. Cimetiire (cemetery), 69. Cinq (five), 63. Circulcr (to circulate), 35. Cite'; (city), 63, iS8. Clair (clear), 71, Clartt'- (cicarncsi), 35. Clafiicitt*, their influence on the French Uiigungc, 36. 208 INDEX. Claudius, 4. Clerge (_clergy), 69. Clore (lo close), 51, 146. Clovis, 7. Cceur (heart), 53. Coffre (coffer), 57, 59. Coi (still), 63. Colonisati in, Roman, 2. Colonne (column), 5S. Combien (how much), 160. Comble (I heap), 192. Combler (to heap up), 36. Comme (as), 168. Comment (how). 160. Commines, the French of, 25. Commutiier (to communicate), 37. Compagnou (companion), 177. Comparative, how formed, 104. Comparative method, 196. Comparison, 204. Comparison, degrees of, in French, 104; used to test etymologies, 202. Compounds, formation of, 172. Compter (to count), 56. Comte (county), 36. Concevoir (to conceive), I43. Conditional mood, 120. Conduire (to conduct), 47. Confiance (confidence), 37. Conge (leave), 66. Conjugation of French verbs, 1 18-152. Conjunctions, 167-169. Connaitre (to know a person), 58. Consonants, loss of medial, 37; the French, 55-56; the Latin, 70-76; transposition of, addition of. 79 ; subtraction of, Si, 82. Conter (to relate), 55. Contraindre (to compel), 151. Contraire (contrary), 52. Contre-poids (counterpoise), 178. Coque (shell), 63. Coquille (shell), 63. Cor (born), 57. Corbeau (crow), 59. Corps (body), 68. Cou (neck), 54. Coude (elbow), 54, 61, 76. Couleur (colour), 53. Coulisse (groove), 192. Coupable (culpable), 54. Coupe (cup), 54, 70. Couple (couple), 53, 58. Cour (court), 9. Courber (to bow), 59. Courir (to run), 140, 150. Couronne (crown), 54. Courre (to hunt), 140. Course (course), 141. Coursier (steed), 103. Coutances. 51. Couter (to cost), 51. Convent (convent), 51. Couvre-chef (head-dress), 1 76. Creance (credence), 37. , Creie (crest), 49. Crever (to burst), 60. Crible (sieve), 56. Croite (to believe), 143. Crois (1 grow), 191. Crois (I believe), 52. Crue (rising of waters), 141. Cruel (cruel), 49. Crusaders, 23. Cueillir (to collect), 130. Cuir (skin), 53. Cuire (to cook), 53, 151. Cult (cooked), 60. Curials in Gallic cities, 7. D. D, French, 61 ; Latin, 74 ; omission of, 82. Daim (deer), 56. 'Dame, interjection, 1 70. Dangeau, I'Abbe, attempted a phonetic spelling, 29. Dans (in), 61, 154, 163. Davantage (more), 160. Deca (on this side), 154, 164. Dechoir (to decline), 178. Decevoir (to deceive), 143. Decor (decoration), 34. Declensions, French, 88-117- Dedans (inside), 154. Defective verbs, 742-148. Defense (defence), 141. Dehors (outside), 155. Deja (already), 158. Delayer (to dilute), 37. Delices (delight), 97. Deluge (deluge), 49. INDEX. 209 Demi (halt"), iSl. Demonstrative pronouns, 1 13. Dentals, French, 60-62; Latin, 73-74- D(-nut' (destitute^, 37. Deponent verbs, 119. Dt'pouiller (to strip), 19J. Derivation, iSi. Deroute (rout\ 57. Derriere ibehind\ 164. De Drosses, his primitive language, 29. Des (of the), loi. Di's (from), 164. Dt-shonneur (dishonour), i 78. Desormais (henceforth), 157. Dcssous (underneath), 164. Dessus (upon), 164. Dette (debt), 34, 141. 