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THE STUDENT'S HISTORY OF EUROPE DURING THE MIDDLE AGES. By HEMBX HALLAM, LL.D. Post 870. It. M. THE STUDENT'S CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF ENGLAND, from the Accession of Henry Ml. to the Death of George II. By Hi-: MSI- HAI.LAM, LL.D. Poet 8rot 7. 6Tpi's), the in- cense-box or censer used in sacrifices. The acerra was also a small moveable altar placed before the dead, on which perfumes were burnt. The use of acerrae at funerals was forbidden by a law of the Twelve Tables as an unnecessary expense. Acerra. (From a Frieze in the Museum Capitolinum.) ACETABULUM (of is, 6fu/So0oi>, o?u/3aiov). (1) A vinegar-cup, wide and open above, as we see in the annexed cut. The name was A ccubntio Act of Reclining. (Montfaucon, Ant. EXJI., Suppl., in. 80.) Acetabulum. (Dennis, Etruria, p. xcvi.) also given to all cups resembling it in size and form, to whatever use they might be applied. (2) A Roman measure of capacity, fluid and dry. It was one-fourth of the hemian, and therefore one-eighth of the sextarius. ACHAICUM FOEDUS. ACINACES. ACHAICUM FOEDUS. The Achaean league is divided into two periods. 1. The earlier period. When the Heracleidae took posses- sion of Peloponnesus, which had until thon been chiefly inhabited by Achaeans, a portion of the latter, under Tisamenus, turned north- wards and occupied the north coast of Pelo- ponnesus. The country thus occupied de- rived from them its name of Achaia, and contained twelve confederate towns, which were governed by the descendants of Tisa- menus, till at length they abolished the kingly rule after the death of Ogyges, and established a democracy. In the time of He- rodotus the twelve towns of which the league consisted were : Pellene, Aegeira, Aegae, Bura, Helice, Aegium, Rhypes (Rhypae), Pa- treis (ae), Phareis (ae), Olenus, Dyme, and Tritaeeis (Tritaea) . After the time of Hero- dotus, Rhypes and Aegae disappeared from the number, and Ceryneia and Leontium stepped into their place. The bond which united the towns of the league was not so much a political as a religious one, as is shown by the common sacrifice offered at Helice to Poseidon, and after the destruction of that town, at Aegium to Zeus, surnamed Homagyrius, and to Demeter Panachaea. The confederation exercised no great influ- ence in the affairs of Greece down to the time when it was broken up by the Macedonians. 2. The later period. When Antigonus in B.C. 281 made the unsuccessful attempt to deprive Ptolemaeus Ceraunus of the Mace- donian throne, the Achaeans availed them- selves of the opportunity of shaking off the Macedonian yoke, and renewing their ancient confederation. The grand object however now was no longer a common worship, but a real political union among the confederates. The fundamental laws were, that henceforth the confederacy should form one inseparable state, that each town, which should join it, should have equal rights with the others, and that all members, in regard to foreign coun- tries, should be considered as dependent, and bound to obey in every respect the federal government, and those officers who were en- trusted with the executive. Aegium was the seat of the government, and it was there that the citizens of the various towns met at re- gular and stated times, to deliberate upon the common affairs of the league, and if it was thought necessary, upon those of separate towns, and even of individuals, and to elect the officers of the league. The league acquired its great strength in B.C. 251, when Aratus united Sicyon, his native place, with it, and some years later gained Corinth also for it. Megara, Troezene, and Epidaurus oon followed their example. Afterwards Aratus persuaded all the more important towns of Peloponnesus tp join the confede- racy, and thus Megalopolis, Argos, Hermione, Phlius, and others were added to it. In a short period the league reached the height of its power, for it embraced Athens, Megara, Aegina, Salamis, and the whole of Pelopon- nesus, with the exception of Sparta, Elis, Tegea, Orchomenos, and Mantineia. The common affairs of the confederate towns were regulated at general meetings attended by the citizens of all the towns, and held regularly twice every year, in the spring and in the autumn. These meetings, which lasted three days, were held in a grove of Zeus Homagyrius in the neighbourhood of Aegium, and near a sanctuary of Demeter Panachaea. Every citizen, both rich and poor, who had attained the age of thirty, might attend the assemblies, to which they were invited by a public herald, and might speak and propose any measure. The subjects which were to be brought before the assembly were prepared by a council (jSotArj), which seems to have been permanent. The principal officers of the confederacy were : 1. At first two strategi (a-Tpanjyoi), but after the year B.C. 255 there was only one, who in conjunction with an hipparchus (iV- vrapxos) or commander of the cavalry and an under-strategus (uTroorpanj-yos) commanded the army furnished by the confederacy, and was entrusted with the whole conduct of war ; 2. A public secretary (ypa(u.ju.aTev's) ; and, 3. Ten demiurgi (Sijiouovpyot). All the officers of the league were elected in the assembly held in the spring, at the rising of the Pleiades, and legally they were invested with their several offices only for one year, though it frequently happened that men of great merit and distinction were re-elected for several successive years. If one of the officers died during the period of his office, his place was filled by his predecessor, until the time for the new elections arrived. The perpetual discord of the members of the league, this hostility of Sparta, the intrigues of the Ro- mans, and the folly and rashness of the later strategi, brought about not onlv the destruc- tion and dissolution of the confederacy, but of the freedom of all Greece, which after the fall of Corinth, in B.C. 146, became a Roman province under the name of Achaia. AC1ES. [EXERCITUS.] ACINACES (eopa) signifies the like offence with a widow or virgin. In the time of Augustus a law was enacted (probably about B. c. 17), entitled Lex Julia de adulteriis coercendis, which seems to have contained special penal provi- sions against adultery ; and it is also not im- probable that, by the old law or custom, if the adulterer was caught in the fact, he was at the mercy of the injured husband, and that the husband might punish with death his adulterous wife. By the Julian law, a woman convicted of adultery was mulcted in half of her dowry (dos) and the third part of her property (bona), and banished (relegata) to some miserable island, such as Seriphos, for instance. The adulterer was mulcted in half his properly, and banished in like manner. This law did not inflict the punishment of death on either party ; and in those instances under the emperors in which death was in- flicted, it must be considered as an extraordi- nary punishment, and beyond the provisions of the Julian law. The Julian law permittee the father (both adoptive and natural) to kill the adulterer and adulteress in certain cases, as to which there were several nice distinctions established by the law. If the wife was di- vorced for adultery, the husband was entitled to retain part of the dowry. By a constitu- tion of the Emperor Constantine, the offence in the adulterer was made capital. ADVERSARIA, a note-book, memorandum- be ok, posting-book, in which the Romans en- tered memoranda of any importance, especi- ally of money received and expended, which were afterwards transcribed, usually every month, into a kind of ledger. ( Tabulae jiistae, oodex accepti et expensi.) ADVERSARIUS. [ACTOR.] ADUNATI (aSvi/aroi), were persons sup- ported by the Athenian state, who, on account of infirmity or bodily defects, were unable to obtain a livelihood. The sum which they received from the state appears to have varied at different times. In the time of Lysias and Aristotle, one obelus a day was given ; but it appears to have been afterwards increased to two oboli. The bounty was restricted to persons whose property was under three minae ; and the examination of those who were entitled to it belonged to the senate of the Five Hundred. Peisistratus is said to have been the first to introduce a law for the maintenance of those persons who had been mutilated in war. ADVOCATUS, seems originally to have signified any person who gave another his aid in any affair or business, as a witness for instance ; or for the purpose of aiding and protecting him in taking possession of a piece of property. It was also used to express a person who in any way gave his advice and aid to another in the management of a cause ; but, in the time of Cicero, the word did not signify the orator or patronus who made the speech. Under the emperors it signified a person who in any way assisted in the con- duct of a cause, and was sometimes equiva- lent to orator. The advocate's fee was then called Honorarium. ADYTUM. [TEMPLUM.] AEDES. [DOMVS; TEMPLUM.} AEDILES (dvopai/o(u.oi). The name of these functionaries is said to be derived from their having the care of the temple (aedes) of Ceres. The aediles were originally two in number : they were elected from the plebs, and the institution of the office dates from the same time as that of the tribunes of the plebs, B. c. 494. Their duties at first seem to have been merely ministerial ; they were the assistants of the tribunes in such matters as the tribunes entrusted to them, among which are enumerated the hearing of causes of smaller importance. At an early period after their institution (B. c. 446), we find them appointed the keepers of the srnatus- consulta, which the consuls had hitherto arbitrarily suppressed or altered. They were also the keepers of the plebiscita. Other functions were gradually entrusted to them, and it is not always easy to distinguish their duties from some of those which belong to che censors. They had the general superin- tendence of buildings, both sacred and pri- vate; under this power they provided for the support and repair of temples, curiae, &c., and took care that private buildings which were in a ruinous state were repaired AEDILES. 9 AEDILES. by the owners or pulled down. The care of the supply and distribution of water, of the streets and pavements, with the cleansing and draining of the city, belonged to the aediles ; and, of course, the care of the clo- acae. They had the office of distributing corn among the plebs, but this distribution of corn at Rome must not be confounded with the duty of purchasing or procuring it from foreign parts, which was performed by the consuls, quaestors, and praetors, and some- times by an extraordinary magistrate, as the praefectus annonae. The aediles had to see that the public lands were not improperly used, and that the pasture grounds of the state were not trespassed on ; and they had power to punish by fine any unlawful act in this respect. They had a general superin- tendence over buying and selling, and, as a consequence, the supervision of the markets, of things exposed to sale, such as slaves, and of weights and measures ; from this part of their duty is derived the name under which the aediles are mentioned by the Greek wri- ters (ayopavd/u.oi). It was their business to see that no new deities or religious rites were introduced into the city, to look after the observance of religious ceremonies, and the celebrations of the ancient feasts and festivals. The general superintendence of police com- prehended the duty of preserving order, regard to decency, and the inspection of the baths and houses of entertainment. The aediles had various officers under them, as praecones, scribae, and viatores. The AEDILES CUKULES, who were also two in number, were originally chosen only from the patricians, afterwards alternately from the patricians and the plebs, and at last indifferently from both. The office of curule aediles was instituted B. c. 365, and, according to Livy, on the, occasion of the plebeian aediles refusing to consent to celebrate the Ludi Maximi for the space of four days instead of three ; upon which a senatus-consultum was passed, by which two aediles were to be chosen from the patricians. From this time four aediles, two plebeian and two curule, were annually elected. The distinctive honours of the curule aediles were, the sella curulis, from whence their title is derived, the toga praetexta, precedence in speaking in the senate, and the jus ima- ginum. Only the curule aediles had the jus edicendi, or the right of promulgating edicta ; but the rules comprised in their edicta served for the guidance of all the aediles. The edicta of the curule aediles were founded on their authority as superintendents of the mar- kets, and of buying and selling in general. Accordingly, their edicts had mainly, or per- haps solely, reference to the rules as to buy- ing and selling, and contracts for bargain and sale. The persons both of the plebeian and curule aediles were sacrosancti. It seems that after the appointment of the curule aediles, the functions formerly exercised by the plebeian aediles were exercised, with some few exceptions, by all the aediles indifferently. Within five days after being elected, or en- tering on office, they were required to deter- mine by lot, or by agreement among them- selves, what parts of the city each should take under his superintendence ; and each aedile alone had the care of looking after the paving and cleansing of the streets, and other matters, it may be presumed, of the same local character within his district. The other duties of the office seem to have been exercised by them jointly. In the superintendence of the public festivals or solemnities, there was a further distinction between the two sets of aediles. Many of these festivals, such as those of Flora and Ceres, were superintended by either set of aediles indifferently ; but the plebeian games were under the superintend- ence of the plebeian aediles, who had an allow- ance of money for that purpose ; and the fines levied on the pecuarii, and others, seem to have been appropriated to these among other public purposes. The celebration of the Ludi Magni or Romani, of the Ludi Scenici, or dramatic representations, and the Ludi Megalesii, belonged specially to the curule aediles, and it was on such occasions that they often incurred a prodigious expense, with a view of pleasing the people, and securing their votes in future elections. This extravagant expenditure of the aediles arose after the close of the second Punic war, and increased with the opportunities which indi- viduals had of enriching themselves after the Roman arms were carried into Greece, Africa, and Spain. Even the prodigality of the em- perors hardly surpassed that of individual curule aediles under the republic ; such as C. Julius Caesar, the dictator, P. Cornelius Len- tulus Spinther, and, above all, M. Aemilius Scaurus, whose expenditure was not limited to bare show, but comprehended objects of public utility, as the reparation of walls, dock-yards, ports, and aquaeducts. In B. c. 45, Julius Caesar caused two curule aediles and four plebeian aediles to he elected ; and thenceforward, at least so long as the office of aedile was of any importance, six aediles were annually elected. The two new plebeian aediles were called Cereales, and their duty was to look after the supply of corn. Though their office may not have been of any great importance after the institution of a praefectus annonae by Augustus, there is no doubt that it existed for several centuries, and at least as AEDITUI. 10 AEGIS. late as the time of the emperor Gordian. The aediles belonged to the class of the minores tnagistratus. The plebeian aediles were origi- nally chosen at the comitia centuriata, bu afterwards at the comitia tributa, in which comitia the curule aediles also were chosen It appears that until the lex annalis was passed (B. c. 180) a Roman citizen might be a candidate for any office after completing his twenty-seventh year. This law fixed the age at which each office might be enjoyed, and it seems that the age fixed for the aedileship was thirty-six. The aediles existed under the emperors ; but their powers were gradu- ally diminished, and their functions exercised by new officers created by the emperors. After the battle of Actium, Augustus appointed a Praefectus urbi, who exercised the genera] police, which had formerly been one of the duties of the aediles. Augustus also took from the aediles, or exercised himself, the office of superintending the religious rites, and the banishing from the city of all foreign ceremonials ; he also assumed the superin- tendence of the temples, and thus may be said to have destroyed tho aedileship by de- priving it of its old and original function. The last recorded instance of the splendours of the aedileship is the administration of Agrippa, who volunteered to take the office, and repaired all the public buildings and all the roads at his own expense, without draw- ing anything from the treasury. The aedile- ship had, however, lost its true character before this time. Agrippa had already been consul before he accepted the office of aedile, and his munificent expenditure in this nomi- nal office was the close of the splendour of the aedileship. Augustus appointed the curule aediles specially to the office of putting out fires, and placed a body of 600 slaves at their command ; but the praefecti vigilum afterwards performed this duty. They re- tained, under the early emperors, a kind of police, for the purpose of repressing open licentiousness and disorder. The coloniae, and the municipia of the later period, had also their aediles, whose numbers and func- tions varied in different places. They seem, however, as to their powers and duties, to have resembled the aediles of Rome. They were chosen annually. AEDITUI, AEDITUMI, AEDITIMI (called by the Greeks vewxopoi, faxopoi, andinrofaicopoi), were persons who took care of the temples, attended to the cleaning of them, &c. They appear to have lived in the temples, or near them, and to have acted as ciceroni to those persons who wished to see them. Subse- quently among the Greeks, the menial ser- vices connected with this office were left to slaves, and the persons called neocori became priestly officers of high rank, who had the chief superintendence of temples, their trea- sures, and the sacred rites observed in them. AEGIS (alyis) signifies, literally, a goat- skin. According to ancient mythology, the aegis worn by Zeus was the hide of the goat Amaltheia, which had suckled him in his infancy. Homer always represents it as part of the armour of Zeus, whom on this account he distinguishes by the epithet aegis-bearing (oiyioxos). He, however, asserts, that it was borrowed on different occasions both by Apollo and Athena. The aegis was connected with the shield of Zeus, either serving as a covering over it, or as a belt by which it was suspended from the right shoulder. Homer accordingly uses the word to denote not only the goat-skin, which it properly signified, but also the shield to which it belonged. The aegis was adorned in a style corresponding to the might and majesty of the father of the gods. In the middle of it was fixed the appalling Gorgon's head, and its border was surrounded with golden tassels (Sucrapoi), each of which was worth a hecatomb. The aegis is usually seen on the statues of Athena, in which it is a sort of scarf falling obliquely over the right shoulder, so as to pass round the body under the left arm. The serpents of the Gorgon's head are transferred to the border of the skin. (See the left-hand figure AEXEATORES. 11 AERARIUM. in the cut.) The later poets and artists represent the aegis as a breast-plate covered with metal in the form of scales. (See the right-hand figure.) AENEATORES, were those -who blew upon wind instruments in the Roman army; namely, the buccinatores, cornicines, and tubicines. They were also employed in the public games. AENIGMA (alviytna.), a riddle. It was an ancient custom among the Greeks to amuse themselves by proposing riddles at their sym- posia, or drinking parties. Those who were successful in solving them received a prize, which 'usually consisted of wreaths, cakes, &c., while those who were unsuccessful were condemned to drink in one breath a certain quantity of wine, sometimes mixed with salt water. Those riddles which have come down to us are mostly in hexameter verse. The Ro- mans seem to have been too serious to find any great amusement in riddles. AENUM, or AHENUM (sc. vas), a brazen vessel, used for boiling. The word is also frequently used in the sense of a dyer's cop- per ; and, as purple was the most celebrated dye of antiquity, we find the expressions Sidoniiim aenum, Tyrium aenum, &c. AEORA, or EORA (aiiipa, ecipa), a festival at Athens, accompanied with sacrifices and banquets, whence it is sometimes called euSeiiTvos. It was probably instituted in honour of Icarius and his daughter Erigone. AERA. [CHRONOLOOIA.] AERARII, a class of Roman citizens, who were not included in the thirty tribes insti- tuted by Servius Tullius. Although citizens, they did not possess the suffragium, or right of voting in the comitia. They were cives sine suffragio. They also paid the tribute in a different mannei from the other citizens. The Aerarians were chiefly artisans and freed- men. The Caerites, or inhabitants of the Etruscan town of Caere, who obtained the franchise in early times, but without the suffragium, were probably the first body o! aerarians. Any Roman citizen guilty of a crime punishable by the censors, might be degraded to the rank of an aerarian ; so that his civic rights were suspended, at least for the time that he was an aerarian. All citi- zens so degraded were classed among the Caerites; whence we find the expressions aerarium facere and in tabulas Caeritum referrt used as synonymous. Persons who wer< made infames likewise became aerarians, fo they lost the jus honorum and the suffragium The aerarians had to pay a tributum pr< capite which was considerably higher than that paid by the other citizens. They wer not allowed to serve in the legions. AERARII TRIBUNI. [Azs EQUESTRE.] AERARIUM (TO Sij/xocnov), the public trea- ury at Rome, and hence the public money tself. After the banishment of the kings the emple of Saturn was employed as the place or keeping the public money, and it con- inued to be so used till the later times of the >mpire. Besides the public money and the accounts connected with it, various other nings were preserved in the treasury ; of hese the most important were: 1. The tandards of the legions. 2. The various aws passed from time to time, engraven on >razen tables. 3. The decrees of the se- nate, which were entered there in books kept or the purpose, though the original docu- ments were preserved in the temple of Ceres under the custody of the aediles. 4. Various other public documents, the reports and despatches of all generals and governors of wovinces, the names of all foreign ambassa- dors that came to Rome, &c. Under the republic the aerarium was divided into two parts : the common treasury, in which were deposited the regular taxes, and from which were taken the sums of money needed for the ordinary expenditure of the state; and the sacred treasury (aerarium sanctum or sanc- tius), which was never touched except in cases of extreme peril. Both of these trea- suries were in the temple of Saturn, but in distinct parts of the temple. The produce of a tax of five per cent, (vicesima) upon the value of every manumitted slave, called aurum vicesimarium, was paid into the sacred treasury, as well as a portion of the immense wealth obtained by the Romans in their con- quests in the East. Under Augustus the provinces and the administration of the government were divided between the senate, as the representative of the old Roman people, and the Caesar : all the property of the former continued to be called aerarium, and that of the latter received the name of flscus. Au- gustus also established a third treasury, to provide for the pay and support of the army, and this received the name of aerarium militare. He also imposed several new taxes to be paid into this aerarium. In the time of the republic, the entire management of the revenues of the state belonged to the senate ; and under the superintendence and control of the senate the quaestors had the charge of the aerarium. In B. c. 28, Augustus deprived the quaestors of the charge of the treasury and gave it to two praefects, whom he allowed the senate to choose from among the praetors at the end of their year of office. Various other changes were made with respect to the charge of the aerarium, but it was eventually entrusted, in the reign of Trajan, to praefects, who appear to have held their office for two years. AES. 12 AESYMNETES. cos), properly signifies a compound of copper and tin, corresponding to what we call bronze. It is incorrect to translate it brass, which is a combination of copper and zinc, since all the specimens of ancient objects, formed of the material called aes, are found upon analysis to contain no zinc. The em- ployment of aes was very general among the ancients ; money, vases, and utensils of all sorts, being made of it. All the most ancient coins in Rome and the old Italian states were made of aes, and hence money in general was called by this name. For the same reason we have aes alienum, meaning debt, and aera in the plural, pay to the soldiers. The Ro- mans had no other coinage except bronze or copper (aes), till B. c. 269, five years before the first Punic war, when silver was first coined ; gold was not coined till sixty- two years after silver. The first coinage of aes is usually attributed to Servius Tullius, who is said to have stamped the money with the image of cattle (pecus), whence it is called pecunia. According to some accounts, it was coined from the commencement of the city, and we know that the old Italian states pos- sessed a bronze or copper coinage from the earliest times. The first coinage was the as [As], which originally was a pound weight ; but as in course of time the weight of the as was reduced not only in Rome, but in the other Italian states, and this reduction in weight was not uniform in the different states, It became usual in all bargains to pay the asses according to their weight, and not according to their nominal value. The aes grave was not the old heavy coins as distin- guished from the lighter modern ; but it sig- nified any number of copper coins reckoned according to the old style, by weight. There was, therefore, no occasion for the state to suppress the circulation of the old copper coins, since in all bargains the asses were not reckoned by tale, but by weight. Bronze or copper (xoAieos) was very little used by the Greeks for money in early times. Silver was originally the universal currency, and copper appears to have been seldom coined till after the time of Alexander the Great. The copper coin was called Chalcous (xaAxous). The smallest silver coin at Athens was the quarter- obol, and the chalcous was the half of that, or the eighth of an obol. In later times, the obol was coined of copper as well as silver. AES CIRCUMFORANEUM, money bor- rowed from the Roman bankers fargentariij, who had shops in porticoes round the forum. AES EQUESTRE, AES HORDEARIUM, and AES MILITARE, were the ancient terms for the pay of the Roman soldiers, before the regular stipendiwn was introduced. The aes equestre was the sum of money given for the purchase of the horse of an eques ; the aes hordearium, the sum paid yearly for its keep, in other words the pay of an eques ; and the aes militare, the pay of a foot soldier. None of this money seems to have been taken from the public treasury, but to have been paid by certain private persons, to whom this duty was assigned by the state. The aes hordea- rium, which amounted to 2000 asses, had to be paid by single women (viduae, i. e. both maidens and widows) and orphans (orbi), provided they possessed a certain amount of property. The aes equestre, which amounted to 10,000 asses, was probably also paid by the same class of persons. The aes militare, the amount of which is not ex- pressly mentioned, had to be paid by the tribuni aerarii, and if not paid, the foot sol- diers had a right of distress against them. It is generally assumed that these tribuni aerarii were magistrates connected with the treasury, and that they were the assistants of the quaestors ; but there are good reasons for believing that the tribuni aerarii were private persons, who were liable to the pay- ment of the aes militare, and upon whoso property a distress might be levied, if the money were not paid. They were probably persons whose property was rated at a certain sum in the census, and we may conjecture that they obtained the name of tribuni aerarii because they levied the tributum, which was imposed for the purpose of paying the army, and then paid it to the soldiers. These tri- buni aerarii were no longer needed when the state took into its own hands the payment of the troops ; but they were revived in B.C. 70, as a distinct class in the commonwealth, by the Lex Aurelia, which gave the judicia to the senators, equites and tribuni aerarii. AES UXORIUM, was a tax paid by men who reached old age without having married. It was first imposed by the censors in B. c. 403. [LEX JULIA ET PAPIA POPPAEA.] AESYMNETES (aiovfti^njs), a person who was sometimes invested with unlimited power in the Greek states. His power partook in some degree of the nature both of kingly and tyrannical authority ; since he was appointed legally, and did not usurp the government, but at the same time was not bound by any laws in his public administration. The office was not hereditary, nor was it held for life ; but it only continued for a limited time, or till some object was accomplished. Thus we read that the inhabitants of Mytilene ap- pointed Pittacus aesymnetes, in order to pre- vent the return of Alcaeus and the other exiles. Dionysius compares it with the dic- tatorship of Rome. In some states, such aa AETAS. 13 ACER PUBLICUS. Cyme and Ohalcedon, it was the title borne by the regular magistrates. AETAS. [INFANS; IMPUBES.] AETOLICUM FOEDUS (KOIVOV m>v \lru>. Xcuv), the Aetolian league, appears as a power- ful political body soon after the death of Alexander the Great, viz. during the Lamian war against Antipater. The characteristic difference between the Aetolian and Achaean leagues was that the former originally con- sisted of a confederacy of nations or tribes, while the latter was a confederacy of towns. The sovereign power of the confederacy was vested in the general assemblies of all the confederates (KOIVOV r, concilium Aetolorum), and this assembly had the right to discuss all questions respecting peace and war, and to elect the great civil or military officers of the league. The ordinary place of meeting was Thermon, but on extraordinary occasions assemblies were also held in other towns belonging to the league, though they were not situated in the country of Aetolia Proper. The questions which were to be brought before the assembly were sometimes discussed previously by a committee, selected from the great mass, and called Apocleti (oiTrdKArjTot). The general assembly usually met in the autumn, when the officers of the league were elected. The highest among them, as among those of the Achaean league, bore the title of Strategus (orpaTrryos), whose office lasted only for one year. The stra- tegus had the right to convoke the assembly ; he presided in it, introduced the subjects for deliberation, and levied the troops. The officers next in rank to the Strategus were the hipparchus and the public scribe. The political existence of the league was destroyed in B.C. 189 by the treaty with Rome, and the treachery of the Roman party among the Aetolians themselves caused in B.C. 167 five hundred and fifty of the leading patriots to be put to death, and those who survived the massacre were carried to Rome as prisoners. AETOMA (aeTwjua). [FASTiaiUM.] AFFIXES, AFFINITAS, or ADFINES, ADFINITAS. Affines are the cognati [Coo- KATI] of husband and wife, the cognati of the husband becoming the afftnes of the wife, and the cognati of the wife the affines of the husband. The father of a husband is the socer of the husband's wife, and the father of a wife is the socer of the wife's husband. The term socrus expresses the same affinity with respect to the husband's and wife's mothers. A son's wife is minis, or daughter- in-law to the son's parents ; a wife's husband is gener, or son-in-law to the wife's parents. Thus the amis, avia pater, mater of the wife became by the marriage respectively the socer magnus, prosocrus, or socrus magna socer, socrus of the husband, who becomes with respect to them severally progener and gener. In like manner the corresponding ancestors of the husband respectively assume the same names with respect to the son's wife, who becomes with respect to them pro- nurus and minis. The son and daughter of a husband or wife born of a prior marriage are called privignus and privigna, with respect to their step-father or step-mother ; and with respect to such children, the step-father and step-mother are severally called vitricus and noverca. The husband's brother becomes levir with respect to the wife, and his sister becomes gins (the Greek ^yoAus). Marriage was unlawful among persons who had become such affines as above mentioned. AGALMA (dyoAfia) is a general name for a statue or image to represent a god. AGASO, a groom, whose business it was to take care of the horses. The word is also used for a driver of beasts of burden, and is sometimes applied to a slave who had to perform the lowest menial duties. AGATHOERGI (ayofloepyoi). In time of war the kings of Sparta had a body-guard of three hundred of the noblest of the Spartan youths (tmreis), of whom the five eldest re- tired every year, and were employed for one year under the name of Agathoergi, in mis- sions to foreign states. AGELA (ayeArj), an assembly of young men in Crete, who lived together from their eighteenth year till the time of their mar- riage. An agela always consisted of the sons of the most noble citizens, and the members of it were obliged to marry at the same time. AGEMA (dyjjfia from ay"), the name of a chosen body of troops in the Macedonian army, usually consisting of horsemen. AGER PUBLICUS, the public land, was the land belonging to the Roman state. It was a recognised principle among the Italian nations that the territory of a conquered people belonged to the conquerors. Accord- ingly, the Romans were constantly acquiring fresh territory by the conquest of the sur- rounding people. The land thus acquired was usually disposed of in the following way. 1. The land which was under cultivation was either distributed among colonists, who were sent to occupy it, or it was sold, or it was let out to farm. 2. The land which was then out of cultivation, and which, owing to war, was by far the greater part, might be occu- pied by any of the Roman citizens on the payment of a portion of the yearly produce ; a tenth of the produce of arable land, and a fifth of the produce of the land planted with the vine, the olive, and other valuable trees. ACER PUBLICUS. 14 AGNOMEN. S. The land which had previously served as the common pasture land of the conquered state, or was suitable for the purpose, continued to be used as pasture land by the Roman citizens, who had, however, to pay a certain sum of money for the cattle which they turned upon it. The occupation of the public land spoken of above under the second head was always expressed by the words posscssio and possidere, and the occu- pier of the land was called the possessor. The land continued to be the property of the state ; and accordingly we must distinguish between the terms posscssio, which merely indicated the use or enjoyment of the land, and dominittm, which expressed ownership, and was applied to private land, of which a man had the absolute ownership. The right of occupying the public land belonged only to citizens, and consequently only to the pa- tricians originally, as they were the state. The plebeians were only subjects, and conse- quently had no right to the property of the state ; but it is probable that they were per- mitted to feed their cattle on the public pasture lands. Even when the plebeians became a separate estate by the constitution of Servius Tullius, they still obtained no right to share in the possession of the public land, which continued to be the exclusive privilege of the patricians ; but as a compen- sation, each individual plebeian received an assignment of a certain quantity of the public land as his own property. Henceforth the possession of the public land was the privi- lege of the patricians, and an assignment of a portion of it the privilege of the plebeians. As the state acquired new lands by conquest, the plebeians ought to have received assign- ments of part of them, but since the patri- cians were the governing body, they generally refused to make any such assignment, and continued to keep the whole as part of the ager publicus, whereby the enjoyment of it belonged to them alone. Hence, we con- stantly read of the plebeians claiming, and sometimes enforcing, a division of such land. With the extension of the conquests of Rome, the ager publicus constantly increased, and thus a large portion of Italy fell into the hands of the patricians, who frequently with- held from the state the annual payments of a tenth and a fifth, which they were bound to pay for the possession of the land, and thus deprived the state of a fund for the expenses of the war. In addition to which they used slaves as cultivators and shepherds, since freemen were liable to be drawn off from field-labour to military service, and slave- labour was consequently far cheaper. In this way the number of free labourers was dimi- nished, and that of slaves augmented. To remedy this state of things several laws were from time to time proposed and carried, which were most violently opposed by the patricians. All laws which related to the public land are called by the general title of Leges Agrariae, and accordingly all the early laws relating to the possession of the public land by the patricians, and to the assignment of portions of it to the plebeians, were strictly agrarian laws ; but the first law to which this name is usually applied was pro- posed soon after the establishment of the republic by the consul, Sp. Cassius, in B.C. 486. Its object was to set apart the portion of the public land which the patricians were to possess, to divide the rest among the ple- beians, to levy the payment due for the pos- session, and to apply it to paying the army. The first law, however, which really deprived the patricians of the advantages they had previously enjoyed in the occupation of the public land was the agrarian law of C. Li- cinius Stolo (B.C. 366), which limited each individual's possession of public land to 500 jugera, and declared that no individual should have above 100 large and 500 smaller cattle on the public pastures : it further enacted that the surplus land was to be divided among the plebeians. As this law, however, was soon disregarded, it was revived again by Tib. Sempronius Gracchus (B.C. 133), with some alterations and additions. The details of the other agrarian laws mentioned in Roman history are given under the name of the lex by which they are called. [LEX.] AGGER (xw^a), from ad and gero, was used in general for a heap or mound of any kind. It was more particularly applied : ( 1 ) To a mound, usually composed of earth, which was raised round a besieged town, and which was gradually increased in breadth and height, till it equalled or overtopped the walls. The agger was sometimes made, not only of earth, but of wood, hurdles, &c. ; whence we read of the agger being set on fire. (%} To the earthen wall surrounding a Roman encampment, composed of the earth dug from the ditch (fossa), which was usu- ally 9 feet broad and 7 feet deep ; but if any attack was apprehended, the depth was in- creased to 12 feet and the breadth to 13 feet. Sharp stakes, &c., were usually fixed upon the agger, which was then called valhun. When both words are used, the agger means the mound of earth, and the vallum the stakes, &c., which were fixed upon the agger. AGITATORES. [CIRCUS.] AGMEN. [EXEBCITUS.] AGNATI. [COOXATI.] AGNOMEN [NOMEN.] AGONALIA. 15 AGRAULIA. AGONALIA or AGONIA, one of the most ancient festivals at Rome, its institution being attributed to Numa Pompilius. It was celebrated on the 9th of January, the 21st of May, and the llth of December; to which we should probably add the 17th of March, the day on which the Liberalia was cele- brated, since this festival is also called Agonia or Agonium Martiale. The object of this festival was a disputed point among the an- cients themselves. The victim which was offered was a ram ; the person who offered it was the rex sacrificulus ; and the place where it was oifered was the regia. Now the ram was the usual victim presented to the guar- dian gods of the state, and the rex sacrifi- culus and the regia could be employed only for such ceremonies as were connected with the highest gods and affected the weal of the whole state. Regarding the sacrifice in this light, we see a reason for its being offered several times in the year. The etymology of the name was also a subject of much dispute among the ancients ; and the various ety- mologies that were proposed are given at length by Ovid (Fast. i. 319-332). None of these, however, are at all satisfactory ; and we would therefore suggest that it may have re- ceived its name from the sacrifice having been offered on the Quirinal hill, which was origi- nally called Agonus. AGONES (aywi'es), the general term among the Greeks for the contests at their great national games. The word also signified law- suits, and was especially employed in the phrase ayui/es rt/aijTot and drifx>)Toi. [TIMEMA.] AGONOTHETAE (dywi/ofoVaO, persons in the Grecian games who decided disputes, and adjudged the prizes to the victors. Origin- ally, the person who instituted the contest and offered the prize was the Agonothetes, and this continued to be the practice in those games which were instituted by kings or private persons. But in the great public games, such as the Isthmian, Pythian, &c., the Agonothetae were either the representa- tives of different states, as the Amphictyons at the Pythian games, or were chosen from the people in whose country the games were celebrated. During the flourishing times of the Grecian republics the Eleans were the Agonothetae in the Olympic games, the Co- rinthians in the Isthmian games, the Am- phictyons in the Pythian games, and the Co- rinthians, Argives, and inhabitants of Cleonae in the Nemaean games. The Agonothetae were also called Aesymnetae (al7)oi), were obliged to take in the temple of Agraulos, that they would fight for their country, and always observe its laws. AGRlMENSORES, or " land surveyors," a college established under the Roman empe- rors. Like the jurisconsults, they had regular schools, and were paid handsome salaries by the state. Their business was to measure unassigned lands for the state, and ordinary lands for the proprietors, and to fix and maintain boundaries. Their writings on the subject of their art were very numerous ; and we have still scientific treatises on the law of boundaries, such as those by Frontinus and Hyginus. AGRIONIA (aypicui'ia), a festival which was celebrated at Orchomenus, in Boeotia, in honour of Dionysus, surnamed Agrionius. A human being used originally to be sacrificed at this festival, but this sacrifice seems to have been avoided in later times. One instance, however, occurred in the days of Plutarch. AGRONOMI (iypord/aoi), the country- police, probably in Attica, whose duties cor- responded in most respects to those of the astynomi in the city, and who appear to have performed nearly the same duties as the hylori (vAwpoi). AGROTERAS THUSIA (ayporepas flvcrta), a festival celebrated every year at Athens in honour of Artemis, surnamed Agrotera (from aypa, the chase). It was solemnized on the sixth of the month of Boedromion, and con- sisted of a sacrifice of 500 goats, which con- tinued to be offered in the time of Xenophon. Its origin is thus related : When the Per- sians invaded Attica, the Athenians made a vow to sacrifice to Artemis Agrotera as many goats as there should be enemies slain at Marathon. But as the number of enemies slain was so great that an equal number of goats could not be found at once, the Athenians decreed that 500 should be sacrificed every year. AGYRTAE (iyvpntu), mendicant priests, who were accustomed to travel through the different towns of Greece, soliciting alms for the gods whom they served, and whose images they carried, either on their shoulders or on beasts of burthen. They were, gene- rally speaking, persons of the lowest and most abandoned character. AHKNUM. [AENUM.] AIKIAS DIKE (aixtat Simj), an action brought at Athens, before the court of the Forty (01 TerrapaKovTa), against any indi- vidual who had struck a citizen. Any citi- zen who had been thus insulted might pro- ceed against the offending party, either by the aiKCan Suoj, which was a private action, or by the v/3peus ypatyj, which was looked upon in the light of a public prosecution. AITHOUSA (alflouou), a word only used by Homer, is probably for a-lOovaa d, a portico exposed to the sun. From the pas- sages in which it occurs, it seems to denote a covered portico, opening on to the court of the house, avAi), in front of the vestibule, Trpodvpov. ALA, part of a Roman house. [Donrus.] ALA, ALARES, ALARII. Ala, which li- terally means a wing, was from the earliest epochs employed to denote the wing of an army, but in process of time was frequently used in a restricted sense. (1) When a Roman army was composed of Roman citi- zens exclusively, the flanks of the infantry when drawn up in battle array were covered on the right and left by the cavalry ; and hence Ala denoted the body of horse which was attached to and served along with the foot-soldiers of the legion. (2) When, at a later date, the Roman armies were composed partly of Roman citizens and partly of Socii, either Latini or Italici, it became the prac- tice to marshal the Roman troops in the centre of the battle line and the Socii upon the wings. Hence ala and alarii denoted the contingent furnished by the allies, both horse and foot, and the two divisions were distinguished as dextera ala and sinistra ala. (3) When the whole of the inhabitants of Italy had been admitted to the privileges of Roman citizens the terms alarii, cohortes alariae were transferred to the foreign troops serving along with the Roman armies. (4) Lastly, under the empire, the term ala was applied to regiments of horse, raised it would seem with very few exceptions in the provinces, serving apart from the legions and the cavalry of the legions. ALABARCHES (oAo0apx>)), the chief ma- gistrate of the Jews at Alexandria, whose duties, as far as the government was con- cerned, chiefly consisted in raising and pay- ing the taxes. ALABASTER or ALABASTRUM, a vessel or pot used for containing perfumes, or rather ointments, made of that species of marble which mineralogists call gypsum, and which is usually designated by the name of alabas- ter. When varieties of colour occur in the same stone, and are disposed in bands or horizontal strata, it is often called onyx ala- baster ; and when dispersed irregularly, as it in clouds, it is distinguished as agate alabas- ter. The term seems to have been employed to denote vessels appropriated to these uses, even when they were not made of the ma- terial from which it is supposed they ori- ALARII. 17 ALLOCUTIO. finally received their name. Thus Theocritus speaks of golden alabastra. These vessels were of a tapering shape, and very often had a long narrow neck, which was sealed ; so that -when Mary, the sister of Lazarus, is said by St. Mark to break the alabaster box of ointment for the purpose' of anointing our Saviour, it appears probable that she only broke the extremity of the neck, which was thus closed. ALAHII. [Ai,A.] ALAUDA, a Gaulish word, the prototype of the modern French Alouctte, denoting a small crested bird of the lark kind. The name alauda was bestowed by Julius Caesar on a legion of picked men, which he raised at his own expense among the inhabitants of Transalpine Gaul, about the year B.C. 55, which he equipped and disciplined after the Roman fashion, and on which he at a subse- quent period bestowed the freedom of the state. The designation was, in all proba- bility, applied from a plume upon the helmet, resembling the " apex " of the bird in ques- tion, or from the general shape and appear- ance of the head-piece. ALBOGALERUS. [APEX.] ALBUM, a tablet of any material on which the praetor's edicts, and the rules relating to actions and interdicts, were written. The tablet was put up in a public place, in order that all the world might have notice of its contents. According to some authorities, the album was so called because it was either a white material or a material whitened, and of course the writing would be of a different colour. According to other authorities, it was so called because the writing was in white letters. Probably the word album originally meant any tablet containing any- thing of a public nature. We know that it was, in course of time, used to signify a list of any public body ; thus we find albiim ju- dicwn, or the body out of which judices were to be chosen [JUDEX], and album senatorimn, or list of senators. ALEA, gaming, or playing at a game of chance of any kind : hence aleo, aleator, a gamester, a gambler. Playing with tali, or tesserae, was generally understood, because this was by far the most common game of chance among the Romans. Gaming was forbidden by the Roman laws, both during the times of the republic and under the em- perors, but was tolerated in the month of December at the Saturnalia, which was a period of general relaxation ; and old men were allowed to amuse themselves in this manner at all times. ALICULA (oAAif O r aAAr;f), an upper dress, in all probability identical with the chlamys. ALIMENTARII PUERI ET PUELLAK In the Roman republic the poorer citizens were assisted by public distributions of corn, oil, and money, which were called conglaria. [CONGIARIUM.] The Emperor Nerva was the first who extended them to children, and Tra- jan appointed them to be made every month, both to orphans and to the children of poor parents. The children who received them were called pueri et puellae alimentarii, and also (from the emperor) pueri puellaeque Ulpiani, ALIPILUS, a slave, who attended on bathers to remove the superfluous hair from their bodies. ALIPTAE (iAetVrai), among the Greeks, were persons who anointed the bodies of the athletae preparatory to their entering the palaestra. The chief object of this anointing was to close the pores of the body, in order to prevent much perspiration, and the weak- ness consequent thereon. The athleta was again anointed after the contest, in order to restore the tone of the strained muscles. He then bathed, and had the dust, sweat, and oil scraped off his body, by means of an in- strument similar to the strigil of the Romans, and called stlengis (orAeyyi's), and afterwards xystra (fuorpa). The aliptae took advantage of the knowledge they necessarily acquired of the state of the muscles of the athletae, and their general strength or weakness of body, to advise them as to their exercises and mode of life. They were thus a kind of medical trainers. Among the Romans the aliptae were slaves who scrubbed and anointed their masters in the baths. They, too, like the Greek aliptae, appear to have attended to their masters' constitution and mode of life. They were also called unctores. They used in their operations a kind of scraper called strigil, towels (lintea), a cruise of oil (guttm), which was usually of horn, a bottle (ampulla), and a small vessel called lenticula. ALLOCUTIO, an harangue made by a Roman imperator to his soldiers, to en- AfOA. 18 AMBITUS. courage them before battle, or on other occa- sions. On coins we frequently find a figure of an imperator standing on a platform and addressing the soldiers below him. Such coins bear the epigraph ADLOCUTIO. Allocutio. (Coin of Galba.) ALOA or HALOA (oAwo, i\wa), an Attic festival, but celebrated principally at Eleusis, in honour of Demeter and Dionysus, the in- ventors of the plough and protectors of the fruits of the earth. ALTARE. [ARA.] ALUTA. [CALCEHS.] ALYTAE (oAvrai), persons whose business it was to keep order in the public games. They received their orders from an alytarches (oAimipxTjs), who was himself under the di- rection of the agonothetae, or hellenodicae. AMANUENSIS, or AD MANUM SERVUS, a slave, or freedman, whose office it was to write letters and other things under his mas- ter's direction. The amanuenses must not be confounded with another sort of slaves, also called ad manum servi, who were always kept ready to be employed in any business. AMARYNTHIA, or AMARYSIA (a^apvv 0ia or afiapvcria), a festival of Artemis Ama- rynthia or Amarysia, celebrated, as it seems, originally at Amarynthus in Euboea, with extraordinary splendour, but also solemnised in several places in Attica, such as Athmone. AMBARVALIA. [ARVALES FRATRES.] AMBITUS, which literally signifies " a going about," cannot, perhaps, be more nearly expressed than by our word can passing. After the plebs had formed a distinct class at Rome, and when the whole body of the citizens had become very greatly increased, we frequently read, in the Roman writers, of the great efforts which it was necessary for candidates to make in order to secure the votes of the citizens. At Rome, as in every community into which the element of popular election enters, solicitation of votes, and open or secret influence and bribery, were among the means by which a candidate secured his elec- tion to the offices of state. The following are the principal terms occurring in the Roman writers in relation to the canvassing for the public offices : A candidate was called petitor ; and his opponent with reference to him competitor. A candidate (candidatus} was so called from his appearing in the public places, such as the fora and Campus Martius, before his fellow-citizens, in a whitened toga. On such occasions the can- didate was attended by his friends (deduc- tores], or followed by the poorer citizens (sectatores), who could in no other manner show their good will or give their assistance. The word assiduitas expressed both the con- tinual presence of the candidate at Rome and his continual solicitations. The candidate, in going his rounds or taking his walk, was accompanied by a nomendator, who gave him the names of such persons as he might meet ; the candidate was thus enabled to address them by their name, an indirect compliment, which could not fail to be generally gratifying to the electors. The candidate accompanied his address with a shake of the hand (pren- satio). The term benignitas comprehended generally any kind of treating, as shows, feasts, &c. The ambitus, which was the object of several penal enactments, taken as a generic term, comprehended the two species - ambitus and largitiones (bribery). Liber- alitas and benignitas are opposed by Cicero, as things allowable, to ambitus and largitio, as things illegal. Money was paid for votes ; and, in order to insure secrecy and secure the elector, persons called interprctcs were employed to make the bargain, sequestres to hold the money till it was to be paid, and dirisores to distribute it. The offence of ambitus was a matter which belonged to the judicia publica, and the enactments against it were numerous. One of the earliest, though not the earliest of all, the Lex Cor- nelia Baebia (B.C. 181) was specially directed against largitiones. Those convicted under it were incapacitated from being candidates for ten years. The Lex Cornelia Fulvia (B.C. 159) punished the offence with exile. The Lex Acilia Calpurnia (B.C. 67) imposed a fine on the offending party, with exclusion from the senate and all public offices. The Lex Tullia (B.C. 63), passed in the consulship of Cicero, in addition to the penalty of the Acilian law, inflicted ten years' exsilium on the offender ; and, among other things, for- bade a person to exhibit gladiatorial shows (gladiatores dare) within any two years in which he was a candidate, nnless he was re- quired to do so, on a fixed day, by a testator's will. Two years afterwards the Lex Aufidia AMBROSIA. 19 AMPHICTYONES. was proposed, but not passed ; by which, among other things, it was provided that, if a candidate promised (pronvntiavit) money to a tribe, and did not pay it, he should be unpunished ; but, if he did pay the money, he should further pay to each tribe (annually ?) 3000 sesterces as long as he lived. This absurd proposal occasioned the witticism of Cicero, who said that Clodius observed the law by anticipation ; for he promised, but did not pay. The Lex Licinia (B.C. 55) was spe- cially directed against the offence of soda- litiinn, or the wholesale bribery of a tribe by gifts and treating ; and another lex, passed (B.C. 52) when Pompey was sole consul, had for its object the establishment of a speedier course of proceeding on trials for ambitus. All these enactments failed in completely ac- complishing their object. That which no law could suppress, so long as the old popular forms retained any of their pristine vigour, was accomplished by the imperial usurpation. Caesar, when dictator, nominated some of the candidates for public offices : as to the consulship, he managed the appointments to that office just as he pleased. The popular forms of election were observed during the time of Augustus. Tiberius transferred the elections from the comitia to the senate, by which the offence of ambitus, in its proper sense, entirely disappeared. The trials for ambitus were numerous in the time of the republic. The oration of Cicero in defence of L. Murena, who was charged with am- bitus, and that in defence of Cn. Plancius, who was charged with sodalitiitm, are both extant. AMBROSIA (ajiftxxrt'a), the food of the gods, which conferred upon them eternal youth and immortality, and was brought to Jupiter by pigeons. It was also used by the gods for anointing their body and hair ; whence we read of the ambrosial locks of Jupiter. AMBUBAIAE (probably from the Syriac, alub aubub, a pipe), Eastern dancing girls, who frequented chiefly the Circus at Rome, and obtained their living by prostitution and lascivious songs and dances. AMBURBIUM, a sacrifice which was per- formed at Rome for the purification of the city. AMENTUM. [HASTA.] AMICTORIUM. [STROPHror.] AMICTUS. The verb amicire is commonly opposed to induere, the former being applied to the putting on of the outer garment, the pallium, laena, or toga (ipoa-iov, <>opo?) ; the latter, to the putting on of the inner garment, the tunic (x 1 1 ')- In consequence of this distinction, the verbal nouns amictus and indutus, even without any further denomina- tion of the dress being added, indicate re- spectively the outer and inner clothing. In Greek amicire is expressed by Uiw(rOai, atiire\e, an outer garment, a cloak, a shawl ; and ivSv/jM, an inner garment, a tunic, a shirt. AMPHICTYONES (aMurrvov). Insti- tutions called amphietyonic appear to have existed in Greece from time immemorial. They seem to have been originally associations of neighbouring tribes, formed for the regu- lation of mutual intercourse and the protec- tion of a common temple or sanctuary, at which the representatives of the different members met, both to transact business and to celebrate religious rites and games. One of these associations was of much greater importance than all the rest, and was called, by way of eminence, the Amphietyonic League or Council (on^iicTvocia). It differed from other similar associations in having two places of meeting, the sanctuaries of two divinities ; which were the temple of Demeter, in the village of Anthela, near Thermopylae, where the deputies met in autumn ; and that of Apollo, at Delphi, where they assembled in spring. Its connexion with the latter place not only contributed to its dignity, but also to its permanence. Its early history is involved in obscurity. Most of the ancients suppose it to have been founded by Amphictyon, the son of Deucalion and Pyrrha, from whom they imagined that it derived its name : but this opinion is destitute of all foundation, and arose from the ancients assigning the esta- blishment of their institutions to some my- thical hero. There can be little doubt as to the true etymology of the word. It was ori- ginally written i^ucriovt^, and consequently signified those that dwelt around some parti- cular locality. Its institution, however, is clearly of remote antiquity. It was originally composed of twelve tribes (not cities or states; it must be observed), each of which tribes contained various independent cities or states. We learn from Aeschines, that in B. c. 343, eleven of these tribes were as follows : The Thessalians, Boeotians (not Thebans only), Dorians, Ionian?, Perrhaebians, Magnetos, Locrians, Oetaeans or Oenianians, Phthiots or Achaeans of Phthia, Malians, and Phocians ; other lists leave us in doubt whether the remaining tribe were the Dolopes or Del- phians ; but as the Delphians could hardly be called a distinct tribe, their nobles appearing to have been Dorians, it seems probable that the Dolopes were originally member", and afterwards supplanted by the Delphians. All C 2 AMPHICTYONES. 20 AMPHICTYONES. the states belonging to each of these tribes were on a footing of perfect equality. Thus Sparta enjoyed no advantages over Dorium and Cytinium, two small towns in Doris : and Athens, an Ionic city, was on a par with Ere- tila in Euboea, and Priene in Asia Minor, two other Ionic cities. The ordinary council was called Pylaea (mAeu'a), from its meeting in the neighbourhood of Pylae (Thermopylae), but the name was given to the session at Delphi as well as to that at Thermopylae. The council was composed of two classes of representatives, one called Pylagorae (IIvAa- yopat), and the other Ificromnemones ( lepo- HiTJjLioi'es). Athens sent three Pylagorae and one Hieromnemon ; of whom the former were elected apparently for each session, and the latter by lot, probably for a longer period. Respecting the relative duties of the Pyla- gorae and Hieromnemones we have little information : the name of the latter implies that they had a more immediate connection with the temple. We are equally in the dark respecting the numbers who sat in the council and its mode of proceeding. It would seem that all the deputies had seats in the council, and took part in its deliberations ; but if it be true, as appears from Aeschines, that each of the tribes had only two votes, it is clear that all the deputies could not have voted. In addition to the ordinary council, there was an ecclesia (e/cicArjaia), or general assembly, including not only the classes above mentioned, but also those who had joined in the sacrifices, and were consulting the god. It was convened on extraordinary occasions by the chairman of the council. Of the duties of the Amphietyons nothing will give us a clearer view than the oath they took, which was as follows : " They would destroy no city of the Amphietyons, nor cut off their streams in war or peace ; and if any should do so, they would march against him, and destroy his cities ; and should any pillage the property of the god, or be privy to or plan anything against what was in his temple (at Delphi), they would take vengeance on him with hand and foot, and voice, and all their might." From this oath we see that the main duty of the deputies was the preser- vation of the rights and dignity of the temple of Delphi. We know, too, that after it was burnt down (B. c. 548), they contracted with the Alcmaeonidae for its rebuilding. History, moreover, teaches that if the council produced any palpable effects, it was from their interest in Delphi ; and though they kept up a standing record of what ought to have been the interna- tional law of Greece, they sometimes acquiesced in, and at other times were parties to, the most iniquitous acts. Of this the case of Crissa is an instance. This town lay on the Gulf of Corinth, near Delphi, and was much frequented by pilgrims from the West. The Crissaeans were charged by the Delphians with undue exactions from these strangers. The coun- cil declared war against them, as guilty of a wrong against the god. The war lasted ten years, till, at the suggestion of Solon, the waters of the Pleistus were turned off, then poisoned, and turned again into the city. The besieged drank their fill, and Crissa was soon razed to the ground ; and thus, if it were an Amphictyonic city, was a solemn oath doubly violated. Its territory the rich Cirrhaean plain was consecrated to the god, and curses imprecated upon whomsoever should till or dwell in it. Thus ended the First Sacred War (B. c. 585), in which the Athenians were the instruments of Delphian vengeance. The second or Phocian war (B. c. 350) was the most important in which the Amphietyons were concerned ; and in this the Thebans availed themselves of the sanction of the council to take vengeance on their enemies, the Fhocians. To do this, however, it was necessary to call in Philip of Macedon, who readily proclaimed himself the champion of Apollo, as it opened a pathway to his own ambition. The Phocians were subdued (B. c, 346), and the council decreed that all their cities, except Abae, should he razed, and the inhabitants dispersed in villages not contain- ing more than fifty persons. Their two votes were given to Philip, who thereby gained a pretext for interfering with the affairs of Greece ; and also obtained the recognition of his subjects as Hellenes. The Third Sacred War arose from the Amphissians tilling the devoted Cirrhaean plain. The Amphietyons called in the assistance of Philip, who soon reduced the Amphissians to subjection. Their submission was immediately followed by the battle of Chaeroneia (B. c. 338), and the extinction of the independence of Greece. In the following year, a congress of the Amphic- tyonic states was held, in which war was declared as if by united Greece against Persia, and Philip elected commander-in-chief. On this occasion the Amphietyons assumed the character of national representatives as of old, when they set a price upon the head of Ephi- altes, for his treason to Greece at Thermo- pylae. It has been sufficiently shown that the Amphietyons themselves did not observe the oaths they took ; and that they did not much alleviate the horrors of war, or enforce what they had sworn to do, is proved by many instances. Thus, for instance, Mycenae was destroyed by Argos (B. c. 535), Thespiae and Plataeae by Thebes, and Thebes herself swept from the face of the earth by Alexander, AMPHIDROMIA. 21 AMPHITHEATRUM. without the Amphictyons raising one word in opposition. Indeed, a few years before the Peloponnesian war, the council was a passive spectator of what Thucydides calls the Sacred War (6 Upbs TrdAe/oios), whan the Lacedaemo- nians made an expedition to Delphi, and put the temple into the hands of the Delphians, the Athenians, after their departure, restoring it to the Phocians. The council is rarely mentioned after the time of Philip. \Ve are told that Augustus wished his new city, Nicopolis (A. D. 31), to be enrolled among the members. Pausanias, in the second century of our era, mentions it as still exist- ing, but deprived of all power and influence. AMPH1DROMIA (a^iSp^a or Spo/ou- afx^>top fjfiaf'), a family festival of the Athe- nians, at which the newly-born child was introduced into the family, and received its name. The friends and relations of the parents were invited to the festival of the amphidromia, which was held in the evening, and they generally appeared with presents. The house was decorated on the outside with olive branches when the child was a boy, or with garlands of wool when the child was a girl ; and a repast was prepared for the guests. The child was carried round the fire by the nurse, and thus, as it were, pre- sented to the gods of the house and to the family, and at the same time received its name, to which the guests were witnesses. The carrying of the child round the hearth was the principal part of the solemnity, from which its name was derived. AMPHITHEATRUM, an amphitheatre, was a place for the exhibition of public shows of combatants, wild beasts, and naval engage- ments, and was entirely surrounded with seats for the spectators ; whereas, in those for dramatic performances, the seats were arranged in a semicircle facing the stage. An amphitheatre is therefore frequently de- scribed as a double theatre, consisting of two such semicircles, or halves, joined together, the spaces allotted to their orchestras becom- ing the inner inclosure, or area, termed the arena. The form, however, of the ancient amphitheatres was not a circle, but invariably an ellipse. Gladiatorial shows and combats of wild beasts (venationesj were first exhi- bited in the forum and the circus ; and it appears that the ancient custom was still preserved till the time of Julius Caesar. The first building in the form of an amphitheatre is said to have been erected by C. Scribonius Curio, one of Caesar's partisans ; but the account which is given of this building sounds rather fabulous. It is said to have consisted of two wooden theatres, ma-ie to revolve on pivots, in such a manner that they could, by means of windlasses and machinery, be turned round face to face, so as to form one building. Soon after Caesar himself erected, in the Campus Martius, a stationary amphitheatre, made of wood ; to which building the name of amphitheatrum was for the first time given . The first stone amphitheatre was built by Statilius Taurus, in the Campus Martius, at the desire of Augustus. This was the only stone amphitheatre at Rome till the time uf Vespasian. One was commenced by Caliguia, but was not continued by Claudius. The one erected by Nero in the Campus Martius was only a temporary building, made of wood. The amphitheatre of Statilius Taurus was burnt in the fire of Rome in the time of Nero ; and hence, as a new one was needed, Vespa- sian commenced the celebrated Amphitheatrum Flavium in the middle of the city, in the valley between the Caelian, the Esquiline, and the Velia, on the spot originally occupied by the lake or large pond attached to Nero's palace. Vespasian did not live to finish it. It was dedicated by Titus in A. D. 80, but was not completely finished till the reign of Domi- tian. This immense edifice, which is even yet comparatively entire, covered nearly six acres of ground, and was capable of containing about 87,000 spectators. It is called at the present day the Colosseum or Colisaewn. The interior of an amphitheatre was divided into three parts, the arena, podium, and gradus. The clear open space in the centre of the amphitheatre was called the arena, because it was covered with sand, or sawdust, to prevent the gladiators from slipping, and to absorb the blood. The size of the arena was not always the same in proportion to the size of the amphitheatre, but its average propor- tion was one third of the shorter diameter of the building. The arena was surrounded by a wall distinguished by the name of podium ; although such appellation, perhaps, rather belongs to merely the upper part of it, form- ing the parapet, or balcony, before the first or lowermost seats, nearest to the arena. The arena, therefore, was no more than an open oval court, surrounded by a wall about fifteen feet high ; a height considered necessary, in order to render the spectators perfectly secure from the attacks of wild beasts. There were four principal entrances leading into the arena ; two at the ends of each axis or diameter of it, to which as many passages led directly from the exterior of the building ; besides secondary ones, intervening between them, and commu- nicating with the corridors beneath the seats on the podium. The wall or enclosure of the arena is supposed to have been faced with marble, more or less sumptuous ; besides which, there appears to have been, in some AMPHITHEATRUM. 22 AMPHITIIEATRUM. instances at least, a sort of net-work affixed to the top of the podium, consisting of railing, or rather open trellis-work of metal. As a further defence, ditches, called eiiripi, some- times surrounded the arena. The term po- dium was also applied to the terrace, or gallery itself, immediately above the arena, which was no wider than to be capable of containing two, or at the most, three ranges of moveable seats, or chairs. This, as being by far the best situation for distinctly viewing the sports in the arena, and also more commodiously accessible than the seats higher up, was the place set apart for senators and other persons of distinction, such as foreign ambassadors ; and it was here, also, that the emperor him- self used to sit, in an elevated place, called suggestus or eiMculum, and likewise the person who exhibited the games on a place elevated like a pulpit or tribunal (editoris tribunal^. Above the podium were the gra- dus, or seats of the other spectators, which were divided into maeniana, or stories. The first maenianum, consisting of fourteen rows of stone or marble seats, was appropriated to the equestrian order. The seats appro- ; side of the preceding Sectk EXPLANATION. ji, The arena. p. The wall or podium inclosing it. r. The podium itself, on which were chairs, or seats, for the senators, &c. Ml, The first mai-nianum, or slope of benches, for the equestrian order. u". The second maenianum. w/'/, The third maenianum; elevated considerably above the preceding one, and appropriated to the pullati w, The colonnade, or gallery, which cent ats for interior, pr, pr. The pitecinctiones, or landings, at the top of the first and second maenianum ; in the pavement oi which were grated apertures, at intervals, to admit light into the vomitoria beneath them. e o , The three external galleries through the circum- ference of the building, open to the arcades of thfi exterior. gg, Inner gallery. The situation and arrangement of the staircases, ftc., are not expressed, as they could not be rendered intelligible without plans at various levels of the building. AMPHORA. 23 AMPULLA. priated to the senators and equites were covered with cushions, which were first used in the time of Caligula. Then, after an in- terval or space, termed a praecinctio, and forming a continued landing-place from the several staircases in it, succeeded the second macnianum, where were the scats called popularia, for the third class of spectators, or the populus. Behind this was the second prae- cinctio, bounded by a rather high wall ; above which was the third maenianum, where there were only wooden benches for the pullati, or common people. The next and last division, namely, that in the highest part of the building, consisted of a colonnade, or gallery, where females were allowed to witness the spectacles of the amphitheatre, but some parts of it were also occupied by the pullati. Each maenianum was not only divided from the other by the praecinctio, but was inter- sected at intervals by spaces for passages left between the seats, called scalae, or scalaria ; and the portion between two such passages was called cuneus, because the space gradually widened like a wedge, from the podium to the top of the building. The entrances to the seats from the outer porticoes were called vomitoria. At the very summit was the narrow platform for the men who had to attend to the velarium, or awning, by which the building was covered as a defence against the sun and rain. The velarium appears usually to have been made of wool, but more costly materials were sometimes employed. The first of the preceding cuts represents a longitudinal section of the Flavian amphi- theatre, and the second, which is on a larger scale, a part of the above section, including the exterior wall, and the seats included between that and the arena. It will serve to convey an idea of the leading form and general disposition of the interior. For an account of the gladiatorial contests, and the shows of wild beasts, exhibited in the amphitheatre, see GLADIATOEES, NAUMACHIA, and VENATIO. AMPHORA (ifi^opevs), a vessel used for holding wine, oil, honey, &c. The following cut represents amphorae in the British Mu- seum. They are of various forms and sizes ; in general they are tall and narrow, with a small neck, and a handle on each side of the neck (whence the name, from ap^i, on both sides, and <#>epw, to carry), and terminating at the bottom in a point, which was let into a stand or stuck in the ground, so that the vessel stood upright : several amphorae have been found in this position in the cellars at Pompeii. Amphorae were commonly made of earthenware. Homer mentions amphorae of gold and stone, and the Egyptians had them of brass; glass vessels of this form have been found at Pompeii. The most com- mon use of the amphora, both among the Amphorae. (British Museum.; Greeks and the Romans, was for keeping wine. The cork was covered with pitch or gypsum, and (among the Romans) on the outside the title of the wine was painted, the date of the vintage being marked by the names of the consuls then in office ; or, when the jars were of glass, little tickets (pittoric,, tesserae] were suspended from them, indicating these particulars. The Greek amphoreus and the Roman amphora were also names of fixed measures. The amphoreus, which was also called metretes (neTpijnjs) and cadus (xaSos), was equal to three Roman urnae = 8 gallons, 7-365 pints, imperial measure. The Roman amphora was two-thirds of the amphoreus, and was equal to 2 urnae = 8 congii = to 5 gallons, 7-577 pints; its solid content was exactly a Roman cubic foot. AMPLIATIO, an adjournment of a trial, which took place when the judices after hear- ing the evidence of the advocates were unable to come to a satisfactory conclusion. This they expressed by giving in the tablets, on which were the letters N. L. (non liquet), and the praetor, by pronouncing the word am- plins, thereupon adjourned the trial to any day he chose. The defendant and the cause were then said ampliari. AMPULLA (AjJKueos, j3o/uij3u'Aio?), a bottle, usually made among the Romans either of glass or earthenware, rarely of more valuable npulla. (Sketched bjr G. Scharf from a relief at Athens, ilicovercU in 1840.) AMPYX. 24 AXAGNOSTES. materials. Ampullae were more or less glo- bular. From their round and swollen shape, the word was used by Horace to indicate grand and turgid but empty language. (" Projicit ampullas et sesquipedalia verba," Ar. Poet. 97.) Ampullae are frequently mentioned in con- nection with the bath, since every Roman took with him to the bath a bottle of oil for anoint- ing the body after bathing. The dealer in bottles was called ampullarius. Ampulla. (From a tomb at Myra in Lycia.) AMPYX (O^TU|, o/oiTnHc-rijp, Lat. frontale), a frontal, a broad band or plate of metal, which ladies of rank wore above the forehead as part of the head-dress. The frontal of a horse was called by the same name. The annexed cut exhibits the frontal on the head of Pegasus, in contrast with the correspond- ing ornament as shown on the heads of two females. Ampycre, FrontlcU. (F: AMUI.KTUM (jrepi'aTnw, irepia.ij.ua, v\aj(- njpiov), an amulet. This word in Arabic (hamalet) means that which is suspended. It was probably brought into Europe by Ara- bian merchants, together with the articles to which it was applied. An amulet was any object, a stone, a plant, an artificial pro- duction, or a piece of writing, which was suspended from the neck, or tied to any part of the body, for the purpose of warding on* calamities and securing advantages of any kind. Faith in the virtues of amulets was almost universal in the ancient world, so that the art of medicine consisted in a very considerable degree of directions for their application. AMUSSIS or AMUSSIUM, a carpenter's and mason's instrument, the use of which was to obtain a true plane surface. ANACEIA (avaxei.*, or avaxeiov), a festi- val of the Dioscuri or Anactes ('Avoueres), as they were called at Athens. These heroes, however, received the most distinguished ho- nours in the Dorian and Achaean states, where it may be supposed that every town celebrated a festival in their honour, though not under the name of Anaceia. ANACRISIS (avaicpuns), an examination, was used to signify the pleadings preparatory to a trial at Athens, the object of which was to determine, generally, if the action would lie. The magistrates were said avaxpCvciv T>)I> Bimfv or TOUS avn&Uovs, and the parties di/oKpiVeotfru. The process consisted in the production of proofs, of which there were five kinds : 1. The laws ; 2. Written docu- ments ; 3. Testimonies of witnesses present (/uoprvpuu), or affidavits of absent witnesses (eKfiopTvpuu) ; 4. Depositions of slaves ex- torted by the rack ; 5. The oath of the par- ties. All these proofs were committed to writing, and placed in a box secured by a seal (ex'TOs) till they were produced at the trial. If the evidence produced at the ana- crisis was so clear and convincing' that there could not remain any doubt, the magistrate could decide the question without sending the cause to be tried before the dicasts : this was called diamartyria (SiofiopTupia). The ar- chons were the proper officers for holding the anacrisis ; they are represented by Athena (Minerva), in the JZumenides of Aeschylus, where there is a poetical sketch of the process in the law courts. For an account of the anacrisis or examination, which each archon underwent previously to entering on office, see ARCHON. ANAGLYPHA or ANAGLYPTA (a, avayAvirra), chased or embossed vessels made of bronze or of the precious metals, which derived their name from the work on them being in relief, and not engraved. AXAGXOSTES, a slave, whose duty it was AXAGOGIA. AXXULUS. to read or repeat passages from books during an entertainment, and also at other times. AXAGOGIA (.avayiayia), a festival cele- brated at Eryx, in Sicily, in honour of Aphro- dite. The inhabitants of the place believed that, during this festival, the goddess went over into Africa. AXATOCISMUS. [FENUB.] AXCILE. [SALII.] AXCORA. [NAVIS.] AXDABATA. [GLADIATOR.] ANDROGEONIA (6poyii>ia), a festival with games, held every year in the Cera- meicus at Athens, in honour of the hero An- drogeus, son of Minos, who had overcome all his adversaries in the festive games of the Panathenaea, and was afterwards killed by his jealous rivals. AXDROLEPSIA (ifSpoArj^ta or av&po\rj- ^Ix-ov), a. legal means by which the Athenians were enabled to take vengeance upon a com- munity in which an Athenian citizen had been murdered, by seizing three individuals of that state or city, as hostages, until satis- faction was given. AXDROXlTIS. [Doircs, GREEK.] ANGARIA (ayyopet'a, Hdt. dyyap^i.'oi'), a word borrowed from the Persians, signifying a system of posting by relays of horses, which was used among that people, and which, ac- cording to Xenophon, was established by Cyrus. The term was adopted by the Ro- mans under the empire to signify compulsory service in forwarding the messages of the state. The Roman angaria, also called anga- riarum exhibitio or praestatio, included the maintenance and supply, not only of horses, but of ships and messengers, in forwarding both letters and burdens ; it is defined as a personate munus ; and there was no ground of exemption from it allowed, except by the favour of the emperor. AXGIPORTUS, or ANGIPORTUM, a nar- row lane between two rows of houses, which might either be what the French call a cul- de-sac, or it might terminate at both ends in some public street. AXGUSTICLAVII. [CiAvus.] AXXALES MAXIMI. [PONTIFEX.] ANXOXA (from anmis, like pomona from pomwn}. (1) The produce of the year in corn, fruit, wine, &c., and hence, (2) provi- sions in general, especially the corn, which, ir. the later years of the republic, was col- lected in the storehouses of the state, and sold to the poor at a cheap rate in times of scarcity ; and which, under the emperors, was distributed to the people gratuitously, or given as pay and rewards ; ( 3 ) the price of provisions ; ( 4 ) a soldier's allowance of pro- visions for a certain time. The word is used also in the plural for yearly or monthly dis- tributions of pay in corn, &c. AXXULUS (fioxTvAios), a ring. It is pro- bable that the custom of wearing rings was very early introduced into Greece from Asia, where it appears to have been almost uni- versal. They were worn not merely as "orna- ments, but as articles for use, as the ring always served as a seal. A seal was called sphragis (payi's), and hence this name was given to the ring itself, and also to the gem or stone for a ring in which figures were en- graved. Rings in Greece were mostly worn on the fourth finger (iroppoSria) were festivals celebrated in honour of Aphrodite^ in a great number of towns in Greece, but particularly in the island of Cyprus. Her most ancient temple was at Paphos. No bloody sacrifices were allowed to be offered to her, but only pure fire, flowers, and incense. APLUSTRE. [NAVIS.] APOCLETI (diroKArjToi). [AETOLicust FOE- 3XJS.] APODECTAE (AiroSeVrai), public officers at Athens, who were introduced by Cleisthenes in the place of the ancient colacretae (xwAa- /epeVai). They were ten in number, one for each tribe, and their duty was to collect all the ordinary taxes, and distribute them among the separate branches of the adminis- tration which were entitled to them. APOGRAPHE (awoypcuj)!/)'), literally, " a list, or register;" signified also, (1) An ac- cusation in public matters, more particularly when there were several defendants. It differed but little, if at all, from the ordinary graphe. ( 2 ) A solemn protest or assertion in writing before a magistrate, to the intent that it might be preserved by him till it was required to be given in evidence. (3) A specification of property, said to belong to the state, but actually in the possession of a private person ; which specification was made with a view to the confiscation of such pro- perty to the state. APOLL1NARES LUDI. [LuDi APOLLI- NAEES.] APOLLONIA (an-oAAwi/ia), the name of a propitiatory festival solemnized at Sicyon, in honour of ApoUo and Artemis. APOPHORETA (dTro^dprjTa) were presents, which were given to friends at the end of an entertainment to take home with them. These presents appear to have been usually given on festival days, especially during the Saturnalia. APORRHETA (airopfaTa), literally " things forbidden," has two peculiar, but widely dif- ferent, acceptations in the Attic dialect. In one of these it implies contraband goods ; in the other, it denotes certain contumelious epithets, from the application of which both the Kving and the dead were protected by special laws. APOSTOLEUS (an-ooToXev's), the name of a public officer at Athens. There were ten magistrates of this name, and their duty was to see that the ships were properly equipped and provided by those who were bound to discharge the trierarchy. They had the power, in certain cases, of imprisoning the trierarchs who neglected to furnish the ships properly. APOTHECA (iTroe^K))), a place in the upper part of the house, in which the Ro- mans frequently placed the earthen amphorae in which their wines were deposited. This place, which was quite different from the cella vinaria, was above the fumarium ; since it was thought that the passage of the smoke through the room tended greatly to increase the flavour of the wine. The position of the apotheca explains the expression in Horace (Carm. ii. 21, 7), Dcscende, testa. APOTHEOSIS (an-oeeWts), the enrolment of a mortal among the gods. The mythology of Greece contains numerous instances of the deification of mortals ; but in the republican times of Greece we find few examples of such deification. The inhabitants of Amphipolis, however, offered sacrifices to Brasidas ai'tei his death. In the Greek kingdoms, which APPARITOE. 29 AQUAE DUCTUS. arose in the East on the dismemberment of the empire of Alexander, it appears to have been not uncommon for the successor to the throne to offer divine honours to the former sovereign. Such an apotheosis of Ptolemy, king of Egypt) is described by Theocritus in his 17th Idyl. The term apotheosis, among the Romans, properly signified the elevation of a deceased emperor to divine honours. This practice, which was common upon the death of almost all the emperors, appears to have arisen from the opinion which was generally entertained among the Romans, that the souls or manes of their ancestors became deities ; and as it was common for children to worship the manes of their fathers, so it was natural for divine honours to be publicly paid to a deceased emperor, who was regarded as the parent of his country. This apotheosis of an emperor was usually called consecratio ; and the emperor who received the honour of an apotheosis was usually said in deorum numerum referri, or consecrari, and whenever he is spoken of after his death, the title of divus is prefixed to his name. The funeral pile on which the body of the deceased emperor was burnt, was constructed of several stories in the form of chambers rising one above another, and in the highest an eagle was placed, which was let loose as the fire began to burn, and which was supposed to carry the soul of the em- peror from earth to heaven. APPARITOR, the general name for a public servant of the magistrates at Rome, namely, the ACCENSUS, CARNIFEX, COACTOR, INTERPRES, LICTOR, PRAECO, SCRIBA, STATOR, VJATOR, of whom an account is given in separate articles. They were called appa- ritores because they were at hand to execute the commands of the magistrates (quod Us apparebant). Their service or attendance was called apparitio. APPELLATIO, appeal. (1) GREEK (efco-is or avaSiKia.) Owing to the constitution of the Athenian tribunals, each of which was generally appropriated to its peculiar sub- jects of cognisance, and therefore could not be considered as homogeneous with or subor- dinate to any other, there was little oppor- tunity for bringing appeals properly so called. It is to be observed also, that in general a cause was finally and irrevocably decided by the verdict of the dicasts (8unj auTOTeAijs). There were only a few exceptions in which appeals and new trials might be resorted to. (2) ROMAN. The word appellatio, and the corresponding verb appellare, are used in the early Roman writers to express the appli- cation of an individual to a magistrate, and particularly to a tribune, in order to protect himself from some wrong inflicted, or threat- ened to be inflicted. It is distinguished from provocatio, which in the earlv writers is used to signify an appeal to the populus in a matter affecting life. It would seem that the provocatio was an ancient right of the Roman citizens. The surviving Horatius, who mur- dered his sister, appealed from the duumviri to the populus. The decemviri took away the provocatio ; but it was restored by the Lex Valeria et Horatia, B.C. 449, in the year after the decemvirate, and it was at the same time enacted, that in future no magistrate should be made from whom there should be no appeal. On this Livy remarks, that the plebs were now protected by the provocatio and the tribunicium auxilium ; this latter term has reference to the appellatio properly so called. The complete phrase to express the provocatio is provocare ad poputum ; and the phrase which expresses the appellatio is appellare ad, &c. APSIS or ABSIS (a.yia, tepeta) were pre- sented : only incense was burnt, or cakes and bloodless sacrifices offered on the altars within the building. ARATRUM (dpoTpo./), a plough. Among the Greeks and Romans the three most es- sential parts of the plough were, the plough- tail (yv>)?, bnris, bvra), the share-beam (eAv/ua, dens, dentale], that is, the piece of wood to which the share is fixed, and the polo (pujtids, ioTo/Soev'?, temo). In the time and country of Virgil it was the custom to force a tree into the crooked form of the bvris, 01 plough-tail. The upper end of the luris be- ing held by the ploughman, the lower part, ARATRUM. 32 ARCA. below its junction with the pole, was used to hold the dentale or share-beam, which was either sheathed with metal, or driven bare into the ground, according to circumstances. The term vomer was sometimes applied to the end of the dentale. To these three parts, the two following are added in the description of the plough by Virgil : 1. The earth-boards, or mould-boards (aitres), rising on each side, bending outwardly in such a manner as to throw on either hand the soil which had been previously loosened and raised by the share, and adjusted to the share-beam (dentale), which was made double for the purpose of receiving them. 2. The handle (stiva). Vir- gil describes this part as used to turn the plough at the end of the furrow ; and it is denned by an ancient commentator on Virgil as the " handle by which the plough is di- rected." It is probable that as the dentalia, the two share-beams, were in the form of the Greek letter A, which Virgil describes by duplici dorso. the buris was fastened to the left share-beam and the stiva to the right, so that the plough of Virgil was more like the modern Lancashire plough, which is com- monly held behind with both hands. Some- times, however, the stiva was used alone and instead of the buris or tail. In place of stiva the term capuhis is sometimes employed. The only other part of the plough requiring notice is the coulter (cutter), which was used by the Romans as it is with us. It was inserted into the pole so as to depend vertically before the share, cutting through the roots which came in its way, and thus preparing for the more complete overturning of the soil by the share. Two small wheels were also added to some ploughs. The plough, as described by Virgil, corresponds in all essential parti- culars with the plough now used about Man- tua and Venice. The Greeks and Romans usually ploughed their land three times for each crop. The first ploughing was called proscindere, or novare (feovo-Sai, vea^eotfai) ; the second offringere, or iterare ; and the third, lirare, or tertiare. The field which underwent the " proscissio " was called ver- vactum or novale (Veos), and in this process the coulter was employed, because the fresh surface was entangled with numberless roots which required to be divided before the soil could be turned up by the share. The term "offringere," from ob and f ranger e, was ap- plied to the second ploughing ; because the long parallel clods already turned up were broken and cut across, by drawing the plough through them at right angles to its former direction. The field which underwent thie process was called ager iteratus. After the second ploughing the sower cast his seed. Also the clods were often, though not always, broken still further by a wooden mallet, or by harrowing (occatio). The Roman plough- man then, for the first time, attached the earth, boards to his share. The effect of this ad- justment was to divide the level surface of the " ager iteratus " into ridges. These were called porcae, and also lirae, whence came the verb lirare, to make ridges, and also delirare, to decline from the straight line. The earth-boards, by throwing the earth to each side in the manner already explained, both covered the newly-scattered seed, and formed between the ridges furrows (auAaice?, sulci) for carrying off the water. In this state the field was called seges and rpiVoAo?. When the ancients ploughed three times only, it was done in the spring, summer, and au- tumn of the same year. But in order to ob- tain a still heavier crop, both the Greeks and the Romans ploughed four times, the proscis- sio being performed in the latter part of the preceding year, so that between one crop and another two whole years intervened. ARBITER. [JUDEX.] Aratruin, Plough (now ucd at Mantua). 3. Dentale. 4. Culler. S. Von ARCA (Ki/3. At Athens the archives were kept in the temple of the mother of the gods (nrjrptjov), and the charge of it was entrusted to the president (e7n.orT>)s) of the senate of the Five-hundred. ARCHIATER (i'os), which of course im- >lies that the nobility had some control over t. This state of things lasted for twelve eigns of archons. The next step was to imit the continuance of the office to ten 'ears, still confining it to the Medontidae, or louse of Codrus, so as to establish what the Greeks called a dynasty, till the archonship of Eryxias, the last archon of that family elected as such. At the end of his ten years V B. c. G84), a much greater change took place : ,he archonship was made annual, and its various duties divided among a college of nine, chosen by suffrage (xeipoiWa) from the Eupatridae, or Patricians, and no longer elected from the Medontidae exclusively. This arrangement lasted till the time of Solon, who still continued the election by suffrage, but made the qualification for office depend, not on birth, but property. The election by lot is believed to have been introduced by Cleis- thenes (B.C. 508). The -last change is sup- posed to have been made by Aristides, -who after the battle of Plataeae (B. c. 479) abo- lished the property qualification, throwing open the archonship and other magistracies to all the citizens ; that is, to the Thetes, as well as the other classes, the former of whom were not allowed by Solon's laws to hold any magistracy at all. Still, after the removal of the old restrictions, some security was left to insure respectability ; for, previously to an archon entering on office, he underwent an examination, called the anacrisis (ofrfjcptvtc), as to his being a legitimate and a good citizen, Ry this 18 meant that the supreme power, though nul monarchical, was confined to one family. ARCI1CN. ARCHOX. a good son, and qualified in point of property, but the latter limitation was either done away with by Aristides, or soon became obsolete. Yet, even after passing a satisfactory ana- crisis, each of the archons, in common with other magistrates, was liable to be deposed on complaint of misconduct made before the people, at the first regular assembly in each prytany. On such an occasion the epichciro- tonia (eTrtxeipoTovta), as it was called, took place : and we read that in one case the whole college of archons was deprived of office (airoxeipoToceicrOai). In consequence of the clemocratical tendency of the assembly and courts of justice established by Solon, the arehons lost the great political power which they at one time possessed. They became, in fact, not as of old directors of the government, but merely municipal magistrates, exercising functions and bearing titles described below. It has been already stated, that the duties of the single archon were shared by a college of nine. The first, or president of this body, was called Archon, by way of pre-eminence, or Archon Eponymus (apX *" emui/vjuos), from the year being distinguished by and regis- tered in his name. The second was styled Archon Baslleus (apx""' jSaeriAeus), or the King Archon ; the third Polemarchus (iroAe- fiapxos), or commander-in-chief ; the remain- ing six, Thesmothetae (9eo>io0e'Tcu), or legis- lators. As regards the duties of the archons, it is sometimes difficult to distinguish what belonged to them individually, and what col- lectively. It seems that a considerable por- tion of the judicial functions of the ancient kings devolved upon the Archon Eponymus, who was also constituted a sort of state pro- tector of those who were unable to defend themselves. Thus he was to superintend orphans, heiresses, families losing their repre- sentatives, widows left pregnant, and to see that they were not wronged in any way. This archon had also the superintendence of the greater Dionysia, and the Thargelia. The functions of the King Archon were almost all connected with religion ; his distinguishing title shows that he was considered a repre- sentative of the old kings in their capacity of high priest, as the Rex Sacrificulus was at Rome. Thus he presided at the Lenaea, or older Dionysia ; superintended the mysteries and the games called Lampadephoriae, and had to offer up sacrifices and prayers in the Eleusinium, both at Athens and Eleusis. Moreover, indictments for impiety, and con- troversies about the priesthood, were laid be- fore him ; and, in cases of murder, he brought the trial into the court of the areiopagus, and voted with its members. His wife, also, who was called Sasilissa (j3a irayta /3ovA>j), which was sometimes called The Upper Council ('H am pouArj), to distinguish it from the senate of Five-hundred, which sat in the Ccrameicus within the city. It was a body of very remote antiquity, acting as a criminal tri- bunal, and existed long before the time of Corytua, Bo' Vatican, V (Prom a Relief in the iti, iv. tav. 43.) Solon, but he so far modified its constitution and sphere of duty, that he may almost be called its founder. What that original consti- tution was, must in some degree be left to conjecture, though there is every reason to suppose that it was aristocratical, the mem- bers being taken, like the ephetae, from the noble patrician families. [EPHETAE.] By the legislation of Solon the Areiopagus was composed of the ex-arehons, who, after an unexceptionable discharge of their duties, " went up " to the Areiopagus, and became members of it for life, unless expelled for misconduct. As Solon made the qualification for the office of archon to depend not on birth but on property, the council after his time ceased to be aristocratic in constitution ; but, AREIOPAGUS. 38 AREIOPAGUS. as we learn from Attic writers, continued so in spirit. In fact, Solon is said to have formed the two councils, the senate and the Areiopagus, to be a check upon the demo- cracy ; that, as he himself expressed it, " the state riding upon them as anchors might be less tossed by storms." Nay, even after the archons were no longer elected by suffrage, but by lot, and the office was thrown open by Aristides to all the Athenian citizens, the " upper council " still retained its former tone of feeling. Moreover, besides these changes in its constitution, Solon altered and extended its functions. Before his time it was only a criminal court, trying cases of " wilful mur- der and wounding, of arson and poisoning," whereas he gave it extensive powers of a censorial and political nature. Thus we learn that he made the council an " overseer of everything, and the guardian of the laws," empowering it to inquire how any one got his living and to punish the idle ; and we are also told that the Areiopagites were "super- intendents of good order and decency," terms as unlimited and undefined as Solon not improbably wished to leave their authority. When heinous crimes had notoriously been committed, but the guilty parties were not known, or no accuser appeared, the Areio- pagus inquired into the subject, and re- ported to the demus. The report or infor- mation was called apophasis. This was a duty which they sometimes undertook on their own responsibility, and in the exercise of an old established right, and sometimes on the order of the demus. Nay, to such an extent did they carry their power, that on one occasion they apprehended an individual (Antiphon), who had been acquitted by the general assembly, and again brought hiril to a trial, which ended in his condemnation and death. Again, we find them revoking an appointment whereby Aeschines was made the advocate of Athens before the Amphic- tyonic council, and substituting Hyperides in his room. They also had duties connected with religion, one of which was to superin- tend the sacred olives growing about Athens, and try those who were charged with destroy- ing them ; and in general it was their office to punish the impious and irreligious. Inde- pendent, then, of its jurisdiction as a criminal court in cases of wilful murder, which Solon continued to the Areiopagus, its influence must have been sufficiently great to have been a considerable obstacle to the aggrandisement of the democracy at the expense of the other parties in the state. Accordingly, we find that Pericles, who was opposed to the aristo- cracy, resolved to diminish its power and circumscribe its sphere of action- Ills coad- jutor in this work was Ephialtes, a statesman of inflexible integrity, and also a military commander. They experienced much opposi- tion in their attempts, not only in the assem- bly, but also on the stage, where Aeschylus produced his tragedy of the Etimenides, the object of which was to impress upon the Athenians the dignity, sacredness, and con- stitutional worth of the institution which Pericles and Ephialtes wished to reform. Still the opposition failed : a decree was carried by which, as Aristotle says, the Arei- opagus was " mutilated," and many of its hereditary rights abolished, though it is difficult to ascertain the precise nature of the alterations which Pericles effected. The juris- diction of the Areiopagus in cases of murder was still left to them. In such cases the process was as follows : The king archon brought the case into court, and sat as one of the judges, who were assembled in the open air, probably to guard against any contamina- tion from the criminal. The accuser first came forwards to make a solemn oath that his accusation was true, standing over the slaugh- tered victims, and imprecating extirpation upon himself and his whole family were it not so. The accused then denied the charge with the same solemnity and form of oath. Each party then stated his case with all possible plainness, keeping strictly to the subject, and not being allowed to appeal in any way to the feelings or passions of the judges. After the first speech, a criminal accused of murder might remove from Athens, and thus avoid the capital punishment fixed by Draco's Thesmi, which on this point were still in force. Except in cases of parricide, neither the accuser nor the court had power to prevent this ; but the party who thus evaded the extreme punishment was not allowed to return home, and when any decree was passed -at Athens to legalize the return of exiles, an exception was always made against those who had thus left their country. The Areiopagus continued to exist, in name at least, till a very late period. Thus we find Cicero mentioning the council in his letters ; and an individual is spoken of as an Areio- pagite under the emperors Gratian and Theo- dosius (A. D. 380). The case of St. Paul is generally quoted as an instance of the autho- rity of the Areiopagus in religious matters ; but the words of the sacred historian do not necessarily imply that he was brought before the council. It may, however, be remarked, that the Areiopagites certainly took cognizance of the introduction of new and unauthorised forms of religious worship, called emdera. lepd, in contradistinction to the n-arpia or older rites of tae state. ARENA. 