THE ENGLISH, DIOXYSIAN, AND HELLENIC PRONUNCUTIONS OF GREEK, COXSIDEEELC IN EEFERENCE TO SCHOOL AND COLLEGE USE. ALEXANDER J. ELLIS, B.A., F.E.S., F.S.A., F.C.P.S., F.C.P., VICK-PBESIDENT (FUKMEELY PRESIDENT) OF THE PHILOLOGICAL SOCIETY, AND PORMERLY SCHOLAR OF TRINITY COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE ; LID VAN DE MAATSCHAPPY DER XEUliRLAND.SCllE LliTTERKUXDE TE LBYDEX. LONDON : C. F. HODGSON & SON, 1, GOUGH SQUARE, FLEET STREET. 1876. Price Three Shillings. WORKS BY THE SAME AUTHOR. PRACTICAL HINTS on the QUANTITATIVE PRO- NUNCIATION OF LATIN, for the use of Classical Teachers and Linguists. 1874. Small 8vo. pp. xvi., 132. Macmillan & Co. 4«. 6^. cloth. " Mr. Ellis has here given, in a re\'ised and enlarged form, the substance of a paper read at the College of Preceptors, when, as he says in his Preface, he had ' an audience of classical teachers, who, during an address of unexampled length (nearly two hours and a half), listened with that attention which only great practical interest in the subject could command.' We sincerely hope that this book may be received by teachers both at the Universities and at Schools in the same spirit. No Englishman has so good a claim to be heard on all questions of pronunciation as Mr. Ellis ihas, and the interest of this special point of Latin pronunciation (which once understood makes the Greek intelligible also) is not merely antiquarian."— ^i^7i eajmestJ/aplicited to the re-consideration of this important; bj-sfnc^f of Gi:eek Scholarship,^ with a view of placing it once for all 'o*!!* a'i-eal 'Grraek'bftsi^^wtiBh jttiay be received by all civilised nations. Communications on the subject will be gladly received by the Author. ALEXANDER J. ELLIS. 26, Argyll Road, Kensington, London, "W. August, 1876. THE ENGLISH, DIONYSIAN, AND HELLENIC PRONUNCIATIONS OF GREEK. What would be thought of a teacher of any of the living lan- guages of Europe, such as English, German, Italian, and French, who, with malice prepense, taught his pupils to pronounce in a manner which no speaker of those languages at any time or place had ever used or even thought of using ? He would most probably be requested to ventilate his crotchets " on the desert air." But lias it ever struck the masters of our great public classical schools and the professors of Greek at our Universities, that they have been guilty of exactly the same enormity ? Greek is a living lan- guage, and has never ceased for one day to be a living language, capable of expressing every poetical and philosophical idea of old, and of forming expressions for every new thought that arises now, from the time that Homer slung his lyre over his back and trudged around Greece, — " Singing the dreadful wrath of Achilles the son of Peleus," — down to this morning's issue of an Athenian newspaper. It is a long period of hard upon 3000 years, and certainly it required a great fund of perverse ingenuity to hit upon a pronunciation which no Greek could have understood, in all the numerous varieties of his dialects that have existed throughout this long period and over that diversified country, and which is mere gibberish to a modern Greek, accustomed to hear his New Testament read in the original, and himself speaking and writing a language which would be at least as intelligible to the shades of Demosthenes and Xenophon, perhaps even of Pericles, as our London speech of to-day to the shades of Shakspere and Chaucer, or the living peasants of Devon- shire and Scptland. Can I be wrong in saying that this is a simple absurdity, and that it only requires to be brought home to the heart and mind of teachers to be remedied ? But it must be brought home. It must not merely command a passing assent, such as, " It's all true enough; but I don't want to talk with Greeks, and so I have nothing to do with it." A teacher of Greek has everything to do with it, or else he becomes a teacher of letters and not of language, and mummifies the living. 256530 4 ENGLISH PKONUNCIATION OF GREEK. When Greek learning revived in "Western Europe, where only, and not in Greece, it had ever died, or rather slept, the teachers were Greeks from Constantinople, fleeing from the Turks, who finally con- quered it from the representative of the Roman Empire of the East, on 29 May, 1453. These Greeks, of course, taught their own pro- nunciation, which was identical with that now used at Athens. We know this by the controversy which took place in the sixteenth century, in consequence of the dialogue between a Hon and a bear concerning the right pronunciation of Latin and Greek, written by Erasmus, and dated Basle, 1628.* The following is the history of the publication of this celebrated book, as furnished by the Dutch philologist, Gerard Jan Yoss (1557 — 1689), in his " Aris- tarchus," book i., chap. 28,t which I translate, with the addition of a few words inclosed in brackets. "It is probably known to few by what motive Erasmus was induced to write on the correct pronunciation [of Greek and Latin], and hence I have thought it best to subjoin the account which I possess on a piece of paper written some time since by Henry Kraaisteen [so I retranslate Voss's Coracopetrseus], a very learned man and well known to scholars [who says] : " I have heai'd M. Rutger Resch (who was Professor of Greek in the Buslidian College in Louvaiii, and my teacher of happy memory), say. That he lived in the school of Lille {in LiUensl paedagoged) for about two years at the same time as Erasmus, who occupied an upper bed-room, while he had a lower one ; That Henry Glarean, [an intimate friend of Eras- mus, and a learned Swiss musician, who, in addition to the trouble he is here represented as having caused, managed utterly to con- fuse the names of the ancient Greek musical modes, and the ill- fortune to get his confusion generally accepted by musicians,] having come from Paris to Louvain, had been invited to dine in the College by Erasmus, and, on being asked the news at dinner- time, had said — as he had invented on his journey {quod in itinere conimentus erat) — knowing that Erasmus was inordinately fond of novelties and wonderfully credulous {plies satis rerum novdrum studivsum dc mire credulum)- — Ihat some native Greeks had come to Paris, miraculously learned tnen, who spoke Greek in apronun- ciation which differed extremely from that generally received in these parts {quosdam in CIrcBcid ndtos Liitetiam venisse, vivos ad mlrdcuhim dodos j qui longe aliam Ch'ceci sermonis pronuncidtionem I'lsurpdrent, quani quce vulgo in hisce partihus recepta esset) : for ex- ample, they called B (vita) Beta, and used Eta for H (ita), ai for AI (eb), oi for 01 (i), and so on : That, soon after hearing this, Erasmus wrote his dialogue on the right pronunciation of Latin and Greek, to appear as if he himself were the discoverer, and offered it to * " Des. Erasini Roterodami de Recta Latini Grs3cique Sermonis Pro- nunciatione Dialogus." A decidedly amusing book. Reprinted in Haver- camp's Sylloge, 2, 1 — 180. f Amsterdam, 1685, fo. p. 36 ; Foertsch's edition, Halle, 1833, vol. i., p. 79. Part of this is quoted from Wetsten by Prof. J. S. Blackie, in his " Pronunciation of Greek : Accent and Quantity. A Philological Inquiry." 1852. ENGLISH PRONDNCIATION OP GREEK. 