190. Deux (two), 62, Devant (before), 164. Devin (divine), 49. Devoir (to owe), 61. D'-vottment (devotedly), 154. Diable (devih, 58, 190. Diacre (deacon), 57. Dictionnaire de TAcadt-mie, 29. Ditu (God), 54. Digne (worthy), 64. Dijon, 63. Dime (tithe, tenth part or tenth), 34, 61, 108. Diminutive suffixes, 192. Dire (to tell), 1 43. Ditcs (you say), 137. Dix (ten), 50, 62. Domestiqiie (servant), 103. Done (then), 6t, 158, 168. Donner (to give), 47. Dont (of whom, 01 which), 60, 1 1 4, 154. Dorcnavant (in future), 157. Dormitcs (you slept), 138. Dortoir (dormitory), 72, 188. Do» (the bick), 72. D'oii (whence), 1 14. Double (double), 59. Doubler (to double), 3. Doucr (to endow), 37. Doulcur (pain), 54. Doute (doubt), 76. Dnycnn'- (deanery), 37. Douzc (twelve), 62. Droit (right), 9, 50, 57. Di), un (a duty), 140. Du (of the), loi. Du Beilay's ' Defense et illustration de la langue fran9aise,' 26. Duit (led), 50. Duo (two), ic6. Durant (during), 163, 1 65. E. E, the French vowel, 49 ; the Latin, 67 ; addition of, 78. E long in Latin, 198. Eau, French compound vowel, 53. Ebi'-niste (cabinet-maker), 186. Echelle (ladder), 78. Echevin, scabinus (alderman), 11. Ecole (school), 47. Ecolier (scholar), t8i. Ecorce (bark), 79. Ecouter (to listen), 54. Ecrin (cajket), 78. Ecrire (to write), 74, i;i. Ecu (shield), 73, 82. Ecueil (reef of rocks), 71. Ecuelle (a porringer), 193. Edere (to eat), 9. Eginhard, 13. Eglise (church), 49, 50. Egwirion, 6. Ei, French compound vowel, 52. Ekuz, 6. Elite (chosen), I41. Knic-raudc (emerald), 61. Empire, last ages of the, 7. Emplette (purchase), 141. Eniplir (to fill), 131, 178. Employer (to employ), 38- Empreindre (to imprint), 130, 152. En, prep, (in), 163. En, suflix, 109. En (lit. out of that), no, 153. Encontre (against), 163. Encore (lit. this hour still), 156, 168. Encrier (inkstand), 184. Enfant (infant), 95, 181. Enfer (hell), 45. Enfin (at last). 158. Enfler (to «well), 71. Enfreindrc (to infringe), 15a. England gave tenns of civil life, &c. 2IO INDEX, to France, 3 ; learnt French after the Norman Conquest, 17. Enghsh words imported into France, 3°- Enkrezet, 6. Ensemble (whole), 73, 159- Ensuite (afterwards), 158. Ent ( = en), lii. Entorse (sprain), 141. Entre (between), 163. Entretien (conversation), 1 78. Envers (towards), 163. Envoyer (to send), 142, 178. Environ (about), 155. Epars (scattered), 61. Epee (broadsword), 79. Epenthesis, 78, 79. Epi (ear of corn), 49, 67. Epine (thorn), 49, 68. Epingle (pin), 73. Epithesis, 78, 80. Epoux (spouse), 62. Epreindre (to express), 152. Esclandre (that which gives rise to scandal), 57, 78. Escarboucle (carbuncle), 79. Escaut (Scheldt), 60. Esperer (to hope), 74, 78. Esprit (spirit), 49. Essai (attempt), 9, 62. Essaim (swarm of insects), 34, 62. Essere (to be), 125. Essorer (to dry up), 62. Essoufler (to put out of breath), 178. Ester (to appear in court), 74. 