39 ARGENTARII. ARENA. [AMPHITHEATROI.] ARETALOGI, persons who amused the company at the Roman dinner tables. ARGEl, the name given by the pontiflces to the places consecrated by Numa for the celebration of religious services. Varro calls them the chapels of the argei, and says they were twenty-seven in number, distributed in the different districts of the city. There was a tradition that these argei were named from the chieftains who came with Hercules, the Argive, to Rome, and occupied the Capitoline, or, as it was anciently called, Saturnian hill. It is impossible to say what is the historical value or meaning of this legend; we may, however, notice its conformity with the state- ment that Rome was founded by the Pelas- gians, with whom the name of Argos was connected. The name argei was also given to certain figures thrown into the Tiber from the Sublician bridge, on the Ides of May in every year. This was done by the pontifices, tbe vestals, the praetors, and other citizens, after the performance of the customary sacri- fices. The images were thirty in number, made of bulrushes, and in the form of men. Ovid makes various suppositions to account for the origin of this rite ; we can only con- jecture that it was a symbolical offering, to propitiate the gods, and that the number was a representative either of the thirty patrician curiae at Rome, or perhaps of the thirty Latin townships. ARGENTARII, bankers or money changers. (1) GREEK. The bankers at Athens were called Trapezitae (rpaTreftVai), from their tables (rpan-esai) at which they sat, while carrying on their business,and which were in the market place. Their principal occupation was that of changing money ; but they fre- quently took money, at a moderate premium, from persons who did not like to occupy themselves with the management of their own affairs, and placed it out at interest. Their usual interest was 36 per cent. ; a rate that at present scarcely occurs except in cases of money lent on bottomry. The only instance of a bank recognized and conducted on behalf of the state occurs at Byzantium, where at one time it was let by the republic to capitalists to farm. Yet the state probably exercised some kind of super- intendence over the private bankers, since it is hardly possible otherwise to account for the unlimited confidence which they enjoyed. ( 2 ) ROMAX. The Argentarii at Rome must be distinguished from the mensarii and num- mularii, or public bankers. [MENSARII/ The argentarii were private persons, who carried on business on their own responsi- bility, and were not in the service of the republic ; but the shops or tdbernae about the brum, which they occupied, and in which they transacted their business, were state property. The business of the argentarii may >e divided into the following branches. 1. Permutatio, or the exchange of foreign coin 'or Roman, and in later times the giving of jills of exchange payable in foreign towns. 2. The keeping of suras of money for other aersons. Such money might he deposited by ;he owner merely to save himself the trouble of keeping it and making payments, and in this case it was called depositum ; the argen- tarius then paid no interest, and the money was called vacua pecunia. Or the money was deposited on condition of the argentarius pay- ing interest ; in this case the money was called creditum. A payment made through a banker was called per mensam, de mensa, or per mensae scripturam, while a payment made by the debtor in person was a payment ex area or de domo. An argentarius never paid away any person's money without being either au- thorised by him in person or receiving a cheque which was called perscriptio. The argentarii kept accurate accounts in books called codices, tabulae, or rationes, and there is every reason for believing that they were acquainted with what is called in hook-keep- ing double entry. "When a party found to bo in debt paid what he owed, he had his nanu effaced (nomen expedire or expimgere) from the banker's books. 3. Their connection with commerce and public auctions. In pri- vate sales and purchases, they sometimes acted as agents for either party (interpretes], and sometimes they undertook to sell the whole estate of a person, as an inheritance. At public auctions they were almost invari- ably present, registering the articles sold, their prices, and purchasers, and receiving the payment from the purchasers. 4. The testing of the genuineness of coins (probatio nummorum). This, however, seems originally to have been a part of the duty of public officers, the mensarii or nummularii, until in the course of time the opinion of an argenta- rius also came to be looked upon as decisive. 5. The solidorum venditio, that is, the obli- gation of purchasing from the mint the newly coined money, and circulating it among the people. This branch of their functions occurs only under the empire. The argentaiii formed a collegium, divided into socletates or corporations, which alone had the right to admit new members of their guild. None but free men could become members of sucl; a corporation. It has already been observed that the argentarii had their shops round the forum : hence to become bankrupt was ex- pressed by/oro cedere, or abire, orforo mergi. ARGEXTUM. ARISTOCRATIA. ARGENTTJM (apyvpos), silver. The rela- tive value of gold and silver differed consi- derably at different periods in Greek and Roman history. Herodotus mentions it as 13 to 1 ; Plato, as 12 to 1 ; Menander, as 10 to 1 j and Livy as 10 to 1, about B. c. 189. According to Suetonius, Julius Caesar, on one occasion, exchanged silver for gold in the proportion of 9 to 1 ; but the most usual proportion under the early Roman emperors was about 12 to 1. The proportion in modern times, since the discovery of the American mines, has varied between 17 to 1 and 14 to 1. In the earliest times the Greeks ob- tained their silver chiefly as an article of commerce from the Phocaeans and the Sa- mians ; but they soon began to work the rich mines of their own country and its islands. The chief mines were in Siphnos, Thessaly, and Attica. In the last-named country, the silver mines of Laurion furnished a most abundant supply, and were generally regarded as the chief source of the wealth of Athens. The Romans obtained most of their silver from the very rich mines of Spain, which had been previously worked by the Phoeni- cians and Carthaginians, and which, though abandoned for those of Mexico, are still not exhausted. By far the most important use of silver among the Greeks was for money. There are sufficient reasons for believing that, until some time after the end of the Peloponnesian war, the Athenians had no gold currency. [AURUM.] It may be remarked that all th words connected with money are derived from apyvpoy, and not from XP" ' ?, as ia, " to bribe with money ;" apyv- , " a money changer, " &c. ; and is itself not unfrequently used to signify money in general, as aes is in Latin. At Rome, on the contrary, silver was not coined till B. c. 269, before which period Greek silver was in circulation at Rome ; and the principal silver coin of the Romans, the denarius, was borrowed from the Greek drachma. For further details respecting silver money, see DENARIUS, DRACHMA. From a very early period, silver was used also in works of art ; and the use of it for mere purposes of luxury and ostentation, as in plate, was very general both in Greece and Rome. ARGYRASPIDES (apyvpda-m&es), a division of the Macedonian army, who were so called because they carried shields covered with silver plates. ARGYROCOPEION (a.pyupoKomlov'), the place where money was coined, the mint, at Athens. ARIES (pios), the battering-ram, was used to hatter down the walls of besieged cities. It consisted of a large beam, made of the trunk of a tree, especially of a fir or an ash. To one end was fastened a mass of bronze or iron (Ke9, ensis, yladius], hung on the left side of his body by means of a belt which passed over the right shoulder ; 4. the large round shield ( oopv, hasta), or in many cases, two spears. The form and use of these por- tions are described in separate articles, under their Latin names. The annexed cut exhibits them all. Those who were defended in the manner which has now been represented are called by Homer aspistae (dcnrtorat), from their great shield (aom's) ; also angemachi I (VX^X'), because they fought hand to j hand with their adversaries ; but much more commonly promachi (n-pdnaxoi), because they ; occupied the front of the army. In later times, the heavy-armed soldiers were called I hoplitae (onvUVai), because the term hopla (on-Ao.) more especially denoted the defensive armour, the shield and thorax. By wearing these they were distinguished from the light- armed (\//iAoi, dporrAoi, yv^voi, yi/|u,vf)Tat, yufx- KT)Ts), who, instead of being defended by the | shield and thorax, had a much slighter covej - ing, sometimes consisting of skins, and some- times of leather or cloth ; and instead of the sword or lance, they commonly fought with darts, stones, bows and arrows, or slings. Besides the heavy and light-armed soldiers, another description of men, the peltastae Greek Soldbr. t From an ancient vine.) human Soldicre. (From Column of Trujao.) ABHABIUH. 42 ARRHEPHORIA. (TrcAroorai), also formed a part of the Greek army, though we do not hear of them in early times. Instead of the large round shield, they carried a smaller one called the pelte (iroVn)), and in other respects their ar- mour, though heavier and more effective than that of the psili, was much lighter than that of the hoplites. The weapon on which they i principally depended was the spear. The j Roman legions consisted, as the Greek in- fantry for the most part did, of heavy and light-armed troops (gratis et levis armatura). The preceding figure represents two heavy- armed Roman soldiers. All the essential parts of the Roman heavy armour (lorica, ensis, clipeus, galea, hasta) are mentioned together, j except the spear, in a well-known passage of St. Paul (Eph.vi. 17). ARMARIUM, originally a place for keep- Ing arms, afterwards a cupboard, in which were kept not only arms, but also clothes, books, money, and other articles of value. The armarium was generally placed in the atrium of the house. ARMILLA (i//oAtov, <|/e'Aioi', or i/'eAAioi', xAiSuf, apQiSea), a bracelet or armlet, worn both by men and women. It was a fa- vourite ornament of the Modes and Persians. Bracelets do not appear to 'have been worn among the Greeks by the male sex, but Greek ladies had bracelets of various materials, shapes, and styles of ornament. They fre- quently exhibited the form of snakes, and were in such cases called snakes (o^eis) by the Athenians. According to their length, they went once, twice, or thrice round the arm, or even a greater number of times. The Roman generals frequently bestowed ar- millae upon soldiers for deeds of extraordinary merit. ARMILITSTRIUM, a Roman festival for the purification of arms. It was celebrated every year on the 19th of October, when the citizens assembled in arms, and offered sacri- fices in the place called Armilustrum, or Vicus Armilustri. ARRA, ARRABO, or ARRHA, ARRHABO, was the thing which purchasers and vendors gave to one another, whether it was a sum of money or anything else, as an evidence of the contract being made : it was no essential part of the contract of buying and selling, but only evidence of agreement as to price. The term an ha, in its general sense of an evidence of agreement, was also used on other occasions, as in the case of betrothment (spontalia). Sometimes the word arrha is used as synonymous with pit/mis, but this is not the legal meaning of the term. A nnilla, Bracelet. (On Statue of Sleeping Ariadne in Vatican.) ARRHEPHORIA (ipp>) were selected every year by the king archon from the most distinguished families, two of whom superintended the weaving of the sacred peplus of Athena ; the two others had to carry the mysterious and sacred ves- sels of the goddess. These latter remained a whole year on the Acropolis ; and when the festival commenced, the priestess of the god- dess placed vessels upon their heads, the con- tents of which were neither known to them nor to the priestess. With these they de- scended to a natural grotto within the district of Aphrodite in the gardens. Here they de- posited the sacred vessels, and carried back Homething else, which was covered and like- ARROGATIO. AS. -wise unknown to them. After this the girls were dismissed and others were chosen to sup- ply their place in the acropolis. ARROGATIO. [ADOPTIO.] ARTABA (apra/Sri), a Persian measure of capacity = 1 medimnus and 3 choenices (At- tic)=102 Roman sextarii=12 gallons, 5-092 pints. ARTEMISIA (ipTfuW), a festival cele- brated at Syracuse in honour of Artemis Potamia and Soteira. It lasted three days, which were principally spent in feasting and amusements. Festivals of the same name, and in honour of the same goddess, were held in many places in Greece, but principally at Delphi. ARTOPTA. [PISTOR.] ARURA (apovpa), a Greek measure of sur- face, mentioned by Herodotus, who says that it is a hundred Egyptian cubits in every di- rection. Now the Egyptian cubit contained nearly 17f inches; therefore the square of 100 by 17f inches, i.e. nearly 148 feet, gives the number of square feet (English) in the arura, viz. 21,904. ARUSPEX. [HARTJSPEX.] ARVALES FRATRES, formed a college or company of twelve priests, and were so called from offering public sacrifices for the fertility of the fields. That they were of extreme an- tiquity is proved by the legend which refers their institution to Romulus, of whom it is said, that when his nurse Acca Laurentia losi one of her twelve sons, he allowed himsel to be adopted by her in his place, and callec himself and the remaining eleven " Fratres Arvales." We also find a college called thi Sodales Titii, and as the latter were con fessedly of Sabine origin, and instituted fo the purpose of keeping up the Sabine reli gious rites, it is probable that these college corresponded one to the other the Fratre Arvales being connected with the Latin, am the Sodales Titii with the Sabine element o the Roman state. The office of the fratre arvales was for life, and was not taken awa even from an exile or captive. One of thei annual duties was to celebrate a three days festival in honour of Dea Dia, supposed to b Ceres, sometimes held on the 17th, 19th, an 20th, sometimes on the 27th, 29th, and 30t of May. But besides this festival of the De Dia, the fratres arvales were required on va rious occasions, under the emperors, to mak vows and offer up thanksgivings. Under T : berius, the Fratres Arvales performed sacr fices called the Ambarvalla, at various placi on the borders of the ager Romanus, or or ginal territory of Rome ; and it is probab that this was a custom handed down fro time immemorial, and, moreover, that it w; duty of the priesthood to invoke a blessing i the whole territory of Rome. There were so the private ambarvalia, which were so lied from the victim (hostia ambarvalis) at was slain on the occasion being led three mes round the corn-fields, before the sickle as put to the corn. This victim was ac- jmpanied by a crowd of merry-makers, the eapers and farm-servants dancing and sing- ng, as they marched, the praises of Ceres, nd praying for her favour and presence, hile they offered her the libations of milk, oney, and wine. This ceremony was also allod a lustratio, or purification. ARX signifies a height within the walls of city, upon which a citadel was built, and bus came to be applied to the citadel itself, hus one of the summits of the Capitoline ill at Rome is called Arx. The Arx was the egular place at Rome for taking the auspices, nd was hence likewise called augiiraculum ; r, more probably, the auguraculum was a lace in the Arx. AS, or Libra, a pound, the unit of weight mong the Romans. [LIBEA.] AS, the unit of value in the Roman and Id Italian coinages, was made of copper, or f the mixed metal called AES. It was ori- ginally of the weight of a pound of twelve ranees, whence it was called as libralis and aes grave. The oldest form of the as is that which bears the figure of an annual (a bull, ram, boar, or sow). The next and most com- mon form is that which has the two-faced lead of Janus on one side, and the prow of a ship on the other (whence the expression used by Roman boys in tossing up, Capita out navim.) Pliny informs us, that in the time of the first Punic war (B.C. 264-241), in or- der to meet the expenses of the state, this weight of a pound was diminished, and asses were struck of the same weight as the sex- tans (that is, two ounces, or one sixth of the ancient weight) ; and that thus the republic paid off its debts, gaining five parts in six ; that afterwards, in the second Punic war, in the dictatorship of Q. Fabins Maximus (B. c. 217), asses of one ounce were made, and the denarius was decreed to be equal to sixteen asses, the republic thus gaining one half; but that in military pay the denarius was always given for ten asses ; and that soon after, by the Papirian law (about B.C. 191), asses of half an ounce were made. The value of the as, of course, varied with its weight. Before the reduction to two ounces, ten asses were equal to the denarius = about 8^ pence Eng- lish [DENABIUS]. Therefore the as=3'4 farthings. By the reduction the denarius was made equal to sixteen asses ; therefore the as=2J farthings. The as was divided ASCIA. 44 ASEBEIAS GRAPHE. into parts, which were named according to the number of ounces they contained. They were the deunx, dextans, dodrans, bes, sep- tunx, semis, quincunx, triens, quadrans or teruncitis, sextans, scscunx or sescuncia, and uncia, consisting respectively of 11, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, H, and 1 ounces. Of these divisions the following were represented hy coins ; namely, the semis, quincunx, triens, quadrans, sextans, and uncia. After the re- duction in the weight of the as, coins were struck of the value of 2, 3, 4, and even 10 asses, which were called respectively dussis or dupondius, tressis, quadrussis, and decussis, Other multiples of the as were denoted by words of similar formation, up to centttssis, 100 asses ; but most of them do not exist as coins. In certain forms of expression, in which aes is used for money without specify- ing the denomination, we must understand the as. Thus deni aeris, mille aeris, decies aeris, mean respectively 10, 1000, 1,000,000 asses. The word as was used also for any whole which was to he divided into equal parts ; and those parts were called unciae. Thus these words were applied not only to weight and money, hut to measures of length, sur- face, and capacity, to inheritances, interest, houses, farms, and many other things. Hence the phrases haeres ex assc, the heir to a whole estate ; haeres ex dodrante, the heir to three- fourths. The as was also called in ancient times assarius (sc. nummus), and in Greek TO aero-apioj'. According to Polybius, the assarius was equal to half the obolus. ASCIA faitcirapvov), an adze. The an- nexed cut. shows two varieties of the adze. The instrument at the bottom was calloil acisculus, and was chiefly used by masons. Ascme, ad; ASCLEPIEIA (d, vepCa-mXov, ireoicTTtuov) is used in a distinctive as well as collective sense, to designate a particular part in the private houses of the Romans [DOMUS], and also a class of public buildings, so called from their general resemblance in construc- tion to the atriurL. of a private house. An atrium of the latter description was a build- ing by itself, resembling in some respects the open basilica [BASILICA], but consisting of three sides. Such was the Atrium Publicum in the capitol, which, Livy informs us, was struck with lightning, B.C. 216. It was at other times attached to some temple or other edifice, and in such case consisted of an open area and surrounding portico in front of the structure. Several of these buildings are mentioned by the ancient historians, two of which were dedicated to the same goddess, Libertas. The most celebrated, as well as the most ancient, was situated on the Aven- tine Mount. In this atrium there was a tabularium, where the legal tablets (tabulae] relating to the censors were preserved. The other Atrium Libertatis was in the neigh- bourhood of the Forum Caesaris, and was immediately behind the Basilica Paulli or Aemilia. AUCTIO signifies generally " an increasing, an enhancement," and hence the name is ap- plied to a public sale of goods, at which per- sons bid against one another. The sale was sometimes conducted by an argcntarius, or by a magister auctionis ; and the time, place, and conditions of sale, were announced either by a public notice (tabula, album, &c.), or by a crier (pracco). The usual phrases to ex- press the giving notice of a sale were, aue- tionem proscribcre, praedicare ; and to deter- mine on a sale, auction em constituere. The purchasers (emtores), when assembled, were sometimes said ad tdbulam adesse. The phrases signifying to bid are, liceri, licitari, which was done either by word of mouth, or by such significant hints as are known to all people who have attended an auction. The property was said to be knocked down (ad- dict) to the purchaser. The praeco, or crier, seems to have acted the part of the modern auctioneer, so far as calling out the biddings, and amusing the company. Slaves, when sold by auction, were placed on a stone, or other elevated thing, as is the case when slaves are sold in the United States of North America ; and hence the phrase homo de la- pide emtus. It was usual to put up a spear (hasta) in auctions ; a symbol derived, it is said, from the ancient practice of selling un- der a spear the booty acquired in war. ADCTOR, a word which contains the same element as aug-eo, and signifies generally one who enlarges, confirms, or gives to a thing its completeness and efficient form. The numerous technical significations of 'the word are derivable from this general notion. As he who gives to a thing that which is necessary for its completeness may in this sense be AUCTOR. AUGUR. viewed as the chief actor or doer, the word auctor is also used in the sense of one who originates or proposes a thing ; hut this can- not he viewed as its primary meaning. Ac- cordingly, the word auctor, when used in connection with lex or senatus consultum, often means him who originates and pro- poses. The expressions patres auctores fiunt, patres auctores facti, have given rise to much discussion. In the earlier periods of the Ro- man state, the word patres was equivalent to patricii ; in the later period, when the pa- tricians had lost all importance as a political body, the term patres signified the senate. Hence some ambiguity has arisen. The ex- pression patres auctores fiunt, when used of the early period of Rome, means that the determinations of the populus in the comitia centuriata were confirmed by the patricians in the comitia curiata. Till the time of Ser- vius Tullius there were only the comitia cu- riata, and this king first established the comitia centuriata, in which the plebs also voted, and consequently it was not till after this time that the phrase patres auctores fiunt could be properly applied. Livy, however, uses it of an earlier period. The comitia curiata first elected the king, and then by another vote conferred upon him the impe- rium. The latter was called lex curiata de impcrio, an expression not used by Livy, who employs instead the phrase patres auc- tores fiunt (Liv. i. 17, 22, 32). After the exile of the last Tarquin, the patres, that is the patricians, had still the privilege of con- firming at the comitia curiata the vote of the comitia centuriata, that is, they gave to it the patrutn aitctoritas ; or, in other words, the patres were auctores facti. In the fifth century of the city a change was made. By one of the laws of the plebeian dictator Q. Publilius Philo, it was enacted that in the case of leges to be enacted at the comitia cen- turiata, the patres should be auctores, that is, the curiae should give their assent before the vote of the comitia centuriata. By a lex Maenia of uncertain date the same change was made as to elections. But both during the earlier period and afterwards no business could be brought before the comitia without first receiving the sanction of the senate ; and accordingly the phrase patres auctores fiunt came now to be applied to the approval of a measure by the senate before it was con- firmed by the votes of the people. This pre- liminary approval was also termed senatus auctoritas. When the word auctor is ap- plied to him who recommends but does not originate a legislative measure, it is equiva- lent to siuisor. Sometimes both auclor and suasoi are used in the same sentence, and the meaning of each is kept distinct. With re- 'erence to dealings between individuals, auctor has the sense of owner. In this sense auctor is the seller (venditor), as opposed to the buyer (emtor) : and hence we have the phrase a malo auctore cmere. Auctor is also used generally to express any person under whose authority any legal act is done. In this sense, it means a tutor who is appointed to aid or advise a woman on account of the infirmity_of her sex. AUCTORAMENTUM, the pay of gladia- tors. [GLADIATORES.] AUCTORITAS. The technical meanings of this word correlate with those of auctor. The auctoritas senatus was not a senatus- consultum ; it was a measure, incomplete in itself, which received its completion by some other authority. Auctoritas, as applied to property, is equivalent to legal ownership, being a correlation of auctor. AUDITORIUM, as the name implies, is any place for hearing. It was the practice among the Romans for poets and others to read their compositions to their friends, who were sometimes called the auditorium ; but the word was also used to express any place in which any thing was heard, and under the empire it was applied to a court of justice. Under the republic the place for all judicial proceedings was the comitium and the forum. But for the sake of shelter and convenience it became the practice to hold courts in the Basilicae, which contained halls, which were also called auditoria. It is first under M. Aurelius that the auditorium principis is mentioned, by which we must understand a hall or room in the imperial residence ; and in such a hall Septimius Severus and the later emperors held their regular sittings when they presided as judges. The latest jurists use the word generally for any place in which justice was administered. _AUGUR, AUGURIUM; AUSPEX, AUS- PICIUM. Augur or auspex meant a diviner by birds, but came in course of time, like the Greek o'uavos, to be applied in a more ex- tended sense : his art was called augurium or auspicium. Plutarch relates that the au- gures were originally termed auspices. The word auspex was supplanted by augur, but the scientific term for the observation con- tinued on the contrary to be auspicium and not augurium. By Greek writers on Roman affairs, the augurs are called oiui/oTrdAoi, otwvooxoiroi, ouopiorat, ot er' cxwvois tepci?. The belief that the flight of birds gave some intimation of the will of the gods FCems to have been prevalent among many nations of antiquity, and was common 'o the Greeks, as well as the Romans ; but it was only among AUGUR. 50 AUGUR. the latter people that it was reduced to a complete system, governed by fixed rules, and handed down from generation to genera- tion. In Greece, the oracles supplanted the birds, and the future was learnt from Apollo and other gods, rarely from Zeus, who pos- sessed very few oracles in Greece. The con- trary was the case at Rome : it was from Jupiter that the future was learnt, and the birds were regarded as his messengers. It must be remarked in general, that the Roman auspices were essentially of a practical nature ; they gave no information respecting the course of future events, they did not inform men what was to happen, but simply taught them what they were to do, or not to do ; they assigned no reason for the decision of Jupiter they simply announced, yes or no. The words augurium and auspicium came to be used in course of time to signify the ob- servation cf various kinds of signs. They were divided into five sorts : ex caelo, ex avibus, ex tripiuliis, ex quadrupcdibus, ex diris. Of these, the last three formed no part of the ancient auspices. 1. Ex caelo. This in- cluded the observation of the various kinds of thunder and lightning, and was regarded as the most important, maximum auspicium. Whenever it was reported by a person autho- rised to take the auspices, that Jupiter thun- dered or lightened, the comitia could not be held. 2. Ex avibus. It was only a few birds which could give auguries among the Romans. They were divided into two classes : Oscines, those which gave auguries by sing- ing, or their voice, and Alitcs, those which gave auguries by their flight. To the former class belonged the raven (corvus) and the crow (comix], the first of these giving a favourable omen (auspicium ratum] when it appeared on the right, the latter, on the con- trary, when it was seen on the left : likewise the owl (nociua] and the hen (gallina}. To the aves alitcs belonged first of all the eagle (aquila), which is called pre-eminently the bird of Jupiter (Jovis ales), and next the vul- ture (vultur}. Some birds were included both among the oscines and the alitcs: such were the Picus Martius, and Feronius, and the Parra. These were the principal birds con- sulted in the auspices. When the birds fa- voured an undertaking, they were said addi- ccre, admittere or secundare, and were then called addictivae, admissicae, sccundae, or praepetcs : when unfavourable they were said abdiccre, arcere, refragari, &c., and were then called advcrsae or alterae. The birds which gave unfavourable omens were termed fund-res, inhibitac, lugubrcs, malae, &c., and such auspices were called clivia and cla- matoria. 3. I-.x, tripudiis. These auspices were taken from the feeding of chickens, and were especially employed on military expe- ditions. The chickens were kept in a cage, under care of a person called pullarius; and when the auspices were to be taken, the pullarius opened the cage and threw to the chickens pulse or a kind of soft cake. If they refused to come out or to eat, or uttered a cry (occinerent), or beat their wings, or flew away, the signs were considered unfa- vourable. On the contrary, if they ate greedily, so that something fell from their mouth and struck the earth, it was called tripudiwn solistimum (tripudium quasi terri- pavium, solistimum, from solum, according to the ancient writers), and was held a favour- able sign. 4. Ex quadrupedibus. Auguries could also be taken from four-footed animals ; but these formed no part of the original science of the augurs, and were never em- ployed by them in taking auspices on behalf of the state, or in the exercise of their art properly so called. They must be looked upon simply as a mode of private divination. When a fox, a wolf, a horse, a dog, or any other kind of quadruped ran across a person's path or appeared in an unusual place, it formed an augury. 5. Ex diris, sc. signis. Under this head was included every kind of augury which does not fall under any of the four classes mentioned above, such as sneez- ing, stumbling, and other accidental things. There was an important augury of this kind connected with the army, which was called ex acuminibus, that is, the flames appearing at the points of spears or other weapons. The ordinary manner of taking the auspices, properly so called (i.e. ex caelo and ex avibus}, was as follows : The person who was to take them first marked out with a wand (littius) a division in the heavens called templum or tescwn, within which he intended to make his observations. The station where he was to take the auspices was also separated by a solemn formula from the rest of the land, and was likewise called templum or tcsci/m. He then proceeded to pitch a tent in it (taber- naculum capere), and this tent again was also called templum, or, more accurately, templum minus. [TEMPLUM.] Within the walls of Rome, or, more properly speaking, within the pomoerium, there was no occasion to se- lect a spot and pitch a tent on it, as there was a place on the Arx on the summit of the Capitoline hill, called Auguraculum, which had been consecrated once for all for this pur- pose. In like manner there was in every Roman camp a place called augur ale, which answered the same purpose ; but on all other occasions a place had to be consecrated, and a tent to be pitched, as, for instance, in the AUGUR. 51 AUGUR. Campus Martius, when the comitia centuriata were to he held. The person who was then taking the auspices waited for the favourable signs to appear ; but it was necessary during this time that there should be no interruption of any kind whatsoever (silentiiim}, and hence the word silentiiim was used in a more ex- tended sense to signify the absence of every thing that was faulty. Every thing, on the contrary, that rendered the auspices invalid was called vitium ; and hence we constantly read in Livy and other writers of vitio magis- tratus creati, vitio lex lata, e. The watch- ing for the auspices was called spectio or servare de coelo, the declaration of what was observed nuntiatio, or, if they were unfavour- able, obnuntiatio. In the latter case, the person who took the auspices seems usually to have said alto die, by which the business in hand, whether the holding of the comitia or any thing else, was entirely stopped. In ancient times no one but a patrician could take the auspices. Hence the possession of the auspices (habere aitspicia) is one of the most distinguished prerogatives of the patri- cians ; they are said to be penes patrum, and are called aiispicia patrum. It would further appear that every patrician might take the auspices ; but here a distinction is to be ob- served between the aiispicia privata and aus- picia publica. One of the most frequent occasions on which the aiispicia privata were taken, was in case of a marriage : and this was one great argument used by the patri- cians against conniibium between themselves and the plebeians, as it would occasion, they urged, perturbationem auspiciorum publico- rum prieatorumque. In taking these private auspices, it would appear that any patrician was employed who knew how to form templa and was acquainted with the art of augury. The case, however, was very different with respect to the aiispicia publica, generally called aiispicia simply, or those which con- cerned the state. The latter could only be taken by the persons who represented the state, and who acted as mediators between the gods and the state ; for though all the patricians were eligible for taking the aus- pices, yet it was only the magistrates who were in actual possession of them. In case, however, there was no patrician magistrate, the auspices became vested in the whole body of the patricians (aiispicia ad patres redeunt], who had recourse to an interregnum for the renewal of them, and for handing them over in a perfect state to the new magistrates : hence we find the expressions repetere de in- tegro aiispicia, and renovare per interregnum aiispicia. The distinction between the duties of the magistrates and the augurs in taking the auspices is one of the most difficult points connected with this subject, but perhaps a satisfactory solution of these difficulties may be found by taking an historical view of the question. We are told not only that the kings were in possession of the auspices, but that they themselves were acquainted with the art and practised it. Romulus is stated to have appointed three augurs, but only as his assistants in taking the auspices, a fact which it is important to bear in mind. Their dignity gradually increased in consequence of their being employed at the inauguration of the kings, and also in consequence of their becoming the preservers and depositaries of the science of augury. Formed into a col- legium, they handed down to their successors the various rules of the science, while the kings, and subsequently the magistrates of the republic, were liable to change. Their duties thus became twofold, to assist the ma- gistrates in taking the auspices, and to pre- serve a scientific knowledge of the art. As the augurs were therefore merely the assist- ants of the magistrates, they could not take the auspices without the latter, though the magistrates on the contrary could dispense with their assistance. At the same time it must be borne in mind, that as the augurs were the interpreters of the science, they possessed the right of declaring whether the auspices were valid or invalid. They thus possessed in reality a veto upon every im- portant public transaction ; and they fre- quently exercised this power as a political engine to vitiate the election of each parties as were unfavourable to the enclusive privi- leges of the patricians. But although the augurs could declare that there was some fault in the auspices, yet, on the other hand, they could not, by virtue of their office, de- clare that any unfavourable sign had appeared to them, since it was not to them that the auspices were sent. Thus we are told that the augurs did not possess the spectio. This spectio was of two kinds, one more extensive and the other more limited. In the one case the person who exercised it could put a stop to the proceedings of any other magistrate by his obnuntiatio : this was called spectio et nuntiatio (perhaps also spectio cum inmtia- tione], and belonged only to the highest ma- gistrates, the consuls, dictators, interreges, and, with some modifications, to the praetors. In the other case, the person who took the auspices only exercised the spectio in refer- ence to the duties of his own office, and could not interfere with any other magistrate : this was called spectio sine nuntiatione, and be- longed to the other magistrates, the censors, aediles, and quaestors. Now as the augur? E 2 AVGUR. AUGUSTALES. did not possess the auspices, they conse- quently could not possess the spectio (habere spectionetri) ; but as the augurs were con- stantly employed by the magistrates to take the auspices, they exercised the spectio, though Hiey did not possess it in virtue of their office. When they were employed by the magistrates in taking the auspices, they possessed the right of the nuntiatio, and thus had the power, by the declaration of unfavourable signs (fibmmtiatio}, to put a stop to all im- portant public transactions. The auspices were not conferred upon the magistrates in any special manner. It was the act of their election which made them the recipients of the auspices, since the comitia, in which they were appointed to their office, were held utts- picato, and consequently their appointment was rcgaided as ratified by the gods. The auspices, therefore, passed immediately into their hands upon the abdication of their pre- decessors in office. The auspices belonging to the oift'erent magistrates were divided into two claf ses, called ampicia maxima or majora and mi'iura. The former, which belonged originall? to the kings, passed over to the consuls, censors, and praetors, and likewise to the extraordinary magistrates, the dicta- tors, interreges, and consular tribunes. The quaestors and the curulc aediles, on the con- trary, had only the auxjiicia minora. It was a common opinion in antiquity that a college of three augurs was appointed by Romulus, answering to the number of the early tribes, the llamnes, Tities, and Lucerenses, but the accounts vary respecting their origin and number. At the passing of the Ogulnian law (B.C. 300) the augurs were four in num- ber. This law increased the number of pon- tiffs to eight, by the addition of four plebeians, and that of the augurs to nine by the addi- tion of five plebeians. The number of nine augurs lasted down to the dictatorship of Sulla, who increased them to fifteen, a mul- tiple of the original three, probably with a reference to the early tribes. A sixteenth was added by Julius Caesar after his return from Egypt. The members of the college of augurs possessed the right of self-election (cooptatio] until B.C. 103, the year of the Domitian law. By this law it was enacted that vacancies in the priestly colleges should be filled up by the votes of a minority of the tribes, i. e. seventeen out of thirty-five chosen by lot. The Domitian law was repealed by Sulla B.C. 81, but again restored B.C. 63, during the consulship of Cicero, by the tri- bune T. Annius Labienus, with the support of Caesar. It was a second time abrogated by Antony B.C. 44 ; whether again restored by Ilirllus and Tansa in their general annul- ment of the acts of Antony, seems uncertain. The emperors possessed the right of electing augurs at pleasure. The augurs were elected for life, and even if capitally convicted, never lost their sacred character. When a vacancy occurred, the candidate was nominated by two of the elder members of the college, the electors were sworn, and the new member was then solemnly inaugurated. On such occasion there was always a splendid banquet given, at which all the augurs were expected to be present. The only distinction in the college was one of age ; an elder augur always voted before a younger, even if the latter filled one of the higher offices in the state. The head of the college was called magister coUegii. As insignia of their office the augurs wore the trabea, or public dress, and carried in their hand the litutis or curved wand. [LiTuus.] On the coins of the Ro- mans, who filled the office of augur, we con- stantly find the litutis, and along with it, not unfrequently, the capis, an earthen vessel which was used by them in sacrifices. The science of the augurs was called jus migwuni anil jus augur ium, and was preserved in books (libri aitgurales], which are frequently men- tioned in the ancient writers. The expres- sion for consulting the augurs was rcferre ad augures, and their answers were called dc- creta or responsa augitrum. The science of augury had greatly declined in the time of Cicero ; and although he frequently deplores its neglect in his De Divinationc, yet neither he nor any of the educated classes appears to have had any faith in it. AUGURACULUM. [ARX ; AUGUR, p. 50, b.] AUGURALE. [AuouR, p. 50, b.] AUGURIUM. [AUGUR.] AUGUSTALES (1) (sc. ludi, also called Augustalia, sc. certamina, hidicra], games celebrated in honour of Augustus, at Rome and in other parts of the Roman empire. After the battle of Actium, a quinquennial festival was instituted ; and the birthday of Augustus, as well as that on which the vic- tory was announced at Rome, were regarded as festival days. It was not, however, till B.C. 1 1 that the festival on the birthday of Augustus was formally established by a de- cree of the senate, and it is this fcstiva* AUGUSTUS. which is usually meant when the Augustales or Augustalia are mentioned. It was cele- brated iv. Id. Octobr. At the death of Au- gustus, this festival assumed a more solemn character, was added to the Fasti, and cele- brated to his honour as a god. It was hence- forth exhibited annually in the circus, at first by the tribunes of the plebs, at the com- mencement of the reign of Tiberius, but after- wards by the praetor peregrinus. (2) The name of two classes of priests, one at Rome and the other in the municipia. The Angus- tales at Home, properly called sodalcs Augus- tales, were an order of priests instituted by Tiberius to attend to the worship of Augustus and the Julia gens. They were chosen by lot from among the principal persons of Rome, and were twenty-one in number, to which were added Tiberius, Drusus, Claudius, and Germanicus, as members of the imperial family. They were also called sacerdotes Au- gustales, and sometimes simply Augustales. The Augustales in the municipia are supposed by most modern writers to have been a class of priests selected by Augustus from the liber- tini to attend to the religious rites connected with the worship of the Lares, which that emperor was said to have put up in places where two or more ways met ; but there are good reasons for thinking that they were in- stituted in imitation of the Augustales at Rome, and for the same object, namely, to attend to the worship of Augustus. They formed a collegium and were appointed by the dectiriones, or senate of the municipia The six principal members of the college were called Sei-iri, a title which seems to have been imitated from the Seviri in the equestrian order at Rome. AUGUSTUS, a name bestowed upon Octa vianus in B.C. 27, by the senate and the Ro man people. It was a word used in connec tion with religion, and designated a person a sacred and worthy of worship; hence th Greek writers translate it by 2eaoros. I was adopted by all succeeding emperors, as i descended, either by birth or adoption, from the first emperor of the Roman world. Th name of Augusta was frequently bestowe upon females of the imperial family; bu Augustus belonged exclusively to the reigning emperor till towards the end of the second century of the Christian aera, when M. Au- relius and L. Verus both received this sur- name. From this time we frequently find two or even a greater number of Augusti. From the time of Probus the title became perpetuus Augustus, and from Philippus or Claudius Gothicus semper Augustus, the latter of which titles was borne by the so-called Ro- man emperors in Germany. [CAKS\B ] AUROI. AULAEUM. [SIPARICM.] AUREUS. [AURUM.] AURIGA. [CIRCUS.] AURUM (xpv"os), gold. Gold was scarce n Greece. The chief places from which the jreeks procured their gold were India, Arabia, \nnenia, Colchis, and Troas. It was found lixed with the sands of the Pactolus and ther rivers. Almost the only method of urifying gold, known to the ancients, seems o have been that of grinding and then roast- ng it, and by this process they succeeded in getting it very pure. This is what_we are to understand by the phrase \pva-iov airf^ov in Thucydides, and by the word obntssa in 'liny. The art of gilding was known to the Jreeks from the earliest times of which we have any information. The time when gold was first coined at Athens is very uncertain, but on the whole it appears most probable that gold money was not coined there, or in Greece Proper generally, till the time of Alex- ander the Great, if we except a solitary issue of debased gold at Athens in B.C. 407. But from a very early period the Asiatic nations, and the Greek cities of Asia Minor and the adjacent islands, as well as Sicily and Cyrenc, possessed a gold coinage, which was more or less current in Greece. Herodotus says that the Lydians were the first who coined gold, and the stater of Croesus appears to have been the earliest gold coin known to the Greeks. The Daric was a Persian coin. Staters of Cyzicus and Phocaea had a consi- derable currency in Greece. There was a gold coinage in Samos as early as the time of Polycrates. The islands of Siphnos and Tha- sos, wLlch possessed gold mines, appear to have Lad i gold coinage at an early period. The Macedonian gold coinage came into cir- culation in Greece in the time of Philip, and continued in use till the subjection of Greece to the Romans. [DARICUS; STATER.] The standard gold coin of Rome was the aurein, nummus, or denarius aureus, which, accord- ing to Pliny, was first coined 62 years after the first silver coinage [ARGEXTUM], that is, in the year 207 B.C. The lowest denomina- tion was the scrupulum, which was made equal to 20 sestertii. The weight of the sorupulumwas 18'06 grains. The annexed cut represents a gold coin of 60 sestertii. Pliny adds that afterwards aurei were coined AUKUM COBOKABIUM. 54 BALNEUM. of 40 to the pound, which weight was dimi- nished, till under Nero they were 45 to the pound. The average weight of the aurei of Augustus, in the British Museum, is 121-26 grains : and as the weight was afterwards diminished, we may take the average at 120 grains. The value of the aureus in terms of Aureus of Augustus. (British Museum.) the sovereign = II. Is. Id. and a little more than a halfpenny. This is its value accord- ing to the present worth of gold ; but its current value in Rome was different from this, on account of the difference in the worth of the metal. The aureus passed for 25 de- narii ; therefore, the denarius being 8 \d., it was worth 17*. 8jrf. The ratio of the value of gold to that of silver is given in the article ARGENTUM. Alexander Severus coined pieces of one-half and one-third of the aureus, called Semissis and tremissis, after which time the aureus was called solidtis. Constantino the Great coined nurei of 72 to the pound; at which standard the coin remained to the end of the empire. ATJRUM CORONARIUM. When a general in a Roman province had obtained a victory, it was the custom for the cities in his own provinces, and for those from the neighbour- ing states, to send golden crowns to him, which were carried before him in his triumph at Rome. In the time of Cicero it appears to have been usual for the cities of the pro- vinces, instead of sending crowns on occasion of a victory, to pay morey, which was called attrttm coronariwn. This offering, which was at first voluntary, came to be regarded as a regular tribute, and was sometimes exacted by the governors of the provinces, even when no victory had been gained. AURUM YICESIMARIUM. [AERARIUM.] AUSPEX. [AuouR.] AUSPICIUM. [AUGUR.] AUTHEPSA (ai-e^s), which literally means "self-boiling," or "self-cooking," was the name of a vessel which is supposed to have been used for heating water, or for keeping it hot. AUTONOMI (avTovotLoi), the name given by the Greeks to those states which were governed by their own laws, and were not subject to any foreign power. This name was also given to those cities subject to the Romans, which were permitted to enjoy their own laws and elect their own magis- trates. AUX1LIA. [Socn.] AXAMEXTA. [SALII.] AXINE. [SECURIS.] AXIS. [CURRUS.] AXONES (amoves), also called ktirMa (iciip/3eis), wooden tablets of a square or pyra- midal form, made to turn on an axis, on which were written the laws of Solon. Ac- cording to some writers the Axoncs contained the civil, and the Kurbeis tie religious laws ; according to others the Kurbeis had four sides and the Axoncs three. But at Athens, at all events, they seem to have been iden- tical. They were at first preserved in the Acropolis, but were afterwards placed in the agora, in order that all persons might be able to read them. BALISTA, BALLISTA. [TORMF.XTVM.] BALNEUM or BALINEUM (\oerpov or \ovrpov, fiaXavelov, also balncae or balineac], a bath. Balneum or balineitm signifies, in its primary sense, a bath or bathing vessel, such as most Romans possessed in their own houses ; and from that it came to mean the chamber which contained the bath. M'hen the baths of private individuals became more sumptuous, and comprised many rooms, the plural balnea or balinca was adopted, whicb still, in correct language, had reference only to the baths of private persons. Balneae and ballneae, which have no singular number, were the public baths. But this accuracy of diction is neglected by many of the later writers. Thermae (from OtpM, warmth) means properly warm springs, or baths of warm water, but was afterwards applied to the structures in which the baths were placed, and which were both hot and cold. There was, however, a material distinction between the balneae and thermae, inasmuch as the former was the term used under the republic, and referred to the public establishments of that age, which contained no appliances for luxury beyond the mere convenience of hot and cold baths, whereas the latter name was given to those magnificent edifices which grew up under the empire, and which comprised within their range of buildings all the appur- tenances belonging to the Greek gymnasia, as well as a regular establishment appropriated for bathing. Bathing was a practice familiar to the Greeks of both sexes from the earliest times. The artificial warm bath was taken in a vessel called asaminthus (ao-dfiivflos) by Homer, and puchis (m/eAos) by the later Greeks. It did not contain water itself, but BALNEUM. BALNEUM. was only used for the bather to sit in, while the warm water was poured over him. On Greek vases, however, we never find anything corresponding to a modern bath in which persons can stand or sit ; but there is always a round or oval basin (Aoim}p or Aoi/njpioc), resting on a stand, by the side of which those who are bathing are standing undressed and washing themselves. In the Homeric times it was customary to take first a cold and afterwards a warm bath ; but in later times it was the usual practice of the Greeks to take first a warm or vapour, and afterwards a cold bath. At Athens the frequent use of the public baths, most of which were warm baths (/SoAayeia, called by Homer deppa Aoerpa), was regarded in the time of Socrates and Demosthenes as a mark of luxury and effeminacy. Accordingly, Phocion was said to have never bathed in a public bath, and Socrates to have used it very seldom. After bathing both sexes anointed themselves, in order that the skin might not be left harsh and rough, especially after warm water. Oil (eAouof) is the only ointment mentioned by Homer, but in later times precious unguents QiOpa) w,ere used for this purpose. The bath was usually taken before the principal meal of the day (Seiirvov'). The Lacedaemonians, who considered warm water as enervating, wsed two kinds of baths ; namely, the cold daily bath in the Eurotas, and a dry sudorific bath in a chamber heated with warm air by means of a stove, and from them the chamber used by the Romans for a similar purpose was termed Laconicum. A sudorific or va- pour bath (TTvpCa. or TrvpiaTTJpiov) is mentioned as early as the time of Herodotus. At what period the use of the warm bath was intro- duced among the Romans is not recorded ; but we know that Scipio had a warm bath in his villa at Liternum, and the practice of heating an apartment with warm air by flues placed immediately under it, so as to produce a vapour bath, is stated to have been invented by Sergius Grata, who lived in the age of Crassus, before the Marsic war. By the time of Cicero the use of baths of warm water and hot air had become common, and in his time there were baths at Rome which were open to the public upon payment of a small fee. In the public baths at Rome the men and women used originally to bathe in separate sets of chambers ; but under the empire it became the common custom for both sexes to bathe indiscriminately in the same bath. This practice was forbidden by Hadrian and M. Aurelius ; and Alexander Severus prohi- bited any baths, common to both sexes, from being opened in Rome. The price of a bath was a quadrant, the smallest piece of coined money, from the age of Cicero downwards, which was paid to the keeper of the bath (balneator}. Children below a certain age were admitted free. It was usual with the Romans to take the bath after exercise, and before the principal meal (coena) of the day ; but the debauchees of the empire bathed also after eating as well as before, in order to j promote digestion, and to acquire a new appetite for fresh delicacies. Upon quitting the bath the Romans as well as the Greeks Human Bulb. (Krco from the Thermae of Tiltt.) BALNEUM. 56 BALNEUM. were anointed with oil. The Romans did jioi content themselves with a single bath of hot or cold water ; but they went through a course of baths in succession, in which the agency of air as well as water was applied. It is difficult to ascertain the precise order in which the course was usually taken ; but it appears to have been a general practice to close the pores, and brace the body after the excessive perspiration of the vapour bath, either "by pouring cold water over the head, or by plunging at once into the piscina. To render the subjoined remarks more easily in- telligible, the preceding woodcut is inserted, which is taken from a fresco painting upon the walls of the thermae of Titus at Rome. The chief parts of a Roman bath vere as follow: 1. Apodyterium. Here the bathers were expected to take off their garments, which were then delivered to a class of slaves, called capsarii, whose duty it was to take charge of them. These men were notorious for dishonesty, and were leagued with all the thieves of the city, so that they connived at the robberies which they were placed to pre- vent. There was probably an Elacotliesium or Unctorium, as appears from the preceding cut, in connection with the apodyterium, where the bathers might be anointed with oil. 2. Frigidarium or Cello, Frigidaria, where the cold bath was taken. The cold bath itself was called Natatio, Natatorium, Piscina, Haptisterium, or Futeus. 3. Tepi- darium would seem from the preceding cut to have been a bathing room, for a person is there apparently represented pouring water over a bather. But there is good reason for thinking that this was not the case. In most cases the tepidarium contained no water at all, but was a room merely heated with warm air of an agreeable temperature, in order to prepare the body for the great heat of the vapour and warm baths, and upon returning from the latter, to obviate the danger of a too sudden transition to the open air. 4. The Caldarium or Concameraia Sudatio contained at one extremity the vapour bath (Laconicuin], and at the other the warm bath (balneum or calda lavatio), while the centre space between the two ends was termed stidatio or sudatorium. In larger establishments the vapour bath and warm bath were in two separate cells, as we see in the preceding cut : in such' cases the former part alone was called concamcrata sudatio. The whole rested on a suspended pavement (suspcnsura), under which was a fire (hypocaiutum), so that the flames might heat the whole apartment. (See cut.) The warm water bath (balneum or calda lavatio}, which is also called piscina or calida piscina, labrum and solium, appears to have been a capacious marble vase, some- times standing upon the floor, like that in the preceding cut, and sometimes either partly elevated above the floor, as it was at Pompeii, or entirely sunk into it. After having gone through the regular course of perspiration, the Romans made use of instruments called strigi/es or strigles, to scrape off the perspira- tion. The strigil was also used by the Greeks, Strigil (Fr. L Relief at Athens.) who called it stlengis (orAeyvt's) or xystra (fvorpa). The figure in the cut on p. 24 is represented with a strigil in his hand. As the strigil was not a blunt instrument, its edge was softened by the application of oil, which was dropped upon it from a small vessel called guttits or ampulla, which had a narrow neck, so as to discharge its contents drop by drop, from whence the name is taken. Strigil and Guttus. (From a Statue in the V:it In the Thermae, spoken of above, the baths were of secondary importance. They were a Roman adaptation of the Greek gymnasium, contained cxedrae for the philosophers and rhetoricians to lecture in, porticoes for the idle, and libraries for the learned, ai'd were adorned with marbles, fountains, and shaded walks and plantations. M. Agrippa, iu the BALTEUS. 57 BASILICA. reign of Augustus, was the first who afforded these luxuries to his countrymen, by bequeath- ing to them the thermae and gardens which he had erected in the Campus Martius. The example set by Agrippa was followed by Nero, and afterwards by Titus, the ruins of whose thermae are still visible, covering a vast extent, partly under ground and partly above the Esquiline hill. Thermae were also erected by Trajan, Caracalla, and Diocletian, of the two last of which ample remains still exist. Previously to the erection of these establishments for the use of the population, it was customary for those who sought the favour of the people to give them a day's bathing free of expense. From thence it is fair to infer that the quadrant paid for admis- sion into the balneae was not exacted at the thermae, which, as being the works of the emperors, would naturally be opened with imperial generosity to all, and without any charge. BALTEUS (reAcmiiK), a belt, a shoulder belt, was used to suspend the sword. See the figs, on p. 41. In the Homeric times the Greeks used a belt to support the shield. The balteus was likewise employed to suspend the quiver, and sometimes together with it the bow. More commonly the belt, whether employed to support the sword, the shield, or the quiver, was made of leather, and was frequently ornamented with gold, silver, and precious stones. In a general sense balteus was applied not only to the belt which passed over the shoulder, but also to the girdle (cingitltim}, which encompassed the waist. In architecture, Vitruvius applies the term Baltei to the bands surrounding the volute on each side of an Ionic capital. Other writers apply it to the praecinctiones of an amphitheatre. [AMPHITHEATRUM.] BARATHRON (ftapaOpov), also called ORUO- MA (opiryfta), a deep cavern or chasm, like the Ceadas at Sparta, behind the Acropolis at Athens, into which criminals were thrown. [CEADAS.] BARBA (Ktayuv, yeVeiof , VTITJIT)), the beard. The Greeks seem generally to have worn the beard till the time of Alexander the Great ; and a thick beard was considered as a mark of manliness. The Greek philosophers in particular were distinguished by their long beards as a sort of badge. The Romans in early times wore the beard uncut, and the Roman beards are said not to have been shaved till B.C. 300, when P. Ticinitis Maena brought over a barber from Sicily ; and Pliny adds, that the first Roman who is said to have been shaved every day was Scipio Africanus. His custom, however, was soon followed, and shaving became a regular thing. In the later times of the republic there were many who shaved the beard only partially, and trimmed it, so as to give it an ornamental form ; to them the terms bene barbati and barbattili are applied. In the general way at Rome, a long beard (barba promissa) wag considered a mark of slovenliness and squalor. The first time of shaving was regarded as the beginning of manhood, and the day on which this took place was celebrated as a festival. There was no particular time fixed for this to be done. Usually, however, it was done when the young Roman assumed the toga virilis. The hair cut off on such occasions was consecrated to some god. Thus Nero put his up in a gold box, set with pearls, and dedicated it to Jupiter Capitolinus. Under the emperor Hadrian the beard began to revive. Plutarch says that the emperor wore it to hide some scars on his face. The prac- tice afterwards became common, and till the time of Constantino the Great, the emperors appear in busts and coins with beards. The Romans let their beards grow in time of mourning ; the Greeks, on the other hand, on such occasions shaved the beard close. BARBITUS (/3s), the name of an earthen vessel in common use among the Greeks, for holding wine, and salted meat and fish. BlDEXTAL, the name given to a place where any one had been struck by lightning, or where any one had been killed by lightning and buried. Such a place was considered sacred. Priests, who were called bidentales, collected the earth which had been torn up by lightning, and every thing that had been scorched, and burnt it in the ground with a sorrowful murmur. The officiating priest was said condere fulgtir ; he further conse- crated the spot by sacrificing a two-year-old sheep (bidens), whence the name of the place and of the priest, and he also erected an altar, and surrounded it with a wall or fence. To move the bounds of a bidental, or in any way to violate its sacred precincts, was considered as sacrilege. BIDIAEI (f3iSuoi), magistrates in Sparta, whose business was to inspect the gymnastic exercises. They were either five or six IT. number. BIGA or BIGAE. [CUBRUS.] BIGATUS. [DENARIUS.] BIPEXXIS. [SECUEIS.] BIREMIS. (1.) A ship with two banks of oars. [NAVIS.] Such ships were called di- crota by the Greeks, which term is also used by Cicero. (2.) A boat rowed by two oars. BISSEXTUS ANNUS. [CALENDARIUM, ROMAN.] BOEDROMIA (/3o7)Spd/uua), a festival cele- brated at Athens on the seventh day of the month Boedromion, in honour of Apollo Boe- dromius. The name Boedromius, by which Apollo was called in Boeotia and many other parts of Greece, seems to indicate that by this festival he was honoured as a martial god, who, either by his actual presence or by his oracles, afforded assistance in the dan- gers of war. BOEOTARCHES (jSoiuropxis, or /Sotumw- Xs), the name of the chief magistrates of the Boeotian confederacy, chosen by the different states. Their duties were chiefly of a mili- tary character. Each state of the confederacy elected one boeotarch, the Thebans two. The total number from the whole confederacy varied with the number of the independent states, but at the time of the Peloponnesian war they appear to have been ten or twelve. The boeotarchs, when engaged in military ser- vice, formed a council of war, the decisions of which were determined by a majority of votes, the president being one of the two Theban boeotarchs, who commanded alter- nately. Their period of service was a year, beginning about the winter solstice ; and whoever continued in office longer than his time was punishable with death, both at Thebes and in other cities. BOXA, property. The phrase in bonis is frequently used as opposed to dominium or Quiritarian ownership (ex jure Quiritium}. The ownership of certain kinds of things among the Romans could only be transferred from one person to another with certain formalities, or acquired by usucapion (that is, the unin- terrupted possession of a thing for a certain time). But if it was clearly the intention of the owner to transfer the ownership, and the necessary forms only were wanting, the pur- chaser had the thing in bonis, and he had the enjoyment of it, though the original owner was still legally the owner, and was said to have the thing ex jure Quiritium, notwith- standing he had parted with the thing. The person who possessed a thing in bonis was protected in the enjoyment of it by the prae- tor, and consequently after a time would BONA CADUCA. GO BOONAE. obtain the Quiritarian ownership of it by usucapion. [USUCAPIO.] BONA CADUCA. Caducum literally sig- nifies that which falls : thus glans caduca is the mast which falls from a tree. The strict legal sense of caducum and bona caduca is as follows : If a thing is left by testament to a person, so that he can take it by the jus civile, but from some cause has not taken it, that thing is called caducum, as if it had fallen from him. Or if a heres ex parts, or a le- gatee, died before the opening of the will, the tiling was caducum. That which was cadu- cum came, in the first place, to those among the heredes who had children ; and if the hcredes had no children, it came among those of the legatees who had children. In case there was no prior claimant the caducum belonged to the aerarium ; and subsequently to the fiscus. [AERARIUM.] BONA FIDES implies, generally speaking, the absence of all fraud and unfair dealing or acting. In various actions arising out of mutual dealings, such as buying and selling, lending and hiring, partnership and others, bona fides is equivalent to aequum and jus- turn ; and such actions were sometimes called bonae fidei actiones. The formula of the praetor, which was the authority of the judex, empowered him in such cases to inquire and determine ex bona fide, that is, according to the real merits of the case : sometimes aequius melius was used instead of ex bona fide. BONORUM CESSIO. There were two kinfls of bonorum ccssio, injure and extra jus. The injure ccssio was a mode of transferring ownership by means of a fictitious suit. The bonorum cessio extra jus was introduced by a Julian law, passed either in the time of Julius Caesar or Augustus, which allowed an insolvent debtor to give up his property to his creditors. The debtor thus avoided the in- fumia consequent on the bonorum emtio, which was involuntary, and he was free from all personal execution. He was also allowed to retain a small portion of his property for his support. The property thus given up was sold, and the proceeds distributed among the creditors. BONORUM COLLATIO. By the strict rules of the civil law an emancipated son had no right to the inheritance of his father, whe- ther he died testate or intestate. But, in course of time, the praetor granted to eman- cipated children the privilege of equal succes- sion with those who remained in the power of the father at the time of his death ; but only on condition that they should bring into one common stock with their father's pro- perty, and for the purpose of an equal divi- sion among all the father's children, whatever property they had at the time of the father's death, and which would have been acquired for the father in case they had still remained in his power. This was called bonorum col- latio. BONORUM EMTIO ET EMTOR. The expression bonorum emtio applies to a sale of the property either of a living or of a dead person. It was in effect, as to a living debtor, an execution. In the case of a dead person, his property was sold when it was ascertained that there was neither hercs nor bonorum possessor, nor any other person entitled to succeed to it. In the case of the property of a living person being sold, the praetor, on the application of the creditors, ordered it to be possessed (possideri) by the creditors for thirty successive days, and notice to be given of the sale. This explains the expression iri Livy (ii. 24) : " ne quis militis, donee in castris esset, bona possideret aut venderet." BONORUM POSSESSIO was the right of suing for or retaining a patrimony or thing which belonged to another at the time of his death. The bonorum possessio was given by the edict both contra tabulas, secundum tabu- las, and intestati. 1. An emancipated son had no legal claim on the inheritance of his father ; but if he was omitted in his father's will, or not expressly exheredated, the prae- tor's edict gave him the bonorum possessio contra tabulas, on condition that he would bring into hotchpot (bonormn collatio) with his brethren who continued in the parent's power, whatever property he had at the time of the parent's death. 2. The bonorum pos- sessio secundum tabulas was that possession which the praetor gave, conformably to the words of the will, to those named in it as heredes, when there was no person intitled to make a claim against the will, or none who chose to make such a claim. 3. In the case of intestacy (intestati} there were seven de- grees of persons who might claim the bonorum possessio, each in his order, upon there being no claim of a prior degree. The first three degrees were children, Icgitimi heredes, and proximi cognati. Emancipated children could claim as well as those who were not eman- cipated, and adoptive as well as children of the blood ; but not children who had been adopted into another family. If a freedman died intestate, leaving only a wife (in manu) or an adoptive son, the patron was entitled to the bonorum possessio of one half of his property. BOONAE (jSowvai), persons in Athens who purchased oxen for the public sacrifices and feasts. They are spoken of by Demosthenes in conjunction with the Uporroioi and those who presided over the mysteries. BOREASMUS. 61 BOULE. BOREASMUS (/3opeao>ios or /Sopeacr^toi), a festival celebrated by the Athenians in honour of Boreas, which, as Herodotus seems to think, was instituted during the Persian war, when the Athenians, being commanded by an oracle to invoke their yo/n/Spbt eirixovpos, prayed to Boreas. But considering that Boreas was intimately connected with the early history of Attica, we have reason to suppose that even previous to the Persian wars certain honours were paid to him, which were perhaps only revived and increased after the event re- corded by Herodotus. The festival, however, does not seem ever to have had any great celebrity. BOULE (|3ovArj ^ riav ireiraxocriW) . In the heroic ages, represented to us by Homer, the boule is simply an aristocratical council of the elders amongst the nobles, sitting under their king as president, which decided on public business and judicial matters, fre- quently in connection with, but apparently not subject to an agora, or meeting of the freemen of the state. [AGORA.] This form of government, though it existed for some time in the Ionian, Aolian, and Achaean states, was at last wholly abolished in these states. Among the Dorians, however, espe- cially among the Spartans, this was not the case, for they retained the kingly power of the Heracleidae, in conjunction with the Gcroitsia or assembly of elders, of which the kings were members. [GEEOUSIA.] At Athens on the contrary, the boule was a representa- tive, and in most respects a popular body (Srjju.oTiicoi'). The first institution of the Athenian boule is generally attributed to Solon ; but there are strong reasons for sup- posing that, as in the case of the Areiopagus, he merely modified the constitution of a body which he found already existing. But be this as it may, it is admitted that Solon made the number of his boule 400, 100 from each of the four tribes. When the number of the tribes was raised to ten by Cleisthenes (B. c. 510), the council also was increased to 500, fifty being taken from each of the ten tribes. The bmileutae (/SovAevrcu) or council- lors were appointed by lot, and hence tbey ;tie called councillors made by the bean (01 a:rb roO Kv6.fi.ov /SovAevTdi), from the use of beans in drawing lots. They were required to submit to a scrutiny or docimasia, in which they gave evidence of being genuine citizens, of never having lost their civic rights by ati- mia, and also of being above 30 years of age. They remained in office for a year, receiving a drachma (jiucrObs jSovAeunicos) for each day un which they sat : and independent of the general account (evWrat), which the whole body had to give at the end of the year, any single member was liable to expulsion foi misconduct by his colleagues. The senate oi 500 was divided into ten sections of fifty each, the members of which were called pry- tanes (n-purawts), and were all of the same tribe ; they acted as presidents both of the council and the assemblies during thirty-five or thirty-six days, as the case might be, so as to complete the lunar year of 354 days (12X29^). Each tribe exercised these func- tions in turn ; the period of office was called a prytany (Trpvrai/ei'a), and the tribe that pre- sided the presiding tribe ; the order in which the tribes presided was determined by lot, and the four supernumerary days were given to the tribes which came last in order. More- over, to obviate the difficulty of having too many in office at once, every fifty was sub- divided into five bodies of ten each ; its pry- tany also being portioned out into five periods of seven days each ; so that only ten senators presided for a week over the rest, and were thence called proedri (irp6ia), or decree of the people, binding upon all classes. The form for drawing up such decrees varied in different ages. In the time of Demosthenes the decrees commence with the name of the archon ; then come the day of the month, the tribe in office, and, lastly, the name of the proposer. The motive for passing the decree is next stated ; and then follows the decree itself, prefaced with the formula SeSc'xCat Tjf/SovAiJ xai TW Srj/J.&>. The senate house was called Bouleuterion (/SovAeu- njptoi/). The prytanes also had a building to hold their meetings in, where they were en- tertained at the public expense during their prytany. This was called the Prytaneion, and was used for a variety of purposes. [Pnv- TANEION.] BRACAE, or BRACCAE (avofupi'Ses), trowsers, pantaloona, were common to all the nations which encircled the Greek and Roman population, extending from the Indian to the Atlantic ocean, but were not worn by the Greeks and Romans themselves. Accordingly the monuments containing representations of people different from the Greeks and Romans exhibit them in trowsers, thus distinguishing them from the latter people. BRAURONIA (/Spavpcoi/ia), a festival cele- brated in honour of Artemis Brauronia, in the Attic town of Brauron, where Orestes and Iphigeneia, on their return from Tauris, were supposed by the Athenians to have landed, nnd left the statue of the Taurian goddess. It was held every fifth year, and the chief solem- nity consisted in the Attic girls between the ages of five and ten years going in solemn procession to the sanctuary, where they were consecrated to the goddess. During this act the priests sacrificed a. goat, and the girls performed a propitiatory rite, in which they imitated bears. This rite may have simply risen from the circumstance that the bear was sacred to Artemis, especially in Arcadia. There was also a quinquennial festival called Brauronia, which was celebrated by men and dissolute women, at Brauron, in honour of Dionysus. BRUTTIANI, slaves whose duty it was to wait upon the Roman magistrates. They are said to have been originally taken from among the Bruttians. BUCCIXA OvKdprj), a kind of horn trumpet, anciently made out of a shell (buecinum), the form of which is exhibited in the specimen annexed. The buccino, was distinct from the Buccinn, Trumpet. (Blanchini, DC Mus. Instrum. Vet.) cornu ; but it is often confounded with it. The buccina seems to have been chiefly dis- tinguished by the twisted form of the shell, from which it was originally made. In later times it was carved from horn, and perhaps from wood or metal, so as to imitate the shell. The buccina was chiefly used to pro- claim the watches of the day and of the night, hence called buccina prima, sccunda, &c. It was also blown at funerals, and at festive entertainments both before sitting down to table and after. BULLA, a circular plate or boss of metal, so called from its resemblance in form to a bubble floating upon water. Bright studs of this description were used to adorn the sword Bulls, (From the Collection of Mr. Rogers ; the goU chord added from a specimen in the Slit. Mun.) BVRIS. 63 CAELATURA. bflt ; but we most frequently read of bullae as ornaments worn by children, suspended from the neck, and especially by the sons of the noble and wealthy. Such an one is called licres bullatus by Juvenal. The bulla was usually made of thin plates of gold. The use of the bulla, like that of the praetexta, was derived from the Etruscans. It was originally worn only by the children of the patricians, but subsequently by all of free birth. BURIS. [ARATRUM.] BUSTUM. It was customary among the Romans to burn the bodies of the dead before burying them. When the spot appointed for that purpose adjoined the place of sepulture, it was termed bitstwn ; when it was separate from it, it was called ustrina. From this word the gladiators, who were hired to fight round the burning pyre of the deceased, were called bustuarii. BUXUM or BUXUS, probably means the wood of the box-tree, but was given as a name to many things made of this wood. The tablets used for writing on, and covered with wax (tabulae ceratae], were usually made of box. In the same way the Greek nviov, formed from rvos, " box-wood," came to be applied to any tablets, whether they were made of this wood or any other substance. Tops and combs were made of box-wood, and also all wind instruments, especially the flute. BYSSUS (/Suercros), linen, and not cotton. The word byssus appears to come from the Hebrew lutz, and the Greeks probably got it through the Phoenicians. /^ABEIRIA (xa/Seipia), mysteries, festivals, \J and orgies, solemnised in all places in which the Pelasgian Cabeiri were worshipped, but especially in Samothrace, Imbros, Lemnos, Thebes, Anthedon, Pergamus, and Berytos. Little is known respecting the rites observed in these mysteries, as no one was allowed to divulge them. The most celebrated were those of the island of Samothrace, which, if we may judge from those of Lemnos, were solemnised every year, and lasted for nine days. Persons on their admission seem to have undergone a sort of examination respect- ing the life they had led hitherto, and were then purified of all their crimes, even if they had committed murder. CADtJCEUS ((ojpwceioK, K7)pu'/oi>), the staff or mace carried by heralds and ambassadors in time of war. This name is also given to the staff with which Hermes or Mercury is usually represented, as is shown in the fol- lowing figure of that god. From caduceus was formed the word caduceator, which signi- fied a person sent to treat of peace. The persons of the caduceatores were considered sacred. Hermes bearing the Cmhiceus. (Mua Borbonico. vol. vi. pi. 2.) CADUCUM. [BONA CADUCA.] CADUS ( for other purposes, such as for carrying fruits, flowers, &c. The name of calathi was also given to cups for holding wine. Calathus was properly a Greek word, though used by the Latin writers. The Latin word corre- sponding to it was qualus or gvasillus. From quasllhis came quaslllaria, the name of the slave who spun, and who was considered the meanest of the female slaves. CALCEUS, CALCEAMEN, CALCEAMEN- TUM (yiroSritia., Tre'SiXoi'), a shoe or boot, any- thing adapted to cover and preserve the feet in walking. The use of shoes was by no means universal among the Greeks and Ro- mans. The Homeric heroes are represented without shoes when armed for battle. So- crates, Phocion, and Cato, frequently went barefoot. The Roman slaves had no shoes. The covering of the feet was removed before reclining at meals. People in grief, as for instance at funerals, frequently went bare- footed. Shoes may be divided into those in which the mere sole of a shoe was attached to the sole of the foot by ties or bands, or by a covering for the toes or the instep [SOI.KA ; CREPIDA ; Soccus] ; and those which ascended higher and higher, according as they covered the ankles, the calf, or the whole of the leg. To calceamenta of the latter kind, i. e, to shoes and boots, as distinguished from san- dals and slippers, the term calceus was ap- plied in its proper and restricted sense. There were also other varieties of the calceus ac- cording to its adaptation to particular profes- sions or modes of life. Thus the CALIGA war principally worn by soldiers ; the PERO by labourers and rustics ; and the COTHURXUS by tragedians, hunters, and horsemen. The calcei probably did not much differ from our shoes, and are exemplified in a painting at Heroulaneum, which represents a femule CALCULATOR. 65 CALENDARIUM. wearing bracelets, a wreath of ivy, and a panther's skin, while she is in the attitude of dancing and playing on the cymbals. The form and colour of the calceus indicated rank and office. Roman senators wore high shoes like buskins, fastened in front with four black thongs. They were also sometimes adorned with a small ci escent : we do not find on any Greek Shoe*. (From anolcnt Vases.) CALCULATOR (Aoyrnj en/3oAt/u.atos) of thirty or twenty- nine days. The ordinary year consisted of 354 days, and the interpolated year, therefore, of 384 or 383. This interpolated year (rpte- njpis) was seven days and a half too long, and to correct the error, the intercalary month was from time to time omitted. The Attie year began with the summer solstice : the following is the sequence of the Attic months and the number of days in each : Heca- tombaeon (30), Metageitnion (29), Boedro- I mion (30), Pyanepsion (29), Maemacterion (30), Poseideon (29), Gamelion (30), Anthes- terion (29), Elaphebolion (30), Munychion (29), Thargelion (30), Scirophorion (20). The intercalary month was a second Poseideon inserted in the middle of the year. Every Athenian month was divided into three de- cads. The days of the first decad were desig- nated as ioro/atVov or apxt l "' ov p-wcx, and were counted on regularly from one to ten ; I thus, 5ev7'pTos ; thus, the twenty-first day of a hollow month was ecdm; ijiOivovTOS ; of a full month, Sexan; $0U"OVrot. The last day of the month was called TJ op/3 0oAi'feiv), or fa- thoming the depth of water in navigation. The mode of employing this instrument ap- pears to have been precisely the same as that now in use. CATAPULTA. [TORMENTTIM.] CATARACTA ((caTappoicnis), a portcullis, so called because it fell with great force and a loud noise. It was an additional defence, suspended by iron rings and ropes, before the gates of a city, in such a manner that, when the enemy had come up to the gates, the port- cullis might be let down so as to shut them in, and to enable the besieged to assail them from above. CATEIA, a missile used in war by the Ger- mans, Gauls, and some of the Italian nations, supposed to resemble the ACLIS. CATENA, dim. CATELLA (iAuoris, dim. a\vos), was an empty or honorary tomb, erected as a memorial of a person whose body was buried elsewhere, or not found for burial at all. CENSOR (TIJUITJTTJS), the name of two ma- gistrates of high rank in the Roman republic. Their office was called Ccnsvra (n/uiTjTeta or Ti^TjTi'a). The Census, which was a register of Roman citizens and of their property, was first established by Servius Tullius, the fifth king of Rome. After the expulsion of the kings it was taken by the consuls ; and spe- cial magistrates were not appointed for the purpose of taking it till the year B.C. 443. The reason of this alteration was owing to the appointment in the preceding year of tribuni militum with consular power in place of the consuls ; and as these tribunes might be plebeians, the patricians deprived the con- suls, and consequently their representatives, the tribunes, of the right of taking the census, and entrusted it to two magistrates, called Censores, who were to be chosen exclusively from the patricians. The magistracy con- tinued to be a patrician one till B.C. 35 i, when C. Marcius Rutilus was the first ple- beian censor. Twelve years afterwards, B.C. 339, it was provided by one of the Publilian laws, that one of the censors must necessarily be a plebeian, but it was not till B.C. 280 that a plebeian censor performed the solemn puri- fication of the people (lustrum condidit). In B.C. 131 the two censors were for the first time plebeians. The censors were elected in the comitia centuriata held under the presi- dency of a consul. As a general principle, the only persons eligible to the office were those who had previously been consuls ; but a few exceptions occur. At first there was no law to prevent a person being censor a second time ; but the only person, who was twice elected to the office, was C. Marcius Rutilus in B.C. 2C5 ; and he brought forward a law in this year, enacting that no one should be chosen censor a second time, and received in consequence the surname of Cen- sorinus. The censorship is distinguished from all other Roman magistracies by the length of time during which it was held. The censors were originally chosen for a whole lustrum, that is, a period of five years ; but their office was limited to eighteen months, as early as ten years after its institution (B.C. 433), by a law of the dictator Mam. Aemilius Mamercruus. The censors also held a very CENSOR. 79 CENSOR. peculiar position with respect to rank and dignity. No imperium was bestowed upon them, and accordingly they had no lictors. The jus censurae was granted to them by a lex centuriata, and not by the curiae, and in that respect they were inferior in power to the consuls and praetors. But notwithstand- ing this, the censorship was regarded as the highest dignity in the state, with the excep- tion of the dictatorship ; it was a sanctus magistrates, to which the deepest reverence was due. They possessed of course the sella curulis. The funeral of a censor was always conducted with great pomp and splendour, and hence a funus censorium was voted even to the emperors. The censorship continued in existence for 421 years, namely, from B.C. 443 to B.C. 22 ; but during this period many lustra passed by without any censor being chosen at all. Its power was limited by one of the laws of the tribune Clodius (B.C. 58). After the year B.C. 22 the emperors discharged the duties of the censorship under the name of Praefectura Morum. The duties of the censors may be divided into three classes, all of which were however closely connected with one another : I. The Census, or register of the citizens and of their property, in which were included the lectio senatus, and the re- cognitio eguitum ; II. The Regimen Morum ; and III. The administration of the finances of the state, under which were classed the su- perintendence of the public buildings and the erection of all new public works. 1. The CENSUS, the first and principal duty of the censors, for which the proper expression is censum agere, was always held in the Campus Martius, and from the year B.C. 435 in a special building called Villa Publica. After the auspieia had been taken, the citizens were summoned by a public crier (praeco) to ap- pear before the censors. Each tribe was called up separately, and every paterfamilias had to appear in person before the censors, who were seated in their curule chairs. The census was conducted ad arbitritim censoris ; but the censors laid down certain rules, sometimes called leges censui censendo, in which mention was made of the different kinds of property subject to the census, and in what way their value was to be estimated. According to these laws each citizen had to give an account of himself, of his family, and of his property upon oath, ex animi srntcntia. First he had to give his full name (praeno- men, nomen, and cognomen) and that of his father, or if he were a freedman that of his patron, and he was likewise obliged to state his age. He was then asked, Tu, ex animi ttti sententia, ttxorem habes ? and if mar- ried he had to give the name of his wife, anil likewise the number, names, and ages of his children, if any. Single women (i-iduae) and orphans (orbi orbaequ'e) were represented by their tutores ; their names were entered in separate lists, ad they were not included in the sum total of capita. After a citizen had stated his name, age, family, &c. ( he then had to give an account of all his property, so far as it was subject to the census. In mak- ing this statement he was said censere or cen- seri, as a deponent, " to value or estimate himself," or as a passive "to be valued or estimated :" the censor, who received the statement, was also said censere, as well as accipere censum. Only such things were liable to the census (censui censendo) as were property ex jure Quiritium. Land formed the most important article in the census ; next came slaves and cattle. The censors also possessed the right of calling for a return of such objects as had not usually been given in, such as clothing, jewels, and carriages. We can hardly doubt that the censors possessed the power of setting a higher valuation on the property than the citizens themselves had put. The tax (tributwn) was usually one per thousand upon the property entered in the books of the censors ; but on one occasion the censors, as a punishment, compelled a person to pay eight per thousand (octuplicato censu, Liv. iv. 24). A person who volun- tarily absented himself from the census, and thus became incensus, was subject to the se- verest punishment. It is probable that ser- vice in the army was a valid excuse for ab- sence. After the censors had received the names of all the citizens with the amount of their property, they then had to make out the lists of the tribes, and also of the classes and centuries; for by the legislation of Servius Tullius the position of each citizen in the state was determined by the amount of his property. [COMITIA CENTURIATA.] These lists formed a most important part of the Tabulae Censoriae, under which name were included all the documents connected in any way with the discharge of the censors' duties. These lists, as far at least as they were con- nected with the finances of the state, were deposited in -the aerarium, which was the temple of Saturn ; but the regular depository for all the archives of the censors was in earlier times the Atrium Libertatis, near the Villa publiea, and in later times the temple of the Nymphs. The censors had also to make out the lists of the senators for the ensuing lustrum, or till new censors were appointed ; striking out the names of such as they con- sidered unworthy, and making additions to the body from those who were qualified. [SENATUS.] In the same manner they held a CENSOR. 80 CENSOR. review of the equites equo publieo, and added and removed names as they judged proper. [EQUITES.] After the lists had been com- pleted, the number of citizens was counted up, and the sum total announced ; and ac- cordingly we find that, in the account of a census, the number of citizens is likewise usually given. They are in such cases spoken of as capita, sometimes with the addition of the word civium, and sometimes not ; and hence to be registered in the census was the same thing as caput hdbere. [CAPUT.] II. REOIMEN MORUM. This was the most im- portant branch of the censors' duties, and the one which caused their office to be the most revered and the most dreaded in the Roman state. It naturally grew out of the right which they possessed of excluding unworthy persons from the lists of citizens. They were constituted the conservators of public and private virtue and morality ; they were not simply to prevent crime or particular acts of immorality, but their great object was to maintain the old Roman character and habits, the mos majorum. The proper expression for this branch of their power was regimen mo- rum, which was called in the times of the empire cura or praefectura morum. The punishment inflicted by the censors in the exercise of this branch of their duties was called Noia or Notatio, or Animadversio Censoria. In inflicting it they were guided only by their conscientious convictions of duty ; they had to take an oath that they would act neither through partiality nor fa- vour ; and in addition to this, they were bound in every case to state in their lists, opposite the name of the guilty citizen, the cause of the punishment inflicted on him, Subscriptio censoria. The consequence of such a nota was only ignominia and not in- famia [INFAMIA], and the censorial verdict was not a judicium.or res judicata, for its effects were not lasting, but might be re- moved by the following censors, or by a lex. A nota censoria was moreover not valid, un- less both censors agreed. The ignominia was thus only a transitory capitis deminutio, which does not appear even to have deprived a magistrate of his office, and certainly did not disqualify persons labouring under it for obtaining a magistracy, for being appointed as judices by the praetor, or for serving in the Roman armies. This superintendence of the conduct of Roman citizens extended so far, that it embraced the whole of the public and private life of the citizens. Thus we have instances of their censuring or punish- ing persons for not marrying, for breaking a promise of marriage, for divorce, for bad con- duct during marriage, for improper education of children, for living in an extravagant and luxurious manner, and for many other irre- gularities in private life. Their influence was still more powerful in matters connected with the public life of the citizens. Thus we find them censuring or punishing magistrates who were forgetful of the dignity of their office or guilty of bribery, as well as persons who were guilty of improper conduct towards ma- gistrates, of perjury, and of neglect of their duties both in civil and military life. The punishments inflicted by the censors are ge- nerally divided into four classes : 1. Motto or ejectio e senatu, or the exclusion of a man from the number of senators. This punish- ment might either be a simple exclusion from the list of senators, or the person might at the same time be excluded from the tribes and degraded to the rank of an aerarian. The censors in their new lists omitted the names of such senators as they wished to exclude, and in reading these new lists in public, passed over the names of those who were no longer to be senators. Hence the expression praeteriti senatores is equivalent to e senatu ejecti. 2. The ademptio equi, or the taking away the equus publicus from an eques. This punishment might likewise be simple, or combined with the exclusion from the tribes and the degradation to the rank of an aerarian. [EQUITES.] 3. The motio e tribu, or the exclusion of a person from his tribe. If the further degradation to the rank of an aerarian was combined with the motio e tribu, it was always expressly stated. 4. The fourth punishment was called referre in aerarios or facere aliquem aerarium, and might be inflicted on any person who was thought by the censors to deserve it. [AERA- RII.] III. THE ADMINISTRATION OF THE FI- NANCES OF THE STATE, was another part of the censors' office. In the first place the tributum, or property-tax, had to be paid by each citizen according to the amount of his property registered in the census, and, ac- cordingly, the regulation of this tax naturally fell under the jurisdiction of the censors. [TRIBUTUM.] They also had the superintend- ence of all the other revenues of the state, the vectigalia, such as the tithes paid for the public lands, the salt works, the mines, the customs, &c. [VECTIGALIA.] All these branches of the revenue the censors were accustomed to let out to the highest bidder for the space of a lustrum or five years. The act of letting was called venditio or locatio, and seems to have taken place in the month of March. The censors also possessed the right, though probably not without the concurrence of the senate, of imposing new vectigalia, and even of selling ttte land belonging to the state. CENSOR. 81 CENSUS. The censors, however, did not receive the re- venues of the state. All the public money was paid into the aenrium, which was en- tirely under the jurisdiction of the senate ; and all disbursements were made by order of this body, which employed the quaestors as its officers. [AF.RARIUM ; SENATUS.] In one important department the censors were en- trusted with the expenditure of the public money ; though the actual payments were no doubt made by the quaestors. The cen- sors had the general superintendence of all the public buildings and works (opera pttb- lica) ; and to meet the expenses connected with this part of their duties, the senate voted them a certain sum of money or certain re- venues, to which they were restricted, but which they might at the same time employ according to their discretion. They had to see that the temples and all other public build- ings were in a good state of repair (aedes sacras tueri and sarta tccta exigere), that no public places were encroached upon by the occupation of private persons (loca tueri}, and that the aquaeducts, roads, drains, &c. were properly attended to. The repairs of the public works and the keeping of them in pro- per condition were let out by the censors by public auction to the lowest bidder. The persons who undertook the contract were called condiictores, mancipes, redemptores, susceptores, &e. ; and the duties they had to discharge were specified i.i the Leges Cen- soriae. The censors had also to superintend the expenses connected with the worship of the gods. In these respects it is not easy to define with accuracy the respective duties of the censors and aediles : but it may be re- marked in general that the superintendence of the aediles had more of a police character, while that of the censors had reference to all financial matters. After the censors had per- formed their various duties and taken the census, the lustrum or solemn purification of the people followed. When the censors en- tered upon their office, they drew lots to see which of them should perform this purifica- tion (lustrum facere or condere], but both censors were obliged of course to be present at the ceremony. [LUSTRUM.] In the Ro- man and Latin colonies and in the municipia there were censors, who likewise bore the name of quinquennales. They are spoken of under COLONIA. A census was sometimes taken in the provinces, even under the re- public ; hut there seems to have been no general census taken in the provinces till the time of Augustus. At Rome the census still continued to be taken under the empire, but the old ceremonies connected with it were no longer continued, and the ceremony of the lustration was not performed after the time of Vespasian. The word census, besides the meaning of " valuation " of a person's estate, has other significations, which must be briefly mentioned : 1 . It signified the amount of a person's property, and hence we read of census senatorius, the estate of a senator ; census equestris, the estate of an eques. 2. The lists of the censors. 3. The tax which depended upon the valuation in the census. CENSUS. (1) GREEK. The Greek term for a man's property as ascertained by the census, as well as for the act of ascertaining it, is TCfirifia. The only Greek state concern- ing whose arrangement of the census we have any satisfactory information, is Athens. Pre- vious to the time of Solon no census had been instituted at Athens. According to his cen- sus, all citizens were divided into four classes : 1 . Pentacosiomedimni (Ilej'TaKoo'iof/.eSijui'oi), or persons possessing landed property which yielded an annual income of at least 500 medimni of dry or liquid produce. 2. Hip- peis ('Imreis), i. e. knights or persons able to keep a war-horse, were those whose lands yielded an annual produce of at least 300 me- dimni, whence they are also called Tptoucoo-to/oie- &invoi. 3. Zeugitae (Zevyirai), i. e. persons able to keep a yoke of oxen (fevyos), were those whose annual income consisted of at least 150 medimni. 4. The Thetes (yT(s) contained all the rest of the free population, whose income was below that of the Zeugitae. The constitution of Athens, so long as it was based upon these classes, was a timocracy (jiji.oKpa.Tia., or O.TTO Ti/u.ijju.aTCDt' jroAiTci'a). The highest magistracy at Athens, or the archon- ship, was at first accessible only to persons of the first class, until Aristides threw all the state offices open to all classes indiscrimi- nately. The maintenance of the republic mainly devolved upon the first three classes, the last being exempted from all taxes. As the land in the legislation of Solon was re- garded as the capital which yielded an annual income, he regulated his system of taxation by the value of the land, which was treated as the taxable capital. Lists of this taxable property (a7roypac}>ai) were kept at first by the naucrari, who also had to conduct the census, and afterwards by the demarchi. As property is a fluctuating thing, the census was repeated from time to time, but the periods differed in the various parts of Greece, for in some a census was held every year, and in others every two or four yearb. At Athens every person had to state the amount of his property, and if there was any doubt about his honesty, it seems that a counter-valuation (a>T<.Tijxi)'), meant first, as its derivation implies, a hand-writing or autograph. In this its simple sense, x"f> in Greek and man us in Latin are often sub- stituted for it. From this meaning was easily derived that of a signature to a will or rthei a 2 CHITON. 