5 Peter of Alost, the printer, for printing ; but, as he happened to be engaged with other matter, he declined, or, at any rate, said he was not able to print the book as soon as Easmus wished. That there- upon it was sent to Froben at Basle, by whom it was soon prmted and published. But that, when Erasmus found out the trick, he never afterwards used that method of pronouncing, nor taught his friends, with whom he lived in terms of intimacy, to follow it. {Erasmum cognitd fraucle nu7iquam ed j'ronunciandi ratione posted usiun, nee amicls, quibusmivifamilidi iter vlvebat, ut earn ohservdrent, prcecepisse.) In proof of this, M. Eutger showed a scheme of pro- nunciation written by the hand of Erasmus himself (a copy of which I still possess), for the use of Dauiian de Goes, of Spain, which in no way differs from that which learned and unlearned use everywhere for this language {in nullo dlverswrn ah ed, qua passim clocti et indoeti in hdc lirigud Htuntur). — Hein-icus Coraco- petrseus Cuccensis [of Kuik, in North Brabant ?], Neomagi [Nij- megen], 1569 [41 years after the publication of Erasmus's dialogue], the eve of St. Simon and St. Jude [27th Oct.]." The great English apostles of this new faith, invented by Glarean as a bit of fun to poke at his friend Erasmus, were Sir John Cheke, tutor to Prince Edward, afterwards Edward YL, and Sir Thomas Smith, successively Public Orator at Cambridge, Pro- vost of Eton, and Secretary of State to Edward VI. These gentle- men entered into a spirited controversy with the well-known Stephen Gardiner, bishop of Winche»*;er, then Chancellor of the University of Cambridge, who defended the living Greek pronun- ciations with all the vehemence of language and official tyranny for which he became noted. Thus, after setting forth the present modern Greek pronunciation then in general use,* he decrees in The following are his words, which are, at least so far as they go (they are by no means complete), an authoritative accoimt of the pro- nunciation of Greek current in England in the middle of the sixteenth century. (Compare Appendix IV.) The "quantities" are added. " Diphthongos Graecas, nedum Latinas, nisi id diaeresis exigat, sonis ne diducito, neve divellito, quaesitam usu alter! vocaliujn praerogatlvam nc adimito, sed ut marem fceminae dominari sinito, quae vero earum in coni- muuionem soni usu convenerunt, iis tu negotium ne facessito. Ai ab 6, 01 et €t ab i sono ne distinguito, tantum in orthographia dis- crimen servato. i) i v uno eodemque sono exprimito: cujusque tamen propriam in orthographia sedem diligenter notato. In /f et 7 quoties cum diphthongis aut vocalibus sonos i aut e referenti- bus consonantur, quoniam a doctis etiamnum in usu variantur, alils den- siorem, aliis tenuiorem sonum aflSngentibus, utriusque proniu]t"ationis modiun discito, ne aut horum aut illorum aures offendfis, neve de sonis litem inutiliter excites ; caeterum qui in his sonus a pluribus receptus est, ilium frequentato. B hteram ad exemplum nostri b ne inspissato, sed ad imitationem v consonantis moUius proferto. Literas tt et r, item 7 et k, pro loco et situ alios atque alios sonos admittere memento. Itaque t et tt tum demum )8 quum proxime locantur, haec post /It, iUa post u, his locis videhcot litera t referat nostrum d, tt vero b nostrum exprimat. Litera porr5 7 cum proxima sedem occupet ante « x> ^^f aliud 7, huic 6 ENGLISH PRONL^NCIATION OF GREEK. 1542 that if any one uses any other pronunciation he shall be ac- counted a fool {hitnc hominem, quisquis is erit, ineptiim omnes habento) ; if a member of the senate, he shall either recant or be expelled ; if a candidate, he shall not be allowed to take any degree of honour ; if a student, he should not be accounted such ; and if a boy, he shall be flogged at home (puerllem denique teme- ritdtem, si quid publice ansa fuerit, donii apud suds castigdri curdto ;) and the Vice-Chancellor and Proctors are charged with the execution of this decree.* Of course, " humanities " were not to be controlled by such " inhumanities " as Gardiner's, and Cheke's and Smith's scheme, which suited English pronunciation in the sixteenth century, succeeded in establishing itself, although utterly detestable to a Greek ear, as indeed Sir Thomas Smith testifies, on the only occasion when he was able to speak with a Greek, "a learned and polite man," he says, but who "got into a heat as soon as I began to speak of that pronunciation, and called Erasmus an ass [^Badinuin], in downright French, for having introduced such broad [yastoti] sounds and harsh diphthongs into Greek." t But the pronunciation of English has changed greatly since that time, and the English pronunciation ot Greek with it, so that the latter has become very unlike the Erasmian, and more frightful than ever. In Germany the result has been a little different, but it is still hateful to Greeks. In both countries these would-be reformers continued to write the Greek accent marks most carefully, and as carefully utterly ignored their existence in speaking, but treated the words as if they were Latin, and placed their substitute for the Latin accent (which is wholly post -classical) npoB that syllable which would have had a high pitch of the voice according to Latin rules, although these differed in principle and practice from Greek habits. To read French with the English position and nature of the accent, and the English pronunciation of the letters, would be delightful in comparison ! The one solitary excuse for this linguistic madness (I can in- vent no milder term) is that we are thus able to preserve the *' quantity" of the syllables. Of course the old Greeks did not un- derstand how to pronounce their own language in such a way as to bring out the quantity, although there is a tolerably well estab- tu non suurn, sed sonum v literae accommodato. k autem post y poaitas eonura 7 affingito. Ne multa. In sonis omnino ne philosophator, sed utitor prsesentibus. In his si quid emendandum sit, id omne autoritati permittito. Publice vero protiteri quod ab autoritate sancita diversum, et consuetudine loquendi recepta alienum sit, nefas esto. Quod hie exprimitur, id consuetudini consentaneum diicito, hacte- nusque pareto." Havercamp, 2, 205. * The whole controversy in England and Holland has been collected in two biilky volumes by Havercamp. Sylloge Scriptorum qui de Hnguae Graecae vera et recta pronuntiatione commentarios reliquerunt. Lugd. Bat. [Leyden], 1736, 8vo, pp. 476; and Index. Sylloge Altera . . . Lugd. Bat. 1740, 8vo. pp. 726, and Index. Gardiner's edict is in vol. 2, pp. 205-7. t Havercamp, 2, 481. ENGLISH PRONUNCIATION OP GREEK. 7 lished tradition that they regulated their rhythms by quantity only, and never used the Latin accent. But our Latin treason against Greek does not succeed in its object. The only cases in which our usual pronunciation of Greek shews quantity are when € rj or o (o occur in final syllables ending in a consonant, or when any vowels and diphthongs occur in the last syllable but one of words of more than two syllables. It is needless to say that, if we are to read Greek verse at all with regard to rhythm, we must pre- serve both the quantity and the accent. We have quite a right to read ancient Greek verse without rhythm, for there are no Greeks alive that read it with rhythm.