125, 144. Estomac (stomach), 78. Et (and), 168. Etable (stable), 47. Etain (tin), 55. Etais, not from stabam, 126. ^tang (pool), 45, 64, 77. Etat (state), 60. Eteindre (to extinguish), 15 1. Etouppe (tow), 58. Etre (to be), 1 24-127. Etreindre (to bind), 151. fltroit (strict), 50. Etymology a new science, 195. Eu, French compound vowel, 53. Eulalia, St., French poem on, 15. Euskarian tongne, I, Eux (those), 109. Evt'che (bishopric), 185. Exploit (exploit), 141. F.' F, the French, 59 ; the Latin, 76, Faillir (to deceive), 57, 143. Faini (hunger), 56. Faire (to make), 143. Faisan (pheasant), 59, 77- Faites (you make), 137. Fait, un (a deed), 140. Falloir (to deceive), 147. Fauchee (day's mowing), 141, Faucon (falcon), 92. Faux (scythe), 59, 62. Feal (faithful), 186. Feindre (to feign), 151, Fe! (gall), 54. Femme (woman), 51, 72, 190. Fenouil (fennel plant), 191. Fer (iron), 67. Ferir (to strike), 143. Fermail (clasp), 190. Fernie (firm), 49. Fete (festival), 200. Feu (fire), 9, 159. Feve (bean), 60. Fief (fief), 11. Fier (proud), 54, 67. Fievre (fever), 54. Fille (daughter), 57. Fils (son), 56. Flairer (to scent), 56. Flambe (fleur-de-luce), 69. Flamme (flame), 48, 58. Fleurir (to bloom), 131. Foi (faith), 52, 67. Fois (time), 59, 155. Fonder (lay foundation of), 30. Formation of tenses, 136-141 ; of words, 1 71-193. Fort (strong), 47, 68. Fortunatianus on Latin genders, 99. Fortunatus (of Poitiers), 10. Four (oven), 54, 72, 188. Fourche (fork), 64. Fourmi (ant), 54. Fourvoyer (to mislead), 149. Fragile (brittle), 188. INDEX. 211 Prankish, lO. Franks, 7, 10. Fredegarius, S. F"redfrick II, Emperor of Germany, loved the French language, 17. Frein (bit), 53. Fn'-mir (to shudder"!, 140. French Academy, if>^, 167. French language owes very little to Celtic, 5 ; came from popular Latin, 4,9 ; in the Strasbourg Oaths, 1 4. 1 5 ; in poem on St. Kuialia, 15 ; begins its real life, 16; divided into Langue d'Oc and Langue d'Oil, iS; "lie de France dialect prevailed, 20 ; distinguished from Picard, 21; in fourteenth century became the French language, 22; in fifteenth century, 25 ; in sixteenth, 25 ; in seventeenth, 28; in eighteenth, 29; in nineteenth, 29 ; has learned and popular words, 32 ; laws of its for- mation, 32-3S; popular words re- spect Latin accent, 33, 34 ; are shorter than the learned, 34, 35 ; declensions, 89-99; genders, 96- 9.S ; numbers, 98, 99 ; article, ico; pronouns, 109-117; verbs, I18- 152; particles, 1 5 3- 1 70; -adverbs, 153-163 ; prepositions, 163-167 ; conjunctions, 167-169; interjec- tions, 169-170. Frenchman (in middle ages), 19. >r«'nc (ash tree), 190. F'rcsaie (white owl), 59. Frire (to fry), 146. Froid (cold), 61. Fromcnt (cheese), 56. Frfinde (sling), 80. Fruit (fruit), £0. Fumicr (dung), 51, 59. Future tense, how formde, 1 1 2-138. I ',, the French, 64 ; the Latin 75 ; ad- dition of, 79 ; omission of, 82. 'ialca (helmet), 13. ' lalcrita (lark), 5. lallic rare, 1. ;.c Latin, 6K. Oaths of Strasbourg, the, 10, li, 14, ' 15. Ob'-ir Oo obey), 47, 50. f Jbjc-ctivc case alone retained in French, ! 93- I Occirc fto slay), 74. Ocuntc (eighty), 106. Ocymore, 27. CEu, the French compound vowel, CKu''(egg), ,^3. 59- Oiuvre (work), 53. Oi, the French compound vowel, 52. Oignon (onion\ 64. Oiiidre (to anoint\ 152. Oint (anointed), 50. Oiseau (bird). 