84 CHOREGUS. instrument, especially a note of hand given by a debtor to his creditor. CHITON (x"-wv). [TUNICA.] CHLAENA (xA-atva). [PALLIUM.] CHLAMYS (xAocMti?, dim. x?vLt>.v&<.ov), a scarf, denoted an article of the amictus, or outer raiment of the Greeks. It was for the most part woollen ; and it differed from the himation (i/xanov), or cloak, the usual amictus of the male sex, in being smaller, finer, and oblong instead of square, its length being generally about twice its breadth. The so.arf does not appear to have been much worn by- children. It was generally assumed on reaching adolescence, and was worn by the ephebi from about seventeen to twenty years of age, and hence was called x^ a l u - e$i/j3r)uoj. It was also worn by the military, especially of high rank, over their body armour, and by hunters and travellers, more particularly on horseback. The usual mode of wearing the scarf was to pass one of its shorter sides round the neck, and to fasten it by means of a brooch (fibula], either over the breast (cut, HASTA), in which case it hung down the back, or over the right shoulder, so as to cover the left arm (cut, CAUSIA). In the following cut it is worn again in another way. The apti- Clilamy*. (The Figure on the left from a Pmnling on i Vase ; that on the right from the Brit. Mu.) tude of the scarf to be turned in every pos- sible form around the body, made it useful even for defence. The hunter used to wrap his chlamys about his left arm when pursuing wild animals, and preparing to fight with them. The annexed woodcut exhibits a figure of Neptune armed with the trident in his right hand, and having a chlamys to protect the left. When Diana goes to the chase, as she does not require her scarf for purposes of defence, she draws it from behind over her shoulders, and twists it round her waist so that the belt of her quiver passes across it. (See woodcut.) Among the Romans the scarf came more into use under the empe- rors. Caligula wore one enriched with gold. Severus, when he was in the country or on an expedition, wore a scarf dyed with the coccus. CHOENIX (xoiWf), a Greek measure of capacity, the size of which is differently given ; it was probably of different sizes in the several states. Some writers make it equal to three cotylae (nearly 1| pints Eng- lish) ; others to four cotylae (nearly 2 pints English) ; others again make it eight cotylae (nearly 4 pints English). CHOREGUS (xwxos), a person who had to hear the expenses of the choregia (xP'ny^ a \ one of the regularly recurring state burthens (ryxvKAioi AetTovpyi'cu) at Athens. The cho- regus was appointed by his tribe, though we are not informed according to what order. The same person might serve as choregus for two tribes at once ; and after B.C. 412 a de- cree was passed allowing two persons to unite and undertake a choregia together. The du- ties of the choregia consisted in providing the choruses for tragedies and comedies, the lyric choruses of men and boys, the pyrrhi- cists, the cyclic choruses, and the choruses of flute-players for the different religious festi- vals at Athens. When a poet intended to bring out a play, he had to get a chorus as- signed him by the archon [ CHORUS], who nominated a choregus to fulfil the requisite duties. He had first to collect his chorus, and then to procure a teacher (xopoSiSdo-KoAos), whom he paid for instructing the choreutae. The chorus were generally maintained, during the period of their instruction, at the expense of the choregus. The choregus who ex hi- CHORUS. 85 CHRONOLOGIA. bited the best musical or theatrical entertain- ment received as a prize a tripod, which he had the expense of consecrating, and some- times he had also to build the monument on which it was placed. There was a whole street at Athens formed by the line of tbsse tripod-temples, and called " The Street of the Tripods." CHORUS (xopds) probably signified orig.n- ally a company of dancers dancing in a ring. In later times, a choric performance always implies the singing or musical recitation of a poetical composition, accompanied by appro- priate dancing and gesticulation, or at least by a measured march. In all the Dorian states, especially among the Spartans, choral performances were cultivated with great assi- duity. Various causes contributed to this, as, for example, their universal employment in the worship of Apollo, the fact that they were not confined to the men, but that women also took part in them, and that many of the dances had a gymnastic character given them, and were employed as a mode of training to martial exercises. [SALTATIO.] Hence Doric lyric poetry became almost exclusively choral, which was not the case with the other great school of Greek lyric poetry, the Aeolian ; so that the Doric dialect came to be looked upon as the appropriate dialect for choral compo- sitions, and Doric forms were retained by the Athenians even in the choral compositions which were Intel-woven with their dramas. The instrument commonly used in connection with the Doric choral poetry was the cithara. A great impetus was given to choral poetry by its application to the dithyramb. This an- cient Bacchanalian performance seems to have been a hymn sung by one or more of an irre- gular band of revellers, to the music of the flute. Arion, a contemporary of Periander, was the first who gave a regular choral form to the dithyramb. This chorus, which ordi- narily consisted of fifty men or youths, danced in a ring round the altar of Dionysus. Hence such choruses were termed cyclic (Kv/cAtoi. \opoC~). With the introduction of a regular choral character, Arion also substituted the cithara for the flute. It was from the dithy- ramb that the Attic tragedy was developed. For details see TRAOOEDIA. From the time of Sophocles onwards the regular number of the chorus in a tragedy was 1 5 ; but it is impossible to arrive at any definite conclusion with regard to the number of the chorus in the early dramas of Aeschylus. The fact that the number of the dithyrambic chorus was 50, and that the mythological number of the Oceanides and Danaides was the same, tempts one to suppose that the chorus in the Prometheus and the Supplices consisted of 50. Most writers, however, agree in think- ing that such a number was too large to have been employed. The later chorus of 15 was arranged in a quadrarigular form (rerpd- ywi/os). It entered the theatre by the passage to the right of the spectators. [THEATRUM.] Its entrance was termed irdpoSos ; its leaving the stage in the course of the play fierdoTaa-ts ; its re-entrance eirtirdpoSos ; its exit d^ofios. As it entered in three lines, with the specta- tors on its left, the stage on its right, the middle choreutes of the left row (rptros apicr- re'pov) was the Coryphaeus or Hegemon, who in early times at least was not unfrequently the choregus himself. Of course the posi- tions first taken up by the choreutae were only retained till they commenced their evo- lutions. To guide them in these, lines were marked upon the boards with which the orchestra was floored. The flute as well as the cithara was used as an accompaniment to the choric songs. The dance of the tragic chorus was called e^jne'A.eia. The ordinary number of the chorus in a comedy was 24. Like the tragic chorus it was arranged in a quadrangular form, and entered the orchestra from opposite sides, according as it was sup- posed to come from the city or from the country. It consisted sometimes half of male and half of female choreutae. The dance of the comic chorus was the KopSag. In the Satyrie drama the chorus consisted of Satyrs : its number is quite uncertain. Its dance was called O-IKI.WIS. When a poet intended to bring forward a play, he had to apply for a chorus (xopbv aiTelv~) to the archons, to the king archon if the play was to be brought forward at the Lenaea, to the archon epony- mus if at the great Dionysia. If the play were thought to deserve it, he received a chorus (xP" b-a-pfio.vtLv'), the expenses of which were borne by a choregus. [CHORE- GUS.] The poet then either trained (SiSa.a-Kft.v~) the chorus himself, or entrusted that business to a professed chorus trainer (xopoSiSdffxaAos), who usually had an assistant (inroSiSdo-KaAos). For training the chorus in its evolutions there was also an bpxs subsequently given, as a distinction from the Flaminian and other similar buildings, which it sur- passed in extent and splendour ; and hence it is often spoken of as the Circus, without any distinguishing epithet. Of the Circus Maximus scarcely a vestige now remains ; but this loss is fortunately supplied by the remains of a small circus on the Via Appia, the ground-plan of which is in a state of con- siderable preservation : it is represented in the annexed cut, and may be taken as a mo- Ground Plan of the C'lrcu del of all others. Around the double lines (A, A) were arranged the seats (gradus, se- dilia, subsellia), as in a theatre, termed col- lectively the cavea ; the lowest of which were separated from the ground by a podium, and the whole divided longitudinally by praecinc- tiones, and diagonally into cunei, with their vomitoria attached to each. [AMPHITHE- ATRUM.] Towards the extremity of the upper branch of the cavea, the general outline is broken by an outwork (B), which was pro- bably the pulvinar, or station for the empe- ror, as it is placed in the best situation for seeing both the commencement and end of the course, and in the most prominent part of the circus. In the opposite branch is ob- served another interruption to the uniform line of seats (C), betokening also, from its construction, a place of distinction ; which might have been assigned to the person at whose expense the games were given (editor spectacular urn). In the centre of the area was a low wall (D) running lengthways down the course, which, from its resemblance to the position of the dorsal bone in the human frame, was termed spina. At each extremity of the spina were placed, upon a base (E, E), three wooden cylinders, of a conical shape, like cypress trees, which were called metae the goals. Their situation is distinctly seen in the cut on p. 89. The most remarkable objects upon the spina were two columns (F) supporting seven conical balls, which, from their resemblance to eggs, were called ova. Their use was to enable the spectators to count the number of rounds which had been run; and they were seven in number, be- cause seven was the number of the circuits made in each race. As each round was run, one of the ova was either put up or taken down. An egg was adopted for this purpose, in honour of Castor and Pollux. At the other extremity of the spina were two similar columns (G), sustaining dolphins, termed delphinae, or delphinarum columnae, which do not appear to have been intended to be removed, but only placed there as correspond- ing ornaments to the ova ; and the figure of the dolphin was selected in honour of Neptune. These figures are also seen in the cut on p. 89. At the extremity of the circus in which the two horns of the cavea termi- nate, were placed the stalls for the horses and chariots (H, II), commonly called carceres, but more anciently the whole line of building at this end of the circus was termed oppidum : hence in the circus, of which the plan is given above, we find two towers (I, I) at CIRCUS. CIRCUS. each end of the carccres. The number of upon the signal being given, by removing a carcereg is supposed to have been usually rope attached to pilasters of the kind called twelve, as in this plan. They were vaults, Hermae, placed for that purpose between closed in front by gates of open wood-work each stall, upon which the gates were imme- (cancelli), which were opened simultaneously diately thrown open by a number of men, as opening of the Gales. (Fn irbleatVclletri.) represented in the preceding woodcut. The cut below represents a set of four carceres, with their Hermae, and cancelli open, as left after the chariots had started ; in which the gates are made to open inwards. The pre- ceding account and woodcuts will be sufficient to explain the meaning of the various words by which the carceres were designated in poetical language, namely, claustra, crypta, fauces, ostia, fores carceris, repaguia, limina equorum. There were five entrances to the circus ; one (L) in the centre of the carceres, called porta pompae, because it was the one through which the Circensian procession en- tered, and the others at M, M, N, and O. At the entrance of the course, exactly in the direction of the line (J, K), were two small pedestals (hermtili) on each side of the po- dium, to which was attached a chalked rope (alba tinea), for the purpose of making the start fair, precisely as is practised at Rome for the horse-races during Carnival. Thus, when the doors of the carceres were thrown open, if any of the horses rushed out before the others, they were brought up by this rope until the whole were fairly abreast, when it was loosened from one side, and all poured into the course at once. This line was also called calx, and creta. The metae served only to regulate the turnings of the course, the alba tinea answered to the starting and winning post of modern days. From this description the Circus Maximus differed little, except in size and magnificence of embellish- ment. The numbers which the Circus Max- imus was capable of containing are computed at 150,000 by Dionysius, 260,000 by Pliny, and 385,000 by P. Victor, all of which are probably correct, but have reference to dif- ferent periods of its history. Its length, in the time of Julius Caesar, was three stadia, the width one, and the depth of the buildings occupied half a stadium. When the Circus Maximus was permanently formed by Tar- quinius Priscus, each of the thirty curiae had a particular place assigned to it ; but as no provision was made for the plebeians in this circus, it is supposed that the Circus Flami- nius was designed for the games of the com- monalty, who in early times chose their tri- bunes there, on the Flaminian field. However, in the latter days of the republic, these invi- dious distinctions were lost, and all classes sat promiscuously in the circus. The scats were then marked off at intervals by a line or groove drawn across them (tinea), so that the space included between two lines afforded sitting room for a certain number of specta- tors. Under the empire, however, the sena- tors and equites were separated from the Onroero, with Gates open. f&Iarble in British Museum.) CIRCUS. 89 CIRCUS. common people. The seat of the emperor (puMnar or cubicuhim) was most likely in the same situation in the Circus Maximus as in the one above described. The Cireensian games (Ltidi Circenscs] were first instituted by Romulus, according to the legends, when he wished to attract the Sabine population to Rome, for the purpose of furnishing his own people with wives, and were celebrated in honour of the god Consus, or Neptunus Equestris, from whom they were styled Con- suales. But after the construction of the Circus Maximus they were called indiscrimi- nately Circenses, Bomani, or Magni, They embraced six kinds of games : I. CVRSUS ; II. LVDUS TROJAE ; III. PUGNA ECIVESTRIS ; IV. CERTAMKN GYMNICUM ; V. VENATIO ; VI. NAUMACHIA. The two last were not peculiar to the circus, but were exhibited also in the amphitheatre, or in buildings appropriated for them. The games commenced with a grand procession (Pompa Circensii), in which all those who were about to exhibit in the circus, as well as persons of distinction, bore a part. The statues of the gods formed the most conspicuous feature in the show, which Chariot Hace in the Ci were paraded upon wooden platforms, called fercula and thcnsae. The former were borne upon the shoulders, as the statues of saints are carried in modern processions ; the latter were drawn along upon wheels. I. CUBSUS, the races. The carriage usually employed in the circus was drawn by two or four horses (bigae, quadrigae}. [CURRL-S.] The usual number of chariots which started for each race was four. The drivers (aitrigae, agita- tores) were also divided into four comp'anies, each distinguished by a different colour, to represent the four seasons of the year, and called a factio : thus factio prasina, the green, represented the spring ; factio russata, red, I the summer ; factio vereta, azure, the au- j tumn ; and factio alba or albata, white, the winter. Originally there were but two fac- tions, albata and russata, and consequently only two chariots started at each race. The driver stood in his car within the reins, which went round his back. This enabled him to throw all his weight against the horses, by leaning backwards ; but it greatly enhanced his danger in case of an upset. To avoid this peril, a sort of knife or bill-hook was carried at the waist, for the purpose 'of cut- ting the reins in a case of emergency. When all was ready, the doors of the carceres were flung open, and the chariots were formed abreast of the alba linea by men called mora- tores from their duty ; the signal for the CISIUM. 90 CI VITAS. start was then given by the person who pre- sided at the games, sometimes by sound of trumpet, or more usually by letting fall a napkin ; whence the Circensian games are called speetacula mappae. The alba linca was then cast off, and the race commenced, the extent of which was seven times round the spina, keeping it always on the left. A course of seven circuits was termed unus missus, and twenty-five was the number of races run in each day, the last of which was called missus acrarius, because in early times the expense of it was defrayed by a collection of money (aes) made amongst the people. The victor descended from his car at the con- clusion of the race, and ascended the spina, where he received his reward (bravium, from the Greek /Spa/Seio^), which consisted in a considerable sum of money. The horse- racing followed the same rules as the chariots. The enthusiasm of the Romans for these races exceeded all bounds. Lists of the horses (Kbella), with their names and colours, and those of the drivers, were handed about, and heavy bets made upon each faction ; and sometimes the contests between two parties broke out into open violence and bloody quar- rels, until at last the disputes which origin- ated in the circus had nearly lost the Empe- ror Justinian his crown. II. LUDUS TROJAE, a sort of sham-fight, said to have been in- vented by Aeneas, performed by young men of rank on horseback, and often exhibited by the emperors. III. PUONA EO.UESTHIS ET PEDESTRIS, a representation of a battle, upon which occasions a camp was formed in the circus. IV. CERTAMEN GYMNICUM. See ATH- LETAE, and the references to the articles there given. V. [VENATIO.] VI. [NAUMACHIA.] CISIUM, a light open carriage with two wheels, adapted to carry two persons rapidly from place to place. The cisia were quickly T . drawn by mules. Cicero mentions the case of a messenger who travelled 56 miles in 10 hours in such vehicles, which were kept for hire at the stations along the great roads ; a proof that the ancients considered six Roman miles per hour as an extraordinary speed. CISTA (icicrn)). (1) A small box or chest, in which anything might be placed, but more particularly applied to the small boxes which were carried in procession in the festivals of Demeter and Dionysus. These boxes, which were always kept closed in the public proces- sions, contained sacred things connected with ium. (Frc at Igel, na the worship of these deities. In the repre- sentations of Dionysiac processions on ancient vases women carrying cistae are frequently introduced. ( 2 ) The ballot-box, into which Painting on a Vae.) those who voted in the comiiia and in the courts of justice cast their tabellae. It is re- presented in the annexed cut, and ~~i should not be confounded with the siMa or sitella, into which sortes or lots were thrown. [SITULA.] CISTOPHORUS (iaoToc/>opos), a silver coin, which is supposed to belong to Rhodes, and which was in general circulation in Asia Minor at the time of the conquest of "that country by the Romans. It took its name from the device upon it, which was either the sacred chest (cista) of Bacchus, or more pro- bably a flower called KIOTOS. Its value is extremely uncertain : some writers suppose it to have been worth in our money about rf* CITHARA. [LYHA.] ClVIS. [ClVITAS.] CIVITAS, citizenship. (1) GREEK (n-oAi- rei'a). Aristotle defines a citizen (n-oAi'njs) to be one who is a partner in the legislative and judicial power (/U.CTOXOS xpurews JTop5), summoners, were at Athens not official persons, but merely witnesses to the prosecutor that he had served the defendant with a notice of the action brought against him, and the day upon which it would be requisite for him to appear before the proper magis- trate. CLIBANARII. [CATAPHRACTI.] CLIENS is said to contain the same element as the verb cluere, to " hear " or " obey," and may be accordingly compared with the German word horiger, " a dependant," from horen, "to hear." In the earliest times of the Roman state we find a class of persons called clientes, who must not be confounded with the plebeians, from whom they were distinct. The clients were not slaves : they had property of their own and freedom, and appear to have had votes in tiie comitia cen- turiata, but they did not possess the full rights of Roman citizens ; and the peculiarity of their condition consisted in every client being in a state of dependence upon or subjection to some patrician, who was called his patronus, and to whom he owed certain rights and duties. The patronus, on the other hand, likewise incurred certain obligations towards his client. This relationship between patronus and cliens was expressed by the word clientela, which also expressed the whole body of a man's clients. The relative rights and duties of the patrons and the clients were, according to Dionysius, as follows : The patron was the legal adviser of the cliens ; he was the client's guardian and protector, as he was the guard- ian and protector of his own children ; he maintained the client's suit when he was wronged, and defended him when another complained of being wronged by him : in a word, the patron was the guardian of the client's interests, both private and public. The client contributed to the marriage por- tion of the patron's daughter, if the patron was poor ; and to his ransom, or that of his children, if they were taken prisoners; he paid the costs and damages of a suit which the patron lost, and of any penalty in which he was condemned ; he bore a part of the patron's expenses incurred by his discharging public duties, or filling the honourable places in the state. Neither party could accuse the other, or bear testimony against the other, or give his vote against the other. This rela- tionship between patron and client subsisted for many generations, and resembled in all respects the relationship by blood. The relation of a master to his liberated slave (libertus} was expressed by the word patro- ntti, and the libertus was the cliens of his patronus. Distinguished Romans were also the protectors of states and cities, which were in u certain relation of subjection or depend- ence to Rome. In the time of Cicero we also find patronus in the sense of adviser, advo- cate, or defender, opposed to cliens in the CLIENTELA. COCHLEAR. sense of the person defended or the consultor, a use of the word which must be referred to the original character of the patronus. CLIENTELA. [CLIKNS.] CLIPEUS (aoAo$ or umbo, which served as a sort of weapon by itself, or caused the missiles of the enemy to glance off from the shield. In the Homeric times, the Greeks merely used a leather strap (ttXofM^v) to support the shield, but subsequently a handle (oxavov or 6xaf>?). The usual form of the clipeus is exhibited in the figure of the Greek warrior on p. 41. When the census was instituted by Servius Tullius at Rome, the first class only used the clipeus, and the second were armed with the scutum [SCUTUM] ; but after the Roman sol- diery received pay, the clipeus was discontinued altogether for the scutum. CLITELLAE, a pair of panniers, and there- fore only used in the plural number. CLOACA, a sewer, a drain. Rome was intersected by numerous sewers, some of which were of an immense size : the most celebrated of them was the cloaca maxima, the construction of which is ascribed to Tar- quinius Priscus. It was formed by three tiers of arches, one within the other, the innermost of which is a semicircular vault of 14 feet in diameter. The manner of its con- struction is shown in the preceding cut. Under the republic, the administration of the sewers was entrusted to the censors : but under the empire, particular officers were appointed for that purpose, called cloaearum curatores, who employed condemned criminals in cleansing and repairing them. COA VESTIS, the Coan robe, was a trans- parent dress, chiefly worn by women of loose reputation. It has been supposed to have been made of silk, because in Cos silk was pun and woven at a very early period. Con Vcstis. (From a Painting at Hercul COACTOR, the name of collectors of various sorts, e. g. the servants of the publicani, or farmers of the public taxes, who collected the revenues for them, and those who collected the money from the purchasers of things sold at a public auction. Horace informs us that his father was a coactor of thiskind. Moreover, the servants of the money-changers were so called, from collecting their debts for them. The " coactores agminis " were the soldiers who brought up the rear of a line of march. COCHLEA (xoxAi'a?), which properly means a snail, was also used to signify other things of a spiral form. (1) A screw, used in working clothes-presses, and oil and wine presses. (2) A spiral pump for raising water, invented by Archimedes, from whom it has ever since been called the Archimedean screw. (3) A peculiar kind of door through which the wild beasts passed from their dens into the arena of the amphitheatre. COCHLEAR (Kox^iapiov), a kind of spoon, which appears to have terminated with a point at one end, and at the other was broad and hollow like our own spoons. The pointed end was used for drawing snails (cochleae) out of their shells, and eating them, whence it derived its name ; and the broader part for eating eggs, &c. Cochlear was also the CODEX. COENA. name given to a small measure like our spoonful. CODEX, identical with caudex, as Claudius and Clodius, claustrum and clostrum, cauda and coda, originally signified the trunk or stem of a tree. The name codex was especi- ally applied to wooden tablets bound together and lined with a coat of wax, for the purpose of writing upon them, and when, at a later age, parchment or paper, or other materials were substituted for wood, and put together in the shape of a book, the name of codex was still given to them. In the time of Cicero we find it also applied to the tablet on which a bill was written. At a still later period, during the time of the emperors, the word was used to express any collection of laws or constitutions of the emperors, whether made by private individuals or by public authority, as the Codex Gregorianus, Codex Theodosi- aniis, and Codex Justinianeus. COEMPTIO. [MATRIMONIUM.] COENA (Sewn/ov), the principal meal of the Greeks and Romans, dinner. (1) GREEK. Three names of meals occur in the Iliad and Odyssey ariston (,api-s), are mentioned. The Greeks of a later age usually partook of three meals, called acratisma (airportcr/ia), ariston, and deipnon. The last, which corre- sponds to the dorpon of the Homeric poems, was the evening meal or dinner ; the ariston was the luncheon ; and the acratisma, which answers to the ariston of Homer, was the early meal or breakfast. The acratisma was taken immediately after rising in the morning. It usually consisted of bread, dipped in un- mixed wine (a/cparos), whence it derived its name. Next followed the ariston or luncheon ; but the time at which it was taken is uncer- tain. It is frequently mentioned in Xeno- phon's Anabasis, and appears to have been taken at different times, as would naturally be the case with soldiers in active service. We may conclude from man.y circumstances that this meal was taken about the middle of the day, and that it answered to the Roman prandium. The ariston was usually a simple meal, but of course varied according to the habits of individuals. The principal meal was the deipnon. It was usually taken rather late in the day, frequently not before sunset. The Athenians were a social people, and were very fond of dining in company. Entertainments were usually given, both tn the heroic ages and later times, when sacri- fices were offered to the gods, either on public or private occasions ; and also on the anni- versary of the birthdays of members of the family, or of illustrious persons, whether living or dead. When young men wished to dine together they frequently contributed each a certain sum of money, called symbole (j), or brought their own provisions with them. When the first plan was adopted, they were said airb trvpfioMav Sfiirvelv, and one individual was usually entrusted with the money to procure the provisions, and make all the necessary preparations. This kind of entertainment, in which each guest contri- buted to the expense, is mentioned in Homer under the name of eparos. An entertainment in which each person brought his own provi- sions with him, or at least contributed some- thing to the general stock, was called a Selnvov airb cTTrvpi'Sos, because the provisions were brought in baskets. The most usual kind of entertainments, however, were those in which a person invited his friends to his own house. It was expected that they should come dressed with more than ordinary care, and also have bathed shortly before. As soon as the guests arrived at the house of their host, their shoes or sandals were taken off by the slaves and their feet washed. After their feet had been washed, the guests reclined on the conches. It has already been remarked that Homer never describes persons as reclining, but always as sitting at their meals ; but at what time the change was introduced is uncertain. The Dorians of Crete always sat ; but the other Greeks reclined. The Greek women and children, however, like the Roman, con- tinued to sit at their meals. [ACCCBATIO.] It was usual for only two persons to recline on each couch. After the guests had placed themselves on the couches, the slaves brought in water to wash their hands. The dinner was then served up ; whence we read of ras Tpaire'^as eicr^epeii', by which expression we are to understand not merely the disbfis, but the tables themselves, which were small enough to be moved with ease. In eating, the Greeks had no knives or forks, but made use of their fingers only, except in eating soups or other liquids, which they partook of by means of a spoon, called pva:ai), &c. Pork was the most favourite animal food, as was the case among the Ro- mans. It is a curious fact, which Plato has remarked, that we never read in Homer of the heroes partaking of fish. In later times, however, fish was one of the most favourite foods of the Greeks. A dinner given by an opulent Athenian usually consisted of two courses, called respectively irpurai rpawefai and Sevrepai Tpan-e^ai. The first course em- braced the whole of what we consider the dinner, namely, fish, poultry, meat, &c. ; the second, which corresponds to our dessert and the Roman bellaria, consisted of different kinds of fruit, sweetmeats, confections, &c. When the first course was finished, the tables were taken away, and water was given to the guests for the purpose of washing their hands. Crowns made of garlands of flowers were also then given to them, as well as various kinds of perfumes. Wine was not drunk till the first course was finished ; but as soon as the guests had washed their hands, unmixed wine was introduced in a large goblet, of which each drank a little, after pouring out a small quantity as a libation. This libation was said to be made to the " good spirit " (ayaSou Satyiovos), and was usually accompa- nied with the singing of the paean and the playing of flutes. After this libation mixed wine was brought in, and with their first cup the guests drank to Atbs Surqpos. With the libations the deipnon closed ; and at the in- troduction of the dessert (Sevrepai Tpan-e^ai) the TTOTOS, o-vfLTrocnov, or (ciofxos commenced, of which an account is given under SYMPOSIUM. (2) ROMAN. As the Roman meals are not always clearly distinguished, it will be conve- nient to treat of all under the most important one ; and we shall confine ourselves to the description of the ordinary life of the middle ranks of society in the Augustan age, noticing incidentally the most remarkable deviations. The meal with which the Roman sometimes began the day was the jcntacuhim, which was chiefly taken by children, or sick persons, or the luxurious. An irregular meal (if we may so express it) was not likely to have any very regular time : two epigrams of Martial, how- ever, seem to fix the hour at about three or four o'clock in the morning. Bread formed the substantial part of this early breakfast, to which cheese, or dried fruit, as dates and raisins, were sometimes added. Next followed the prandium or luncheon, with persons of pimple habits a frugal meal, usually taken about twelve or one o'clock. The coena, or principal meal of the day, corresponding to our " dinner," was usually taken about three o'clock in the time of Cicero and Augustus, though we read of some persons not dining till near sunset. A Roman dinner at the house of a wealthy man usually consisted of three courses. The first was called promulsis, antecoena, or gustatio, and was made up of all sorts of stimulants to the appetite. Eggs also were so indispensable to the first course that they almost gave a name to it (aft ovo vsque ad mala). The frugality of Martial only allowed of lettuce and Sicenian olives ; indeed he himself tells us that the promulsis was a refinement of modern luxury. It would far exceed our limits to mention all the dishes which formed the second course of a Roman dinner. Of birds, the Guinea hen (Afra avis), the pheasant (phasiana, so called from Pha- sis, a river of Colchis), and the thrush, were most in repute ; the liver of a capon steeped in milk, and beccaficos (ficedulae) dressed with pepper, were held a delicacy. The pea- cock, according to Macrobius, was first intro- duced by Hortensius the orator, at an inau- gural supper, and acquired such repute among the Roman gourmands as to be commonly sold for fifty denarii. Other birds are mentioned, as the duck (anas), especially its head and breast; the woodcock (attagen), the turtle, and flamingo (phoenicopterus), the tongue of which, Martial tells us, particularly com- mended itself to the delicate palate. Of fish, the variety was perhaps still greater ; the charr (scarus), the turbot (rhombus), the stur- geon (acipenser), the mullet (mulhis), were highly prized, and dressed in the most various fashions. Of solid meat, pork seems to have been the favourite dish, especially sucking pig. Boar's flesh and venison were also in high repute : the former is described by Juvenal as animal proptcr convivia natum. Condiments were added to most of these dishes : such were the mitria, a kind of pickle made from the tunny fish ; the garwn sociorum, made from the intestines of the mackerel (scomber), so called because brought from abroad ; alec, a sort of brine ; faex, the sediment of wine, &c. Several kinds of fungi. are mentioned, truffles (boleti), mushrooms (tuberes), which either made dishes by them- selves, or formed the garniture for larger dishes. It must not be supposed that the artistes of imperial Rome were at all behind COENA. 97 COENA. ourselves in the preparation and arrangements ! of the table. In a large household, the func- tionaries to whom this important duty was entrusted were four, the butler (promus), the cook (archimttffirits),t\\e arranger of the dishes (structor), and the carver (carptor or scissor). Carving was taught as an art, and performed to the sound of music, with appropriate gesti- culations. Quo vultu Icporre, ct quo giillinn sur." In the supper of Petronius, a large round tray (ferculum, repositorium) is brought in, with the signs of the zodiac figured all round it, upon each of which the artiste (structor) had placed some appropriate viand, a goose on Aquarius, a pair of scales with tarts (scrib- litae) and cheesecakes (placentae] in each scale on Libra, &c. In the middle was placed a hive supported by delicate herbage. Presently four slaves come forward dancing to the sound of music, and take away the upper part of the dish ; beneath appear all kinds of dressed meats ; a hare with wings to imitate Pegasus, in the middle ; and four figures of Marsyas at the corners, pouring hot sauce (garum piperatum) over the fish, that were swimming in the Euripus below. So entirely had the Romans lost all shame of luxury, since the days when Cincius, in sup- porting the Fannian law, charged his own age with the enormity of introducing the porcus Trojanus, a sort of pudding stuffed with the flesh of other animals. The third course was the bellaria or dessert, to which Horace alludrs when he says of Tigellius ab ovo usque ad mala citaret ; it consisted of fruits (which the Romans usually ate un- cooked), such as almonds (amygdalae), dried grapes (uvae passae), dates (palmulae, caryo- tae, dactyli) ; of sweetmeats and confections, called edulia mellita, dulciaria, such as cheese- cakes (cupediae, crustula, liba, placentae, artolaaani), almond cakes (coptae), larts (scriblitae), whence the maker of them was called pistor dulciariits, placentarius, liba- rius, &c. We will now suppose the table spread and the guests assembled, each with his map-pa or napkin, and in his dinner dress, called coenatoria or cubitoria, usually of a bright colour, and variegated with flowers. First they took off their shoes, for fear of soiling the couch, which was often inlaid with ivory or tortoiseshell, and covered with cloth of gold. Next they lay down to eat, the head resting on the left elbow and sup- ported by cushions. There were usually, but not always, three on the same couch, the middle place being esteemed the most honour- able. Around the tables stood the servants (ministri) clothed in a tunic, and girt with napkins ; some removed the dishes and wiped the tables with a rough cloth, others gave the guests water for their hands, or cooled the room with fans. Here stood an eastern youth behind his master's couch, ready to answer the noise of the fingers, while others bore a large platter of different kinds of meat to the guests. Dinner was set out in a room called coenatio or diaeta (which two words perhaps conveyed to a Roman ear nearly the same distinction as our dining-room and parlour). The coenatio, in rich men's houses, was fitted up with great magnificence. Suetonius men- tions a supper-room in the golden palace of Nero, constructed like a theatre, with shifting scenes to change with every course. In the midst of the coenatio were set three couches A Feast. (Vatican Virgil MS.) COENACULUM. 98 COLONIA. (triclinia), answering in shape to the square, as the long semicircular couches (sigmata) did to the oval tables. An account of the disposition of the couches, and of the place which each guest occupied, is given in the article TRICLINIUM. COENACULUM. [DoMcs.] COENATIO. [COENA.] COGNATI, COGNATIO. The eognatio was the relationship of blood which existed be- tween those who were sprung from a common pair ; and all persons so related were called cognati. The foundation of eognatio is a legal marriage. The term cognatus (with some exceptions) comprehends agnatus ; an agnatus may be a cognatus, but a cognatus is only an agnatus when his relationship by blood is traced through males. Those who were of the same blood by both parents were sometimes called germani ; consanguinei were those who had a common father only ; and uterini those who had a common mother only. COGNITOR. [ACTIO.] COGNOMEN. [NOMEN.] COHORS. [EXERCITUS.J COLACRETAE (KioAaKpeVoi, also called KwXa-ypeVat), the name of very ancient magis- trates at Athens, who had the management of all financial matters in the time of the kings. Cleisthenes deprived them of the charge of the finances, which he transferred to the Apodectae. [APODECTAE.] From this time the Colacretae had only to provide for the meals in the Prytaneium, and subsequently to pay the fees to the dicasts, when the practice of paying the dicasts was introduced by Pericles. COLLEGIUM. The persons who formed a collegium were called coHegae or sodales. The word collegium properly expressed the notion of several persons being united in any office or for any common purpose ; it after- wards came to signify a body of persons, and the union which bound them together. The collegium was the eraipi'a of the Greeks. The legal notion of a collegium was as follows : A collegium or corpus, as it was also called, must consist of three persons at least. Per- sons who legally formed such an association were said corpus hribcre, which is equivalent to our phrase of being incorporated ; and in later times they were said to be corpora ti, and the body was called a corporatio. Asso- ciations of individuals, who were entitled to have a corpus, could hold property in common. Such a body, which was sometimes also called a univcrsitas, was a legal unity. That which was due to the body, was not due to the indi- viduals of it ; and that which the body owed, was not the debt of the individuals. The common property of the body was liable to be seized and sold for the debts of the body. It does not appear how collegia were formed, except that some were specially established by legal authority. Other collegia were proba- bly formed by voluntary associations of indi- viduals under the provisions of some general legal authority, such as those of the publi- cani. Some of these corporate bodies resem- bled our companies or guilds ; such were the fabrorwn, pistorum, &c. collegia. Others were of a religious character ; such as the pontificum, augurum, fratrum arvalium col- legia. Others were bodies concerned about government and administration ;nstrib unorum plebis, quaestorum, decurionum collegia. Ac- cording to the definition of a collegium, the consuls being only two in number were not a collegium, though each was called eollega with respect to the other, and their union in office was called collegium. When a new member was taken into a collegium, he was said co-optari, and the old members were said with respect to him, recipere in collegium. The mode of filling up vacancies would vary in different collegia. The statement of their rules belongs to the several heads of AUOUE, PONTIFBX, &c. COLONIA, a colony, contains the same element as the verb colere, "to cultivate," and as the word colonus, which probably origin- ally signified a " tiller of the earth." (1) GREEK. The usual Greek words for a colony are awoucla and (cArjpovx'a. The latter word, which signified a division of conquered lands among Athenian citizens, and which corre- sponds in some respects to the Roman colonia, is explained in the article CI.ERUCHI. The earlier Greek colonies, called airoucuu, were usually composed of mere bands of adventur- ers, who left their native country, with their families and property, to seek a new home for themselves. Some of the colonies, which arose in consequence of foreign invasion or civil wars, were undertaken without any formal consent from the rest of the community ; but usually a colony was sent out with the approbation of the mother country, and under the management of a leader (oi/ao-njs) ap- pointed by it. But whatever may have been the origin of the colony, it was always con- sidered in a political point of view indepen- dent of the mother country, called by the Greeks metropolis (ju.7jTpo7roA.is), the " mother- city," and entirely emancipated from its con- trol. At the same time, though a colony was in no political subjection to its parent state, it was united to it by the ties of filial affec- tion ; and, according to the generally received opinions of the Greeks, its duties to the parent state corresponded to those of a daughter to COLONIA. 99 COLONIA. her mother. Hence, in all matters of common interest, the colony gave precedence to the mother state ; and the founder of the colony (oiKmjs), who might be considered as the I representative of the parent state, was usu- ally worshipped, after his death, as a hero. Also, when the colony became in its turn a parent, it usually sought a leader for the colony which it intended to found from the original mother country ; and the same feel- ing of respect was manifested by embassies which were sent to honour the principal festivals of the parent state, and also by be- stowing places of honour and other marks of respect upon the ambassadors and other mem- bers of the parent state, when they visited the colony at festivals and on similar occasions. The colonists also worshipped in their new settlement the same deities as they had been accustomed to honour in their native country : the sacred fire, which was constantly kept burning on their public hearth, was taken from the Prytaneium of the parent city ; and sometimes the priests also were brought from the mother state. In the same spirit, it was considered a violation of sacred ties for a mother country and a colony to make war upon one another. The preceding account of the relations between the Greek colonies and the mother country is supported by the his- tory which Thucydides gives us of the quarrel between Corcyra and Corinth. Corcyra was a colony of Corinth, and Epidamnus a colony of Corcyra ; but the leader (oixicmfs) of the colony of Epidamnus was a Corinthian who was invited from the metropolis Corinth. In course of time, in consequence of civil dis- sensions, and attacks from the neighbouring barbarians, the Epidamnians apply for aid to Corcyra, but their request is rejected. They next apply to the Corinthians, who took Epidamnus under their protection, thinking, says Thucydides, that the colony was no less theirs than the Corinthians' : and also in- duced to do so through hatred of the Corcy- raeans, because they neglected them though they were colonists ; for they did not give to the Corinthians the customary honours and deference in the public solemnities and sacri- fices, which the other colonies were wont to pay to the mother country. The Corcyraeans, who had become very powerful by sea, took offence at the Corinthians receiving Epidam- nus under their protection, and the result was a war between Corcyra and Corinth. The Corcyraeans sent ambassadors to Athens to ask assistance ; and in reply to the objec- tion that they were a colony of Corinth, they said, " that every colony, as long as it is treated kindly, respects the mother country : but when il is injured, is alienated from it ; for colonists are not sent out as subjects, but that they may have equal rights with those that remain at home." It is true that am- bitious states, such as Athens, sometimes claimed dominion over other states on the ground of relationship ; but as a general rule, colonies may be regarded as independent states, attached to their metropolis by ties of sympathy and common descent, but no fur- ther. The case of Potidaea, to which the Corinthians sent annually the chief magis- trates (Srj/iuovpyot ), appears to have been an exception to the general rule.' {2) ROMAN. A kind of colonisation seems to have existed among the oldest Italian nations, who, on certain occasions, sent out their superfluous male population, with arms in their hands, to seek for a new home. But these were apparently mere bands of adventurers, and such colonies rather resembled the old Greek colonies, than those by which Rome extended her dominion and her name. Colonies were established by the Romans as far back as the annals or traditions of the city extend, and the practice was continued, without in- termission, during the republic and under the empire. Colonies were intended to keep in check a conquered people, and also to repress hostile incursions ; and their chief object was originally the extension and pre- servation of the Roman dominion in Italy. Cicero calls the old Italian colonies the pro- pugnacula imperil. Another object was to increase the power of Rome by increasing the population. Sometimes the immediate object of a colony was to carry off a number of tur- bulent and discontented persons. Colonies were also established for the purpose of pro- viding for veteran soldiers, a practice which was begun by Sulla, and continued under the emperors ; these coloniae were called mili- tares. The old Roman colonies were in the nature of garrisons planted in conquered towns, and the colonists had a portion of the conquered territory (usually a third part) assigned to them. The inhabitants retained the rest of their lands, and lived together with the new settlers, who alone composed the proper colony. The conquered people must at first have been quite a distinct class from, and inferior to, the colonists. No colonia was established without a lex, plebis- citum, or senatusconsultum ; a fact which shows that a Roman colony was never a mere body of adventurers, but had a regular or- ganisation by the parent state. When a law was passed for founding a colony, persons were appointed to superintend its formation (coloniam deducere}. These persons varied in number, but three was a common number (triumviri ad colonos deducendos). We also H 2 COLONIA. 100 COLONIA. read of duumviri, quinqueviri, mgintiviri for the same purpose. The law fixed the quan- tity of land that was to be distributed, and how much was to be assigned to each person. No Koman could be sent out as a colonist without his free consent, and when the colony was not an inviting one, it was difficult to fill up the number of volunteers. The colonia proceeded to its place of destination in the form of an army (sub vexillo), which is indi- cated on the coins of some coloniae. An urbs, if one did not already exist, was a necessary part of a new colony, and its limits were marked out by a plough, which is also indicated on ancient coins. The colonia had also a ter- ritory, which, whether marked out by the plough or not, was at least marked out by metes and bounds. Thus the urbs and terri- tory of the colonia respectively corresponded to the urbs Roma and its territory. Religious ceremonies always accompanied the founda- tion of the colony, and the anniversary was afterwards observed. It is stated that a colony could not be sent out to the same place to which a colony had already been sent in due form (auspicate deducta}. This merely means, that so long as the colony maintained its existence, there could be no new colony in the same place ; a doctrine that would hardly need proof, for a new colony implied a new assignment of lands ; but new settlers (novi adscripti) might be sent to occupy colonial lands not already assigned. Indeed it was not unusual for a colony to receive addi- tions, and a colony might be re-established, if it seemed necessary, from any cause. The commissioners appointed to conduct the colony had apparently a profitable office, and the establishment of a new settlement gave employment to numerous functionaries, among whom Cicero enumerates apparitores, scri- bae, librarii, praccones, architecti. The foundation of a colony might then, in many cases, not only be a mere party measure, car- ried for the purpose of gaining popularity, but it would give those in power an oppor- tunity of providing places for many of their friends. The colonies founded by the Romans were divided into two great classes of colo- nies of Roman citizens and Latin colonies ; names which had no reference to the persons who formed the colonies, but merely indicated their political rights with respect to Rome as members of the colony. The members of a Roman colony (colonia civium Romanorum] preserved all the rights of Roman citizens. The members of a Latin colony (colonia Latino) ceased to have the full rights of Koman citizens. Probably some of the old Lntin colonies were established by the Romans iu conjunction with other Latin states. After the conquest of Latium, the Romans esta- blished colonies, called Latin colonies, in various parts of Italy. Roman citizens, who chose to join such colonies, gave up their civic rights for the more solid advantage of a grant of land, and became LATTNI. [CIVITAS.] Such colonies were subject to, and part of, the Roman state ; but they did not possess the Roman franchise, and had no political bond among themselves. The lex Julia, passed B. c. 90, gave the Roman franchise to the members of the Latin colonies and the Socii ; and such Latin colonies and states of the Socii were then called municipia, and became com- plete members of the Roman state. Thus there was then really no difference between these municipia and the Roman coloniae, ex- cept in their historical origin : the members of both were Roman citizens, and the Roman law prevailed in both. In the colonies, as at Rome, the popular assembly had originally the sovereign power ; they chose the magis- trates, and could even make laws. When the popular assemblies became a mere form in Rome, and the elections were transferred by Tiberius to the senate, the same thing hap- pened in the colonies, whose senates then possessed whatever power had once belonged to the community. The common name of this senate was ordo decurionwn ; in later times, simply ordo and curia ; the members of it were decuriones or cnriales. Thus, in the later ages, curia is opposed to senatus, the former being the senate of a colony, and the latter the senate of Rome. But the terms senatus and senator were also applied to the senate and members of the senate of a colony. After the decline of the popular assemblies, the senate had the whole internal administra- tion of a city, conjointly with the magistratus ; but only a decurio could be a magistratus, and the choice was made by the decuriones. The highest magistratus of a colonia were the duumviri or quattuorviri, so called, as the members might vary, whose functions may be compared with those of the consulate at Rome before the establishment of the praetor- ship. The name duumviri seems to have been the most' common. Their principal duties were the administration of justice, and accordingly we find on inscriptions " Duum- viri J. D." (juri dicundr,), " Quattuorviri J. D." The name consul also occurs in in- scriptions to denote this chief magistracy; and even dictator and praetor occur under the empire and under the republic. The office of the duumviri lasted a year.- In some Italian towns there was a prarfcctus juri dicundo ; he was in the place of, and not co-existent with, the duumviri. The duumviri were, as we have seen, originally chosen by the people ; COLOSSUS. 101 COLUMNA. but the praefectus was appointed annually in Rome, and sent to the town called a prae- fectura, which might be either a muuicipium or a colonia, for it was only in the matter of the praefectus that a town called a praefec- tura differed from other Italian towns. Ar- pinum is called both a municipium and a praefectura ; and Cicero, a native of this place, obtained the highest honours that Rome could confer. The censor, curator, or quinquennalis, all which names denote the same functionary, was also a municipal ma- gistrate, and corresponded to the censor at Rome, and in some cases, perhaps, to the quaestor also. Censors are mentioned in Livy as magistrates of the twelve Latin colo- nies. The quinquennales were sometimes duumviri, sometimes quattuorviri ; but they are always carefully distinguished from the duumviri and quattuorviri J. D. ; and their functions were those of censors. They held their office for one year, and during the four intermediate years the functions were not exercised. The office of censor or quinquen- nalis was higher in rank than that of the duumviri J. D., and it could only be filled by those who had discharged the other offices of the municipality. COLOSSUS (KOA.OO-O-OS) is used both by the Greeks and Romans to signify a statue larger than life ; but as such statues were very common, the word was more frequently applied to designate figures of gigantic di- mensions. Such figures were first executed in Egypt, and were afterwards made by the Greeks and Romans. Among the colossal statues of Greece, the most celebrated was the bronze colossus at Rhodes, dedicated to the sun, the height of which was about 90 feet. COLUM (^opo?, fu>(/>6pos, zophorus), in which the most ancient order, namely the Doric, sho\78, in its triglyphs, what were originally the ends of the cross-beams : in the other orders these ends are generally con- cealed, and the frieze forms a flat surface, which is frequently ornamented by figures in relief, whence its Greek name. Above the frieze projects the cornice (/copwi-i's, coronis or corona), forming a handsome finish to the entablature (for so these three members taken together are called), and also, on the sides of the building, serving to unite the ends of the rafters of the roof. The triangular gable-end of the roof, above the entablature, is called the pediment. [FASTIGIUM.] Columns in long rows were used in aquaeducts, and single pillars were fixed in harbours for mooring ships. Single columns were also erected to commemorate persons or events. Among these, some of the most remarkable were the columnae rostratae, called by that name be- cause three ship-beaks proceeded from each Columna Roetrata. side of them, designed to record successful engagements at sea. The most important and celebrated of those which yet remain, is one erected in honour of the consul C. Duil- lius, on occasion of his victory over the Car- thaginian fleet, B.C. 261. Columns were also employed to commemorate the dead. The column on the right hand in the last wood- cut exhibits that which the senate erected to the honour of the Emperor Trajan. Similar columns were erected to the memory of many of the Roman emperors. COLUMNARIUM, a tax imposed In the time of Julius Caesar upon the pillars that supported a house. The Ostiatium was a COLUS. 103 COMA. similar tax. [OSTIARIUH.] The columnarium levied by Metellus Scipio in Syria in B.C. 49-18, was a tax of a similar kind, but was simply an illegal means of extorting money from the provincials. COLUS, a distaff. [Fusus.] COMA (KOP.TJ, (coupa), the hair. (1) GREEK. In the earliest times the Greeks wore their hair long, and thus they are constantly called in Homer icapTjKop-oajrres 'Axicrnjpi.a or oipiao- njpia, and the hair after being cut off was dedicated to some deity, usually a river-god. But when the Athenians passed into the age of manhood, they again let their hair grow. In ancient times at Athens the hair was rolled up into a kind of knot on the crown of the head, and fastened with golden clasps in the shape of grasshoppers. This fashion of wearing the hair was called jcpw/SuAos, and in the case of females Kopv/n/3o. The heads of females were frequently covered with a kind of band or a coif of net-work. Of these coif- fures one was called fv&6ni, which was a broad band across the forehead, sometimes made of metal, and sometimes of leather, adorned with gold. But the most common kind of head-dress for females was called by the general name of Keicpva\os, and this was divided into the three species of aAos, 0r) KoAos proper (reticulum). Of the two bottom figures, the one on the left-hand weare a fu'rpa, and the one on the right a oucT), mji/iKT;, galcrus] were worn both by Greeks and Romans. Among both people likewise in ancient times the hair was out close in mourning [FUNUS] ; and among both the slaves had their hair cut close as a mark of servitude. COMISSATIO (derived from K/OU>S), the name of a drinking entertainment, which took place after the coena, from which, how- ever, it must be distinguished. The comis- satio was frequently prolonged to a late hour at night, whence the verb comissari means "to revel," and the substantive comissator a "reveller," or "debauchee." COMITIA. This word is formed from co, cum, or con, and ire, and therefore eomitium is a place of meeting, and comitia the meet- ing itself, or the assembled people. In the Roman constitution the comitia were the ordinary and legal meetings or assemblies of the people, and distinct from the contiones and concilia. All the powers of government were divided at Rome between the senate, the magistrates, and the people in their as- semblies. Properly speaking, the people alone (the populus) was the real sovereign by whom the power was delegated to the magis- trates and the senate. The sovereign people or populus, however, was not the same at all times. In the earliest times of Rome the populus consisted of the patricians (or patres) only, the plebs and the clients forming no part of the populus, but being without the pale of the state. The original populus was divided into thirty euriae, and the assembly of these euriae (the comitia curiata) was the Tmly assembly in which the populus was re- presented. A kind of amalgamation of the patricians and the plebs afterwards appeared in the comitia of the centuries, instituted by king Servius Tullius, and henceforth the term populus was applied to the united patricians and plebeians assembled in the comitia centuriata. But Servius had also made a local division of the whole Roman territory into thirty tribes, which held their meetings in assemblies called comitia tributa, which, in the course of time, acquired the character of national assemblies, so that the people thus assembled were likewise designated by the term populus. We shall examine in order the nature, power, and business of each of these different comitia. (1) COMITIA CURIATA consisted of the members of the thirty euriae, that is, the patricians, who formed exclusively the populus in the early times. They \vere con- vened, in the kingly period, by the king himself, or by his tribunus celerum, and in the king's absence by the praefectus urbi. After the death of a king the comitia were held by the interrex. In the republican period, the president was always one of the high patrician magistrates, viz. a consul, praetor, or dictator. They were called to- gether by lictors or heralds. The votes were given by euriae, each curia having one col- lective vote ; but within a curia each citizen belonging to it had an independent vote, and the majority of the members of a curia deter- mined the vote of the whole curia. The meeting was always held in the eomitium. The comitia curiata did not possess much power in the kingly peiiod. They could only be called together when the king (or his re- presentative) chose, and could only determine upon matters which the king submitted to them. The main points upon which the po- pulus had to decide were the election of the king, the passing of laws, declarations of war, the capital punishment of Roman citizens, and, lastly, certain affairs of the euriae and gentes. The priestly officers, such as the Curiones, Flamines Curiales, were likewise either elected by the euriae, or at least inau- gurated by them. The right of finally de- ciding upon the life of Roman citizens (judicia de capite civis Romani) is said to have been given to the populus by king Tullus Hostilius. It must further be remarked, that when the king had been elected, the populus held a second meeting, in which he was formally inducted into his new office. This formality was called lex curiata de imperio, whereby the king received his imperium, together with the right of holding the comitia. Down to the time of Servius Tullius, the comitia curiata were the only popular assemblies of Rome, and remained of course in the uudi- minished possession of the rights above de- scribed ; but the constitution of that king brought about a great change, by transferring the principal rights which had hitherto been enjoyed by the euriae to a new national as- sembly or the comitia centuriata. But while the patricians were obliged to share their rights with the plebeians, they reserved for themselves the very important right of sanc- tioning or rejecting any measure which had been passed by the centuries. The sanction of decrees passed by the centuries is often ex- pressed by paircs atictores fiunt, and down to COMITIA. 105 COMITIA. the time of the Publilian law no decree of the centuries could become law without this sanc- tion. By the Publilian law (B.C. 339) it was enacted that the curiae should give their assent before the vote of the comitia centu- riata ; so that the veto of the curiae was thus virtually abolished. The comitia curiata thus became a mere formality, and, instead of the thirty curiae themselves giving their votes, the ceremony was performed by thirty lictors. The comitia of the curiae were also called COMITIA CALATA or " the summoned comi- tia" (from calare, i.e.vocare), when sum- moned for the purposes mentioned below : 1. On the calends it was proclaimed to the comitia calata on what day of the new month the nones fell, and perhaps also the ides as well as the nature of the other days, namely, whether they were fasti or nefasti, comitiales, feriae, &c., because all these things were known in the early times to the pontiffs exclusively. 2. The inauguration of the famines, and after the banishment of the /tings, also that of the rex sacrorum. 3. The tcstamenti factio, or the making of a will. 4. The detestatio sacrorum, which was in all probability an act connected with the testa- ment! factio, that is, a solemn declaration, by which the heir was enjoined to undertake the sacra privata of the testator along with the reception of his property. The comitia calata were summoned by the college of pontiffs, who also presided in them. (S) COMITIA CENTURIATA. The object of the According to Livy. I. CLASSIS. Census : 100,000 asses. 40 centuriae seniorum. 40 centuriae juniorum. 2 centuriae fabrum. II. CLASSIS. Census : 75,000 asses. 10 centuriae seniorum. 10 centuriae juniorum. III. CLASSIS. Census: 50,000 asses. 10 centuriae seniorum. 10 centuriae juniorum. IV. CLASSIS. Census : 25,000 asses. 10 centuriae seniorum. 1C centuriae juniorum. V. CLASSIS. Census: 11,000 asses. 15 centuriae seniorum. 15 centuriae juniorum. 3 centuriae accensorum, cornicinum, tubicinum. 1 ccnturia capite ccnsorum. legislation of Servius Tullius was to unite the different elements of which the Roman people consisted, into one great political body, in which power and influence were to be determined by property and age. The whole people was con- ceived as an army (exercitus), and was there- fore divided into two parts, the cavalry (equites), and infantry (pedites). The in- funtry was divided into five classes, or, as Dionysius has it, into six classes, for he re- gards the whole body of people, whose pro- perty did not come up to the census of the fifth class, as a sixth. The class to which a citizen belonged determined the tributum, or war tax, he had to pay, as well as the kind of service he had to perform in the army and the armour in which he had to serve. But for the purpose of voting in the comitia, each class was subdivided into a number of cen- turies (centuriae, probably because each was conceived to contain 100 men, though the centuries may have greatly differed in the number of men they contained). Hence the name of Comitia Centuriata. Each century was divided into the seniores and the juniores. Each century, further, was counted as one vote, so that a class had as many votes as it contained centuries. In like manner, the equites were divided into a number of cen- turies or votes. The two principal authori- ties on these subdivisions are Livy and Dio- nysius. The annexed table will show the census as well as the number of centuries or votes assigned to each class. According to Dionysius. I. CLASSIS. Census : 100 minae. 40 centuriae seniorum. 40 centuriae juniorum. II. CLASSIS. Census : 75 minae. 10 centuriae seniorum. 10 centuriae juniorum. 2 centuriae fabrum (one voting with the seniores and the other with the juniores). III. CLASSIS. Census : 50 minae. 10 centuriae seniorum. 10 centuriae juniorum. TV. CLASSIS. Census : 25 rainae. 10 centuriae seniorum. 10 centuriae juniorum. 2 centuriae cornicinum and tubicinum (one voting with the seniores, and the other with the juniores}. \. CLASSIS. Census : 12 J minae. 15 centuriae seniorum. 15 centuriae juniorum. VI. CLASSIS. Census : below 12J minae. 1 centuria capite censonun. COMITIA. 106 COMITIA. According to both Dionysius and Livy, the equites voted in eighteen centuries before the seniores of the first class ; and hence there were, according to Livy, 194, and, according to Dionysius, 193 centuries or votes. The latter number is the more probable, since Livy's even number of 194 centuries would have rendered it impossible to obtain an ab- solute majority. In this manner all Roman citizens, whether patricians or plebeians, who had property to a certain amount, were pri- vileged to take part and vote in the centu- riata comitia, and none were excluded except slaves, peregrin!, women and the aerarii. The juniores were all men from the age of seventeen to that of forty-six, and the seniores all men from the age of forty-six upwards. The order of voting was arranged in such a manner, that if the eighteen centuries of the equites and the eighty 'centuries of the first class were agreed upon a measure, the ques- tion was decided at once, there being no need for calling upon the other classes to vote. Hence, although all Roman citizens appeared in these comitia on a footing of equality, yet by far the greater power was thrown into the hands of the wealthy.- As regards the func- tions of the comitia centuriata, they were (a.) The election of magistrates. The magis- trates that were elected by the centuries are the consuls (whence the assembly is called comitia consularia], the praetors (hence co- mitia praetoria], the military tribunes with consular, power, the censors, and the decem- virs, (b.) Legislation. The legislative power of the centuries at first consisted in their passing or rejecting a measure which was brought before them by the presiding magis- trate in the form of a senatus consultum, so that the assembly had no right of originating any legislative measure, but voted only upon such as were brought before them as resolu- tions of the senate, (c.) The decision upon war, on the ground of a senatus consultum, likewise belonged to the centuries. Peace was concluded by a mere senatus consultum, and without any co-operation of the people, (d.) The highest judicial poiver. The comitia centuriata were in the first place the highest court of appeal, and in the second, they had to try all offences committed against the state ; hence, all cases of perdiiellio and ma- jestas : and no case involving the life of a Ro- man citizen could be decided by any other court. The sanction of the curiae to the measures of the centuriae has been already explained. The comitia centuriata could be held only on dies comitiales or fasti, on which it was lawful to transact business with the people, and the number of such days in every year was about 190 ; but on dies nefasti (that is, dies festi, feriati, comp. DIES), and, at first also on the nundinae, no comitia could be held, until in B.C. 287 the Hortensian law ordained that the nundinae should be re- garded as dies fasti. The place where the centuries met was the Campus Martius, which contained the septa for the voters, a taberna- culuin for the president, and the villa pub- lica for the augurs. The president at the comitia was the same magistrate who con- voked them, and this rignt was a privilege of the consuls, and, in their absence, of the praetors. An interrex and dictator also, or his representative, the magister equitum, might likewise convene and preside at the comitia. One of the main duties devolving upon the president, and which he had to per- fonn before holding the comitia, was to con- sult the auspices (auspicari}. When the auspices were favourable, the people were called together, which was done by three suc- cessive and distinct acts : the first w as quite a general invitation to come to the assembly (inlicium). At the same time when this in- vitation was proclaimed circum macros or de moeris, a horn was blown, which being the more audible signal, is mentioned by some writers alone, and without the inlicium. When upon this signal the people assembled in irregular masses, there followed the second call by the aceensus, or the call ad contionem or conventionem ; that is, to a regular assem- bly, and the crowd then separated, grouping themselves according to their classes and ages. Hereupon the consul appeared, order- ing the people to come ad comitia centuriata ; and led the whole exercitu; for, in these comitia, the Roman people are always con- ceived as an exercitus out of the city, to the Campus Martius. It was customary from the earliest times for an armed force to oc- cupy the Janiculum, when the people were assembled in the Campus Martius, for the purpose of protecting the city against any sudden attack of the neighbouring people; and on the Janiculum a vexillum was hoisted during the whole time that the assembly lasted. This custom continued to be ob- served even at the time when Rome had no longer anything to fear from the neighbour- ing tribes. When the people were thus regu- larly assembled, the business was commenced with a solemn sacrifice, and a prayer of the president, who then took his seat on his tri- bunal. The president then opened the busi- ness by explaining to the people the subject for which they had been convened, and con- cluded his exposition with the words, relitis, jubeatis Quirites, e. g. bellmn indict, or ut M. Tullio aqua igni interdictum sit, or what- ever the subject might be. This formula was COMITIA. 107 COMITIA. the standing one in all comitia, and the whole exposition of the president was called rogatio. When the comitia were assembled for the purpose of an election, the presiding magis- trate had to read out the names of the candi- dates, and might exercise his influence by recommending the one whom he thought most fit for the office in question. If the assembly had been convened for the purpose of passing a legislative measure, the president usually recommended the proposal, or he might grant to others, if they desired it, per- mission to speak about the measure, either in its favour or against it (Contionem dare). When the comitia acted as a court of justice, the president stated the crime, proposed the punishment to be inflicted upon the offender, and then allowed others to speak either in defence of the accused or against him. When the subject brought before the assembly was sufficiently discussed, the president called upon the people to prepare for voting by the words, ite in suffragium, bene jucantibus diis. lie then passed the stream Petronia, and went to the septa. Respecting the mode of voting, it is commonly supposed that the people were always polled by word of mouth, till the passing of the leges tabellariae about the middle of the second century before Christ, when the ballot by means of tabellae was introduced. [LEGES TABELLARIAE.] It appears, however, that the popular assem- blies voted by ballot, as well as by word of mouth, long before the passing of the leges tabellariae, but that instead of using tabellae, they employed stones or pebbles (the Greek i/rrj$oi), and that each voter received two stones, one white and the other black, the former to be used in the approval and the latter in the condemnation of a measure. The voting by word of mouth seems to have been adopted in elections and trials, and the use of pebbles to have been confined to the enactment and repeal of laws. Previous to the leges tabellariae, the rogatores,- who sub- sequently collected the written votes, stood at the entrance of the septa, and asked every citizen for his vote, which was taken down, and used to determine the vote of each cen- tury. After the introduction of the ballot, if the business was the passing of a law, each citizen was provided with two tabellae, one inscribed V. R. i. e. Uti Rogas, " I vote for the law," the other inscribed A. t. e. Antiquo, " I am for the old law." If the business was the election of a magistrate, each citizen was supplied with only one tablet, on which the names of the candidates were written, or the initials of their names ; the voter then placed a mark (punctum) against the one for whom he voted, whence puncta are spoken of in the sense of votes. V'or further particu- lars respecting the voting ui the comitia, see DIHIBITORES and SITULA. In judicial assem- blies every citizen was provided with three tabellae, one of which was marked with A. i. e. Absolvo, " I acquit ;" the second with C. i. e. Condemno, " I condemn ;" and the third with N. L. i. e. Non Liquet, " It is not clea,- to me." The first of these was called Tabella absolutoria and the second Tabella damna* toria, and hence Cicero calls the former lite, -a saiutaris, and the latter litera tristis. There were in the Campus Martius septa or inclo- sures (whether they existed from the earliest times is unknown), into which one class of citizens was admitted after another for the purpose of voting. The first that entered were the eighteen centuries of the equites, then followed the first class and so on. It very rarely happened that the lowest class was called upon to vote, as there was no ne- cessity for it, unless the first class did not agree with the equites. After the time when the comitia of the centuries became amalga- mated with those of the tribes, a large space near the villa publica was surrounded with an enclosure, and divided into compartments for the several tribes. The whole of this en- closure was called ovile, septa, carceres, or cancelli; and in later times a stone building, containing the whole people, was erected ; it was divided into compartments for the classes as well as the tribes and centuries ; the ac- cess to these compartments was formed by narrow passages called pontei or ponticuli. On entering, the citizens received their ta- blets, and when they had consulted within the enclosures, they passed out of them again by a pans or ponticulus, at which they threw their vote into a chest (cista) which was watched by rogatoref. Hereupon the roga- tores collected the tablets, and gave them to the diribitores, who classified and counted the votes, and then handed them over to the cus- todes, who again checked them off by points marked on a tablet. The order in which the centuries voted was determined in the Ser- vian constitution, in the manner described above ; but after the union of the centuries and tribes, the order was determined by lot ; and this was a matter of no slight import- ance, since it frequently happened that the vote of the first determined the manner in which subsequent ones voted. In the case of elections, the successful candidate was pro- claimed twice, first by the praeco, and then by the president, and without this renuntiatio the election was not valid. After all the business was done, the president pronounced a prayer, and dismissed the assembly with the word discedite. Cases are frequently COMITIA. 108 COMITIA. mentioned in which the proceedings of the assembly were disturbed, so that it was neces- sary to defer the business till another day. This occurred 1, when it was discovered that the auspices had been unfavourable, or when the gods manifested their displeasure by rain, thunder, or lightning ; 2, when a tribune interceded ; 3, when the sun set be- fore the business was over, for it was a prin- ciple that the auspices were valid only for one day from sunrise to sunset ; 4, when a tnorbus comitialis occurred, i. e. when one of the assembled citizens was seized with an epileptic fit ; 5, when the vexillum was taken away from the Janiculum, this being a signal which all citizens had to obey; 6, when any tumult or insurrection broke out in the city. (3) COMITIA TRIBUTA. These assemblies likewise were called into existence by the constitution of Servius Tullius, who divided the Roman territory into thirty local tribes. It is a disputed question whether the patri- cians were originally included in these tribes ; but, whether they were or not, it is certain, that by far the majority of the peo- ple in the tribes were plebeians, and that, consequently, the character of these assem- blies was essentially plebeian. After the decemvirate, the patricians had certainly the right of voting in the assemblies of the tribes, which were then also convened by the higher magistrates. The assemblies of the tribes had originally only a local power ; they were intended to collect the tributum, and to furnish the contingents for the army ; they may further have discussed the internal affairs of each tribe, such as the making or keeping up of roads, wells, and the like. But their influence gradually increased, and they at length acquired the following powers : 1. The election of the inferior magistrates, whose office it was to protect the commonalty or to superintend the affairs of the tribes. Hence the tribunes of the plebs were elected in the comitia tributa. In like manner, the aediles were elected by them, though the curule aediles were elected at a different time from the plebeian aediles and under the presidency of a consul. At a still later time, the quaestors and tribunes of the soldiers, who had before been appointed by the con- suls, were appointed in the assemblies of the tribes. The proconsuls to be sent into the provinces, and the prolongation of the im- perium for a magistrate who was already in a province, were likewise points which were determined by the tribes in later times. The inferior magistrates elected by the tribes are : the triumviri capitales, triumviri mo- netales, the curatores viarum, decemviri liti- bus judicandis, tribuni aerarii, magistri vicorum et pagorum, praefecti annonae, du- umviri navales, quinqueviri muris turri- busque reficiendis, triumviri coloniae dedu- cendae, triumviri, quatuorviri, &c., mensarii, and lastly, after the Domitian law, B. c. 104, also the members of colleges of priests. The pontifex maximus had been elected by the people from an earlier time. 2. The legisla- tive power of the comitia tributa was at first very insignificant, for all they could do was to make regulations concerning the local affairs of the tribes. But after a time, when the tribes began to be the real representatives of the people, matters affecting the whole people also were brought before them by the tribunes, which, framed as resolutions, were laid before the senate, where they might either be sanctioned or rejected. This prac- tice of the tributa comitia gradually acquired for them the right of taking the initiative in any measure, or the right of originating measures, until, in B. c. 449, this right was recognised and sanctioned by a law of L. Valerius Publicola and M. Horatius Barbatus. This law gave to the decrees passed by the tribes the power of a real lex, binding upon the whole people, provided they obtained the sanction of the senate and the populus, that is, the people assembled in the comitia cu- riata or in the comitia centuriata. In B. c. 339, the Publilian law enacted ut plebiscita omnes Quirites tenerent. This law was either a re-enactment of the one passed in B. c. 449, or contained a more detailed specification of the cases in which plebiscita should be bind- ing upon the whole nation, or, lastly, it made their validity independent of the sanc- tion of other comitia, so that nothing would be required except the assent of the senate. In B. c. 287, the Hortensian law was passed, which seems to have been only a revival and a confirmation of the two preceding laws, for it was framed in almost the same terms ; but it may also be, that the Hortensian law made the plebiscita independent of the sanction of the senate, so that henceforth the comitia tributa were quite independent in their legis- lative character. 3. The judicial power of the comitia tributa was much more limited than that of the comitia centuriata, inas- much as they could take cognizance only of offences against the majesty of the people, while all crimes committed against the state were brought before the centuries. Even patricians, when they had offended against the commonalty or its members, were tried and fined by the tribes. This again consti- tutes a difference between the judicial power of the centuries and that of the tribes, for the former could inflict capital punishment, but the latter only fines The comitia tri- COMITIA. 109 COMITIA. buta might assemble either within or with- out the city, but not farther from it than 1000 paces, because the power of the tri- bunes did not extend farther. For elections the Campus Martius was usually chosen, but sometimes also the forum, the Capitol, or the Circus Flaminius. The presidents were com- monly the tribunes, who were supported by the aediles, and no matter could be brought before the tribes without the knowledge and consent of the tribunes. As the comitia tri- buta, however, more and more assumed the character of national assemblies, the higher magistrates also sometimes acted as presi- dents, though perhaps not without previously obtaining the permission of the tribunes. The preparations for the comitia tributa were less formal and solemn than for those of the centuries. In the case of elections, the can- didates had to give in their names, and the president communicated them to the people. When a legislative measure was to be brought before the assembly, a tribune made the people acquainted with it in contiones, and that on the three preceding nundines. The same was the case when the people were to meet as a court of justice. The auspicia were not consulted for the comitia of the tribes, but the spcctio alone was sufficient, and the tribunes had the right of obnwitiatio. In the comitia the tribune who had been chosen to preside sat on the tribtinal sup- ported by his colleagues, and laid before the people the subject of the meeting, concluding with the words velitis,jbeatis Qtiirites. The bill was never read by the tribune himself, but by a praeco, and then began the debates, in which persons might either oppose or re- commend the measure, though private per- sons had to ask the tribunes for permission to speak. When the discussion was over the president called upon the people ite in suffra- gium, as at the comitia centuriata. They then formed themselves into their tribes, which, like the centuries, ascertained their own votes in enclosures (septa). Which of the 35 tribes was to give its vote first, was determined by lot, and that tribe was called praerogativa or principium (the others were termed jure vocatae}. The vote of the first tribe was given by some person of distinction whose name was mentioned in the plebisci- tum, if it was of a legislative nature. The manner of collecting the votes was, on the whole, the same as in the comitia centuriata. The announcing of the result of the votes was the renuntiatio. If it so happened that two candidates had the same number of votes, the question was decided by drawing lots. The circumstances which might cause the meeting to break up and defer its business till another day, are the same as those which put an end to the comitia centuriata. (4) The comitia centuriata mixed icith th comitia tributa. The Servian constitution was retained unaltered so long as no great change took place in the republic ; but when the coinage and the standard of property had become altered, when the constitution of the army had been placed on a different footing, and, above all, when the plebeians began to be recognized as a great and essential ele- ment in the Roman state, it must have been found inconvenient to leave to the equites and the first class so great a preponderance in the comitia of the centuries, and it became necessary to secure more power and influence to the democratic element. A change, there- fore, took place, and the comitia centuriata became mixed with the comitia tributa ; but neither the time nor the exact nature of this change is accurately ascertained. . Some refer it to the censorship of C. Flaminius, B. c. 220, others to that of Q. Fabius and P. Decius, B. c. 304. But there is evidence that it must be assigned to even an earlier date than this, for the (tribus) praerogativa is mentioned as early as B. c. 396 in the election of the con- sular tribunes, where the pure comitia tri- buta cannot be meant, and a centuria praero- gativa is a thing unknown. With regard to the manner of the change, the most probable opinion is, that the citizens of each tribe were divided into five property classes, each con- sisting of seniores and juniores, so that each of the 35 tribes contained ten centuries, and all the tribes together 350 centuries. Accord- ing to this new arrangement, the five ancient classes, divided into seniores and juniores, continued to exist as before, but henceforth they were most closely united with the tribes, whereas before the tribes had been mere local divisions and entirely independent of property. The union now effected was that the classes became subdivisions of the tribes, and that accordingly centuries occur both in the classes and in the tribes. Each tribe con- tained ten centuries, two of the first class (one of the seniores and one of the juniores), two of the second (likewise seniores and juniores), two of the third, two of the fourth, and two of the fifth class. The equites were likewise divided according to tribes and cen- turies, and they seem to have voted with the first class, and to have been in fact included in it, so as to be called centuries of the first class. The centuries of the cornicines, tubi- cines and fabri, which are no longer men- tioned, probably ceased to exist as distinct centuries. The voting by tribes can hardly be conceived, except in those cases in which the ten centuries of every tribe were unani- COMITIA. 110 COMOEDIA. mous; this may have been the case very often, and when it was so, the tribus prae- rogativa was certainly the tribe chosen by lot to give its unanimous vote first. But if there was any difference of opinion among the centuries making up a tribe, the true majority could only be ascertained by choosing by lot one of the 70 centuriae of the first class to give its vote first, or rather it was decided by lot from which tribe the two centuries of the first class were to be taken to give their vote first. (Hence the plural pi aerogativae.) The tribe, moreover, to which those centuries belonged which voted first, was itself likewise called tribus praerogativa. Of the two cen- turies, again, that of seniores gave its vote before the juniores, and in the documents both were called by the name of their tribe, as Galeriajuniorum, i. e. the juniores of the first class in the tribus Galeria, Aniensis ju- niorwn, Veturia juniorum. As soon as the praerogativa had voted, the renuntiatio took place, and the remaining centuries then de- liberated whether they should vote the same way or not. When this was done all the centuries of the first tribe proceeded to vote at once, for there would not have been time for the 350 centuries to vote one after another, as was done by the 193 centuries in the comitia centuriata. These comitia of the centuries combined with the tribes were far more democratical than the comitia of the centuries ; they continued to be held, and preserved their power along with the comitia tributa, even after the latter had acquired their supreme importance in the republic. During the time of the moral and political corruption of the Romans, the latter appear to have been chiefly attended by the populace, which was guided by the tribunes, and the wealthier and more respectable citizens had little influence in them. When the libertini and all the Italians were incorporated in the old thirty-five tribes, and when the political corruption had reached its height, no trace of the sedate and moderate character was left by which the comitia tributa had been distin- guished in former times. Under Augustus the comitia still sanctioned new laws and elected magistrates, but their whole proceed- ings were a mere farce, for they could not venture to elect any other persons than those recommended by the emperor. Tiberius de- prived the people even of this shadow of their former power, and conferred the power of election upon the senate. When the elections were made by the senate the result was an- nounced to the people assembled as comitia centuriata or tributa. Legislation was taken away from the comitia entirely, and was com- pletely in the hands of the senate and the emperor. From this time the comitia may bo said to have ceased to exist, as all the sove- reign power formerly possessed by the people was conferred upon the emperor by the lex regia. [LEX REGIA.] COMMEATUS, a furlough, or leave of ab- sence from the army for a certain time. COMMENTARIUS or COMMENTARIUM, a book of memoirs or memorandum-book, whence the expression Caesaris Commentarii. It is also used for a lawyer's brief, the notes of a speech, &c. COMMERCIUM. [CIVITAS (ROMAN).] COMOEDIA (mofujifiia), comedy. (1) GREEK. Comedy took its rise at the vintage festivals of Dionysus. It originated with those who led off the phallic songs of the band of revellers (KW/XO?), who at the vintage festivals of Dionysus gave expression to the feelings of exuberant joy and merriment which were regarded as appropriate to the occasion, by parading about, partly on foot, partly in waggons, with the symbol of the productive powers of nature, singing a wild, jovial song in honour of Dionysus and his companions. These songs were commonly interspersed with, or followed by petulant, extemporal witticisms with which the revellers assailed the bystanders. This origin of comedy is indicated by the name /cu/u.u>Si'a, which un- doubtedly means " the song of the /cto^os," though it has sometimes been derived from Kiafj.ii, as if the meaning were " a village song." It was among the Dorians that comedy first assumed any thing of a regular shape. The Megarians, both in the mother country and in Sicily, claimed to be consi- dered as its originators, and so far as the comedy of Athens is concerned, the claim of the former appears well founded. Among the Athenians the first attempts at comedy were made at Icaria by Susarion, a native of Megara, about B. c. 578. Susarion no doubt substituted for the more ancient improvisa- tions of the chorus and its leader premedi- tated compositions. There would seem also to have been some kind of poetical contest, for we learn that the prize for the successful poet was a basket of figs and a jar of wine. It was also the practice of those who took part in the comus to smear their faces with wine-lees, either to prevent, their features from being recognised, or to give themselves a more grotesque appearance. Hence comedy came to be called rpvytaSta., or lee-song. Others connected the name with the circum- stance of a jar of new wine (rpu'f) being the prize for the successful poet. It was, how- ever, in Sicily, that comedy was earliest brought to something like perfection. Epi- channus was the first writer wb gave it H COMOEDIA. Ill COMOEDIA. new form, and introduced a regular plot. In his efforts he appears to have been asso- ciated with Phormis, a somewhat older con- temporary. The Megarians in Sicily claimed the honour of the invention of comedy, on account of Epicharmus having lived in Me- gara before he went to Syracuse. In Attica, the first comic poet of any importance whom we hear of after Susarion is Chionides, who is said to have brought out plays in B. c. 488. Euetes, Euxenides, and Myllus were proba- bly contemporaries of Chionides ; he was followed by Magnes and Ecphanticles. Their compositions, however, seem to have been little but the reproduction of the old Megaric farce of Susarion, differing, no doubt, in form, by the introduction of an actor or actors, separate from the chorus, in imitation of the improvements that had been made in tragedy. That branch of the Attic drama which was called the Old Comedy, begins properly with Cratinus, who was to comedy very much what Aeschylus was to tragedy. The old comedy has been described as the comedy of caricature, and such indeed it was, but it was also a great deal more. As it ap- peared in the hands of its great masters Cra- tinus, Hermippus, Eupolis, and especially Aristophanes, its main characteristic was that it was throughout political. Everything that bore upon the political or social interests of the Athenians furnished materials for it. The old Attic comedy lasted from Ol. 80 to Ol. 94 (B. c. 458-404). From Cratinus to Theopompus there were forty-one poets, four- teen of whom preceded Aristophanes. The later pieces of Aristophanes belong to the Middle rather than to the Old Comedy. The chorus in a comedy consisted of twenty-four. [CHORUS.] The dance of the chorus was the icopSaf, the movements of which were capri- cious and licentious, consisting partly in a reeling to and fro, in imitation of a drunken man, and in various unseemly and- immodest gestures. Comedies have choric songs, but no oracnfia, or songs between acts. The most important of the choral parts was the Para- basis, when the actors having left the stage, the chorus, which was ordinarily divided into four rows, containing six each, and was turned towards the stage, turned round, and ad- vancing towards the spectators delivered an address to them in the name of the poet, either on public topics of general interest, or on matters which concerned the poet per- sonally, criticising his rivals and calling at- tention to his merits ; the address having nothing whatever to do with the action of the play. The parabasis was not universally in- troduced : three plays of Aristophanes, the Ecclesiazusae, Lysistrata, and Plutus, have none. As the old Attic comedy was the off- spring of the political and social vigour and freedom of the age during which it nourished, it naturally declined and ceased with the de- cline and overthrow of the freedom and vi- gour which were necessary for its develop- ment. It was replaced by a comedy of a somewhat different style, which was known as the Middle Comedy, the age of which lasted from the end of the Peloponnesian war to the overthrow of liberty by Philip of Ma- cedon. (01. 94-110.) The comedy of this period found its materials in satirizing classes of people instead of individuals, in criticising the systems and merits of philosophers and literary men, and in parodies of the compo- sitions of living and earlier poets, and tra- vesties of mythological subjects. It formed a transition from the old to the new comedy, and approximated to the latter in the greater attention to the construction of plots which seem frequently to have been founded on amorous intrigues, and in the absence of that wild grotesqueness which marked the old comedy. As regards its external form, the plays of the middle comedy, generally speaking, had neither parabasis nor chorus. The most celebrated authors of the middle comedy were Antiphanes and Alexis. The New Comedy was a further development of the last men- tioned kind. It answered as nearly as may be to the modern comedy of manners or cha- racter. Dropping for the most part personal allusions, caricature, ridicule, and parody, which, in a more general form than in the old comedy, had maintained their ground in the middle comedy, the poets of the new comedy made it their business to reproduce in a generalized form a picture of the every- day life of those by whom they were sur- rounded. There were various standing cha- racters which found a place in most plays, such as we find in the plays of Plautus and Terence, the leno perjtirus, amator fervidus, servulus callidits, arnica illudens, sodalis opi- tulator, miles proeliator, parasitus edax, pa- rentes tenaces, meretrices procaces. In the new comedy there was no chorus. It flourished from about B. c. 340 to B. c. 260. The poets of the new comedy amounted to 64 in number. The most distinguished was Menander.- (2) ROMAN. The accounts of the early stages of comic poetry among the Romans are scanty. Scenic entertainments were introduced at Rome in B. c. 363 from Etruria, where it would seem they weie a familiar amusement. Tuscan players (lu- dioncs), who were fetched from Etruria, ex- hibited a sort of pantomimic dance to the music of a flute, without any song accom- panying their dance, and without regular COMOEDIA. 112 CONGIARIUM. dramatic gesticulation. The amusement be- came popular, and was imitated by the young Romans, who improved upon the original entertainment by uniting with it extempo- raneous mutual raillery, composed in a rude irregular measure, a species of diversion which had been long known among the Ro- mans at their agrarian festivals under the name of Fcscennina [FESCKNNINA], It was 123 years after the first introduction of these scenic performances before the improvement was introduced of having a regular plot. This advance was made by Livius Andronicus, a native of Magna Graecia, in B. c. 240. His pieces, which were both tragedies and co- medies, were merely adaptations of Greek dramas. The representation of regular plays of this sort was now left to those who were histriones by profession, and who were very commonly either foreigners or slaves ; the free-born youth of Rome confined their own scenic performances to the older, irregular farces, which long maintained their ground, and were subsequently called exodia. [Ex- ODIA ; SATURA.] Livius, as was common at that time, was himself an actor in his own pieces. The first imitator of the dramatic works of Livius Andronicus was Cn. Nae- vius, a native of Campania. He composed both tragedies and comedies, which were either translations or imitations of those of Greek writers. The most distinguished suc- cessors of Naevius were Plautus, who chiefly imitated Epicharmus, and Terence, whose materials were drawn mostly from Menander, Diphilus, Philemon, and Apollodorus. The comedy of the Romans was throughout but an imitation of that of the Greeks, and .chiefly of the new comedy. Where the cha- racters were ostensibly Greek, and the scene laid in Athens or some other Greek town, the comedies were termed palliatae. All the comedies of Terence and Plautus belong to this class. When the story and characters were Roman, the plays were called togatae. But the fabulae togatae were in fact little else than Greek comedies clothed in a Latin dress. The togatae were divided into two classes, the trabeatae and tabernariae, according as the subject was taken from high or from low life. In the comediae palliatae, the costume of the ordinary actors was the Greek pallium. The plays which bore the name of praetextatae, were not so much tragedies as historical plays. It is a mistake to represent them as comedies. There was a species of tragi- comedy, named from the poet who intro- duced that style Rhinthonica. A tragedy the argument of which was Greek was termed repidata. The mimes are sometimes classed with the Latin comedies. [MIMUS.] The mimes differed from the comedies in little more than the predominance of the mimic representation over the dialogue. Latin co- medies had no chorus, any more than the dramas of the new comedy, of which they were for the most part imitations. Like them, too, they were introduced by a pro- logue, which answered some of the purposes of the parabasis of the old comedy, so far as bespeaking the good will of the spectators, and defending the poet against his rivals and enemies. It also communicated so much in- formation as was necessary to understand the story of the play. The prologue was commonly spoken by one of the players, or, perhaps, by the manager of the troop. Re- specting the Atellanae fabulae see that article. COMPITALIA, also called LUDI COMPI- TALICII, a festival celebrated once a year in honour of the lares compitales, to whom sa- crifices were offered at the places where two or more ways met. In the time of Augustus, the ludi compitalicii had gone out of fashion, but were restored by him. The compitalia belonged to the fcriae conccptivae, that is, festivals which were celebrated on days ap- pointed annually by the magistrates or priests. The exact day on which this festi- val was celebrated appears to have varied, though it was always in the winter, generally at the beginning of January. COMPLUVIUM. [Do>rcs.] CONCILIUM generally has the same meaning as conventus or conventio, but the technical import of concilium in the Roman constitution was an assembly of a portion of the people as distinct from the general as- semblies or comitia. Accordingly, as the comitia tribnta embraced only a portion of the Roman people, viz. the plebeians, these comitia are often designated by the term con- cilia plebis. Concilium is also used by Latin writers to denote the assemblies or meetings of confederate towns or nations, at which either their deputies alone or any of the citizens met who had time and inclination, and thus formed a representative assembly. Such an assembly or diet is commonly de- signated as commune concilium, or TO KOIVOV, e. g. Achaeorum, Aetolorum, Soeotorum, Mace- doniae, and the like. CONFARREATIO. [MATRIMONIUM.] CONGIARIUM (scil. vas, from congius], a vessel containing a congius. [CoNorus.] In the early times of the Roman republic the congius was the usual measure of oil or wine which was, on certain occasions, distributed among the people ; and thus congiariwn be- came a name for liberal donations to the people, in general, whether consisting of oil, wine, corn, money, or other things, while CONGIUS. 