* We have also quite a right not to learn or teach Greek at all. But this is a matter not under discussion. It is known that Greek is taught, and that Greek verses are read, and that boys and young men are incited by prizes even to write imitation Greek verses. Then it seems to me to follow that they should be taught to pronounce Greek in a way that would have been intelligible to Greeks at some epoch or other, and to read ancient Greek verse in a way that would have been intelligible to Greeks at an epoch when quantity still regulated verse and the nature of accent remained un- changed. None of these things are now done. We change the nature of accent from an alteration of pitch to an alteration of force, precisely as the modern Greeks are in the habit of doing, but arbitrarily neglect the position of the accent, which the modern Greeks observe, and we systematically neglect quantity, except in the cases just mentioned. To shew how we neglect quantity as well as accent, take the so- called definite article 6 f] to; how do we distinguish these words from w e T'), and also pronounced both ot and iJ as v (that is, as the modern French u). These pronunciations are the distinctive marks of the preceding thousand years, reaching to B.C. 125, or a l.ttle earlier, but during the earlier half of this millennium the feeling for quantity and acceut (which broke down at the latter end of the 8rd century a. d.) was still in force, the aspiratj was possibly used both before vowels and p, (a mere revival which lasted but a short time,) and there was, I believe, more of the sound of ov heard in the diphthongs av ev, which were not o/i e^ or a(f) f(f), but more like aou/3, eou/i or aovelliiig, there were several transitions, and 1 cannot feul in any degree certain respecting the changing usages of any part of that tune, though probably in the third century B.C., tlie time of Aristotcles and Demosthenes, a good deal of tiie pronunciation can be established. Bub the 30 years preceding B.C. 403 were the time of the Pelo- ponnesian war, when there was evidently much change, and before * In order to be intelligible to an unprepared audience the Greek names in this Lecture were all pronounced as usual in England, but I liave endHa- voured, by j.dding the Greek accents and adopting Greek spelling, to en- able the reiider, by help of the Appendix, to pronounce tlxcm either in the Dionysian or modern Greek fashion. In Appendix V., thoy will be found written in Greek characters, and distributed according^ to date. t Boeclvh's Corpus Inscriptiouum Graecarum, 1828-33 53. Kirch- hoif's Studies on the Greek Alphabet 1863 — 7; his old Attic Inscrip- tions 1874, (studied by Cauer 1875 in Curtius's Studien S, 223 — 302), Weber's Indian Transcriptions 1871 ; Newton and Hicks's Old Attic In- scriptions in the British Museum 1874. Disquisitions in Curtius's Grund- ziige der grieohischen Etymologie, 4th Edition, 1873. X Transcriptions of Greek into Latin Letters in MSS. of the 9th, 12th, and loth centuries, Latin written in Greek letters, 6th, 7th and 8th cen- turies. 10 DIONYSIAN PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK. that, up to B.C. 5?0, when Peisistratos collected the poems of Homeros, and written Greek literature may be said to have commenced, we have the old Attic period for which great uncer- tainty prevails and the old writing is ambiguous and insufficienc. Of course it is well known that our present Greek spelling is me- dieval, and of no assistance whatever in these researches. The difficulty of such transition periods is not to know what sounds were used by some one at some t me or other, but to ascertain at what time one sound ceased — not to be used, but — to be usual, and the other supplied its place. Thus, I have been able to form a very precise notion of the pronunciation of English during the 14th and 16th centuries, but the transition period of the 15th baffles me altogether. This will explain the difficulty which I feel in trying to discover the changes in Greek pronunciation during the five hundred j^ears preceding the second millennium reckoned upwards from the present day. Before B.C. 630, everything is mere conjecture, although we have some inscriptions from the island of Thera, usually refer. -ed to B.C. 620. Now I am not going to trouble you with this investigation, which is not only very long and difficult to follow, but not in point for our present object, as no uncertain pronunciation could be proposed for school or college use.* The great objection to the Erasmian scheme was that it was purely conjectural. To avoid this rock, I select from all these diiJerent possible pronunciations one which I call the Dionysian, because I can feel no doubt that it represents in all essentials the pronunciation of Diony'sios of Halicarnassos, who is the earliest and most direct authority on the subject that we possess, since the works of Aristophanes of Byzantium have not come down to us.t In this Dionysian form Greek came to Cicero, Virgil, and Horace, the last of whom naturalised Greek lyric metres in Rome. It is the latest form which retained all the feeling of ancient quantity and accent, the form which Greek rhetoricians and grammarians had especially elaborated and studied for the purpose of teaching their language to Romans, and the form which was used when the present ortho- graphy of Greek was settled. The movement which has been so happily bagun for abolishing our abominable English perversion of Latin, and reverting to a classical type, necessarily involves a similar treatment of Greek, and would seem to point to the con- temporary pronunciation of the two languages during the century before and the century after our era, as that which we should seek to restore. This gives us as a result Ciceronian Latin and Dionysian Greek. * In Appendix V. I have given a more detailed view of these changes distributed over eight or nine periods, but generally without assigning reasons, some of which however will be found in the notes to the transla- tion of Diony'sios in Appendix VE. t A Tabular Statement of my view of the Dionysian Pronunciation •will be found in Appendix I., which should now be consulted. The justifi- cation of this view will be found in the annotated translation of all the passages in Diony'sios's writings bearing on the subject, in Appendix VI. DIONYSIAN PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK. 11 Diony'sios, as we shall see in tlie passages which I shall read to you [Appendix III.], lays great stress on quantity and accent. As to quantity it should offer no difficulty, and in my lecture in June 1874, now printed as a book with many developments, under the name of Practical Hints on the Quantitative Pronuncia- tion of Latin (Macmillan 1874), every necessary detail is given. Suffice it to note that difference of length in a vowel does not alter its sound. It is absurd to say that the vowels in mane, 7nieni wine, goat, tune, are the long sounds of the vowels in man, men, win, got, tun. Hence the first practice is to hold one sound, as a, for one or two swings of a pendulum or of the hand, without altering its pitch or sound. This is best done by prefixing a consonant as nd na ira, nd, rrd, na nd, nd na at a uniform pitch of the voice. All syllables having a long vowel are long, and from the scheme given below it is seen that all that is necessary to make the Greek orthography indicate the proper sounds, is to place the long marks over the vowels d, f, v, when they are long " by nature." It is extremely difficult to find out when they are so, and when the printed book is not so marked,the master should first read aloud the passage to be studied, and the pupils should place a pencil mark under every long d r v which