62. Oiseux (idle), 27. 61. Old French perished by the end of the fourteenth century. 25. On = homo (a man), 116. One (ever). 63. Ongic (nail-finger or toe), 51. Onze (eleven). 62, 106. Or (gold). 51. Or, Latin masculines in, become F'rench feniinines. 97. Or (now). 153, 155, 16S. Oratorical accent, S5. Ordinals. 107. Ordre (order), 57. Oreille (car). 57. 68. Orcsme's translation of Aristotle, 39. Orfi vre (goldsmith). 59, 174. Orfraie (osprey), 57, 59. Orge (barley), 64, 127. Orgue (organ), 34, 97. Oriental elements of French, 22. Oripeau (tinsel), 174. Orleans. 51. Orphclin (orphan), 45, 56. Ortcil (toe), 190. Ortie (nettle), 51. Os (mouth), (). Osculari (to kiss). 9. Oser (to dare), 51. Otto II, 16. Ou. the French compound vowel, 53, Ou (or). 168. Oil (where). 154. Oui (yes), 75. 160. Ouir (to hear). 49. Oiiit (lit. he hears, obs.), 137. Ours (bear), 54, 61, 6S. Outre (beyond), 163. Outre (leather bottle), 54, Outrccuidancc (overweening), 1 80. Ouvrcr (to work), 36. •21 6 INDEX. P. P, the French, 58; the Latin, 75. Pacifier (to pacify), 176. Paille (straw), 57. Pain (bread), 58. Paitre (to pasture), 74' ^s^- Paix (peace), 62. Palais (palace), 61. Pale (pale), 190. Palefroi (palfrey), 56, 59. Paltrme (Palermo), 56. Panipre (vine branch), 57. Panier (pannier), 48. Paon (peacock), 82, 187. Paperasse (waste paper), 192. Par (by), 163. Parchemin (parchment), 48, 49. Parer (to adorn), 48. Paresse (sloth), 48, 187, 197. Parfaire (to complete), 179. Paris, 20. Paris, M. G., on the French le, loi. Parjiire (perjury), 62. Parmi (among), 164. Parrain (godfather), 58. Participles, 140; many became nouns, 141 ; also prepositions, 165. Particles, 153-170; words formed with, 1 7'^; qualitative, in compo- sition, 180; quantitative, 181 ; negative, 181. Parvenir (to arrive at), 178. Pas, the negative, 161. Pasteur (pastor), 187. Pc'ite (paste), 81. Patois distinct froin dialect, 21. Peche (fishing), 72. Peindre (to paint), 152. Peinture (picture), 188. Pclerin (pilgrim), 69, 186. Peluche (plush), 192. Pendant (during), 163, 165. Pendre (to hang), 130. Perche (perch, measure), 64. Pere (father), 49. Perfect indicative, 138. Permutation, rules of, 199. Personal pronouns, 109-111. Personne (one), 162. Persons of French verbs, 121. Perte (loss), 141. Peu (little), 74, 159. Peuple (peopled), 35. Ph, the French, 59. Philip the Fair, 24. Phocaeans at Marseilles, i. Phonetics, 204. Picard French, 18, 21. Piege (snare), 189.J Pierre (stone), 54. Pierre de Ronsard, 26, 27. Pierreux (rocky), 187. Pigeon (pigeon), 65. Piment (pimento), 75. Pioche (pickaxe), 192. Pire (worse), 104. Pis (worse), 159. Placidus the grammarian, 163. Plaindre (to pity), 152. Plaire (to please), 143. Plaisir (pleasure), 6i. Pleurard (crying child), 184. Pleurer (to bewail), 71. Pleurs (tears), 99. Plier (to fold), 82. Pliny, his works known through Gaul, 4. Plonib (lead), 58. Plus (more), 156. Plusieurs (several), 105, 117. Plutot (rather), 156. Poem in French verse, the first, 15. „ ,, the second, 16. Poetry sprang from