113 CONSUL. donations made to the soldiers were called donativa, though they were sometimes also termed congiaria. Many coins of the Roman emperors were struck in commemoration of such congiaria. Congiarium was, moreover, occasionally used simply to designate a pre- sent or a pension given by a person of high lank, or a prince, to his friends. Congiarium. (Com of Trnjnn.) CONGIUS, a Horn an liquid measure, which contained six sextarii, or the eighth part of the amphora (nearly six pints Eng.) It was equal to the larger chous of the Greeks. CONNUBIUM. [MATRIMOSIUM.J CONOPEUAT (Kiaviavelov), a gnat or mus- quito-curtain i. e. a covering made to be ex- panded over beds and couches to keep away gnats and other flying insects, so called from cuvta*!/, a gnat. Conopeum is the origin of the English word canopy. CONQUISlTORES, persons employed to go about the counti-y and impress soldiers, when there was a difficulty in completing a levy. Sometimes commissioners were appointed by a decree of the senate for the purpose of making a conquisitio. CONSANGUINEI. [CooNATi.] CONSECRATIO. [APOTHEOSIS.] CONSILIUM. [CONVENTVS.] CONSUALIA, a festival, with games, cele- brated by the Romans, according to Ovid and others, in honour of Census, the god of secret deliberations, or, according to Livy, of Ncptunus Equestris. Some writers, how- ever, say that Neptunus Equestris and Con- sus were only different names for one and the same deity. It was solemnised every year in the circus, by the symbolical cere- mony of uncovering an altar dedicated to the god, which was buried in the earth. For Romulus, who was considered as the founder of the festival, was said to have discovered an altar in the earth on that spot. The so- lemnity took place on the 21st of August with horse and chariot races, and libations were poured into the flames which consumed the sacrifices. During these festive games horses and mules were not allowed to do any work, and were adorned with garlands ol flowers. It was at their first celebration that, according to the ancient legend, the Sabine maidens were carried off. CONSUL (un-aros), the title of the two chief officers or magistrates of the Roman republic. The word is probably composed of con and sul, which contains the same root as the verb salio, so that consules signifies " those who come together," just as praesul means " one who goes before, " and exsul, " one who goes out." The consulship is said to have been instituted upon the expulsion of the kings in B.C. 509, when the kingly power was transferred to two magistrates, whose office lasted only for one year, that it might not degenerate into tyranny by being vested longer in the same persons ; and for the same reason two were appointed instead of one king, as neither could undertake anything unless it was sanctioned and approved by his colleague. Their original title was praetores, or commanders of the armies, but this wan changed into that of consules in B.C. 449, and the latter title remained in use until the latest periods of the Roman empire. The consuls were at first elected from the patri- cians exclusively. Their office was suspended in B.C. 451, and its functions were per- formed by ten high commissioners (decem- viri), appointed to frame a code of laws. On the re-establishment of the consulship in B. c. 449, the tribunes proposed that one of the consuls should be chosen from the plebeians, but this was strenuously resisted by the pa- tricians, and a compromise effected by sus- pending the consular office, and creating in its stead military tribunes (tribuni militum) with consular power, who might be elected indifferently both from the patricians and plebeians. They were first appointed in B.C. 444. The plebeians, however, were not satis- fled with this concession, and still endea- voured to attain the higher dignity of the consulship. At length, after a serious and long-protracted struggle between the two orders, it was enacted by the Licinian law, in B.C. 367, that henceforth the consulship should be divided between the patricians and plebeians, and that one of the consuls should always be a plebeian. Accordingly, in B. c. 366 L. Sextius was elected the first plebeian consul. This law, however, was not always observed, and it still frequently happened that both consuls were patricians, until, in later times, when the difference between the two orders had entirely ceased, and the ple- beians were on a footing of perfect equality with the patricians, the consuls were elected CONSUL. 11* CONSUL. from both orders indiscriminately. During the later periods of the republic it was cus- tomary for persons to pass through several subordinate magistracies before they were elected consuls, though this rule was de- parted from in many particular cases. The age at which a person was eligible to the consulship was fixed in B. c. 180, by the lex annalis [LEX ANNALIS], at 43. The election of the consuls always took place in the co- mitia of the centuries, some time before the expiration of the official year of the actual consuls, and the election was conducted either by the actual consuls themselves, or by an interrex or a dictator, and the persons elected, until they entered upon their office, were called consules designati. While they were designati, they were in reality no more than private persons, but still they might exercise considerable influence upon public affairs, for in the senate they were asked for their opinion first. If they had been guilty of any illegal act, either before or during their election, such as bribery (ambitus), they were liable to prosecution, and the election might be declared void. The time at which the old consuls laid down their office and the consules designati entered upon theirs, dif- fered at different times. The first consuls are said to have entered upon their office in October, then we find mention of the 1st of August, of the ides of December, the 1st of July, and very frequently of the ides of March, until, in B.C. 153, it became an es- tablished rule for the consuls to enter upon their duties on the 1 st of January ; and this custom remained down to the end of the re- public. On that day the senators, equites, and citizens of all classes conducted in a pro- cession (deductio or proccssus consularis) the new magistrates from their residence to the capitol, where, if the auspices were favour- able, the consuls offered up sacrifices, and were inaugurated. From thence the proces- sion went to the curia, where the senate assembled, and where the consuls returned thanks for their election. There they might also speak on any subject that was of im- portance to the republic, such as peace and war, the distribution of provinces, the gene- ral condition of the state, the ferine Latinae, and the like. During the first five days of their office they had to convoke a contio, and publicly to take a solemn oath, by which, in the earliest times, they pledged themselves not to allow any one to assume regal power at Rome, but afterwards only to maintain the laws of the republic (in leges jurare}. On the expiration of their office they had to take another oath, stating that they had faithfully obeyed the laws, and not done anything against the constitution. The new consuls on entering upon their office usually invited their friends to a banquet. When a consul died during his year of office, his colleague immediately convoked the comitia to elect a new one. A consul thus elected to fill a vacancy was called consul siiffectus, but his powers were not equal to those of an ordi- nary consul, for he could not preside at the elections of other magistrates, not even in the case of the death of his colleague. In the latter case, as well as when the consuls were prevented by illness or other circumstances, the comitia were held by an interrex or a dictator. The outward distinctions of the consuls were, with few exceptions, the same as those which had formerly belonged to the kings. The principul distinction was the twelve lictors with the fasces, who preceded the consuls ; but the axes did not appear in the fasces within the city. This outward sign of their power was taken by the con- suls in turn every month, and while one consul was preceded by the twelve lictors with their fasces, the other was during the same month preceded by an accensus, and followed by the lictors ; and the one was called during that month consul major, and the other consul minor. Other distinctions of the consuls were the curule chair (sella cunilis}, and the toga with the purple hem (toga praetexta). The ivory sceptre (scijrio or sceptrum) and purple toga were not dis- tinctions of the consuls in general, but only when they celebrated a triumph. Under the empire a consul was sometimes distinguished by the senate with a sceptre bearing an eagle on the top, but his regular ensigns consisted of the toga picta, the trabca, and the fasces, both within and without the city. The con- suls were the highest ordinary magistrates at Rome. Their power was at first quite equal to that of the kings, except that it was limited to one year, and that the office of high priest, which had been vested in the king, was at the very beginning detached from the consulship, and given to the rex sacrorum or rex sacrificulus. Yet the aus- picia majora continued to belong to the consuls. This regal power of the consuls, however, was gradually curtailed by various laws, especially by the institution of the tri- bunes of the plebs, whose province it was to protect the plebeians against the unjust or oppressive commands of the patrician magis- trates. Nay, in the course of time, whole branches of the consular power were detached from it ; the reason for which was, that, as the patricians were compelled to allow the plebeians a share in the highest magistracy, they stripped it of as much of its original CONSUL. 115 CONSUL. power as they could, and reserved these de- tached portions for themselves. In this man- ner the censorship was detached from the consulship in B. c. 443, and the praetorship in B.C. 367. But notwithstanding all this, the consuls remained the highest magistrates, and all other magistrates, except the tribunes of the plehs, were obliged to obey their com- mands, and show them great outward re- spect. The functions of the consuls during the time of the republic may be conveniently described under the following heads : 1. They were in all civil matters the heads of the state, being invested with the imperium, which emanated from the sovereign people, and which they held during the time of their office. In this capacity they had the right of convoking both the senate and the assembly of the people ; they presided in each (in the comitia of the curies as well as in those of the centuries), and they took care that the resolutions of the senate and people were carried into effect. They might also convoke contioncs, whenever they thought it neces- sary. In the senate they conducted the dis- cussions, and put the questions to the vote, thus exercising the greatest influence upon all matters which were brought before the senate either by themselves or by others. When a decree was passed by the senate, the consuls were usually commissioned to see that it was carried into effect ; though there are also instances of the consuls opposing a de- cree of the senate. 2. The supreme com- mand of the armies belonged to the consuls alone by virtue of their imperium. Accord- ingly, when a war was decreed, they were ordered by a senatus consultum to levy the troops, whose number was determined by the senate, and they appointed most of the other military officers. While at the head of their armies they had full power of life and death over their soldiers, who, on their enrolment, had to take an oath (saeramentum) to be faithful and obedient to the commands of the consuls. When the consuls had entered upon their office, the senate assigned them their provinces, that is, their spheres of action, and the consuls either settled between them- selves which province each was to have, or, which was more common, they drew lots. Usually one consul remained at Rome, while the other went out at the head of the army : sometimes both left the city, and carried on war in different quarters ; and sometimes, when the danger was very pressing, both consuls commanded the armies against one and the same enemy. If it was deemed ad- visable, the imperium of one or of both con- suls was prolonged for the particular province in which they were engaged, in which case they had the title of proconsuls [PROCONSUL], and their successors either remained at Rome, or were engaged in other quarters. During the latter period of the republic the consuls remained at Rome during the time of their office, and on its expiration they had a foreign province (in the real sense of the word) assigned to them, where they under- took either the peaceful administration, or carried on war against internal or external enemies. While in their provinces, both the consuls and proconsuls had the power of life and death over the provincials, for they were looked upon there as the chief military commanders ; and the provincials, being percgrini, did not enjoy the privileges of Roman citizens. 3. The supreme jurisdic- tion was part of the consular imperium, and as such vested in the consuls so long as there were no praetors. In civil cases they admi- nistered justice to the patricians as well as plebeians, either acting themselves asjudices, or appointing others as judices and arbitri. In criminal cases there appears from early times to have been this difference : that pa- tricians charged with capital offences were tried by the curies, while the plebeians came under the jurisdiction of the consuls, whose power, however, was in this case rather limited, partly by the intercession of the tri- bunes of the people, and partly by the right of appeal (provocatio) from the sentence of the consuls. The consuls might, further, summon any citizen before their tribunal, and, in case of disobedience, seize him fj>ren- dere), and fine him up to a certain amount. After the institution of the praetorship, the consuls no longer possessed any regular ordi- nary jurisdiction ; and whenever they exer- cised it, it was an exception to the general custom, and only by a special command of the senate. 4. Previous to the institution of the censorship the consuls had to perform all the functions which afterwards belonged to the censors : they were accordingly the highest officers of finance, held the census, drew up the lists of the senators, equites, &c. After the establishment of the censorship they still retained the general superintendence of the public economy, inasmuch as they had the keys of the aerarium, and as the quaes- tors or paymasters were dependent on them. But still in the management of the finances the consuls were at all times under the con- trol of the senate. 5. In all relations with foreign states the consuls were the represen- tatives of the Roman republic. Hence they might conclude peace or treaties with foreign nations, which had, however, to be sanc- tioned by the senate and people at Rome ; and unless this sanction was obtained a treaty i 2 CONSUL. 11G CONTUBERNALES. was void. They received foreign ambassa- dors, and introduced them into the senate, and in short all negotiations with foreign princes or nations passed through their hands. 6. In matters connected with their own official functions, the consuls, like all other magistrates, had the power of issuing proclamations or orders (edicta), which might be binding either for the occasion only, or remain in force permanently. Although the consular power had been gradually dimi- nished, it was in cases of imminent danger restored to its original and full extent, by a decree of the senate calling upon the consuls videant ne quid res publica detriments capiat. In such cases the consuls received sovereign power, but they were responsible for the manner in which they had exercised it. It has already been observed, that to avoid col- lision and confusion, the two consuls did not possess the same power at the same time, but that each had the imperium every other month. The one who possessed it, as the consul major, exercised all the rights of the office, though he always consulted his col- league. In the earliest times it was custo- mary for the elder of the two consuls to take the imperium first, afterwards the one who had had the greater number of votes at the election, and had therefore been proclaimed (rentmtiare) first. In the time of Augustus it was enacted that the consul who had most children should take precedence of the other ; and some distinction of rank continued to be observed down to the latest times of the em- pire. Towards the end of the republic the consulship lost its power and importance. The first severe blow it received was from Julius Caesar, the dictator, for he received the consulship in addition to his dictatorship, or he arbitrarily ordered others to be elected, who were mere nominal officers, and were allowed to do nothing without his sanction. He himself was elected consul at first for five, then for ten years, and at last for life. Under Augustus the consulship was a mere shadow of what it bad been : the consuls no longer held their office for a whole year, but usually for a few months only ; and hence it happened that sometimes one year saw six, twelve, or even twenty-five consuls. Those who were elected the first in the year ranked higher than the rest, and their names alone were used to mark the year, according to the an- cient custom of the Romans of marking the date of an event by the names of the consuls of the year in which the event occurred. During the last period of the empire it be- came the practice to have titular or hono- rary consuls, who were elected by the senate and confirmed by the emperor. Constantino appointed two consuls, one for Rome and another for Constantinople, who held theii office for a whole year, and whose functions were only those of chief justices. All the other consuls were designated as honorarii or consul arcs. But though the consulship had thus become almost an empty title, it was still regarded as the highest dignity in the empire, and as the object of the greatest am- bition. It was connected with very great expenses, partly on account of the public games which a consul had to provide, and partly on account of the large donations he had to make to the people. The last consul at Rome was Decimus Theodorus Paulinus, A.D. 536, and at Constantinople, Flavius Ba- silius junior, A.D. 541. CONSULARIS, signified, under the re- public, a person who had held the office of consul ; but under the empire, it was the title of many magistrates and public officers, who enjoyed the insignia of consular dig- nity, without having filled the office of consul. Thus we find commanders of armies and go- vernors of provinces called Consulares under the empire. CONTIO, a contraction for eonventio, that is, a meeting, or a convening. In the tech- nical sense, however, a contio was an assem- bly of the people at Rome convened by a magistrate for the purpose of making the people acquainted with measures which were to be brought before the next comitia, and of working upon them either to support or op- pose the measure. But no question of any kind could be decided by a contio, and this constitutes the difference between contiones and comitia. Still contiones were also convened for other purposes, e. g. of per- suading the people to take part in a war, or of bringing complaints against a party in the republic. Every magistrate had the right to convene contiones, but it was most frequently exercised by the consuls and tribunes, and the latter more especially exercised a great influence over the people in and through these contiones. A magistrate who was higher in rank than the one who had convened a contio, had the right to order the people to disperse, if he disapproved of the object. It should be remarked, that the term contio is also used to designate the speeches and harangues ad- dressed to the people in an assembly, and that in a loose mode of speaking, contio de- notes any assembly of the people. CONTUBERNALES (O f signified originally men who served in the same army and lived in the same tent. The word is de- rived from tabertia (afterwards tabernacu- lum), which was the original name for a military tent, as it was made of boards (ta- COXTUBERXIUM. 117 CORXU. bulae}. Each tent was occupied by ten sol- diers (contubernales), with a subordinate officer at their head, who was called decantis, and in later times caput contubernii. Young Romans of illustrious families used to accom- pany a distinguished general on his expedi- tions, or to his province, for the purpose of gaining under his superintendence a practical training in the art of war, or in the adminis- tration of public affairs, and were, like sol- diers living in the same tent, called his con- tubernales. In a still wider sense, the name contubernales was applied to persons con- nected by ties of intimate friendship, and living under the same roof ; and hence, when a free man and a slave, or two slaves, who were not allowed to contract a legal mar- riage, lived together as husband and wife, they were called contubernales ; and their connection, as well as their place of residence, contuberniuni. COXTUBERXIUM. [CONTUBERNALES.] CON VEX IRE IN MlXUM. [MATKIMO- NIUM.] COXVEXTUS, was the name applied to the whole body of Roman citizens who were either permanently or for a time settled in a provtace. In order to facilitate the adminis- tration of justice, a province was divided into a numoer of districts or circuits, each of which was called conventus, forum, or jurisdictio. Roman citizens living in a province were en- tirely under the jurisdiction of the proconsul ; and at certain times of the year, fixed by the proconsul, they assembled in the chief town of the district, and this meeting bore the name of conventus (avos*), a crown, that is, a circular ornament of metal, leaves, or flowers, worn by the ancients round the head or neck, and used as a festive as well as funereal de- coration, and as a reward of talent, military or naval prowess, and civil worth. Its first introduction as an honorary reward is attri- butable to the athletic games, in some of which it was bestowed as a prize upon the victor. It was the only reward contended for by the Spartans in their gymnie contests, and was worn by them when going to battle. The Romans refined upon the practice of the Greeks, and invented a great variety of crowns formed of different materials, each with a separate appellation, and appropriated] to a particular purpose. I. CORONA OBSI- DIONALIS. Amongst the honorary crowns bestowed by the Romans for military achieve- ments, the most difficult of attainment, and the one which conferred the highest honour, was the corona obsidionalis, presented by a beleaguered army after its liberation to the general who broke up the siege. It was made of grass, or weeds and wild flowers, thence called corona graminea, and graminea obsidionalis, gathered from the spot on which the beleaguered army had been enclosed. II. CORONA CIVICA, the second in honour and importance, was presented to the soldier who had preserved the life of a Roman citizen in battle. It was made of the leaves of the oak. Corona CiTlca, on a Com of the Emperor Galba. SPQR OB CS = Sonatus PopnliMqiw Komanus i civem wnntum. The soldier who had acquired this crown had a place reserved next to the senate at all the public spectacles ; and they, as well as the rest of the company, rose up upon his en- trance. He was freed from all public bur- thens, as were also his father, and his pa- ternal grandfather ; and the person who owed his life to him was hound, ever after, to cherish his preserver as a parent, and afford him all such offices as were due from a son to his father. III. CORONA NAVALIS or Ros- TRATA, called also CLASSICA. It is difficult to determine whether these were two distinct crowns, or only two denominations for the same one. It seems probable that the navnlis corona, besides being a generic term, was inferior in dignity to the latter, and given to the sailor who first boarded an enemy's ship ; whereas the rostrata was given to a commander who destroyed the whole fleet, or gained any very signal victory. At all events, they were both made of gold ; and one at least (rostrata} decorated with the beaks of ships like the rostra in the forum. The Athenians likewise bestowed golden crowns for naval services ; sometimes upon the person who got his trireme first equipped, and at others upon the captain who had his vessel in the best order. IV. CORONA MTJ- RALIS, was presented by the general to the first man who scaled the wall of a besieged city. It was made of gold, and decorated with turrets. V. CORONA CASTRENSIS or VAL- LARIS, was presented to the first soldier who surmounted the vallum, and forced an en- trance into the enemy's camp. This crown was made of gold, and ornamented with the palisades (valli) used in forming an entrench- ment. VI. CORONA TRIUMFHALIS. There were three sorts of triumphal crowns : the first was made of laurel or bay leaves, and was worn round the head of the commander during his triumph ; the second was of gold, which, being too large and massive to be worn, was held over the head of the general during his triumph, by a public officer. This crown, as well as the former one, was pre- sented to the victorious general by his army. The third kind, likewise of gold and of great value, was sent as a present from the pro- vinces to the commander. [AURTJM CORONA- RIUM.] VII. CORONA OVALIS, was given to a commander who obtained only an ovation. It was made of myrtle. VIII. CORONA OLJ> AOINA, was made of the olive leaf, and con- ferred upon the soldiers as well as their com- manders. The Greeks in general made but little use of crowns as rewards of valour in the earlier periods of their history, except as prizes in the athletic contests ; but previous to the time of Alexander, crowns of gold CORONA. 119 CORVTIS. were profusely distributed, amongst the Athenians at least, for every trifling feat, whether civil, naval, or military, which, though lavished without much discrimination as far as regards the character of the re- ceiving parties, were still subjected to certain legal restrictions in respect of the time, place, and mode in which they were conferred. They could not be presented hut in the public assemblies, and with the consent, that is by suffrage, of the people, or by the senators in their council, or by the tribes to their own members, or by the Srj/iorac to members of their own S^nos. According to the statement of Aeschines, the people could not lawfully present crowns in any place except in their assembly, nor the senators except in the se- nate-house ; nor, according to the same au- thority, in the theatre, which is, however, denied by Demosthenes ; nor at the public games, and if any crier there proclaimed the crowns he was subject to atimia. Neither could any person holding an office receive a crown whilst he was virevOvvos, that is, be- fore he had passed his accounts. The second class of crowns were emblematical and not honorary, and the adoption of them was not regulated by law, but custom. Of these there were also several kinds. I. CORONA SACER- DOTALIS, was worn by the priests (sacerdotes), with the exception of the pontifex maximus and his minister (camillus), as well as the bystanders, when officiating at the sacrifice. It does not appear to have been confined to any one material. II. CORONA FUNEBRIS and SEPVLCHRALIS. The Greeks first set the ex- ample of crowning the dead with chaplets of leaves and flowers, which was imitated by the llomans. Garlands of flowers were also placed upon the bier, or scattered from the windows under which the procession passed, Fimaic* with Crowns. (From an ancle:' Painting.) or entwined about the cinerary urn, or as a decoration to the tomb. In Greece these crowns were commonly made of parsley. III. CORONA CONVIVIALIS. The use of chap- lets at festive entertainments sprung likewise fi'om Greece. They were of various shrubs and flowers, such as roses (which were the choicest), violets, myrtle, ivy, philyra, and even parsley. IV. CORONA NUPTIALIS. The bridal wreath was also of Greek origin, among whom it was made of flowers plucked by the bride herself, and not bought, which was of ill omen. Amongst the llomans it was made of verbena, also gathered by the bride herself, and worn under the Jlammeum, with which the bride was always enveloped. The bride- groom also wore a chaplet. The doors of his house were likewise decorated with gar- lands, and also the bridal couch. V. CORONA N ATALITIA, the chaplet suspended over the door of the vestibule, both in the houses of Athens and Rome, in which a child was born. At Athens, when the infant was male, the crown was made of olive ; when female, of wool. At Rome it was of laurel, ivy, or parsley. CORONIS (/copwi/is), the cornice of an en- tablature, is properly a Greek word signify- ing anything curved. It is also used by Latin writers, but the genuine Latin word for a cornice_is corona or coronix. CORTINA, the name of the table or hollow slab, supported by a tripod, upon which the priestess at Delphi sat to deliver her re- sponses ; and hence the word is used for the oracle itself. The Romans made tables of marble or bronze after the pattern of the Delphian tripod, which they used as we do our sideboards, for the purpose of displaying their plate at an entertainment. These were termed cortinae Delphicae, oiDelphicae simply. CORYBANTICA ((copv/SaxriKct), a festival and mysteries celebrated at Cnossus in Crete, by the Corybantes. (SeeClass. -Die?.,CoRYBANTES.) CORYMBUS (U>I), the supreme magistrates in Crete, were ten in number, and were chosen, not from the body of the people, but from certain yeVr/ or houses, which were pro- bably of more pure Doric or Achaean descent than their neighbours. The first of them in rank was called protocosmus, and gave his name to the year. They commanded in war, and also conducted the business of the state with the representatives and ambassadors of other cities. Their period of office was a year ; but any of them during that time might resign, and was also liable to deposition by his col- leagues. In some cases, too, they might be indicted for neglect of their duties. On the whole, we may conclude that they formed the executive and chief power in most of the cities of Crete. COTHURNUS Ocoflopvos), a boot. Its es- sential distinction was its height ; it rose above the middle of the leg, so as to surround the calf, and sometimes it reached as high as the knees. It was worn principally by horse- men, by hunters, and by men of rank and authority. The sole of the cothurnus was commonly of the ordinary thickness ; but it was sometimes made much thicker than usual, probably by the insertion of slices of cork. Cutburau*. (From Statues of Artemis Diann.) The object was, to add to the apparent stature of the wearer ; and this was done in the case of the actors in Athenian tragedy, who had the soles made unusually thick as one of the methods adopted in order to magnify their whole appearance. Hence tragedy in general was called cothurnus. As the cothurnus was commonly worn in hunting, it is represented as part of the costume of Artemis (Diana). COTTABUS (KOTTot/So9),'a social game which was introduced from Sicily into Greece, where it became one of the favourite amusements of young people after their repasts. The sim- plest way in which it originally was played was this : One of the company threw out of a goblet a certain quantity of wine, at a cer- tain distance, into a metal basin. While he was doing this, he either thought of or pro- nounced the name of his mistress ; and if all the wine fell in the basin, and with a full sound, it was a good sign for the lover. This simple amusement soon assumed a variety of different characters, and became, in some instances, a regular contest, with prizes for the victor. One of the most celebrated modes in which it was carried on is called fit* ofv- /3do>c. A basin was filled with water, with small empty cups (bt;v[iaa) swimming upon it. Into these the young men, one after another, threw the remnant of the wine from their goblets, and he who had the good for- tune to drown most of the bowls obtained the prize, consisting either of simple cakes, sweet- meats, or sesame-cakes. COTYTTIA (VoTTtma), a festival which was originally celebrated by the Edonians of Thrace, in honour of a goddess called Cotys, or Cotytto. It was held at night. The wor- ship of Cotys, together with the festival of the Cotyttia, was adopted by several Greek states, chiefly those which were induced by their commercial interest to maintain friendly relations with Thrace. The festivals of this goddess were notorious among the ancients for the dissolute manner and the debaucheries with which they were celebrated. COTYLA (KOTUA.TJ), a measure of capacity among the Romans and Greeks : by the former it was also called hemina ; by the latter, Tpvfi\iov and rnj.iva or ripinva.. It was the half of the sextarius or fe'ernjs, and contained 6 cyathi, or nearly half a pint English. COVINUS (Celtic, kmcain), a kind of car, the spokes of which were armed with long sickles, and which was used as a scythe-cha- riot chiefly by the ancient Belgians and Britons. The Romans designated, by the name of covinus, a kind of travelling carriage, which seems to have been covered on all sides with the exception of the front. It had no seat for a driver, but was conducted by the CRATER. ORYPTF.IA. traveller himself, who sat inside. The covi- nrtrii (this word occurs only in Tacitus) seem to have constituted a regular and distinct part of a British irmy. Compare ESSEDUM. CRATER (ftpanip, Ionic KPITJJP, from Kfpav- wii.1, I mix), a vessel in which the wine, ac- cording to the custom of the ancients, who very seldo-n drank it pure, was mixed with water, and from which the cups were filled. Craters were among the first things on the embellishment of which the ancient artists exercised their skill ; and the number of craters dedicated in temples seems everywhere to have been very great. CREPIDA (KPTJTTI'?), a slipper. Slippers were worn with the pallium, not with the toga, and were properly characteristic of the Greeks, though adopted from them by the Romans. CRIMEN. Though this word occurs so frequently, it is not easy to fix its meaning. Crimen is often equivalent to accusatio (lomj- yopi'a) ; but it frequently means an act which is legally punishable. Those delicta which were punishable according to special leges, senatus eonsulta, and constitutiones, and were prosecuted in judicia publica by an accusatio publica, were more especially called crimina ; and the penalties in case of conviction were loss of life, of freedom, of civitas, and the consequent infamia, and sometimes pecuniary penalties also. CRISTA. [GALEA.] CRITES (icpiTjjs), a judge, was the name applied by the Greeks to any person who did not judge of a thing like a Sixacmjs, accord- ing to positive laws, but according to his own sense of justice and equity. But at Athens a number of Kpirai was chosen by ballot from a number of selected candidates at every celebration of the Dionysia : they were called oi (cptTat, /car' efoxTJf. Their office was to judge of the merit of the different choruses and dramatic poems, and to award the prizes to the victors. Their number was five for comedy and the same number for tragedy, one being taken from every tribe. CROBtLUS. [COMA.] CROCOTA (sc. vestis, KpoKorrov sc. Ifidnov, or KpoKtarbs sc. XIT^I/}, was a kind of gala- dress, chiefly worn by women on solemn occasions, and in Greece especially, at the festival of the Dionysia. Its name was de- rived from crocus, one of the favourite colours of the Greek ladies. CROTALUM. [CYMBALUM.] CRUSTA. [CAELATURA.] CRUX (oTavpds, oxoAoi//), an instrument of capital punishment, used by several ancient nations, especially the Romans and Cartha- ginians. Crucifixion was of two kinds, the less usual sort being rather impalement than what we should describe by the word cruci- fixion, as the criminal was transfixed by a pole, which passed through the back and spine and came out at the mouth. The cross was of several kinds ; one in the shape of an X, called crux Andreana, because tradition reports St. Andrew to have suffered upon it ; another was formed like a T. The third, and most common sort, was made of two pieces of wood crossed, so as to make four right angles. It was on this, according to the unanimous testimony of the fathers, that our Saviour suffered. The punishment, as is well known, was chiefly inflicted on slaves, and the worst kind of malefactors. The criminal, after sen- tence pronounced, carried his cross to the place of execution ; a custom mentioned in the Gospels. Scourging appears to have formed a part of this, as of other capital punishments among the Romans ; but the scourging of our Saviour is not to be regarded in this light, for it was inflicted before sen- tence was pronounced. The criminal was next stripped of his clothes and nailed or bound to the cross. The latter was the more painful method, as the sufferer was left to die of hunger. Instances are recorded of persons who survived nine days. It was usual to leave the body on the cross after death. The breaking of the legs of the thieves, mentioned in the Gospels, was accidental ; because, by the Jewish law, it is expressly remarked, the bodies could not remain on the cross during the Sabbath-day. CRYPT A (from (tpum-eiv, to conceal), a crypt. Amongst the Romans, any long nar- row vault, whether wholly or partially below the level of the earth, is expressed by this term. The specific senses of the word are : ( 1 ) A covered portico or arcade ; called more definitely crypto-porticus, because it was not supported by open columns like the ordinary portico, but closed at the sides, with windows only for the admission of light and air. (Q) A grotto, particularly one open at both ex- tremities, forming what in modern language is denominated a " tunnel." A subterranean vault used for any secret worship was also called crypto,. ( 3 ) AVhen the practice of consuming the body by fire was relinquished [Fvuus], and a number of bodies was con- signed to one place of burial, as the cata- combs for instance, this common tomb was called crypto. CRYPTEIA ((cpvirma), the name of an atrocious practice at Sparta, said to have been introduced by Lycurgus. The following is the description given of the crypteia. The ephors, at intervals, selected from among the young Spartans, those who appeared to be best qualified for the task, and sent them iu CUBICULARII. CURATOR. various directions all over the country, pro- vided with daggers and their necessary food. During the day-time, these young men con- cealed themselves ; tut at night they broke forth into the high-roads, and massacred those of the helots whom they met, or whom they thought proper. COBICULARII, slaves who had the care of the sleeping and dwelling rooms. Faithful slaves were always selected for this office, as they had, to a certain extent, the care of their master's person. It was the duty of the cu- bicularii to introduce visitors to their master. CUBICULUM usually means a sleeping and dwelling room in a Roman house [DOMUS], but it is also applied to the pavilion or tent in which the Roman emperors were accus- tomed to witness the public games. It ap- pears to have been so called, because the emperors were accustomed to recline in the cubicula, instead of sitting, as was anciently the practice, in a sella curulis. CUBITUS (i^x"), a Greek and Roman measure of length, originally the length of the human arm from the elbow to the wrist, or to the knuckle of the middle finger. It was equal to a foot and a half, which gives 1 foot 5-4744 inches Eng. for the Roman, and 1 foot 6-2016 inches for the Greek cubit. CUCULLUS, a cowl. As the cowl was intended to bo used in the open air, and to be drawn over the head to protect it from the injuries of the weather, instead of a hat or cap, it was attached only to garments of the coarsest kind. The cucullus was also used by persons in the higher circles of society, when they wished to go abroad without being known. CUDO or CUDON, a skull-cap made of leather or of the rough shaggy fur of any wild animal, such as were worn by the velites of the Roman armies, and apparently syno- nymous with galena or galericulus. CULEUS, or CULLEUS, a Roman measure, which was used for estimating the produce of vineyards. It was the largest liquid measure used by the Romans, containing 20 amphorae, or 118 gallons, 7-546 pints. CULINA. [DOMUS, p. 143.] CULTER (p-axaipa, KOTTI'S, or orc/Hf/i's), a knife with only one edge, which formed a Cultri (From Tombstoni of a Cultrarn traight line. The blade was pointed, and ts back curved. It was used for a variety if purposes, but chiefly for killing animals ither in the slaughter-house, or in hunting, ir at the altars of the gods. The priest who conducted a sacrifice never killed the victim limself ; but one of his ministri, appointed 'or that purpose, who was called either by ;he general name minister, or the more spe- cific popa or cultrarius. CULTRARIUS. [CULTER.] CUNEUS was the name applied to a body of foot soldiers, drawn up in the form of a wedge, for the purpose of breaking through an enemy's line. The common soldiers called t a caput porcinum, or pig's head. The name unetis was also applied to the compartments of seats in circular or semi-circular theatres, which were so arranged as to converge to the :entre of the theatre, and diverge towards the external walls of the building, with pas- sages between each compartment. CUXICULUS (vTrdvojuos), a mine or pas- sage underground, was so called from its resemblance to the burrowing of a rabbit. Fidenae and Veil are said to have been taken by mines, which opened, one of them into the citadel, the other into the temple of Juno. CCPA, a wine-vat, a vessel very much like the dolitim, and used for the same pur- pose, namely, to receive the fresh must, and to contain it during the process of fermenta- tion. The inferior wines were drawn for drinking from the cupa, without being bot- tled in amphorae, and hence the term mnum de cupa. The cupa was either made of earth- enware, like the dolimn, or of wood, and covered with pitch. It was also used for fruits and corn, forming rafts, and containing combustibles in war, and even for a sarco- phagus, CURATOR. Till a Roman youth attained the age of puberty, which was generally fixed at fourteen years of age, he was incapable of any legal act, and was under the authority of a tutor or guardian ; but with the attain- ment of the age of puberty, he became ca- pable of performing every legal act, and was freed from the control of his tutor. As, however, a person of that tender age was liable to be imposed upon, the lex Plaetoria enacted that every person between the time of puberty and twenty-five years of age should be under the protection of a curator. The date of this lex is not known, though it is certain that the law existed when Plaulus wrote (about B. c. 200), who speaks of it as the lex guina vicemaria. This law established a distinction of age, which was of great prac- tical importance, by forming the citizens into CURATORES. 123 CURRUS. two classes, those above and those below twenty-five years of age (minores riginti qulnque annis'}. A. person under the last- mentioned age was sometimes simply called minor. The object of the lex was to protect persons under twenty-five years of age against j all fraud (dolus). A person who wasted his j property (prodigus], and a person of unsound mind (furiosus, demens], were also placed under the care of a curator. CURATORES were public officers of various kinds under the Roman empire, such as the curatores annonae, the curatores ludorum, the curatores regiontim, &c. CURIA, signifies both a division of the Koman people and the place of assembly for such a division. Each of the three ancient Romulian tribes, the Ramnes, Tities, and Luceres, was subdivided into 10 curiae, so that the whole body of the populus or the patricians was divided into 30 curiae. The plebeians had no connection whatever with the curiae. All the members of the different gentes belonging to one curia were called, in respect of one another, curiales. The divi- sion into curiae was of great political im- portance in the earliest times of Rome, for the curiae alone contained the citizens, and their assembly alone was the legitimate re- presentative of the whole people. [COMITIA CURIATA.] Each curia as a corporation had its peculiar sacra, and besides the gods of the state, they worshipped other divinities and with peculiar rites and ceremonies. For such religious purposes each curia had its own place of worship, called curia, in which the curiales assembled for the purpose of discuss- ing political, financial, religious and othel matters. The religious affairs of each cuna were taken care of by a priest, Curio, who was assisted by another called curialis Fla- men. As there were 30 curiae, there were likewise 30 curiones, who formed a college oi priests, presided over by one of them, called Curio Maximum. The 30 curiae had each ite distinct name, which are said to have been derived from the names of the Sabine women who had been carried off by the Romans, though it is evident that some derived their names from certain districts or from ancient eponymous heroes. Curia is also used to de- signate the place in which the senate held its meetings, such as curia Hostilia, curia Julia, curia Pompeii, and from this there gradually arose the custom of calling the senate itself in the Italian towns curia, but never the se- nate of Rome. The official residence of the Salii, which was dedicated to Mars, was like- wise styled curia. CURIATA COMITIA. [COMITIA.] CURIO. [CX-RiA.] CURIUS (icvpios), signified generally at Athens the person responsible for the welfare of such members of a family as the law pre- sumed to be incapable of protecting them- selves ; as, for instance, minors and slaves, and women of all ages. CURRUS (OPMO), a chariot, a car. These terms appear to have denoted those two- wheeled vehicles for the carriage of persons, which were open overhead, thus differing from the carpentum, and closed in front, in which they differed from the cisium. The most essential articles in the construction of Currua. I Ancient Chariot preserved in the Vatican..} CURRUS. 124 CURRUS. the currus were, 1. The rim(ai'Tvf) [ANTYX]. 2. The axle (afwv, axis). 3. The wheels ((tu/cXa, rpoxoi, rotae), which revolved upon the axle, and were prevented from coming off by the insertion of pins (e^oXoi) into the extremities of the axles. The parts of the wheel were : (a) The nave (irAiJur?), modh- lus). (b) The spokes (icvf/nai, literally, the legs, radii.) (c) The felly (irv?). (d) The tire (eiritruTpov, canthus). 4. The pole (p"M<>, temo). All the parts above mentioned are seen in the preceding cut of an ancient chariot. The Greeks and Romans appear never to have used more than one pole and one yoke, and the currus thus constructed was commonly drawn by two horses, which were attached to it by their necks, and therefore called oYuyes t;r7roi ( owwpi's, gemini jugales, equi bijvgcs, &c. If a third horse was added, as was not unfrequently the case, it was fastened by traces. The horse so attached was called jrapijopos, Trapao-eipos, )5, from going by his side or near him. In the Homeric ages, chariots were commonly employed on the field of battle. The men of rank all took their chariots with Quadrigae, (From P aiming* on a Vane and a Tei ra-cotta.) CURSORES. 125 CTMBALUM. them, and in an engagement placed them- selves in front. Chariots were not much used by the Romans. The most splendid kind were the quadrigae, in which the Ro- man generals and emperors rode when they sented on medals. It was enriched with gold and ivory. The utmost skill of the painter and the sculptor was employed to enhance its beauty and splendour. The triumphal car had in general no pole, the triumphed. The body of the triumphal car , horses being led by men who were stationed was cylindrical, as we often see it repre- | at their heads. Marble Chariot in the Vatican. CURSORES, slaves whose duty it was to run before the carriage of their masters. They first came into fashion in the first century of the Christian aera. The word cursores was also applied to all slaves whom their masters employed in carrying letters, messages, &c. CURSUS. [CIRCUS.] CURtJLIS SELLA. [SELLA CURULIS.] CUSTODES. [COMITIA.] CUSTODES, CUSTODIAE. [CASTRA.] GUSTOS URBIS. [PRAEFECTUS URBI.] CYATHUS (ituaflo?), a Greek and Roman liquid measure, containing one-twelfth of the Cjmthi. (Miuco Kurbunioo, Tol. IT. pi. I?.) sextarius, or -0825 of a pint English. The form of the cyathus used at banquets was that of a small ladle, by means of which the wine was conveyed into the drinking-eups from the large vessel [crater] in which it was mixed. Two of these cyathi are represented in the preceding woodcut. The cyathus was also the name given to a cup holding the same quantity as the measure. Hence Horace says (Carm. iii. 8. 13) : Sospitis centum." CYCLAS (j3rj) is derived from v>j3os, a hollow, and is employed to signify any small kind of boat used on lakes, rivers, &c. It appears to have been much the same as the acatium and scapha. CYMBALUM (j3o?, a hollow. The cymbal was a very ancient instrument, being used in the worship of Cybele', Bacchus, Juno, and all the earlier deities of the Gre- cian and Roman mythology. It probably came from the East. The crotalum (cpdraXoi') was a kind of cymbal. It appears to have Cymbala. (Fi the Vatican.) been a split reed or cane, which clattered when shaken with the hand. Women who played on the crotalum were termed crotalis- triae. Sucii was Virgil's Copa : " Crispum sub crotalo docta movere latus." The line alludes to the dance with crotala (similar to castanets).' For sistmm, which some have referred to the class of cymbalo, see SISTRUM. Crotala. (Borghese Vase DACTYLUS (SaxTvXos), a Greek measure, answering to the Roman digitus, each signifying a finger-breadth, and being the sixteenth part of a foot. [PES.] DAEDALA or DAEDALEIA (Sat'SoAa, Sra<.) which were carried by those who took part in its celebration. DS.REICUS (SapeiKos), or to give the name in full, the Stater of Dareius, a gold coin of Persia, stamped on one side with the figure of an archer crowned and kneeling upon one knee, and on the other with a sort of quad- rata incusa or deep cleft. It is supposed to have derived its name from the first Dareius, king of Persia. It is equal to about II. Is. 1 Orf. 1-76 farthings. . (Bntisn Musi DECADUCHI. 127 DECEMVIRI. DECADUCIII (ieicaSovxoi), the members of a council of Ten, who succeeded the Thirty Jn the supreme power at Athens, B. c. 403. They were chosen from the ten tribes, one from each ; but, though opposed to the Thirty, they sent ambassadors to Sparta to ask for assistance against Thrasybulus and the exiles. They remained masters of Athens till the party of Thrasybulus obtained possession of the city and the democracy was restored. DECARCHlA or DECADARCIIIA (Se/cop- \Ca, SfKoSapxia), a supreme council established in many of the Grecian cities by the Lace- daemonians, who entrusted to it the whole government of the state under the direction of a Spartan harmost. It always consisted of the leading members of the aristocratical party_. DECASMUS (Seicao-Aick), bribery. There were two actions for bribery at Athens : one, called Sexaa-^ov ypa^rj, lay against the person who gave the bribe ; and the other, called &7), against the person who received it. These actions applied to the bribery of citizens in the public assemblies of the people (ovvSfiedffiv TTIV tKK\rij, and of the public advocates. Ac- tions for bribery were under the jurisdiction of the thesmothetae. The punishment on conviction of the defendant was death, or payment of ten times the value of the gift received, to which the court might add a further punishment (npocrrifirjua). DECATE (|). [DECVMAE.] DECEMPEDA, a pole ten feet long, used by the agrimensores [AGRIMENSORES] in mea- suring land. Thus we find that the agrimen- sores were sometimes called decempedatores. DECEMPRIMI. [SEXATTS.] DECEMVIRI, or the " ten-men," the name of various magistrates and functionaries at Rome, of whom the most important were : (1) DECEMVIRI LF.GIBVS SCRIBENDIS, ten com- missioners, who were appointed to draw up a code of laws. They were entrusted with supreme power in the state, and all the other magistracies were suspended. They entered upon their office at the beginning of the year B.C. 451 ; and they discharged their duties with diligence, and dispensed justice with impartiality. Each administered the govern- ment day by day in succession as during an interregnum ; and the fasces were only car- ried before the one who presided for the day. They drew up a body of laws, distri- buted into ten sections ; which, after being approved of by the senate and the comitia, were engraven on tables of metal, and set up In the comitium. On the expiration of their year of office, all parties were so well satisfied with the manner in which they had discharged their duties, that it was resolved to continue the same form of government for another year ; more especially as some of the decem- virs said that their work was not finished. Ten new decemvirs were accordingly elected, of whom App. Claudius alone belonged to the former body. These magistrates framed several new laws, which were approved of by the centuries, and engraven on two additional tables. They acted, however, in a most tyrannical manner. Each was attended by twelve lictors, who carried not the rods only, but the axes, the emblem of sovereignty. They made common cause with the patrician party, and committed all kinds of outrages upon the persons and property of the ple- beians and their families. When their year of office expired they refused to resign or to appoint successors. At length, the unjust decision of App. Claudius, in the case of Vir- ginia, which led her father to kill her with his own hands to save her from prostitution, occa- sioned an insurrection of the people. The decem- virs were in consequence obliged to resigr their office, B.C. 449 ; after which the usual ma- gistracies were re-established. The ten tables of the former, and the two tables of the latter decemvirs, form together the laws of the Twelve Tables, which were the groundwork of the Roman laws. This, the first attempt to make a code, remained also the only at- tempt for near one thousand years, until the legislation of Justinian. (2) DECEMVIRI Li- TIBUS or STLITIBUS JTTDICAXDIS, were magis- trates forming a court of justice, which took cognizance of civil cases. The history as well as the peculiar jurisdiction of this court dur- ing the time of the republic is involved in inextricable obscurity. In the time of Cicero it still existed, and the proceedings" in it took place in the ancient form of the sacramentum. Augustus transferred to these decemvirs the presidency in the courts of the centum viri. During the empire, this court had jurisdic- tion in capital matters, which is expressly stated in regard to the decemvirs. (3) DE- CEMVIRI SACRIS FACIUNDIS, sometimes called simply DECEMVIRI SACRORUM, were the mem- bers of an ecclesiastical collegium, and were elected for life. Their chief duty was to take care of the Sibylline books, and to inspect them on all important occasions by command of the senate. Under the kings the care of the Sibylline books was committed to two men (duumviri) of high rank. On the expul- sion of the kings, the care of these books was entrusted to the noblest of the patricians, who were exempted from all military and civil dutif. Their number was increased about the year o67 B. c. to ten, of whom five were DECENNALIA. 128 DELIA. ehosen from the patricians and five from the plebeians. Subsequently their number was still further increased to fifteen (quindecem- viri), probably by Sulla. It was also the duty cf the decemviri to celebrate the games of Anollo, and the secular games. DECENNALIA or DECENNIA, a festival celebrated with games every ten years by the Roman emperors. This festival owed its origin to the fact that Augustus refused the supreme power when, offered to him for his life, and would only consent to accept it for ten years, and when these expired, for another period of ten years, and so on to the end of his life. DECIMAT10, the selection, by lot, of every tenth man for punishment, when any number of soldiers in the Roman army had been guilty of any crime. The remainder usually had barley allowed to them instead of wheat. This punishment appears not to have been inflicted in the early times of the republic. DECRETUM seems to mean that which is determined in a particular case after exami- nation or consideration. It is sometimes applied to a determination of the consuls, and sometimes to a determination of the senate. A decretum of the senate would seem to differ from a senatus-consultiim, in the way above indicated : it was limited to the special occa- sion and circumstances, and this would be true whether the decretum was of a judicial or a legislative character. But this distinc- tion in the use of the two words, as applied to an act of the senate, was, perhaps, not always observed. DECUMAE (sc. paries] formed a portion of the vectigalia of the Romans, and were paid by subjects whose territory, either by conquest or deditlo, had become the property of the state (ager publicus). They consisted, as the name denotes, of a tithe or tenth of the produce of the soil, levied upon the culti- vators (aratores) or occupiers (possessores] of the lands, which, from being subject to this payment, were called agri dccumani. The tax of a tenth was, however, generally paid by corn lands : plantations and vineyards, as requir- ing no seed and less labour, paid a fifth of the produce. A similar system existed in Greece also. Peisistratus, for instance, imposed a tax of a tenth on the lands of the Athenians, which the Peisistratidae lowered to a twen- tieth. At the time of the Persian war the confederate Greeks made a vow, by which all the states who had surrendered themselves to the enemy were subjected to the payment of tithes for the use of the god at Delphi. The tithes of the public lands belonging to Athens Were farmed out as at Rome to contractors, called StKariavai : the term SeKanjAo-yoi was applied to the collectors ; but the callings were, as we might suppose, often united in the same person. The title SeKarevraC is ap- plied to both. A SeicaTT), or tenth of a differ- ent kind, was the arbitrary exaction imposed by the Athenians (B.C. 410) on the cargoes of all ships sailing into or out of the Pontus. They lost it by the battle of Aegospotami (B. c. 405) ; but it was re-established by Thrasybulus about B. c. 391. The tithe was let out to farm. DECUNCIS, another name for the Dex- tans. [As.] DECUKIA. [EXERCITTJS.] DECURIONES. [COLONIA : EXERCITVS.] DECUSSIS. [As.] DEDICATIO. [iNAuounATio.] DEDITICII, were those who had taken up arms against the lloman people, and being conquered, had surrendered themselves. Such people did not individually lose their freedom, but as a community all political existence, and of course had no other relation to Rome than that of_subjects. DEDUCTORES. [AMBITTTS.] DEIGMA (Selyna), a particular place in the Peiraeeus, as well as in the harbours of other states, where merchants exposed samples oi their goods for sale. The samples themselves were also called deigmata. DEIPNON. [COENA.] DELATOR, an informer. The delatores, under the emperors, were a class of men who gained their livelihood by informing against their fellow-citizens. They constantly brought forward false charges to gratify the avarice or jealousy of the different emperors, and were consequently paid according to the im- portance of the information which they gave. DELECTUS. [EXERCITUS.] DELIA (fi>;Ai.a), the name of festivals and games celebrated in the island of Delos, to which the Cyclades and the neighbouring lo- nians on the coasts belonged. The Delia had existed from very early times, and were cele- brated every fifth year. That the Athenians took part in these solemnities at a very early period, is evident from the Deliastae (after- wards called flecopoi) mentioned in the laws of Solon ; the sacred vessel (Oewpi's), moreover, which they sent to Delos every year, was said to be the same which Theseus had sent after his return from Crete. In the course of time the celebration of this ancient pane- gyris in Delos had ceased, and it was not re- vived until B.C. 426, when the Athenians, after having purified the island in the winter of that year, restored the ancient solemnities, and added horse-races, which had never before taken place at the Delia. After this restoration, Athens, being at the head of the DELPHINIA. 129 DEMOSII. Ionian confederacy, took the most prominent part in the celebration of the Delia ; and though the islanders, in common with Athens, provided the choruses and victims, the leader (dpxiCewpos), \vho conducted the whole solem- nity, was an Athenian, and the Athenians had the superintendence of the common sanc- tuary. From these solemnities, belonging to the great Dclian panegyris, we must distin- guish the lesser Delia, which were men- tioned above, and which were celebrated every year, probably on the 6th of Tharge- lion. The Athenians on this occasion sent the sacred vessel (flewpi's), which the priest of Apollo adorned with laurel branches, to De- los. The embassy was called Oeiapia and those who sailed to the island, Cewpoi ; and before they set sail a solemn sacrifice was offered in the Delion, at Marathon, in order to obtain a happy voyage. During the absence of the vessel the city of Athens was purified, and no criminal was allowed to be executed. DELPHINIA (SeA)ptou), he received the token or ticket that entitled him to receive his fee (SiKaorucdv). This payment is said to have been first instituted by Pericles, and was originally a single obolus ; it was in- creased by Cleon to thrice that amount about the 88th Olympiad. DICE (Sucij), signifies generally any pro- ceedings at law by one party directly or me- diately against others. The object of all such actions is to protect the body politic, or one or more of its individual members, from injury and aggression ; a distinction which has in most countries suggested the division of all causes into two great classes, the public anil the private, and assigned to each its peculiar form and treatment. At Athens the first of these was implied by the terms public Sucai, or ayiavf?, or still more peculiarly by ypcufitu ; causes of the other class were termed private Sutai, or ayii/es, or simply SI'KCU in its limited sense. In a Si'/oj, only the per- son whose rights were alleged to be affected, or the legal protector (xvpios) of such per- son, if a minor or otherwise incapable of ap- pearing suo jure, was permitted to institute an action as plaintiff; in public causes, with the exception of some few in which the per- son injured or his family were peculiarly bound and interested to act, any free citizen, and sometimes, when the state was directly attacked, almost any alien, was empowered to do so. The court fees, called prytaneia, were paid in private but not in public causes, and a public prosecutor that compromised the action with the defendant was in most cases punished by a fine of a thousand drach- mae and a modified disfranchisement, while there was no legal impediment at any period of a private lawsuit to the reconciliation of the litigant parties. The proceedings in the $007 were commenced by a summons (7rpd)pes), whose names were endorsed upon the declara- tion (Aijf is or eyicAijua). Between the service of the summons and appearance of the parties before the magistrate, it is very probable that the law prescribed the intervention of a period of five days. If both parties appeared, the proceedings commenced by the plaintiff put- ting in his declaration, and at the same time depositing his share of the court fees (n-pu- Taveia), which were trifling in amount, but the non-payment of which was a fatal ob- jection to the further progress of a cause. When these were paid, it became the duty cf the magistrate, if no manifest objection ap- peared on the face of the declaration, to cause it to be written out on a tablet, and exposed foi the inspection of the public on the wall K 2 MCE. 132 DICTATOR. or other place that served as the cause list of his court. The magistrate then appointed a day for the further proceedings of the ana- crisis [ANACRISIS], If the plaintiff failed to appear at the anacrisis, the suit, of course, fell to the ground ; if the defendant made default, judgment passed against him. An affidavit might at this, as well as at other periods of the action, be made in behalf of a person unable to attend upon the given day, and this would, if allowed, have the effect of postponing further proceedings (un-u^oo-ia) ; it might, however, be combated by a counter- affidavit, to the effect that the alleged reason was unfounded or otherwise insufficient (avOv- moju.o' iiStop) filled the clepsydra with water. As long as the water flowed from this vessel the orator was permitted to speak ; if, how- ever, evidence was to be read by the officer of the court, or a law recited, the water was stopped till the speaker recommenced. The quantity of water, or, in other words, the length of the speeches, was different in dif- ferent causes. After the speeches of the ad- vocates, which were in general two on each side, and the incidental reading of the docu- mentary and other evidence, the dicasts pro- ceeded to give their judgment by ballot. When the principal point at issue was de- cided in favour of the plaintiff, there followed in many cases a further discussion as to the fine or punishment to be inflicted on the defendant (muScii/ 17 ammom). All actions were divided into two classes, ayires ari- /ai)roi, suits not to 6e assessed, in which the fine, or other penalty, was determined by the laws ; and ayujvet TIHTJTOI', suits to be as- sessed, in which the penalty had to be fixed by the judges. If the suit was an ayiav T^TOS, the plaintiff generally mentioned in the pleadings the punishment which he considered the defendant deserved (rt'm/aa) ; and the defendant was allowed to make a counter-assessment (di/i-m/uoo-Sai or vtron- /uacrOai), and to argue before the judges why the assessment of the plaintiff ought to be changed or mitigated. In certain causes, which were determined by the laws, any of the judges was allowed to propose an addi- tional assessment (7rpo| or fieieAor ^MP, which de- rived its name from the increased warmth of the atmosphere. Among the Athenians the first and last of the divisions made at the time of Homer were afterwards subdivided into two parts. The earlier part of the morning was termed irpioi or T?Pir) or Trpiofa, and Sei'Arj 6<|(ir) or b\l/ia. This division continued to be observed down to the latest period of Grecian history, though another more accurate division was intro- duced at an early period ; for Anaximander, or, according to others, his disciple Anaxi- menes, is said to have made the Greeks acquainted with the use of the Babylonian chronometer or sun-dial (called n-oAos, or iIjpoAoytoi/), by means of which the natural day was divided into twelve equrtl spaces of time. The division of the day most gene- rally observed by the Romans, was that into tempus antemeridianum and pomeridianum, the meridies itself being only considered as a point at which the one ended and the other commenced. But as it was of importance that this moment should be known, an espe- cial officer [ACCENSUS] was appointed, who DIES. 135 DIONYSIA. proclaimed the time of mid-day. The divi- sion of the day into twelve equal spaces, Which were shorter in winter than in summer, was first adopted when artificial means of measuring time were introduced among the Romans from Greece. This was about the years, c. 291, when L. Papirius Cursor, after the war with Pyrrhus in southern Italy, brought to Rome an instrument called sola- rium horologium, or simply solarium. But as the solarium had been made for a different latitude, it showed the time at Rome very incorrectly. Scipio Nasica, therefore, erected in B. c. 159 a public clepsydra, which indi- cated the hours of the night as well as of the day. Even after the erection of this clep- sydra it was customary for one of the subor- dinate officers of the praetor to proclaim the third, sixth, and ninth hours ; which shows that the day was, like the night, divided into four parts, each consisting of three hours. All the days of the year were, according to different points' of view, divided by the Ro- mans into different classes. For the purpose of the administration of justice all days were divided into dies fasti and dies nefasti. DIES FASTI were the days on which the praetor was allowed to administer justice in the pub- lic courts ; they derived their name from fari (fari tria verba; do, dico, addico). On some of the dies fasti comitia could be held, but not on all. The regular dies fasti were marked in the Roman calendar by the letter F, and their number in the course of the year was 38. Besides these there were certain days called dies intercisi, on which the prae- tor might hold his courts, but not at all hours, so that sometimes one half of such a day was fastus, while the other half was ne- fastus. Their number was 65 in the year. DIES NEFASTI were days on which neither courts of justice nor comitia were allowed to be held, and which were dedicated to other purposes. The term dies nefasti, which originally had nothing to do with religion, but simply indicated days on which no courts were to be held, was in subsequent times applied to religious days in general, as dies nefasti were mostly dedicated to the worship of the gods. In a religious point of view all days of the year were either dies festi, or dies prof esti, or dies intercisi. According to the definition given by Macrobius, dies festi were dedicated to the gods, and spent with sacrifices, repasts, games, and other solemni- ties ; dies profesti belonged to men for the administration of their private and public affairs. Dies intercisi were common between gods and men, that is, partly devoted to the worship of the gods, partly to the transaction of ordinary business. Dies profesti were either dies fasti, or dies comitiales, that is, days on which comitia were held, or dies comperendini, that is, days to which any ac- tion was allowed to be transferred ; or dies stati, that is, days set apart for causes between Roman citizens and foreigners ; or dies proeliales, that is, all days on which re- ligion did not forbid the commencement of a war. DIFFARREATIO. [DIVORTTOM.] DIIPOLEIA (SuiroAeia), also called AMTO- Aeia or AijrdAia, a very ancient festival cele- brated every year on the acropolis of Athens in honour of Zeus, surnamed IIoAievs. DEVIACHAE (Si/ouixai), Macedonian horse- soldiers, who also fought on foot when occa- sion _required, like our dragoons. DIMlNCTlO CAPITIS. [CAPUT.] D1OCLEIA (SidicAeia), a festival celebrated by the Megarians in honour of an ancient Athenian hero, Diodes, around whose grave young men assembled on the occasion, and amused themselves with gymnastic and other contests. We read that he who gave the sweetest kiss obtained the prize, consisting of a garland of flowers. DIONtSIA (SionJcna), festivals celebrated in various parts of Greece in honour of Dio- nysus, and characterised by extravagant merriment and enthusiastic joy. Drunken- ness, and the boisterous music of flutes, cym- bals, and drums, were likewise common to all Dionysiac festivals. In the processions called OiWoi (from Ociagw), -with which they were celebrated, women also took part in the disguise of Bacchae, Lenae, Thyades, Naiades, Nymphs, &c., adorned with garlands of ivy, and bearing the thyrsus in their hands, so that the whole train represented a population inspired, and actuated by the powerful pre- sence of the god. The choruses sung on the occasion were called dithyrambs, and were hymns addressed to the god in the freest metres and with the boldest imagery, fin which his exploits and achievements were extolled. [CHOHUS.] The phallus, the sym- bol of the fertility of nature, was also carried in these processions. The indulgence in drinking was considered by the Greeks as a duty of gratitude which they owed to the giver of the vine ; hence in some places it was thought a crime to remain sober at the Dionysia. The Attic festivals of Dionysus were four in number : the Rural or Lesser Dionysia (Aioruo-ia KO.T dypotis, or ju.iicpa), the Lenaea (A^i/aia), the Anthcsteria ('A-vBt- a-nfipia), and the City or Great Dionysia (AioMOTta tv atrrei, aoruca, or /tiryaAa). The season of the year sacred to Dionysus was during the months nearest to the shortest day ; and the Attic festivals were accord- DIONYSIA. 136 DIOXTSIA. ingly celebrated in Poseideon, Gamelion, An- thcsterion, and Elaphebolion. The Rural or Lesser Dionysia, a vintage festival, were cele- brated in the various deraes of Attica in the month of Poseideon, and were under the su- perintendence of the several local magistrates, the demarchs. This was doubtless the most ancient of all, and was held with the highest degree of merriment and freedom ; even slaves enjoyed full freedom during its cele- bration, and their boisterous shouts on the occasion were almost intolerable. It is here that we have to seek for the origin of comedy, in the j ests and the scurrilous abuse with which the peasants assailed the bystanders from a waggon in which they rode about. The Dio- nysia in the Peiraeeus, as well as those of the other denies of Attica, belonged to the lesser Dionysia. The second festival, the Lenaea (from A.T;OS, the wine-press, from which also the month of Gamelion was called by the lonians Lenaeon), was celebrated in the month of Gamelion ; the place of its ce- lebration was the ancient temple of Dionysus Limnaeus (from At'/xn;, as the district was originally a swamp). This temple was called the Lenaeon. The Lenaea were celebrated with a procession and scenic contests in tra- gedy and comedy. The procession probably went to the Lenaeon, where a goat (rpdyo?, whence the chorus and tragedy which arose out of it were called rpoyiicbs xopoy, and rpaywSia.) was sacrificed, and a chorus stand- ing around the altar sang the dithyrambic ode to the god. As the dithyramb was the element out of which, by the introduction of an actor, tragedy arose [CHORUS], it is natural that, in the scenic contests of this festival, tragedy should have preceded comedy. The poet who wished his play to be brought out at the Lenaea applied to the second archon, who had the superintendence of this festival, and who gave him a chorus if the piece was thought to deserve it. The third festival, the Anthesteria, was celebrated on the llth, 12th, and 13th days of the month of Anthe- sterion. The second archon likewise super- intended the celebration of the Anthesteria, and distributed the prizes among the victors in the various games which were carried on during the season. The first day was called ri0oiyia : the second, xs ' and the third, Xvrpoi, The first day derived its name from the opening of the casks to taste the wine of the preceding year ; the second from \oC9, the cup, and seems to have been the day devoted to drinking. The third day had its name from X^TPOS, a pot, as on this day per- sons offered pots with flowers, seeds, or cooked vegetables, as a sacrifice to Dionysus and Hermes Chthonius. It is uncertain whether dramas were performed at the Anthesteria ; but it is supposed that comedies were repre- sented, and that tragedies which were to be brought out at the great Dionysia were per- haps rehearsed at the Anthesteria. The mys- teries connected with the celebration of the Anthesteria were held at night. The fourth festival, the City or Great Dionysia, was celebrated about the 12th of the month of Elaphebolion ; but we do not know whethei they lasted more than one day or not. The order in which the solemnities took place was as follows : the great public procession, the chorus of boys, the comus [CHORUS], comedy, and, lastly, tragedy. Of the dramas which were performed at the great Dionysia, the tragedies at least were generally new pieces ; repetitions do not, however, seem to have been excluded from any Dionysiac festival. The first archon had the superintendence, and gave the chorus to the dramatic poet who wished to bring out his piece at this festival. The prize awarded to the dramatist for the best play consisted of a crown, and his name was proclaimed in the theatre of Dionysus. As the great Dionysia were celebrated at the beginning of spring, when the navigation was re-opened, Athens was not only visited by numbers of country people, but also by strangers from other parts of Greece, and the various amusements and exhibitions on this occasion were not unlike those of a modern fair. The worship of Dionysus, whom the Romans called Bacchus, or rather the Bac- chic mysteries and orgies (Bacchanalia], are said to have been introduced from southern Italy into Etruria, and from thence to Rome, where for a time they were carried on in secret, and, during the latter period of their existence, at night. The initiated, according to Livy, not only indulged in feasting and drinking at their meetings, but when their minds were heated with wine they indulged in the coarsest excesses and the most unnatural vices. The time of initiation lasted ten days ; on the tenth, the person who was to be ini- tiated took a solemn meal, underwent a puri- fication by water, and was led into the sanc- tuary (Bacchanal). At first only women were initiated, and the orgies were celebrated every year during three days. But Pacula Annia, a Campanian matron, pretending to act under the direct influence of Bacchus, changed the whole method of celebration : she admitted men to the initiation, and trans- ferred the solemnisation, which had hitherto taken place during the daytime, to the night. Instead of three days in the year, she ordered that the Bacchanalia should be held during five days in every month. It was from that time that these orgies were carried on with DIOSCURIA. 137 DIVINATIO. frightful licentiousness and excesses of every kind. The evil at length became so alarming, that, in B. c. 186, the consuls, by the com- mand of the senate, instituted an investiga- tion into the nature and object of these new rites. The result was that numerous persons were arrested, and some put to death ; and that a decree of the senate was issued, com- manding that no Bacchanalia should be held either in Rome or Italy ; that if any one should think such ceremonies necessary, or if he could not neglect them without scruples or making atonements, he should apply to the praetor urbanus, who might then consult the senate. If the permission should be granted to him in an assembly of the senate, consisting of not less than one hundred mem- bers, he might solemnise the Bacchic sacra ; but no more than five persons were to be present at the celebration ; there should be no common fund, and no master of the sacra or priest. A brazen table containing this important document was discovered near Bari, in southern Italy, in the year 1640, and is at present in the imperial Museum of Vienna. While the Bacchanalia were thus suppressed, another more simple and innocent festival of Bacchus, the Liberal/a (from Liber, or Liber Pater, a name of Bacchus), continued to be celebrated at Rome every year on the 16th of March. Priests and aged priestesses, adorned with garlands of ivy, carried through the city wine, honey, cakes, and sweetmeat's, together with an altar with a handle *((insata ara), in the middle of which there was a small fire-pan (foculus), in which from time to time sacrifices were burnt. On this day Roman youths who had attained their six- teenth year received the toga tirilit. DIOSCURIA (Sioo-KovpwO, festivals cele- brated in various parts of Greece in honour of the Dioscuri (Castor and Pollux). Their worship was very generally adopted in Greece, especially in the Doric and Achaean states ; but little is known of the manner in which their festivals were celebrated. At Athens the festival was called Anaceia. DIOTA, a vessel having two ears (Jara) or handles, used for holding wine. It appears to have been much the same as the amphora. [AMPHOBA.] DIPIITHERA (oK^/pa), a kind of cloak made of the skins of animals, and worn by herdsmen and country people. It had a covering for the head (tmKpdvov), in which respect it would correspond to the Roman cucullus. DIPLOMA, a writ or public document, which conferred upon a person any right or privilege. During the republic, it was granted by the consuls and senate ; and under the empire, by the emperor and the magis- trates whom he authorised to do so. It con- sisted of two leaves, whence it derived its name. DIPTYCHA (Siirrvxa), two writing tablets, which could be folded together. They were commonly made of wood and covered over with wax. DIRIBITORES. [COMITIA.] DISCUS (Sio-icos), a circular plate of stone, or metal, made for throwing to a distance as an exercise of strength and dexterity. It was one of the principal gymnastic exercises of the ancients, being included in the Pen- tathlum. Discobolus. (Ostcrlejr, Dcnk. der alt Kunst, vol. i. No. 139 DISPENSATOR. [CALCULATOR.] DITHYRAMBUS. [CHORUS.] DlVERSORIUM. [CAUPONA.] DIVIXATIO GWHTUCT)), a power in man which foresees future things by means of those signs which the gods throw in his way. Among the Greeks the manteis Giafreis), or seers, who announced the future, were sup- posed to be under the direct influence of the gods, chiefly that of Apollo. In many fami- lies of seers the inspired knowledge of the future was considered to be hereditary, and to be transmitted from father to son. To these families belonged the lamids, who from Olympia spread over a considerable part of Greece ; the Branchidae, near Miletus ; the Eumolpids, at Athens and Kleusis; the Tel- DIVINATIO. 138 UIVINATIO. liads, the Acamanian seers, and others. Along with the seers we may also mention the Ba- cides and the Sibyllae. Both existed from a very remote time, and were distinct from the manteis so far as they pretended to derive their knowledge of the future from sacred books (xpjr)/u.etTe and eiK^Tj/ai'a, or triyare, s, or a7ro7reV>/'e(os, would be instituted, as the case might be, by the party opposed to the separation. A separation, however, whe- ther it originated from the husband or the wife, was considered to reflect discredit on the latter. (2) ROMAN. Divorce always existed in the Roman polity. As one essential part of a marriage was the consent and con- jugal affection of the parties, it was consi- dered that this affection was necessary to its continuance, and accordingly either party might declare his or her intention to dissolve the connection. No judicial decree, and no interference of any public authority, was requisite to dissolve a marriage. The first instance of divorce at Rome is said to have occurred about B. c. 234, when Sp. Carvilius Ruga put away his wife, on the ground of barrenness : it is added, that his conduct was generally condemned. Towards the latter part of the republic, and under the empire, divorces became very common. Pompey di- vorced his wife Mucia for alleged adultery ; and Cicero divorced his wife Terentia, after living with her thirty years, and married a young woman. Cato the younger divorced his wife Marcia, that his friend Hortensius might marry her, and have children by her ; for this is the true meaning of the story that he lent his wife to Hortensius. If a husband divorced his wife, the wife's dowry, as a general rule, was restored ; and the same was the case when the divorce took place by mutual consent. Corresponding to the forms of marriage by confarreatio and cocmtio, there were the forms of divorce by dijjfarreatio and remancipatio. In course of time, less ceremony was used ; but etill some distinct notice or declaration of intention was necessary to constitute a divorce. The term repudium, it is said, properly applies to a marriage only contracted, and divortium to an actual marriage ; but sometimes divortium and repudium appear to be used indifferently. The phrases to express a divorce are, ntai- tium remittere, divortium facerc ; and the form of words might be as follows Tuas res tibi liabcto, tuas res tibi agito. The phrases used to express the. renunciation of a mar- riage contract were, renuntiare repudium, re- pudium remittere, dicere, and repudiare ; and the form of words might be, Conditione tua non titor. DOCANA (TO. Soxava, from Soicds, a beam) was an ancient symbolical representation of the Dioscuri (Castor and Pollux), at Sparta. It consisted of two upright beams with others laid across them transversely. DOCIMASIA (fioKtjxao-i'a). When any citi- zen of Athens was either appointed by lot, or chosen by suffrage, to hold a public office, he was obliged, before entering on its duties, to submit to a docimasia, or scrutiny into his previous life and conduct, in which any per- son could object to him as unfit. The doci- masia, however, was not confined to persons appointed to public offices ; for we read of the denouncement of a scrutiny against ora- tors who spoke in the assembly while leading profligate lives, or after having committed flagitious crimes. DODRANS. [As.] DOLABRA, dim. DOLABELLA (cf-^n, dim. o-fuA.i'oi'), a chisel, a celt, was used for a variety of purposes in ancient as in modern times. Oeltes is an old Latin word for a chisel, probably derived from coelo, to en- grave. Celts, or chisels, were frequently employed in making entrenchments and in destroying fortifications ; and hence they are often found in ancient earth-works and en- campments. They are for the most part of bronze, more rarely of hard stone. The sizes and forms which they present, are as various .DOLIUM. 140 DOMUS. as the uses to which they were applied. The annexed woodcut is designed to show a few of the most remarkable varieties. DOLlUM, a cylindrical vessel, somewhat resembling our tubs or casks, into which new wine was put to let it ferment. Dolabrae, Celts. (From different CoUectK l Great Britain.) DOLO (SoAMv). (1) A secret poniard or dagger contained in a case, used by the Italians. It was inserted in the handles of whips, and also in walking sticks, thus cor- responding to our sword-stick. (2) A small top-sail. DOMINIUM signifies quiritarian owner- ship, or property in a thing ; and domlnus, or dominiis Icgitimus, is the owner. The dominus has the power of dealing with a thing as he pleases, and differs from the bare possessor, who has only the right of posses- sion, and has not the absolute ownership of the thing. DOMUS (otKos), a house. (1) GREEK. A Greek house was always divided into two distinct portions, the Andronitis, or men's apartments (foipmAnt), and the Gynacconitis, or women's apartments (ywaiKiaviTis'). In the earliest times, as in the houses referred to b}' Homer, and in some houses at a later period, the women's apartments were in the upper story (vn-epwoi'), but usually at a later time the gynaeconitis was on the same story with the andronitis, and behind it. The front of the house towards the street was not large, as the apartments extended rather in the direction of its depth than of its width. In towns the houses were often built side by side, with party-walls between. The exterior wall was plain, being composed generally of stone, brick, and timber, and often covered with stucco. There was no open space be- tween the street and the house-door, like the lloman vestibulum. The vpoBvpa, which is sometimes mentioned, seems to be merely the space in front of the house, where there was generally an altar of Apollo Agyieus, or a rude obelisk emblematical of the god. Sometimes there was a laurel tree in the same position, and sometimes a head of the god Hermes. A few steps led up to the house-door, which generally bore some inscription, for the sake of a good omen, or as a charm. The door sometimes opened outwards ; but this seems to have been an exception to the general rule, as is proved by the expressions used for opening, evSovvai, and shutting it, eme\Kviopeiov, 7rvA, Ovpiav), on one side of which, in a large house, were the stables, on the other the porter's lodge. The duty of the porter (flupwpos) was to admit visitors and to prevent anything improper from being carried into or out of the house. The porter was attended by a dog. Hence the phrase evAajSeio-Scu TTJV Kvva, corresponding to the Latin Cave canem. From the Qvpiapelov we pass into the peristyle or court (irpi, avA>j) of the andronitis, which was a space open to the sky in the centre (vwaiffpov), and surrounded on all four sides by porticoes (<7Toai), of which one, probably that nearest the entrance, was called irpoo-roov. These por- ticoes were used for exercise, and sometimes for dining in. Here was commonly the altar on which sacrifices were offered to the house- hold gods. In building the porticoes the object sought was to obtain as much sun in winter, and as much shade and air in sum- mer as possible. Round the peristyle were arranged the chambers used by the men, such as banqueting rooms (olxot, ayfipwi/es), which were large enough to contain several sets of couches (rpiKAiroi, eirTcueAu'Oi, TpiaKOi/Ta/cAii/oi), and at the same time to allow abundant room for attendants, musicians, and performers of games ; parlours or sitting rooms (e|'5poi), and smaller chambers and sleeping rooms (Swjucma, Komoyej, oiKij/aara) ; picture - gal- 501- DOMUS. 141 DOMUS. leries and libraries, and sometimes store- rooms ; and in the arrangement of these apartments attention was paid to their aspect. The peristyle of the andronitis was connected with that of the gynaeconitis by a door called fte'rauAos, (xe'oauAos, or fieo-ai'Aios, which was in the middle of the portico of the peristyle opposite to the entrance. By means of this door all communication between the andro- nitis and gynaeconitis could be shut off. Accordingly Xenophon calls it Ovpa paKavtaras. Its name iJ.eo-av\os is evidently derived from /^e'o-os, and means the door between the two auAai or peristyles. This door gave admit- tance to the peristyle of the gynaeconitis, which differed from that of the andronitis in having porticoes round only three of its sides. On the fourth side were placed two antae [ANTAE], at a considerable distance from each other. A third of the distance between these antae was set off inwards, thus forming a chamber or vestibule, which was called n-poo-- ras, irapao-Tas, and Trpdopo/nos. On the right K J, [ X. 1P Ground-plan of a Greek House. L, House-door, avAetos Ovpa : Ovp, passage, Ovpta- pflov or Ovpiav : A, peristyle, or iOd\aij.os, of which the former was the principal bed-chamber of the house, and here also seem to have been kept the vases, and other valuable articles of ornament. Beyond these rooms were large apartments (Jorives) used for working in wool. Round the peristyle were the eating- rooms, bed-chambers, store-rooms, and other apartments in common use. Besides the auAeios Ovpa and the jue'o-avAos Ovpa, there was a third door (mjirota Ovpa) leading to the garden. The preceding is a conjectural plan of the ground-floor of a Greek house of the larger size. There was usually, though not always, an upper story (uirep^ov, Siijpes), which seldom extended over the whole space occupied by the lowei story. The principal use of the upper story was for the lodging of the slaves. The access to the upper floor seems to have been sometimes by stairs on the outside of the house, leading up from the street. Guests were also lodged in the upper story. But in some large houses there were rooms set apart for their recep- tion (f evwves) on the ground-floor. The roofs were generally flat, and it was customary to walk about upon them. In the interior of the house the place of doors was sometimes supplied by curtains (iropaweTaff/iara), which were either plain, or dyed, or embroidered. The principal openings for the admission of light and air were in the roofs of the peri- styles ; but it is incorrect to suppose that the houses had no windows (Svpt'Ses), or at least none overlooking the street. They were not at all uncommon. Artificial warmth was procured partly by means of fire-places. It is supposed that chimneys were altogether unknown, and that the smoke escaped through an opening in the roof (/cairroooicT)), but it is not easy to understand how this could be the case when there was an upper story. Little portable stoves (tCfio>ji.a, which pro- perly signifies a law proposed to an assem- bly, and approved of by the people. "Re- specting the form for drawing up a ^nj^urfia, see BOULE. When the business was over. L 2 ECCLETI. 148 EISPHORA. the order for the dismissal of the assembly was given by the prytanes, through the pro- clamation of the crier ; and as it was not cus- tomary to continue meetings, which usually began early in the morning, till after sunset, if one day were not sufficient for the com- pletion of any business, it was adjourned to the next. But an assembly was sometimes broken up, if any one, whether a magistrate or private individual, declared that he saw an unfavourabje omen, or perceived thunder and lightning. The sudden appearance of rain also, or the shock of an earthquake, or any natural phenomenon of the kind called 6to<7T)/iu, was a sufficient reason for the hasty adjournment of an assembly. ECCLETI. [HOMOEI.] ECDICUS (IfcSiKo?), the name of an officer in many of the towns of Asia Minor during the Roman dominion, whose principal duty was the care of the public money, and the prosecution of all parties who owed money to the state. ECMARTYRIA (uopTvpta), signifies the deposition of a witness at Athens, who, by reason of absence abroad, or illness, was unable to attend in court. His statement was taken down in writing, in the presence of persons expressly appointed to receive it, and afterwards, upon their swearing to its identity, was read as evidence in the cause. EDICTUM. The Jus Edicendi, or power of making edicts, belonged to the higher magis- tratus populi Romani, but it was principally exercised by the two praetors, the praetor urbanus, and the praetor peregrinus, whose jurisdiction was exercised in the provinces by the praescs. The curule aediles likewise made many edicts ; and tribunes, censors, and pontifices also promulgated edicts relating to the matters of their respective jurisdic- tions. The edicta were among the sources of Roman law. The edictum may be de- scribed generally as a rule promulgated by a magistratus on entering on his office, which was done by writing it on an album and exhibiting it in a conspicuous place. As the office of a magistratus was annual, the rules promulgated by a predecessor were not bind- ing on a successor, but he might confirm or adopt the rules of his predecessor, and intro- duce them into his own edict, and hence such adopted rules were called edictum rala- titium, or vetus, as opposed to edictum nocnm. A repentinum edictum was that rule which was made (prout res incidit) for the occasion. A perpetuum edictum was that rule which was made by the magistratus on entering upon office, and which was intended to apply to all cases to which it was applicable during the year of his office : hence it was sometimes called also annua lex. Until it became the practice for magistratus to adopt the edicta of their predecessors, the edicta could not form a body of permanent binding rules ; but when this practice became common, the edicta (edictum tralatitium] soon constituted a large body of law, which was practically of as much impc rtance as any other part of the law. EICOSTE (el/coo-nj), a tax or duty of one- twentieth (five per cent.) upon all commo- dities exported or imported by sea in the states of the allies subject to Athens. This tax was first imposed B. c. 413, in the place of the direct tribute which had up to this time been paid by the subject allies ; and the change was made with the hope of raising a greater revenue. This tax, like all others, was farmed, and the farmers of it were called ei(cocrroAdyoi. EIREN or IREN (eiprji/ or ip^y), the name given to the Spartan youth when he attained the age of twenty. At the age of eighteen he emerged from childhood, and was called fteAAfi'pT)!/. When he had attained his twen- tieth year, he began to exercise a direct in- fluence over his juniors, and was entrusted with the command of troops in battle. The word appears to have originally signified a commander. The ipeVe? mentioned in Hero- dotus, in connection with the battle of Pla- taeae, were certainly not youths, but com- manders. EISANGELIA (ela. afitK^/aara), the result of which omis- sion would have been, but for the enactment by which the accusations in question might be preferred (vo/aos eitrayyeAriKos), that a pro- secutor would not have known to what ma- gistrate to apply; that a magistrate, if applied to, could not with safety have ac- cepted the indictment or brought it into court ; and that, in short, there would have been a total failure of justice. EISITERIA (eio-mjpta, sell, iepd), sacrifices offered at Athens by the senate before the session began, in honour of the eol BovAcuoi, i. e. Zeus and Athena. EISPHORA (eiopa), an extraordinary tax on property, raised at Athens, whenever the means of the state were not sufficient to EISPHORA. 149 ELEUSINIA. carry on a -war. It is not quite certain when this property-tax was introduced ; but it seems to have come first into general use about B.C. 428. It could never be raised without a decree of the people, who also assigned the amount required ; and the stra- teyi, or generals, superintended its collection, and presided in the courts where disputes connected with, or arising from, the levying of the tax were settled. The usual expres- sions for paying this property-tax are : eia^e'petp ei? rov noffjiov, pfiv, and those who paid it were called oi eicn/xi'porres. The census of Solon was at first the standard according to which the eisphora was raised, until in B. c. 377 a new census was instituted, in which the people, for the purpose of fixing the rates of the pro- perty-tax, were divided into a number of symmoriae ( kafjurdStav rnj.epa), the mystae, led by the Sa&ovxos, went in the even ing with torches to the temple of Demeter at Eleusis, where they seem to have remained during the following night. This rite was probably a symbolical representation of De- meter wandering about in search of Perse- phoTie. The sixth day, called lacehos, was the most solemn of all. The statue of lacchos, son of Demeter, adorned with a garland of myi tie and bearing a torch in his hand, was can ked along the sacred road amidst joyous shouts and songs, from the Cerameicus to Eleusis. This solemn procession was accom- panied by great numbers of followers and spectators. During the night from the sixth to the seventh day the mystae remained at Eleusis, and were initiated into the last mys- teries (en-on-reia). Those who were neither eiroTjrai. nor fiiiarac. were sent away by a he) aid. The mystae now repeated the oath of secresy which had been administered to them at the lesser Eleusinia, underwent a new purification, and then they were led by the mystagogus in the darkness of night into the lighted interior of the sanctuary (4" ara - yiayia"), and were allowed to see (auroi/d'o) what none except the epoptae ever beheld. The awful and horrible manner in which the initiation is described by later, especially Christian writers, seems partly to proceed from their ignorance of its real character, partly from their horror of and aversion to these pagan rites. The more ancient writers always abstained from entering upon any description of the subject. Each individual, after his initiation, is said to have been dis- missed by the words *6yf, O/J.TTO^, in order to make room for other mystae. On the se- venth day the initiated returned to Athens amid various kinds of raillery and jests, es- pecially at the bridge over the Cepbisus, ELEUSINIA. 151 EMBATEIA. where they sat down to rest, and poured forth their ridicule on those who passed by. Hence the words yevpieiv and yffrvpionos. These cncoin/u.aTa seem, like the procession with torches to Eleusis, to have been dra- matical and symbolical representations of the jests by which, according to the ancient legend, lambe or Baubo had dispelled the grief of the goddess and made her smile. We may here observe, that probably the whole history of Demeter and Persephone was in some way or other symbolically represented at the Eleusinia. The eighth day, called Epidauria ('ETuSaupta), was a kind of addi- tional day for those who by some accident had come too late, or had been prevented from being initiated on the sixth day. It was said to have been added to the original number of days, when Asclepius, coming over from Epidaurus to be initiated, arrived too late, and the Athenians, not to disappoint the god, added an eighth day. The ninth and last day bore the name of n&pioxoo^ from a peculiar kind of vessel called irAij- /oK>xorj, which is described as a small kind of KoTvA.05. Two of these vessels were on this day filled with water or wine, and the con- tents of the one thrown to the east, and those of the other to the west, while those who performed this rite uttered some mystical words. The Eleusinian mysteries long sur- vived the independence of Greece. Attempts to suppress them were made by the emperor Valentinian, but he met with strong opposi- tion, and they seem to have continued down to the time of the elder Theodosius. Respect- ing the secret doctrines which were revealed in them to the initiated, nothing certain is known. The general belief of the ancients was, that they opened to man a comforting prospect of a future state. But this feature does not seem to have been originally con- nected with these mysteries, and was pro- bably added to them at the period which fol- lowed the opening of a regular intercourse between Greece and Egypt, when some of the speculative doctrines of the latter country, and of the East, may have been introduced into the mysteries, and hallowed by the names of the venerahle bards of the mythical age. This supposition would also account, in some measure, for the legend of their intro- duction from Egypt. In modern times many attempts have been made to discover the nature of the mysteries revealed to the ini- tiated, but the results have heen as various and as fanciful as might be expected. The most sober and probable view is that, accord- ing to which, " they were the remains of a worship which preceded the rise of the Hel- lenic mythology and Us attendant liles, grounded on a view of nature, less fanciful, more earnest, and better fitted to awaken both philosophical thought and religious feeling." ELEUTHERIA (etevOepia), the feast of liberty, a festival which the Greeks, after the battle of Plataeae (479 B. c.}, instituted in honour of Zeus Eleutherios (the deliverer). It was intended not merely to be a token of their gratitude to the god to whom they be- lieved themselves to be indebted for their victory over the barbarians, but also as a bond of union among themselves ; for, in an assembly of all the Greeks, Aristeides carried ii decree that delegates (Trpo/SouAot KO.L SeiapoC) from all the Greek states should assemble every year at Plataeae for the celebration of the Eleutheria. The town itself was at the same time declared sacred and inviolable, as long as its citizens offered the annual sacri- fices which were then instituted on behalf of Greece. Every fifth year these solemnities were celebrated with contests, in which the victors were rewarded with chaplets. ELLOTIA or HELLOTIA (eAAuria or eAAama), a festival with a torch race cele- brated at Corinth in honour of Athena as a goddess of fire. EMANCIPATIO, was an act by which the patria potestas was dissolved in the lifetime of the parent, and it was so called because it was in the form of a sale (mancipatio}. By the laws of the Twelve Tables it was neces- sary that a son should be sold three times in order to be released from the paternal power, or to be sui juris. In the case of daughters and grandchildren, one sale was sufficient. The father transferred the son by the form of a sale to another person, who manumitted him, upon which he returned into the power of the father. This was repeated, and with the like result. After a third sale, the pa- ternal power was extinguished, but the son was re-sold to the parent, who then manu- mitted him, and so acquired the rights of a patron over his emancipated son, which would otherwise have belonged to the purchaser who gave him his final manumission. EMBAS (eV/3as), a shoe worn by men, and which appears to have been the most common kind of shoe worn at Athens. Pollux says that it was invented by the Thracians, and that it was like the low cothurnus. The em- bas was also worn by the Boeotians, and pro- bably in other parts of Greece. EMBATEIA (e^jSaTeia). In Attic law this word (like the corresponding English one, entry), was used to denote a formal taking possession of real property. Thus, when a son entered upon the land left him by his father, he was said f^arevetv EMBLEMA. 