occurs in it. No teacher ought to suppose that a pupil knows the quantities of these " doubtful " vowels intuitively, or expect him to discover them by painful consultation of Lexicons. There are many long syllables having a short vowel, the length being due to combinations of following consonants, and as these are easily learned, they need not be marked. In the transcribed examples in the Appendix, I have indicated these cases by placing a short mark over the vowel and a hyphen between the consonants, because the common fault is to say that the vowel, instead of the syllable, is "long by position." What has to be acquired is a habit of dwelling on the consonant sufficiently to make the length of the syllable apparent, and this is especially necessary with double consonants. Let Englishmen compare un-owned with unknown, blacking with black king, &c. As there are no slurred vowels, but merely aphaeresis and crasis, which are almost invariably indicated in writing, and as there is no unpronounced final consonant in Greek, like the old Latin s before consonants and m before vowels, the question of quantity in Greek is much simpler than in Latin. But there are even more combina- tions which may make the preceding vowel form a long as well as a short syllable (as the first syllables of tek-vu, re-Kva vv. 1 & 6, e8-pds, €-dpdu vv. 2 & 13, in the passage from Sophocles, in App. III.), and initial combinations which invariably or generally react on the preceding vowel (as didi T7-poia\\r€u, v. 3 of the passage from Homer, in App, III.) The general (perhaps not invariable) assimila- tion of final j/to the subsequent consonant, which shows itself in very early Attic inscriptions, before B.C. 400, bears a striking analogy to the assimilation of final Latin m before a consonant, which I pointed out in my lecture on Latin, but there is no identity of practice. 12 DIONYSIAN PRONUNCIATION OF GEEEK. The musical accent is very much more varied in Greek than it was in Latin ; but as we have many of the varieties in the mode of modulating our voice at the ends of interroeative or affirmative phrases, the difficulty will be found to consist, not in apprehendin^jj the nature of a musical accent, nor in itnilating it in isolated words, but in acquiring a sufficiently ready control over onr organs to bring it in on all occasions in peaces which are unfamiliar to our habits. Suppose we are askijig whether we are to do a thing " so" and are answered that we are, we should ask, so f = era? (4),* with a high pitch of voice, and be answered, so = aco (2), in a much lower pitch. The former so has an acute, the latter so a grave vowel. Again, in English we may often cry out oh!=a) (5), or answer no^po) (5), making both o's very long, beginning them both with a high pitch, and gliding down in pitch as we hold them on. These are the true circumflexed sounds. We may do this with a diphthong, as in " not now !" =■ v6t vaov (5), when the descent of the voice is especially felt on the second element. All these cases occur in Greek, as may be seen by the examples of monosyllables (1) to (5) in Appendix II. I may remark that I find it conveni- ent to distinguish syllables as affected by force into strong and loeak, as affected by length into long and short, and as affected by pitch into high and lotv, to which I add down when the pitch begins high and glides to low. For purposes of teaching, it is neces- sary to combine the names for length and pitch, and we hence obtain the terms high-long, high-short, low-long, low-short, down- long (there is no down -short), which may be conveniently con- tracted into hhfh, lit, low, lo, doivn respectively, and written more simply liigh hi, h.iv lo, doivn, the full and abridged spelling sufficiently indicating long and short duration, which should be imitated when reading the words, while the sound of the words high and loiv shews the pitch, which should however be imitated in reading. Pronounced thus, with the pitch and length which they denote, these "rhythmical names" will be found very ser- viceable in teaching to read by quantity and mui^ical accent. We have many more variations of pitch for monosyllables in English, all determining meaning, but as they are not marked in Greek, I need not trouble you with them. It must, however, be ob- served that these pitch accents do not add at all to the force or loud- ness of the words. Words with a high pitch, as Ka\ = Krj, fxev, Se, 8t], may be, and in such cases as these almost always must be, touched very lightly, whether long or short. This is best seen in combina- tion thus ; if we ask did she ?=^did shi (9), and receive the answer, she did = shi did (10), we have in each case a long syllable with a short vowel, did = did, in the oidinary pitch, and a very short syllable, she -shi, in a high pitch, but in different orders. That is, we have low-ht (9) and hi-Uw (10). Again, if we shout for Mary ! we most probably say firjpi (9), with a long and a short like did she ? or ^iripi' (7) with two long syllables, but at the same time raise the * These immbers affixed to the English examples refer to the Greek examples of Dionysian Quantity and Accent in the Appendix II. DIONYSIAN PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK. 13 voice on the last syllable. That is, we have low-lii (9) and low- higk (7). Again, if we ask, did you say he earned we end with * Krjfi (11), where we have a short low syllable followed by a high long, or lo-hlgh (11) ; and if the answer is, no surely, the last word sni-ely = shovpXi (8), has a long high followed by a short low syllable, high-Id (8). If we ask of an omnibus conductor. City ?= ^s in our present English Greek, for that would be as bad as to confuse h with ch in German, that is to say, it is utterly destructive of meaning. It is not of so much importance to keep y distinct from g, because g never occurs except when generated after the sound of ng ; but of course those who can learn the sound of Dutch g*, which is the same as the Ger- man g in Tage, should do so. The nature of the modern Greek accent and quantity, and the general tone of speech, is also so like English that they present no difficulty whatever ; whereas I find that the musical accent is a great stumbling-block at first, because it is so thoroughly un-English, and makes the declama- tion of Greek fully as difficult as that of French — and we all know how wretchedly schoolboys, as a rule, learn to read out a simple piece of French prose. The Hellenic pronunciation really suffices for everything but the study of ancient versification — a very plea- sant esthetical study to some minds, but, involving entirely unu- sual elements, which cannot be properly appreciated without much hard labour of a peculiar kind, certainly not suitable for general school purposes. It is indeed lamentable to find boys spending years over acquiring such an appreciation of the rules of Latin and Greek rhythm as will enable them to write what passes as Latin and Greek "verses" (they wisely don't call it "poetry") without havino: any correct conception of the nature of English rhythm. But, be it so ; suppose that musical accent is too trouble- some to be acquired in conjunction with the preservation of quantity, but that a knowledge of the laws of classical rhythm is indispensable, and hence a knowledge of the quantities also in- dispensable, is it necessary to neglect the Hellenic stress, as compulsorily marked