people, 16. Poil (hair), 52, 56, 67. Poindre (to sting), 152. Poing (fist), 64. Point (point, negative), 50, 161. Pointe (point), 141. Poire (pear), 52, 67. Pois (pea), 52. Poison (poison), 52. Poisson (fish), 187. Poitiers, 50. Poitrail (breast)| 36, 50. Poivre (pepper), 52. Pomme (apple), 47. Pommier (;ipple-tree), 184. Ponce (pumice), 51. Pondre (to lay), 47, 50. Popular Latin, 3, 9, 1 2. Pore (pig), 70. Porche (porch), 34. ly DE X. 21 Portail (doorway), 193. Porter (to carry), i 29. Portique (portico), 18S. Portuguese, 10. Position, relations of words expressed by, 23. Possession and aim, 1 1. Possessive pronouns, 1 1 1 - 1 1 3. Posture (posture), 35, 69. Poterne (postern"), 56. Poticr (potter), 184. Pouce (^thunib), 54. Poudre ({>owder), 54. Poulpe (pulp). 34. Pour (for), i6u Pourchasser (to pursue), i 79. Pourrir (to rot), 58. Pourtant (nevertheless), 159. Pre (meadow), 58. Pricher (to preach), 179. Preniier (first), 54, 1S4. Prendre (to take). 143. PrefKssitions, used for inflections in common Latin. 11; the French, 163-167; words formed with, 177. Present indicative, 136; subjunctive, Presque (almost), 160. Prcuve (proof), 53. Prime-abord, de (at first sight), 107. Prinicvere (primrose), 175. Proche (near), 189. Pronouns, 109- 1 17. I'rosody, 83-S5. Prosthesis, 78. Prouver (to prove), 127. I'rovcni/al, 18. Provincial accent, 85. Puce (flea), 189. I'ugna (fight), 3, 9. I'uiue (younger). I 77, 179. Puis (then), 53, 158, 164. Puisquc (since), 169. I'uitt (a well), 94. I'unic War, the second, 2. Puy, Lc, 53. Q Q.. the French, 63 ; the Latin. 75. (Qualifying adjectives, 10.'. (juand (when), 168. Quant (in regard to), 1 1 7. Quarante (forty), 106. Qiiart (fourth). loS, Que (that), 168. Que (whom), 1 14. Quel (what), 6.?, 1 14. Qiielconque (whatever), 1 1 7. Quelque (some), 117. Q^ii-rir (to fetch), 140, 143. Quete (quest). 1 41. Queue (tail), 63. Q^ieux (hone), 53, 63. Qi^ii (who), 1 14. Quiconque (whoever), 1 1 7. Quinctilian, 65, 100, 195. Quinte-essence (quintessence), 108. Quoi (which), 1 14. R. R, the French, 57; the Latin, 72; transposed, 77; addition of, 80. Raison (reasonl. 50, 55. Rambouillct, 28. Recette (receipt), 141. Rccevoir (to receive), 143. Recohes (crops), 108. Recouvrer (to recover), 36. Re^u, un (a receipt), 140. Rcduire (to reduce), 179. Rl-gle (rule), 49. kegne (kingdom), 55, 57. Reims, 52. Relative pronouns, 114. Reniorque (towing), 57. Renaissance, the, influence on the French, 25. Renie (renegade), 38. Rente (rent), 141. R.plier (to refold), 38. Rejionse (reply), 14 1. R<'('Ugnance (repugnance), 183. Rets (net), 94. Revenger (to revenge), 36. Rez (on a level with), 62, 166. Rhcinis (a.i>. 813), 14. Ricn (lit. thing; negative), 55, 162. Rigidc (stilD, 188. Hire (to laugh). 133, 143. Kochcllc, La, i«. Koniancc, 14. Romans enter Ciaul, 1. 