152 ENTASIS. ro irorpwa, and thereupon he became seised, or possessed of his inheritance. If any one disturbed him in the enjoyment of this pro- perty, with an intention to dispute the title, he might maintain an action of ejectment, eovAr;s 8uo). Before entry he could not maintain such action. EMBLEMA (e/ii/SAjj/na, ep-Traio-jJUi), an inlaid ornament. The art of inlaying was em- ployed in producing beautiful works of two descriptions, viz. ; 1st, those which resem- bled our marquetry, buhl, and Florentine mosaics ; and 2dly, those in which crusts (cmstae], exquisitely wrought in bas-relief and of precious materials, were fastened upon the surface of vessels or other pieces of fur- niture. To the latter class of productions belonged the cups and plates which Verres obtained by violence from the Sicilians, and from which he removed the emblems for the purpose of having them set in gold instead of silver.^ EMERITI, the name given to those Roman soldiers who had served out their time, and had exemption (vacatio] from military ser- vice. The usual time of service was twenty years for the legionary soldiers, and sixteen for the praetorians. At the end of their period of service they received a bounty or reward (emeritum), either in lands or money, or in both. EMISSARIUM (vTrot'ojios), a channel, natural or artificial, by which an outlet is formed to carry off any stagnant body of water. Such channels may be either open or underground ; but the most remarkable works of the kind are of the latter description, as they carry off the waters of lakes surround- ed by hills. In Greece, the most striking example is presented by the subterraneous channels which carry off the waters of the lake Copais in Boeotia, which were partly natural and partly artificial. Some works of this kind are among the most remarkable efforts of Roman ingenuity. Remains still exist to show that the lakes Trasimene, Al- bano, Nemi, and Fucino, were all drained by means of cmissaria, the last of which is still nearly perfect, and open to inspection, having been partially cleared by the present king of Naples. Julius Caesar is said to have first conceived the idea of this stupendous under- taking, which was carried into effect by the Emperor Claudius. EMMENI DIKAE (Wijvoi SiW), suits in the Athenian courts, which were not allowed to be pending above a month. TMs regula- tion was confined to those subjects which re- quired a speedy decision ; and of these the most important were disputes respecting commerce (qun-opiicai SUai). All causes re- lating to mines GieroAAtKal fiucai) were also cju/u.i)i/ot SIKHI, as well as those relating to epavot. _ [ERANI.] EMPORIUM (TO ejuiroptof), a place for wholesale trade in commodities carried by sea. The name is sometimes applied to a sea-port town, but it properly signifies only a particular place in such a town. The word is derived from e>i7ropo?, which signifies m Homer a person who sails as a passenger in a ship belonging to another person ; but in later writers it signifies the merchant or wholesale dealer, and differs from KomjAov, the retail dealer. The emporium at Athens was under the inspection of certain officers, who were elected annually (en-ifieAr)rai rov efiTTOplOv). ENCAUSTICA. [PICTUBA.] ENCTESIS (fyKTvjcns), the right of possess- ing landed property and houses (eyKnjo-is yi?s Kal oJia'as) in a foreign country, which was frequently granted by one Greek state to another, or to separate individuals of another state. 'EyKTTjuaTa were such possessions in a foreign country, or in a different Srjjuos from that to which an Athenian belonged by birth. ENDEIXIS (eVSeifis), properly denotes a prosecution instituted against such persons as were alleged to have exercised rights or held offices while labouring under a peculiar disqualification. The same form of action was available against the chairman of the proedri (e7rt)s), who wrongly refused to take the votes of the people in the assembly ; against malefactors, especially murderers ; traitors, ambassadors accused of malversa- tion, and persons who furnished supplies to the enemy during war. The first step taken by the prosecutor was to lay his infoi-mation in writing, also called eniicixis, before the proper magistrate, who then arrested, or held to bail, the person criminated, and took the usual steps for bringing him to trial. There is great obscurity with respect to the punish- ment which followed condemnation. The accuser, if unsuccessful, was responsible for bringing a malicious charge (i//ev6oi M*tM ENDROMIS (ei/Spojuw), a thick, coarse blanket, manufactured in Gaul, and called " endromis " because those who had been exercising in the stadium (ev Spo^ta") threw it over them to obviate the effects of sudden exposure when they were heated. Notwith- standing its coarse and shaggy appearance, it was worn on other occasions as a protec- tion from the cold by rich and fashionable persons at Rome. ENSIS. [GLADitis.] ENTASIS (eVrao-t?). The most ancient columns now existing, diminish immediately EPAXGELIA. 153 EPHETAE. and regularly from the base to the neck, so that the edge forms a straight line a mode of construction which is wanting in grace and apparent solidity. To correct this, a swelling outline, called entasis, was given to the shaft, which seems to have been the first step towards combining grace and grandeur in the Doric column. EPANGELIA (en-ayyeAia). If a citizen of Athens had incurred atimia, the privilege of taking part or speaking in the public assem- bly was forfeited. But as it sometimes might happen that a person, though not formally declared atinuis, had committed such crimes as would, on accusation, draw upon him this punishment, it was of course desirable that such individuals, like real atimi, should be excluded from the exercise of the rights of citizens. Whenever, therefore, such a per- son ventured to speak in the assembly, any Athenian citizen had the right to come for- ward in the assembly itself and demand of him to establish his right to speak by a trial or examination of his conduct (So/ci^ao-ia TOV /3i'ov), and this demand, denouncement, or threat, was called epangelia, or epangelia docimasias (en-ayyeA.i'a Soxijaacrtas). The im- peached individual was then compelled to desist from speaking, and to submit to a scrutiny into his conduct, and, if he was convicted, a formal declaration of atimia fol- lowed. EPARITI (eiropiToc), the name of the standing army in Arcadia, which was formed to preserve the independence of the Arcadian towns, when they became united as one state after the defeat of the Spartans at Leuclra. They were 5000 in number, and were paid by the state. EPHEBUS 0"Tjyrjo-is), denotes the me- thod of proceeding against such criminals as were liable to be summarily arrested by a private citizen [APAGOGE] when the prose- cutor was unwilling to expose himself to personal risk in apprehending the offender. Under these circumstances he made an appli- cation to the proper magistrate, and con- ducted him and his officers to the spot where the capture was to be effected. EPHETAE (eopoi). Magistrates called Ephori or overseers were common to many Dorian constitutions in times of remote anti- quity ; but the Ephori of Sparta are the most celebrated of them all. The origin of the Spartan ephori is quite uncertain, but their office in the historical times was a kind of counterpoise to the kings and council, and in that respect peculiar to Sparta alone of the Dorian states. Their number, five, appears to have been always the same, and was pro- bably connected with the five divisions of the town of Sparta, namely, the four KUJUOI, Lim- nae, Mesoa, Pitana, Cynosura, and the ndAis or city properly so called, around which the KW/U.CU lay. They were elected from and by the people, without any qualification of age or property, and without undergoing any scrutiny ; so that the people enjoyed through them a participation in the highest magis- tracy of the state. They entered upon office at the autumnal solstice, and the first in rank of the five gave his name to the year, which was called after him in all civil transactions. They possessed judicial authority in civil suits, and also a general superintendence over the morals and domestic economy of the nation, which in the hands of able men would soon prove an instrument of unlimited power. Their jurisdiction and power were still fur- ther increased by the privilege of Instituting scrutinies (evflvi/ai) into the conduct of all the magistrates. Even the kings themselves could be brought before their tribunal (as Cleomenes was for bribery). In extreme cases, the ephors were also competent to lay an accusation against the kings as well as the other magistrates, and bring them to a capi- tal trial before the great court of justice. In later times the power of the ephors was greatly increased ; and this increase appears to have been principally owing to the fact, that they put themselves in connection with the assembly of the people, convened its meetings, laid measures before it, and were constituted its agents and representatives. When this connection arose is matter of con- jecture. The power which such a connection gave would, more than anything else, enable them to encroach on the royal authority, and make themselves virtually supreme in the state. Accordingly, we find that they trans- acted business with foreign ambassadors ; dismissed them from the state ; decided upon the government of dependent cities; sub- scribed in the presence of other persons to treaties of peace ; and in time of war sent out troops when they thought necessary. In all these capacities the ephors acted as the representatives of the nation, and the agenis of the public assembly, being in fact the ex- ecutive of the state. In course of time the kings became completely under their control. For example, they fined Agesilaus on the vague charge of trying to make himself popu- lar, and interfered even with the domestic arrangements of other kings. In the field the kings were followed by two ephors, who belonged to the council of war ; the three who remained at home received the -booty in charge, and paid it into the treasury, which was under the superintendence of the whole College of Five. But the ephors had still another prerogative, based on a religious foundation, which enabled them to effect a temporary deposition of the kings. Once in eight years, as we are told, they chose a calm and cloudless night to observe the heavens, and if there was any appearance of a falling meteor, it was believed to be a sign that the gods were displeased with the kings, who were accordingly suspended from their func- tions until an oracle allowed of their restora- tion. The outward symbols of supreme authority also were assumed by the ephors ; and they alone kept their seats while the kings passed ; whereas it was not considered below the dignity of the kings to rise in honour of the ephors. When Agis and Cleo- menes undertook to restore the old constitu- tion, it was necessary for them to overthrow EPIBATAE. 155 EPITROPUS. the ephoralty, and accordingly Cleomenes murdered the ephors for the time being, and abolished the office (B. c. 225) ; it was, how- ever, restored under the Romans. EPIBATAE (en-i/Sarai), were soldiers or marines appointed to defend the vessels in the Athenian navy, and were entirely distinct from the rowers, and also from the land sol- diers, such as hoplitae, peltasts, and cavalry. It appears that the ordinary number of epi- batae on board a trireme was ten. The epi- batae were usually taken from the thetes, or fourth class of Athenian citizens. The term is sometimes also applied by the Roman writers to the marines, but they are more usually called classiarii milites. The latter term, however, is also applied to the rowers or sailors as well as the marines. EPIBOLE (en-i/SoAr)), a fine imposed by a magistrate, or other official person or body, for a misdemeanour. The various magistrates at Athens had (each in his own department) a summary penal jurisdiction ; i. e. for certain offences they might inflict a pecuniary mulct or fine, not exceeding a fixed amount ; if the offender deserved further punishment, it was their duty to bring him before a judicial tri- bunal. These epibolae are to be distinguished from the penalties awarded by a jury or court of law (Tiju-ij/iora.) upon a formal prose- cution. EPICLERL'S (eTrixXjjpos, heiress), the name given to the daughter of an Athenian citizen, who had no son to inherit his estate. It was deemed an object of importance at Athens to preserve the family name and property of every citizen. This was effected, where a man had no child, by adoption (eicnroojaTs) ; if he had a daughter, the inheritance was transmitted through her to a grandson, who would take the name of the maternal ances- tor. If the father died intestate, the heiress had not the choice of a husband, but was bound to marry her nearest relation, not in the ascending line. When there was but one daughter, she was called ejri'icAijpos CTTI iravri r. If there were more, they inherited equally, like our co-parceners ; and were se- verally married to relatives, the nearest hav- ing the first choice. EPIDOSEIS (en-iSdo-cit), voluntary contri- butions, either in money, arms, or ships, which were made by the Athenian citizens in order to meet the extraordinary demands of the state. When the expenses of the state were greater than its revenue, it was usual for the prytaneis to summon an assembly of the people, and after explaining the neces- sities of the state, to call upon the citizens to contribute according to their means. Those who were willing to contiibute then rose and mentioned what they would give; while those who were unwilling to give any thing remained silent, or retired privately from the assembly. EPIMELETAE (eirijieAijrai'), the names of various magistrates and functionaries at Athens. ( 1 ) 'En-i/xeAiyrijs TTJS KOI^S Trpo veupuuv, the inspectors of the dockyards, were ten in number. (6) 'Em/ueArTTa.! ruv ^uAan/, the inspectors of the ) appears to have had a similar meaning ; but the ordinary use of the word is for a larger arid more public place of resort than the efe'Spa. [LESCHE.] Among the Romans the word had a wider meaning, answering to both the Greek terms, efe'Spa and AeVxi)- EXEGETAE (efjn") T< ", interpreters) is the name of the Eumolpidae, by which they were designated as the interpreters of the laws relating to religion and of the sacred rites. [EUMOLPIDAE.] The name efjryjTTJs was also applied to those persons who served as guides (ciceroni) to the visitors in the most remark- able towns and places of Greece. EXERCITORIA ACTIO, an action granted by the edict against the exereitor navis. By the term navis was understood any vessel, whether used for the navigation of rivers, lakes, or the sea. The exereitor navis is the person to whom all the ship's gains and earn- ings (pbventitmts et reditus) belong, whether he is the owner, or has hired the ship (per aversionem) from the owner for a time defi- nite or indefinite. EXERCITUS (orpaTos), army. ( 1 ) GREEK. 1. Spartan Army. In all the states of Greece, in the earliest as in later times, the general type of their military organisation was the phalanx, a body of troops in close array with a long spear as their principal weapon. It was among the Dorians, and especially among the Spartans, that this type was most rigidly adhered to. The strength EXERCITUS. 161 EXERCITUS. of their military array consisted in the heavy- armed infantry (oTrAtrat). They attached comparatively small importance to their cavalry, which was always inferior. Indeed, the Thessalians and Boeotians were the only Greek people who distinguished themselves much for their cavalry ; scarcely any other states had territories adapted for the evolu- tions of cavalry. The whole life of a Spartan was little else than either the preparation for or the practice o* var. The result was, that in the strictness of their discipline, the pre- cision and facility with which they performed their military evolutions, and the skill and power with which they used their weapons, the Spartans were unrivalled among the Greeks. The heavy-armed infantry of the Spartan armies was composed pr.rtly of genuine Spartan citizens, partly of Perioeci. Every Spartan citizen was liable to military service (e^poupos) from the age of twenty to the age of sixty years. They were divided into six divisions called AW>P<, under the command or superintendence of a polemarch, each mora being subdivided into four Ad^ot (commanded by Aoxayoi), each Ao^os into two irei/T>)7r3rapfiouA>j) formed a separate body in the army, also called a tribe, and these bodies stood in some preconcerted order. It seems that the name of one division was rafts, and of another Aoxos, but in what relations these stood to the <#>vArj, and to each other, we do not learn. Every hoplite was accompanied by an at- tendant (umjpenjs) to take charge of his bag- gage, and carry his shield on a march. Each horseman also had a servant, called i7r7roicop.os, to attend to his horse. For the command of the army, there were chosen every year ten generals [STOATEGI], and ten taxiarchs [TAXIARCHI], and for the cavalry, two hipparchs (imrapxoi) and ten phylarchs (ericles. The pay consisted partly of wages (/ouerflos), partly of provisions, or, more commonly, provision-money ((rmipecrioi'). The ordinary fuotfos of a hoplite was two obols a day- The mmipeiriov amounted to two obols more. Hence, the life of a soldier was called, proverbially, rerpHSoAov /Si'os. Officers received twice as much ; horsemen, three times ; generals, four times as much. The horsemen received pay even in time of peace, that they might always be in readiness, and also a sum of money for their outfit (iKpa- ri'Ses. This equipment proved very effective. The almost total destruction of a mora of Lacedaemonian heavy-armed troops by a body of peltastae under the command of Iphicrates was an exploit that became very famous. When the use of mercenary troops became general, Athenian citizens seldom served ex- cept as volunteers, and then in but small numbers. The employment of mercenaries led to considerable alterations in the military system of Greece. War came to be studied as an art, and Greek generals, rising above the old simple rules of warfare, became tac- ticians. Epaminondas was the first who adopted the method of charging in column, concentrating his attack upon one point of the hostile line, so as to throw the whole into confusion by breaking through it. 3. Macedonian Army. Philip, king of Macedonia, made several improvements in the arms and arrangement of the phalanx. The spear (aupurcra or )) of 1600 each, arranged 50 broad and 32 deep. The phalanx, of course, be- came all but useless, if its ranks were broken. It required, therefore, level and open ground, so that its operations were restricted to very narrow limits ; and being incapable of rapid movement, it became almost helpless in the face of an active enemy, unless accompanied by a sufficient number of cavalry and light troops. The light armed troops were arranged in files (Aoxoi) eight deep. Four lochi formed a - raJeuO. was obliged by law to obey the sum- mons, unless he could establish by oath that he was unacquainted with the case in ques- tion. This oath was called tfcofioo-i'a, and the act of taking it was expressed by e^ofiwo^ai. A person appointed to a public office was at liberty to decline it, if he could take an oath that the state of his health or other circum- stances rendered it impossible for him to fulfil the duties connected with it (efofurjoflai TTJV apx7)"> or T *l 1 ' X el P OTOI " aj ') an( ^ this oath was likewise called ifrnovia, or sometimes a7T(OjU.O<7lvyij), banishment. (1) GREEK. Banishment among the Greek states sel- dom, if ever, appears as a punishment ap- pointed by law for particular offences. We might, indeed, expect this, for the division of Greece into a number of independent states would neither admit of the establishment of penal colonies, as among us, nor of the va- rious kinds of exile which we read of under the Roman emperors. The general term yij (flight) was for the most part applied in the case of those who, in order to avoid some punishment or danger, removed from their own country to another. At Athens it took place chiefly in cases of homicide, or murder. An action for wilful murder was brought before the Areiopagus, and for man- slaughter before the court of the Ephetae. The accused might, in either case, withdraw himself ($euyeii') before sentence was passed ; but when a criminal evaded the punishment to which an act of murder would have ex- posed him had he remained in his own land, he was then banished for ever (evyei afi.(jivyia.v), and not allowed to return home even when other exiles were restored upon a general amnesty. Demosthenes says, that the word e ^yeiv was properly applied to the exile of those who committed murder with malice aforethought, whereas the term jteCi- oratrftu was used where the act was not in- tentional. The property also was confiscated in the former case, but not in the latter. "When a verdict of manslaughter was re- turned, it was usual for the convicted party to leave his country by a certain road, and to remain in exile till he induced some one of the relatives of the slain man to take com- passion on him. We are not informed what were the consequences if the relatives of the slain man refused to make a reconciliation ; supposing that there was no compulsion, it is reasonable to conclude that the exile was allowed to return after a fixed time. Plato, who is believed to have copied many of his laws from the constitution of Athens, fixes the period of banishment for manslaughter at one year. Under vyy t or banishment, as a general term, is comprehended Ostracism (otr- TpauAAo- opia, from the votes being given by leaves. Besides those exiled by law, or ostracised, there was frequently a great number of po- litical exiles in Greece ; men who, having distinguished themselves as the leaders of one party, were expelled, or obliged to re- EXSILIUM 173 FALX. move from their native city, when the oppo- site faction became predominant. They are spoken of as oi evyovrfs or oi eKTreeroVre?, and as oi KaTeA06VT5 after their return (i KaOoSos) the word Kara-yew being applied to those who were instrumental in effecting it. (2) RO- MAN. Banishment as a punishment did not exist in the old Roman state. The aquae et ignis interdict io, which we so frequently read of in the republican period, was in reality not banishment, for it was only a ban, pro- nounced by the people (by a lex), or by a magistrate in a criminal court, by which a person was deprived of water and of fire ; that is, of the first necessaries of life ; and its effect was to incapacitate a person from exercising the rights of a citizen ; in other words, to deprive him of his citizenship. Such a person might, if he chose, remain at Rome, and submit to the penalty of being an outcast, incapacitated from doing any legal act, and liable to be killed by any one with impunity. To avoid these dangers, a person suffering under such an interdict would na- turally withdraw from Rome, and in the earlier republican period, if he withdrew to a state between which and Rome isopolitical relations existed, he would become a citizen of that state. This right was called jus exsulandi with reference to the state to which the person came ; with respect to his own state, which he left, he was exsul, and his condition was exsilium ; and with respect to the state which he entered, he was inquili- nus.* In the same way a citizen of such a state had a right of going into exsilium at Rome ; and at Rome he might attach himself (applicare se) to a quasi-patronus. Exsilium, instead of being a punishment, would thus rather be a mode of evading punishment ; but towards the end of the republic the aquae et ignis interdictio became a regular banishment, since the sentence usually speci- fied certain limits, within which a person was interdicted from fire and water. Thus Ci- cero was interdicted from fire and water within 400 miles from the city. The pun- ishment was inflicted for various crimes, as vis publica, peculatus, veneficium, &c. Under the empire there were two kinds of exsi- lium ; exsilium properly so called, and rele- gatio ; the great distinction between the two was, that the former deprived a person of his citizenship, while the latter did not. The distinction between exsilium and relegatio existed . under the republic. Ovid also de- scribes himself, not as exsul, which he con- pe Th Tliis word appears, by its termination mu.r, to denote class, like the word libertinus siders a term of reproach, but as relegatus. The chief species of exsilium was the depor- tatio in insulam or deportatio simply, which was introduced under the emperors in place of the aquae et ignis interdictio. The rele- gatio merely confined the person within, or excluded him from particular places. In the latter case it was called fuga lata, fuga li- bera, or liberum exsilium. The relegatus went into banishment ; the deportatus was conducted to his place of banishment, some- times in chains. EXTISPEX. [HARUSPEX.] EXTRAORDINARII. [EXERCITUS, p. 1 6 7 . ] FABRI are workmen who make anything out of hard materials, as fabri tignarii, carpenters, fabri aerarii, smiths, &c. The dif- ferent trades were divided by Numa into nine collegia, which correspond to our companies or guilds. In the constitution of Servius Tullius, the fabri tignarii and the fabri aerarii or ferrarii were formed into two cen- turies, which were called the centuriae fa- brilm (notfabrorum). They did not belong to any of the five classes into which Servius divided the people ; but the fabri tign. pro- bably voted with the first class, and the fabri aer. with the second. The fabri in the army were under the command of an officer called praefectus fabrum. FABULA. [COMOEDIA.] FALARICA. [HASTA.] FALSUM. The oldest legislative provision at Rome against Falsum was that of the Twelve Tables against false testimony. The next legislation on Falsum, so far as we know, was a Lex Cornelia, passed in the time of the Dictator Sulla against forging, con- cealing, destroying, or committing any other fraudulent act respecting a will or other instrument. The offence was a Crimen Publicum, and, under the emperors, the pun- ishment was deportatio in insulam for the " honestiores ;" and the mines or crucifixion for the " humiliores." FALX, dim. FALCULA (5pm), Sp&ravov, poet, open-cur;, dim. Speiranov), a sickle ; a scythe ; a pruning-knife ; a falchion, &c. As Oulter denoted a knife with one straight edge, falx signified any similar instrument, the single edge of which was curved. Some of its forms are given in the annexed cut. One represents Perseus with the falchion in his right hand, and the head of Medusa in his left. The two smaller figures are heads FAMILIA. 174 FASCES. of Saturn with the falx in its original form ; FAMILIA. The word familia contains and the fourth represents the same divinity the same element as the word famulus, a a: full length. i slave, and the verb famulari. In its widest Falx. (Fl sense it signifies the totality of that which be- longs to a Roman citizen who is sui juris, and therefore a paterfamilias. Thus, in cer- tain cases of testamentary disposition, the word familia is explained by the equivalent patrimonium ; and the person who received the familia from the testator was called fa- miliae emptor. But the word familia is sometimes limited to signify " persons," that is, all those who are in the power of a pater- familias, such as his sons (JUii-familias}, daughters, grand-children, and slaves. Some- times familia is used to signify the slaves be- longing to a person, or to a body of persons (sncietas}. FANUM. [TEMPLUM.] FARTOR, a slave who fattened poultry. FASCES, rods bound in the form of a bundle, and containing an axe (securis) in the middle, the iron of which projected from them. They were usually made of birch, hut sometimes also of the twigs of the elm. They arc said to have been derived from Ve- tulonia, a city of Etruria. Twelve were car- ried before each of the kings by twelve lie- tors ; and on the expulsion of the Tarquins, one of the consuls was preceded by twelve lictors with the fasces and secures, and the other by the same number of lictors with the fasces only, or, according to some accounts, with crowns around them. But P. Valerius Publicola, who gave to the people the right of provocatio, ordained that the secures should be removed from the fasces, and al- lowed only one of the consuls to be preceded by the lictors while they were at Rome. The other consul was attended only by a sin- gle accensus [ACCENSUS]. When they were out of Rome, and at the head of the army, each of the consuls retained the axe in the fasces, and was preceded by his own lictors, as be- fore the time of Valerius. The fasces and secures were, however, carried before the dictator even in the city, and he was also preceded by twenty-four lictors, and the ma- gister equitum by six. The praetors were preceded in the city by two lictors with the fasces ; but out of Rome and at the head of an army by six, with the fasces and secures. The tribunes of the plebs, the aedi.es and quaestors, had no lictors in the city, but in the provinces the quaestors were permitted to have the fasces. The lictors carried the fasces on their shoulders ; and when an in- ferior magistrate met one who was higher in rank, the lictors lowered their fasces to him. This was done by Valerius Publicola, when he addressed the people, and hence came the expression submitters fasces in the sense of to yield, to confess one's self inferior to another. When a general had gained a vic- tory, and had been saluted as Imperator by FASCIA. 175 FAST1GIUM. his soldiers, he usually crowned his fasces with laurel. fi (From the original in the Capitol at Rome.) FASCIA, a band or fillet of cloth, worn, (1) round the head as an ensign of royalty ; ( 2 ) by women over the breast ; ( 3 ) round the legs and feet, especially by women. When the toga had fallen into disuse, and the shorter pallium was worn in its stead, so that the legs were naked and exposed, fasciae crurales became common even with the male sex. FASCINUM (pa.\aiov) paid as interest either annually or for the whole period of the loan. According to the former method, which was generally used when money was lent upon real security (TOKOI eyyvot or eyyetoi), differ- ent rates were expressed as follows : 10 per cent, by en-l TreVre 6oAois, . e. 5 oboli per month for every mina, or 60 oboli a year = 10 drachmae = ^j of a mina. Similarly, 12 per cent, by em. Spaxurj per month. 16 per cent. r' OKTU> 6oAots 18 per cent. r' cvvea. o/SoAots 24 per cent. ,, e-n-1 6WI Spa^ois ,, 36 per cent. eni rpurl Spax/acus ,, 5 per cent. ,, eirl TpiVu i7juio/3oAi>, probably. Another method was generally adopted in cases of bottomry (TO ravTucv, TOKOI vavrucot, or eic6oCco), the paint which the Greek and Roman ladies employed in painting their cheeks, eye-brows, and other parts of their faces. The practice of painting the face was very general among the Greek ladies, and probably came into fashion in consequence of their sedentary mode of life, which robbed their complexions of their natural freshness, and induced them to have recourse to arti- ficial means for restoring the red and white of nature. The eye-brows and eye-lids were stained black with oriVfu or cnV/MS. a sul- phuret of antimony, which is still employed by the Turkish ladies for the same purpose. The eye-brows were likewise stained with ao-jSoAos, a preparation of soot. Among the Romans the art of painting the complexion was carried to a still greater extent than among the Greeks, and even Ovid did not disdain to write a poem on the subject, which he calls (de Art, Am, iii. 206) "parvus, sed cura grande, libellus, opus;" though the genuineness of the fragment of the Medica- mina faciei, ascribed to this poet, is doubtful. The Roman ladies even went so far as to paint with blue tLe veins on the temples. FTJGA LATA. 184 FTJNUS. The ridiculous use of patches (splenia}> which were common among the English ladies in the reign of Queen Anne and the first Georges, was not unknown to the Roman ladies. The more effeminate of the male sex at Rome, and likewise in Greece, also em- ployed paint. Girl painting hirself. (Fi Gem.) FUGA LATA. [EXSILIUM.] FUGA LIBERA. [EXSILTOM.] FUGITIVUS. [SERVUS.] FULLO (Kvcu^evs, yvo^evs), also called NACCA, a fuller, a washer or scourer of cloth and linen. The fullones not only re- ceived the cloth as it came from the loom in order to scour and smooth it, but also washed and cleansed garments which had been al- ready worn. The clothes were first washed, which was done in tubs or vats, where they were trodden upon and stamped by the feet of the fullones, whence Seneca speaks of saltvs fullonieus. The ancients were not acquainted with soap, but they used in its stead different kinds of alkali, by which the dirt was more easily separated from the clothes. Of these, by far the most common was the urine of men and animals, which was mixed with the water in which the clothes were washed. When the clothes were dry, the wool was brushed and carded to raise the nap, sometimes with the skin of a hedgehog, and sometimes with some plants of the thistle kind. The clothes were then hung on a vessel of basket-work (vimi- nea cavea], under which sulphur was placed in order to whiten the cloth. A fine white earth, called Cimolian by Pliny, was often rubbed into the cloth to increase its white- ness. The establishment or workshop of the fullers was called Fullonica, Fullonicum, or Fullonium. The Greeks were also accus- tomed to send their garments to fullers to be washed and scoured. The word ir\vvtw denoted the washing of linen, and Kvarjieveiv or yra^eueiv the washing of woollen clothes. FUNAMBULUS (icaAo/3aTr) axoii/ojSarrjs), a rope-dancer. The art of dancing on the tight rope was carried to as great perfection among the Romans as it is with us. The performers placed themselves in an endless variety of graceful and sportive attitudes, and represented the characters of bacchanals, satyrs, and other imaginary beings. One of the most difficult exploits was running down the rope at the conclusion of the performance. It was a strange attempt of Germanicus and of the emperor Galba to exhibit elephants walking on the rope. FUNDA (o-^evSonj), a sling. Slingers are not mentioned in the Iliad ; hut the light troops of the Greek and Roman armies con- sisted in great part of slingers (funditores, o-^epSovTJTcu). The most celebrated slingers were the inhabitants of the Balearic islands. Besides stones, plummets, called glandes(i>.oXvp- 5i'5es), of a form between acorns and almonds, were cast in moulds to be thrown with slings. The manner in which the sling was wielded may be seen in the annexed figure of a sol- dier with a provision of stones in the sinus of his pallium, and with his arm extended in order to whirl the sling about his head. Funda, Sling. (Column of Trajan.) FUXDITORES. [FUXDA.] FUNUS, a funeral. (1) GREEK. The Greeks attached great importance to the bu- rial of the dead. They believed that souls could not enter the Elysian fields till their bodies had been buried ; and so strong was this feeling among the Greeks, that it was consi- dered a religious duty to throw earth upon a dead body, which a person might happen to FUXUS. 185 find unburied ; and among the Athenians, those children who were released from all other obligations to unworthy parents, were nevertheless bound to bury them by one of Solon's laws. The neglect of burying one's relatives is frequently mentioned by the orators as a grave charge against the moral character of a man ; in fact, the burial of the body by the relations of the dead was consi- dered one of the most sacred duties by the universal law of the Greeks. Sophocles re- presents Antigone as disregarding all conse- quences in order to bury the dead body of her brother Polyneices, which Creon, the king of Thebes, had commanded to be left unburied. The common expressions for the funeral rites, TO. fucaia, vdfit/ia or votu.6iitva., irpoo^Kon-a, show that the dead had, as it were, a legal and moral claim to burial. After a person was dead, it was the custom first to place in his mouth an obolus, called danace (Sorajoj), with which he might pay the ferry- man in Hades. The body was then washed and anointed with perfumed oil, the head was crowned with the flowers which hap- pened to be in season, and the body dressed in as handsome a robe as the family could afford. These duties were not performed by hired persons, like the pollinctores among the Romans, but by the women of the family, upon whom the care of the corpse always de- volved. The corpse was then laid out (jrpofle- . In Homer the bodies of the dead are burnt ; but interment was also used in very ancient times. Cicero says that the dead were buried at Athens in the time of Cecrops ; and we also read of the bones of Orestes being found in a coffin at Tegea. The dead were commonly buried among the Spartans and the Sicyonians, and the prevalence of this practice is proved by the great number of skeletons found in coffins in modern times, which have evidently not been exposed to the action of fire. Both burning and bury- ing appear to have been always used to a greater or less extent at different periods ; till the spread of Christianity at length put an end to the former practice. The dead bodies were usually burnt on piles of wood, called pyres (m/pai). The body was placed on the top ; and in the heroic times it was customary to burn with the corpse animals and even captives or slaves. Oils and per- fumes were also thrown into the flames. When the pyre was burnt down, the remains of the fire were quenched with wine, and the relatives and friends collected the bones. The bones were then washed with wine and oil, and placed in urns, which were some- times made of gold. The corpses which were not burnt were buried in coffins, which were called by various names, as vopoi, TrveAoi, ArjiW, Aopvoxes, jpoiTcu, though some of these names are also applied to the urns in which the bones were collected. They were made of various materials, but were usually of baked clay or earthenware. The following woodcut contains two of the most ancient kind ; the figure in the middle is the section (Slackelberg, Die Crib.*- tier llcllaoro.' pi. 7. 8.) FUXUS. 186 FUXUS. of one. The dead were usually buried out- side the town, as it was thought that their presence in the city brought pollution to the living. At Athens none were allowed to be buried within the city ; but Lycurgus, in order to remove all superstition respecting the presence of the dead, allowed of burial in Sparta. Persons who possessed lands in At- tica were frequently buried in them, and we therefore read of tombs in the fields. Tombs, however, were most frequently built by thn side of roads, and near the gates of the city. Tomb in Lycia. At Athens, the most common place of burial was outside of the Itonian gate, near the road leading to the Peiraeeus, which gate was for that reason called the burial gate. Those who had fallen in battle were buried at the public expense in the outer Ceramei- cus, on the road leading to the Academia. Tombs were called WJKCU, Ta.oi, fn"MiaTa, nvrjlj-eia, (njfiara. Many of these were only mounds of earth or stones (x^M-am, KoAwoai, TvjujSoi). Others were built of stone, and frequently ornamented with great taste. Some Greek tombs were built under ground, and called hypogea (yiroyaia. or vn-o-yeia). They correspond to the Roman conditoria, The monuments erected over the graves of persons were usually of four kinds : 1. o-TT/Aeu, pillars or upright stone tablets; 2. iciove<;, columns ; 3. vatSia or ^pa, small ouildings in the form of temples ; and 4. rpa- irefri, flat square stones, called by Cicero mensae. The term erri)A.ai is sometimes ap- plied to all kinds of funeral monuments, but properly designates upright stone tablets, which were usually terminated with an oval head- ing, called ejri'ffyma. The epithema was fre- Epithcma or Heading of Tombstone. (Stackelberg, pi. 8 quently ornamented with a kind of arabesque work, as in the preceding specimen. The Kt'oves, or columns, were of various forms, as it shown by the two specimens in the annexed cut. Sepulchral Columns. (Paintings on Vases.) The inscriptions upon these funeral monu- ments usually contain the name of the deceased person, and that of the demus to which he belonged, as well as frequently some account of his life. The following example of an fipwov will give a general idea of monuments of this kind. Orations in praise of the dead were sometimes pronounced ; but Solon or- dained that such orations should be confined to persons who were honoured with a public funeial. In the heroic ages games were FUNUS. 181 celebrated at the funeral of a great man, as in the case of Patroclus ; but this practice OPAoA.os). The aAcia, i. e. the perfo- rated beaver. The gladiators wore helmets of this kind. GALERUS or GALERUM, originally a covering for the head worn by priests, espe- cially by the flamen dialis. It appears to have been a round cap made of leather, with its top ending in an apex or point. [APEX.] In course of time the name was applied to any kind of cap fitting close to the head like a helmet. Golems and its diminutive Gale- riculum are also used to signify a covering for the head made of hair, and hence a wig. GALLI, the priests of Cybel, whose wor- ship was introduced at Rome from Phrygia. The Galli were, according to an ancient cus- tom, always castrated, and it would seem that, impelled by religious fanaticism, they performed this operation on themselves. In their wild, enthusiastic, and boisterous rites they resembled the Corybantes. They seem to have been always chosen from a poor and despised class of people, for, while no other priests were allowed to beg, the Galli were permitted to do so on certain days. The chief priest among them was called archigallus. GAMELIA (yaf)Ai'a). The demes and phratries of Attica possessed various means to prevent intruders from assuming the rights of citizens. Among other regulations, it was ordained that every bride, previous to her marriage, should be introduced by her parents or guardians to the phratria of her husband. This introduction of the young women was accompanied by presents to their new phratorcs, which were called gamelia. The women were enrolled in the lists of the phratries, and this enrolment was also called gamelia. GAUSAPA, GAUSAPE, or GAUSAPtTM, a kind of thick cloth, which was on one side very woolly, and was used to cover tables and beds, and by persons to wrap themselves up after taking a bath, or in general to protect themselves against rain and cold. It was worn by men as well as women. The word gausapa is also sometimes used to designate a thick wig, such as was made of the hair of Germans, and worn by the fashionable people at Rome at the time of the emperors. GEXESIA. [FvN-us.] GENOS (-yew). [TRIBVS, GREEK.] GENS. According to the traditional ac- counts of the old Roman constitution, the Gentes were subdivisions of the curiae, just as the curiae were subdivisions of the three ancient tribes, the Ramnes, Titienses, and Luceres. There were ten gentes in each curia, and consequently one hundred gentes in each tribe, and three hundred in the three tribes. Now if there is any truth in the tradition of this original distribution of the population into tribes, curiae, and gentes, it follows that there was no necessary kinship among those families which belonged to a gens, any more than among those families which belonged to one curia. The name of the gens was always characterised by the termination ia, as Julia, Cornelia, Valeria ; and the gentiles, or members of a gens, all bore the name of the gens to which they belonged. As the gentes were subdivisions of the three ancient tribes, the populus (in the ancient sense) alone had gentes, so that to be a patrician and to have a gens were synonymous ; and thus we find the expres- sions gens and patricii constantly united. Yet it appears that some gentes contained plebeian familiae, which it is conjectured had their origin in marriages between patricians and plebeians before there was connubium between them. A hundred new members were added to the senate by the first Tarquin. These were the representatives of the Luceres, the third and inferior tribe ; wliich is indi- cated by the gentes of this tribe being called minor es, by way of being distinguished from the older gentes, majores, of the Ramnes and Titles, a distinction which appears to have been more than nominal. [SEXATUS.] There were certain sacred rites (sacra gentilitia) which belonged to a gens, to which all the members of a gens, as such, were bound. It was the duty of the pontifices to look after the due observance of these gentile sacra, and to see that they were not lost. Each gens seems to have had its peculiar place (sacel- lum] for the celebration of these sacra, which were performed at stated times. By the law of the Twelve Tables the property of a person who died intestate devolved upon the gens to wliich he Jjelonged. GEOMORI. [TRiBrs, GREEK.] GEROUSIA (yepovcria), or assembly of elders, was the aristocratic element of the Spartan polity. It was not peculiar to Sparta only, but found in other Dorian states, just as a Boitle (jSovA^) or democratical council was an element of most Ionian constitutions. The Gerousia at Sparta, including the two kings, its presidents, consisted of thirty members (veporres) : a number which seems connected with the divisions of the Spartan people. Every Dorian state, in fact, was divided into three tribes : the Hylleis, the Dymanes, and the Pamphyli. The tribes at Sparta were again subdivided into obae (u>0ot), which were, like the Gerontes, thirty in number, so that each oba was represented by its councillor : an inference which leads to the conclusion that two obae at least of the GKRRHA. 194 GLADIATORES. Hyllean tribe, must have belonged to the royal house of the Hcracleids. No one was eligible to the council till he -was sixty years of age, and the additional qualifications were strictly of an aristocratic nature. We are told, for instance, that the office of a coun- cillor was the reward and prize of virtue, and that it was confined to men of distinguished character and station. The election was de- termined by vote, and the mode of conducting it was remarkable for its old-fashioned sim- plicity. The competitors presented them- selves one after another to the assembly of electors ; the latter testified their esteem by acclamations, which varied in intensity ac- cording to the popularity of the candidates for whom they were given. These manifes- tations of esteem were noted by persons in an adjoining building, who could judge of the shouting, but could not tell in whose favour it was given. The person whom these judges thought to have been most ap- plauded was declared the successful candi- date. The office lasted for life. The functions of the councillors were partly deliberative, partly judicial, and partly executive. In the discharge of the first, they prepared measures and passed preliminary decrees, which were to be laid before the popular assembly, so that the important privilege of initiating all changes in the government or laws was vested in them. As a criminal court, they could punish with death and civil degradation (drijiua). They also appear to have exercised, like the Areiopagus at Athens, a general su- perintendence and inspection over the lives and manners of the citizens, and probably were allowed a kind of patriarchal authority, to enforce the observance of ancient usage and discipline. It is not, however, easy to define with exactness the original extent of their functions, especially as respects the last- mentioned duty, since the ephors not only encroached upon the prerogatives of the king and council, but also possessed, in very early times, a censorial power, and were not likely to permit any diminution of its extent. GEERHA (yeppa), in Latin, Gerrae, pro- peily signified any thing made of wicker- work, and was especially used as the name of the Persian shields, which were made of wicker-work, and were smaller and shorter than the Greek shields. GLADIATORES (moi>o/u.axoc) were men who fought with swords in the amphitheatre and other places, for the amusement of the Ro- man people. They are said to have been first exhibited by the Etrurians, and to have had their origin from the custom of killing slaves and captives at the funeral pyres of the deceased. [BUSTUM ; FUNUS.] A show of gladiators was called miimis, and the person who exhibited (edelat] it, editor, numerator, or dominus, who was honoured during the day of exhibition, if a private person, with the official signs of a magistrate. Gladiators were first exhibited at Rome in B.C. 264, in the Forum Boarium, by Marcus and Decimus Brutus, at the funeral of their father. They were at first confined to public funerals, but afterwards fought at the funerals of most persons of consequence, and even at those of women. Combats of gladiators were also exhibited at entertainments, and especially at public festivals by the aediles and other ma- gistrates, who sometimes exhibited immense numbers, with the view of [pleasing the people. Under the empire the passion of the Romans for this amusement rose to its great- est height, and the number of gladiators who fought on some occasions appears almost in- credible. After Trajan's triumph over the Dacians, there were more than 10,000 exhi- bited. Gladiators consisted either of captives, slaves, and condemned malefactors, or of freeborn citizens who fought voluntarily. Freemen, who became gladiators for hire, were called auctorctti, and their hire auctora- mentum or gladiatorium. Even under the republic, free-born citizens fought as gladia- tors, but they appear to have belonged only to the lower orders. Under the empire, however, both knights and senators fought in the arena, and even women. Gladiators were kept in schools (ludi), where they were trained by persons called lanistae. The whole body of gladiators under one lanista was fre- quently called familia. They sometimes were the property of the lanistae, who let them out to persons who wished to exhibit a show of gladiators ; but at other times they belonged to citizens, who kept them for the purpose of exhibition, and engaged lanistae to instruct them. Thus we read of the ludus Aemilius at Rome, and of Caesar's ludus at Capua. The gladiators fought in these ludi with wooden swords, called rudes. Great attention was paid to their diet, in order to increase the strength of their bodies. Gladia- tors were sometimes exhibited at the funeral pyre, and sometimes in the forum, but more frequently in the amphitheatre. [AMPHI- THEATSXJM.] The person who was to exhibit a show of gladiators, published some days before the exhibition bills (libelli), containing the number and frequently the names of those who were to fight. "When the day came, they were led along the arena in pro- cession, and matched by pairs ; and their swords were examined by the editor to see if they were sufficiently sharp. At first there was a kind of sham battle, called praelusio t GLADIATORES. 195 GLADIATORES. in which they fought with wooden swords, or the like, and afterwards at the sound of the trumpet the real battle began. When a gla- diator was wounded, the people called out Itabct or hoc habet ; and the one who was vanquished lowered his arms in token of sub- mission. His fate, however, depended upon the people, who pressed down their thumbs if they wished him to be saved, but turned them up if they wished him to be killed, and or- dered him to receive the sword (ferntm re- eipere], which gladiators usually did with the greatest firmness. If the life of a van- quished gladiator was spared, he obtained his discharge for that day, which was called misslo ; and hence in an exhibition of gladia- tors sine missione, the lives of the conquered were never spared. This kind of exhibition, however, was forbidden by Augustus. Palms were usually given to the victorious gladia- tors. Old gladiators, and sometimes those who had only fought for a short time, were discharged from the service by the editor, at the request of the people, who presented each of them with a rudis or wooden sword ; whence those who were discharged were called Rudiarii. Gladiators were divided into different classes, according to their arms and different mode of fighting, or other cir- cumstances. The names of the most impor- tant of these classes arc given in alphabetical order : Andcbatae'Vforc helmets without any aperture for the eyes, so that they were obliged to fight blindfold, and thus excited tUe mirth of the spectators. Catervarii was the name given to gladiators when they did not fight in pairs, but when several fought together. Esscdarii fought from chariots, like the Gauls and Britons. [ESSEDA.] Hop- lomachi appear to have been those who fought in a complete suit of armour.' Laqweatorcs were those who used a noose to catch their adversaries. Mcridiani were those who fought in the middle of the day, after com- bats with wild teasts had taken place in the morning. These gladiators were very slightly armed. Mirmilloncs are said to have been so called from their having the image of a fish (mormyr, ftop/iupos) on their helmets. Their arms were like those of the Gauls, whence we find that they were also called Galli. They were usually matched with the Retiarii or Thracians. Provocatores fought with the Samnites, but we do not know any thing respecting them except their name. Retiarii carried only a three-pointed lance, called tridcns or fuscina [FUSCINA], and a net (rete], which they endeavoured to throw over their adversaries, and they then attacked them with the fuscina while they were entangled. The retiarius was dressed in a short tunic, and wore nothing on his head. If he missed his aim in throwing the net, he betook him- self to flight, and endeavoured to prepare his net for a second cast, while his adversary followed him round the arena in order to kill him before he could make a second attempt. His adversary was usually a secutor or a mlrmillo. In the following woodcut a com- bat is represented between a retiarius and a A Mil i Retiarius. (Winckcl . Ined.,' pi. 197.) mirmillo ; the former has thrown his net over the head of the latter, and is proceeding to attack him with the fuscina. The lanista elands behind the retiarius. Samnites were so called, because they were armed in the same way as that people, and were particu- larly distinguished by the oblong scutum. Secutores are supposed by some writers to be so called because the secutor 'in his combat with the retiarius pursued the latter when he failed in securing him by his net. Other writers think that they were the same as the supposititii, who were gladiators substituted in the place of those who were wearied or were killed. Thraces or Threees were armed, like the Thracians, with a round shield or o2 GLADIUS. 196 buckler, and a short sword or dagger (sica). They were usually matched, as al- ready stated, with the minnillones. The following woodcut represents a combat be- tween two Thracians. A lanista stands be- hind each. Thracuuu. (Winckclm;inn, 1. c.) GLADIUS (f'$os, poet. Hop, Qa.crya.vov'), a sword or glaive, hy the Latin poets called ensis. The ancient sword had generally a straight two-edged hlade, rather broad, and nearly of equal width from hilt to point. The Greeks and Romans wore them on the left side, so as to draw them out of the sheath (vagina, xoAco?) by passing the right hand in front of the body to take hold of the hilt with the thumb next to the blade. The early Greeks used a very short sword. Iphicrates, who made various improvements in armour about 400 B. c., doubled its length. The Roman sword was larger, heavier, and more formidable than the Greek. GLANDES. [FUNDA.] GRAECOSTASIS, a place in the Roman forum, on the right of the Comitium, so called because the Greek ambassadors, and perhaps also deputies from other foreign or allied states, were allowed to stand there to hear the debates. When the sun was seen from the Curia coming out between the Ros- tra and the Graccostasis, it was mid-day ; and an accensus of the consul announced the time with a clear loud voice. GRAMMATEUS (vpa^arev's), a clerk or scribe. Among the great number of scribes employed by the magistrates and govern- ment of Athens, there were three of a higher rank, who were real state-officers. One of them was appointed by lot, by the senate, to serve the time of the administration of each prytany, though he always belonged to a different prytany from that which was in power. lie was, therefore, called ypcwiaT-eiis Kara irpvTaveiav. His province was to keep the public records, and the decrees of the people which were made during the time of his office, and to deliver to the thesmothetae the decrees of the senate. The second gram- mateus was elected by the senate, by X 1 P" rovia, and was entrusted with the custody of the laws. His usual name was ypum/no/revs Tjs /3ovA.7Js. A third grammatcus was called ypo/n^iaTeu? T^S TrdAeios, or ypajUjuaTtu? TT}S /3ov- A>js Kai roO STJ;U.OV. He was appointed by the people, by xeiporovia, and the principal part of his office was to read any laws or documents which were required to be read in the assem- bly or in the senate. GRAPHS Cxpo-M). [DICE.] GRAPHIARlUM. [STILUS.] GRAPHIS. [PICTURA.] GRAPHIUM. [STILUS.] GUBERNACULUM (irr)5<&iov~). [NAVIS.] GUSTATIO. [COENA.] GUTTUS, a vessel with a narrow mouth or neck, from which the liquid was poured in drops, whence its name. It was especially used in sacrifices, and hence we find it re- presented on the Roman coins struck by per- sons who held any of the priestly offices. The guttus was also used for keeping the oil, with which persons were anointed in the baths. [See p. 50.] Guttus on Coin of L. 1'lan GYMNASIUM. 197 GYMNASIUM. GYMNASIUM (yvnvdviov'). The whole education of a Greek youth was divided into three parts, grammar, music, and gymnas- tics (ypa.fj.iJ.ara, fj.ovtri.Krj, yvju.i/aemioj), to which Aristotle adds a fourth, the art of drawing or painting. Gymnastics, however, were thought by the ancients a matter of such im- portance, that this part of education alone occupied as much time and attention as all the others put together ; and while the latter necessarily ceased at a certain period of life, gymnastics continued to be cultivated by per- sons of all ages, though those of an advanced age naturally took lighter and less fatiguing exercises than boys and youths. The an- cients, and more especially the Greeks, seem to have been thoroughly convinced that the mind could not possibly be in a healthy state, unless the body was likewise in perfect health, and no means were thought, either by philosophers or physicians, to be more conducive to preserve or restore bodily health than well-regulated exercise. The word gymnastics is derived from yu/ui/os (naked), because the persons who performed their ex- ercises in public or private gymnasia were either entirely naked, or merely covered by the short chiton. Gymnastic exercises among the Greeks seem to have been as old as the Greek nation itself; but they were, as might be supposed, of a rude and mostly of a Gjrmmisiu the description of Vitruvius. warlike character. They were generally held in the open air, and in plains near a river, which afforded an opportunity for swimming and bathing. It was about the time of Solon that the Greek towns began to build their regular gymnasia as places of exercise for the young, with baths, and other conve- niences for philosophers and all persons who sought intellectual amusements. There was probably no Greek town of any im- portance which did not possess its gym- nasium. Athens possessed three great gymnasia, the Lyceum (Avjcetop), Cyno- sarges (Kwdo-ap-yes), and the Academia ('Axa- Srjui'a) ; to which, in later times, several smaller ones were added. Respecting the superintendence and administration of the gymnasia at Athens, we know that Solon in his legislation thought them worthy of great attention ; and the transgression of some of his laws relating to the gymnasia was pun- ished with death. His laws mention a ma- gistrate, called the gymnasiarch (yuni>ao-"xpxo or yv/xt/acriapxT)s), who was entrusted with the whole management of the gymnasia, and with everything connected therewith. His office was one of the regular liturgies like the choregia and hierarchy, and was attended with considerable expense. He had to main- tain and pay the persons who were preparing themselves for the games and contests in the public festivals, to provide them with oil, and perhaps with the wrestlers' dust. It aiso devolved upon him to adorn the gymnasium, or the place where the agones were held. The gymnasiarch was a real magistrate, and invested with a kind of jurisdiction over all those who frequented or were connected with the gymnasia. Another part of his duties was to conduct the solemn games at certain great festivals, especially the torch-race (Aap.7rar)opt'a), for which he selected the most distinguished among the ephebi of the gymnasia. The number of gymnasiarchs was ten, one from every tribe. An office of very great importance, in an educational point of view, was that of the Sophronistae (po- i/icrrai). Their province was to inspire the youths with a love of poaiprnK7i), which was in universal favour with the Greeks. [PiLA.] Every gymnasium contained one large room for the purpose of playing at ball in it (oupioT>jpiov). 2. Tlcufeiv eAjcvoriVSa, SieAjcuoru'Sa, or SLO. ypafi^Tjs, was a game in which one boy, holding one end of a rope, tried to pull the boy who held its other end, across a line marked between them on the ground. 3. The top (/Se^f, /Se>/3if, pd/i/3o9, arpdjSiAos), which was as common an amuse- ment with Greek boys as it is with ours. 4. The ireiraAiSoj, which was a game with flve stones, which were thrown up from the upper part of the hand and caught in the palm. 5. Sxan-epSa, which was a game in which a rope was drawn through the upper part of a tree or a post. Two boys, one on each side of the post, turning their backs towards one another, took hold of the ends of the rope and tried to pull each other up. This sport was also one of the amusements at the Attic Dionysia. The more important games, such as running (6po/ios), throwing of the SIO-KOS and the axtav, jumping and leap- ing (oAfta, with and without oAi-qpe;), wrest- ling (TroAi)), boxing Oruyn>i), the pancratium (TrayKparioi'), ireVraSAos, A.ajxn-aSjj^opi'a, danc- ing (op,\7JoW, from appofr, to fit or join together), the name of the governors whom the Lacedaemonians, after the Pelo- ponnesian war, sent into their subject or conquered towns, partly to keep them in sub- mission, and partly to abolish the demo- cratical form of government, and establish in its stead one similar to their own. Although in many cases they were ostensibly sent for the purpose of abolishing the tyrannical government of a town, and to restore the people to freedom, yet they themselves acted like kings or tyrants. HARPAGO (opnuyTj : AV'KOS : Kpeaypa), a grappling-iron, a drag, a flesh-hook. In war the grappling-iron, thrown at an enemy's ship, seized the rigging, and was then used to drag the ship within reach, so that it might be easily boarded or destroyed. These instruments appear to have been much the Flesh-book. (British Museum.) same as the manus fcrreae. The flesh -hoofc (icpeaypa) was an instrument used in cookery, resembling a hand with the fingers bent in- wards, used to take boiled meat out of the caldron. HARPASTUM. [PiLA.] HARUSPICES, or ARUSPICES (Upocr- KOTTOI), soothsayers or diviners, who inter- preted the will of the gods. They originally came to Kome from Etruria, whence harus- pices were often sent for by the Romans on important occasions. The art of the harus- pices resembled in many respects that of the augurs; but they never acquired that po- litical importance which the latter possessed, and were regarded rather as means for ascertaining the will of the gods than as pos- sessing any religious authority. They did not in fact form any part of the ecclesiastical polity of the Roman state during the republic ; they are never called sacerdotes, they did not form a collegium, and had no magister at their head. The art of the haruspices, which was called hamspicina, consisted in explaining and interpreting the will of the gods from the appearance of the entrails (exta) of animals offered in sacrifice, whence they are sometimes called cxtispices, and their art extispicium ; and also from lightning, earthquakes, and all extraordinary pheno- mena in nature, to which the general name of portenta was given. Their art is said to have been invented by the Etruscan Tages, and was contained in certain books called libri hariispicini, fulgurates, and tonitruales. This art was considered by the Romans so important at one time, that the senate de- creed that a certain number of young Etrus- cans, belonging to the principal families in the state, should always be instructed in it. In later tunes, however, their art fell into disrepute among well-educated Romans ; and Cicero relates a saying of Cato, that he won- dered that one haruspex did not laugh when he saw another. The name of haruspex is sometimes applied to any kind of soothsayer or prophet. HASTA (eyx), a spear. The spear is defined by Homer, Sdpv x^K>)p, " a pole fitted with bronze," and $6pv x^A^o/Sopes, " a pole heavy with bronze." The bronze, for which iron was afterwards substituted^was indispensable to form the point ( Xenophon ; acics, cuspis, spiculwn) of the spear. Each of these two essential parts is often put for the whole, so that a spear is called Mpv and Sopa.Ti.ov, alxpt], and Aoyx 1 ?- Even the more especial term /neXt'a, meaning an ash-tree, is used in the same manner, because the pole of the spear was often the stem of a young ash, HASTA. 200 HASTA. stripped of its bark and polished. The bottom of the spear was often inclosed in a pointed cap of bronze, called by the Ionic writers o-aupw-njp and ovpi'axw, and in Attic or com- mon Greek orvpof . By forcing this into the ground the spear was fixed erect. Many of the lancers who accompanied the king of Persia, had, instead of this spike at the bottom of their spears, an apple or a pomegranate, cither gilt or silvered. Fig. 1. in the an- nexed woodcut shows the top and bottom of a spear, which is held by one of the king's guards in the sculptures at Persepolis. The spear was used as a weapon of attack in three different ways: 1. It was thrown from catapults and other engines [TORMEXTUM]. 2. It was thrust forward as a pike. 3. It n i Hastae, spears. was commonly thrown by the hand. The spear frequently had a leathern thong tied to the middle of the shaft, which was called oyjcuAij by the Greeks, and amentum by the Romans, and which was of assistance in throwing the spear. The annexed figure represents the amentum attached to the spear at the centre of gravity, a little above the middle. Under the general terms hasta and YXs were included various kinds of missiles, of which the principal were as follow : Lancea (AxJyxi), the lance, a comparatively slender spear commonly used by the Greek horsemen, The appendage shown in woodcut, Fig. 2, enabled them to mount their horses with greater facility. Pilitm (uo-cros), the javelin, much thicker and stronger than the Grecian lance. Its shaft, often made of cornel, was 4 1 feet (three cubits) long, and the barbed iron head was of the same length, but this extended half way down the shaft, to which it was attached with extreme care, so thai the whole length of the weapon wos about 6 feet 9 inches. It was used either to throw or to thrust with ; it was peculiar to the Romans, and gave the name of pilani to the division of the army by which it was adopted. \Vhilst the heavy-armed Roman soldiers bore the long lance and the thick and ponderous javelin, the light-armed used smaller missiles, which, though of different kinds, were in- cluded under the general term hastae velitares (ypotr^oi). The ypdcr^os was a dart, with a shaft about three feet long and an inch in thickness : the iron head was a span long, and so thin and acuminated as to be bent by striking against anything, and thus rendered unfit to be sent back against the enemy. Fig. 3, in the preceding woodcut, shows one which was found in a Roman entrenchment in Gloucestershire. The light infantry of the Roman army used a similar weapon, called a spit (vent, rerutnm ; travviov'). It was adopted by them from the Samnites and the Volsci. Its shaft was 3| feet long, its point 5 inches. Fig. 4, in the preceding woodcut, represents the head of a dart in the Royal Collection at Naples ; it may be taken as a specimen of the tenitum, and may be con- trasted with fig. 5, which is the head of a lance in the same collection. The Romans adopted in like manner the gaestim, which was properly a Celtic weapon ; it was given as a reward to any soldier who wounded an enemy. [GAESUM.] Spai us is evidently the same word with the English spar and spear, It was the rudest missile of the whole class. Besides the terms jatulum and spiculum (axiav, cucdi'Tioc), which probably denoted HASTATI 201 HELOTES. darts, resembling in form the lance and javelin, but much smaller, adapted conse- quently to the light-armed (jaculatores), and used in hunting as well as in battle, we find in classical authors the names of various other spears, which were characteristic of particular nations. Thus, the sarissa was the spear peculiar to the Macedonians. This was used both to throw and as a pike. It exceeded in length all other missiles. The Thracian romphea, which had a very long point, like the blade of a sword, was pro- bably not unlike the sarissa. With these weapons we may also class the Ulyrian sibina, which resembled a hunting-pole. The iron head of the German spear, called framea, was short and narrow, but very sharp. The Germans used it with great effect either as a lance or a pike : they gave to each youth a framea and a shield on coming of age. The Falarica or Phalarica was the spear of the Saguntines, and was impelled by the aid of twisted ropes ; it was large and ponderous, having a beid of iron a cubit in length, and a ball of lead at its other end ; it sometimes carried flaming pitch and tow. The mattira and tragula were chiefly used in Gaul and Spain : the tragula was probably barbed, as it required to be cut out of the wound. The Aclis and Catcia were much smaller missiles. Among the decorations which the Roman generals bestowed on their soldiers, more especially for saving the life of a fellow- citizen, was a spear without a head, called hasta para. The celibaris hasta, having been fixed into the body of a gladiator lying dead on the arena, was used at marriages to part the hair of the bride. A spear was erected at auctions [Aucrio], and when ten- ders were received for public offices (loca- tiones). It served both to announce, by a conventional sign conspicuous at a distance, that a sale was going on, and to show that it was conducted under the authority of the public functionaries. Hence an auction was called hasta, and an auction-room hastanum. It was also the practice to set up a spear in the court of the CKXTUJTVIW. HASTATI. [ExiHClTi-s, p. 168, b.] HECATOMBE. [SACRIFICIUM.] HECTE or HECTEUS (TT;, Tev'), and its half, Hemiecton or Hemiecteon (rnj-UicTov, qjjueKTe'oi'). In dry measures, the hecteus was the sixth part of the medimnus, and the hemiecteon, of course, the twelfth part. The hecteus was equal to the Roman modius, as each contained 16 fe'orcu or sextfcrii. The Hecte or Hecteus and Hemiecton were also the names of coins, but the accounts we have of their value are very various. The only consistent explanation is, that there were different hectae, derived from different units ; in fact, that these coins were not properly denominations of money, but subdivisions oi the recognised denominations. HELEPOLIS (eAeiroXt9), " the taker of cities," a machine constructed by Demetrius Poliorcetes, when he besieged the city of Salamis in Cyprus. Its form was that of a square tower, each side being 90 cubits high and 45 wide. It rested on four wheels, each eight cubits high. It was divided into nine stories, the lower of which contained machines for throwing great stones, the middle large catapults for throw- ing spears, and the highest other machines for throwing smaller stones, together with smaller catapults. It was manned with 200 soldiers, besides those who moved it by push- ing the parallel beams at the bottom. At the siege of Rhodes, B. c. 306, Demetrius employed an helepolis of still greater dimen- sions and more complicated construction. In subsequent ages we find the name of " helepolis " applied to moving towers which carried battering rams, as well as machines for throwing spears and stones. HELLANODICAE (eAAai/oiixai), the judges in the Olympic games, of whom an account is given under OLYMriA. The same name was also given to the judges or court-martial in the Lacedaemonian army, and they were probably first called by this name when Sparta was at the head of the Greek confederacy. HELLENOTAMIAE (iXXrivoratiUu'), or treasurers of the Greeks, were magistrates appointed by the Athenians to receive the contributions of the allied states. They were first appointed B. c. 477, when Athens, in consequence of the conduct of Pausanias, had obtained the command of the allied states. The money paid by the different states, which was originally fixed at 460 talents, was deposited in Delos, which was the place of meeting for the discussion of all common interests ; and there can be no doubt that the hellenotamiae not only received, but were also the guardians of, these monies. The office was retained after the treasury was transferred to Athens on the proposal of the Samians, but was of course abolished on the conquest of Athens by the Lacedaemonians. HELOTES (eiAiores), a class of bondsmen peculiar to Sparta. They were Achaeans, who had resisted the Dorian invaders to the last, and had been reduced to slavery as the punishment of their obstinacy. The Helots were regarded as the property of the state, which, while it gave their services to indi- viduals, reserved to itself the power of eman- cipating them. They were attached to the land, and could not be sold away from it. HEMERODBOMI. 202 HERAEA. They cultivated the land, and paid to their masters as rent a certain measure of corn, the exact amount of which had been fixed at a very early period, the raising of that amount being forbidden under heavy imprecations. Besides being engaged in the cultivation of the land, the Helots attended on their mas- ters at the public meal, and many of them were no doubt employed by the state in pub- lic works. In war the Helots served as light-armed troops W^oi), a certain number of them attending every heavy-armed Spartan to the field ; at the battle of Plataeae there were seven Helots to each Spartan. These attendants were probably called a/nn-tVi-apes (i. e. a/u^iVraiTes), and one of them in par- ticular, the depajnav, or servant. The Helots only served as hoplitcs in particular emer- gencies ; and on such occasions they were generally emancipated. The first instance of this kind was in the expedition of Bra- sidas, B. c. 424. The treatment to which the Helots were subjected was marked by the most wanton cruelty ; and they were regarded by the Spartans with the greatest suspicion. Occasionally the ephors selected young Spar- tans for the secret service ((cpum-eta) of wan- dering over the country, in order to kill the Helots. .The Helots might be emancipated, but there were several steps between them and the free citizens, and it is doubtful whether they were ever admitted to all the privileges of citizenship. The following classes of emancipated Helots are enume- rated : iujterai, afieorroToc, epv/cr^pey, Secnro- a-Lovavrai, and veoSa/xiiSets, Of these the afaraC were probably released from all ser- vice ; the epvK-rijpej were those employed in war ; the Se couriers in the Greek states, who could keep on run- ning all day, and were often employed to carry news of important events. They were trained for the purpose, and could perform the longest journeys in an almost incredibly short space of time. Such couriers were in times of danger stationed on some eminence in order to observe anything of importance that might happen, and carry the intelligence with speed to the proper quarter. Hence we frequently find them called Hemerescopi a semicir- HEMICYCLIUM (jj/uiciHc cular seat, for the accommodation of persons engaged in conversation; also the semicir- cular seat round the tribunal in a basilica. HEMINA Oi/xiVa), the name of a Greek and Roman measure, seems to be nothing more than the dialectic form used by the Sicilian and Italian Greeks for ^;urv. It was therefore applied to the half of the standard fluid measure, the f eVrr)s, which the other Greeks called KoruAij, and the word passed into the Roman metrical system, where it is used with exactly the same force, namely for a measure which is half of the sextarius,jLHd. equal to the Greek cotylc. HENDECA (oi eVSefta), the Eleven, were magistrates at Athens of considerable import- ance. They were annually chosen by lot, one from each of the ten tribes, and a secre- tary (ypofiftaTeus), who must properly be re- garded as their servant (uTnjpe'njs), though he formed one of their number. The principal duty of the Eleven was the care and manage- ment of the public prison (Seo-jiuonjpioi'), which was entirely under their jurisdiction. The prison, however, was seldom used by the Athenians as a mere place of confinement, serving generally for punishments and ex- ecutions. "When a person was condemned to death he was immediately given into the custody of the Eleven, who were then bound to carry the sentence into execution according to the laws. The most common mode of execution was by hemlock juice (KWVCIOV), which was drunk after sunset. The Eleven had under them gaolers, executioners, and torturers. When torture was inflicted in causes affecting the state, it was either done in the immediate presence of the Eleven, or by their servant (6 Sijjiuos). The Eleven usually had only to carry into execution the sentence passed in the courts of law and tte public assemblies ; but in some cases they possessed jurisdiction. This was the case in those summary proceedings called apagoge, ephegesis and endcixis, in which the penalty was fixed by law, and might be inflicted by the court on the confession or conviction of the accused, without appealing to any of the jury courts. HEPHAESTEIA. [LAJIP.VDEPHOKIA.] HERAEA (ipoua), the name of festivals celebrated in honour of Hera in all the towns of Greece where the worship of this divinity was introduced. The original seat of her worship was Argos ; whence her festivals in other places were, more or less, imitations of those which were celebrated at Argos. Her service was performed by the most distin- guished priestesses of the place ; one of them was the high-priestess, and the Argives counted their years by the date of her office. HERES. 203 HERES. The Ileraca of Argos were celebrated every fifth year. One of the great solemnities which took place on the occasion, was a mag- nificent procession to the great temple of Hera, between Argos and Mycenae. A vast number of young men assembled at Argos, and marched in armour to the temple of the goddess. They were preceded by one hun- dred oxen (eKardjii/jTj, whence the festival is also called eiSovs from aSeAiio) T\IO), and ep^oy\velov, were used as the generic terms for a sculp- tor, his art, and his studio. Houses in Athens had one of these statues placed at the door, called ep/urjs OTPO<uA5)i' tima.v')- It was provided for each tribe at the expense of a person belonging to that tribe, who was called ecmoTwp. HIERODtjLI (ZepdSouAoi), persons of both sexes, who were devoted like slaves to the worship of the gods. They were of Eastern IIIEROMXEMOXES. 205 HISTRIO. origin, and are most frequently met with in connection with the worship of the deities of Syria, Phoenicia, and Asia Minor. They consisted of two classes ; one composed of slaves, properly so called, who attended to all the lower duties connected with the wor- ship of the gods, cultivated the sacred lands, &c., and whose descendants continued in the same servile condition ; and the other com- prising persons who were personally free, but had dedicated themselves as slaves to the gods, and who were either attached to the temples, or were dispersed throughout the country and brought to the gods the money they had gained. To the latter class belonged the women, who prostituted their persons, and presented to the gods the money they had obtained by this means. This class was only found in Greece, in connection with the worship of those divinities who were of Eastern origin, or whose religious rites were borrowed from the East. This was the case with Aphrodite (Venus), who was originally an Oriental goddess. HIEROMNEMOXES (Upojxi^/xoi'es), the more honourable of the two classes of repre- sentatives who composed the Amphictyonic council. An account of them is given under AMPHICTTOSES. We also read of hieromne- mones in Grecian states, distinct from the Amphictyonic representatives of this name. Thus the priests of Poseidon, at Megara, were called hieromnemones, and at Byzantium, which was a colony of Megara, the chief magistrate in the state appears to have been called by this name. HIERONlCAE. [ATHLETAE.] HlEROPOII (iepoiroioi), sacrificers at Athens, of whom ten were appointed every year, and conducted all the usual sacrifices, as well as those belonging to the quinquen- nial festivals, with the exception of those of the Panathenaea. H1LARIA (Uopio), a Roman festival, cele- brated on the 25th of March, in honour of Cybele', the mother of the gods. HIPPOBOTAE (tmro/SoTot), the feeders of horses, the name of the nobility of Chalcis in Euboea, corresponding to the imrcis in other Greek states. _ HIPPODROMUS (iTnroSpo/ios), the name by which the Greeks designated the place ap- propriated to the horse-races, both of chariots and of single horses, which formed a part of their games. The word was also applied to the races themselves. In Homer's vivid de- scription (II. xxiii., 262 650) the nature of the contest and the arrangements for it are very clearly indicated. There is no artificially constructed hippodrome ; but an existing land-mark or monument (cnj/^a) is chosen &s the goal (reppa), round which the chariots had to pass, leaving it on the left hand, and so returning to the Greek ships on the sea- shore, from which they had started. The chariots were five in number, each with two horses and a single driver, who stood upright in his chariot. The critical point of the race was to turn the goal as sharp as possible, with the nave of the near wheel almost grazing it, and to do this safely : very often the driver was here thrown out, and the chariot broken in pieces. The account in Homer will give us an equally good idea of a chariot-race at Olympia, or in any other of the Greek games of later times. The general form of the hippodrome was an oblong, with a semicircular end. For an account of the chariot races at Rome see CIRCUS. HISTRIO (uiroicpmjs), an actor. (1) GREEK. It is shown in the articles CHORUS and DIONYSIA that the Greek drama origi- nated in the chorus which at the festivals of Dionysus danced around his altar, and that at first one person detached himself from the chorus, and, with mimic gesticulation, re- lated his story either to the chorus or in con- versation with it. If the story thus acted required more than one person, they were all represented in succession by the same actor, and there was never more than one person on the stage at a time. This custom was re- tained by Thespis and Phrynichus. Aeschy- lus introduced a second and a third actor ; and the number of three actors was but sel- dom exceeded in any Greek drama. The three regular actors were distinguished by the technical names of irpwTerywwoTTJs.SevTepa- ywi/ionjs, and Tptraywi'ioTT/s, which indicated the more or less prominent part which an actor had to perform in the drama. The female . characters of a play were always performed by young men. A distinct class of persons, who made acting on the stage their profes- sion, was unknown to the Greeks during the period of their great dramatists. The earliest and greatest dramatic poets, Thespis, Sopho- cles, and probably Aeschylus also, acted in their own plays, and in all probability as protagonistae. It was not thought degra- ding in Greece to perform on the stage. At a later period persons began to devote them- selves exclusively to the profession of actors, and distinguished individuals received even as early as the time of Demosthenes exorbi- tant sums for their performances. (2) ROMAN. The word histrio, by which the Roman actor was called, is said to have been formed from the Etruscan hister, which sig- nified a ludio or dancer. In the year 364 B. c. Rome was visited by a plague, and as no human means could stop it, the Romans are HOMOEI. 206 HOROLOGIU3J. said to have tried to avert the anger of the gods by scenic plays (ludi sccnici), which, until then, had been unknown to them ; and as there were no persons at Rome prepared for such performances, the Romans sent to Etruria for them. The first histriones, who were thus introduced from Etruria, were dancers, and performed their movements to the accompaniment of a flute. Roman youths afterwards not only imitated these dancers, but also recited rude and jocose verses, adapted to the movements of the dance and the melody of the flute. This kind of amuse- ment, which was the basis of the Roman drama, remained unaltered until the time of Livius Andronicus, who introduced a slave upon the stage for the purpose of singing or reciting the recitative, while he himself per- formed the appropriate dance and gesticula- tion. A further step in the development of the drama, which is likewise ascribed to Livius, was, that the dancer and reciter carried on a dialogue, and acted a story with the accompaniment of the flute. The name histrio, which originally signified a dancer, was now applied to the actors in the drama. The atellanae were played by frecborn Ro- mans, while the regular drama was left to the histriones, who formed a distinct class of persons. The histriones were not citizens ; they were not contained in the tribes, nor allowed to be enlisted as soldiers in the Roman legions ; and if any citizen entered the profession of an histrio, he, on this ac- count, was excluded from his tribe. The histriones were therefore always either frecd- nien, strangers, or slaves, and many passages of Roman writers show that they were gene- rally held in great contempt. Towards the close of the republic it was only such men as Cicero, who, by their Greek education, raised themselves above the prejudices of their countrymen, and valued the person no less than the talents of an Aesopus and a Ros- cius. But notwithstanding this low estima- tion in which actors were generally held, distinguished individuals among them at- tracted immense crowds to the theatres, and were exorbitantly paid. Roscius alone re- ceived every day that he performed one thousand denarii, and Aesopus left his son a fortune of 200,000 sesterces, which he had acquired solely by his profession. The pay of the actors was called Iticar, which word was perhaps confined originally to the pay- ment made to those who took part in the religious services celebrated in groves. HOMOEI (O/AOIOI), the Equals, were those Spartans who possessed the full rights of citizenship, and are opposed to the un-o/ueioj'es, or those who had undergone some kind of civil degradation. This distinction between the citi/ens was no part of the ancient Spar- tan constitution. In the institution ascribed to Lycurgus, every citi/.en had a certain por- tion of land ; bnt as in course of time many citizens lost their lands through, various causes, they were unable to contribute to the expenses of the syssitia, and therefore ceased to possess the full rights of Spartan citizens. Hence the distinction appears to have arisen between the Voiot and uironet'oi'e?, the former being those who were in the possession of their laud, and consequently able to contri- bute to the syssitia, the latter those who through having no land were unable to do so. The Homoei were the ruling class in the state. They filled all the public offices with the exception of the Ephoralty, and they pro- bably met together to determine upon public affairs under the name of eij.iY), in the middle of which the perpendicular staff or finger (/rwjucoi/) Tvas erected, and in it the twelve parts of the day were marked by lines. Another kind of horologium was the clep- sydra (KAei//v'Spa). It derived its name from KkevTeiv and v'&op, as in its original and simple form it consisted of a vessel with several little openings (rpumj/xcrra) at the bottom, through which the water contained in it escaped, as it were by stealth. This in- strument seems at first to have been used only for the purpose of measuring the time during which persons were allowed to speak in the courts of justice at Athens. It was a hollow globe, probably somewhat flat at the top-part, where it had a short neck (avAd?), like that of a bottle, through which the water was poured into it. This opening might be closed by a lid or stopper (voifj.a), to prevent the water running out at the bottom. As the time for speaking in the Athenian courts was thus measured by water, the orators fre- quently use the term v&' i/Swp) was appointed in the courts for the purpose of watching the clepsydra, and stop- ping it when any documents were read, whereby the speaker was interrupted. The time, and consequently the quantity of water allowed to a speaker, depended upon the im- portance of the case. The clepsydra used in the courts of justice was, properly speaking, no horologium ; but smaller ones, made of glass, and of the same simple structure, were undoubtedly used very early in families for the purposes of ordinary life, and for dividing the day into twelve equal parts. In these glass-clepsydrae the division into twelve parts must have been visible, either on the glass globe itself, or in the basin into which the water .flowed. The first horologium with which the Romans became acquainted was a sun-dial (solarium or horologium sciotheri- cmn], and was said to have been brought to Rome by Papirius Cursor twelve years before the war with Pyrrhus. But as sun-dials were useless when the sky was cloudy, P. Scipio Nasica, in his censorship, 159 B.C., established a public clepsydra, which indi- cated the hours both of day and night. This clepsydra was in aftertimes generally called solarium. After the time of Scipio Nasica several horologia, chiefly solaria, seem to have been erected in various public places at Rome. Clepsydrae were used by the Romans in their camps, chiefly for the purpose of measuring accurately the four vigiliae into which the night was divided. The custom of using clepsydrae as a check upon the speakers in the courts of justice at Rome, was introduced by a law of Cn. Pompeius, in his third consulship. Before that time the speakers had been under no restrictions, but spoke as long as they deemed proper. At Rome, as at Athens, the time allowed to the speakers depended upon the importance of the case. HJOPiREUM (wpetoi', v\aKeiov, airo- flrJKi)) was, according to its etymological signi- fication, a place in which ripe fruits, and especially corn, were kept, and thus an- swered to our granary. During the empire the name horreum was given to any place destined for the safe preservation of things o' any kind. Thus we find it applied to a place in which beautiful works of art were kept, to cellars (horrea fiibtcrranea, horrea vinaria), to depots for merchandise, and all sorts of provisions (horreum penarium}. Seneca even calls his library a horreum. But the more general application of the word horreum was to places for keeping fruit and corn ; and as some kinds of fruit required to be kept more dry than others, the ancients had besides the horrea subterranea, or cellars, two other kinds, one of which was built like every other house upon the ground ; but others (horrea pensilia or siiblimia) were erected above the ground, and rested upon posts or stone pillars, that the fruits kept in them might remain dry. From about the year 140 after Christ, Rome possessed two kinds of public horrea. The one class consisted of buildings in which the Romans might deposit their goods, and even their money, securities, and other valuables. The second and more im- portant class of horrea, which may be termed public granaries, were buildings in which a plentiful supply of corn was constantly kept at the expense of the state, and from which, in seasons of scarcity, the corn was distri- buted among the poor, or sold at a moderate price. HORTUS (KTJTTOS), garden. Our knowledge of the horticulture of the Greeks is very limited. In fact the Greeks seem to have had no great taste for landscape beauties, and the small number of flowers with which they were acquainted afforded but little induce- ment to ornamental horticulture. At Athens the flowers most cultivated were probably those used for making garlands, such as vio- lets and roses. In the time of the Ptolemies the art of gardening seems to have advanced in the favourable climate of Egypt so far, HOSPITIUM. 208 HOSPITIUM. that a succession of flowers was obtained all the year round. TLe Romans, like the Greeks, laboured under the disadvantage of a very limited flora. This disadvantage they endeavoured to overcome, by arranging the materials they did possess in such a way as to produce a striking effect. We have a very full description of a Roman garden in a letter of the younger Pliny, in which he de- scribes his Tuscan villa. In front of the portions there was generally a xystus, or flat piece of ground, divided into flower-beds of different shapes by borders of box. There were also such flower-beds in other parts of the garden. Sometimes they were raised so us to form terraces, and their sloping sides planted with evergreens or creepers. The most striking features of a Roman garden were lines of large trees, among which the plane appears to have been a great favourite, planted in regular order ; alleys or walks (am- bulationes] formed by closely clipped hedges of box, yew, cypress, and other evergreens ; beds of acanthus, rows of fruit-trees, espe- cially of vines, with statues, pyramids, foun- tains, and summer-houses (diaetac}. The trunks of the trees and the parts of the house or any other buildings which were visible from the garden, were often covered with ivy. In one respect the Roman taste differed most materially from that of the present day, namely, in their fondness for the ars topi- aria, which consisted in tying, twisting, or cutting trees and shrubs (especially the box) into the figures of animals, ships, letters, &e. ) Their principal garden-flowers seem to have been violets and roses, and they also had the crocus, narcissus, lily, gladiolus, iris, poppy, amaranth, and others. Conservatories and hot-houses are frequently mentioned by Mar- tial. Flowers and plants were also kept in the central place of the peristyle [ DOMES], on the roofs and in the windows of houses. An ornamental garden was also called tirida- Ilortue, Garden. (From a Painting at Herculancum.) rium, and the gardener topiarius or viridaritts. The common name for a gardener is villicus or cultor hortorum. HOSPITIUM (&via, rrpo^vCcC), hospitality, was in Greece, as well as at Rome, of a two- fold nature, either private or public, in so far as it was either established between in- dividuals, or between two states. (Hospitium pricatum and hospitlum publicwn, f evict and npofcpia.) In ancient Greece the stranger, as such (feVos and hostis], was looked upon as an enemy ; but whenever he appeared among another tribe or nation without any sign of hostile intentions, he was considered not only as one who required aid, but as a suppliant, and Zeus was the protecting deity of strangers and suppliants (Zevs feVios). On his arrival, therefore, the stranger was kindly received, and provided with every thing ne- cessary to make him comfortable. It seems to have been customary for the host, on the departure of the stranger, to break a die (aoroayoAos) in two, one half of which he himself retained, while the other half was given to the stranger ; and when at any future time they or their descendants met, they had a means of recognising each other, and the hospitable connection was renewed. Hospitality thus not only existed between the persons who had originally formed it, but was transferred as an inheritance from father to son. What has been said hitherto, only refers to hospitium pricatum ; but of far greater importance was the hospitium publi- cum (irpofevia, sometimes simply fevi'a) or public hospitality, which existed between two states, or between an individual or a family on the one hand, and a whole state on the other. Of the latter kind of public hospitality many instances are recorded, such as that between the Peisistratids and Sparta, in which the people of Athens had no share. The hospitium publicum among the Greeks arose undoubtedly from the hospitium priva- tum, and it may have originated in two ways. When the Greek tribes were governed by chieftains or kings, the private hospitality existing between the ruling families of two tribes may have produced similar relations between their subjects, which, after the abo- lition of the kingly power, continued to exist between the new republics as a kind of politi- HOSPITICM. 209 J1YACINTIIIA. rtl inheritance of former times. Or a person belonging to one state might have either extensive connections with the citizens of another state, or entertain great partiality for the other state itself, and thus offer to receive all those who came from that state either on private or puhlic business, and to act as their patron in his own city. This he at first did merely as a private individual, but the state to which he offered this kind service would naturally soon recognise and reward him for it. "When two states estab- lished public hospitality, and no individuals came forward to act as the representatives of their state, it was necessary that in each state persons should be appointed to show hospitality to, and watch over the interests of, all persons who came from the state con- nected by hospitality. The persons who were appointed to this office as the recognised agents of the state for which they acted were called proxeni (jrpofevoi), but those who un- dertook it voluntarily etheloproxcni (efleAoTrpo- levoi)- The office of proxenus, which bears : great resemblance to that of a modern consul I or minister-resident, was in some cases here- ' ditary in a particular family. "When a state appointed a proxenus, it either sent out one of its own citizens to reside in the other state, or it selected one of the citizens of this state, and conferred upon him the honour of proxenus. The former was, in early times, | the custom of Sparta, where the kings had i the right of selecting from among the Spar- tan citizens those whom they wished to send out as proxeni to other states. But in sub- sequent times this custom seems to have been given up, for we find that at Athens the family of Callias were the proxeni of Sparta, and at Argos, the Argive Alciphron. The principal duties of a proxenus were to receive those persons, especially ambassadors, who came from the state which he represented ; to procure for them admission to the assembly, and seats in the theatre ; to act as the patron of the strangers, and to mediate between the two states if any disputes arose. If a stranger died in the state, the proxenus of his country had to take care of the property of the de- ceased. The hospitality of the Romans was, as in Greece, either hospitium privatum or publicum. Private hospitality with the Ro- mans, however, seems to have been more accurately and legally defined than in Greece. The character of a hospes, i. e. a person con- nected with a Roman by ties of hospitality, was deemed even more sacred, and to have greater claims upon the host, than that of a person connected by blood or affinity. The relation of a hospes to his Roman friend was vext in importance to that of a cliens. The obligations which the connection of hospi- tality with a foreigner imposed upon a Ro- man, were to receive in his house his hospes when travelling ; and to protect, and, in case of need, to represent him as his patron in the courts of justice. Private hospitality thus gave to the hospes the claims upon his host which the client had on his patron, but with- out any degree of the dependence implied in the clientela. Private hospitality was estab- lished between individuals by mutual pre- sents, or by the mediation of a third person, and hallowed by religion ; for Jupiter hospi- talis was thought to watch over the jus hos- pitii, as Zeus xenios did with the Greeks, and the violation of it was as great a crime and impiety at Rome as in Greece. "When hospi- tality was formed, the two friends used to divide between themselves a tessera hospi- talis, by which, afterwards, they themselves or their descendants for the connection was hereditary as in Greece might recognise one another. Hospitality, when thus once estab- lished, could not be dissolved except by a formal declaration (renuntiatio), and in this case the tessera hospitalis was broken to pieces. Public hospitality seems likewise to have existed at a very early period among the nations of Italy ; but the first direct men- tion of public hospitality being established between Rome and another city, is after the Gauls had departed from Rome, when it was decreed that Caere should be rewarded for its good services by the establishment of public hospitality between the two cities. The public hospitality after the war with the Gauls gave to the Caerites the right of isopolity with Rome, that is, the civitas without the suffragium and the honores. [CoLoxiA.] In the later times of the republic we no longer find public hospitality estab- lished between Rome and a foreign state ; but a relation which amounted to the same thing was introduced in its stead, that is, towns were raised to the rank of municipia, and thus obtained the civitas without the suffragium and the honores; and when a town was desirous of forming a similar rela- tion with Rome, it entered into clientela to some distinguished Roman, who then acted as patron of the client-town. But the cus- tom of granting the honour of hospes publi- cus to a distinguished foreigner by a decree of the senate, seems to have existed down to the end of the republic. His privileges were the same as those of a municeps, that is, he had the civitas, but not the suffragium or the honores. Public hospitality was, like the hos- pitium privatum, hereditary in the family of the person to whom it had been granted. HYACINTUIA CwoKi'i^ia), a great nations' HYBREOS GRAPHE. 