on every word, and force an entirely foreign habit, that of the modern Latin stress, upon ancient Greek? Because we want to keep the quantities, must we, when we other- wise preserve Hellenic pronunciation, make such blunders as * In Dutch also ova English sound of ^ in yo never occurs except when generated by a following sound. It is necessary that those who consider it " impossible" for a language to have no such sound as (/ hard, should bear this in mind. Our Enghsh ff is even a great difficulty for Dutchmen to overcome, as they are not generally conscious of the generation of this sound from k when 1c ends a word and b ov d begins the next, as in strijicbout, jsronounced nearly as arpaiffbaovT ; and ff never occurs other- wise in their own language. The reality of this change (which depends upon a general rule of Dutch pronunciation) is vouched for by Donders (I)e Physiologie der Spraakklanken — the physiology of speech-sounds with especial reference to the Dutch, Utrecht, 1870, p. 23), and by Land {Over JJitspraak en Spelling — on pronunciation and spelling, especially in Dutch, Amsterdam, 1870, p. 31). The latter says :— " In English this rule does not hold good : Bra = /co'A-ttw bosom (dat.), vaiSuv = irf}-Su>u of children, "EKTcop Hector, rl'/crj victory, epycav = Vp-yoov of works, t€ux» = Teov V V must be very emphatic, and the emphasis may be brought out by making the first syllable high, short, and weak, but distinct, while the second syllable is low, very long, and somewhat strong. The second syllable of \4yeiy, though long, will necessarily not be so long. 2. The 6e\a> here, though equally emphatic, will have the second syllable shorter, as it will run on to 8e, forming one word to English ears, but remaining two words to ancient Greek ears, because of the high pitch on the Se. Observe also the two acutes in Se KciS- so that the voice does not descend till the -fioi/, and then rises on the ot-. 3. Observe the low 'd, the rise from -tos to Se closely connected with it, and especially in xo/>5ar5 the initial long low syllable followed by a long syllable with a down glide from a high pitch. 4. In efWTa observe the high short syllable to commence with, and let the force and expression fall on the low second syllable -pw. The down glide on [xov- can be made very efi'ective. In ^x«*> ^^^ fii"^^ syllable is long and strong, the second long, down, and weak. 5. In ¥i(xfi^\/a the pitch changes as in the preceding ^pwra, but the first syllable is now long. In yevpa, observe the 4+ov, high pitch at beginning and low pitch at end of diphthong. 6. Observe the three consecutive high pitch syllables in koI t^jv \i-, which are very efi'ective ; and also the high pitch on the short &.- and the fall of pitch on to the long strong -na-, of which much can be made. 7. Make much of the Kayi} with two long syllables of, which the second has a high pitch, and observe the three consecutive pitches in -yi) fxlv ^-, only the last of which glides down. The first in -y^ is very strong, the second in ixkv very weak. 8. The two long low syllables followed by the high short syllable in TfpaKAe- will require practice. 9. Eemember that there are only two high syllables in the whole line. 10. This is a very difiicult line to pronounce satisfactorily, on account of the long low but strong oi = 0, and of the throwing of the high pitch on to syllables which have no force. 11. The yap at the end must be weak as well as high. 12. Much can be made of /ioVous if treated as BeKw in 1., which see. B. Anacreon, Ode 2. This passage is selected for the numerous oi = v. The words 1. Kepdra, 2. eS(t)K€U, 3. TTO^coKitjv \ayiao7s, 5. Ix^vcriv, 6. opveois TrcTaadai, 7. avSpdaiv tpp6tn]fj.a, 8. yvpai^v, 9. hihucri, 10. aaTrihuiv airdawv, 11. iyx^euu, 12. aiSrjpov all require especial attention, on account of the high pitch falling upon weak syllables. Observe the great eff'ect produced by the concurrence of a down and three high syllables in 12., with the high and down in 12. koI ftvp, and also of the pitch of the three last words. 4^wis Kipdra ravpoLs, ata-- rdovfi-pva {d + oiJ, pitch sustained) 2. oirkas b* €b(jiK€V ltittols, 6-ir\d'z "iir-TTva' 4. Kiovdi x^^i^' oboPTOdv, ZjJ. o'vd-T TOIS IxOva-lV TO VrjKTOVj Tvv, kol bXos 'AxtA.Aei/9. dr-pf dKor dv-8 K-f] a-xX\-\4ov^ir * * * * 26 SPECIMENS OP DIONYSIAN PRONUNCIATION. [aPP. III. 33. *X2s ecpar'' ebheiaev 5' 6 yipoiv, kol iireCdeTo fiv'Sia* e5-Sl K6 TTt' u 34. /3^ 8' CLK^oiv irapa diva 7roXv hiKaiGiV f/,r) Trap' ayyikcov, T€Kva, V d7i-7e re-Kua a\K(t)v oLKoveiv avrbs c58' eATJAv^a, aA-A. ti/ aov(p-T 8. 6 Trao-t kXciz^os OtStTTovj KaXoiJ/xez^os. I V aXK^i w yepate, (l)pdC cTret TrpiiTMv €(})vs a\-\ w r}-4 ^pafz-Z€irf 10. Trpo To^vbe (fxoveLVf tCvl rpoTTO) KaOiaraTej viv Ti-vir-p6-Tr(t/ e(T-T b€L(ravT€S, 17 cTTip^avres ; ws OiXovro^ av Slaavd-Tea" ar"" pK-aavd-T^ar ovd-r 11. €fJLov TipocrapKeiv ttolv. bvo-dkyrjTos yap hv o.p-KLv &'\-yir]rocr-y €ir]V TOidvhe fjLT] ov KaToiKT€Lpo)V ehpdv. fr]u T-JaV-5e (jl^ov vK-ri e-Spdv. B. — DiONYSius Halicarnassensis. The rhythm of prose is much more difficult than that of verse. Per- haps the reading of French prose is the hest guide. The student had better break up the passage into short phrases as cKcpwi/elTai 5h — radra irduTa — TTis apr-qpids — avvexovarjs rh irvevfxa, &G;, and then break these up again into feet, as indicated in Appendix VI., chap. xvii. and xviii. De Cowpositione Yerhorum: Cap. xiv. 'EK06!)z;etrat 6e ravra iravra Trjs dpTripCds (rvv€\ov(Tr]'S v7r€ Toiovcp-Ta iravd-ra TO TTvevpia, KOL Tov (TToixaTOS airXcas (Ty7]p.aTi(T6€VTOS ^ TTueovS-fia K-f] a-irX Xrr/pids eirl (^payy K-f} eov0-fM K-fj KLvrjOeCa-qs eK^ipeTai. . . . avTwv be twv fxaKpcav eixjycovoTaTov 6i' €K- Te iov(p-(l> 28 SPECIMENS OF DIONYSIAX PRONUNCIATION. [aPP. III. g-b a, orav iKTeivqrai' Kiy^rai yap avoiyo^iivov rov dAcpa iK-Ti' T6 T6 vv (TToixaTOS 6776 TrAetcrroz^, kol tov irvcVfiaTOs avo) (f)€pofx4vov i-Trl'iT-Kta-Tov K^ TlpOS TOV OVpaVOV. A€VT€pOV §€ TO T}' OTL KOLTO) T^epX TTJV 5€OV(p'T€-p6u~ TJTa ^dcTLV Trjs yk(ocr(rr}s epeibeL tov i]Xov aKokovOov, a\\.' ovk €ptSl avw, kolI [X€rpL(as avoiyofjiivov [rod orojuaros]. TpiTov be fic-rpi vv TO CO* (TTpoyyvWeTaC re yap iv avT<2 to (TToixa, kol u> yt.4ya oyy-yv'X-X^-Ti-Te aov(p-T roa-T K^ Trepicrr eAAet tol •)(€Lkrj, TrjV re irXriyip to TTvevfjia irepl to r«-pX(T-Te'\-\l x^' To'TT-viov^-fia CLKpoa-TOfjiLOV TTOietrat. "KaTL be tJttov tovtov to v a-KpQ(T-T TTU-T-Te eV-Tl T-T U TT(TI-X6v irepl yap avTO. to, x^^^V orvo-Tokrjs yevofxevrjs dftoAoyou, aov(p-Td X*' a-va-T aK-a TTvtyeTaL, kol aTevos eKTrtTrret 6 ?5xo?. "Eo-)(aroj; be TiavTOdv Tc k)) tK-irViT-Ti ^"""X Twd-Se iravd-T TO L' irepl Tovs obovTas yap rj Kp6Ti}crLs tov irvevixaTos i-60-Ta o'vd-7a(T ir-veovfi-fi yl'veTai, \xiKpov avoiyo^xevov tov aTOfxaTos, Kal ovk. re pv K-i] eTnXajjLTTpvvovTOiv TQiv yj^CKeaiV tov rixpv, Tiav be ^payioav Kafib-Trpv-vo' vd-T x* ovbeTepov jxev evrjx^^y ^iTroi^ 6e bv(Tr]xes to o' pofX' 4ovfi-7) fir-Tov-de o-fii-KpSv bu(rTr}(rL yap to (TTOfia KpelTTOv ddTepov ttjv be irX'qy'qv Bi-"i'a-T yap- to'v b' aixcporipas pl'-ds a.fJL- €Ka'T€pov 6^' €o" hiKaiuV fil trap ay\ye\'(av, re'-Kva, a\'\wu aKovlv a'l(r irpo rcopSe (pwvVv, riv'ir-poir'co Kadecr'rare Sr(Tav-de(r i crrep'Kaap-ditr ; cue de\'ou-dos av efxov' trpocrap-Klv' irdv. Si(ra\'i/lros-yap av t'iv riavSe fiyov KarlKrVpcov e'Spdv. APPENDIX V. Table of Possible or Probable Changes in the Pronun- ciation OF Greek. A. Periods considered and their duration. Number. Name. from to Tears. 