2l8 INDEX. Romantic school of literature in France, 29. Rond (round), 82, 188. Rossignol (nightingale), 57. Roue (wheel), 53. Roussillon, 56. Route (way), 141. Roux (russet), 62. Rr, the French, 58. Ruine (ruin), 55. S. S, the French, 61; the Latin, 74; addition of, 80. Sa (her), 112. Sablier (sand-box), 184. Sagma, l,^. Saint (holy), 50. St. Adalhard, i 2. Saison (season), 61. Salut (health), 48. Samedi (Saturday), 56. Sancerre, 48. Sangle (strap), 48, 61, 64. Sanglier (wild boar), 48, 103. Sanglot (sob), 48. Sans (without) 48, 153, 163. Sante (health), 35. Sapin (fir), 58. Sauf (safe), 53, 59. Saut (leap), 53. Sauvage (wild), 48. Savoir (to know), 60, 151. Savon (soap), 48, 60. Sec (dry), 49, 63, 68. Seche (dry), 189. Secher (to dry). 64. Second (second), 63. Seigneur (lord ; lit. elder), 52, 84. Seille (bucket). 57, 71. Sein (bosom), 52. Sel (salt), 49, 56. Selon (according to), 164. Semaine (week), 3, 9, 49, 52. Sembler (to seem), 36. Senechal (siniscallus), II. Sente (path), 55. Seoir (to befit), 148. Serf (slave), 59. Sergent (sergeant), 64. Serment (oath), 61. Sermo nobilis rusticus, 3. Setme, O. Fr. (seventh), 108. Seul (alone), 53, 56, 68. Seulement (solamente), 13. Seve (sap), 60. Sevrer (to separate), 36, 179. Si (so), 158. Simuler (to simulate), 32. Sindones, 13. Singe (ape), 55, 65. Siure O. Fr. (sire), 105. Six (six), 50, 62. Six - vingt (hundred and twenty), ic6. Sixte (sixth"), 108. Soeur (sister), 53. Soif (thirst), 52. Soir (evening), 52. Soit (let him be), 139. Soixante (sixty), 62. Somme, soma (a burden), 13. Somme (a nap, a sum), 58. Sommeil (sleep), 58. Son (his), 55. Son (sound), 55. Soubre-saut (somersault), 179. Soudain (sudden), 158. Soudre (to solve), 1 47. Soufre (sulphur), 54. Souloir (to be wont), 54, 147. Soumis (submissive), 76. Source (source), 1 41. Sourcil (eyebrow), 49, 56. Sourd (deaf), 54, 61. Sourdre (to rise), 147. Sourire (to smile), 179. Souris (mouse), 57. Sous (under), 61. Sous-entendu (thing understood), 179. Souvent (often), 60, 157. Spain, her influence on the French language, 28. Spanish, 4, 10. Strabo, 4. Strasbourg, the Oaths of, 10, 11, 14, 15 ; Council of, 14. Strong verbs, what, 122. -struire (in con-struire, &c.), 15 1. Subjective (or nominative) case re- tained in a few words, 96. Subjunctive mood, 139. INDEX. 219 Substantives, French, declension of, 88-99. Subtraction of letters, 80. Suffixes, 181. Suif (tallow), 59. Suivent (they follow), 119. Sujet (subject^, 76. Superbe (proud), 51. Superlative, the French, 105. Suppression of vowel, 35. Sur (upon), 163. Survem'r (to occur), 179. Sus (upon), 164. Syncope, 81, 82, T. T, the French, 6o ; the Latin, 73 ; addition of, 79 ; omission of, 80 ; apocope of, 82. Ta (thy), 112. Table (table), 47. Taire (to be silent), 143. Tandis (while), 153, 157. Tant (so much), 156, 159. Tame (aunt), 79. Taon (gad-fly), 60, 82. Tapis (carpet), 50. Tard (slowly), 158. Teigne (moth), 52. Teiiidre (to dye), 152. Tel (such), 117. Tellcment (so much), 159. Tenses of French verbs, 119; forma- tion of, 1 36- 14 1. Tcntamen (attempt), 9. Tcntc (tent), I4[. Terrc (earth), 67. Tcsson (bit of glass), 73. Tiede (warm), 61. Titnt (he holds), 54. Tiers (third), 61. Tiers-parti (third party), 107. Tigc (stem), 65. Timbre (bell), 57. Tim6fi (pole of a coach), 50. Tiraillc (I wrcit), 192. Tisane (tisane), 75. I'iiser (to weave), 130, 144. 