210 IMMUN1TAS. festival, celebrated every year at Amyclae by the Amyclaeans and Spartans, probably in nonour of the Amyclaean Apollo and Hyacin- tlius together. This Amyclaean Apollo, how- ever, with whom Hyacinthus was assimilated in later times, must not be confounded with Apollo, the national divinity of the Dorians. The festival was called after the youthful hero Hyacinthus, who evidently derived his name from the flower hyacinth (the emblem of death among the ancient Greeks), and whom Apollo accidentally struck dead with a quoit. The Hyacinthia lasted for three days, and began on the longest day of the Spartan month Hecatombeus, at the time when the tender flowers, oppressed by the heat of the sun, drooped their languid heads. On the first and last day of the Hyacinthia sacrifices were offered to the dead, and the death of Hyacinthus was lamented. During these two days, nobody wore any garlands at the repasts, nor took bread, but only cakes and similar things, and when the solemn repasts were over, everybody went home in the greatest quiet and order. The second day, however, was wholly spent in public rejoicings and amusements, such as horse-races, dances, processions, &c. The great importance attached to this festival by the Amyclaeans and Lacedaemonians is seen from the fact, that the Amyclaeans, even when they had taken the field against an enemy, always returned home on the ap- proach of the season of the Hyacinthia, that they might not be obliged to neglect its cele- bration ; and that in a treaty with Sparta, B.C. 421, the Athenians, in order to show their good-will towards Sparta, promised every year to attend the celebration of this festival. HYBREOS GRAPHE (v(3pev'). The severity of the sentence extended to confisca- tion or death. HYDRAULIS (vSpavXis), an hydraulic or- gan, invented by Ctesibius of Alexandria, who lived about B. c. 200. Its pipes were partly of bronze, and partly of reed. The number of its stops, and consequently of its rows of pipes, varied from one to eight. It continued in use so late as the ninth century of our era. The organ was well adapted to gratify the Roman people in the splendid entertain- ments provided for them by the emperors and other opulent persons. Nero was very curious about organs, both in regard to their musical effect and their mechanism. A con- torniate coin of this emperor, in the Bri- tish Museum, shows an organ with a sprig of laurel on one side, and a man standing on the other. Hydraulis, water-organ. (Coin of Nero in British Museum. 1 HYDRIAPHORIA (uSpia^opia), -was the carrying of a vessel with water (vSpi'a), which service the married alien (jieroutoi) women had to perform to the married part of the female citizens of Athens, when they walked to the temple of Athena in the great proces- sion at the Panathenaea. HYPORCHEMA (\nr6pxrnj.a\ a lively kind of mimic dance which accompanied the songs used in the worship of Apollo, especially among the Dorians. A chorus of singers at the festivals of Apollo usually danced around the altar, while several other persons were appointed to accompany the action of the song with an appropriate mimic performance (vTropxeto'CaO. The hyporchema was thus a lyric dance, and often passed into the playful and comic. IDTJS. [CALENDASIUM.] IGNOMINIA. [CEXSOB; INFAMIA.] IGNOBILES. [NOBILES.] IMAGO, a representation or likeness, an image or figure of a person. Among the Romans those persons, who had filled any oi the higher or curule magistracies of the state, had the right of having images of themselves. Respecting this.; MS imaginum see NOBILES. IMMUNITAS (from in and mumis), sig- nifies, (1) A freedom from taxes. (2) A freedom from services which other citizens had to discharge. "With respect to the first kind of iminunitas we find that the emperors frequently granted it to separate persons, or to certain classes of persons, or to whols states. The second kind of immunitas was granted to all persons who had a valid excuse IMPERATOR. 211 INCENDIUM. (cxcvsatio) to be released from such services, and also to other persons as a special favour. The immunitas might be either general, from all services which a citizen owed to the state, or special, such as from military service, from taking the office of tutor or guardian, and the like. IMPERATOR. [iMPEnruM.] IMPERIUM, was under the republic a power, without which no military operation could be carried on as in the name and on the behalf of the state. It was not incident to any office, and was always specially con- ferred by a lex curiata, that is, a lex passed in the comitia curiata. Consequently, not even a consul could act as commander of an army, unless he were empowered by a lex curiata. It could not be held or exercised within the city in the republican period ; but it was sometimes conferred specially upon an individual for the day of his triumph within the city, and at least, in some cases, by a plebiscitum. As opposed to potestas, imperium is the power which was conferred by the stat upon an individual who was appointed to command an army. The phrases consularis potestas and consulare imperium might both be properly used ; but the ex- pression tribunltia potestas only could be used, as the tribuni never received the im- perium. In respect of his imperium, he who received it was styled imperator. After a victory it was usual for the soldiers to salute their commander as imperator, but this salu- tation neither gave nor confirmed the title, since the title as a matter of course was given with the imperium. Under the re- public the title came properly after the name ; thus Cicero, when he was proconsul in Ci- licia, could properly style himself M. Tullius Cicero Imperator, for the term merely ex- pressed that he had the imperium. The emperors Tiberius and Claudius refused to assume the praenomen of imperator, but the use of it as a praenomen became established among their successors. The term imperium was applied in the republican period to express the sovereignty of the Roman state. Thus Gaul is said by Cicero to have come under the imperium and ditio of the populus Komanus. IMPLUVIUM. [DOMUS.] IMPUBES. An infans was incapable of doing any legal act. An impubes, who had passed the limits of infantia, could do any legal act with the auctoritas of his tutor. With the attainment of pubertas, a person obtained the full power over his property, and the tutela ceased : he could also dispose of his property by will ; and he could con- tract marriage. Pubertas, in the ease of a male, was attained with the completion of the fourteenth, and, in a female, with the completion of the twelfth year. Upon attain- ing the age of puberty a Roman youth assumed the toga virilis, but until that time he wore the toga praetexta, the broad purple hem of which (praetexta) at once distinguised him from other persons. The toga virilis was assumed at the Liberalia in the month of March, and though no age appears to have been "positively fixed for the ceremony, it probably took place as a general rule on the feast which next followed the completion of the fourteenth year ; though it is certain that the completion of the fourteenth year was not always the time observed. Still, so long as a male wore the praetexta, he was impubes, and when he assumed the toga virilis, he was pubes. INAUGURATIO, was in general the cere- mony by which the augurs obtained, or en- deavoured to obtain, the sanction of the gods to something which had been decreed by man ; in particular, however, it was the ceremony by which things or persons were consecrated to the gods, whence the terras dedicatio and consccratio were sometimes used as synonymous with inauguratio. Not only were priests inaugurated, but also the higher magistrates, who for this purpose were summoned by the augurs to appear on the capitol, on the third day after their election. This inauguratio conferred no priestly dignity upon the magistrates, but was merely a me- thod of obtaining the sanction of the gods to their election, and gave them the right to take auspicia ; and on important emergencies it was their duty to make use of this privi- lege. INAURIS, an ear-ring ; called in Greek evtanov, because it was worn in the ear (ols), and cAAd^iov, because it was inserted into the lobe of the ear (A.o/3os), which was bored for the purpose. Ear-rings were worn by both sexes in oriental countries. Among the Greeks and Romans they were worn only by females. This ornament consisted of the ring (/cpocos), and of the drops (stalagmia). The ring was generally of gold, although the common people also wore ear-rings of bronze. Instead of a ring a hook was often used. The drops were sometimes of gold, very finely wrought, and sometimes of pearls. INCENDIUM, the crime of setting any object on fire, by which the property of a man is endangered. A law of the Twelve Tables inflicted a severe punishment on the person who set fire to property maliciously (sciens, prudens) ; but if it was done by ac- cident (casu, id est, ncgligcntia), the law obliged the offender to repair the injury he p 2 INCESTUM. INJURIA. had committed. Sulla, in his Lex Cornelia de Slcariis, punished malicious (dolo malo) incendium, but only in the city, or within a thousand paces of it, -with aquae et ignis in- terdictio. Cn. Pompeius, in B. c. 52, made incendium a crime of Vis by \\isLezPompeia de Vi, in consequence of the burning of the Curia and the Porcia Basilica on the burial of Clodius ; and Julius Caesar also included it in his Lex Julia de Vi. Besides the two criminal prosecutions given by the Lex Cor- nelia and Lex Julia, a person could also bring actions to recover compensation for the injury done to his property. INCESTUM or INCESTUS. Incestum is non castum, and signifies generally all im- moral and irreligious acts. In a narrower sense it denotes the unchastity of a Vestal, and sexual intercourse of persons within certain degrees of consanguinity. Incest with a Vestal was punished with the death of both parties. [VESTALES.] INCUNABULA or CUNABULA (cnrap-ya- vov), swaddling-clothes, in which a new-born child was wrapped. It was one of the pecu- liarities of the Lacedaemonian education to dispense with the use of incunabula, and to allow children to enjoy the free use of their limbs. Incunabula, swaddling-clothes. (From a Bas-relief nt Home.) INDUTUS. [AMICTUS.] INFAMIA, was a consequence of condem- nation for certain crimes, and also a direct consequence of certain acts, such as adultery, prostitution, appearing on the public stage as an actor, &c. A person who became infa- mis lost the suffragium and honores, and was degraded to the condition of an aerariim. Infamia should be distingushed from the Nota Oensoria, the consequence of which was only iffnominia. [CENSOR:] INFANS, INFANTIA. In the Roman law there were several distinctions of age which were made with reference to the capa- city for doing legal acts : 1 . The first pe- riod was from birth to the end of the seventh year, during which time persons were called Infantes, or Qui fari non possunt. 2. The second period was from the end of seven years to the end of fourteen or twelve years, ac- cording as the person was a male or a female, during which persons were defined as those Qui fan posswit. The persons included in these first two classes were Impuberes. 3. The third period was from the end of the twelfth or fourteenth to the end of the twenty-fifth year, during which period per- sons were Adolescentes, Atiu'ti. The persons included in these three classes were minores xxv annis or annorum, and were often, for brevity's sake, called minores only [CURATOR] ; and the persons included in the third and fourth class were Piibcres. 4. The fourth period was from the age of twenty-five, dur- ing which persons were Majoi-es. INFERIAE. [FUNUS.] INFULA, a flock of white and red wool, which was slightly twisted, drawn into the form of a wreath or fillet, and used by the Romans for ornament on festive and solemn occasions. In sacrificing it was tied with a white band [VITTA] to the head of the victim and also of the priest. INGENUI, were those free men who were born free. Consequently, freedmen (liber- tini) were not ingenui, though the sons of libertini were ingenui ; nor could a libertinus by adoption become ingcnuus. The words ingcnuus and libertinus are often opposed to one another ; and the title of freeman (liber), which would comprehend libertinus, is some- times limited by the addition of ingcnuus (li- ber et ingenuus.} Under the empire a per- son, not ingenuus by birth, could be made ingenuus by the emperor. INJURIA. Injiiria, in the general sense, is opposed to Jus. In a special sense injuria was done by striking or beating a man either with the hand or with anything ; by abusive words (conviciuni) ; by the proscriptio bono- rum, when the claimant knew that the al- leged debtor was not really indebted to him ; by libellous writings or verses ; by soliciting a mater familias, &c. The Twelve Tables had various provisions on the subject of In- juria. Libellous songs or verses were fol- lowed by capital punishment. In the case of a limb being mutilated the punishment was Talio. In the case of a broken bone, the penalty was 300 asses if the injury was done to a freeman, and 150 if it was done to a slave. In other cases the Tables fixed tte IX OA. 213 INTERREX. penalty at 25 asses. These penalties were afterwards considered to be insufficient ; and the injured person was allowed by the prae- tor to claim such damages as he thought that he was entitled to, and the judex might give the full amount or less. Infamia was a con- sequence of condemnation in an actio Inju- riarum. INOA (iywa), festivals celebrated in several parts of Greece, in honour of Ino. INQUILINUS. [EXSILIUM.] INSTITA (TrfpiKoSiov), a flounce ; a fillet. The Roman matrons sometimes wore a broad fillet with ample folds, sewed to the bottom of the tunic and reaching to the instep. The use of it indicated a superior regard to de- cency and propriety of manners. INSULA was, properly, a house not joined to the neighbouring houses by a common wall. An insula, however, generally con- tained several separate houses, or at least separate apartments or shops, which were let to different families ; and hence the word damns under the emperors seems to be ap- plied to the house where a family lived, whether it were an insula or not, and insula to any hired lodgings. INTERCESSIO was the interference of a magistratus to whom an appeal [APPELLATIO] was made. The object of the intercessio was to put a stop to proceedings, on the ground of informality or other sufficient cause. Any magistratus might intercedcrc, who was of equal rank with or of rank superior to the magistratus from or against whom the appel- latio was. Cases occur in which one of the praetors interposed (iniercessit) against the proceedings of his colleague. The intercessio is most frequently spoken of with reference to the tribunes, who originally had not juris- dictio, but used the intercessifl for the pur- pose of preventing wrong which was offered to a person in their presence. The intercessio of the tribunes of the plebs was auxilium, and it might be exercised either in jure or in judicio. The tribune qui interccssit could prevent a judicium from being instituted. The tribunes could also use the intercessio to prevent execution of a judicial sentence. A single tribune could effect this, and against the opinion of his colleagues. IXTERCISI DIES. [DIES.] INTERDICTUM. " In certain cases (cer- tis ex causis) the praetor or proconsul, in the first instance (principaliter), exercises his authority for the termination of disputes. This he chiefly does when the dispute is about possession or quasi-possession ; and the exercise of his authority consists in ordering something to be done, or forbidding some- thing to be done. The formulae and the terms, which he uses on such occasions, are called either interdict a or decreta. They are called decreta when he orders something to be done, as when he orders something to be produced (exhiberi) or to be restored : they are called interdicta when he forbids some- thing to be done, as when he orders that force shall not be used against a person who is in possession rightfully (sine vitio), or that nothing shall be done on a piece of sacred ground. Accordingly all interdicta are either rcstitutoria, or exhibitoria, or probi- bitoria." This passage, which is taken from Gains, the Roman jurist, contains the essen- tial distinction between an actio and an inter- dictum. In the case of an actio, the praetor pronounces no order or decree, but he gives a judex, whose business it is to investigate the matter in dispute, and to pronounce a sentence consistently with the formula, which is his authority for acting. In the case of an actio, therefore, the praetor neither orders nor forbids a thing to be done, but he says, Judicium dabo. In the case of an inter- dict, the praetor makes an order that some- thing shall be done or shall not be done, and his words are accordingly words of command ; Restituas, Exhibeas, Vim fieri veto. This im- mediate interposition of tie praetor is appro- priately expressed by the word principaliter. INTERl'RES, an "interpreter. This class of persons became very numerous and neces- sary to the Romans as their empire extended. In large mercantile towns the interpreters, who formed a kind of agents through whom business was done, were sometimes very numerous. All Roman praetors, proeonsuls, and quaestors, who were entrusted with the administration of a province, had to carry on all their official proceedings in the Latin lan- guage, and as they could not be expected to be acquainted with the language of the- pro- vincials, they had always among their ser- vants [APPARITORES] one or more interpreters, who were generally Romans, but in most cases undoubtedly freedmen. These inter- preters had not only to officiate at the conventus [COXVEXTUS], but also explained to the Roman governor everything which the provincials might wish to be laid before him. INTERREGNUM. [INTERREX.] INTERREX. This office is said to have been instituted on the death of Romulus, when the senate wished to share the sovereign Bpwer among themselves, instead of electing a king. For this purpose, according to Livy, the senate, which then consisted of one hun- dred members, was divided into ten decuries ; and from each of these decuries one senator was nominated. These together formed a board of ten, with the title of Interreyet, ISTIITUIA. 214 JANUA. each of whom enjoyed in succession the regal power and its badges for five days ; and if no king was appointed at the expiration of fifty days, the rotation began anew. The period during which they exercised their power was called an Interregnum. These ten interreges were the Decem Primi, or ten leading sena- tors, of whom the first was chief of the whole senate. The interreges agreed among them- selves who should be proposed as king, and if the senate approved of their choice, they summoned the assembly of the curiae, and proposed the person whom they had previ- ously agreed upon ; the power of the curiae was confined to accepting or rejecting him. Interreges were appointed under the republic for holding the comitia for the election of the consuls, when the consuls, through civil com- motions or other causes, had been unable to do so in their year of office. Each held the office for only five days, as under the kings. The comitia were hardly ever held by the first interrex ; more usually by the second or third ; but in one instance we read of an eleventh, and in another of a fourteenth in- terrex. The interreges under the republic, at least from B. c. 482, were elected by the senate from the whole body, and were not confined to the decem primi or ten chief se- nators, as under the kings. Plebeians, how- ever, were not admissible to this office ; and consequently, when plebeians were admitted into the senate, the patrician senators met without the plebeian members to elect an in- terrex. For this reason, as well as on ac- count of the influence which the interrex exerted in the election of the magistrates, we find that the tribunes of the plebs were strongly opposed to the appointment of an interrex. The interrex had jurisdictio. In- terreges continued to be appointed occasion- ally till the time of the second Punic war, but after that time we read of no interrex, till the senate, by command of Sulla, created an interrex to hold the comitia for his elec- tion as dictator, u. c. 82. In u. c. 55 ano- ther interrex was appointed, to hold the comitia in which Pompey and Crassus were elected consuls ; and we also read of inter- reges in B. c. 53 and 52, in the latter of which years an interrex held the comitia in which Pompey was appointed sole consul. ISTIIMIA (Zo-fyua), the Isthmian games, one of the four great national festivals of the Greeks. This festival derived its name frota the Corinthian isthmus, where it was held. Subsequent to the age of Theseus the Isthmia were celebrated in honour of Poseidon ; and this innovation is ascribed to Theseus him- self. The celebration of the Isthmia was conducted by the Corinthians, but Theseus had reserved for his Athenians some honour- able distinctions : those Athenians who at- tended the Isthmia sailed across the Saronio gulf in a sacred vessel (fccopi's), and an ho- norary place (jrpoeSpi'a), as large as the sail of their vessel, was assigned to them during the celebration of the games. In times of war between the two states a sacred truce was concluded, and the Athenians were in- vited to attend at the solemnities. These games were celebrated regularly every other year, in the first and third years of each Olympiad. After the fall of Corinth, in 146 B. c., the Sicyonians were honoured with the privilege of conducting the Isthmian games ; but when the town of Corinth was rebuilt by Julius Caesar, the right of conducting the so- lemnities was restored to the Corinthians. The season of the Isthmian solemnities was, like that of all the great national festivals, dis- tinguished by general rejoicings and feasting. The contests and games of the Isthmia were the same as those at Olympia, and embraced all the varieties of athletic performances, such as wrestling, the pancratium, together with horse and chariot racing. Musical and poetical contests were likewise carried on, and in the latter women were also allowed to take part. The prize of a victor in the Isthmian games consisted at first of a garland of pine-leaves, and afterwards of a wreath of ivy. Simple as such a reward was, a victor in these games gained the greatest distinc- tion and honour among his countrymen ; and a victory not only rendered the individual who obtained it a subject of admiration, but shed lustre over his family, and the whole town or community to which he belonged. Hence Solon established by a law, that every Athenian who gained the victory at the Isthmian games should receive from the public treasury a reward of one hundred drachmae. His victory was generally cele- brated in lofty odes, called Epinikia, or tri- umphal odes, of which we still possess some beautiful specimens among the poems of Pindar. TACULTJM. [HASTA.-] tl J5.NUA (Svpa), a door. Besides being applicable to the doors of apartments in the interior of a house, which were properly called ostia, this term more especially denoted the first entrance into the house, t. e. the front or street door, which was also called antieum, and in Greek Ovpa auAeios, avAeia, auAtos, or avAia. The houses of the Romans commonly had a back door, called posticum, postica, or posticula, and in Greek irapdfl JENTACULTJM. 215 JUDEX. Aim. Ttapa.6vpi.ov. The door-way, when com- plete, consisted of four indispensable parts ; the threshold, or sill (limen, /SrjAds, ovSas) ; the lintel (jugumentum, limen superum] ; and the two jambs (pastes, oraflftoi). The door itself was called foris or vah-a, and in Greek vavis, K\imAf, or Ovptrpov. These words are commonly found in the plural, because the door-way of every building of the least importance contained two doors folding together. When foris is used in the singular, it denotes one of the folding doors only. The fastenings of the door (claustra, obices) commonly consisted of a bolt (pes- sulus ; jxapSaAo?, KaTOxevs, K\eldpov) placed at the base of each for is, so as to admit of being pushed into a socket made in the sill to receive it. By night, the front-door of the house was further secured by means of a wooden and sometimes an iron bar (sera, rcpagula, f-<>x^ s ) placed across it, and in- serted into sockets on each side of the door- way. Hence it was necessary to remove the bar (jov fiox^-ov ira.pdfapei.v') in order to open the door (reserare). It was considered im- proper to enter a house without giving notice to its inmates. This notice the Spartans gave by shouting ; the Athenians and all other nations by using the knocker, or more com- monly by rapping with the knuckles or with a stick (icpoueii', Konreii'). In the houses of the rich a porter (janitor, custos, flupwpos) was always in attendance to open the door. He was commonly an eunuch or a slave, and was chained to his post. To assist him in guarding the entrance, a dog was universally kept near it, being also attached by a chain to the wall ; and in reference to this prac- tice, the warning cave canem, eiAojSou -n\v icvva., was sometimes written near the door. The appropriate name for the portion of the house immediately behind the door (frvpiav) denotes that it was a kind of apartment ; it corresponded to the hall or lobby of our houses. Immediately adjoining it, and close to the front door, there was in many houses a small room for the porter. JENTACULUM. [COENA.] JUDEX, JUDICIUM. A Eoman magis- tratus generally did not investigate the facts in dispute in such matters as were brought before Mm : he appointed a judex for that purpose, and gave him instructions. [AcTio.] Accordingly, the whole of civil procedure was expressed by the two phrases Jus and Judi- cium, of which the former comprehended all that took place before the magistrates (in jure], and the latter all that took place before the judex (in judicio). In many cases a single judex was appointed : in others, several were appointed, and they seem to have been sometimes called recuperatores, as opposed to the single judex. Under certain circum- stances the judex was called arbiter : thus judex and arbiter are named together in the Twelve Tables. A judex when appointed was bound to discharge the functions of the office, unless he had some valid excuse (excusalio). There were certain seasons of the year when legal business was done at Rome, and at these times the services of the judices were required. These legal terms were regulated according to the seasons, so that there were periods of vacation. When the judex was appointed, the proceedings in jure or before the praetor were terminated. The parties appeared before the judex on the third day (comperendinatio], unless the prae- tor had deferred the judicium for some suffi- cient reason. The judex was generally aided by advisers (Jurisconsulti) learned in the law, who were said in consilio adesse ; but the judex alone was empowered to give judg- ment. The matter was first briefly stated to the judex (causae conjectio, collectio), and the advocates of each party supported his cause in a speech. Witnesses were produced on both sides, and examined orally : the witnesses on one side were also cross-examined by the other. After all the evidence was given and the advocates had finished, the judex gave sentence : if there were several judices, a majority decided. If the matter was one of difficulty, the hearing might be adjourned as often as was necessary (am- pliatio] ; and if the judex could not come to a satisfactory conclusion, he might declare this upon oath, and so release himself from the difficulty. This was done by the form of words non liquere (N. L.). The sentence was pronounced orally, and was sometimes first written on a tablet. If the defendant did not make his appearance after beiig duly summoned, judgment might be given against him. According to Cicero, all judicla had for their object, either the settlement of dis- putes between individuals (controversiae), or the punishment of crimes (maleficia). This refers to a division of judicia, which appears in the jurists, into judicia pwblica and/KcKcia privata. The former, the judicia publica, succeeded to the judicia populi of the early republican period : the latter were so called because in them the populus acted as judices. Originally the kings presided in all criminal cases, and the consuls succeeded to thcil authority. But after the passing of the Lex Valeria (B.C. 507), which gave an appeal to the populus (that is, the comitia curiata) from the magistratus, the consul could not sit in judgment on the caput of a Roman citizen, but such cases were tried in the JUDEX. 216 JUDEX. comitia, or persons were appointed to pre- side at such inquiries, who were accordingly called Quaesitores or Quaestores parrtcidii or rerum capitalium. In course of time, as such cases became of more frequent occurrence, such quaestiones were made perpetual, that is, particular magistrates were appointed for the purpose. It was eventually determined, that while the praetor urbamis and peregrinus should continue to exercise their usual juris- dictions, the other praetors should preside at public trials. In such trials any person might be an accuser (accusator). The praetor generally presided as quaesitor, assisted by a judex quaestionis, and a body of judices called his consilium. The judices were generally chosen by lot out of those who were qualified to act ; but in some cases the accuser and the accused (reus} had the privilege of choos- ing (edere) a certain number of judices out of a large number, who were thence called Edititii. Both the aceusator and the reus had the privilege of rejecting or challenging (rejicere) such judices as they did not like. In many cases a lex was passed for the pur- pose of regulating the mode of procedure. The judices voted by ballot, at least generally, and a majority determined the acquittal or condemnation of the accused. Each judex was provided with three tablets (tabulae), on one of which was marked A, Absolvo ; on a second C, Condemno ; and on a third N. L., Ifon liguet. The judices voted by placing one of these tablets in the urns, which were then examined for the purpose of ascertain- ing the votes. It was the duty of the magis- tratus to pronounce the sentence of the judices ; in the case of condemnation, to adjudge the legal penalty ; of acquittal, to declare the accused acquitted ; and of doubt, to declare that the matter must be further in- vestigated (amplius cognoscendum], \judi- cium populi, properly so called, was one in which the case was tried in the comitia curi- ata, but afterwards in the comitia centuriata and tributa. The accuser, who must be a magistratus, commenced by declaring in a contio that he would on a certain day accuse a certain person, whom he named, of some offence, which he also specified. This wa: expressed by the phrase diem dicere. If the offender held any high office, it was neces- sary to wait till his time of service had expired, before proceedings could be thus commenced against him. The accused was required to give security for his appearance on the day of trial ; the security was called vades in a causa capitalis, and pracdes when the penalty for the alleged offence was pe- cuniary. If such security was not given, the accused was kept in confinement. II nothing prevented the inquiry from taking place at the time fixed for it, the trial pro- ceeded, and the accuser had to prove his case jy evidence. The investigation of the facts was called anquisitio with reference to the proposed penalty : accordingly, the phrases pecunia, capite or capitis anqulrere, are used. When the investigation was concluded, the magistratus promulgated a rogatio, which comprehended the charge and the punish- ment or fine. It was a rule of law that a fine should not be imposed together with another punishment in the same rogatio. The rogatio was made public during three nundinae, like any other lex, and proposed at the comitia for adoption or rejection. The accused sometimes withdrew into exile before the votes were taken ; or he might make his defence. The offences which were the chief subject of judicia populi and publica were majestas, ndulteria and stupra, parricidium, falsum, vis publica and privata, peculatus, repetundae, ambitus.' With the passing of special enactments for the punishment of particular offences, was introduced the prac- tice of forming a body of judices for the trial of such offences as the enactments were directed against. The Album Judicum was the body out of which judices were to be chosen. It is not known what was the num- ber of the body so constituted, but it has been conjectured that the number was 350, and that ten were chosen from each tribe, and thus the origin of the phrase Decuriae Judicum is explained. It is easy to conceive that the judicia populi, properly so called, would be less frequent, as special leges were framed for particular offences, the circum- stances of which could be better investigated by a smaller body of judices than by the assembled people. The Lex Servilia (B. c. 104) enacted that the judices should not be under thirty nor above sixty years of age, that the accuser and accused should severally propose one hundred judices, and that each might reject fifty from the list of the other, so that one hundred would remain for thu trial. Up to B. c. 1 2 2 the judices were always senators, but in this year the Sempronia Lex of C. Gracchus took the judicia from the senators and gave them to the cquites. This state of things lasted nearly fifty years, till Sulla (B. c. 80) restored the judicia to the senate, and excluded the equitcs from the album judicum. A Lex Aurelia (B. c. 70) enacted that the judices should be chosen from the three classes of senators, equites, and tribuni aerarii; and accordingly the ju- dicia were then said to be divided between the senate and the equites. The tribuni aerarii were taken from the rest of the JUGERUM. 217 JURISCONSULTI. citizens, and were, or ought to have been, persons of some property. Thus the three decuriae of judices were formed ; and it was either in consequence of the Lex Aurelia or the Lex Fufia that, instead of one urn for all the tablets, the decuriae had severally their balloting urn, so that the votes of the three classes were known. It is not known if the Lex Aurelia determined the number of judices in any given case. The Lex Pom- peia de Vi and De Ambitu (B. c. 52) deter- mined that eighty judices were to be selected by lot, out of whom the accuser and the accused might reject thirty. In the case of Clodius, in the matter of the Bona Dea, there were fifty-six judices. It is conjectured that the number fixed for a given case, by the Lex Aurelia, was seventy judices. Augustus added to the existing three decuriae judicum a fourth decuria, called that of the Ducenarii, who had a lower pecuniary qualification, and only decided in smaller matters. Caligula added a fifth decuria, in order to diminish the labours of the judices. JOGERUM, a Roman measure of surface, 240 feet in length and 120 in breadth, con- taining therefore 28,800 square feet. It was the double of the Actits Quadratiis, and from this circumstance, according to some writers, it derived its name. [Acxus.] The uncial division [As] was applied to the jitgen/m, its smallest part being the scnipulum of 10 feet square, = 100 square feet. Thus thejiifferum contained 288 scrupula. The jugerum was the common measure of land among the Ro- mans. Two jugera formed an heredium, a hundred heredia a centuria, and four cen- ttiriae a saltiis. These divisions were derived from the original assignment of landed pro- perty, in which two jugera were given to tach citizen as heritable property. JUGUM (fvyos, fryov), signified in general that which joined two things together, such as the transverse beam which united the up- right posts of a loom, the cross-bar of a lyre, a scale-beam, &c., but it denoted more espe- cially the yoke by which ploughs and car- riages were drawn. The following woodcut shows two examples of the yoke : the upper one is provided with two collars, the lower one with excavations cut in the yoke, in order to give more ease and freedom to the animals. The latter figure shows the method of tying the yoke to the pole (tcmo, pu/xos) by means of a leathern strap. The word /#? is often used to signify slavery, or the con- dition in which men are compelled, against their will, like oxen or horses, to labour for others. Hence, to express symbolically the subjugation of conquerel nations, the Ro- mans made their captives pass under a yoke (sub jttgum mittere), which, however, was not made like the yoke used in drawing car- riages or ploughs, but consisted of a spear supported transversely by two others placed upright. Juguni, yoke. JURISCOXSULTI or JURECOXSULTI arose among the Romans after the separation of the Jus Civile from the Jus Pontificium. Such a body certainly existed before the time of Cicero, and the persons who professed to expound the law were called by the various names ofjurisperiti, jurisconsulti, or consulti simply. They were also designated by other names, as jurispritdentes, prudentiores, peri- tiorcs, and juris anctores. The business of the early jurisconsulti consisted both in ad- vising and acting on behalf of their clients (consultores] gratuitously. They gave their advice or answers (responsa] either in public places which they attended at certain times, or at their own houses ; and not only on matters of law, but on any thing else that might be referred to them. The words scri- bere and caccre referred to their employment in drawing up formal instruments, such as contracts or wills, &c. At a later period, many of these functions were performed by persons who were paid by a fee, and thus there arose a body of practitioners distinct from those who gave responsa and who were writers and teachers. Tiberius Coruncanius, a plebeian, who was consul B. c. 281, and also the first plebeian Pontifex Maximus, is mentioned as the first who publicly professed (publice professus est), and he wae distin- guished both for his knowledge of the law and Ms eloquence. JURISDICTIO. 218 JUSJURANDUM. JURISDICTIO, signifies generally the au- thority of the magistrate " qui jus dicit," and is mostly applied to the authority of the praetor in civil cases, such as the giving of the formula in an actio and the appointment of a judex. [ACTIO.] JUS. The law peculiar to the Roman state is sometimes called Jus Civile Roma- norum, hut more frequently Jus Civile only. The Jus Quiritium is equivalent to the Jus Civile Romanorwn. The jus civile of the Ro- mans is divisible into two parts, jtts civile in the narrower sense, and jus pontificium, or the law of religion. This opposition is some- times expressed hy the words Jus and Fas. The law of religion, or the Jus Pontificium, was under the control of the pontifices, who in fact originally had the control of the whole mass of the law, and it was only after the separation of the jus civile in its wider eense into the two parts of the jus civile, in its narrower sense, and the jus pontificium, that each part had its proper and peculiar limits. Still, even after the separation, there was a mutual relation between these two branches of law ; for instance, an adrogatio was not valid by the jus civile unless it was valid by the jus pontificium. Again, jus pontificium, in its wider sense, as the law of religion, had its subdivisions, as into jus au- gurum, pontificium, &c. JUS CIVILE. [Jus.] JUS LATII. [CIVITAS; LATINITAS.] JUS PONTIFICIUM. [Jus.] JUS QUIRITIUM. [Jus.] JUSJURANDUM (opiiineperdant; dii me interficiant ; dispercatn; nevivam; ne sal- rus sim, &c. TV. Oaths taken before the prae- tor or in courts of justice. There might be a jusjurandum either injure or injudicio. The jusjurandum in jure is the oath which one party proposed to his adversary (detulif) that lie should make about the matter in dispute ; and the effect of the oath being taken or re- fused was equivalent to a judicium. The jusjurandum in judicio (jusjurandum jtidi- ciale) was required by the judex, and not by cither of the parties, though either of the parties might suggest it. JUSTITIUM, a cessation of public business of every kind. Thus the courts of law and the treasury were shut up, no ambassadors were received in the senate, and no auctions took place. The Justitium was proclaimed (edicere, indicere) by the senate and the ma- gistrates in times of public alarm and danger ; aud after confidence and tranquillity had been restored, the Justitium was removed (remitter e, cxuere] by the same authorities. As such times of alarm are usually accompa- nied with general sorrow, a Justitium came in course of time to be ordained as a mark of public mourning, and under the empire was only employed for this reason. JUVENALIA, or JUVENALES LUDI, scenic games instituted by Xero, in A. D. 59, in commemoration of his shaving his beard for the first time, thus intimating that ho had passed from youth to manhood. He was then in the twenty-second year of his age. These games were not celebrated in the circus, but in a private theatre erected in a pleasure- ground (nemus), and consisted of every kind of theatrical performance, Greek and Roman plays, mimetic pieces, and the like. The Ju- venalia continued to be celebrated by subse- quent emperors, but not on the same occa- sion. The name was given to those games which were exhibited by the emperors on the 1st of January in each year. They no longer consisted of scenic representations, but of chariot races and combats of wild beasts. LABARUM. [SlGNA MlHTAEIA.] LABRUM. [BALNEUM.] LABYRINTHUS (\a.pvpiv0o's'), a labyrinth, a large and complicated subterraneous cavern with numerous and intricate passages, similar to those of a mine. The earliest and most renowned labyrinth was that of Egypt, which lay beyond lake Moeris. It had 3000 apart- ments, 1500 under ground, and the same number above it, and the whole was sur- rounded by a wall. It was divided into courts, each of which was surrounded by colonnades of white marble. The second labyrinth men- tioned by the ancients was that of Crete, in the neighbourhood of Cnossus, where the Mi- notaur is said to have dwelt. Although the Cretan labyrinth is very frequently men- tioned by ancient authors, yet none of them speaks of it as an eyewitness. It was pro- bably some natural cavern in the neighbour- hood of Cnossus. A third labyrinth, the con- struction of which belongs to a more historical age, was that in the island of Lemnos. A fabulous edifice in Etruria is also mentioned, to which Pliny applies the name of labyrinth. It is described as being in the neighbourhood of Clusium, and as the tomb of Lar Porsena ; but no writer says that he ever saw it, or re- mains of it. LACERXA (juLvSvas, juavSurj), a cloak worn by the Romans over the toga. It differed from the paenula in being an open garment like the Greek pallium, and fastened on the right shoulder by means of a buckle (fibula}, whereas the paenula was what is called a vestimentum clausum with an open- ing for the head. The Lacerna appears tc LACIX1AE. 220 LATIN1TAS. have been commonly used in the army. In the time of Cicero it was not usually worn in the city, but it soou afterwards became quite common at Rome. The lacerna was some- times thrown over the head for the purpose of concealment ; but a cucullus or cowl was generally used for that purpose, which ap- pears to have been frequently attached to the lacerna, and to have formed a part of the dress. LACINIAE, the angular extremities of the toga, one of which was brought round over the left shoulder. It was generally tucked intc the girdle, but sometimes was allowed to hanj down loose. LACONICUM. [BALNEUM.] LACUNAR. [DOMUS.] LACUS. [Foxs.] LAENA (x^ali/a), a woollen cloak, the cloth of which was twice the ordinary thick- ness, shaggy upon both sides, and worn over the pallium or the toga for the sake of warmth. In later times the laena seems, to a certain extent, to have been worn as a sub- stitute for the toga. LAMPADEPHORIA (JUnTraSij^opi'a), torch- bearing, LAMPADEDROMIA (Aa/X7ra6i)pofu'a), torch-race, and often simply LAMPAS (Ao/n- iras), -was a game common throughout Greece. At Athens we know of five celebrations of this game : one to Prometheus at the Prome- theia, a second to Athena at the Panathenaca, a third to Hephaestos at the Ilephaesteia, a fourth to Pan, and a fifth to the Thracian Artemis or Bendis. The first three are of unknown antiquity ; the fourth was intro- duced soon after the battle of Marathon ; the last in the time of Socrates. The race was usually run on foot, horses being first used in the time of Socrates ; sometimes also at night. The preparation for it was a principal branch of the Gymnasiarchia, so much so indeed in later times, that the Lampadarcliia (A.o/u.7ra5ap- X'oO seems to have been pretty much equi- valent to the Gymnasiarchia. The gymna- siarch had to provide the lampas, which was a candlestick with a kind of shield set at the bottom of the socket, so as to shelter the name of the candle ; as is seen in the fol- lowing woodcut, taken from a coin. He had (Kfotn a Coin.) also to provide for the training of the run- ners, which was of no slight consequence, foi the nice was evidently a severe one, with other expenses, which on the whole were very heavy, so that Isaeus classes this office with the choregia and trierarchia, and reck- ons that it had cost him 12 minae. LAMPAS. [LAJirADEPHOBIA.] LANCEA. [HASTA.] LANISTA. [GLADIATORES.] LANX, a large dish, made of silver or some other metal, and sometimes embossed, used at splendid entertainments to hold meat or fruit ; and consequently at sacrifices and fu- neral banquets. LAPIIRIA (AaopeioiO, was a kind of couch or litter, in which persons, in a lying position, were carried from one place to another. Lecticae were used for carry- ing the dead [Fuuus] as well as the living. The Greek lectica consisted of a bed or mat- tress, and a pillow to support the head, placed upon a kind of bedstead or couch. It had a roof, consisting of the skin of an ox, extend- ing over the couch and resting on four posts. The sides of this lectica were covered with curtains. In the republican period it appears to have been chiefly used by women, and by men only when they were in ill health. "When this kind of lectiea was introduced among the Romans, it was chiefly used in travelling, and very seldom in Rome itself. But towards the end of the republic, and under the em- pire, it was commonly used in the city, ad was fitted up in the most splendid manner. Instead of curtains, it was frequently closed on the sides with windows made of transpa- rent stone (lapis spccularis], and was provided with a pillow and bed. When standing, it rested on four feet, generally made of wood. Persons were carried in a lectica by slaves (lecticaril), by means of poles (asseres) at- tached to it, but not fixed, so that they might easily be taken off when necessary. The number of lecticarii employed in carrying one lectica varied according to its size, and the display of wealth which a person might wish to make. The ordinary number was probably two ; but it varied from two to eight, and the lectica is called hexaphoron or octophoron, accordingly as it was carried by six or eight persons. LECTISTERNItlM. Sacrifices being of the nature of feasts, the Greeks and Romans, on occasion of extraordinary solemnities, placed images of the gods reclining on couches, with tables and viands before them, as if they were really partaking of the things offered in sacrifice. This ceremony was called a lectis- terniiim. The woodcut here introduced ex- Pulvmar used at Lectisterniuni. (From th Munich.) LECTUS. 222 LEGATUS. hibits one of these couches, which is repre- sented with a cushion covered by a cloth hanging in ample folds do\\ n each side. This beautiful pulvinar is wrought altogether in white marble, and is somewhat more than two feet in height. LECTUS (Aexs> K\lvr], evjo/), a bed. The complete bed (evi/ij) of a wealthy Greek in later times generally consisted of the follow- ing parts : KAiVi), eirCrovot., TvAeiov or Kvea.- A.oi', 7rpodAeioi', and o-Tpufiaro. The KA.iVi) is, properly speaking, merely the bedstead, and seems to have consisted only of posts fitted into one another and resting upon four feet. At the head part alone there was a board (ivaxKivrpov or e-niKXivrpov) to sup- port the pillow and prevent its falling out. Sometimes, however, the bottom part of a bedstead was likewise protected by a board, so that in this case a Greek bedstead resem- bled what we call a French bedstead. The bedstead was provided with girths (jovoi, CTTITOPOI, Keipi'a) on which the bed or mat- tress (/cpe'^oA.oi', Tv\elov, or rvAij) rested. The cover or ticking of a mattress was made of linen or woollen cloth, or of leather, and the usual material with which it was filled was either wool or dried weeds. At the head part of the bed, and supported by the cn-t'icAic- rpov, lay a round pillow OrpoaA0epai) to books. The an- cients wrote usually on only one side of the paper or parchment. The back of the paper, instead of being written upon, was usually stained with saffron colour or the cedrus, which produced a yellow colour. As paper and parchment were dear, it was frequently the custom to erase or wash out writing of little importance, and to write upon the paper or parchment again, which was then called Palimpscsttis (7raAi;ui/ojcrros). The paper or parchment was joined together so as to form one sheet, and when the work was finished, it was rolled on a staff, whence it was called a vohimen ; and hence we have the expression ecolvere libnim. When an author divided a work into several books, it was usual to include only one book in a volume or roll, so that there was generally the same number of volumes as of books. In the papyri rolls found at Herculaneum, the stick on which the papyrus is rolled does not project from the papyrus, but is concealed by it. Usually, however, there were balls or bosses, ornamented or painted, called um- bilici or corntia, which, were fastened at each end of the stick and projected from the papyrus. The ends of the roll were carefully cut, polished with pumice-stone and coloured black ; they were called the geminae frontcs. The way in which a book was held while reading is shown in the following cut, taken from a painting at Herculaneum. To pro- tect the roll from injury it was frequently put into a parchment case, which was stained with a purple colour or with the yellow of the Lutum. The title of the book (titulus, index] was written on a small strip of pa- pyrus or parchment with a light red colour (coccum or minium}. Pott. rFron i Painting at LIBERALIA. [DIONYSIA.] LIBERI. [INGENTJI ; LIBERTUS.] LIBERTUS, LIBERTINUS. Freemen (liberi) were either Ingenui [INQENTJI] or LIBITLNARII. 239 LINTER. Libert hi . Libertini were those persons -who had been released from legal servitude. A manumitted slave was Libertus (that is, libe- ratus) with reference to his master ; with reference to the class to which he belonged after manumission, he was Libcrtimis. Re- specting the mode in which a slave was manumitted, and his status after manumis- sion, see MANUMISSIO. 4t Athens, a liberated slave was called an-eAevflepos. When manu- mitted he did not obtain the citizenship, but was regarded as a metoicus [MKTOICUS], and, as such, he had to pay not only the mctoicion (^eroijeioi'), but a triobolon in addition to it. His former master became his patron (irpocr- Tanjs), to_whom he owed certain duties. LIBITINARII. [Fuxvs.] LIBRA, dim. LIBELLA (orafyids), a ba- lance, a pair of scales. The principal parts of this instrument were, 1. The beam (ju- gum}. 2. The two scales, called in Greek roAou'Ta, and in Latin lances. The beam was made without a tongue, being held by a ring or >ther appendage (ligula, pvjua) fixed in the entre. L^BRA or AS, a pound, the unit of weight among the Romans and Italians. The uncial division, which has been noticed in speaking of the coin As, was also applied to the weight. (See Tables at the end.) The divisions of the ounce are given under UXCIA. Where the word pondo, or its abbreviations p. or POND., occur with a simple number, the weight understood is the libra. The name libra was also given to a measure of horn, divided into twelve equal parts (ttnciae) by lines marked on it, and used for measuring oil. LTBRARII, the name of slaves, who were employed by their masters in writing or co- pying, sometimes called antiquarii. They must be distinguished from the Scribae pub- lici, who were freemen [SCKIBAE], and also from the booksellers [BIBLIOPOLA], to both of whom this name was also applied. LIBRATOR, in general a person who ex- amines things by a LIBRA ; but specially ap- plied to two kinds of persons. (1) Libra- tores aquae, persons whose knowledge of hydrostatics was indispensable in the con- struction of aquaeducts, sewers, and other structures for the purpose of conveying a fluid from one place to another. ( 2 ) Libra- tores in the armies were probably soldiers who attacked the enemy by hurling with their own hands (librando) lances or spears against them. LIBRIPENS. [MANcrr-ruM.] LIBURNA, LIBURN1CA, a light vessel, which derived its name from the Libumi. The skips of this people were of great assist- ance to Augustus at the battle of Actium ; and experience having shown their efficiency, vessels of a similar kind were built r.nd called by the name of the people. LICTOR, a public officer, who attended on the chief Roman magistrates. The number which waited on the different magistrates is stated in the article FASCES. The office of lictor is said to have been derived by Romu- lus from the Etruscans. The lictors went before the magistrates one by one in a line ; he who went last or next to the magistrate was called proximus lictor, to whom the ma- gistrate gave his commands ; and as this lictor was always the principal one, we also find him called primus lictor. The lictors had to inflict punishment on those who were condemned, especially in the case of Roman citizens ; for foreigners and slaves were pu- nished by the Carnifex ; and they also pro- bably had to assist in some cases in the exe- cution of a decree or judgment in a civil suit. The lictors likewise commanded persons to pay proper respect to a magistrate passing by, which consisted in dismounting from horseback, uncovering the head, standing out of the way, &c. The lictors were originally chosen from the plebs, but afterwards appear to have been generally freedmen, probably of the magistrate on whom they attended. Lic- tors were properly only granted to those magistrates who had the Imperium. Conse- quently, the tribunes of the plebs never had lictors, nor several of the other magistrates. Sometimes, however, lictors were granted to persons as a mark of respect or for the sake of protection. Thus by a law of the Trium- virs every vestal virgin was accompanied by a lictor, whenever she went out, and the ho- nour of one or two lictors was usually granted to the wives and other female members of the Imperial family. There were also thirty lictors called Lictores Curiati, whose duty it was to summon the curiae to the comitia curiata ; and when these meetings became little more than a form, their suffrages were represented by the thirty lictors. LIGULA, a Roman measure of fluid capa- city, containing one-fourth of the CYAITTUS. It signifies a spoonful, like cochlear; only the ligula was larger than the cochlear. The spoon which was called ligula, or lingula (dim. of lingua) from its shape, was used for various purposes, especially to clean out small and narrow vessels, and to eat jellies and such things. The word is also used for the leather tongue of a shoe. LIMEN. [JANUA.] LIXTER, a light boat, frequently formed of the trunk of a tree, and drawing little water. LITHOSTROTA. 240 LORICA. LITHOSTROTA. [DOMUS, p. 144.] LITRA (Ai'i-pa), a Sicilian silver coin, equal in value to the Aeginetan obol. LITUUS, probably an Etruscan word sig- nifying crooked. ( 1 ) The crooked staff borne by the augurs, with which they divided the expanse of heaven, when viewed with refer- ence to divination (templum), into regions ugur's Staff. (Centre figure fi (regiones). (2) A sort of trumpet slightly curved at the extremity. It differed both from the tuba and the cornu, the former Lituus, Trumpet. (From FabrettlJ being straight, while the latter was bent round into a spiral shape. Its tones are usually characterised as harsh and shrill. ilpture ; the two others arc Roman The Liticines, or blowers on the Lituus, formed a Collegium along with the C'orni- cines. [Coituu.] LIXAE. [CALONES.] LOCUPLETES or ASSIDUI, the narns ol the Roman citizens included in the five classes of the Servian constitution, and op- posed to the Prolctarii. LODIX, a small shaggy blanket. It was also used as a carpet. LOGISTAE. [EUTHYNE.] LORICA (0wpo?), a cuirass. The cuirass was worn by the heavy-armed infantry both Lorica. a> worn by a Greek M'al (From a Vase) (.Statue of Caligula in Louvre.) LUCAR. 241 LUCERNA. among the Greeks and Romans. The sol- diers commonlv wore cuirasses made of flex- (Bartoli, A ible bands of steel, or cuirasses of chain mail ; but those of generals and officers usually consisted of two yva\a, the breast- piece and back-piece, made of bronze, iron, &c., which were joined by means of buckles (jrtpovai). The epithets AeiuSwros and o\i- Storos are applied to a cuirass ; the former on account of its resemblance to the scales of fish (AeiriVw), the latter to the scales of serpents (<#>oAn.i<). Among the Asiatic na- tions the cuirass was frequently made of cotton, and among the Sarmatians and other northern nations of horn. Lll CAR. [HISTRIO.] LOCERES. [TRIBUS.] LUCERNA (Au>os), an oil lamp, me Greeks and Romans originally used candles ; but in later times candles were chiefly con- fined to the houses of the lower classes. [CANDELA.] A great number of ancient lamps has come down to us ; the greater part of which are made of terra cotta, but also a considerable number of bronze. Most of the lamps are of an oval form, and flat upon the top, on which there are frequently figures in relief. In the lamps there are one or more round holes, according to the number of wicks (ellychnia) burnt in them ; and as these holes were called from an obvious analogy, HVKTypes or pvl;o.i, literally nostrils or nozzles, the lamp was also called Monomyxos, Di- myxos, Trimyxos, or Pofymyzos, according as it contained one, two, three, or a greater number of nozzles or holes for the wicks. The following is an example of a dimyxos lucerna, upon which there is a winged boy , lamp. (Mu Borbonico, vol. iv. pi. 10.) with a goose. The next woodcut represents one of the most beautiful bronze lamps which has yet been found. Upon it is the figure of a standing Silenus. The lamps sometimes Lucerna lamp. (Museo Borbonico, vol. i. pi. 10.) LTJCTA. 242 LUDI. hung in chains from the ceiling of the room, but they generally stood upon a stand. [CAN- DELABRUM.] LUCTA, LUCTATIO (TraAr;, 7ra\cuo-;ua, mx- AaioTiotrwiT), or eaTa/JAi)T7J), wrestling. The Greeks ascrihed the invention of wrestling to mythical personages, and Hermes, the god of all gymnastic exercises, also presided over wrestling. In the Homeric age wrestling was much practised : during this period wrestlers contended naked, and only the loins were covered with the perizoma (Trepifw/oia), and this custom probably remained through- out Greece until Ol. 15, from which time the perizoma was no longer used, and wrestlers contended entirely naked. In the Homeric age the custom of anointing the body for the purpose of wrestling does not appear to have been known, but in the time of Solon it was quite general, and was said to have been adopted by the Cretans and Lacedaemonians at a very early period. After the body was anointed, it was strewed over with sand or dust, in order to enable the wrestlers to take a firm hold of each other. If one combatant threw the other down three times, the victory was decided. Wrestling was practised in all the great games of the Greeks. The most re- nowned wrestler was Milon, of Croton. [PAN- CRATIUM.] LtJDI, the common name for the whole variety of games and contests which were held at Rome on various occasions, but chiefly at the festivals of the gods ; and as the ludi at certain festivals formed the principal part of the solemnities, these festivals themselves are called ludi. Sometimes ludi were also held in honour of a magistrate or a deceased person, in which case they may be considered as ludi privati. All ludi were divided by the Romans into two classes, ludi circcnses and ludi scenici, accordingly as they were held in the circus or in the theatre ; in the latter case they were mostly theatrical representa- tions with their various modifications ; in the former they consisted of all or of a part of the games enumerated in the articles CIRCUS and GLADIATORES. Another division of the ludi into stati, imperativi, and votivi, is analogous to the division of the feriae. [FERIAE.] The superintendence of the games, and the so- lemnities connected with them, was in most cases intrusted to the aediles. [AEDILES.] If the lawful rites -were not observed in the celebration of the ludi, it depended upon the decision of the pontiffs whether they were to be held again (instaurari) or not. An alpha- betical list of the principal ludi is subjoined. LUDI APOLLINARES were instituted at Rome during tho second Punic war, after the battle of Cannae (212 B. c.), at the command of an oracle contained in the books of the ancient seer Marcius, in order to obtain the aid of Apollo. They were held every year under the superintendence of the praetor urbanus, and ten men sacrificed to Apollo, according to Greek rites, a bull with gilt horns and two white goats also with gilt horns, and to La- tona a heifer with gilt horns. The games themselves were held in the Circus Maximus, the spectators were adorned with chaplets, and each citizen gave a contribution towards defraying the expenses. In B. c. 208, it was ordained that they should always be cele- brated on the 6th of July. LUDI AUGUSTALES. [AUGUSTALES.] LUDI CAPITOLINI were instituted B. c. 387, after the departure of the Gauls from Rome, as a token of gratitude towards Jupiter Capi- tolinus, who had saved the Capitol in the hour of danger. The superintendence of the games was entrusted to a college of priests called Capitolini. LL-DI CIRCENSES, ROMANI or MAGNI, were celebrated every year during several days, from the fourth to the twelfth of September, in honour of the three great divinities, Jupi- ter, Juno, and Minerva, or, according to others, in honour of Jupiter, Consus, and Neptunus Equestris. They were superin- tended by the curule aediles. For further particulars see CIRCUS. LUDI COMPITALICII. [COMPITALIA.] LUDI FLORALES. [FLORALIA.] LUDI FUNEBRES were games celebrated at the funeral pyre of illustrious persons. Such games are mentioned in the very early legends of the history of Greece and Rome, and they continued with various modifications until the introduction of Christianity. Tt was at such a ludus funebris, in B.C. 264, that gla diatorial fights were exhibited at Rome for the first time, which henceforwards were the most essential part in all funeral games. [GLADIATORES.] LUDI LlBERALES. [DlONYSIA.] LUDI MEGALENSES. [MF.GALESIA.] LUDI PLEBEII were instituted probably in commemoration of the reconciliation between the patricians and plebeians after the first secession to the Mons Sacer, or, according to others, to the Aventine. They were held on the 16th, 17th, and 18th of November, and were conducted by the plebeian aediles. Lunt SAECULAHES. During the time of the republic these games were called ludi Taren- tini, Terentini, or Taurii, and it was not till the time of Augustus that they bore the name of ludi saecularcs. The names Tarenti or Taurii are perhaps nothing but different forms of the same word, and of the same root us Tarquinius. There were various accounts J.UDI. 243 LUPEIICALIA. respecting the origin of the games, yet all agree in stating that they -were celebrated for the purpose of averting from the state some great calamity by which it had been afflicted, and that they were held in honour of Dis and Proserpina. From the time of the consul Valerius Publicola down to that of Augustus, the Tarentine games were held only three times, and again only on certain emergencies, and not at any fixed period, so that we must conclude that their celebration was in no way connected with certain cycles of time (sae- cula). Not long after Augustus had assumed the supreme power in the republic, the quin- decimviri announced that according to their books ludi saeculares ought to be held, and at the same time tried to prove from history that in former times they had not only been celebrated repeatedly, but almost regularly once in every century. The festival, how- ever, which was now held, was in reality very different from the ancient Tarentine games ; for Dis and Proserpina, to whom formerly the festival belonged exclusively, were now the last in the list of the divinities in honour of whom the ludi saeculares were celebrated. The festival took place in sum- mer, and lasted for three days and three nights. On the first day the games com- menced in that part of the Campus Martius, which had belonged to the last Tarquin, from whom it derived its name Tarentum, and sacrifices were offered to Jupiter, Juno, Nep- tune, Minerva, Venus, Apollo, Mercury, Ce- res, Vulcan, Mars, Diana, Vesta, Hercules, Latona, the Parcae, and to Dis and Proser- pina. The solemnities began at the second hour of the night, and the emperor opened them by the river side with the sacrifice of three lambs to the Parcae upon three altars erected for the purpose, and which were sprinkled with the blood of the victims. The lambs themselves were burnt. A temporary scene like that of a theatre was erected in the Tarentum, and illuminated with lights and fires. In this scene festive hymns were sung by a chorus, and various other ceremo- nies, together with theatrical performances, took place. During the morning of the first day the people went to the Capitol to offer solemn sacrifices to Jupiter ; thence they returned to the Tarentum, to sing choruses in honour of Apollo and Diana. On the second day the noblest matrons, at an hour fixed by an oracle, assembled in the Capitol, offered supplications, sang hymns to the gods, and also visited the altar of Juno. The em- peror and the quindecimviri offered sacrifices which had been vowed before, to all the great divinities. On the third day Greek and Latin choruses were sung in the sanctuary of Apollo by three times nine boys and maidens of great beauty, whose parents were still alive. The object of these hymns was to implore the protection of the gods for all cities, towns, and officers of the empire. One of these hymns was the carmen saeculare by Horace, which was especially composed for the occasion and adapted to the circumstances of the time. During the whole of the three days and nights, games of every description were carried on in all the circuses and thea- tres, and sacrifices were offered in all the temples. The first celebration of the ludi saeculares in the reign of Augustus took place in the summer of B. c. 17. LUDI TARENTINI or TAURII. [Lroi SAECV- LARES.] LtJDUS. [GLADIATORES.] LUDUS TROJAE. [Cmcus.] LUPERCALIA, one of the most ancient Roman festivals, which was celebrated every year in honour of Lupercus, the god of fer- tility. It was originally a shepherd-festival, and hence its introduction at Rome was con- nected with the names of Romulus and Re- mus, the kings of shepherds. It was held every year, on the 15th of February, in the Lupercal, where Romulus and Remus were said to have been nurtured by the she-wolf ; the place contained an altar and a grove sacred to the god Lupercus. Here the Luperci as- sembled on the day of the Lupercalia, and sacrificed to the god goats and young dogs. Two youths of noble birth were then led to the Luperci, and one of the latter touched their foreheads with a sword dipped in the blood of the victims ; other Luperci imme- diately after wiped off the bloody spots with wool dipped in milk. Hereupon the two youths were obliged to break out into a shout of laughter. This ceremony was probably a symbolical purification of the shepherds. After the sacrifice was over, the Luperci par- took of a meal, at which they were plenti- fully supplied with wine. They then cut the skins of the goats which they had sacrificed, into pieces : with some of which they covered parts of their body in imitation of the god Lupercus, who was represented half naked and half covered with goatskin. The other pieces of the skins they cut in the shape of thongs, and holding them in their hands they ran with them through the streets of the city, touching or striking with them all persons whom they met in their way, and especially women, who even used to come forward vo- luntarily for the purpose, since they believed that this ceremony rendered them fruitful, and procured them an easy delivery in child- bearing. This act of running about with thongs of goatskin was a symbolic purification a 2 LUPERCI. 244 LUSTRUM. of the land, and that of touching persons a purification of men, for the words by which this act is designated are februare and lus- trare. The goatskin itself was called fcb- ruum, the festive day dies februata, the month in which it occurred Fcbruariits, and the god himself Februus. The festival of the Lupercalia, though it necessarily lost its origi- nal import at the time when the Romans were no longer a nation of shepherds, was yet always observed in commemoration of the founders of the city. M. Antonius, in his consulship, was one of the Luperci, and not only ran with them half naked and covered with pieces of goatskin through the city, but even addressed the people in the forum in this rude attire. LUPERCI, the priests of the god Lupercus. They formed a college, the members of which were originally youths of patrician families, and which was said to have been instituted by Romulus and Remus. The college was di- vided into two classes, the one called Fabii or Fabiani, and the other Quinctilii or Quinc- tiliani. The office was not for life, but how long it lasted is not known. Julius Caesar added to the two classes of the college a third with the name of Julii or Juliani, and made Antonius their high-priest. He also assigned to them certain revenues (vectigalia) which were afterwards withdrawn from them. LUPUS FERREUS, the iron wolf used by the besieged in repelling the attacks of the besiegers, and especially in seizing the bat- tering-ram and diverting its blows. LUSTRATIO (Kofcupors) was originally a purification by ablution in water. But the lustrations of which we possess direct know- ledge are always connected with sacrifices and other religious rites, and consisted in the sprinkling of water by means of a branch of laurel or olive, and at Rome sometimes by means of the aspergillum, and in the burning of certain materials, the smoke of which was thought to have a purifying effect. When- ever sacrifices were offered, it seems to have been customary to carry them around the person or thing to be purified. Lustrations were made in ancient Greece, and probably at Rome also, by private individuals when they had polluted themselves by any criminal action. "Whole cities and states also some- times underwent purifications to expiate the crime or crimes committed by a member of the community. The most celebrated purifi- cation of this kind was that of Athens, per- formed by Epimenides of Crete, after the Cylonian massacre. Purification also took place when a sacred spot had been unhal- lowed by profane usej as by burying dead bodies in it, as was the case with the island of Delos. The Romans performed lustrations on many occasions, on which the Greeks did not think of them ; and the object of most Roman lustrations was not to atone for the commission of crime, but to obtain the bless- ing of the gods upon the persons or things which were lustrated. Thus fields were pu- rified after the business of sowing was over, and before the sickle was put to the corn. [ARVALES FHATRES.] Sheep were purified every year at the festival of the Palilia. All Roman armies before they took the field were lustrated ; and as the solemnity was probably always connected with a review of the troops, the word lustratio is also used in the sense of the modern review. The establishment of a new colony was always preceded by a lustratio with solemn sacrifices. The city of Rome itself, as well as other towns within its dominion, always underwent a lustratio after they had been visited by some great calamity, such as civil bloodshed, awful prodigies, and the like. A regular and general lustratio of the whole Roman people took place after the completion of every lustrum, when the censor had finished his census and before he laid down his office. This lustratio (also called lustrum) was conducted by one of the censors, and held with sacrifices called Suovetaurilia, because the sacrifices consisted of a pig (or ram), a sheep, and an ox. It took place in the Campus Martius, where the people as- sembled for the purpose. The sacrifices were carried three times around the assembled multitude. LUSTRUM (from luo, Gr. Aovw) is pro- perly speaking a. lustration or purification, and in particular the purification of the whole Roman people performed by one of the cen- sors in the Campus Martius, after the business of the census was over. [CENSUS ; LUSTRA- TIO.] As this purification took place only once in five years, the word lustrum was also used to designate the time between two lus- tra. The first lustrum was performed in B.C. 566, by king Servius, after he had com- pleted his census, and it is said to have taken place subsequently every five years, after the census was over. The census might be held without the lustrum, and indeed two cases of this kind are recorded which happened in B.C. 459 and 214. In these cases the lus- trum was not performed on account of some great calamities which had befallen the re- public. The time when the lustrum took place has been very ingeniously defined by Niebuhr. Six ancient Romulian years of 304 days each were, with the difference of ono day, equal to five solar years of 365 days each, or the six ancient years made 1824 LYCAEA. 245 LYRA. days, while the five solar years contained 1825 days. The lustrum, or the great year of the ancient Romans, was thus a cycle, at the end of -which the beginning of the an- cient year nearly coincided with that of the solar year. As the coincidence, however, was not perfect, a month of 24 days was in- tercalated in every eleventh lustrum. Now it is highly probable that the recurrence of such a cycle or great year was, from the earliest times, solemnised with sacrifices and purifications, and that Serving Tullius did not introduce them, but merely connected them with his census, and thus set the example for subsequent ages. Many writers of the latter period of the republic and during the empire, use the word lustrum for any space of five years, and without any regard to the census, while others even apply it in the sense of the Greek pentaeteris or an Olym- piad, which contained only four years. LYCAEA (Avicaia), a festival with contests, celebrated oy the Arcadians in honour of Zeus surnamed AUKCUOS. It was said to have been instituted by the ancient hero Lycaon, the son of Pelasgus, who is also said, instead of the cakes which had formerly been offered to the god, to have sacrificed a child to Zeus, and to have sprinkled the altar with its blood. LYRA (Aupa, Lat. fides], a lyre, one of the most ancient musical instruments of the stringed kind. The Greeks attributed the invention of the lyre to Hermes, who is said to have formed the instrument of a tortoise- shell, over which he placed gut-strings. The name Au'pa, however, does not occur in the Homeric poems, and the ancient lyre, called in Homer phorminx ($6piu.y) and citharis (tiQapis), seems rather to have resembled the cithara of later times, which was in some respects like a modern guitar. In the cithara the strings were drawn across the bottom, whereas in the lyra of ancient times they Lyre with lour strings, from a Lye Sir Charles Fellows.) (Cabinet ol were free on both sides. The lyre is also called \t\vs or x 6 ^" 1 ^?, and in Latin testiido, because it was made of a tortoise-shell. The lyre had originally three or four strings, but after the time of Terpander of Antissa (about B.C. 650), who is said to have added three more, it was generally made with seven. The ancients, however, made use of a variety of lyres ; and about the time of Sappho and Anacreon several stringed instruments, such as magadis, barbiton, and others, were used in Greece, and especially in Lesbos. They had been introduced from Asia Minor, and their number of strings far exceeded that of the lyre, for we know that some had even twenty strings, so that they must have more resembled a modern harp than a lyre. But Lyre with seven strings, from a com of Chalcis. (British Museum.) the lyra and cithara had in most cases no more than seven strings. The lyre had a great and full-sounding bottom, which con- tinued as before to be made generally of tor- toise-shell, from which the horns rose as from the head of a stag. A transverse piece of wood connecting the two horns at or near their top-ends served to fasten the strings, and was called and in Latin trans- tillum. The horns were called mjxe's or cornua. These instruments were often adorned in the most costly manner with gold and ivory. The lyre was considered as a more manly instrument than the cithara, which, on account of its smaller-sounding bottom, excluded full-sounding and deep tones, and was more calculated for the middle tones. The lyre when played stood in an upright position between the knees, while the cithara stood upon the knees of the player. Both instruments were held with the left hand, and played with the right. It has generally been supposed that the strings of these instruments were always MAENIAXUM. 246 MAJESTAS. touched with a little staff called plectrum (irAq/cTpoi>), but among the paintings dis- covered at Ilerculaneum we find several in- stances where the persons play the lyre with taeir fingers. The lyre was at all times only played as an accompaniment to songs. The Anacrcon playing the I.vre. (Vase-painting in the British Museum.) Latin name fides, which was used for a lyre as well as a cithara, is probably the same as the Greek crc/ndes, which signifies gut-string. The lyre (cithara or phorminx) was at first used in the recitations of epic poetry, though it was probably not played during the reci- tation itself, but only as a prelude before the minstrel commenced his story, and in the intervals or pauses between the several parts. The lyre has given its name to a species of poetry called lyric ; this kind of poetry was originally never recited or sung without the accompaniment of the lyre, and sometimes also of an appropriate dance. MAENIAN'UM, signified, originally, a pro- jecting balcony, which was erected round the Roman forum, by the censor, C. Maenius, B. c. 318, in order to give more accommodation to the spectators of the gladia- torial combats. Hence balconies in general came to be called maeniana. MAGADIS. [I/JTU..] MAGISTER, which contains the same root as mag-is and mag-nits, was applied at Rome to persons possessing various kinds of offices, and especially to the leading person in a col- legium or corporation [COLLEGIUM] ; thus the magiitcr societatis was the president of the corporation of equites, who farmed the taxes at Rome. MAGISTER EQUITUM. [DICTATOR.] MAGISTRATUS was a person qui juri di- cundo pracerat. The King was originally the sole Magistratus ; he had all the Potestas. On the expulsion of the Kings, two Consuls were annually appointed, and they were Ma- gistratus. In course of time other Magistra- tus were appointed ; namely, dictators, cen- sors, praetors, aediles, tribunes of the plebs, and the decemviri litibus judicandis. The governors of provinces with the title of pro- praetor or proconsul were also Magistratus. The word Magistratus contains the same element as mag(ister) and mag(nus] ; and it signifies both the person and the office, as we see in the phrase se magistrate abdicare. The auspicia maxima belonged to the con- suls, praetors, and censors, and the minora auspicia to the other magistratus ; accord- ingly the consuls, praetors, and censors were called Majores, and they were elected at the comitia centuriata ; the other magistratus were called Mlnorcs. The former had the imperium, the latter had not. The magistra- tus were also divided into curules and those who were not curules : the magistratus cu- rules were the dictator, consuls, praetors, censors, and the curule aediles, who were so called, because they had the jus sellae cu- rulis. The magistrates were chosen only from the patricians in the early republic, but in course of time the plebeians shared these honours, with the exception of that of the Interrex : the plebeian magistratus, properly so called, were the plebeian aediles and the tribuni plebis. MAJESTAS pretty nearly corresponds to treason in English law ; but all the offences included under majestas comprehend more than the English treason. One of the offences included in majestas was the effecting, aiding in, or planning the death of a magistratus populi Romani, or of one who had imperium or potestas. Though the phrase crimen ma- jestatis was used, the complete expression was crimen laesac, imminutae, diminutae, or minutae majcstatis. The word majestas, consistently with its relation to mag(nus), signifies the magnitude or greatness of a thing. Accordingly, the phrases majestas populi Romani, imperil majestas, signify the whole of that which constituted the Roman state ; in other words, the sovereign power of the Roman state. The expression minuere majestatem consequently signifies any act by which this majestas is impaired. In the re- publican period the term majestas laesa or minuta was most commonly applied to case* of a general betraying or surrendering his MALLEOLUS. 247 MAXSIO. army to the enemy, exciting sedition, and generally by his bad conduct in administra- tion impairing the majestas of the state. The old punishment of majestas was perpetual interdiction from fire and water. In the later imperial period, persons of low condi- tion were thrown to wild beasts, or burnt alive ; persons of better condition were sim- ply put to death. In the early times of the republic, every act of a citizen which was injurious to the state or its peace was called perduellio, and the offender (perduellis} was tried before the populus (populijudicio), and, if convicted, put to death. Perduellis origin- ally signified hostis ; and thus the old offence of perduellio was equivalent to making war on the Roman state. The trial for perduellio (pcrduellionis judicium) existed to the later times of the republic ; but the name seems to have almost fallen into disuse, and various leges were passed for the purpose of deter- mining more accurately what should be ma- jestas. These were a lex Apuleia, probably passed in tbe fifth consulship of Marius, the exact contents of which are unknown, a lex Varia u. c. 91, a lex Cornelia passed by L. Cornelius Sulla, and the lex Julia, which continued under the empire to be the funda- mental enactment on this subject. This lex Julia is by some attributed to C. Julius Cae- sar, and assigned to the year B. c. 48. Under the empire the term majestas was applied to the person of the reigning Caesar, and we find the phrases majestas Augusta, impera- toria, and regia. It was, however, nothing new to apply the term to the emperor, consi- dered in some of his various capacities, for it was applied to the magistratus under the republic, as to the consul and praetor. Ho- race even addresses Augustus in the terms ma- jestas tua, but this can hardly be viewed other- wise than as a personal compliment, and not as said with reference to any of the offices which he Jield. MALLEOLUS, a hammer, the transverse head of which was formed for holding pitch and tow, which, having been set on fire, was projected slowly, so that it might not be ex- tinguished during its flight, upon houses and other buildings in order to set them on fire : it was therefore commonly used in sieges together with torches and falaricae. MALUS. [NAVIS.] MANCEPS has the same relation to Man- cipium that Auspex has to Auspicium. It is properly qui manu capit. But the word has several special significations. Mancipes were they who bid at the public lettings of the censors for the purpose of farming any part Of the public property. Sometimes the chief of the publican! generally are meant by this term, as they were no doubt the bidders and gave the security, and then they shared the undertaking with others or underlet it. The mancipes would accordingly have distinctive names according to the kind of revenue which they took on lease, as Decumani, Portitores, Pecuarii. MANCIPATIO. [MANCipipr.] MANCIPIUM, MANCIPATIO. These words are used to indicate the formal transfer of the ownership of a thing, and are derived from the fact that the person who received the thing took hold of it (mancipatio dicitur quia manu res capitur}. It was not a simple corporeal apprehension, but one which was accompanied with certain forms described by Gaius the jurist : " Mancipatio is effected in the presence of not less than five wit- nesses, who must be Roman citizens and of the age of puberty (pubercs), and also in the presence of another person of the same status, who holds a pair of brazen scales, and hence is called Libripens. The purchaser (qui man- cipio accipit), taking hold of the thing, says : I affirm that this slave (homo) is mine Ex Jure Quiritium, and he is purchased by me with this piece of money (aes) and brazen scales. He then strikes the scales with the piece of money, and gives it to the seller as a symbol of the price (quasi pretii loco)." This mode of transfer applied to all free persons or slaves, animals or lands, all of which per- sons and things were called Res Mancipi ; other things were called Nee Mancipi. Lands (praedia) might be thus transferred, though the parties to the mancipatio were not on the lands ; but all other things, which were ob- jects of mancipatio, were only transferable in the presence of the parties, because corporeal apprehension was a necessary part of the ceremony. The party who transferred the ownership of a thing pursuant to these forms was said mancipio dare; he who thus ac- quired the ownership was said mancipio acci- pere. The verb mancipare is sometimes used as equivalent to mancipio dare. Man- cipium may be used as equivalent to complete ownership, and may thus be opposed to usus and to fructus. Sometimes the word manci- pium signifies a slave, as being one of the res mancipi. MANDATUM, often signifies a command from a superior to an inferior. Under the empire the mandata principum were the commands and instructions given to governors of provinces and others. MANIPULUS. [EXERCITTS.] MANSIO (arafyuk), a post-station at the end of a day's journey. The word is derived from mature, signifying to pass the night at a place in travelling. On the great Roman roads MANUBIAE. 248 MARTYRIA. the mansiones were at the same distance from one another as on those of the Persian empire, where such resting-piaces (khans or caravan- eeras) were first provided, viz. at intervals of about 20 English miles. They were originally called castra, being probably mere places of en- campment formed by making earthen entrench- ments. In process of time they included, not only barracks and magazines of provisions ( hor- red) for the troops, but commodious buildings adapted for the reception of travellers of all ranks, and even of the emperor himself, if he should have occasion to visit them. At those stations the cisiarii kept gigs for hire and for conveying government despatches. [Cisrum ; ESSEDTJM.] The mansio was under the super- intendence of an officer called mansionarius. MANUBIAE. [SPOLIA.] MANUMISSIO was the form by which slaves were released from slavery. There were three modes by which this was effected, namely, "Vindicta, Census, and Testamentum. Of these the manumissio by vindicta is pro- bably the oldest, and perhaps was once the only mode of manumission. It is mentioned by Li-vy as in use at an early period ; and, indeed, he states that some persons refer the origin of the vindicta to the event which he relates, and derive its name from Vindicius ; the latter part, at least, of the supposition is of no value. The ceremony of the manu- missio by the vindicta was as follows : The master brought his slave before the magis- tratus, and stated the grounds (causa) of the intended manumission. The lictor of the magistratus laid a rod (festuca) on the head of the slave, accompanied with certain formal words, in which he declared that he was a free man ex jure quiritium, that is, vindicavit in libertatem. The master in the meantime held the slave, and after he had pronounced the words hunc hominem libcritm volo, he turned him round and let him go (emisit e manu), whence the general name of the act of manumission. The word vindicta itself, which is properly the res vindicata, is used for festuca by Horace. In the case of the census the slave was registered by the censors as a citizen with his master's consent. The third mode of manumission was, when a master gave liberty to a slave by his will (testa mentum). The act of manumission established the relation of patronus and libertus between the manumissor and the manumitted. When manumitted by a citizen, the libertus took the praenomen and the gen- tile name of the manumissor, and became in a sense a member of the gens of his patron. To these two names he added some other name as a cognomen, either some name by which he was previously known, or some name assumed on the occasion : thus we find the names M. Tullius Tiro, P. Terentius Afer, and other like names. The relation between a patronus and libertus is stated under PA- TRONUS. Before the year u. c. 311, the liber- tini had not the suffragium, but in that year the censor Appius Claudius gave the libertini a place in the tribes, and from this time the libertini had the suffragium after they were duly admitted on the censors' roll. In the year B. c. 304, they were placed in the tribus urbanae, and not allowed to perform military service. In the censorship of Tiberius Grac- chus, B.C. 169, they were placed in one of the tribus urbanae, determined by lot. Sub- sequently, by a law of Aemilius Scaurus, about B.C. 116, they were restored to the four city tribes, and this remained their con- dition to the end of the republic, though various attempts were made to give them a better suffrage. A tax was levied on manu- mission by a lex Manila, B.C. 357 : it con- sisted of the twentieth part of the value of the slave, hence called Vicesima. MANUS FERREA. [HARPAGO.] MARSUPIUM Giapcren-Mn', /SoAai/rioi/), a purse. The purse used by the ancients was commonly a small leathern bag, and was often closed by being drawn together at the mouth ((TvoTraora /SaAairia). Mercury is commonly represented holding one in his hand. (See cut, p. 63.) MARTYRIA GxopTvpta), signifies strictly the deposition of a witness in a court of jus- tice, though the word is applied metaphori- cally to all kinds of testimony. At Athens none but freemen could be witnesses. The incapacity of women may be inferred from the general policy of the Athenian law, and the absence of any example in the orators where a woman's evidence is produced. The same observation applies to minors. Slaves were not allowed to give evidence, unless upon examination by torture (|3ao-ai/os). Citi- zens who had been disfranchised (^Tijxwiaeroi) could not appear as witnesses (any more than as jurors or plaintiffs) in a court of justice ; for they had lost all honourable rights and privileges. But there was no objection to alien freemen. The party who desired the evi- dence of a witness, summoned him to attend for that purpose. The summons was called Trpdo-icAqo-ts. If the witness promised to attend and failed to do so, he was liable to an action called SiKrj \enrotiapnipiov. Whether he promised or not, he was bound to attend, and if his absence caused injury to the party, he was liable to an action (Si'xrj (3Aa/37)s). The attendance of the witness was first required at the apcucpio-is, where he was to make his deposition before the superintending magis- MASTIGOPHORI. 249 MATKIMOXIUM. tratc (yyfulav Swcacmjpiou). The party in whose favour he appeared, generally wrote the deposition at home upon a whitened board or tablet (\e\evxtafifvov ypo/n/u.aTeioi'), which he brought with him to the magistrate's office, and, when the witness had deposed thereto, put into the box (c^iros) in which all the documents in the cause were depo- sited. An oath was usually taken by the witness at the arapixi- per- formed the same duties. At Athens they were discharged by the public slaves, called bowmen (Toforai), or Scythians (2/cv0at). [DKMOSII.] MATERFAMILIAS. [MATMJioxrcM.] MATRALIA, a festival celebrated at Home every year on the llth of June, in honour of the goddess Mater Matuta, whose temple stood in the Forum Boarium. It was cele- brated only by Roman matrons, and the sacrifices offered to the goddess consisted of cakes baked in pots of earthenware. Slaves were not allowed to take part in the solem- nities, or to enter the temple of the goddess. One slave, however, was admitted by the matrons, but only to be exposed to a humi- liating treatment, for one of the matrons gave her a blow on the cheek, and then sent her away from the temple. The matrons on this occasion took with them the children of their sisters, but not their own, held them in their arms, and prayed for their welfare. M5.TRONALIA, a festival celebrated on the Kalends of March in honour of Juno Lncina. Hence Horace says, " Martiis cae- Icbs quid agam Kalendis." MATRIMONIUM NUPTIAE (Y d/onxfr/s) drawn by a pair of mules or oxen, and furnished with a kind of couch (KAMI'S) as a seat. On either side of her sat the bridegroom and one of his most intimate friends or relations, who from his office was called the paranympli (n-apawnfos or wn4>eim}s) ; but as he rode in the car- riage (oxrjM 11 ) with the bride and bridegroom, he Tvas sometimes called the n-apoxo?. The nuptial procession was probably accom- panied, according to circumstances, by a number of persons, some of whom carried the nuptial torches. Both bride and bride- groom (the former veiled) were decked out in their best attire, with chaplets on their heads, and the doors of their houses were hung with festoons of ivy and bay. As the bridal procession moved along, the hymenaean song was sung to the accompa- niment of Lydian flutes, even in olden times, as beautifully described by Homer, and the married pair received the greetings and congratulations of those who met them. After entering the bridegroom's house, into which the bride was probably conducted by his mother, bearing a lighted torch, it was customary to shower sweetmeats upon them ("caraxvcr^aTa), as emblems of plenty and prosperity. After this came the nuptial feast, to which the name gamos was pai ticu- larly applied ; it was generally given in the house of the bridegroom or his parents ; and besides being a festive meeting, served other and more important purposes. There was no public rite, whether civil or religious, connected with the celebration of marriage amongst the ancient Greeks, and therefore no public record of its solemnisation. This deficiency then was supplied by the mar- riage feast, for the guests were of course competent to prove the fact of a marriage having taken place. To this feast, contrary to the usual practice amongst the Greeks, women were invited as well as men ; but they seem to have sat at a separate -table, with the bride still veiled amongst them. At the conclusion of this feast she was con- ducted by her husband into the bridal chamber ; and a law of Solon required that on entering it they should eat a quince to- gether, as if to indicate that their cenver- sation ought to be sweet and agreeable. The song called the Epithalamium was then sung before the doors of the bridal chamber. The day after the marriage, the first of the bride's residence in her new abode, was called the epaulia (en-avAia) ; on which their friends sent the customary presents to the newly married couple. On another day, the apaulia (an-avAia), perhaps the second after marriage, the bridegroom left his house, to lodge apart from his wife at his father's- in-law. Some of the presents made to the bride by her husband and friends were called anacalypteria (dcaKaAvTr-njpia), as being given on the occasion of the bride first appearing unveiled : they were probably given on the epaulia, or day after the marriage. Another ceremony observed after marriage was the sacrifice which the husband offered up on the occasion of his bride being registered amongst his own phratores. The above ac- count refers to Athenian customs. At Sparta the betrothal of the bride by her father or guardian (xvpios) was requisite as a preli- minary of marriage, as well as at Athens. Another custom peculiar to the Spartans, and a relic of ancient times, was the seizure of the bride by her intended husband, but of ceurse with the sanction of her parents or guardians. She was not, however, imme- diately domiciled in her husband's house, but cohabited with him for some time clan- destinely, till he brought her, and frequently her mother also, to his home. The Greeks, generally speaking, entertained little regard for the female character. They considered women, in fact, as decidedly inferior to men, qualified to discharge only the subordinate functions in life, and rather necessary as helpmates than agreeable as companions. To these notions female education for tiie most part corresponded, and in fact con- firmed them ; it did not supply the elegant accomplishments and refinement of manners which permanently engage the affections, when other attractions have passed away. Aristotle states, that the relation of man to woman is that of the governor to the sub- ject ; and Plato, that a woman's virtue may be summed up in a few words, for she has only to manage the house well, keeping what there is in it, and obeying her husband. Among the Dorians, however, and especially at Sparta, women enjoyed much more esti- mation than in the rest of Greece. (2) RO- MAN. A legal Roman marriage was called fustae nuptiae, justum matrimonium, as being conformable to jus (civile) or to law. A legal marriage was either Cum conventione uxoris in manum viri or it was without this con- XIATRIMOXIUM. 251 MATRIMONIUM. ventio. But both forms of marriage agreed in this : there must be connubium between the parties, and consent. The legal conse- quences as to the power of the father over his children were the same in both. Connu- bium is merely a term which comprehends all the conditions of a legal marriage. Ge- nerally it may be stated, that there was only connubium between Roman citizens ; the cases in which it at any time existed between parties, not both Roman citizens, were ex- ceptions to the general rule. Originally, or at least at one period of the republic, there was no connubium between the patricians and the plebeians ; but this was altered by the Lex Canuleia (B.C. 445.), which allowed connubium between persons of those two classes. There were various degrees of con- sanguinity and affinity, within which there was no connubium. An illegal union of a male and female, though affecting to be, was not a marriage : the man had no legal wife, and the children had no legal father : conse- quently they were not in the power of their reputed father. The marriage Cum conven- tione differed from that Sine qpnventione, in the relationship which it effected between the husband and the wife ; the marriage cum conventione was a necessary condition to make a woman a materfamilias. By the marriage cum conventione, the wife passed into the familia of her husband, and was to him in the relation of a daughter, or, as it was expressed, in manum convenit. In the marriage sine conventione, the wife's rela- tion to her own familia remained as before, and she was merely uxor. " Uxor," says Cicero, "is a genus of which there ai'e two species ; one is materfamilias, quae in ma- num comenit ; the other is uxor only." Ac- cordingly, a materfamilias is a wife who is in manu, and in the familia of her husband. A wife not in manu was not a member of her husband's familia, and therefore the term could not apply to her. Matrona was pro- perly a wife not in manu, and equivalent to uxor ; and she was called matrtina before she had any children. But these words are not always used in these their original and proper meanings. It does not appear that any forms were requisite in the marriage sine conventione ; and apparently the evi- dence of such marriage was cohabitation ma- trimonii causa. The matrimonii causa might be proved by various kinds of evidence. In the case of a marriage cum conventione, there were three forms, 1. Usus, 2. Far- rettm, and 3. Coemptio. 1. Marriage was effected by usus, if a woman lived with a man for a whole year as his wife ; and this was by analogy to usucaption of movables generally, in which usus for one year gave ownership. The Law of the Twelve Tables pro- vided, that if a woman did not wish to come into the manus of her husband in this man- ner, she should absent herself from him annually for three nights (trinoctium) and so break the usus of the year. 2. Farreum was a form of marriage, in which certain words were used in the presence of ten witnesses, and were accompanied by a certain religious ceremony, in which panis farreus was em- ployed ; and hence this form of marriage was also called confarrcatio. It appears that certain priestly offices, such as that of Fla- men Dialis, could only be held by those who were born of parents who had been married by this ceremony (confarreati parentes). 3. Coemptio was effected by mancipatio, and consequently the wife was in mancipio. [MANCIFIUM.] A woman who was cohabit- ing with a man as uxor, might come into his manus by this ceremony, in which case the coemptio was said to be matrimonii causa, and she who was formerly uxor became apud maritum Jiliae loco. Sponsalia were not an unusual preliminary of marriage, but they were not necessary. The sponsalia were an agreement to marry, made in such form as to give each party a right of action in case of non-performance, and the offend- ing party was condemned in such damages as to the judex seemed just. The woman who was promised in marriage was accord- ingly called sponsa, which is equivalent to promissa ; the man who was engaged to marry was called sponsus. The sponsalia were of course not binding, if the parties consented to waive the contract. Sometimes a present was made by the future husband to the future wife by way of earnest (arrha, arrha sponsalitia), or, as it was called, prop- ter nnptias donatio. The consequences of marriage were 1. The power of the father over the children of the marriage, which was a completely new relation, an effect indeed of marriage, but one which had no influence over the relation of the husband and wife. [PATRIA POTESTAS.] 2. The liabilities of either of the parties to the punishments affixed to the violation of the marriage union. [ADULTERIUM ; DIVORTLUM.] 3. The relation of husband and wife with respect to property. [Dos.] When marriage was dissolved, the parties to it might marry again ; but opinion considered it more decent for a woman not to marry again. A woman was required by usage (mos) to wait a year before she con- tracted a second marriage, on the pain of infamia. It remains to describe the customs and rites which were observed by the Ro- mans at marriages. After the parties had MATRIMOXIUM. 