0. Formative origin first poems unknown 1. Dialectal first poems B.C. 530 unknown 2. Old Attic B.C. 530 B.C. 403 127 3. New Attic B.C. 403 B.C. 300 103 4. Alexandrine B.C. 300 B.C. 25 275 0. Roman B.C. 25 A.D. 375 400 6. Byzantine A.B. 375 A.D. 875 500 7. Transition A.D. 875 A.D. 1375 500 8. Modern A.D. 1375 A.D. 1875 500 Total known years 2405 B. Boundaries of these periods. None of these periods must be considered as bounded by sbarp lines, B.C. 530. Ilettrto-TpaTos collects poems of "Ofirjf/os. B.C. 403. Ionic alphabet officially adopted in Athens. B.C. 300. Alexandria the chief seat of Greek learning. B.C. 25. About the date of reduction of Egypt (B.C. 30) and settle- ment of Greece by Augustus (B.C. 20). A.D. 375. Incorporation of Greece into Eastern Empire (actually A.D. 379). A.D. 875. Decline of power of the patriarch ^diTios at Constantinople (actually extinguished A.D. 886). A.D. 1375. Decadence of Eastern Empire (actual extinction A.D. 1458), about the time of the complete triumph of i over r] oi v. C. Distribution of writers in ancient Greek among these periods. 1. "O/UT^pos, 'HcrtoSos, 'Apx^^^xos, 2o7r<|)cb, 'AyaKpewu, ^i/xooviSris, Earliest inscriptions about B.C. 650. 2. 0€oyvis, B.C. 570-485. AtVxvAos, B.C. 525-456. Ubdapos, B.C. 522- 442. Kpar7uos, B.C. 619-422. 2o. 136-170. navaauids, circa A.D. 170. 'HpajStdi/Js, circa A.D. 170. 'nptyej/Tjy, A.D. 186-251. (Feeling for Quantity and Pitch Accent lost in late 5.) 5. & 6. XpiaSa-Toiiios, A.D. 347-407. (Force Accent only used.) 6. Sinaitic, Vatican, and Alexandrine Manuscripts of New Testament, and parts of Septuagint, the oldest Greek MSS. ; all in capitals or uncials. No orthography of works written prior to this period is trust- worthy, except that in ancient monuments. D. Distribution of Sounds of Letters among these Fcriods. The uncials or capital letters are the Greek characters as used exclu- sively to the end of A.D. 375 at least. The small letters have the Dionysian senses assigned in I., p. 20. The figures 0., L, &c., refer to the periods, and shew the times during which the sounds indicated by the small letters were probably given to the initial uncials. All reasons and references are designedly omitted, as they would involve a separate and rather exten- sive treatise, but some will be found in the annotations to Appendix VI., below. Only the Attic, and subsequently the " common" dialect, that is, only literary Greek, is taken into consideration. A long, 0. to 8. a, varying shades from a in all^ to « in father and a in ask. A short, 0. to 8. o, varying shades as before. Ai, 0. to 3. and later (?) iX. In 4. aX with faint t. From end of 4. to 8. d. AT, 0. 1. oi (?) German ai. In 2. ?i"(?) English long iin. bite. From 4. to 8. 77 or g in there, the long of €. AT, 0. 1. 2. oou(?) German au. From 3. to 5. (?) oou)3, with tightened lips, aov

see p. 43, note. "V, possibly 0. to 7., y rov \6yov fiopluv) beside each other. These are called by others the elements of reading or writing {o-Toix^7a ttjs Ae^ews). [©eoSe'/c- T7JS and 'Af)i(TT0T4\'r]s admitted only three — nouns, verbs, and conjunctions. Subsequent writers, especially the Stoics, raised them to four, distinguished conjunctions and articles. Then nouns were divided into adjectives and substantives. Afterwards others disassociated pronouns from nouns, adverbs from verbs, prepositions from conjunctions, and participles from adjectives.] But however many we choose to consider them, the connec- tion and juxtaposition of these parts of speech form what are called phrases (K«Aa, members) ; and the union {apixovia) of phrases completes periods (7r€pt($Sovs), which together constitute the whole of what is said {rhv avixiravra \6yov) , Chapter hi. — All writing or speaking (Ae^is) by which we symbolise thought, must be in verse (eyu/ierpos) or in prose {dfierpos). [To shew the effect of the collocation of words in each kind, examples are given from -Homer, Od. xvi. 1-16,* and Herodotus, i. 8, 9, translated from the Ionic to the common dialect.] Chapter iv. — To make you better feel the force of collocation in poetry and prose, I will take sopie passages which are allowed to be well con- structed, and by altering the arrangements {rhs apfiovlas ficraOels) I will change the character both of the verse and the prose. First take these lines of Homer, II. xii. 433-5. ciAA' €xoi', Siare raKavra yvv^ x^f"'^''"'^ a\7}6^s, i^r€ (TTaOfihv exovaa not eJ^ioj/, aficpls av4\K^i lard^ova ,'lva itaialv aet/cea fiitrdhv ^prjrai. This is in perfect heroic, dactylic hexameters. Now by merely chang-. ing the order of the words, I will make the lines into tetrameters, and, iv, place of heroic, accentual {'7rpo(ra}SiKovs), thus ctAA* exov, &(iTi yvvi] x^P^^'^'^^ rdKayra a\T}9}]S, tJt' etpioif aiJL(p\s koI (TTad/xhv ^x^vtr' i.U€\K€i lad^ova Xv de(/cea iraKTlv &poiTo [sic] fiiadSp. * Of course Aio^vaios had no conception how to pronounce "O/Mtipos except as he himself pronounced ; yet he goes on to speak of the beauty of the passage which " seduces and be\vitches the ear," (indyerai kui Kr^K^l jas oLKods,) and to shew that this effect does not depend on the words used ^ut on thciy colloc^tiop. APP. VI.] DIONYSIUS ON GREEK PRONUNCIATION. 37 These are so called Priapean or ithyphallic verses, like ov fie^TjKos, us Aeyerai, rod v4ov Aioviffov, Kt^yw 8' e| evepyeclrjs a}pyiaafi4pos ^«ca>. dSevwv Ur]\ov(TiaKhi' Kvecpaios Ttaph. TeAfia.* Chapter x. — After these definitions we have to speak of what a person should aim at who wishes to put a composition (Ae|ji/) well together (a-vy- riOeuai), and by what rules he will attain his end. The two principal aims (reAiKcoTara), as I conceive, which those who wish to write good verse or prose should desire to attain {fcpUa-Bai dei) are pleasure to the ear {rj 7}5ov^) and beauty to the mind (rh KaXhu). Chap. xi. — Now there are four principal elements of pleasure to the ear and beauty to the mind, — music (ficKos, difference of pitch), rhythm {pvOfxhsf division of time), change {ixera^oX^, avoidance of uniformity), and the result of these three, appropriateness (rh irpeirhu). Under what is pleasing (tV v^ov^v), I class elegance (t^i/ S>pav), grace (ri]i/ x^P^^)y flowingness (rVci'O'TO/uia*'), sweetness {rrju 7AuKirr77Ta), persuasiveness {rh iridavht/) , and such like. Under what is beautiful {rh KaAhi/), I put magnificence (t^j/ fieyaKoirpeTTCiai/), weight {t}) ^dpos), solemnity (t^;/ (re/jivoXoyiap), dignity (rh a^'KOfxa), persuasiveness {rh iridavov, as before), and such like. Now I said that the ear is pleased first with music, then with rhythm, next with change, and above all with appropriateness. For the truth of this I appeal to experience, which cannot be accused of misleading in * This third line is added from 'H^atcTTiwi/, as explained by Schafer, who translates : " Non sum prof anus, ut dicitur : Bacchi juvenilis ex beue- ficio et ipse sacris initiatus adsum, dum vespertinus iter facerem juxta Pelusiacum palfidem." The (hepyiai-qs is also from 'li^aKTTicoVy as the MSS. of Aiovvaios read ipyaaifjs. Mr. E. M. Geldart, Cambridge (New) Journal of Philology, 1869, p. 160, as quoted by Dr. Wagner, in his Medi- eval Greek Texts, Preface, shews that these lines, and the transformed lines of Homer, if read as modem Greek (period 8.), would give, rather rough, arixoi iroXiriKoi, or the usual modem verse. By improving the transposition (as Dr. Wagner suggests, but since he reads ^Ipiov and not etpiov, I have altered his arrangement somewhat) they can be made still better, thus (writing the modem pronunciation as in Appendix IV., p. 31, with stress mark), a\ 6'xo*' Q'(i)i^'f)€i/Ta), and the latter of all the rest (to \onra -ndvTo.). The second distinction consists in that some of those which are not J vowels are able to produce some kind of whizzing, hissing, or clacking noises (poi^ov, avpiyfihv, voTnrvfffihv), and such like, but others have neither voice {pa). Those who adopt * See Greek text. Appendix TIL, F. p. 29. t All these distinctions are enforced for Latin by Cicero, " Esse ergo in oratione numerum quondam non est difficile cognoscere." — Orator, § 183. " Est autem in dicendo quidam cantus obsciirior in quo illud etiam no- taudum mihi videtur ad studium persequendae suavitatis in vocibus. Ipsa enim natura, quasi modularetur hominum orationem, in omni verbo posuit aciitam vocem, nee un-l plus, nee a postrema syllaba citra tertiam.'