'littrc (to wc4Vei, 130, 144. Toilc (web of cloth), 52. Toison (fleece), 60. Toit (rooO, 50. Ton (thy), iii. Tonic accent, 32, 54 ; syllable in Latin, 33- Tornare, 9. Tortiller (to twist), 192. Tot (soon), 156. Touchstones for testing words, 32. Toujours (always), 156. Tourner, 9. Tours (Council o', ad. 813), 14. Tousser (to cough), 130. Tout (all), 117. Toux (cough), 62. Traduire (to translate), 180. Trahison (treason), 61, Traire (to milk), 147. Traiter (to treat), 50. Traiteur (eating-house keeper), 96. Traitre (traitor), 96. Tranchee (trench), 141. Tranquille (quiet), 63. Transformation of Latin into French, 15. Transformation of Latin letters, 19S. Tran.iposition of letters, 77. Tri'fle (trefoil), 49. Treille (vine arbour), 57. Tresor (treasure), ^l- Treuil (wheel and axle), 77. Trop (too much), 153, 160. Tuf (tufa), 59. Tuguriuni (a hut), 13. Tuscan, 23. U. U, the French, 51 ; the Latin, 68, Ue, origin of, 199. Ui, the French, 53. -uire, words ending in, 1 5 1. Un (one, a), 1 17. Unaccented or atonic vowels, 68, 69. Universal langu ige, theory as to, 29. University of Paris, thronged, 1 7. Unus (one), 105. Uxcllodununi, 2. V, the French, 59; the Latin, 76; omitted, 82. Vaincre (to subdue), 70. 320 INDEX. Valoir (to be well), 151. Vannes, 2. Vassal (vassal), 11. Varlet (varlet), 57. Vaugelas, 103. Vegetius, De re militari, "J. Veiller (to be awake), 57. Veiiie (vein), 52. Vendange (vintage), 65, 189. Vendre (to sell), 61, 140. Venaison (venison), 187. Veniel (venial), 54. Venir (to come), 131. Venise (Venice), 50, 61. Vente (sale), 141. Verb, the French, 118-152; auxiliary, 123-129; first conjugation, 1 29; second conjugation, 130; third con- jugation, 132 ; fourth conjugation, 133; voices, 118; moods, 119; tenses, 119 ; persons, 121 ; strong and weak, 122, 142; inchoative, 131; irregular, 142; defective, I43; anomalous, 148; compound, 176; suffixes to, 191. Verberare (to whip), 3, 9. Verdun, 188. Vernioulu (worm-eaten), 175. Verre (glass), 73. Verrue (wart), 188. Vers (towards), 164. Vert (green). 47, 60. Verti (to turn), 9. Vervins, 60. Vessie (bladder), 1S8. Vetement (vestment), 69. Viande (meat), 60. Vidame (bishop's bailiff), I So. Vif (alive), 59. Vif-argent (quicksilver), 175. Viguier (provost of Provence or Lan- guedoc), 64. Ville (town), 9. Villon's Old French, how detected, 93. Vinaigre (sour wine), 175. Vineux (vinous), 62, Vingt and its compounds, 106. Viorne (wild wine), 60, 127. Virgil, 2. Vis-a-vis (face to face), 166. Vivre (to live), 150. Voeu (vow), 53. Voices of French verbs, 118. Voici (see here), 166. Voie (road), 52. Voila (see there), 166. Voile (sail), 52. Voir (to see), 150. Voisin (neighbour), 61. Voiture (carriage), 50. Voix (voice), 62. Volage (fickle), 185. Volailie (poultry), 57. Voltaire, 29. Vous (you), 53. Vowels, suppression of short Latin, 35 ; simple French, 46-51 ; com- pound French, 51-55; Latin, ac- cented, 67 ; atonic, 68 ; transposed, 77; added, 78; omitted, 80-82. Voyage (journey), 48. W. Wales, 5. 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