252 MATRIMONIUM. agreed to marry and the persons in whose potestas they were had consented, a meeting of friends was sometimes held at the house of the maiden for the purpose of settling the marriage-contract, which was written on tablets, and signed by both parties. The woman after she had promised to become the wife of a man was called sponsa, pacta, dicta, or spcrata. It appears that, at least during the imperial period, the man put a ring on the finger of his betrothed, as a pledge of his fidelity. This ring was pro- bably, like all rings at this time, worn on the left hand, and on the finger nearest to the smallest. The last point to be fixed was the day on which the marriage was to take place. The Romans believed that certain days were unfortunate for the performance of the marriage rites, either on account of the religious character of those days them- selves, or on account of the days by which they were followed, as the woman had to perform certain religious rites on the day after her wedding, which could not take place on a dies ater. Days not suitable for entering upon matrimony were the calends, nones, and ides of every month, all dies atri, the whole months of May and February, and a great number of festivals. On the wedding- day, which in the early times was never fixed upon without consulting the auspices, the bride was dressed in a long white robe with a purple fringe, or adorned with ribands. This dress was called tunica recta, and was bound round the waist with a girdle (corona, cingulum, or zona), which the husband had to untie in the evening. The bridal veil, called flammeiim, was of a bright yellow colour, and her shoes likewise. Her hair was divided on this occasion with the point of a spear. The bride was conducted to the house of her husband in the evening. She was taken with apparent violence from the arms of her mother, or of the person who had to give her away. On her way she was accompanied by three boys dressed in the praetexta, and whose fathers and mothers were still alive (patrimi et matrimi}. One of them carried before her a torch of white thorn (spina), or, according to others, of pine wood; the two others walked by her side, supporting her by the arm. The bride herself carried a distaff and a spindle, with wool. A boy called camillus carried in a covered vase (cumera, cumerum, or camil- lum], the so-called utensils of the bride and playthings for children (crcpundia]. Besides these persons who officiated on the occasion, the procession was attended by a numerous train of friends, both of the bride and the Bridegroom. When the procession arrived at the house of the bridegroom, the door of which was adorned with garlands and flowers, the bride was carried across the threshold by pronubi, i. e. men who had been married to only one woman, that she might not knock against it with her foot, which would have been an evil omen. Before she entered the house, she wound wool around the door- posts of her new residence, and anointed them with lard (adeps siiillus) or wolf's fat (adeps lupinus). The husband received her with fire and water, which the woman ha'l to touch. This was either a symbolic puri- fication, or a symbolic expression of welcome, as the interdicere aqua et igni was the for- mula for banishment. The bride saluted her husband with the words : ubi tu Caius, ego Caia. After she had entered the house with distaff and spindle, she was placed upon a sheep-skin, and here the keys of the house were delivered into her hands. A repast (cocna nuptialis) given by the husband to the whole train of relatives and friends who accompanied the bride, generally concluded the solemnity of the day. Many ancient writers mention a very popular song, Tala- sius or Talassio, which was sung at wed- dings ; but whether it was sung during the repast or during the procession is not quite clear, though we may infer from the story respecting the origin of the song, that it was sung while the procession was advancing towards the house of the husband. It may easily be imagined that a solemnity like that of marriage did not take place among the merry and humorous Italians without a variety of jests and railleries, and the ancient writers mention songs which were sung be- fore the door of the bridal apartment by girls, after the company had left. These songs were probably the old Fescennina [FESCEN- NINA], and are frequently called Epithalamia. At the end of the repast the bride was con- ducted by matrons who had not had more than one husband (pronubae), to the lectus genialis in the atrium, which was on this occasion magnificently adorned and strewed with flowers. On the following day the husband sometimes gave another entertain- ment to his friends, which was called repotia, and the woman, who on this day undertook the management of the house of her hus- band, had to perform certain religious rites ; on which account, as was observed above, it was necessary to select a day for the mar- riage which was not followed by a dies ater. These rites probably consisted of sacrifices to the Dii Penates. The position of a Roman woman after marriage was very different from that of a Greek woman. The Roman presided over the whole household ; she edu- MAUSOLEUM. 253 MEXSA. cated her children, watched over and pre- served the honour of the house, and as the materfamilias she shared the honours and respect shown to her husband. Far from being confined like the Greek women to a distinct apartment, the Roman matron, at least during the better centuries of the re- public, occupied the most important part of the house, the atrium. MAUSOLEUM (Mauo-uAeroi*), signified ori- ginally the sepulchre of Mausolus, which was a magnificent monument erected at Halicar- nassus is. c. 353, by Artemisia, the widow of Mausolus. (See Classical Diet., art. Arte- misia.} It was adorned with beautiful works of art, and was regarded as one of the seven wonders of the world. The word Mausoleum was used by the Romans as a generic name for any magnificent sepulchral edifice. Mau- solus, the dynast of Caria, having died in B. c. 353, his queen Artemisia evinced her sorrow by observing his funeral rites with the most expensive splendour, and by com- mencing the erection of a sepulchral monu- ment to Mm at Halicarnassus, which should surpass any thing the world had yet seen. The building extended 63 feet from north to south, being shorter on the fronts, and its whole circuit was 411 feet (or, according to the Bamberg MS., 440) ; it rose to the height of 25 cubits (37g feet) ; and was surrounded T)y 36 columns. This part of the building was called Pteron. It was adorned with sculptures in relief, on its eastern face by Scopas, on the northern by Bryaxis, on the southern by Timotheus, on the western by Leochares. Above this pteron was a pyramid equal to it in height, diminishing by 24 steps to its summit, which was surmounted by the mar- ble quadriga made by Pythis. The total height, including this ornament, was 140 feet. In the Roman Mausolea the form chiefly employed was that of a succession of terraces in imitation of the rogus. Of these the most celebrated were those of Augustus and of Hadrian ; the latter of which, stripped of its ornaments, still forms the fortress of modern Rome (the castle of S. Angelo) ; but of the other, which was on a still larger scale, and which was considered as one of the most magnificent buildings of Au- gustus, there are only some insignificant ruins. MEDIASTIXI, the name given to slaves, used for any common purpose. The name is chiefly given to certain slaves belonging to the familia rustica, but it is also applied some times to slaves in the city. MEDIMXUS (^e'Sijotros), the principal dry measure of the Greeks. It was used espe cially for measuring corn. The Attic medim nus was equal to six Roman rnodii. For its subdivisions see Tables at the end. [METRE- TES ; _CHOENIX ; XESTES ; COTYLA.] MEDIX TUTICUS, the name of the su- preme magistrate among the Oscan people. Medix appears to have signified a magistrate of any kind, and tuticus to have been equiva- lent to magnus or summus. Livy, therefoie, in calling the medix tuticus the summus ma- gistratus, gives a literal translation of the word. MEGALESIA, MEGALENSIA, or MEGA- LENSES LUDI, a festival with games, cele- brated at Rome in the month of April and in honour of the great mother of the gods (Cybelfi, neyoArj "?, whence the festival derived its name). The statue of the goddess was brought to Rome from Pessinus in B. c. 203, and the day of its arrival was solemnised with a magnificent procession, lectisternia, and games, and great numbers of people car- ried presents to the goddess on the Capitol. The regular celebration of the Megalesia, however, did not begin till twelve years later (B. c. 191), when the temple, which had been vowed and ordered to be built in B. c. 203, was completed and dedicated by M. Junius Brutus. The festival lasted for six days, beginning on the 4th of April. The season of this festival, like that of the whole month in which it took place, was full of general re- joicings and feasting. It was customary for the wealthy Romans on this occasion to in- vite one another mutually to their repasts. The games which were held at the Megalesia were purely scenic, and not circenses. They were at first held on the Palatine, in front of the temple of the goddess, but afterwards also in the theatres. The day which was especially set apart for the performance of scenic plays was the third of the festival. Slaves were not permitted to be present at the games, and the magistrates appeared dressed in a purple toga and praetexta, whence the proverb, purpura Megalensis. The games were under the superintendence of the curule aediles, and we know that four of the extant plays of Terence were performed at the Megalesia. MEMBRANA. [LIBER.] MENSA (Tpajrea), a table. The simplest kind of table was a round one with three legs, called iu Greek rptVovs. Tables, how- ever, must usually have had four legs, as the etymology of rpaTrefa, the common word for table, indicates. For the houses of the opu- lent, tables were made of the most valuable and beautiful kinds of wood, especially of maple, or of the citrus of Africa, which was a species of cypress or juniper. As the table was not large, it was usual to place the dishes and the various kinds of meat upon it, and MENSARII. 254 METOICI. then to bring it thus furnished to the place where the guests were reclining 1 . On many occasions, indeed, each guest either had a small table to himself, or the company was divided into parties of two or three, with a separate table for each party, as is distinctly represented in the cut under SYMPOSIUM. Hence we have such phrases as mensam ap- ponere or opponere, and mensam avferre or removere. The two principal courses of a deipnon and coena, or a Greek and Roman dinner, were called respectively jrpw-n; rpa- jrefa, Sevrepa rpoircfa, and mensa prima, mensa secunda. [COENA ; DEIPNON.] MEXSARII, MENSULARII, or NUMU- LARII, a kind of public bankers at Rome \vho were appointed by the state; they were distinct from the argentarii, who were com- mon bankers, and did business on their own account. [AKGEXTAIIII.] The mensarii had their tables or banks (mcnsae) like ordinary bankers, in the forum, and in the name of the aerarium they offered ready money to debtors who could give security to the state for it. Such an expediency was devised by the state only in times of great distress. The first time that mensarii (quinqueviri mensarii) were appointed was in B. c. 352, at the time when the plebeians were so deeply involved in debt, that they were obliged to borrow money from new creditors in order to pay the old ones, and thus ruined themselves completely. On this occasion they were also authorised to ordain that cattle or land should be received as payment at a fair valuation. With the exception of this first time, they appear during the time of the republic to have always been triumviri mensarii. One class of mensarii, however (perhaps an in- ferior order), the mensularii or nwnularii, seem to have been permanently employed by the state, and these must be meant when we read, that not only the aerarium, but also private individuals, deposited in their hands sums of money which they had to dispose of. MENSIS. [CALENDAKIUM.] MERENDA. [COENA.] METAE. [CiRcrra.] METALLUM (neVoAAov), a mine and metal. The metals which have been known from the earliest period of which we have any informa- tion are those which were long distinguished as the seven principal metals, namely, gold, silver, copper, tin, iron, lead, and mercury. If to this list we add the compound of gold and silver called electrum, the compound of copper and tin called x a ^ JC * and aes (bronze), and steel, we have, in all probability, a com- plete list of the metals known to the Greeks and Romans, with the exception of zinc, which they do not seem to have known as a metal, but only in its ores, and cf brass, which they regarded as a sort of bronze. The early Greeks were no doubt chiefly indebteil for a supply of the various metals to the commerce of the Phoenicians, who procured them principally from Arabia and Spain, and tin from our own island and the East. They were perfectly acquainted with the processes of smelting the metal from the ore, and of forging heated masses into the required shapes, by the aid of the hammer and tongs. The smith's instruments were the anvil (aKjiwr) with the block on which it rested (vpa). The advances made in the art of metallurgy in subse- quent times are chiefly connected with the improvements in the art of statuary. The method of working, as described in Homer, seems to have long prevailed, namely by beating out lumps of the material into the form proposed, and afterwards fitting the pieces together by means of pins or keys. It was called o-^vpjjAaTov, from vpa, a hammer. The next mode, among the Greeks, of executing metal works seems to have been by plating upon a nucleus, or general form, of wood a practice which was em- ployed also by the Egyptians. It is ex- tremely difficult to determine at what date the casting of metal was introduced. Ac- cording to the statements of Pausanias and Pliny, the art of casting in bronze and in iron was invented by Rhoecus and Theodorus of Samos, who probably lived in. the sixth and fifth centuries before our era. METOICI (nieVot/cot), the name by which, at Athens and in other Greek states, the resident aliens were designated. They must be distinguished from such strangers as made only a transitory stay in a place, for it was a characteristic of a metoicits, that he resided permanently in the city. No city of Greece perhaps had such a number of resident aliens as Athens, since none afforded to strangers so many facilities for carrying on mercantile business, or a more agreeable mode of living. In the census instituted by Demetrius Phale- reus (B. c. 309), the number of resident aliens at Athens was 10,000, in which number women and children were probably not in- cluded. The jealousy with which the citizens of the ancient Greek republics kept their body clear of intruders, is also manifest in their regulations concerning aliens. How- ever long they might have resided in Athens, they were always regarded as strangers, whence they are sometimes called f ewi, and to remind them of their position, they had on some occasions to perform certain degrading services for the Athenian citizens [HYDKIA- METOPA. 255 HIM US. PHORIA]. These services were, however, in all probability not intended to hurt the feel- ings of the aliens, but were simply acts sym- bolical of their relation to the citizens. Aliens were not allowed to acquire landed property in the state they had chosen for their resi- dence, and were consequently obliged to live in hired houses or apartments. As they did not constitute a part of the state, and were yet in constant intercourse and commerce with its members, every alien was obliged to select a citizen for his patron (n-pooranjs), who was not only the mediator between them and the state, through whom alone they could trans- act any legal business, whether private or public, but was at the same time answerable (eyyvjjTTj's) to the state for the conduct of his client. On the other hand, however, the state allowed the aliens to carry on all kinds of industry and commerce under the protec- tion of the law ; in fact, at Athens nearly all business was in the hands of aliens, who on this account lived for the most part in the Peiraeeus. Each family of aliens, whether they availed themselves of tie privilege of carrying on any mercantile business or not, had to pay an annual tax (jjterotKiov or feviicd) of twelve drachmae, or if the head of the family was a widow, of only six drachmae. If aliens did not pay this tax, or if they assumed the right of citizens, and probably also in case they refused to select a patron, they not only forfeited the protection of the state, but were sold as slaves. Extraordinary taxes and liturgies (elcn^opai and Aeiroupyiat) devolved upon aliens no less than upon citi- zens. The aliens were also obliged, like citizens, to serve in the regular armies and in the fleet, both abroad and at home, for the defence of the city. Those aliens who were exempt from the burthens peculiar to their class were called isoteles (icroTeAets). They had not to pay the jLterouciov (areAem JU.CTOI- KI'OV), were not obliged to choose a TrpooraTijs, and in fact enjoyed all the rights of citizens, except those of a political nature. Their con. dition was termed iaoreAeta, and io-on-oAtreta. METOPA or METOPE (MCTomj), the name applied to each of the spaces between the triglyphs in the frieze of the Doric order, and by metonymy to the sculptured ornament with which those spaces were filled up. In the original significance of the parts the tri- glyphs represent the ends of the cross-beams or joists which rested on the architrave ; the beds of these beams were called OJT}|U09. MONETA, the mint, or the place where money was coined. The mint of Home was a building on the Capitoline, and attached to the temple of Juno Moneta, as the aerarium was to the temple of Saturn. The officers who had the superintendence of the mint were the Triumviri Monetales, who were perhaps first appointed about u. c. 269. Under the republic, the coining of money was not a privilege which belonged exclu- sively to the state. The coins struck in the time of the republic mostly bear the names of private individuals ; and it would seem that every Roman citizen had the right of having his own gold and silver coined in the public mint, and under the superintendence of its officers. Still no one till the time of the empire had the right of putting his own image upon a coin ; Julius Caesar was the first to whom this privilege was granted. MONILE (OPJU.OS), a necklace. Necklaces were worn by both sexes among the most po- lished of those nations which the Greeks called barbarous, especially the Indians, the Egyp- tians, and the Persians. Greek and Roman females adopted them more particularly as a bridal ornament. They were of various forms, as may be seen by the following specimens : Monilin, necklaces. (British Museum.) MONUMENTUM. 257 MURUS. MONUMENTUM. [Fuxus.] MORA. [EXEECITUS.] MORTARIUM, also called PILA and PT- LUM (oA/xos, lySrj, 17815), a mortar. Before the invention of mills [MOLA] corn -wa: pounded and rubbed in mortars (pistuni), and hence the place for making bread, or the bake-house, was called pistrinum. Also long after the introduction of mills this -was an indispensable article of domestic furniture. Those used in pharmacy were sometimes made of Egyptian alabaster. The mortar was also employed in pounding charcoal, rub- bing it with glue, in order to make black paint (atr amentum], in making plaster for the walls of apartments, in mixing spices and fragrant herbs and flowers for the use of the kitchen, and in metallurgy, as in triturating cinnabar to obtain mercury from it by sub- limation. MULSUM. [ViNUM.] MUNERATOR. [GLADIATORES.] MUNICEPS, MUNICIPIUM. [COLONIA ; FOEDERATAE ClVITATES.] MUNUS. [HONOEES.] MUNUS. [GLADIATOEES.] MURALIS CORONA. [ConoxA.] MURRHINA VASA, or MURREA VASA, were first introduced into Rome by Pompey, who dedicated cups of this kind to Jupiter Capitolinus. Their value was very great. Nero gave 300 talents for a capis or drinking cup. These murrhine vessels came from the East, principally from places within the Par- thian empire, and chiefly from Caramania. They were made of a substance formed by a moisture thickened in the earth by heat, and were chiefly valued on account of the variety of their colours. Modern writers differ much respecting the material of which they were composed, and some think they may have been true Chinese porcelain. MURUS, MOENIA (reixos), the wall of a city, in contradistinction to PARIES (TO^OS), the wall of a house, and Maceria, a boundary wall. We find cities surrounded by massive walls at the earliest periods of Greek and Roman history. Homer speaks of the chief cities of the Argive kingdom as " the walled Tiryns," and " Mycenae the well-built city," attesting the great antiquity of those identical gigantic walls which still stand at Tiryns and Mycenae, and which have been frequently attri- buted to the Cyclopes and Pelasgians. Three principal species can be clearly distin- guished : 1. That in which the masses of stone are of irregular shape and are put to- gether without any attempt to fit them into one another, the interstices being loosely filled in with smaller stones. An example is given in the annexed engraving. 2. In other cases we find the blocks still of irregular polygonal shapes, but their sides are suffiei- Ancient Wall at Tiryns. ently smoothed to make each fit accurately into the angles between the others, and their faces are cut so as to give the whole wall a tolerably smooth surface. An example is given in the annexed engraving. 3. In the third spe- Ancient Wall of Larissa, the Acropolis of Argos. cies, the blocks are laid in horizontal courses, more or less regular (sometimes indeed so irregular, that none of the horizontal joints are continuous), and with, vertical joints either perpendicular or oblique, and with all the joints more or less accurately fitted. The walls of Mycenae present one of the ruder samples of this sort of structure ; and the following engraving of the "Lion Gate" of that fortress (so called from the rudely sculp- tured figures of lions) shows also the manner in which the gates of these three species of walls were built, by supporting an immense jlock of stone, for the lintel, upon two others, 'or jambs, the latter inclining inwards, so as ;o give more space than if they were up- right. The materials employed in walls about the time of Pericles were various sorts of stone, and, in some of the most magnifi- cent temples, marble. The practice of pv.t- ing a facing of marble over a wall of a com- moner material was introduced in the next MURUS. 258 HYSTERIA. period of architectural history. For build- ings of a common sort, the materials em- Ancient Wall at Mycenae. ployed -were smaller stones, rough or squared, or flints, as -well as bricks. These were bound together with various kinds of mortar or cement, composed of lime mixed with dif- ferent sands and volcanic earths. The history of Roman masonry is not very different from that of the Greek. The most ancient works at Rome, such as the Career Mamertinus, the Cloaca Maxima, and the Servian Walls, were constructed of massive quadrangular htwn stones, placed together without ce- ment. [CLOACA.] Five species of Roman ma- sonry may be distinguished ; namely, 1. when the blocks of stone are laid in alternate courses, lengthwise in one course, and cross- wise in the next ; this is the most common ; 2. when the stones in each course are laid alternately along and across ; this construc- tion was usual when the walls were to be faced with slabs of marble ; 8. when they are laid entirely lengthwise ; 4. entirely crosswise ; and 5. when the courses are al- ternately higher and lower than each other. As by the Greeks, so by the Romans, walls of a commoner sort were built of smaller quarried stones (caementa) or of bricks. The excellence of the cement which the Romans used enabled them to construct walls of very small rough stones, not laid in courses, but held together by the mortar ; this structure was called opus incertum. Another structure of which the Romans made great use, and which was one of the most durable of all, was that composed of courses of flat tiles. Such courses were also introduced in the other kinds of stone and brick walls, in which they both served as bond-courses, and, in the lower part of the wall, kept the damp from rising from the ground. Brick walls covered with stucco were exceedingly common -with the Romans : even columns were made of brick covered with stucco. MUSCULUS was a kind of vinea, one of the smaller military machines, by which the besiegers of a town were protected. MTJSEUM (/J.ovjpia, TeXerai, and Spyia. The name opyta (from eopya) originally signified only sacrifices accompanied by certain cere- monies, but it was afterwards applied espe- cially to the ceremonies observed in the wor- ship of Dionysus, and at a still later period to mysteries in general. TeAenj signifies, in general, a religious festival, but more par- ticularly a lustration or ceremony performed in order to avert some calamity, either public or private. Mvcmjpioj' signifies, properly speaking, the secret part of the worship, but was also used in the same sense as reAen;, and for mystic worship in general. Mys- teries in general may be defined as sacrifices and ceremonies which took place at night or in secret within some sanctuary, which the uninitiated were not allowed to enter. What was essential to them, were objects of wor- ship, sacred utensils, and traditions with their interpretation, which were withheld from all persons not initiated. The most celebrated mysteries in Greece were those of Samothrace and Eleusis, which are described in separate articles. [CABEIEIA ; ELEUSINIA.] NAENIA. 259 NAVIS. NAENIA. NATATIO, NATATORIUM. [BALNEUM.] NAVALIA, docks at Rome where ships were built, laid up, and refitted. They were attached to the emporium outside of the Porta Trigemina, and were connected with the Tiber. The emporium and navalia were first included within the walls of the city by Aurelian. The docks (VCWO-OIKOI or peuipia) in the Peiraeeus at Athens cost 1000 talents, and having been destroyed in the anarchy were again restored and finally completed by Lycurgus, the contemporary of Demosthenes. They were under the superintendence of regular officers, called eiri/ueAip-al riav i/eu>- pCiav. NAVALIS CORONA. [CORONA.] N5.VARCHUS (vavopxos), the name by which the Greeks designated both the captain of a single ship, and the admiral of a fleet. The office itself was called vavapxia.. The admiral of the Athenian fleet was always one of the ten generals (orpoTrryoi) elected every year, and he had either the whole or the chief command of the fleet. The chief offi- cers who served under him were the tri- erarchs and the pentecontarchs, each of whom commanded one vessel ; the inferior officers in the vessels were the Kv^tpv^rai, or helms- men, the iceAevorou or commanders of the rowers, and the wpoiparcu., who must have been employed at the prow of the vessels. Other Greek states who kept a navy had likewise their navarchs. The chief admiral of the Spartan fleet was called navarchus, and the second in command epistoleus (en-i- oroAevs). The same person was not allowed to hold the office of navarchus two successive years at Sparta. [EPISTOLEUS.] NAUCRARIA (va.vK.pa.pia), the name of a division of the inhabitants of Attica. The four ancient phylae were each divided into three phratries, and each of these twelve phratries into four naucraries, of which there were thus forty-eight. What the naucraries were previous to the legislation of Solon is not stated anywhere, but it is not improbable that they were political divisions similar to the demes in the constitution of Cleis- thenes, and were made perhaps at the time of the institution of the nine archons, for the purpose of regulating the liturgies, taxes, or financial and military affairs in general. At any rate, however, the naucraries before the time of Solon can have had no connection with the navy, for the Athenians then had no navy ; the word va.vKpa.pos therefore can- not be derived from raw?, ship, but must come from vaua, and vavicpopos is thus only another form for vavxAjjpos in the sense of a householder, as vav\ov was used for the rent of a house. Solon in his legislation retained the old institution of the naucraries, and charged each of them with the equipment of one trireme and with the mounting of two horsemen. All military affairs, as far as regards the defraying of expenses, probably continued as before to be regulated accord- ing to naucraries. Cleisthenes, in his change of the Solonian constitution, retained the division into naucraries for military and financial purposes ; but he increased their number to fifty, making five for each of his ten tribes ; so that now the number of their ships was increased from forty-eight to fifty, and that of horsemen from ninety-six to one hundred. The statement of Herodotus, that the Athenians in their war against Aegina had only fifty ships of their own, is thus perfectly in accordance with the fifty nau- craries of Cleisthenes. The functions of the former vau/cpopoi, or the heads of their re- spective naucraries, were now transferred to the dcmarchs. [DEMARCHI.] T,he obligation of each naucrary to equip a ship of war for the service of the republic may be regarded as the first form of trierarchy. As the sys- tem of trierarchy became developed and established, this obligation of the naucraries appears to have gradually ceased, and to have fallen into disuse. [TRIEEARCHIA.] NAUCRARUS. [NAUCRARIA.] NAVIS, NAVIGIUM (i/aus, n-Aotov), a ship. The numerous fleet, with which the Greeks are said to have sailed to the coast of Asia Minor, must on the whole be re- garded as sufficient evidence of the extent to which navigation was carried on in those times, however much of the detail in the Homeric description may have arisen from the poet's own imagination. In the Ho- meric catalogue it is stated that each of the fifty Boeotian ships carried 120 warriors, and a ship which carried so many cannot have been of very small dimensions. What Homer states of the Boeotian vessels applies more or less to the ships of other Greeks. These boats were provided with a mast (tores) which was fastened by two ropes (jrporoi'oi) to the two ends of the ship, so that when the rope connecting it with the prow broke, the mast would fall towards the stern, where it might kill the helmsman. The mast could be erected or taken down as necessity required. They also had sails (iort'a), but no deck ; each vessel however appears to have had only one sail, which was used in favourable winds ; and the principal means of s 2 NAV1S. 260 NAVIS. propelling the vessel lay in the rowers, who sat upon benches (KXijiSes). The oars were fastened to the side of the ship with leathern thongs (rpoirol Sep/JMTLvoi), in which they were turned as a key in its hole. The ships in Homer are mostly called black O^'Aatyai), probably because they were painted or co- vered with a black substance, such as pitch, to protect the wood against the influence of the water and the air ; sometimes other colours, such as /niAros, minium (a red co- lour), were used to adorn the sides of the ships near the prow, whence Homer occa- sionally calls ships fuAron-opQot, i. e. red- cheeked ; they were also painted occasionally with a purple colour (oii/iK07rdpj}o<.). When the Greeks had landed on the coast of Troy, the ships were drawn on land, and fastened at the poop to large stones with a rope which served as anchors. The Greeks then sur- rounded the fleet with a fortification to secure it against the attacks of the enemy. This custom of drawing the ships upon the shore, when they were not used, was followed in later times also, as every one will remember from the accounts in Caesar's Commentaries. In the Odyssey (v. 243, &c.) the building of a boat (o-xe5i'a) is described, though not with the minuteness which an actual ship-builder might wish for. Ulysses first cuts down with his axe twenty trees, and prepares the wood for his purpose by cutting it smooth and giving it the proper shape. He then bores the holes for nails and hooks, and fits the planks together and fastens them with nails. He rounds the bottom of the ship like that of a broad transport vessel, and raises the bulwark (uepia), fitting it upon the numerous ribs of the ship. He afterwards covers the whole of the outside with planks, which are laid across the ribs from the keel upwards to the bulwark : next the mast is made, and the sail-yard attached to it, and lastly the rudder. When the ship is thus far completed, he raises the bulwark still higher by a wicker- work which goes all around the vessel, as a protection against the waves. This raised bulwark of wickerwork and the like was used in later times also. For ballast Ulysses throws into the ship vA.ij, which according to the Scholiast consisted of wood, stones, and sand. Calypso then brings him materials to make a sail of, and he fastens the inrepai or ropes which run from the top of the mast to the two ends of the yard, and also the icaAoi with which the sail is drawn up or let down. The froSes mentioned in this passage were undoubtedly, as in the later times, the ropes attached to the two lower corners of the square sail. The ship of which the building is thus described was a small boat, a crxeSia, as Homer calls it ; but it had like all the Ho- meric ships a round or flat bottom. Greater ships must have been of a more complicated structure, as ship-builders are praised as artists. Below (p. 266), a representation of two boats is given which appear to bear great resemblance to the one of which the building is described in the Odyssey. The Corinthians were the first wTio brought the art of ship-building nearest to the point at which we find it in the time of Thucydides, and they were the first who introduced ships with three ranks of rowers (rpujpeis, Tri- remes}. About B. c. 700, Ameinocles the Corinthian, to whom this invention is ascribed, made the Samians acquainted with it ; but it must have been preceded by that of the Biremes, that is, ships with two ranks of rowers, which Pliny attributes to the Ery- thraeans.* These innovations however do not seem to have been generally adopted for a long time ; for we read that about the time of Cyrus the Phocaeans introduced long sharp- keeled ships called jreimjKoVTopot. These be- longed to the class of long war-ships (vyes /ucucpai'), and had fifty rowers, twenty-five on each side of the ship, who sat in one row. It is further stated that before this time * Bircmc The name I by only two netimes called by the GroeKs SiKpora- s also applied to a little bott managed Monerin. (Montfaucon, vol. iv. pt. u. pi. XAVIS. 261 x.vns. vessels called orpo-yyuAai, with large round or rather flat bottoms, had been used exclu- sively by all the lonians in Asia. At this period most Greeks seem to hare adopted the long ships with only one rank of rowers on each side (Moncris). Their name varied ac- cordingly as they had fifty (irevTrjKovropoi), or thirty (rpiaxovropot), or even a smaller number of rowers. A ship of war of this class is represented in the preceding woodcut. The following cut contains a beautiful frag- ment of a Biremis with a complete deck. An- other specimen of a small Biremis is given further on. The first Greek people whom we know to have acquired a navy of import- ance were the Corinthians, Samians, and Phocaeans. About the time of Cyrus and Cambyses the Corinthian Triremes were ge- nerally adopted by the Sicilian tyrants and by the Corcyraeans, who soon acquired the most powerful navies among the Greeks. In other parts of Greece and even at Athens and in Aegina the most common vessels about this time were long ships with only one rank of rowers on each side. Athens, although the foundation of its maritime power had been laid by Solon [N.VCCRABU], did not obtain a fleet of any importance until the time of Themistocles, who persuaded the Athenians to build 2 Triremes for the purpose of carrying on the war against Aegina. But even then ships were not provided with com- plete decks (KOTaopTiKO, i^opnryol, 6Axa8e?, TrAoia, arpoy- yvA.ai, naves onerariae, naves actuariae). Ships of the latter kind were not calculated for quick movement or rapid sailing, but to carry the greatest possible quantity of goods. Hence their structure was bulky, their bottom round, and although they were not without rowers, yet the chief means by which they were propelled were their sails. The most common ships of war in the earlier times were the pentecontori (TrevnjKoi'Topoi), but afterwards they were chiefly Triremes, and the latter are frequently designated only by the name v5s, while all the others are called by the name indicating their peculiar cha- racter. Triremes however were again di- vided into two classes : the one consisting of real men-of-war, which were quick-sailing vessels (raxetai), and the other of transports either for soldiers (oTpaTiwriSes or OTrAiTa- yioyoi) or for horses (cjrmjyoi', tTnrayuyoi). Ships of this class were more heavy and awk- ward, and were therefore not used in battle except in cases of necessity. The ordinary size of a war galley may be inferred from the fact that the average number of men en- gaged in it, including the crew and marines, was two hundred, to whom on some occa- sions as many as thirty epibatae were added. [EPIBATAE.] Vessels with more than three ranks of rowers on each side were not con- structed in Greece till about the year 400 B. c., when Dionysius I., tyrant of Syracuse, who bestowed great care upon his navy, built the first Quadriremes (reTpTJpets), and Quin- queremes (ffevr^peis). In the reign of Dio- nysius II., Hexeres (er}pis) are also men- tioned. After the time of Alexander the Great the use of vessels with four, five, and more ranks of rowers became very general, and it is well known that the first Punic war was chiefly carried on with Quinqueremes. Ships with twelve, thirty, or even forty ranks of rowers, such as they were built by Alex- ander and the Ptolemies, appear to have been mere curiosities, and did not come into common use. The Athenians at first did not adopt vessels larger than Triremes, probably because they thought that with rapidity and skill they could do more than with large and unwieldy ships. In the year B. c. 356 they continued to use nothing but Triremes ; but in B. c. 330 the republic had already a num- ber of Quadriremes, which was afterwards increased. The first Quinqueremes at Athens are mentioned in a document belonging to the year B. c. 325. Among the smaller vessels we may mention the axaros or ajco.Ti.ov, which seems to have been sometimes used as a ship of burden. The name Scapha (oxa<|>i)) denotes a small skiff or life-boat, which was commonly attached to merchant- men for the purpose of saving the crew in danger. Liburna, or Liburnica, in Crock Ai/Supj/i's or \ifivpvov, is a name given appa- rently to every war-ship, from a bireme up to those with six lines of rowers on each side, but in the time of Augustus, liburnae even with six lines of rowers were considered small and swift in comparison with the un- wieldy ships of Antony at Actium. They were usually provided with a beak, whence a navis rostrata is generally the same as a Liburna. They were first constructed by the Liburnians (whence they derived their name), and formed the main part of the fleet of Au- gustus in the battle of Actium. Every vessel at Athens, as in modern times, had a name given to it, which was generally of the femi- nine gender. The Romans sometimes gave to their ships masculine names. The Greek names were either taken from ancient he- roines such as Nausicaa, or they were abstract words such as Forethought, Safety, Guid- ance, &c. In many cases the name of the builder also was added. The Romans appear to have first become aware of the importance of a fleet during the second Samnite war, in the year B.C. 311 : when duumviri navales were for the first time appointed by the people. The ships which the Romans now built were undoubtedly Triremes. This fleet, however insignificant it may have been, con- tinued to be kept up until the time when Rome became a real maritime power. In the year B. c. 260, when the Romans saw that without a navy they could not carry on the war against Carthage with any advantage, the senate ordained that a fleet should be built. Triremes would now have been of no avail against the high-bulwarked vessels (Quinqueremes) of the Carthaginians. But the Romans would have been unable to build others had not fortunately a Carthaginian Quinquereme been wrecked on the coast of Bruttium, and fallen into their hands. This wreck the Romans took as their model, and after it built 120, or according to others 130 ships. From this time forward the Romans continued to keep up a powerful navy. To- wards the end of the Republic they also in- creased the size of their ships, and built war vessels of from six to ten ranks of rowers. The construction of their ships, however, scarcely differed from that of Greek ressels ; the only great difference was that the Roman galleys were provided with a greater variety of destructive engines of war than those of the Greeks. They even erected turres and NAVIS. 263 XAVIS. tabulata upon the decks of their great men- of-war (naves turritae), and fought upon them as if they were standing upon the walls of a fortress (see cut, p. 260). "We now proceed to describe the parts of ancient vessels. 1. The prow (irpcopo. or UtTaiirov, prora) was generally ornamented on both sides with figures, which were either painted upon the sides or laid in. It seems to have been very common to represent an eye on each side of the prow. Upon the prow or fore-deck there was always some emblem (Trapaatiiiov, insigne, figw a) by which the ship was distinguished from others. At the head of the prow there projected the crroXoj, and its extremity was termed cucpooToAtor, which was frequently made in the shape of an animal or a helmet. It appears to have been sometimes covered with brass and to have served as an embole (e/n|3oAij) against the enemy's vessels. The oucpoa-ToKiov is some- times designated by the name of xtivfonot (from xi"j a goose), because it was formed in the shape of the head or neck of a goose or B1KKM1S. A Prom, irpwpa. B. Oculu*, o0aAfios. C. Rostrum. \a.i)f is the bulwark of the vessel, or rather the uppermost edge of it. In small boats the pegs (o-Ko.Afioi, scalmi) NAVIS. 265 NAVIS. between which the oars move, and to which they are fastened hy a thong (Tpoirwnjp), Aphlaston, Aplustre. were upon the rpada\fi.oC, Tp^nara, or rpVTnjfiaTa). 4. The middle part of the deck in most ships of war appears to have been raised above the bulwark, or at least to a level with its upper edge, and thus enabled the soldiers to occupy a position from which they could see far around and hurl their darts against the enemy. Such an elevated deck appears in the annexed woodcut representing a Honoris. In this instance the flag is stand- ing upon the hind-deck. 5. One of the most interesting 1 , as well as important parts in the (From a Tainting at Pumpeii.) arrangements of the Biremes, Triremes, &c., is the position of the ranks of rowers, from which the ships themselves derive their names. Various opinions have been enter- tained by those who have written upon this subject. Thus much is certain, that the different ranks of rowers, who sat along the sides of a vessel, were placed one above the other. In ordinary vessels, from the Moceris up to the Quinqueremis, each oar was managed by one man. The rowers sat upon little benches attached to the ribs of the vessel, and called e&uAia, and in Latin fori and transtra. The lowest row of rowers was called da\diJ.o|uaTa. 2. Thesail ('I&riov, velum). Most ancient ships had only one sail, which was attached with the yard to the great mast. In a Trireme also one sail might be sufficient, but the trierarch might nevertheless add a second. As each of the two masts of a Trireme had two sail-yards, it further follows that each mast might have two sails, one of which was placed lower than the other. The two belonging to the main-mast were called iorux fieyoAa, and those of the fore-mast iori'a axdreia. The former were used on ordinary occasions, but the latter probably only in cases when it was necessary to sail with extraordinary speed. The sails of the Attic war-galleys, and of most ancient ships in general, were of a square form. Whether triangular sails were ever used by the Greeks, as has been fre- quently supposed, is very doubtful. The Romans, however, used triangular sails, which they called Suppara, and which had the shape of an inverted Greek A (v), the upper side of which was attached to the yard. 3. Cordage (roireia) differed from the i';3oAos or a^ia-- Tcyios, because it had two teeth or flukes ; but sometimes it had only one, and was then called eTepooro/ios. The technical expressions in the use of the anchor are : ancoram solvere, ayicupav x a ^?''> to loose the anchor ; ancoram jacere, ayicvpav /SaAAeti/ or pimeiv, to cast anchor ; and ancoram tollcrc, ayKvpav aipeiv or diWpecr&u, to weigh anchor, whence alpav by itself means " to set sail," ayxvpav being understood. The following figure shows the cable (funis), passing through a hole in the prow (oculus). Each ship of course had several anchors. The last or most powerful anchor, " the last hope," was called iepd, sacra, and persons trying their last hope were said sacram solvere. The preceding account of the different parts of the ship will be rendered still clearer by the drawing on p. 263. Eireiuis. (F: NAUMACHIA, the name given to the representation of a sea-fight among the Ro- mans, and also to the place where such en- gagements were exhibited. These fights sometimes took place in the circus or amphi- theatre, sufficient water being introduced to float ships, but more generally in buildings especially devoted to this purpose. The combatants in these sea-fights, called Nau- machiarii, were usually captives, or crimi- nals condemned to death, who fought as in gladiatorial combats, until one party was killed, unless preserved by the clemency of the emperor. The ships engaged in the sea fights were divided into two parties, called respectively by the names of different mari- time nations, as Tyrians and Egyptians, Rho- dians and Sicilians, Persians and Athenians, Corcyraeans and Corinthians, Athenians and Syracusans, &c. These sea-fights were ex- hibited with the same magnificence and lavish expenditure of human life as characterised the gladiatorial combats and other public games of the Romans. In Nero's naumachia there were sea-monsters swimming about iu the artificial lake. In the sea-fight exhibited by Titus there were 3000 men engaged, and in that exhibited by Domitian the ships were almost equal in number to two real fleets. NAUTODICAE (vavroSiicai), magistrates at Athens, who had jurisdiction in matters be- longing to navigation and commerce, and in matters concerning such persons as had en- tered their names as members of a phratris NEFASTI DIES. 269 XEXUM. without both their parents being citizens ol Athens, or in other words, in the SUai e^iro and Sucai fevi'as. The time when nautodicae were first instituted is not mentioned, but it must have been previous to Pericles, and perhaps as early as the tune of Cleisthenes. The nautodicae were appointed every year by lot in the month of Gamelion, and pro- bably attended to the Sucai tp-nopiav only dur- ing the winter, when navigation ceased, whereas the 6'XIA. [Fcxrs, p. 188, a.] NKOCORI (yewieopot), signified originally temple-sweepers, but was applied even in early times to priestly officers of high rank, who had the supreme supcrintendciiCe of temples and their treasures. Under the Ko- man emperors the word was especially ap- plied to those cities in Asia, which erected temples to the 'Roman emperors, since the whole city in every such case was regarded as the guardian of the worship of the em- peror. Accordingly we frequently find on the coins of Ephesus, Smyrna, and other cities, the epithet Newxopos, which also occurs on the inscriptions of these cities. NEPTtNALlA, a festival of Neptune, celebrated at Rome, of which very little is known. The day on which it was held "was probably the 23rd of July. In the ancient calendaria this day is marked as ffept. ludi etferiae, or Nept. ludi, from which we see that the festival was celebrated with games. NEXUM, was either the transfer of the ownership of a thing, or the transfer of a thing to a creditor as a security ; accordingly in one sense Nexum included Mancipium [MAxcipruii] ; in another sense, Mancipium and Nexum are opposed in the same way in which Sale and Mortgage or Pledge are op- posed. The formal part of both transactions consisted in a transfer per aes et libra m. The person who became nexus by the effect of a nexum or nexus (for this form of the word also is used) was said nexum inire. The phrases next datio, nexi liberatio, re- spectively express the contracting and the release from the obligation. The Roman law as to the payment of borrowed money was very strict. By a law of the Twelve Tables, if the debtor admitted the debt, or had been condemned in the amount of the debt by a judex, he had thirty days allowed him for payment. At the expiration of this time, he was liable to be assigned over to the creditor (addictus} by the sentence of the praetor. The creditor was required to keep him for sixty days in chains, during which time be publicly exposed the debtor on three nundi- nae, and proclaimed the amount of his debt. If no person released the prisoner by paying the debt, the creditor might sell him as a slave or put him to death. If there were several creditors, the letter of the law allowed them to cut the debtor in pieces, and to take their share of his body in proportion to their debt. There is no instance of a creditor ever having adopted this extreme mode of satis- fying his debt. But the creditor might treat the debtor, who was addictus, as a slave, and compel him to work out his debt ; and the treatment was often very severe. The Lex Poetilia (B. c. 326) alleviated the condition of the nexi. So far as 'we can understand its provisions, it set all the nexi free, or made them soluti, and it enacted that for the future there should he no nexum, and th?.i NOBILES. 270 HOMES'. no debtor should for the future be put in chains. NOBILES, NOBILITAS. In the early periods of the Koman state the Patricians were the Nobles as opposed to the Plebs. In B. c. 366, the plebeians obtained the right of being eligible to the consulship, and finally they obtained access to all the curule magis- tracies. Thus the two classes were put on the same footing as to political capacity ; but now a new order of nobility arose. The de- scendants of plebeians who had filled curule magistracies, formed a class called Nobiles or men " known," who were so called by way of distinction from " Ignobiles " or people who were not known. The Nobiles had no legal privileges as such ; but they were bound together by a common distinction derived from a legal title and by a common interest ; and their common interest was to endeavour to confine the election to all the high magis- tracies to the members of their body, to the Nobilitas. Thus the descendants of those Plebeians who had won their way to distinc- tion combined to exclude other Plebeians from the distinction which their own ances- tors had transmitted to them. The external distinction of the Nobiles was the Jus Imagi- num, a right or privilege which was appa- rently established on usage only, and not on any positive enactments. These Imagines were figures with painted masks of wax, made to resemble the person whom they represented ; and they were placed in the Atrium of the house, apparently in small wooden receptacles or cases somewhat in the form of temples. The Imagines were accom- panied with the tituli or names of distinction which the deceased had acquired ; and the tituli were connected in some way by lines or branches so as to exhibit the pedigree (stemma) of the family. These Imagines were generally enclosed in their cases, but they were opened on festival days and other great ceremonials, and crowned with bay (laureatae) : they also formed part of a so- lemn funeral procession. It seems probable that the Koman Nobilitas, in the strict sense of that term, and the Jus Imaginum, origi- nated with the admission of the Plebeians to the consulship B. c. 366. A plebeian who first attained a Curule office was the founder of his family's Nobilitas (princeps nobilitatis ; auctor generis). Such a person could have no imagines of his ancestors ; and he could have none of his own, for such imagines of a man were not made till after he was dead. Such a person then was not nohilis in the full sense of the term, nor yet was he igno- bilis. He was called by the Romans a " no- vus homo " or a new man; and his status or condition was called Noritas. The term novus homo was never applied to a Patrician. The two most distinguished "novi homines" were C. Marius and M. Tullius Cicero, both natives of an Italian municipium. The Pa- tricians would of course be jealous of the new nobility ; but this new nobility once formed would easily unite with the old aristocracy of Rome to keep the political power in their hands, and to prevent more novi homines from polluting this exclusive class. As early as the second Punic war this new class, com- pounded of Patricians or original aristocrats, and Nobiles or newly-engrafted aristocrats, was able to exclude novi homines from the consulship. They maintained this power to the end of the republican period, and the consulship continued almost in the exclusive possession of the Nobilitas. The Optimates were the Nobilitas and the chief part of the Equites, a rich middle class, and also all others whose support the Nobilitas and Equi- tes could command, in fact all who were op- posed to change that might affect the power of the Nobilitas and the interests of those whom the Nobilitas allied with themselves. Optimates in this sense are opposed to Plebs, to the mass of the people ; and Optimates is a wider term than Nobilitas, inasmuch as it would comprehend the Nobilitas and all whd adhered to them. NOMEN (oi/ofxa), a name. The Greeks bore only one name, and it was one of the especial rights of a father to choose the names for his children, and to alter them if he pleased. It was customary to give to the eldest son the name of the grandfather on his father's side ; and children usually re- ceived their names on the tenth day after their birth. Originally every Roman citizen belonged to a gens, and derived his name (nomen or nomen gentilieium) from his gens, which nomen gentilieium generally terminated in ius. Besides this, every Roman had a name, called praenomen, which preceded the nomen gentilieium, and which was peculiar to him as an individual, e. g. Caius, Lucius, Marcus, Cneius, Sextus, &c. This praeno- men was at a later time given to boys on the ninth day after their birth, and to girls on the eighth day. This day was called dies lustricus, dies nominum, or nominalia. The praenomen given to a boy was in most cases that of the father, but sometimes that of the grandfather or great-grandfather. These two names, a praencmcn and a nomen genti- lieium, or simply nomen, were indispensable to a Roman, and they were at the same time sufficient to designate him ; hence the nu- merous instances of Romans being designated only by these two names, even in cases where NOHOPHYLACES. 271 NOMOTHETAE. a third or fourth name was possessed by the person. Every Roman citizen, besides be- longing to a gens, was also frequently a member of a familia, contained in a gens, and accordingly might have a third name or cognomen. Such cognomina were derived by the Romans from a variety of mental or bodily peculiarities, or from some remarkable event in the life of the person who was the founder of the familia. Such cognomina are, Asper, Imperiosus, Magnus, Maximus, Pub- licola, Brutus, Capito, Cato, Naso, Labeo, Caecus, Cicero, Scipio, Sulla, Torquatus, &c. These names were in most cases hereditary, and descended to the latest members of a familia ; in some cases they ceased with the death of the person to whom they were given for special reasons. Many Romans had a second cognomen (cognomen secundum or ag- nomen), which was given to them as an ho- norary distinction, and in commemoration of some memorable deed or event of their life, f. g. Africanus, Asiaticus, Hispallus, Creten- sis, Maeedonicus, Allobrogicus, &c. Such agnomina were sometimes given by one ge- neral to another, sometimes by the army and confirmed by the chief-general, sometimes by the people in the comitia, and sometimes they were assumed by the person himself, as in the case of L. Cornelius Scipio Asiaticus. The regular order in which these names fol- lowed one another was : 1. praenomen ; 2. nomen gentilicium ; 3. cognomen pri- mum ; 4. cognomen secundum or agnomen. Sometimes the name of the tribe to which a person belonged, was added to his name, in the ablative case, as Q. Verres Romilia, C. Claudius Palatina. If a person by adoption passed from one gens into another, he as- sumed the praenomen, nomen, and cognomen of his adoptive father, and added to these the name of his former gens, with the termina- tion anus. Thus C. Octavius, after being adopted by his uncle C. Julius Caesar, was called C. Julius Caesar Octavianus, and the son of L. Aemilius Paullus, when adopted by P. Cornelius Scipio, was called P. Cornelius Scipio Aemilianus. [ADOPTIO.] Slaves had only one name, and usually retained that which they had borne before they came into slavery. If a slave was restored to freedom, he received the praenomen and nomen gen- tilicium of his former master, and to these was added the name which he had had as a slave. Instances of such freedmen are, T. Ampius Menander, a freedman of T. Ampius Balbua, L. Cornelius Chrysogonus, a freedman of L. Cornelius Sulla, and M. Tullius Tiro, freedman of M. Tullius Cicero. NOMOPHYLACES (fOMo^uAoiw), certain magistrates or official persons of high autho- rity, who exercised a control over other ma- gistrates, and indeed over the whole body of the people, it being their duty to see that the laws were duly administered and obeyed Mention is made of such officers at Sparta and elsewhere, but no such body existed at Athens, for they must have had a power too great for the existence of a democracy. The Senate of 500, or the Areopagitic council, performed in some measure the office of law- guardians ; but the only persons designated by this name appear to have been inferior functionaries (a sort of police), whose busi- ness it was to prevent irregularities and dis- turbances in the public assemblies. NOMOS (vo^oj). This word comprehends the notion not only of established or statute law, but likewise of all customs and opinions to which long prescription or natural feeling gives the force of law. Before any written codes appeared, law was promulgated by the poets or wise men, who sang the great deeds of their ancestors, and delivered their moral and political lessons in verse. As civilisation advanced, laws were reduced to writing, in the shape either of regular codes or distinct ordinances, and afterwards publicly exhibited, engraved on tablets, or hewn on columns. The first written laws we hear of are those of Zaleucus. The first at Athens were those of Draco, called fleo-juoi, and by that name distinguished from the FO/HOI of Solon. The laws of Lycurgus were not written. He en- joined that they should never be inscribed on any other tablet than the hearts of his coun- trymen. Those of Solon were inscribed on wooden tablets, arranged in pyramidal blocks, turning on an axis, called afores and Kup/3eis. They were first hung in the Acropolis, but afterwards brought down to the Prytaneum. NOMOTHETAE (vofto0eToi. The first intro- duction of the art among the Eomans is as- cribed to Cicero. He is said to have caused the debate in the senate on the punishment of the Catilinarian conspirators to be taken down in short-hand. Eusebius ascribes it to Tiro, the freedman of Cicero, and hence the system of abbreviated writing, in which some manuscripts are written, has received the. name of Notae Tironianae ; but there is no evidence to show whether this species of short-hand was really the invention of Tiro, The system of short-hand employed in the time of the Roman empire must have been oi a much simpler and more expeditious kind than the Notae Tironianae, which were merely abbreviations of the words. Many oi the wealthy Romans kept slaves, who were trained in the art. It was also learnt even by the Roman nobles, and the emperor Titu was a great proficient in it. At a later time, it seems to have been generally taught in the schools. There were, moreover, short-hand writers (notarii} by profession, who were chiefly employed in taking down (nature, ex- cipere] the proceedings in the courts of justice At a later period, they were called exceptores These short-hand writers were also employee on some occasions to take down a person's will. NOTARII, short-hand writers, spoken o tinder NOTA. They were likewise called Ac uarii. They were also employed by the emperors, and in course of time the title oi Nutarii was exclusively applied to the private secretaries of the emperors, who, of course, were no longer slaves, but persons of high rank. The short-hand writers were now called exceptores, as is remarked under NOTA. NOTA CENSORIA. [CENSOR.] NOVENDIALE (sc. sacrum). (1) A fes- ival lasting nine days, which was celebrated as often as stones rained from heaven. It was originally instituted by Tullus Hostilius, when there was a shower of stones upon the Vtons Albanus, and was frequently celebrated in later times. (2) This name was also given ;o the sacrifice performed nine days after a funeral. [FUNTJS.] NOVI HOMINES. [NOBILES.] NUDUS (yvjuvos). These words, besides denoting absolute nakedness, were applied to any one who, being without an AMICTUS, wore only his tunic or indutus. In this state of nudity the ancients performed the opera- tions of ploughing, sowing, and reaping. This term applied to the warrior expressed the absence of some part of his armour. Hence the light-armed were [ARMA.] NUMMULARII or NUMULARII. SARII.] NUMMUS or NUMUS. [SESTERTIUS.] NUNDINAE is derived by all the ancient writers from novcm and dies, so that it literally signifies the ninth day. Every eighth day, according to our mode of speaking, was a nundinae, and there were thus always seven ordinary days between two nundinae. The Romans in their peculiar mode of reckoning added these two nundinae to the seven ordi- nary days, and consequently said that the nundinae recurred every ninth day, and called them nundinae, as it were novemdinae. The number of nundinae in the ancient year of ten months was 38. They were originally market-days for the country folk, on which they came to Rome to sell the produce of their labour, and on which the king settled the legal disputes among them. When, therefore, we read that the nundinae were feriae, or dies nefasti, and that no comitia were allowed to be held, we have to under- stand this of the populus or patricians, and not of the plebes ; and while for the populus the nundinae were feriae, they were real days of business (dies fasti or comitialcs] for the plebeians, who on these occasions pleaded their causes with members of their own order, and held their public meetings (the ancient comitia of the plebeians). Afterwards the nundinae became fasti for both orders, and this innovation facilitated the attendance oi NUPTIAE. 273 OLLA. the plebeians at the comitia centuriata. The subjects to be laid before the comitia, whether they were proposals for new laws, or the appointment of officers, were announced to the people three nundinae beforehand (tri- nundino die proponere). Instead of nundinae the form nundinum is sometimes used, but only when it is preceded by a numeral, as in trinundinum, or trinum nundinum, NUPTIAE. [MATHIMONIUM.] BOLUS. [DRACHMA.] OCREA (KITI/U.I;), a greave, a leggin. A pair of greaves (xi'TjiiuSes) was one of the six articles of armour which formed the complete equipment of a Greek warrior [AHMA], and likewise of a Roman soldier as fixed by Ser- vius Tullius. They were made of various metals, with a lining probably of leather, felt, or cloth. Their form is shown in the accompanying cut. The figure is that of a fallen warrior, and in consequence of the bending of the knees, the greaves are seen to project a little above them. This statue also shows the ankle-rings (eiricr), which consisted of five exercises [PENTATHLUM], both intro- duced in Ol. 18. 6. Boxing (vyjj) intro- duced in 01. 23. [PUOILATUS.] 7. The chariot- race, with four full-grown horses (iira-wi/ reAeua* Spo^o?, apfta), introduced in Ol. 25. 8. The Pancratium 'vayKpa-Tiov) [PANCBATIUM], and OLYMPIA. OLYMPIA. 9. The horse-race (tmros ice'A.7]?), both intro- duced in Ol. 33. 10 and 11. The foot-race and wrestling for boys, both introduced in Ol. 37. 12. The Pentathlum for boys, in- troduced in Ol. 38., but immediately after- wards abolished. 13. Boxing for boys, in- troduced in Ol. 41. 14. The foot-race, in which men ran with the equipments of heavy- armed soldiers (jiav OW\I.TO>V 6p6p.os), introduced in Ol. 65., on account of its training men for actual service in war. 15. The chariot-race with mules (an^ir;), introduced in 01. 70. ; and 16. The horse-race with mares (xaAmj), introduced in Ol. 71., both of which were abolished in Ol. 84. 17. The chariot-race with two full-grown horses (Mm* reteuav (Tvwopi's), introduced in Ol. 93. 18, 19. The contest of heralds (/ojpvices) and trumpeters ((roAn-iy/crai), introduced in 01. 96. 20. The chariot-race with four foals (TTWAWI/ apficurii'), introduced in 01. 99. 21. The chariot-race with two foals (TA.(OI> owwpi's), introduced in Ol. 128. 22. The horse-race with foals (moAos Ke'Aijs), introduced in Ol. 131. 23. The Pancratium for boys, introduced in 01. 145. 24. There was also a horse-race (tmros (te'Aijs) in which boys rode, but we do not know the time of its introduction. The judges in the Olympic Games, called Hellanodicae ('EAAai/oSucat), were appointed by the Eleans, who had the regulation of the whole festival. It appears to have been originally under the superintendence of Pisa, in the neighbourhood of which Olympia was situated, but after the conquest of Peloponnesus by the Dorians on the return of the lleraclidae, the Aetolians, who had been of great assistance to the He- raclidae, settled in Elis, and from this time the Aetolian Eleans obtained the regulation of the festival, and appointed the presiding officers. The Hellanodicae were chosen by lot from the whole body of the Eleans. Their number varied at different periods, but at a later time there were eight Hellanodicae. Their office probably lasted for only one fes- tival. They had to see that all the laws relating to the games were observed by the competitors and others, to determine the prizes, and to give them to the conquerors. An appeal lay from their decision to the Elean senate. Under the direction of the Hellanodicae was a certain number of Alytae (aAiirai) with an Alytarches (aAvrapxijs) at their head, who formed a kind of police, and carried into execution the commands of the Hellanodicae. There were also various other minor officers under the control of the Hel- lanodicae. All free Greeks were allowed to contend in the games, who had complied with the rules prescribed to candidates. The eques- trian contests were necessarily confined to the wealthy ; but the poorest citizens could contend in the athletic games. This, how- ever, was far from degrading the games in public opinion ; and some of the noblest as well as meanest citizens of the state took part in these contests. The owners of the chariots and horses were not obliged to con- tend in person ; and the wealthy vied with one another in the number and magnificence of the chariots and horses which they sent to the games. All persons, who were about to contend, had to prove to the Hellanodicae that they were freemen, and of pure Hellenic blood, that they had not been branded with atimia, nor guilty of any sacrilegious act. They further had to prove that they had undergone the preparatory training (Trpoyup:- ra<7/u.aTa) for ten months previous. All com- petitors were obliged, thirty days before the festival, to undergo certain exercises in the Gymnasium at Elis, under the superinten- dence of the Hellanodicae. The competitors took their places by lot. The herald then proclaimed the name and country of each competitor. When they were all ready to begin the contest, the judges exhorted them to acquit themselves nobly, and then gave the signal to commence. The only prize given to the conqueror was a garland of wild olive (KOTIVOS), cut from a sacred olive tree, which grew in the sacred grove of Altis in Olympia. The victor was originally crowned upon a tripod covered over with bronze, but after- wards upon a table made of ivory and gold. Palm branches, the common tokens of victory on other occasions, were placed in his hands. The name of the victor, and that of his father and of his country, were then proclaimed by a herald before the representatives of assem- bled Greece. The festival ended with pro- cessions and sacrifices, and with a public banquet given by the Eleans to the conquerors in the Prytaneium. The most powerful states considered an Olympic victory, gained by one of their citizens, to confer honour upon the state to which he belonged ; and a conqueror usually had immunities and privileges con- ferred upon him by the gratitude of his fellow-citizens. On his return home the victor entered the city in a triumphal pro- cession, in which his praises were celebrated, frequently in the loftiest strains of poetry. [ATHLETAE.] As persons from all parts of the Hellenic world were assembled together at the Olympic Games, it was the best oppor- tunity which the artist and the writer pos- sessed of making their works known. It answered, to some extent, the same purpose as the press does in modern times. Be- fore the invention of printing, the reading of an author's works to as large an assembly T 2 OLTMPIAS. 276 ORACULUM. as could be obtained, was one of the easiest and surest modes of publishing them ; and this was a favourite practice of the Greeks and Romans. Accordingly we find many instances of literary works thus published at the Olympic festival. Herodotus is said to have read his history at this festival ; but though there are some reasons for doubting the correctness of this statement, there are numerous other writers who thus published their works, as the sophist Hippias, Prodicus of Ceos, Anaximenes, the orator Lysias, Dion Chrysostom, &c. It must be borne in mind that these recitations were not contests, and that they formed properly no part of the festival. In the same way painters and other artists exhibited their works at Olympia. OLYMPIAS (oXu/onrias), an Olympiad, the most celebrated chronological aera among the Greeks, was the period of four years which elapsed between each celebration of the Olympic Games. The Olympiads began to be reckoned from the victory of Coroebus in the foot-race, which happened in the year B.C. 776. Timaeus of Sicily, however, who flourished B.C. 264, was the first writer who regularly arranged events according to the conquerors in each Olympiad. His practice of recording events by Olympiads was fol- lowed by Polybius, Diodorus Siculus, Diony- sius of Halicarnassus, &c. The writers who make use of the aera of the Olympiads, usually give the number of the Olympiad (the first corresponding to B.C. 776), and then the name of the conqueror in the foot-race. Some writers also speak of events as happen- ing in the first, second, third, or fourth year, as the case may be, of a certain Olympiad ; but others do not give the separate years of each Olympiad. The rules for converting Olympiads into the year B.C., and vice versa, are given under CHRONOLOOIA ; but as this is troublesome, the student will find at the end of the book a list of the Olympiads, with the years of the Christian aera corresponding to them from the beginning of the Olympiads to A..D. 301. To save space, the separate years of each Olympiad, with the correspond- ing years B.C., are only given from the 47th to the 126th Olympiad, as this is the most important period of Grecian history ; in the other Olympiads the first year only is given. In consulting the table it must be borne in mind that the Olympic Games were celebrated about midsummer, and that the Attic year commenced at about the game time. If, therefore, an event happened in the second half of the Attic year, the year B.C. must be reduced by 1. Thus Socrates was put to death in the 1st year of the 95th Olympiad, which corresponds in the table to B.C. 400 ; but as his death happened in Thargelion, the llth month of the Attic year, the year B.C. must be reduced by 1, which gives us B.C. 399, the true date of his deajh. OPALIA, a Roman festival in honour of Opis, celebrated on the 19th of December, being the third day of the Saturnalia. It was believed that Opis was the wife of Saturnus, and for this reason the festivals were cele- brated at the same time. OPSONIUM, or OBSONIUM (fyov, dim. tyapiov; oi|nj/u.a), denoted everything which was eaten with bread, the principal substance of every meal. Those numerous articles of diet called opsonia or pulmentaria were de- signed to give nutriment, but still more to add a relish to food. Some of these articles were taken from the vegetable kingdom, but were much more pungent and savoury than bread, such as olives, either fresh or pickled, radishes, and sesamum. Of animal food by much the most common kind was fish, whence the terms under explanation were in the course of time used in a confined and special sense to denote fish only, but fish variously prepared, and more especially salt fish, which was most extensively employed to give a relish to the vegetable diet. The Athenians were in the habit of going to markets (is TOUI^OI/) themselves in order to purchase their opsonia (oi/woveiv, opsonare). But the opulent Romans had a slave, called opsonator (oi^ii^s), whose office it was to purchase for his master. OPTIO. [CENTUHIO.] OPTIMATES. [NOBILES.] ORACULUM (navrelov, X("t' rr np'- ov } 'was used by the ancients to designate both the revelations made by the deity to man, as well as the place in which such revelations were made. The deity was in none of these places believed to appear in person to man, and to communicate to him his will or knowledge of the future, but all oracular revelations were made through some kind of medium, which was different in the different places where oracles existed. It may, at first sight, seem strange that there were, comparatively speaking, so few oracles of Zeus, the father and ruler of gods and men. But although, according to the belief of the ancients, Zeus himself was the first source of all oracular revelations, yet he was too far above men to enter with them into any close relation ; other gods therefore, especially Apollo, and even heroes, acted as mediators between Zeus and men, and were, as it were, the organs through which he communicated his will. The ancients consulted the will of the gods on all important occasions of public and pri- vate life, since they were unwilling to under- ORACULUM. 277 ORATOR. take anything of importance without their sanction. The most celebrated oracle was that of Apollo at Delphi. Its ancient name was Pytho. In the centre of the temple there was a small opening (x<* 6pia, ocrxoopia), an Attic festival, which, according to some writers, was celebrated in honour of Athena and Dionysus, and according to others in honour of Dionysus and Ariadne. It is said to have been instituted by Theseus. It was a vintage festival, and its name is derived from SHTXOS, o a branch of vines with grapes. OSCILLUM, a diminutive through osetilum from os, meaning " a little face," was the term applied to faces or heads of Bacchus, which were suspended in the vineyards to be turned in every direction by the wind. Whichsoever way they looked, they were supposed to make the vines in that quarter fruitful. The first cut represents the counte- nance of Bacchus with a beautiful, mild, and propitious expression. The other cut repre- the British Mu sents a tree with four oscilla hung upon its branches. A syrinx and a pedum are placed at the root of the tree. Oscillum. (Fro; lent Gem.) OSTIARIUM, a tax upon the doors of houses, which appears to have been some- times levied in the provinces. There was a similar tax, called columnarium, imposed upon every pillar that supported a house. OSTIUM. [JANCA.] OVATIO, a lesser triumph. The circum- stances by which it was distinguished from the more imposing solemnity [TRIUMPHUS] were the following :- The general did not enter the city in a chariot drawn by four horses, but on foot : he was not arrayed in the gorgeous gold embroidered robe, but in the simple toga praetexta of a magistrate ; his brows were encircled with a wreath, not of laurel but of myrtle ; he bore no sceptre in his hand ; the procession was not heralded by trumpets, headed by the senate, and thronged with victorious troops, but was enlivened by a crowd of flute players, at- tended chiefly by knights and plebeians, fre- quently without soldiers : the ceremonies were concluded by the sacrifice, not of a bull but of a sheep. The word ovatio seems clearly to be derived from the kind of victim offered. An ovation was granted when the advantage gained, although considerable, was OVILE. 279 PALAESTRA. not sufficient to constitute a legitimate claim to the higher distinction of a triumph, or when the victory had been achieved with little bloodshed ; or when hostilities had not been regularly proclaimed ; or when the war had not been completely terminated ; or when the contest had been carried on against base and unworthy foes ; and hence when the servile bands of Athenion and Spartacus were destroyed by Perperna and Crassus, these leaders celebrated ovations only. OVILE. [COMITIA.] PAEAN (miiijuv, Traidv, jraicii/), a hymn or song, which was originally sung in honour of Apollo. It was always of a joyous nature, and its tune and sounds expressed hope and confidence. It was a song of thanksgiving, when danger was passed, and also a hymn to propitiate the god. It was sung at the solemn festivals of Apollo, and especially at the Hyacinthia. The paean was also sung as a battle-song, both before an attack on the enemy and after the battle was finished. It is certain that the paean was in later times sung to the honour of other gods besides Apollo. Thus Xenophon relates that the Greek army in Asia sung a paean to Zeus. PAEDAGOGUS (ireuSaytoyo?), a tutor. The office of tutor in a Grecian family of rank and opulence was assigned to one of the most trustworthy of the slaves. The sons of his master were committed to his care on attain- ing their sixth or seventh year, their previous education having been conducted by females. They remained with the tutor until they at- tained the age of puberty. His duty was rather to guard them from evil, both physical and moral, than to communicate instruction. He went with them to and from the school or the GYMNASIUM ; he accompanied them out of doors on all occasions ; he was respon- sible for their personal safety, and for their avoidance of bad company. In the Roman empire the name paedagogi or paedagogia was given to beautiful young slaves, who dis- charged in the imperial palace the duties of the modern page, which is in fact a corrup- tion of the ancient name. PAEDONOMUS (muSwofios), a magistrate at Sparta, who had the. general superintend- ence of the education of the boys. PAENULA, a thick cloak, chiefly used by the Romans in travelling, instead of the toga as a protection against the cold and rain. I appears to have had no sleeves, and only an opening for the head, as shown in the follow- ng figure. Pacnula, travelling cloak. (From Bartholim.) PAGANALIA. [PAOI.] PAGANI. [PAGI.] PAGI were fortified places in the neigh- bourhood of Rome, to which the country- people might retreat in case of a hostile inroad. Each of the country tribes is said to have been divided by Numa into a certain number of pagi ; which name was given to the country adjoining the fortified village, as well as to the village itself. There was a magistrate at the head of each pagus, who kept a register of the names and of the pro- perty of all persons in the pagus, raised the taxes, and summoned the people, when neces- sary, to war. Each pagus had its own sacred rites, and an annual festival called Paganalic* The pagani, or inhabitants of the pagi, had their regular meetings, at which they passed resolutions. The division of the country-people into pagi continued to the latest times of the Roman empire. The term Pagani is often used in opposition to milites, and is applied to all who were not soldiers, even though they did not live in the country. The Christian writers gave the name of pagani to those persons who adhered to the old Roman religion, because the latter continued to be generally believed by the country-people, after Christianity became the prevailing religion of the inhabitants of the towns. PALAESTRA (n-oAoiVrpo), properly means PALILIA. 280 PALLIUM. a place for wrestling (iraXaCfiv, TroAij), and appears to have originally formed a part of the gymnasium. At Athens, however, there was a considerable number of palaestrae, quite distinct from the gymnasia. It appears most probable that the palaestrae were chiefly appropriated to the exercises of wrest- ling and of the pancratium, and were prin- cipally intended for the athletae, who, it must be recollected, were persons that con- tended in the public games, and therefore needed special training. The Romans had originally no places corresponding to the Greek gymnasia and palaestrae ; and when towards the close of the republic wealthy Romans, in imitation of the Greeks, began to build places for exercise in their villas, they called them indifferently gymnasia and pa- laestrae. PALlLIA, a festival celebrated at Rome every year on the 21st of April, in honour of Pales, the tutelary divinity of shepherds. The 21st of April was the day on which, according to the early traditions of Rome, Romulus had commenced the building of the city, so that the festival was at the same time solemnised as the dies natalitius of Rome. It was originally a shepherd-festival, and continued to be so among country people till the latest times, but in the city it lost its original character, and was only regarded as the dies natalitius of Rome. The first part of the solemnities was a public purification by fire and smoke. The things burnt in order to produce this purifying smoke were the blood of the October-horse, the ashes of the calves sacrificed at the festival of Ceres, and the shells of beans. The people were also sprinkled with water, they washed their hands in spring-water, and drank milk mixed with must. As regards the October-horse (equus October) it must be observed that in early times no bloody sacrifice was allowed to be offered at the palilia, and the blood of the October-horse mentioned above, was the blood which had dropped from the tail of the horse sacrificed in the month of October to Mars in the Campus Martins. This blood was preserved by the vestal virgins in the temple of Vesta for the purpose of being used at the palilia. The sacrifices consisted of cakes, millet, milk, and other kinds of eat- ables. The shepherds then offered a prayer to Pales. After these solemn rites were over, the cheerful part of the festival began : bon- fires were made of heaps of hay and straw, and the festival was concluded by a feast in the open air, at which the people sat or lay upon benches of turf, and drank plentifully. PALLIUM, dim. PALLIOLUM, poet. PALLA (IfiMnov, dim. t/Aarifiiov ; Ion. and poet. Capos'), an outer garment. The English cloak, though commonly adopted as the trans- lation of these terms, conveys no accurate conception of the form, material, or use of that which they denoted. The article desig- nated by them was always a rectangular piece of cloth, exactly, or at least nearly square. It was indeed used in the very form in which it was taken from the loom, being made entirely by the weaver, without any aid from the tailor, except to repair the in- juries which it sustained by time. Whatever additional richness and beauty it received from the art of the dyer, was bestowed upon it before its materials were woven into cloth or even spun into thread. Most commonly it was used without having undergone any pro- cess of this kind. The raw material, such as wool, flax, or cotton, was manufactured in its natural state, and hence pallia were com- monly white, although from the same cause brown, drab, and grey were also prevailing colours. As the pallium was the most com- mon outer garment, we find it continually mentioned in conjunction with the tunica, which constituted the indutus. Such phrases as " coat and waistcoat," or " shoes and stock- ings," are not more common with us than the following expressions, which constantly occur in ancient authors : tunica palliumque, liidnov teal XITUIV, rb Ifianov Kal 6 xirom'cr/cos, apos y&e X<-T(OV, &c. To wear the pallium without Pallium. CM il. i. taf 48.) PALMA. 281 PANATHENAEA. the underclothing indicated poverty or se- verity of manners, as in the case of Socrates. One of the most common modes of wearing the pallium was to fasten it with a brooch over the right shoulder, leaving the right arm at liberty, and to pass the middle of it cither under the left arm so as to leave that arm at liberty also, or over the left shoulder so as to cover the left arm. The figure in the preceding cut is attired in the last-men- tioned fashion. PALMA. [PES.] PALMIPES, a Roman measure of length, equal to a foot and a palm. PALMUS, properly the width of the open hand, or, more exactly, of the four fingers, was used by the Romans for two different measures of length, namely, as the trans- lation of the Greek jroAaio-n}, or Siapov in old Greek, and o-Triflafnj respectively. In the former sense it is equal to 4 digits, or 3 inches, or l-4th of a foot, or l-6th of the cubit. The larger palm of 9 inches only occurs in later Roman writers. From this large palmus the_ modern Roman pal mo is derived. PALUDAMENTUM, the cloak worn by a Roman general commanding an army, his principal officers and personal attendants, in contradistinction to the sagwn of the common soldiers, and the toga or garb of peace. It was the practice for a Roman magistrate, after he had received the imperiwn from the , Military Cloak. (Statue of a Emperor.) eomitia curiata and offered up his vows in the Capitol, to march out of the city arrayed in the paludamentum (exire paludatus), attended by his lictors in similar attire (paludatis lic- toribus), nor could he again enter the gates until he had formally divested himself of this emblem of military power. Tha paludamen- tum was open in front, reached down to the knees or a little lower, and hung loosely over the shoulders, being fastened across the chest by a clasp. The colour of the paluda- mentum was commonly white or purple, and hence it was marked and remembered that Crassus on the morning of the fatal battle of Carrhae went forth in a dark-coloured man- tle. In the cut below, representing the head of a warrior, we see the paludamentum flying back in the charge, and the clasp nearly in front. Paluda: iitum, Military Cloak Pompeii.) (From a Mosaic at PAMBOEOTIA (jro^jSouoTta), a festive pa- negyris of all the Boeotians, like the Pana- thenaea of the Atticans, and the Panionia of the lonians. The principal object of the meeting was the common worship of Athena Itonia, who had a temple in the neighbour- hood of Coronea, near which the panegyris was held. PANATHENAEA (iroi/o^rata), the great- est and most splendid of the festivals cele- brated in Attica in honour of Athena, in the character of Athena Polias, or the protectress of the city. It was said to have been insti- tuted by Erichthonius, and its original name, down to the time of Theseus, was believed to have been Athenaea ; but when Theseus united all the Atticans into one body, this festival. which then became the common festival of all the Attic tribes, was called Panathenaea. There were two kinds of Panathenaea, the greater and the lesser ; the former were held every fourth year (irera*n)pi's), the latter every year. The lesser Panathenaea were probably celebrated on the 17th of the month PANATHENAEA. 282 PANCRATIUM. Hecatombaeon ; the great Panathenaea in the third year of every Olympiad, and probably commenced on the same day as the lesser Pan- athenaea. The principal difference between the two festivals was, that the greater one was more solemn, and that on this occasion the peplus of Athena was carried to her temple in a most magnificent procession, which was not held at the lesser Panathenaea. The solem- nities, games, and amusements of the Pana- thenaea were, rich sacrifices of bulls, foot, horse, and chariot races, gymnastic and mu- sical contests, and the lampadephoria ; rhap- sodists recited the poems of Homer and other epic poets, philosophers disputed, cock-fights were exhibited, and the people indulged in a variety of other amusements and entertain- ments. The prize in these contests was a vase filled with oil from the ancient and sacred olive tree of Athena on the Acropolis. A great many of such vases, called Panathe- naic vases, have in late years been found in Etruria, southern Italy, Sicily, and Greece. They represent on one side the figure of Athena, and on the other the various con- tests and games in which these vases were given as prizes to the victors. Of the dis- cussions of philosophers and orators at the Panathenaea we still possess two specimens, the Aoyos UavaOrivaiKos of Isocrates, and that of Aristeides. Herodotus is said to have re- cited his history to the Athenians at the Panathenaea. The management of the games and contests was entrusted to persons called AtMothetae (aOAoOeVai.), whose number was ten, one being taken from every tribe. Their office lasted from one great Panathenaic fes- tival to the other. The chief solemnity of the great Panathenaea was the magnificent procession to the temple of Athena Polias, which probably took place on the last day of the festive season. The whole of the proces- sion is represented in the frieze of the Par- thenon, the work of Phidias and his disciples, now deposited in the British Museum. The chief object of the procession was to carry the peplus of the goddess to her temple. This peplus was a crocus-coloured garment for the goddess, and made by maidens, called epyaorlvai. In it were woven Enceladus and the giants, as they were conquered by the goddess. The peplus was not carried to the temple by men, but suspended from the mast of a ship. The pro- cession proceeded from the Ceramicus, near a monument called Leocorium, to the temple of Demeter at Eleusis, and thence along the Pelasgic wall and the temple of Apollo Pythius to the Pnyx, and thence to the Acropolis, where the statue of Minerva Polias was adorned with the peplus. In this pro- cession nearly the whole population of Attica appears to have taken part, either on foot, on horseback, or in chariots, as may be seen in the frieze of the Parthenon. Aged men car- ried olive branches, and' were called Thal- lophori (0aAAo<|>6poi) ; young men attended, at least in earlier times, in armour, and maidens who belonged to the noblest families of Athens carried baskets, containing offerings for the goddess, whence they were called Ca- nephori (Kopoi). Respecting the part which aliens took in this procession, and the duties they had to perform, see HTDKIAPHO- RIA. Men who had deserved well of the republic were rewarded with a gold crown at the great Panathenaea, and the herald had to announce the event during the gymnastic contests. PANCRATIUM (n-ayxpaTtov), is derived from vdv and Kparos, and accordingly signifies an athletic game, in which all the powers of the fighter were called into action. The pancratium was one of the games or gymnas- tic contests which were exhibited at all the great festivals of Greece ; it consisted of box- ing and wrestling (mry/Aij and jroAij), and was reckoned to be one of the heavy or hard exercises (ayiavitrnara. jSape'a or jSapvrepa), on account of the violent exertions it required, and for this reason it was not much practised in the gymnasia. In Homer we find neither the game nor the name of the pancratium mentioned, and as it was not introduced at the Olympic games until Ol. 33, we may presume that the game, though it may have existed long before in a rude state, was not brought to any degree of perfection until a short time before that event. The name of the combatants was Pancratiastae (TtayKpanamai) or Pammachi (jrd/ajnaxoi). They fought naked, and had their bodies anointed and covered with sand, by which they were enabled to take hold of one another. When the contest began, each of the fighters might I'nntnitiastae. (Knuise, GymiMntik und.Agometik der Hellen., lav. 21.) PANEGYRIS. 283 PAKALUS. commence by boxing or by wrestling, ac- cordingly as he thought he should be more successful in the one than in the other. The victory was not decided until one of the parties was killed, or lifted up a finger, thereby declaring that he was unable to continue the contest either from pain or fatigue. PANEGYRIS (mxcijyvpis), signifies a meet- ing or assembly of a whole people for the purpose of worshipping at a common sanctu- ary. The word is used in three significa- tions : 1. For a meeting of the inhabitants of one particular town and its vicinity ; 2. For a meeting of the inhabitants of a whole district, a province, or of the whole body of people belonging to a particular tribe [DELIA ; PANIONIA] ; and 3. For great national meet- ings, as the Olympic, Pythian, Isthmian, and Nemean games. Although in all panegyreis which we know, the religious character forms the most prominent feature, other subjects, political discussions and resolutions, as well as a variety of amusements, were not ex- cluded, though they were perhaps more a consequence of the presence of many per- sons than objects of the meeting. Every panegyris, moreover, was made by trades- people a source of gain, and it may be pre- sumed that such a meeting was never held without a fair, at which all sorts of things were exhibited for sale. PANIONIA (TTdvciofta), the great national panegyris of the lonians on mount Myeal6, where the national god Poseidon Heliconius had his sanctuary called the Panionium. One of the principal objects of this national meet- ing was the common worship of Poseidon, to whom splendid sacrifices were oSered on the occasion. But religious worship was not the only object for which they assembled at the Panionium ; on certain emergencies, espe- cially in case of any danger threatening their country, the lonians discussed at their meet- ings political questions, and passed resolutions which were binding upon all. PANOPLIA (jrai/oTrAta), a panoply or suit of armour. The articles of which it consisted both in the Greek and in the Roman army, are enumerated under AEMA. PANTOMIMUS, the name of a kind of actors peculiar to the Romans, who very nearly resembled in their mode of acting the modern dancers in the ballet. They did not speak on the stage, but merely acted by gestures, movements, and attitudes. All movements, however, were rhythmical like those in the ballet, whence the general term for them is saltatio, saltare ; the whole art was called mitsica muta ; and to represent Niobe or Leda was expressed by saltare ffioben and saltare Ledam. During the time of the republic the name pantomimus does not occur, though the art itself was known to the Romans at an early period ; for the first histriones said to have been introduced from Etruria were in fact nothing but pantomimic dancers [HISTRIO], whence we find that under the empire the names histrio and pan- tomimus were used as synonymous. The pan- tomimic art, however, was not carried to any degree of perfection until the time of Augustus. The greatest pantomimes of this time were Bathyllus, a freedman and favourite of Mae- cenas, and Pylades and Hylas. Mythological love-stories were from the first the favourite subjects of the pantomimes, which were dis- graced by the most licentious scenes. In Sicily pantomimic dances were called ballismi (/3aAAr/j.oO, whence perhaps the modern words ball and ballet. PAPYRUS. [LIBEE.] PARADISUS (iropaSeio-os), the name given by the Greeks to the parks or pleasure- grounds, which surrounded the country re- sidences of the Persian kings and satraps. They were generally stocked with animals for the chase, were full of all kinds of trees, watered by numerous streams, and enclosed with walls. PARAGRAPHS (Tropa-ypa^nj). This word does not exactly correspond with any term in our language, but may without much impro- priety be called a plea. It is an objection raised by the defendant to the admissibility of the plaintiffs action. The paragraphe, like every other answer (avTiypcu^TJ) made by the defendant to the plaintiffs charge, was given in writing ; as the word itself implies. If the defendant merely denied the plaintiff's allegations, a court was at once held for the trial of the cause. If, however, he put in a paragraphe, a court was to be held to try the preliminary question, whether the cause could be brought into court or not. Upon this previous trial the defendant was consi- dered the actor. If he succeeded, the whole cause was at an end ; unless the objection was only to the form of action, or some other such technicality, in which case it might be recommenced in the proper manner. If, however, the plaintiff succeeded, the original action, which in the mean time had been suspended, was proceeded with. PARALUS (irapoAos), and SALAMINIA (craAafiu'ia). The Athenians from very early times kept for public purposes two sacred or state vessels, the one of which was called Para- lus and the other Salaminia : the crew of the one bore the name of irapaAtjai or iropaAoi, and that of the other craAo/ouVioi. The Salamiuia was also called ATjAi'a or ewpi's, because it was used to convey the flewpol to Delos, on PARANOIAS GRAPHE. 284 PAREDRI. which occasion the ship was adorned with garlands by the priest of Apollo. Both these vessels were quick-sailing triremes, and were used for a variety of state purposes : they conveyed theories, despatches, &c. from Athens, carried treasures from subject coun- tries to Athens, fetched state criminals from foreign parts to Athens, and the like. In battles they were frequently used as the ships in which the admirals sailed. These vessels and their crews were always kept in readiness to act, ill case of any necessity arising ; and the crew, although they could not for the greater part of the year be in actual service, received their re- gulw pay of four oboli per day all the year round. The names of the two ships seem to point to a very early period of the history of Attica, when there was no navigation except between Attica and Salamis, for which the Sala- minia was used, and around the coast of Attica, for which purpose the Paralus was destined. In later times the names were retained, al- though the destination of the ships was princi- pally to serve the purposes of religion, whence they are frequently called the sacred ships. PARANOIAS GRAPHE (Trapavoias ypauiAij), a round plate or dish. The paterae of the most common kind were small plates of the Patera. (From Pompeii.) PAT1BULUM. 280 PATRICII. common red earthenware, on which an orna- mental pattern was drawn, and which were sometimes entirely black. The more va- luable paterae were metallic, being chiefly of bronze ; but every family, raised above po- verty, possessed one of silver, together with a silver salt-cellar. The accompanying cut exhibits a highly ornamented patera, made of bronze. The view of the upper surface is accompanied by a side-view, showing the form and depth of the vessel. PATIBULUM. [FURCA.] PATINA (AefcaiT)), a basin or bowl of earthenware, rarely of bronze or silver. The patina was of a form intermediate between the patera and the olla, not so flat as the former, nor so deep as the latter. The most frequent use of the patina was in cookery. PATRES. [PATRICII.] PATRIA POTESTAS. Potestas signifies generally a power or faculty of any kind by which we do anything. " Potestas," says Paulus, a Roman jurist, " has several signi- fications : when applied to magistrates, it is Imperium ; in the case of children, it is the patria potestas ; in the case of slaves, it is Dominium." According to Paulus then, po- testas, as applied to magistrates, is equi- valent to imperium. Thus we find potestas associated with the adjectives praetoria, con- sularis. But potestas is applied to magis- trates who had not the imperium, as for instance to quaestors ind tribuni plebis ; and potestas and imperium' are often opposed in Cicero. [IMPERIUM.] Thus it seems that this word potestas, like many other Roman terms, had both a wider signification and a narrower one. In its wider signification it might mean all the power that was delegated to any person by the state, whatever might be the extent of that power. In its narrower significations, it was on the one hand equi- valent to imperium ; and on the other, it expressed the power of those functionaries who had not the imperium. Sometimes it was used to express a magistratus, as a person ; and hence in the Italian language the word podestk signifies a magistrate. Po- testas is also one of the words by which is expressed the power that one private person has over another, the other two being manus and mancipium. The potestas is either do- minica, that is, ownership as exhibited in the relation of master and slave [SERVUS] ; or patria as exhibited in the relation of father and child. The mancipium was framed after the analogy of the potestas dominica. [MANCIPIUM.] Patria potestas then signifies the power which a Roman father had over the persons of his children, grandchildren, and other descendants (JUiifamtlioi, filiae- familias), and generally all the rights which he had by virtue of his paternity. The foundation of the patria potestas was a legal marriage, and the birth of a child gave it full effect. [MATRIMONIUM.] It does not seem that the patria potestas was ever viewed among the Romans as absolutely equivalent to the dominica potestas, or as involving ownership of the child ; and yet the original notion of the patria came very near to that of the dominica potestas. Ori- ginally the father had the power of life and death over his son as a member of his fami- lia ; and he could sell him, and so bring him into the mancipii causa. He could also give his daughter in marriage, or give a wife to his son, divorce his child, give him in adop- tion, and emancipate him at his pleasure. PATRICII. This word is evidently a de- rivative from pater, which frequently occurs in the Roman writers as equivalent to se- nator. Patricii therefore signifies those who belonged to the patres, but it is a mistake to suppose that the patricii were only the off- spring of the patres in the sense of senators. On the contrary, the patricians were, in the early history of Rome, the whole body of Roman citizens, the pop^l!us Romanus, and there were no real citizens besides them. The other parts of the Roman population, namely clients and slaves, did not belong to the populus Romanus, and were not burghers or patricians. The senators or patres (in the narrower sense of the word) were a select body of the populus or patricians, which acted as their representatives. The burghers or patricians consisted originally of three distinct tribes, which afterwards be- came united into the sovereign populus. These tribes had founded settlements upon several of the hills which were subsequently included within the precincts of the city of Rome. Their names were Ramnes, Titles, and Luceres, or Ramnenses, Titienses, and Lucerenses. Each of these tribes consisted of ten curiae, and each curia of ten gentes, and of the same number of decuries, which were established for representative and mili- tary purposes. [SENATUS.] The first tribe, or the Ramnes, were a Latin colony on the Palatine hill, said to have been founded by Romulus. As long as it stood alone, it con- tained only one hundred gentes, and had a senate of one hundred members. When the Titles, or Sabine settlers on the Quirinal and Viminal hills, under king Tatius, became united with the Ramnes, the number of gentes, as well as that of senators, was in- creased to 200. These two tribes after their union continued probably for a considerable time to be the patricians of Rome, until th PATRICII. 