* — Ibid. § 57. And in many other places from the same work, which shew that the elements of accent were the same in both languages, and were by both writers considered "natural," although the feeling for them has so utterly perished in the greater part of Europe that they appear thoroughly Mw-natural to Englishmen and other nationalities. The same is also true of quantities. Compare Cicero, " omnium longitudinum et brevitatum in Bonis, sicut acutarum graviumque vocum judicium, ipsa natiira in auribus nostris coUocavit." — Ibid. § 173. X There is no " not " in the text, but it is evidently wanted for the sense. The correction generally made is to turn "vowels" into "conso- nants," but consonants are never mentioned as such, and the previous division is into vowels and " the rest," that is, vowels and non-vowels. APP. VI.] DIONYSIUS ON GREEK PRONUNCIATION. 4l a tripartite division of the first or elementary powers of the voice, apply the temi voiced {(pioi/ijei/Ta.) to those which can sound either alone or with others, and are perfect in themselves (auToreA^), and give the name of semi-voiced {r](xi <}> before H (aspirate), it seems more consonant to old Greek habits to suppose that x? were used before o- also. Hence I interpret Aiovvaios as ha\dng meant X2, *2, when he wrote, or at any rate when his MSS. give, K2, 112. The case of Z is the most difficult. 2A was an ^olic form of Z in certain cases, according to the statements of grammarians, which Ahrens (i. 4o-48) shews to be doubtful ; at any rate the ^olic dialect had Z also. It is not likely that aS was used, but it is likely that 2 was sounded as z before A when 2 ended and A began the following word, and hence that Z may- have been described, falsely, as compounded of 2 and this A. We have no right to assume that 2A meant sd or zd. The relation of z to our ih in the is well known from lispers, who change one into the other. Cur- tius assumes dz to have been the sound. I suspect dz or even dz to have been an impossible initial combination to a Greek. We find a- (TuveKfidKKoiJ.iv fx^Ta rwy (pdoyyoDU. ''ViKal 8e elai rovvavTioVy txrai ylyvopjai x^P^^ '''^^ '^^'^ TrvivpLa,Tos Ik^oKtis. — " Those vocal sounds aye 46 DIONYSIUS ON GREEK PRONUNCIATION. [aPP. VI. Chapter xv. — From these letters with these powers, syllables are formed. Syllables are long which are composed of long vowels, or of doubtful vowels prolonged, or which end in a long letter, or one spoken in a pro- rough for which we expel breath from within immediately with the sounds, and on the contrary those are smooth which take place without any expul- sion of breath." In this case the smooth letters would be mute, like our p, t, k, and the rough letters would be accompanied by breath, like our/, th, s, sh, hence the usual names of mutae IT, T, K, asjnrdtae *, 0, X. But Ato- vvaios\& very careful in saying that the configuration of the vocal organs is the same for IT and *, for T and 0, for K and X. If then n, T, K are mute, or admit of no expulsion of breath, how can the same position in *, 0, X admit of any such expulsion ? The words may mean that a strong breath escapes after loosening the contact in this case and not in the other. This, however, does not seem to be the natural meaning of the words. But they may mean that the contact is not so tight for the last three as for the first, so that a continuous stream of air passes. And this opinion is enforced by the last two sentences in the text, shewing that *, 0, X are spoken with " much breath," and though having this "addition of the breath," "approach to being most perfect" (reAet^TaTo), which must mean "resemble vowels which are auTorcA^." I cannot reconcile this remark with any other sound of *, 0, X than (p, 6, x? which (when the teeth are not touched by the lower lip for <}>, and are touched by the tongue for t) are produced, to all intents and purposes, with the same configuration {o^o'k^ (rxvi^o-'^') as ir, T, K. This being admitted, what are B, A, r? They must clearly be in the same position as either tt, t, k or , 6. X' They must also be pro- nounced with a "moderate" breath {jxiacf iryevfiaTi). Now generally voiced consonants as b, d, g or /8, S, 7, are considered softer than the cor- responding mute or "flated" consonants tt, t, k and ^, 0, %. Actually the air is expelled with much less force for the voiced than for the voiceless consonants, as we can readily feel by holding the back of the hand near the lips and first saying s and then z, prolonging the hiss of the first and the buzz of the second without allowing the buzz to fall into a hiss. The cause of this difference seems to be that the force of the wind for the voiced consonants is expended upon causing the vocal chords to vibrate. Hence I interpret the effects which Aioj/vVtos variously describes as being " between (/xera^i*) smooth and rough " (whence the term mediae), as " common to both," as " midway between both," as "belonging equally to both," as " tittered moderately," with a "moderate" breath, to mean " voiced continuously," so that the voice is heard for as long as the breath is heard in 3) /8 5 7, 4) /utt vr jik ; and in this respect are superior to any other nation in Europe, and also to the Indians, who had no 6 and obtained (p, x hy generation only, and were quite ignorant of the third series. The Spanish has the first series complete, and substitutes for the second its /, z,j; in the third it has /3, and d a substitute for 5, but APP. VI.] DIONYSIUS ON GREEK PRONUNCIATION. 47 longed manner (jbLaKpws) whether semi-voiced or voiceless. SyUahles are short which consist of a short vowel, or one taken as short, and end similarly. There are different kinds of length and shortness of syllables. no 7 (unless, as some assert, / be rather 7 than x) ; l>ut the fourth series is represented by g only, both b and d being missing. In High German 1) IT, t (not quite t), k occur only as finals ; as initials they passed into irh generating ircp (written jt?/), t-k generating is (written z), while nh is retained; 2)

fiir fi, pt 5, 7,/c 7, had only one sign, the differences depending entirely on the combinations. In Arabic v is want- ing, and is said to be/, t and k are each supplied by two varieties, but 6 and x remain ; jj.ir remains, but is represented by iv only ; and t has two forms, S remains ; 71K is absent, and 7 has two forms. These consi- derations show that we must not judge of the habits of one language by those of another. The real difficulty as respects /3, 5, 7, is finding exter- nal evidence. The Romans wrote b, d, g, and could not well have written anything else, for the digraphs bh, dh, gh, now so well known, would have shocked them. Even modem Greeks, who certainly say )3, 5, 7, always transliterate S and 7 by d, g, and only sometimes hesitate between b and V for p. But the old and most regular substitution of B for F (Curtius, Grundz,, 4th ed., p. 671 ffl.) shews that B had more probably the sound of )8 than any other, and all the other substitutions point the same way. But what it imports us to know, is the pronunciation in the time of Aiovv- ffios. The usages of the old writers are xmcertain, because the manuscripts belong to a period when B was most certainly ; hence only old coins or inscriptions are of value. Liskovius (Ausspr. des Griech., 1825, p. 55 ffl.) cites OKTABIA 2EBA2TH on a coin of Nero, A.D. 69, 4»AABI02 and *AA0TI02 on coins of Titus A.D. 70, and Domitian A.D. 79, while 2EOTA2T. = (T€0aer. occurs on a coin of Trajan, A.D. 99, and NEPBA occurs in 3 inscriptions, about A.D. 130, although all coins have NEPOTA2. These seem to be only reconcilable with a jS sound. But one of the three B, A, r, determines the rest. Hence we may feel tolerably secm-e that j8, 5, 7, which seem to be most probably implied by the very vague language of the text, were the pronunciations then in use. And they have the advantage of being those now universally employed in Greece. This examination of the 24 letters to which Aioyv'7]\hs) and dignified {a^icoixaTiKos) and marching grandly (SmjSeySTj/ccbs us irrl iroXv). 7) hjKpi^paxvs, short-long-short, does not belong to the well-arranged (6U(rx'?Ai<^''<«"') rhythms, but is broken {diaK€K\acrTai) and has much that is feminine {OrjAv) and ignoble. 8) apairaiaros, short-short-iong, has much solemnity {ae/j.i'STTjTa), suitable for giving grandeur (fieyedos) and passion {vdOos). 9) Sa/cTvAos, long-short-short, is very solemn (ae/nphs), most suitable for beauty of arrangement (els /caAAos ap/xovias), and hence a great ornament to heroic metre. 10) KprjriKos, long-short-long, not ignoble. 11) PaKx^Tos, loug-long-short, manly (avSpcbdes) and suitable for solemnity (els ceixvoKoyiau eVirrjSetoj'). 12) viro^aKx^^os, short-long-long, dignified and grand (d|ta)/xa e^et koX jxiy^Qos).^ These twelve rhythms and feet are the principal and measure every metrical or non-metrical utterance, whence arise verses {crrixoi.) and phrases. All other rhythms and feet are compounded of these. A simple rhythm cannot fall short of two, nor exceed three syllables.* nants, the sounds seem to have been, ittk, (pdx, fi^y- Nothing is said of generated Z», dental d, g, but then also nothing is said of generated 7, (or ng in sing), nor even of its being a variety of 7 or of v. Nothing is said of the aspirate or of (>. In fact the whole list is very incomplete, but, with other considerations, has given me great confidence in the correctness of the restoration in Appendix I., p. 20. * This gives a simple and convenient rule for practising the quantitative pronunciation of words of more than three syllables. Thus, taking the examples of more than three syllables in Appendix II., we must study (17) ireTrat-Sev/ieVos iamb + dactyle, (18) oivo-^iacrixevMV trochee + cretic, cvvov-aia iamb + iamb, 5e567 -/xeVots ditto, AriiJ.o(r-64vr]s spondee + iamb, (19) ttaTpo-\6yos trochee + pyrrhic, aarv-vd/xos ditto, ^€i/o-56xos pjTrhic + pyrrhic, api(T-ro-n6vos iamb + tribrach or apiaro-irovos amphibrach + j)yrrhic, (20) €i/e-Ti0e«s pyrrhic + iamb, avTi-y6ur\ trochee + iamb, apKrro-Kpo.Tla amphi- brach + anapest, (21) irpoa(o to 'A(}>poSiTri, which was written in an ^olic dialect some six centuries before his time, and which he probably could no more pronounce as SctTr^w would have uttered it, than the average English reader can pronounce Gawin Douglas. Hence the whole vaunted eueVeto, and X'^P*^ ^'^ "^V f^^v^init^ koX A.e»J- TTj Tt rSiv apfxovicov, where the " words are juxtaposed and connected accord- ing to the physical proprieties and connections of the letters," must have been mainly thought into the reading by himself. It reminds me forcibly of the " grand sound " which I have heard ladies say they found in Greek, as uttered on a school speech day, where the pronun- ciation is enough to drive a real Greek mad. 52 POSTSCEIPT. was concerned, a part of English speech, without any separate individu- ality in a learner's mind, just as our boys at present, when they spout Homer, have little or no notion that they would be utter barbarians to the Greeks of all time. Hence the sound given to the Greek letters changed with the change in the pronunciation of English. In Germany, also, the Erasmians have changed with the time, and English and German Greek, although formed on the same results af an imperfect investigation, have become mutually unintelligible when heard. Such a result is not very creditable to scholarship. Tlie only basis for a European usage, is the modern habit of pronouncing- Latin at Eome, where it has never ceased to be a liturgical language, and Greek at Athens or Constantinople, where even the old form is in familiar ecclesiastical use. Those who wish to appreciate verse, will superadd an occasional philological and scientific pronunciation, similar, at least so far as accent and quantity are concerned, to the Dionysian. But it is certainly a question whether, with such a vastly increased cm-riculum of education as is forced upon us by the increase of knowledge, it can be wise to oblige schoolboys to spend valuable time over such merely esthetical and antiquarian matters as a system of versification founded upon extinct, and even disputed, habits of pronunciation. I am not under the delusion of supposing that scholars will at once adopt my conclusions respecting the meaning to be assigned to Dionysius's remarks. But can it be worse to read Greek verse as a Hellene, than as a Briton ? I trow not ; at least I cannot conceive anything much more horrible than the last, except, indeed, an imtaught Frenchman's attempt to read out Shakspere. If we read Greek at all, let us, at least, habitually read it so that a Greek may understand us, and not have to close his ears against the noise ! September, 1876. A. J. E. Printed by C. F. Hodgson & Son, Gough Square, Fleet Street, THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE STAMPED BELOW AN INITIAL FINE OF 25 CENTS WILL BE ASSESSED FOR FAILURE TO RETURN THIS BOOK ON THE DATE DUE. THE PENALTY WILL INCREASE TO 50 CENTS ON THE FOURTH DAY AND TO $1.00 ON THE SEVENTH DAY OVERDUE. MAR 9 1934 FEB 5 1931 til ^special '•estigation of m the Anglo- ^atic notation g types, in- noirs on the -ire tracts by Bakcley on jrian dialects, and Pkixce shed for the I, and for the by Triibner AND XYIIITH us Centuries, -Chronological Is in English E XIVTH AND -iENSER, ShAK- j Pronouncing &li8h in the Bonaparte, 5H Pronuncia- ts. 1874. pp. ?ithClas^^^ - Ipecimen. ad a Coiuj^^-.v^.v -end of 1876, "CLUSION, AND srence for stu- y, in England, th especial MS. complete. ,ven and Sons, V, E. Probable LD 21-100m-7,'33 PHYSIO- ^xxwv^ ^....... x."'^ -- ' ^y K- ^- ^• HELMiroLTZ,"M.b., translated with the Author's sanction from the third German Edition, with additional Notes and an additional Appendix bv A. J. Ellis. 1875. 8vo..pp. xxiv., 824 (pp. 642—824 contain the Appendix by the Translator.) London : Longman & Co. Price 365. Y8 79107 X