287 PATRONUS. third tribe, the Luceres, which chiefly bon- sisted of Etruscans, who had settled on the Caelian hill, also became united with the other two as a third tribe. The amalgama- tion of these three tribes did not take place at once : the union between Latins anil Sa- bines is ascribed to the reign of Romulus, though it does not appear to have been quite perfect, since the Latins on some occasions claimed a superiority over the Sabines. The Luceres existed for a long time as a separate tribe without enjoying the same rights as the two other tribes, until Tarquinius Priscus, himself an Etruscan, caused them to be placed on a footing of equality with the others. For this reason he is said to have increased the number of senators to 300. The Luceres, however, are, notwithstanding this equalisation, sometimes distinguished from the other tribes by the name patres or patricii minorum gentium. During the time of the republic, distinguished strangers and wealthy plebeians were occasionally made Roman patricians ; for instance, Appius Clau- dius and bis gens, and Domitius Ahenobar- bus. When the plebeians became a distinct class of citizens [PLEBES], the patricians, of course, ceased to be the only class of citizens, but they still retained the exclusive posses- sion of all the power in the state. All civil and religious offices were in their posses- sion, and they continued as before to be the populus, the nation now consisting of the populus and the plebes. In their relation to the plebeians or the commonalty, the patri- cians were a real aristocracy of birth. A person born of a patrician family was and remained a patrician, whether he was rich or poor, whether he was a member of the senate, or an eques, or held any of. the great offices of the state, or not : there was no power that could make a patrician a ple- beian. As regards the census, he might indeed not belong to the wealthy classes, but his rank remained the same. The only way in which a patrician might become a plebeian was when of his own accord he left his gens and curia, gave up the sacra, &c. A ple- beian, on the other hand, or even a stranger, might be made a patrician by a lex curiata. But this appears to have been done very seldom ; and the consequence was, that in the course of a few centuries the number of patrician families became so rapidly dimi- nished, that towards the close of the republic there were not more than fifty such families. Although the patricians throughout this whole period had the character of an aris- tocracy of birth, yet their political rights were not the same at all times. During the first centuries of the republic there was an almost uninterrupted struggle between pa- tricians and plebeians, in which the former exerted every means to retain their exclusive rights, but which ended in the establishment of the political equality of the two orders. [PLEBES.] Only a few insignificant priestly offices, and the performance of certain an- cient religious rites and ceremonies, remained the exclusive privilege of the patricians ; of which they were the prouder, as in former days their religious power and significance were the basis of their political superiority. At the time when the struggle between pa- tricians and plebeians ceased, a new kind of aristocracy began to arise at Rome, which was partly based upon wealth, and partly upon the great offices of the republic, and the term nobiles was given to all per- sons whose ancestors had held any of the curule offices. (Compare NOBILES.) This aristocracy of nobiles threw the old patri- cians as a body still more into the shade, though both classes of aristocrats united as far as was possible to monopolise all the great offices of the state. In their dress and appearance the patricians were scarcely dis- tinguished from the rest of the citizens, un- less they were senators, curule magistrates, or equites, in which case they wore like others the ensigns peculiar to these classes. The only thing by which they seem to have been distinguished in their appearance from other citizens was a peculiar kind of shoe, which covered the whole foot and part of the leg, though it was not as high as the shoes of senators and curule magistrates. These shoes were fastened with four strings (cor- rigiae or lora patricia] and adorned with a lunula on the top. PATRIMI ET MATR1MI were children born of parents, who had been married by the religious ceremony called confarreatio : they are almost always mentioned in connec- tion with religions rites and ceremonies. PATRONOMI (TrarpovofAoi), magistrates lit Sparta, who exercised, as it were, a paternal power over the whole state. They did not exist till a late period, and they succeeded to the powers which the ephori formerly pos- sessed. PATRONUS. The act of manumission created a new relation between the manu- missor and the slave, which was analogous to that between father and son. The manu- missor became with respect to the manu- mitted person his patronus, and the manu- mitted person became the libertus of the ma- numissor. The word patronus (from pater) indicates the nature of the relation. If the mannmissor was a woman, she became pa- trona. The libertus adopted the gentile name PAUPERIES. 288 PELTA. of the mauumissor. Cicero's freedman Tiro was called M. Tullius Tiro. The libertus owed respect and gratitude to his patron, and in ancient times the patron might punish him in a summary way for neglecting those duties. This obligation extended to the children of the libertus, and the duty was due to the children of the patron. It was the duty of the patron to support his freed- man in case of necessity, and if he did not, he lost his patronal rights ; the consequence was the same if he brought a capital charge against him. The most important of the' patronal rights related to the property of liberti, as in certain cases the patronus had a right to the whole or a part of the property of a libertus. . PAUPERIES, the legal term for mischief done by an animal (quadrnpes) contrary to the nature of the animal, as if a man's ox gored another man. In such cases the law of the Twelve Tables gave the injured person an action against the owner of the animal for the amount of the damage sustained. The owner was bound either to pay the full amount of damages or to give up the animal to the injured person (noxae dare), PAVIMENTUM. [DOMUS, p. 144, 6.] PECTEN (KTCI'S), a comb. The Greeks and Romans used combs made of box-wood. The Egyptians had ivory combs, which also came into use by degrees among the Romans. The wooden combs, found in Egyptian tombs, are toothed on one side only ; but the Greeks used them with teeth on both sides. The principal use of the comb was for dressing the hair, in doing which the Greeks of both sexes were remarkably careful and diligent. To go with uncombed hair was a sign of affliction. PECULATUS, is properly the misappro- priation or theft of public property. The person guilty of this offence was peculator. The origin of the word appears to be pecus, a term which originally denoted that kind of moveable property which was the chief sign of wealth. Originally trials for peculatus were before the populus or the senate. In the time of Cicero matters of peculatus had be- come one of the quaestiones perpetuae. PECULIUM. [SERVUS.] PECUNIA. [AES ; ARGENTUM ; AUETJM.] PEDARII. [SENATES.] PEDISEQUI, a class of slaves, whose duty was to follow their master when he went out of his house. There was a similar class of female slaves, called Pedisequae. PEDUM (icoptavri), a shepherd's crook. On account of its connection with pastoral life, the crook is often seen in works of ancient urt, in the hands of Pau, Satyrs, Fauns, and shepherds. It was also the isual attribute of Thalia, as the muse of pastoral poetry. Pedum, Shepherd's Crook. (Prom a Palrtmc found dt Civita Vecchia.) PEGMA (Tnjyua), a pageant, f. e. an edifice of wood, consisting of two or more stages (tabulatci), which were raised or depressed at pleasure by means of balance weights. These great machines were used in the Roman amphitheatres, the gladiators who fought upon them being called pegmares. They were supported upon wheels so as to be drawn into the circus, glittering with silver and a profusion of wealth. When Vespasian and Titus celebrated their triumph over the Jews, the procession included pageants of extraor- dinary magnitude and splendour, consisting of three or four stages above one another, hung with rich tapestry, and inlaid with ivory and gold. By the aid of various con- trivances they represented battles and their numerous incidents, and the attack and de- fence of the cities of Judaea. The pegma was also used in sacrifices. A bull having been slain in one of the stages, the high priest placed himself below in a cavern, so as to receive the blood upon his person and his garments, and in this state he was pro- duced by the flamines before the worshippers. PELATAE (TreAarai), were free labourers working for hire, like the tfietes, in contra- distinction to the helots and penestae, who were bondsmen or serfs. In the later Greek writers, such as Dionysius of Halicarnassus, and Plutarch, the word is used for the Latin cliens, though the relations expressed by the two terms are by no means similar. PELTA (Te'Xr>)), a small shield. Iphicrates, observing that the ancient CLIPEUS was cum- brous and inconvenient, introduced among the Greeks a much smaller and lighter PENESTAE. 289 PEPLUM. shield, from which those who bore it took the name of peltastae. It consisted princi- pally of a frame of -wood or -wicker-work, covered with skin or leather. PENESTAE (TreyeVrai), a class of serfs in Thessaly, who stood in nearly the same rela- tion to their Thessalian lords as the helots of Laconia did to the Dorian Spartans, although their condition seems to have been on the whole superior. They were the descendants of the old Pelasgic or Aeolian inhabitants of Thessaly Proper. They occupied an inter- mediate position between freemen and pur- chased slaves, and they cultivated the land for their masters, paying by way of rent a portion of the produce of it. The Penestae sometimes accompanied their masters to bat- tle, end fought on horseback as their vassals : a circumstance which need not excite surprise, us Thessaly was so famous for cavalry. There were Penestae among the Macedonians also. PENETRALE. [TEMPLU.M.] PENIC1LLUS. [PICTURA, p. 295 a.] PENTACOSIOMEDIMNI. [CENSUS.] PENTATHLON (jreVraflAoi/, quinquertium] , was next to the pancratium the most beau- tiful of all athletic performances. The per- sons engaged in it were called Pentathli (TreV- TaSAoi). The pentathlon consisted of five distinct kinds of games, viz. leaping (oA/xa), the foot-race (Spdjuos), the throwing of the discus (fitoxos), the throwing of the spear (cri'yviTos or OLKOVTIOV'), and wrestling (waAi?), which were all performed in one day and in a certain order, one after the other, by the same athletae. The pentathlon was intro- duced in the Olympic games in 01. 18. PENTECOSTE (ffeir>)Kocrr>i), a duty of two per cent, levied upon all exports and imports at Athens. The money was collected by per- sons called irei/njKOOToAdyoi. The merchant who paid the duty was said irevnriKoi'TfveaDai.. All the customs appear to have been let to farm, and probably from year to year. They were let to the highest bidders by the ten Poletae, acting under the authority of the senate. The farmers were called reAwyeu, and were said (aveiaptVpa), a quiver, was prin- cipally made of hide or leather, and was adorned with gold, painting, and braiding. It had a lid (TTU^O), and was suspended from the right shoulder by a belt passing over the breast and behind the back. Its most com- mon position was on the left hip, and is so seen in the annexed figures, the right-hand one representing an Amazon, and the left- hand an Asiatic archer. Pharutrae, Quivers. (Left-hand figure from the Aeginetan Marbles ; right-hand figure from a Greek Vase.) PHARMACON GRAPHE (fyapnaKtav or (^op^aKeias ypcu^jj), an indictment at Athens against one who caused the death of another by poison, whether given with intent to kill or to obtain undue influence. It was tried by the court of Areiopagus. PHAROS or PHARUS ($op0, a light- house. The most celebrated light-house of antiquity was that situated at the entrance to the port of Alexandria, on an island which bore the name of Pharos. It contained many stories, and the upper stories had windows looking seawards, and torches or fires were kept burning in them by night in order to guide vessels into the harbour. The name of Pharos was given to other light-houses, in PHASELUS. 293 PICTDRA. allusion to that at Alexandria, which was th model _for_ their construction. PHASELCS (0aaert5, from ), one of th various methods by which public offenders a Athens might be prosecuted ; but the won is often used to denote any kind of informa tion ; and we do not know in what respect the Phasis was distinguished from othe: methods of prosecution. The word syco phantes (j;) is derived from the practice of laying information against those who exported figs. [SYCOPHANTES.] PHORMINX. [LYRA.] PHRATRIA. [TRIBUS.] PHYLARCHI (4>vAapxoO were at Athen_ after the age of Cleisthenes ten officers, one for each of the tribes, and were specially charged with the command and superintend- ence of the cavalry. There can be but little doubt that each of the phylarchs commanded the cavalry of his own tribe, and they were themselves collectively and individually under the control of the two hipparchs, just as the taxiarchs were subject to the two strategi. Herodotus informs us that when Cleisthenes increased the number of the tribes from four to ten, he also made ten phylarchs instead of four. It has been thought, however, that the historian should have said ten phylarchs in the place of the old phylobasileis, who were four in number, one for each of the old tribes. PHYLOBASILEIS (#vAoj3a venus- tas. His greatest work was perhaps his Venus Anadyomene, Venus rising out of the waters. He excelled in portrait, and indeed all his works appear to have been portraits in an extended sense ; for his pictures, both historical and allegorical, consisted nearly all of single figures. He enjoyed the exclusive privilege of painting the portraits of Alex- ander. The works of Greek art brought from Sicily by Marcellus were the first to inspire the Romans with the desire of adorn- ing their public edifices with statues and paintings, which taste was converted into a passion when they became acquainted with the great treasures and almost inexhaustible resources of Greece, and their rapacity knew no bounds. Muminius, after the destruction of Corinth, B.C. 146, carried off or destroyed more works of art than all his predecessors put together. Scaurns, in his aedileship, B.C. 58, had all the public pictures still re- maining in Sicyon transported to Rome, on account of the debts of the former city, and he adorned the great temporary theatre which he erected upon that occasion with 3000 bronze statues. Verres ransacked Asia and Achaia, and plundered almost every temple and public edifice in Sicily of whatever was valuable in it. Amongst the numerous rob- beries of Verres, Cicero mentions particularly twenty-seven beautiful pictures taken from the temple of Minerva at Syracuse, consisting of portraits of the kings and tyrants of Sicily. Yet Rome was, about the end of the republic, full of painters, who appear, however, to have been chiefly occupied in portrait, or deco- rative and arabesque painting. Among the Romans the earliest painter mentioned is a member of the noble house of the Fabii, who received the surname of Pictoi through some paintings which he executed in the temple of Salus at Rome, B.C. 304, which lasted till the time of the emperor Claudius, when they were destroyed by the fire that consumed that temple. Pacuvius also, the tragic poet, and nephew of Ennius, distinguished himself by some paintings in the temple of Hercules in the Forum Boarium, about 180 B.C. But generally speaking the artists at Rome were Greeks. Julius Caesar, Agrippa, and Au- gustus were among the earliest great patrons of artists. Caesar expended great sums in the purchase of pictures by the old masters. He gave as much as 80 talents for two pic- tures by his contemporary Timomachus of Byzantium, one an Ajax, and the other a Medea meditating the murder of her children. These pictures, which were painted in en- caustic, were very celebrated works ; they are alluded to by Ovid (Trist. ii. 525), and are mentioned by many other ancient writers. There are three distinct periods observable in the history of painting m Rome. The first or great period of Graeco-Roman art may In: dated from the conquest of Greece until the time of Augustus, when the artists wero chiefly Greeks. The second, from the time of Augustus to the so-called Thirty Tyrants and Diocletian, or from the beginning of the Christian era until about the latter end of the third century, during which time the pivat majority of Roman works of art were pro- duced. The third comprehends the state of the arts during the exarchate, when Home, PICTURA. 295 PICTUR.A. in consequence of the foundation of Constan- tinople, and the changes it involved, suffered similar spoliations to those -which it had pre- viously inflicted upon Greece. This was the period of the total decay of the imitative arts amongst the ancients. About the beginning of the second period is the earliest age in which we have any notice of portrait painters (i in criods. They generally painted upon panels or tablets (n-iV', .] PILEXTUM, a splendid four-wheeled car- riage, furnished with soft cushions, which conveyed the Roman matrons in sacred pro- cessions and in going to the Circcnsian and other games. The pilentum was probably very like the HAUMAMAXA and CARPENTUM, but open at the sides, so that those who sat in it might both see and be seen. PlLEUS or PILEUM (irlAo?, w.'X^a, wi- \iarov'), any piece of felt ; more especially a skull-cap of felt, a hat. There seems no reason to doubt that felting is a more ancient invention than weaving [TELA], nor that both of these arts came into Europe from Asia. From the Greeks, who were ac- quainted with this article as early as the age of Homer, the use of felt passed together with its name to the Romans. Its principal use was to make coverings of the head for the male sex, and the most common one was a simple skull-cap. Among the Romans the cap of felt was the emblem of liberty. When a slave obtained his freedom he had his head shaven, and wore instead of his hair an un- dyed pileus. This change of attire took place in the temple of Feronia, who was he goddess of freedmen. Hence the phrase servos ad pileum tocare is a summons to liberty, by which slaves were frequently called upon to take up arms with a promise of liberty. The figure of Liberty on some of the coins of Antoninus Pius, struck A. D. 145, holds this cap in the right hand. The Petastu (WCT-CUT-OS) differed from the pileus or simple skull-cr.p in having a wide brim : the etymology of the word, from wrrawu/u, ex- presses the distinctive shape of these hats. It was preferred to the skull-cap as a protec- tion from the snn. PlLUM. [HASTA.] PISCINA. [BALNEUM.] PISTOR (apron-olds), a baker, from pinsere, to pound, since corn was pounded in mortars before the invention of mills. At Rome bread was originally made at home by the women of the house ; and there were no persons at Rome who made baking a trade, or any slaves specially kept for this purpose in private houses, till B.C. 173. The name was also given to pastry-cooks and confec- tioners, in which case they were usually called pittorcs dulciarii or candidarii. Bread was often baked in moulds called artoptae, and the loaves thus baked were termed ar- topticii. Bread was not generally made at home at Athens, but was sold in the market- place, chiefly by women, called oproTrwAiies. These women seem to have been what the fish-women of London are at present ; they excelled in abuse. PLAG1ARIUS. [PLAOIUM.] PLAGIUM, the offence of kidnapping, concealing, and selling freemen and other persons' slaves was the subject of a Fabia Lex (B.C. 183). The penalty of the lex was pecuniary; but this fell into disuse, and persons who offended against the lex were punished according to the nature of their offence ; under the empire they were gene- rally condemned to the mines. The word Plagium is said to come from the Greek >rAa- yios, oblique, indirect, dolosus. He who com- mitted plagium was plagiarius, a word which Martial applies to a person who falsely gave himself out as the author of a book ; and in this sense the word has come into common use in our language. PLAUSTRUM or PLOSTROI (^o|o), a cart or waggon. It had commonly two wheels, but sometimes four, and it was then called the plaustrum majus. Besides the wheels and axle the plaustrum consisted of a strong pole (tcmo], to the hinder part of which was fastened a table of wooden planks. The blocks of stone, or other things to be car- i ried, were either laid upon this table without any other support, or an additional security PLEBES. 298 was obtained l.y the use cither of boards at the same name. It was nearly a foot in the sides, or of a large wi> l:cr basket tied thickness, and was made either by sawing upon the cart. The annexed cut exhibits a the trunk of a tree across in a horizontal cart, the body of which i: direction, or by nailing together boards of basket. The commonest kind of cart-wheel the requisite shape and size. (See the cut.) was that called ty These wheels advanced slowly, and made a loud its resemblance to the musical instrument of creaking, which was heard to a great distance. riaustrum, Waggon. (From a Bas-Rdk'f at Rome.) PLEBES or PLEBS. PLEBEII. This word contains the same root as im-pleo, com- plco, &c., and is therefore etymologically connected with 7rX>}0os, a term which was applied to the plebeians by the more correct Greek writers on Roman history, while others wrongly called them 6iJMs or ot STJUO- rtKoi. The plebeians were the body of com- mons or the commonalty of Rome, and thus constituted one of the two great elements of which the Roman nation consisted, and which has given to the earlier periods of Roman history its peculiar character and interest. The time when the plebeians first appear as a distinct class of Roman citizens in contradistinction to the patricians, is in the Feign of Tullus Hostilius. Alba, t!:o head of the Latin confederacy, was in his reign taken by the Romans and razed to the ground. The most distinguished of its in- habitants were transplanted to Rome and received among the patricians ; but the great bulk of Alban citizens, who were likewise transferred to Rome, received settlements on the Caelian hill, and were kept in a state of submission to the populus Romanus or the patricians. This new population of Rome, which in number is said to have been equal io the old inhabitants of the city or the patricians, were the plebeians. They were Latins, and consequently of the same blood as the Ramnes, the noblest of the three patrician tribes. After the conquest of Alba, Rome, in the reign of Ancus Martins, ac- quired possession of a considerable extent of country, containing a number of dependent Latin towns, as Medullia, Fidenae, Politorium, Tellenae, and Ficana. Great numbers of the j inhabitants of these towns were again trans- i planted to Rome, and incorporated with the plebeians already settled there, and the Avcn- tine was assigned to them as their habitation. Some portions of the land which these new citizens had possessed were given back to them by the Romans, so that they remained free land-owners as much as the conquerors themselves, and thus were distinct from the clients. The plebeians were citizens, but not optirno jure ; they were perfectly distinct from the patricians, and were neither con- tained in the three tribes, nor in the curiae, nor in the patrician gentes. The only point of contact between the two estates was the army. The plebeians were obliged to fight and shed their blood in the defence of their new fellow-citizens, without being allowed to share any of their rights or privileges, and without even the right of intermarriage (con- niibium.) In all judicial matters they were entirely at the mercy of the patricians, and had no right of appeal against any unjust sentence, though they were not, like the clients, bound to have a patronus. They continued to have their own sacra, which they had had before the conquest, but these were regulated by the patrician pontiffs. Lastly, they were free land-owners, and had their own gentes. The population of the Roman state thus consisted of two opposite elements ; a ruling class or an aristocracy, and the commonalty, which, though of the same stock as the noblest among the rulers, and exceeding them in numbers, yet enjoyed none of the rights which might enable them to take a part in the management of public affairs, religious or civil. Their citizenship resembled the relation of aliens to a state, in which they are merely tolerated on condition PLEBES. 299 PLEBES. of performing certain services, and they are, in fact, sometimes called peregrin!. That such a state of things could not last, is a truth which must have been felt by every one who was not blinded by his own selfish- ness and love of dominion. Tarquinius Priscus was the first who conceived the idea of placing the plebeians on a footing of equal- ity with the old burghers, by dividing them into three tribes, which he intended to call after his own name and those of his friends. But this noble plan was frustrated by the opposition of the augur Attus Navius, who probably acted the part of a representative of the patricians. All that Tarquinius could do was to effect the admission of the noblest plebeian families into the three old tribes, who were distinguished from the old patrician families by the names of Ramnes, Tities, and Luceres secundi, and their gentes are some- times distinguished by the epithet minores, as they entered into the same relation in which the Luceres had been to the first two tribes, before the time of Tarquinius. It was reserved to his successor, Servius Tullius, to give to the commonalty a regular internal organisation, and to determine their relations to the patricians. lie first divided the city into four, and then the subject country around, which was inhabited by plebeians, into twenty-six regions or local tribes, and in these regions he assigned lots of land to those plebeians who were yet without landed property. [TRIBUS.] Each tribe had its praefect, called tribunus. The tribes had also their own sacra, festivals, and meetings (comitia tribitta), which were convoked by their tribunes. This division into tribes with tribunes at their heads was no more than an internal organisation of the plebeians, analo- gous to the division of the patricians into thirty curiae, without conferring upon them the right to interfere in any way in the management of public affairs, or in the elec- tions, which were left entirely to the senate and the curiae. These rights, however, they obtained by another regulation of Servius Tullius, which was made wholly independent of the thirty tribes. For this purpose he instituted a census, and divided the whole body of Roman citizens, plebeians as well as patricians, into five classes, according to the amount of their property. Taxation and the military duties were arranged according to these classes in such a manner, that the heavier burdens fell upon the wealthier classes. The whole body of citizens thus divided was formed into a great national assembly called comitiatus maximus, or co- mitia centuriata. [COMITIA.] In this assembly the plebeians now met the patricians appa- rently on a footing of equality, but the votes were distributed in such a way that it was always in the power of the wealthiest classes, to which the patricians naturally belonged, to decide a question before it was put to the vote of the poorer classes. A great number of such noble plebeian families, as after the subjugation of the Latin towns had not been admitted into the curies by Tarquinius Pris- cus, were now constituted by Servius into a number of equites, with twelve suffragia in the comitia centuriata. [EQTJITES.] In this constitution, the plebeians, as such, did not obtain admission to the senate, nor to the highest magistracy, nor to any of the priestly offices. To all these offices the patricians alone thought themselves entitled by divine right.' The plebeians also continued to be excluded from occupying any portion of the public land, which as yet was possessed only by the patricians, and they were only allowed to keep their cattle upon the common pasture. In the early times of the republic there was a constant struggle between the two orders, the history of which belongs to a history of Rome, and cannot be given here. Eventually the plebeians gained access to all the civil and religious offices, until at last the two hostile elements became united into one great body of Roman citizens with equal rights, and a state of things arose, totally different from what had existed before. After the first secession, in B. c. 494, the plebeians gained several great advantages. First, a law was passed to prevent the patricians from taking usurious interest of money, which they fre- quently lent to impoverished plebeians ; secondly, tribunes were appointed for the protection of the plebeians [TEIBUNI] ; and lastly, plebeian aediles were appointed. [AEDILKS.] Shortly after, they gained the right to summon before their own comitia tributa any one who had violated the rights of their order, and to make decrees (plcbis- cita), which, however, did not become binding upon the whole nation, free from the control of the curies, until the year B.C. 286. In (B. c. 445), the tribune Canuleius established, by his rogations, the connubium between patricians and plebeians. He also attempted to divide the consulship between the two orders, but the patricians frustrated the realisation of this plan by the appointment of six military tribunes, who were to be elected from both orders. [TRIBUNI.] But that the plebeians might have no share in the censorial power, with which the consuls had been invested, the military tribunes did not obtain that power, and a new curule dignity, the censor- ship, was established, with which patricians alone were to be invested. [Gibson.] In PLEBES. 300 PLETHRON. B.C. 421 the plebeians were admitted to the quaestorship, which opened to them the way into the senate, where henceforth their num- ber continued to increase. [QUAESTOR ; SEXATUS.] In B. c. 3C7 the tribunes L. Licinius Stole and L. Sextius placed them- selves at the head of the commonalty, and resumed the contest against the patricians. After a fierce struggle, which lasted for seve- ral years, they at length carried a rogation, according to which decemvirs were to be appointed for keeping the Sibylline books instead of duumvirs, of whom half were to be plebeians. The next great step was the restoration of the consulship, on condition that one consul should always be a plebeian. A third rogation of Licinius, which was only intended to afford momentary relief to the poor plebeians, regulated the rate of interest. From this time forward the plebeians also appear in the possession of the right to occupy parts of the ager publicus. In B. c. 366, L. Sextius Lateranus was the first ple- beian consul. The patricians, however, who always contrived to yield no more than what it was absolutely impossible for them to retain, stripped the consulship of a consider- able part of its power, and transferred it to two new curule offices, viz. that of praetor and of curule aedile [AEDILES ; PRAETOR.] But after such great advantages had been once gained by the plebeians, it was impossible to stop them in their progress towards a perfect equality of political rights with the patricians. In B. c. 356, C. Marcius Rutilus was the first plebeian dictator ; in B. c. 351 the censorship was thrown open to the plebeians, and in B. c. 336 the praetorship. The Ogulnian law, in B. c. 300, also opened to them the offices of pontifex and augur. These advantages were, as might be supposed, not gained without the fiercest opposition of the patricians, and even after they were gained and sanctioned by law, the patricians exerted every means to obstruct the operation of the law. Such fraudulent attempts led, in B.C. 286, to the last secession of the plebeians, after which, however, the dictator Q. Ilortensius success- fully and permanently reconciled the two orders, secured to the plebeians all the rights they had acquired until then, and procured for their plebiscita the full power of leges binding upon the whole nation. After the passing of the Hortensian law, the political distinction between patricians and plebeians ceased, and, with a few unimportant excep- tions, both orders were placed on a footing of perfect equality. Henceforth the name popu- his is sometimes applied to the plebeians alone, and sometimes to the whole body of Roman citizens, as assembled in the comitia centuriata or tributa. The term plebs or plebecula, on the other hand, was applied, in a loose manner of speaking, to the multitude or populace, in opposition to the nobiles or the senatorial party. A person who was born a plebeian could only be raised to the rank of a patrician by a lex curiata, as was sometimes done during the kingly period, and in the early times of the republic. It frequently occurs in the history of Rome that one and the same gens contains plebeian as well as patrician families. In the gens Cornelia, for instance, we find the plebeian families of the Balbi, Mammulae, Merulae, &c., along with the patrician Scipiones, Sul- lae, Lentuli, &c. The occurrence of this phenomenon may be accounted for in different ways. It may have been, that one branch of a plebeian family was made patrician while the others remained plebeians. It may also have happened that two families had the same nomen gentilicium without being actual members of the same gens. Again, a patri- cian family might go over to the plebeians, and as such a family continued to bear the name of its patrician gens, this gens appa- rently contained a plebeian family. When a peregrinus obtained the civitas through the influence of a patrician, or when a slave was emancipated by his patrician master, they generally adopted the nomen gentilicium of their benefactor, and thus appear to belong to the same gens with him. PLEBISClTUM, a name properly applied to a law passed at the comitia tributa on the rogation of a tribune. Originally, a plebisci- tum required confirmation by the comitia curiata and the senate ; but a Lex Hor- tensia was passed B. c. 286, to the effect that plebiscita should bind all the populus (vnicersus populus}, and this lex rendered confirmation unnecessary. The Lex Hor- tensia is always referred to as the lex which put plebiscita as to their binding force ex- actly on the same footing as leges. The principal plebiscita are mentioned under the article LEX. PLECTRUM. [LYRA.] PLETHRON (7rAe'0poi<), the fundamental land measure in the Greek system, being the square of 100 feet, that is, 10,000 square feet. The later Greek writers use it as the translation of the Roman jugcrttm, probably because the latter was the standard land measure in the Roman system ; but, in size, the plethron answered more nearly to the Roman actus, or half-jugerum, which was the older unit of land measures. As fre- quently happened with the ancient land measures, the side of the plethron was taken as a measure of length, with the same name. PLUTEUS. 301 POMPA. This pletftron was equal to 100 feet (or about 101 English feet) = 66 TI?X =10 Sxtuvai or KaAa/ioi. It was also introduced into the system of itinerary measures, being 1-Gth of the stadium. PLUTEUS, was applied in military affairs to two different objects. (1) A kind of shed made of hurdles, and covered with raw hides, which could be moved forward by small wheels attached to it, and under which the besiegers of a town made their approaches. (2) Boards or planks placed on the vallum of a camp, on moveable towers or other military engines, as a kind of roof or covering for the protection of the soldiers. PLYNTERIA (nAvmjpia, from irAvwic, to wash), a festival celebrated at Athens every year, on the 25th of Thargclion, in honour of Athena, surnamed Aglauros, whose temple stood on the Acropolis. The day of this fes- tival was at Athens among the a7rovpa\ a bridge. As the rivers of Greece were small, and the use of the arch known to them only to a limited extent, it is probable that the Greek bridges were built entirely of wood, or, at best, were nothing :nore than a wooden platform supported upon stone piers at each extremity. Pliny men- lions a bridge over the Acheron 1000 feet in length ; we also know that the island Euboea was joined to Boeotia by a bridge ; but the only existing specimen of a Greek bridge is the one over a tributary of the Eurotas. The Romans regularly applied the arch to the construction of bridges, by which they were enabled to erect structures of great beauty and solidity, as well as utility. The width of the passage-way in a Roman bridge was com- monly narrow, as compaied with modem structures of the same kind, and corresponded with the road (tia) leading to and from it. It was divided into three parts. The centre one, for horses and carriages, was denomi- nated agger or iter ; and the raised footpaths on each side dccursoria, which were enclosed by parapet walls similar in use and appear- ance to the plutcus in the basilica. There were eight bridges across the Tiber. I. Of these the most celebrated, as well as the most ancient, was the Poxs SUBI.ICIUS, so called because it was built of wood ; sublices, in the language of the Formiani, meaning wooden beams. It was built by Ancus Martius, when he united the Janiculum to the city, and WP.S situated at the foot of the Aventine. II. PONS PAI.ATINUS formed the communication between the Palatine and its vicinities and the Janiculum. III. IV. Poxs FABUICIUS and Poni Cestiu*, and POM Fabncius, at Rome, Toss CESTIVS were the two which connected the Insula Tibcrina with the opposite sides of the river ; the first with the city, and the latter with the Janiculum. Both are still re- maining. They are represented in the pre- ceding woodcut : that on the right hand is the pons Fabricius, and that on the left the pons Cestius. Y. PONS JANICULENSIS, which t a? led direct to the Janiculum. VI. Poxs VATI- CANUS, so called because it formed the com- munication between the Campus Martius and Campus Vaticanus. VII. PONS AKIJITS, built by Hadrian, which led from the city to the mausoleum of that emperor, now the bridge and castle of St. Angelo. VIII. PONS Mri<- vivs, on the Via Flaminia, now Ponte Molle, i ? fey Pan!) Aalitu at Ronm. rONTIFEX. 303 POXTIFEX. was built by Aemilius Scaurus the censor. The Roman bridges without the city were too many to be enumerated here. They formed one of the chief embellishments in all the public roads ; and their frequent and stupendous remains, still existing in Italy, Portugal, and Spain, attest, even to the pre- sent day, the scale of grandeur with whish the Roman works of national utility were always carried on. When the comitia were held, the voters, in order to reach the en- closure called septum and ocile, passed over a Bridge at Aritmnum. wooden platform, elevated above the ground, which was called pons suffragiorum, in order that they might be able to give their votes without confusion or collusion. [COMITIA.] I'ons is also used to signify the platform (ciri/3a0pa, ro/3a0pa), used for embarking in, or disembarking from, a ship. POXT1FEX (UpoSiioo-icaAof, icpovofias, tepo- 4>vAa, Up7). The origin of this word is explained in various ways ; but it is pro- bably formed from pons and facere (in the signification of the Greek pt&iv, to perform a sacrifice), and consequently signifies the priests who offered sacrifices upon the bridge. The ancient sacrifice to which the name thus alludes, is that of the Argei on the sacred or ! sublician bridge. [ARGEI.] The Roman pon- j tiffs formed the most illustrious among the i great colleges of priests. Their institution, ' like that of all important matters of religion, was ascribed to Numa. The number of pon- '. tiffs appointed by this king was four, and at j their head was the pontifex maximus, who is ' generally not included when the number of ' pontiffs is mentioned. It is probable that the original number of four pontiffs (not in- cluding the pontifex maximus) had reference to the two earliest tribes of the Romans, the Ramncs and Titles, so that each tribe was represented by two pontiffs. In the year ' B. c. 300 the Ogulnian law raised the mun- ber of pontiffs to eight, or, including the I pontifex maximus, to nine, and four of them were to be plebeians. The pontifex maximus, however, continued to be a patrician down ! to the year B. c. 254, when Tib. Coruncanius ! was the first plebeian who was invested with ! this dignity. This number of pontiffs re- j maincd for a long time unaltered, until in ' B. c. 81 the dictator Sulla increased it to fifteen, and J. Caesar to sixteen. In both these changes the pontifex maximus is in- cluded in tie number. During the empire the number varied, though on the whole fifteen appears to have been the regular number. The mode of appointing the pontiffs was also different at different times. It appears that after their institution by Numa, the college had the right of co-optation, that is, if a member of the college died (for all the pontiffs held their office for life), the mem- bers met and elected a successor, who, after his election, was inaugurated by the augurs. This election was sometimes called captio. In B. c. 104 a Lex Domitia was passed, which transferred the right of electing the mem- bers of the great colleges of priests to the people (probably in the comitia tributa) ; that is, the people elected a candidate, who was then made a member of the college by the co-optatio of the priests themselves, BO that the co-optatio, although still necessary, became a mere matter of form. The Lex Domitia was repealed by Sulla in a Lex Cornelia de Sacerdotiis (B. c. 81), which re- stored to the great priestly colleges their full right of co-optatio. In B. c. 63 the law of Sulla was abolished, and the Domitian iaw was restored, but not in its full extent ; for it was now determined, that in case of a vacancy the college itself should nominate two candidates, and the people elect one of them. M. Antonius again restored the right of co-optatio to the college. The college of pontiffs had the supreme superintendence of all matters of religion, and of things and persons connected with public as well as private worship. They had the judicial de- cision in all matters of religion, whether private persons, magistrates, or priests were concerned, and in cases where the existing laws or customs were found defective or insufficient, they made new laws and regu- lations (decreta pontificum), in which they always followed their own judgment as to what was consistent with the existing cus- PONTIFEX. 304 PONTIFEX. toms and usages. The details of these duties and functions -were contained in books called libri pontificii or pontificates, commcntarii sacrorum or sacrorum pontificalium, which they were said to have received from Numa, and which were sanctioned by Ancus Mar- tius. As to the rights and duties of the pontiffs, it must first of all be borne in mind, that the pontiffs were not priests of any par- ticular divinity, but a college which stood above all other priests, and superintended the whole external worship of the gods. One of their principal duties was the regu- lation of the sacra, both publica and prirata, and to watch that they were observed at the proper times (for which purpose the pontiffs had the whole regulation of the calendar, see CALENDARIUM), and in their proper form. In the management of the sacra publica they were in later times assisted in certain duties by the Triumviri Epulones. [EPULONES.] The pontiffs convoked the assembly of the curies (comitia calata or curiata] in cases where priests were to be appointed, and flamines or a rex sacrorum were to be inau- gurated ; also when wills were to be received, and when a detestatio sacrorum and adop- tion by adrogatio took place. [ADOPTIO.] In most cases the sentence of the pontiffs only inflicted a fine upon the offenders ; but the person fined had the right of appealing to the people, who might release him from the fine. In regard to the vestal virgins, and the persons who committed incest with them, the pontiffs had criminal jurisdiction, and might pronounce sentence of death. A man who had violated a vestal virgin was, according to an ancient law, scourged to death by the pontifex maximus in the comi- tium, and it appears that originally neither the vestal virgins nor the male offenders in such a case had any right of appeal. In later times we find that, even when the pontiffs had passed sentence upon vestal virgins, a tribune interfered, and induced the people to appoint a quaestor for the pur- pose of making a fresh inquiry into the case ; and it sometimes happened that after this new trial the sentence of the pontiffs was modified or annulled. Such cases, however, seem to have been mere irregularities, founded upon an abuse of the tribunitian power. In the eaily times the pontiffs were in the exclusive possession of the civil as well as religious law, until the former was made public by Cn. Flavius. The regula- tions which served as a guide to the pontiffs in their judicial proceedings, formed a large collection of laws, which was called the jus pontificium, and formed part of the Libri I'ontincii. The meetings of the college of pontiffs, to which in some instances the fla- mines and the rex sacrorum were summoned, were held in the curia regia on the Via Sacra, to which was attached the residence of the pontifex maximus and of the rex sa- crorum. As the chief pontiff was obliged to live in a domus pnblica, Augustus, when he assumed this dignity, changed part of his own house into a domus publiea. All the pontiffs were in their appearance distin- guished by the conic cap, called tutulus or galerus, with an apex upon it, and the toga praetexta. The pontifex maximus was the president of the college, and acted in its name, whence he alone is frequently men- tioned in cases in which he must be considered only as the organ of the college. He was ge- nerally chosen from among the most distin- guished persons, and such as had held a curule magistracy, or were already members of the college. Two of his especial duties were to appoint (capere) the vestal virgins and the flamines [VESTALES; FLAMEN], and to be present at every marriage by confar- reatio. When festive games were vowed, or a dedication made, the chief pontiff had to repeat over, before the persons who made the vow or the dedication, the formula in which it was to be performed (praeire vcrba). During the period of the republic, when the people exercised sovereign power in every respect, we find that if the pontiff, on constitutional or religious grounds, re- fused to perform this solemnity, he might be compelled by the people. The pontifex maximus wrote down what occurred in his year on tablets, which were hung up in his dwelling for the information of the people, and called Annales Maximi. A pontifex might, like all the members of the great priestly colleges, hold any other military, civil, or priestly office, provided the different offices did not interfere with one another. Thus we find one and the same person being pontiff, augur, and decemvir sacrorum ; in- stances of a pontifex maximus being at the same time consul are very numerous. But whatever might be the civil or military office which a pontifex maximus held beside his pontificate, he was not allowed originally to [eave Italy. The college of pontiffs conti- nued to exist until the overthrow of pagan- ism. The emperors themselves were always chief pontiffs, and as such the presidents of the college ; hence the title of pontifex max- imus (P. M. or PON. M.) appears on several coins of the emperors. If there were several emperors at a time, only one bore the title of pontifex maximus ; but in the year A. D. 238 we find that each of the two emperors Maximus and Balbinus assumed this dignity. TOPA. 305 POBTOBimC. From the time of Theodosius the emperors no longer appear with the dignity of pontiff ; but at last the title was assumed by the Christian bishop of Home. There -were other pontiffs at Rome, who were distinguished by the epithet Minorea. They appear to have been originally only the secretaries of the pontiffs ; and when the real pontiffs began to neglect their duties, and to leave the prin- cipal business to be done by their secre- taries, it became customary to designate these scribes by the name of Pontiflces Minores. The number of these secretaries is uncertain. POPA. [SACRIFICIUM.] POPlNA. [CAUPONA.] POPULAIUA. [AMPHITHEATHVM.] POPULUS. [PATHICII.] POPULIFUGIA or POPLIFUGIA, the day of the people's flight, was celebrated on the nones of July, according to an ancient tradition, in commemoration of the flight of the people, when the inhabitants of Ficulae, Fidenac, and other places round about, ap- peared in arms against Rome shortly after the departure of the Gauls, and produced such a panic that the Romans suddenly fled before them. Other writers say that the Populifugia was celebrated in commemora- tion of the flight of the people before the Tuscans ; while others again refer its origin to the flight of the people on the death of Romulus. PORISTAE (iropiorot), magistrates at Athens, who probably levied the extraor- dinary supplies. POUT A (TVAJJ, dim. rvAes), the gate of a city, citadel, or other open space inclosed by a wall, in contradistinction to JANTA, which was the door of a house or any covered edi- fice. The terms porta and TvA>j are often found in the plural, even when applied to a single gate, because it consisted of two leaves. The gates of a city were of course various in their number and position. Thus Megara had 5 gates ; Thebes, in Boeotia, had 7 ; Athens had 8 ; and Rome 20, or perhaps even more. The jambs of the gate were surmounted, 1. by a lintel, which was large and strong in proportion to the width of the gate. 2. By an arch, as we see exemplified at Pompeii, Paestum, Sepianum, Volterra, Suza, Autun, Besan^on, and Treveg. 3. At Arpinum, one of the gatco now remaining is arched, whilst another is constructed with the stones projecting one beyond another. Gates sometimes had two passages close to- gether, the one designed for carriages enter- ing, and the other for carriages leaving the city. In other instances we find only one pate for carriages, but a smaller one on each side of it (jropan-vAi's) for foot-passengers. When there were no sideways, one of the valves of the large gate sometimes contained a wicket (portula, irvAic: pivovrvATj), large enough to admit a single person. The gate- way had commonly a chamber (called iroAwv) cither on one side or on both, which served as the residence of the porter or guard. Sta- tues of the gods were often placed near the gate, or even within it in the barbican, so as to be ready to receive the adoration of those who entered the city. PORTICUS (o-roi), a walk covered with a roof, and supported by columns, at least on one side. Such shaded walks and places of resort are almost indispensable in the south- ern countries of Europe, where people live much in the open air, as a protection from the heat of the sun and from rain. The porticoes attached to the temples were either constructed only in front of them, or went round the whole building, as is the case in the so-called Temple of Theseus at Athens. They were originally intended as places for those persons to assemble and converse in who visited the temple for various purposes. As such temple-porticoes, however, were found too small, or not suited for the various purposes of private and public life, most Grecian towns had independent porticoes, Home of which were very extensive ; and in most of these stoae, seats (exedrae) were placed, that those who were tired might sit down. They were frequented not only by idle loungers, but also by philosophers, rhe- toricians, and other persons fond of intellec- tual conversation. The Stoic school of phi- losophy derived its name from the cir- cumstance, that the founder of it used to converse with his disciples in a stoa. The Romans derived their great fondness for such covered walks from the Greeks ; and as luxuries among them were carried in every- thing to a greater extent than in Greece, wealthy Romans had their private porticoes, sometimes in the city itself, and sometimes in their country-seats. In the public por- tico ?s of Rome, which were exceedingly nu- merous and very extensive (as those around the Forum and the Campus Martius), a variety of business was occasionally trans- acted : we find that law-suits were conducted here, meetings of the senate held, goods ex- hibited for sale, &c. PORTISCULUS (A/(m}s), an officer In a ship, who gave the signal to the rowers, that they might keep time in rowing. This officer is sometimes called Hortator or Pau- sariiu. PORTIT5RES. [PUBLICAJTI.] PORTORIUM, a branch of the regular revenues of the Roman state, consisting of POSSESS1O. 306 PRAEDA. the duties paid on imported and exported goods. A portorium, or duty upon imported goods, appears to have been paid at a very early period, for it is said that Valerius Pub- licola exempted the plebes from the portoria at the time when the republic was threatened with an invasion by Porsena. The time of its introduction is uncertain ; but the aboli- tion of it, ascribed to Publicola, can only have been a temporary measure ; and as the expenditure of the republic increased, new portoria must have been introduced. In conquered places, and in the provinces, the import and export duties, which had been paid there before, were generally not only retained, but increased, and appropriated to the aerarium. Sicily, and above all, Asia, furnished to the Roman treasury large sums, which were raised as portoria. In B. c. GO all the portoria in the ports of Italy were done away with by a Lex Caecilia, but were restored by Julius Caesar and the subsequent emperors. Respecting the amount of the import or export duties we have but little information. In the time of Cicero the por- torium in the ports of Sicily was one twen- tieth (vifesima) of the value of taxable arti- cles ; and it is probable that this was the average sum raised in all the other pro- vinces. In the times of the emperors the ordinary rate of the portorium appears to have been the fortieth part (quadragcsima) of the value of imported goods ; and at a later period the exorbitant sum of one-eighth (octavo) is mentioned. The portorium was, like all other vectigalia, fanned out by the censors to the publicani, who collected it through the portitores. [VECTIOALIA ; PUB- LICANI.] POSSESSIO. [ACER PUBLICUS.] POSTICUM. [JANUA.] POSTL1MINIUM, POSTLIMINII JUS. If a Roman citizen during war came into the possession of an enemy, he sustained a diminvtio capitis maxima [CAPVT], and all his civil rights were in abeyance. Being captured by the enemy, he became a slave ; but his rights over his children, if he had any, were not destroyed, but were said to be in abeyance (pendere) by virtue of the Jus Postliminii: when he returned, his children were again in his power ; and if he died in captivity, they became sui juris. Sometimes by an act of the state a man was given up bound to an enemy, and if the enemy would not receive him, it was a question whether he had the Jus Postliminii. This was the case with Sp. Postumius, who was given up to the Samnites, and with C. Ilostilius Man- cinus, who was given up to the Numantines ; but the better opinion was, that they had no Jus Postliminii, and Mancinus was restored to his civic rights by a lex. It appears that the Jus Postliminii was founded on the fiction of the captive having never been absent from home ; a fiction which was of easy applica- tion, for, as the captive during his absence could not do any legal act, the interval of captivity was a period of legal non-activity, which was terminated by his showing himself again. POTESTAS. [PATRIA POTESTAS.] PRACTORES-Opoxropes), subordinate offi- cers at Athens, who collected the fines and penalties (en-i/SoAas and TifiTJ/uara) imposed by magistrates and courts of justice, and pay- able to the state. PRAECINCTIO. [AMPHITHEATEUM.] PRAECONES, criers, were employed for various purposes : 1. In sales by auction, they frequently advertised the time, place, and conditions of sale : they seem also to have acted the part of the modern auctioneer, so far as calling out the biddings and amusing the company, though the property was knocked down by the magister auctionis. [AUCTIO.] 2. In all public assemblies they ordered silence. 3. In the comitia they called the centuries one by one to give their votes, pronounced the vote of each century, and called out the names of those who were elected. They also recited the laws that were to be passed. 4. In trials, they sum- moned the accuser and the accused, the plaintiff and defendant. 5. In the public games, they invited the people to attend, and proclaimed the victors. 6. In solemn funerals they also invited people to attend by a certain form ; hence these funerals were called funera indictica. 7. "When things were lost, they cried them and searched for them. 8. In the infliction of capital punish- ment, they sometimes conveyed the com- mands of the magistrates to the lictors. Their office, called Praeconium, appears to have been regarded as rather disreputable : in the time of Cicero a law was passed pre- venting all persons who had been praecones from becoming decuriones in the municipia. Under the early emperors, however, it be- came very profitable, which was no doubt partly owing to fees, to which they were entitled in the courts of justice, and partly to the bribes which they received from the suitors, Arc. PRAEDA signifies movcable things taken by an enemy in war. Such things were either distributed by the Imperator among the soldiers or sold by the quaestors, and the produce was brought into the Aera- rium. The difference between Praeda and Manubia3 is this : Praeda is tte things PRAEFECTURA. 307 PRAEFECTUS URBI. themselves that are taken in war, and Ma- nubiae is the money realized by their sale. It was the practice to set up a spear at such sales, which was afterwards used at all sales of things by a magistrates in the name of the people. [SECTIO.] PRAEFECTORA. [COLONIA.] PRAEFECTUS AERARII. [AERARIVM.] PRAEFECTUS ANNONAE, the praefect of the provisions, especially of the corn- market, was not a regular magistrate under the republic, but was only appointed in cases of extraordinary scarcity, when he seems to have regulated the prices at which corn was to be sold. Augustus created an officer under the title of Praefectus Annonae, who had jurisdiction over all matters appertaining to the corn-market, and, like the Praefectus Tiffilum, was chosen from the equites, and was not reckoned among the ordinary ma- gistrates. PRAEFECTUS AQUARUM. [AauAE Ducrrs.] PRAEFECTUS CASTRORUJI, praefect of the camp, is first mentioned in the reign of Augustus. There was one to each legion. PRAEFECTUS CLASSIS, the commander of a fleet. This title was frequently given in the times of the republic to the com- mander of a fleet ; but Augustus appointed two permanent officers with this title, one of whom was stationed at Ravenna on the Adriatic, and the other at Miscnum on the Tuscan sea, each having the command of a fleet. PRAEFECTUS FABRUM. [FABRI.] PRAEFECTUS JtJRI DlCUNDO. [Co- LOXIA.] PRAEFECTUS LEGIOXIS. [EXERCI- TCS.] PRAEFECTUS PRAETORIO, was the commander of the troops who guarded the emperor's person. [PRAETORIAXI.] This office was instituted by Augustus, and was at first only military, and had comparatively small power attached to it ; but under Tibe- rius, who made Sejanus commander of the praetorian troops, it became of much greater importance, till at length the power of these praefects became only second to that of the emperors. From the reign of Severus to that of Diocletian, the praefects, like the vizirs of the east, had the superintendence of all departments of -the state, the palace, the j.rmy, the finances, and the law : they also had a court in which they decided cases. The office of praefect of the praetorium was not confined to military officers ; it was filled by Ulpian and Papinian, and other distin- guished jurists. Originally there were two praefects; afterwards sometimes one and sometimes two ; from the time of Commodus sometimes three, and even four. They were, as a regular rule, chosen only from the equites ; but from the time of Alexander Severus the dignity of senator was always joined with their office. PRAEFECTUS VIGILUM. [EXEBCITUS, p. 171, a.] PRAEFECTUS UHBI, praefect or warden of the city, was originally called Custos Urbis, The name praefectus urbi does not seem to have been used till after the time of the decemvirs. The dignity of custos urbis, being combined with that of princeps sfiiatus, was conferred by the king, as he had to appoint one of the decem primi as princeps senatus. The functions of the custos urbis, however, were not exercised except in the absence of the king from Rome ; and then he acted as the representative of the king : he convoked the senate, held the comitia, if necessary, and on any emergency, might take such measures as he thought proper ; in short, he had the imperium in the city. During the kingly period, the office of custos urbis was probably for life. Under the re- public, the office, and its name of citstos urbis, remained unaltered; but in B. c. 487 it was elevated into a magistracy, to be bestowed by election. The custos urbis was, in all probability, elected by the curiae. Persons of consular rank were alone eligible. In the early period of the republic the custos urbis exercised within the city all the powers of the consuls, if they were absent : he con- voked the senate, held the comitia, and, in times of war, even levied civic legions, which were commanded by him. When the office of praetor urbanus was instituted, the wardenship of the city was swallowed up in it; but as the Romans were at all times averse to dropping altogether any of their old institutions, a praefectus urbi, though a mere shadow of the former office, was hence- forth appointed every year, only for the time that the consuls were absent from Rome for the purpose of celebrating the Feriae La- tinae. This praefectus had neither the power of convoking the senate nor the right of speaking in it ; in most cases he was a per- son below the senatorial age, and was not appointed by the people, but by the consuls. An office very different from this, though bearing the same name, was instituted by Augustus on the suggestion of Maecenas. This new praefectus urbi was a regular and permanent magistrate, whom Augustus in- vested with all the powers necessary to maintain peace and order in the city. He had the superintendence of butchers, bank- ers, guardians, theatres, &c. ; and to enable x 2 PRAEFICAE. 308 PRAETOR. him to exercise his power, he had distri- outed throughout the city a number of milites stationarii, whom we may compare to a modern police. His jurisdiction, how- ever, became gradually extended ; and as the powers of the ancient republican prae- fectus urbi had been swallowed up by the office of the praetor urbanus, so now the power of the praetor urbanus was gradually absorbed by that of the pracfectus urbi ; and at last there was no appeal from his sentence, except to the person of the princeps himself, while any body might appeal from the sen- tence of any other city magistrate, and, at a later period, even from that of a governor of a province, to the tribunal of the praefectus urbi. PRAEFICAE. [FUNUS.] PRAEJUDlCIUM is used both in the sense of a precedent, in which case it is rather exemplum than praejiidicium (res ex paribus causis judicatae) ; and also in the sense of a preliminary inquiry and determination about something which belongs to the matter in dispute (judiciis ad ipsam causam pertinen- tibtts), from whence also comes the name Praejudicium. PRAELUSIO. [GLADIATOEF.S.] PRAENOMEN. [NOMEN.] PRAEROGATlVA TRIBUS. [CoMiriA, p. 109.] PRAES, is a surety for one who buys of the state. The goods of a Praes were called Praedia. The Pracdialor was a person who bought a praedittm, that is, a thing given to the state as a security by a praes. PRAESCRIPTIO, or rather TEMPO RIS PRAESCRIPTIO, signifies the Exceptio or answer which a defendant has to the demand of a plaintiff, founded on the circumstance of the lapse of time. The word has properly no reference to the plaintiff's loss of right, but to the defendant's acquisition of a right by which he excludes the plaintiff from prosecut- ing his suit. This right of a defendant did not exist in the old Roman law. PRAESES. [PROVINCIA.] PRAESUL. [SAUL] PRAETEXTA. [TOGA.] PRAETOR (orpanrcos), was originally a title which designated the consuls as the leaders of the armies of the state. The period and office of the command of the con- sals might appropriately be called Praeto- i-ium. Praetor was also a title of office among the Latins. The first praetor specially so called was appointed in B. c. 366, and he was chosen only from the patricians, who had this new office created as a kind of indemni- fication to themselves for being compelled to share the consulship with the plebeians. No plebeian praetor was appointed till the year B.C. 337. The praetor was called collega consulibus, and was elected with the same auspices at the comitia centuriata. The prae- torship was originally a kind of third consul- ship, and the chief functions of the praetor (jus in iirbe dicere, jura reddere] were a por- tion of the functions of the consuls. The praetor sometimes commanded the armies of the state ; and while the consuls were absent with the armies, he exercised their functions within the city. He was a magistratus curu- lis, and he had the imperium, and conse- quently was one of the magistratus majores : but he owed respect and obedience to the consuls. His insignia of office were six lie- tors ; but at a later period he had only two lietors in Rome. The practorship was at first given to a consul of the preceding year. In B.C. 246 another praetor was appointed, whose business .was to administer justice in matters in dispute between peregrini, or peregrini and Roman citizens ; and accord- ingly he was called praetor pcregrinus. The other praetor was then called praetor wba- nus, qui jus inter cives dicit, and sometimes simply praetor urbanus and praetor tirbis. The two praetors determined by lot which functions they should respectively exercise. If either of them was at the head of the army, the other performed all the duties of both within the city. . Sometimes the military im- perium of a praetor was prolonged for a second year. When the territories of the state were extended beyond the limits of Italy, new praetors were made. Thus, two praetors were created .B. c. 227, for the administration of Sicily and Sardinia, and two more were added when the two Spanish provinces were formed, B.C. 197. When there were six praetors, two stayed in the city, and the other four went abroad. The senate determined their provinces, which were distributed among them by lot. After the discharge of his judicial functions in the city, a praetor often had the administration of a province, with the title of propraetor. Sulla increased the number of praetors to eight, which Julius Caesar raised successively to ten, twelve, fourteen, and sixteen. Au- gustus, after several changes, fixed the num- ber at twelve. Under Tiberius there were sixteen. Two praetors were appointed by Claudius for matters relating to fideicommissa, when the business in this department of the law had become considerable, but Titus re- duced the number to one ; and Nerva added a praetor for the decision of matters between the fiscus and individuals. Thus there were eventually eighteen praetors, who adminis- tered justice in the state. The praetor ur- banus was specially named praetor, and he PRAETOR1A. 309 PRIXC1PIA. was the first in rank. His duties confined Mm to Rome, as is implied by the name, and he could only leave the city for ten days at a time. It was part of his duty to superintend the Ludi Apollinares. He was also the chief magistrate for the administration of justice ; and to the edicta of the successive praetors the Roman law owes in a great degree its development and improvement. Both the praetor urbanus and the praetor peregrinus had the jus edicendi, and their functions in this respect do not appear to have been limi- ted on the establishment of the imperial power, though it must have been gradually restricted, as the practice of imperial con- stitutions and rescripts became common. [EDICTVM.] The chief judicial functions of the praetor in civil matters consisted in giving a judex. [JUDEX.] It was only in the case of interdicts that he decided in a summary way. [IXTERDICTUM.] Proceedings before the praetor were technically said to be in jure. The praetors also presided at trials of criminal matters. These were the quaes- tiones perpetuae, or the trials for repetundae, ambitus, majestas, and pcculatus, which, when there were six praetors, were assigned to four out of the number. Sulla added to these quaestiones those of falsum, de sicariis et vencficis, and de parricidis, and for this purpose he added two, or, according to some accounts, four praetors. On these occasions the praetor presided, but a body of judices determined by a majority of votes the con- demnation or acquittal of the accused. [Ju- DEX.] The praetor, when he administered justice, sat on a sclla curulis in a tribunal, which was that part of the court which was appropriated to the praetor and his assessors and friends, and is opposed to the subsellia, or part occupied by the judices, and others who were present. PRAETORIA COHORS. [PRAETORIANI.] PRAETGRIAXI, sc. mililes, or praetoriae cohortes, a body of troops instituted by Au- gustus to protect his person and his power, and called by that name in imitation of the praetoria cohors, or select troops which at- tended the person of the praetor or general of the Roman army. They originally consisted of nine or ten cohorts, each comprising a thousand men, horse an \ foot. Augustus, in accordance with his general policy of avoid- ing the appearance of despotism, stationed only three of these cohorts in the capital, and dispersed the remainder in the adjacent towns of Italy. Tiberius, however, under pretence of introducing a stricter discipline among them, assembled them all at Rome in a permanent camp, which was strongly forti- fied. Their number was increased by Vitel- lius to sixteen cohorts, or 16,000 men. The praetorians were distinguished by double pay and especial privileges. Their term of ser- .vice was originally fixed by Augustus at twelve years, but was afterwards increased to sixteen years ; and when they had served their time, each soldier received 20,000 sesterces. They soon became the most powerful body in the state, and, like the janissaries at Constantinople, frequently de- posed and elevated emperors according to their pleasure. Even the most powerful of the emperors were obliged to court their favour ; and they always obtained a liberal donation upon the accession of each sove- reign. After the death of Pertinax (A. D. 193) they even offered the empire for sale, which was purchased by Didius Julianus ; but upon the accession of Severus in the same year they were disbanded, on account of the part they had taken in the death of Pertinax, and banished from the city. The emperors, however, could not dispense with guards, and accordingly the praetorians were restored on a new model by Severus, and increased to four times their ancient number. Diocletian reduced their numbers and abol- ished their privileges ; they were still allowed to remain at Rome, but had no longer the guard of the emperor's person, as he never resided in the capital. Their numbers were again increased by Maxentius ; but after his defeat by Constantino, A. D. 312, they were entirely suppressed by the latter, their forti- fied camp destroyed, and those who had not perished in the battle between Constantino and Maxentius were dispersed among the legions. The commander of the praetorians was called PRAEFECTUS PRAKTORIO. PRAETORIl'M, the name of the general's tent in the camp, and so called because the name of the chief Roman magistrate was originally praetor, and not consul. [CASTRA.] The officers who attended on the general in the praetorium, and formed his council of war, were called by the same name. The word was also used in several other significations, which were derived from the original one. Thus the residence of a governor of a province was called the praetorium; and the same name was also given to any large house or palace. The camp of the praetorian troops at Rome, and frequently the praetorian troops themselves, were called by this name. [PRAEIORIAXI.] PRANDIUM. [COENA, p. 96, b.] PRELUM. [VixuM.] PRIMIPlLUS. [CEXTCRIO.] PRINCEPS JUVEXTOTIS. [EariTES.J PRIXCEPS SEXATUS. [SEXATVB.] PRIXCIPES. [EXERCITCS, p. 168, 6.] PRJXCIPIA, PRIXC1PALIS VIA. [CASTRA.] PRTVILEGIUM. 319 PRODOSIA. PRIVILECIUM. [LEX.] FROBOLE (Vpo/3oAij), an accusation of a criminal nature, preferred before the people of Athens in assembly, with a view to obtain their sanction for bringing the charge before a j uclicial tribunal. The probole was reserved for those cases where the public had sustained an injury, or where, from the station, power, or influence of the delinquent, the prosecutor might deem it hazardous to proceed in the ordinary way without being authorised by a vote of the sovereign assembly. In this point it differed from the eisangelia, that in the latter the people were called upon either to pronounce final judgment, or to direct some peculiar method of trial ; whereas, in the probole after the judgment of the assembly, the parties proceeded to trial in the usual uianner. The cases to which the probole was applied were, complaints against magistrates for official misconduct or oppression ; against those public informers and mischief-makers who were called sycophantae (y means of a bill or advertisement. But in the time of Sulla it assumed a very differ- ent meaning, for he applied it to a measure of his own invention (B.C. 82), namely, the sale of the property of those who were put to death at his command, and who were them- selves called proscripti. After this example of a proscription had once been set, it was readily adopted by those in power during the civil commotions of subsequent years. In the proscription of Antonius, Caesar, and Le- pidus (B.C. 43), Cicero and some of the most distinguished Romans were put to death. PROSTATES (irpti), the term li- mited for bringing actions and prosecutions at Athens. The Athenian expression irpo8tELLATIO.] PROVOCATORES. [GLADIATORES.] PROXE.NUS (Trp^eroO. [HosprriUM.] PRYTANEIUM (TrpvTavelox), the public hall or town-hall in a Greek state. The prytancia of the ancient Greek states and cities were to the communities living around them, what private houses were to the fami- lies which occupied them. Just as the house of each family was its home, so was the pry- taneium of every state or city the common< home of its members or inhabitants. This correspondence between the prytaneium or home of the city, and the private home of a man's family, was at Athens very remark- able. A perpetual fire was kept burning on the public altar of the city in the pryta- neium, just as in private houses a fire was kept up on the domestic altar in the inner court of the house. Moreover, the city of Athens exercised in its prytaneium the duties- of hospitality, both to its own citizens and to strangers. Thus foreign ambassadors were entertained here, as well as Athenian envoys, on their return home from a successful or well-conducted mission. Here, too, were en- tertained from day to day the successive pry- tanes or presidents of the senate, together with those citizens who, whether from per- sonal or ancestral services to the state, were honoured with what was called the CTI'TTJO-IS ei> n-pvTaveCw, or the privilege of taking their meals there at the public cost. This was granted sometimes for a limited period, some- times for life, in which latter case the parties enjoying it were called cmo-iToi. Moreover, from the ever -burning fire of the prytaneium, or home of a mother state, was carried the sacred fire which was to be kept burning in the prytaneia of her colonies ; and if it hap- pened that this was ever extinguished, the flame was rekindled from the prytaneium of the parent city. Lastly, a prytaneium was also a distinguishing mark of an independent state. The prytaneium of Athens lay under the Acropolis on its northern side (near the ayopa), and was, as its name denotes, origi- nally the place of assembly of the prytanes ; in the earliest times it probably stood on the Acropolis. Officers called prytanes (n-puTo- veis) were entrusted with the chief magis- tracy in several states of Greece, as Corcyra, Corinth, Miletus. At Athens they were in early times probably a magistracy of the second rank in the state (next to the archon), acting as judges in various cases (perhaps in conjunction with him), and sitting in th prytaneium. That this was the case is ren- dered probable by the fact, that even in after- times the fees paid into court by plaintiff and defendant, before they could proceed to trial, and received by the dicasts, were called pry- taneia. PRYTANES. [PRYTAXEITJM; BOULE.] PSEPHISMA. [BOULE; NOMOTHETKS.] PSEPHUS ("/"jtf-os), a ball of stone, use'l bj PSEUDENGRAPIIES. PUBLICANI. the Athenian dicasts in giving their verdict. [CAPISCUS.] Hence \jrriieT}s. It would lie also, where a man was registered as debtor for more than was really due from him. PSEUDOCLETEIAS GRAPTTK f^uo/cA.i)- reuxs 7pa<>7J), a prosecution against one, who had appeared as a witness (KAIJTTJP or KAijrwp) to prove that a defendant had been duly sum- moned, and thereby enabled the plaintiff to get a judgment by default. The false witness (icAr)7-))p) was liable to be criminally prose- cuted, and punished at the discretion of the court. The ypa<#>7] i/feuSo/c\ijTei'as came before the Thesmothetae, and the question at the trial simply was, whether the defendant in the former cause had been summoned or not. PSlLI WiAoi). PSYCTER (tyvK-n/jp, dim. wine-cooler, was sometimes made of bronze or silver. One of earthenware is preserved in the Museum of Antiquities at Copenhagen. It consists of one deep vessel for holding ice, which is fixed 'within another for holding wine. The wine was poured in at the top. It thus surrounded the vessel of ice and was cooled by the contact. It was drawn off so as to fill the drinking-cups by means of a cock at the bottom. POBES, PUBERTAS. [IMPUBES ; INFANS.] PUBLICANI, farmers of the public reve- nues of the Roman state (vectigalia). Their name is formed from publicum, which signi- fies all that belongs to the state, and is some- times used by Roman writers as synonymous with vectigal. The revenues which Rome derived from conquered countries, consisting chiefly of tolls, tithes, harbour duties, the scriptura, or the tax which was paid for the use of the public pasture lands, and the duties paid for the use of mines and salt-works (sali- nae), were let out, or, as the Romans expressed it, were sold by the censors in Rome itself to the highest bidder. This sale generally took place in the month of Quinctilis, and was made for a lustrum. The terms on which the revenues were let, were fixed by the cen- sors In the so-called leges ccnsoriae. The people or the senate, however, sometimes modified the terms fixed by the censors, in order to raise the credit of the publicani ; and in some cases even the tribunes c,f the people interfered in this branch of the admi- nistration. The tithes raised in the province of Sicily alone, with the exception of those of wine, oil, and garden produce, were not sold at Rome, but in the districts of Sicily itself, according to a practice established by Hiero. The persons who undertook the farming of the public revenue of course belonged to the wealthiest Romans, and during the latter period of the republic they belonged almost exclusively to the equestrian order. Their wealth and consequent influence may be seen from the fact, that as early as the second Punic war, after the battle of Cannae, when the aerarium was entirely exhausted, the publicani advanced large sums of money to the state, on condition of repayment after the end of the war. The words equites and publicani are sometimes used as synonymous. The publicani had to give security to the state for the sum at which they bought one or more branches of the revenue in a province ; but as for this reason the property of even the wealthiest individual must have been in- adequate, a number of equites generally united together, and formed a company (socii, societas, or corpus], which was recognised by the state, and by which they were enabled to carry on their undertakings upon a large scale. Such companies appear as early as the second Punic war. The shares which each partner of such a company took in the busi- ness were called paries, and if they were small, particulae. The responsible person in each company, and the one who contracted with the state, was called manccps [MAN- CEPS] ; but there was also a magister to manage the business of each society, who resided at Rome, and kept an extensive cor- respondence with the agents in the provinces. He seems to have held his office only for one year ; his representative in the provinces was called sub magistro, who had to travel about, and superintendthe actual business of collect- ing the revenues. Nobody but a Roman citizen was allowed to become a member of a com- pany of publicani ; frecdmen and slaves were excluded. No Roman magistrate, however, or governor of a province, was allowed to take any share whatever in a company of publicani, a regulation which was chiefly intended as a protection against the oppres- sion of the provincials. The collection of the taxes in the provinces was performed by an inferior class of men, who were said operas publicanis dare, or esse in operissocie- tatis. They were engaged by the publicani, PUBLICUM. 316 PYTHIA. snd consisted of freemen as well as slaves, Romans as wall as provincials. The separate branches of the public revenue in the pro- vinces (decumae, portoria, scriptura, and the revenues from the mines and salt-works) were mostly leased to separate companies of publican! ; whence they were distinguished by names derived from that particular branch which they had taken in farm ; e. g. decu- mani, pecuarii or scripturarii, salinarii or mancipcs salinarum, &c. [DECCMAE ; PORTO- RirM ; SAI.IXAB ; SCRIPTURA.] The porti- tores were not publicani properly so called, but only their servants engaged in examining the goods imported or exported, and levying the custom-duties upon them. They belonged to the same class as the publicans of the New Testament. FUBLIGTJM. [PUBLICAXI.] PUGILATUS (rvf, mr/M, irvy^axia, irvy/jLooTJvri'), boxing, was one of the earliest athletic games among the Greeks, and is frequently mentioned in Homer. In the earliest times boxers (pugiles, JTVICTF a ) round their loins ; but this was not used when boxing was introduced at Olympia, as the contests in wrestling and racing had been carried on there by persons entirely naked ever since Ol. 15. Respecting the leathern thongs with which pugilists surrounded their fists, see CESTUS, where its various forms are illustrated by woodcuts. The lonians, espe- cially those of Samos, were at all times more distinguished pugilists than the Dorians, and at Sparta boxing is said to have been forbid- den by the laws of Lycurgus. But the ancients generally considered boxing as a useful training for military purposes, and a part of education no less important than any other gymnastic exercise. PUGILLARES. [TABUUIE.] PUG10 0*ax<"pa), a dagger ; a two-edged knife, commonly of bronze, with the hand in many cases variously ornamented or enriched. PULLARlUS. [Auspicrra.] rULPITUM. [THKATRCM.] PULVIXAR, a couch provided with cushions or pillows (pulcini), on which the Romans placed the statues of the gods at the Lectis- Icrnia. [EPUI.OXES ; LEcrisTERxnrai.] There was also a puhinar, on which the images of the gods were laid, in the Circus. PCPILLA, PUPILLUS, the name given to every imptibes not in the power of their father, bnt subject to a guardian. [IMPCBES; TL-TELA.] PUPPIS. [NAVIS.] PUTEAL, properly means the enclosure surrounding the opening of a well, to protect persons from falling into it. It was either round or square, and seems usually to have been of the height of three or four feet from the ground. It was the practice in some cases to surround a sacred place with an en- closure open at the top, and such enclosures, from the great similarity they bore to ptitea- lia, were called by this name. There were two such places in the Roman forum ; one of these was called Puteal Libonis or Scribotria- num, because a . chapel (saceUum) in that place had been struck by lightning, and Scribonius Libo expiated it by proper cere- monies, and erected a puteal around it, open at the top, to preserve the memory of the place. The icrrn of this puteal is preserved on several coins of the Scribonian gens. This puteal seems to have been near the atrium of Vesta, and was a common place of meeting for usurers. The other pnteal was in the comitium, on the left side of the senate- house, and in it were deposited the whetstone and razor of Attus Kavius. I'titcal on a Coir, of the Scribonia Gens. (British Mnwum.,' PUTICULI. [Frars.] PYAXEPSIA (nnaj'etyuO, a festival cele- brated at Athens every year on the seventh of Pyanepsion, in honour of Apollo, said to have been instituted by Theseus after his return from Crete. The festival, as well as the month in which it took place, are said to have derived their names from jrvaftos, another form for (cvofios, {. e. puke or beans, which were cooked at this season and carried about. PYLAGORAE. [AMPHICTYOXES.] PYRA. [Fuxrs.] PYRRHICA. [SAITATIO.] PYTHIA (jrvdia), one of the four great national festivals of the Greeks. It was celebrated in the neighbourhood of Delphi, anciently called Pytho, in honour of Apollo, Artemis, and Leto. The place of this so- lemnity was the Crissacan plain, which for PYTHII. 316 Q T JAESTOR. this purpose contained a hippodromus or race-course, a stadium of 1000 feet in length, and a theatre, in which the musical contests took place. The Pythian games were, ac- cording to most legends, instituted by Apollo himself. They were originally perhaps no- thing more than a religious panegyris, occa- sioned by the oracle of Delphi, and the sacred games are said to have been at first only a musical contest, which consisted in singing a hymn to the honour of the Pythian god, with the accompaniment of the cithara. They must, on account of the celebrity of the Delphic oracle, have become a national festi- val for all the Greeks at a very early period, and gradually all the various contests were introduced which occur in the Olympic games. [OI.YMPIA.] Down to Ol. 48. the Delphians had been the agonothetae at the Pythian games ; but in the third year of this Olym- piad, after the Crissaean war, the Amphic- tyons took the management under their care, and appointed certain persons, called Epimc- letae (cTrifieAijrai), to conduct them. Some of the ancients date the institution of the Pythian games from this time. Previous to 01. 48. the Pythian games had been an ivvae- Trjpk, that is, they had been celebrated at the end of every eighth year; but in Ol. 48. 3. they became, like the Olympia, a jrerraeTjjpiV, . e. they were held at the end of every fourth year ; and a Pythiad, therefore, from the time that it was used as an aera, compre- hended a space of four years, commencing with the third year of every Olympiad. They were in all probability held in the spring, and took place in the month of Buca- tius, which corresponded to the Attic Muny- chion. PYTIIII (TTvflioi), four persons appointed by the Spartan kings, two by each, as mes- sengers to the temple of Delphi. Their office was highly honourable and important ; they were always the messmates of the Spartan kings. PYXIS, dim. PYXIDULA (fi S , dim. m/ff- SLOV], a casket ; a jewel-box. The caskets in which the ladies of ancient times kept their jewels and other ornaments, were made of gold, silver, ivory, mother-of-pearl, tortoise- shell, &c. They were also much enriched with sculpture. The annexed woodcut repre- , jewel-box. (Fiom a Painting at He sents a very plain jewel-box, out of which a dove is extracting a riband or fillet. QUADRAGESIMA, the fortieth part of the imported goods, was the ordinary rate of the Portorium under the empire. [PORTORIUM.] QUADRANS. [As.] QUADRANT AL, or AMPHORA QUAD- RANTAL, or AMPHORA only, was the prin- cipal Roman measure of capacity for fluids. A standard model of the Amphora was kept with great care in the temple of Jupiter in the Capitol, and was called amphora Capito- lina. It contained 5'77 imperial gallons, or a little more than 5| gallons, or than 5 gal- lons and 6 pints. QUADRIGA. [CURRUS.] QUADRIGATUS. [DE.NARIVS.] QUADRUPLATOREG : public informers or accusers were so called, either because they received a fourth part of the criminal's pro- perty, or because those who were convicted were condemned to pay fourfold (quadmpli damnarl), as in cases of violation of the laws respecting gambling, usury, &c. JQUAESTIONES, QUAESTIONES PER- PETUAE. [JUDEX : PRAETOR.] QUAESTOR (raMtas), a name given to two distinct classes of Roman officers. It is derived from quaero, and Varro gives a definition which embraces the principal func- tions of both classes of officers : Quaettores a quaercndo, qui conquirerent publicas ptcimins et maleficia. The one class, therefore, had to do with the collecting and keeping of the public revenues, and the others were a kind of public accusers. The former bore the name of Quacstorcs Classici, the latter of Quaestores Parricidii. The Quaestores Parri- cidii were public accusers, two in number, who conducted the accusation of persons guilty of murder or any other capital offence, and carried the sentence into execution. In the early period of the republic the quacs- torcs parricidii appear to have become a standing office, which, like others, was held only for one year. They were appointed by the populus or the curies on the presentation of the consuls. When these quaestores discovered that a capital offence had been committed, they had to bring the charge before the comitia for trial. "When the sentence had been pronounced by the people, the quaestores parricidii executed it ; thus they threw Spurius Cassius from the Tarpcian rock. They were mentioned in the laws 01 the Twelve Tables, and after the time of the decemvirate they still continued to be ap- QUAESTOR. 317 QUAESTOR. pointed, though probably no longer "by the curios, lint either in the comitia centuriata or tribute, -which they therefore must have had the right of assembling in cases of emergency. From the year B.C. 3G6 they are no longer mentioned in Roman history, as their func- tions were gradually transferred to the triumviri capitales. [TRIUMVIRI CAPITAI.ES.] The Quacstores Classici, usually called Quaes- fores simply, were officers entrusted with the care of the public money. They were elected by the centuries, and the office is said to have been first instituted by Valerius Tubli- cola. They were at first only two in number, and of course taken only from the patricians. As the senate had the supreme administration of the finances, the quaestors were in some measure only its agents or paymasters, for they could not dispose of any part of the public money without being directed by the senate. Their duties consequently consisted in making the necessary payments from the aerarium, and receiving the public revenues. Of both they had to keep correct accounts in their tabulae jnMicae. Demands which any one might have on the aerarium, and out- standing debts, were likewise registered by them. Fines to be paid to the public treasury were registered and exacted by them. Another branch of their duties, which, however, was likewise connected with the treasury, was to provide the proper accommodation for foreign ambassadors, and such persons as were connect- ed with the republic by ties of public hospitality. In B.C. 421 the number of quaestors was doubled, and the tribunes tried to effect, by an amendment of the law, that a part (proba- bly two) of the quaestores should be plebeians. This attempt was indeed frustrated, but the interrex L. Fapirius effected a compromise, that the election should not be restricted to either order. After this law was carried, eleven years passed without any plebeian being elected to the office : at last, in B. c. 109, three of the four quaestors were ple- beians. A person who had held the office of quaestor had undoubtedly, as in later times, the right to take his seat in the senate, unless he was excluded as unworthy by the next censors. And this was probably the reason why the patricians so resolutely opposed the admission of plebeians to this office. Hence- forth the consuls, whenever they took the field against an enemy, were accompanied by one quaestor each, who at first had only to superintend the sale of the booty, the produce of which was either divided among the legion, or was transferred to the aerarium. Subsequently, however, we find that these quaestors also kept the funds of the army, which they had received from the treasury at Rome, and gave the soldiers their pay ; they were in fact the pay-masters of the army. The two other quaestors, who remained &t Rome, continued to discharge the same duties as before, and were distinguished from those who accompanied the consuls by the epithet urbani. In B.C. 265, after the Romans had made themselves masters of Italy, and when, in consequence, the administration of the treasury and the raising of the revenues became more laborious and important, the number of quaestors was again doubled to eight ; and it is probable that henceforth their number continued to be increased in proportion as the empire became extended. One of the eight quaestors was appointed by lot to the Quaestura Osticnsis, a most labo- rious and important post, as he had to pro- vide Rome with corn. Besides the quaestor Ostiensis, who resided at Ostia, three other quaestors were distributed in Italy, to raise those parts of the revenue which were not farmed by the publicani, and to control the latter. One of them resided at Cales, and the two others probably in towns on the Upper Sea. The two remaining quaestors were sent to Sicily. Sulla, in his dictator- ship, raised the number of quaestors to twenty, that he might have a large number of candidates for the senate, and J. Caesar even to forty. In the year B. c. 49 no quaes- tors were elected, and Caesar transferred the keeping of the aerarium to the aediles. From this time forward the treasury was sometimes entrusted to the praetors, sometimes to the praetorii, and sometimes again to quaestors. [AERARIUM.] Quaestors, however, both in the city and in the provinces, occur down to the latest period of the empire. The pro- consul or praetor, who had the administration of a province, was attended by a quaestor. This quaestor had undoubtedly to perform the same functions as those who accompanied the armies into the field ; they were in fact the same officers, with the exception that the former were stationary in their province during the time of their office, and had con- sequently rights and duties which those who accompanied the armies could not have. In the provinces the quaestors had the same jurisdiction as the curule aediles at Rome. The relation existing between a praetor or proconsul of a province and his quaestor was, according to ancient custom, regarded as resembling that between a father and his son. When a quaestor died in his province, the praetors had the right of appointing a proquaestor in his stead ; and when the praetor was absent, the quaestor supplied his place, and was then attended by lictors. In what manner the provinces were assigned to QUAESTORIUM. 318 REPETUNDAE. the quaestors after their election at Rome, is not mentioned, though it was probably by lot, as in the case of the quaestor Osti- ensis. QUAESTORIUM. [CASTRA.] QUALUS. [CALATHUS.] QUARTARIUS. [SEXTARIVS.] QUAS1LLARIAE. [CALATHUS.] QUASILLUM. [CALATHUS.] QUATUORVIRI JURI DICUNDO. [Co- LONIA.] QUATUORVIRI VIARUM CURANDA- RUM, four officers who had the superintend- ence of the roads [viae], were first appointed after the war with Pyrrhus, when so many public roads were made by the Romans. QUINARIUS. [DENARIUS.] QUINCUNX. [As.] QUINDECIMVIRI. [DECIMVIBI.] QUINQUATRUS or QUINQUATRIA, a festival sacred to Minerva, which was cele- brated on the 19th of March. Ovid says that it was celebrated for five days, that on the first day no blood was shed, but that on the last four there were contests of gladiators. It would appear, however, that only the first day was the festival properly so called, and that the last four were merely an addition made perhaps in the time of Caesar, to gratify the people, who became so passionately fond of gladiatorial combats. On the fifth day of the festival, according to Ovid, the trumpets used in sacred rites were purified ; but this seems to have been originally a separate festival called Tubilustrium, which was cele- brated, as we know from the ancient calen- dars, on the 23rd of March, and would of course, when the Quinquatrus was extended to five days, fall on the last day of that festi- val. There was also another festival of this name, called Quinquatrus Mintisculae or Quinquatrus Minores, celebrated on the Ides of June, on which the tibicines went through the city in procession to the temple of Minerva. QUINQUENNALIA, were games instituted by Nero, A. D. 60, in imitation of the Greek festivals, and celebrated like the Greek rei>- Ta6Ti)pi5es, at the end of every four years : they consisted of musical, gymnastic, and equestrian contests. QUINQUENNALIS. [COLONIA, p. 101, a.] QUINQUEREMIS. [NAVIS.] QUINQUERTIUM. [PENTATHLON.] QUINQUEV1RI, or five commissioners, were frequently appointed under the republic as extraordinary magistrates to carry any measure into effect. QUINTANA. [CASTRA.] QUIRINALIA, a festival sacred to Quiri- nus, which was celebrated on the 17th of February, on which day Romulus (Quirinus) was said to have been carried tip to heaven. This festival was also called Stultorum fenae., respecting the meaning of which see FOBNA- CALIA. QUIRIT1UM JUS. [Jus.] RAMNES. [FATRICII.] RAPINA. [FURTUM.] RECUPERATORES. [JuDEX.] REDEMPTOR, the general name for a contractor, who undertook the building and repairing of public works, private houses, &c., and in fact of any kind of work. The far- mers of the public taxes were also called Redcmptorcs. REDIMICULUM ((caflei^p), a fillet at- tached to the calautica, diadcma, mitra, or other head-dress at the occiput, and passed over the shoulders, so as to hang on eaei side over the breast. Bedimicula were pro- perly female ornaments. REGIFUGIUM or FUGALIA, the king's flight, a festival which was held by the Ro- mans ever}' year on the 24th of February, and, according to some ancient writers, in commemoration of the flight of king Tarqui- nius Superbus from Rome. The day is marked in the Fasti as nefastus. In some ancient calendars the 24th of May is likewise called Regifugium. It is doubtful whether either of these days had anything to do with the flight of king Tarquinius : they may have derived their name from the symbolical flight of the Rex Sacrorum from the comitium ; for this king-priest was generally not allowed to appear in the comitium, which was destined for the transaction of political matters in which he could not take part. But on certain days in the year, and certainly on the two days mentioned above, he had to go to the comitium for the purpose of offering certain sacrifices, and immediately after he had per- formed his functions there, he hastily fled from it ; and this symbolical flight was called Regifugium. RELEGATIO. [Exsii.niM.] REMAN CI PATIO. [EMANCIPATE.] REMULCUM (pvjiovAjceii/ rots vavs), a rope for towing a ship, and likewise a tow-barge. REMURIA. [LEMURIA.] REMUS. [NAVIS.] REPETUNDAE, or PECUNIAE REPE- TUNDAE, was the term used to designate such sums of money as the socii of the Ro- man state or individuals claimed to recover from magistratus, judices, or public! cura- tores, which they had improperly taken or received in the Provinciae, or in the Urts REPETUNDAE. 319 KETIS. Roma, either in the discharge of their juris- dictio, or in their capacity of judices, or in respect of any other public function. Some- times the word Repetundae was used to ex- press the illegal act for -which compensation was sought, as in the phrase repetundarum insimulari, damnari ; and Pecuniae meant not only money, hut anything that had value. The first lex on the subject -was the Cal- purnia, -which -was proposed and carried by the tribunus plebis L. Calpurnius Piso (B. c. 149). By this lex a praetor was appointed for trying persons charged -with this crime. It seems that the penalties of the Lex Cal- purnia -were merely pecuniary, and at least did not comprise exsUium. Various leges de repetundis were passed after the Lex Calpur- nia, and the penalties were continually made heavier. The Lex Junia was passed probably about B. c. 126, on the proposal of M. Junius Pennus, tribunus plebis. The Lex Servilia Glaucia was proposed and carried by C. Ser- vilius Glaucia, praetor, in the sixth consul- ship of Marius, B.C. 100. This lex applied to any magistratus who had improperly taken or received money from any private person ; but a magistratus could not be accused during the term of office. The lex enacted that the praetor peregrinus should annually appoint 450 judices for the trial of this offence : the judices were not to be senators. The penalties of the lex were pecuniary and ex- siliuin ; the law allowed a comperendinatio. [JfDEX.] Before the Lex Servilia, the pecu- niary penalty was simply restitution of what had been wrongfully taken ; this lex seems to have raised the penalty to double the amount of what had been wrongfully taken ; and subsequently it was made quadruple. Exsilium was only the punishment in case a man did not abide his trial, but withdrew from Rome. The lex gave the civitas to any person on whose complaint a person was con- victed of repetundae. The Lex Acilia, which seems to be of uncertain date, was proposed and carried by M'. Acilius Glabrio, a tribune of the plebs, and enacted that there should be neither ampliatio nor comperendinatio. The Lex Cornelia was passed in the dictatorship of Sulla, and continued in force to the time of C. Julius Caesar. It extended the penalties of repetundae to other illegal acts committed in the provinces, and to judices who received bribes, to those to whose hands the money came, and to those who did not give into the aerarium their proconsular accounts (procon- s'tlares rationes). The praetor who presided over this quaestio chose the judges by lot from the senators, whence it appears that the Servilia Lex was repealed by this lex, at least so far as related to the constitution of the court. This lex also allowed ampliatio and comperendinatio. The penalties were pecuniary (litis aestimatio) and the aquae ct ignis interdictio. Under this lex were tried L. Dolabella, Cn. Piso, C. Verres, C. Maeer, M. Fonteius, and L. Flaccas, the two last of whom were defended by Cicero. In the Ver- rine Orations Cicero complains of the compe- rendinatio or double hearing of the cause, which the Lex Cornelia allowed, and refers to the practice under the Lex Acilia, according to which the case for the prosecution, the defence, and the evidence were only heard once, and so the matter was decided. The last lex de repetundis was the Lex Julia, passed in the first consulship of C. Julius Caesar, B. c. 59. This lex repealed the penalty of exsilium, but in addition to the iitis aesti- matio, it enacted that persons convicted under this lex should lose their rank, and be dis- qualified from being witnesses, judices, or senators. The lex had been passed when Cicero made his oration against Piso, B. c. 55. A. Gabinius was convicted under this lex. Under the empire the offence was punishable with exile. REPOTIA. [MATRUIONIl'M.] REPUDIUM. [DIVORTIUM.] RETIARII. [GLADIATORES.] RETICULUM. [COMA.] RETIS and RETE; dim. RETICULUM (&LKTVOV), a net. Nets were made most com- monly of flax or hemp, whence they are some- times called Una (\iva). The meshes (macu- lae, fipoxoi, dim. /Spores) were great or small according to the purposes intended. By far the most important application of net- work was to the three kindred arts of fowling, hunting, and fishing. In fowling the use of nets was comparatively limited. In hunting it was usual to extend nets in a curved line of considerable length, so as in part to sur- round a space into which the beasts of chace, such as the hare, the boar, the deer, the lion, and the bear, were driven through the opening left on one side. This range of nets was flanked by cords, to which feathers dyed scarlet and of other bright colours were tied, so as to flare and flutter in the wind. The hunters then sallied forth with their dogs, dislodged the animals from their coverts, and by shouts and barking drove them first within the formido, as the apparatus of string and feathers was called, and then, as they were seared with this appearance, within the circuit of the nets. In the drawing below three servants with staves carry on their shoulders a large net, which is intended to be set up as already described. In the lower figure the net is set up. At each end of it stands a watchman holding a staff. Iteing KETJS. 320 HEX. intended to take such large quadrupeds as net is supported by three stakes boars and deer (which are seen within it), ancones, ran). To dispose the nets in this the meshes are very wide (retia rara}. The manner was called retia ponere, or retia ten- Hetiii, Nets (From a Uus-Ucl jjs, so commonly applied to kings in Homer. The characteristic emblem of the kingly office was the cncTJjrrpov. [Scr.p- TRUM.] Our information respecting the Grecian kings in the more historical age is not ample or minute enough to enable us to draw cut a detailed scheme of their functions. Respecting the kings of Sparta the reader is referred to the article EPHORI. As an illus- tration of the gradual limitation of the pre- rogatives of the king or chief magistrate, the reader may consult the article ASCHON. The title Sasiletts was sometimes applied to an officer who discharged the priestly functions of the more ancient kings, as in Athens. [ARCHON.] (2) KOMAX. Home was origi- nally governed by kings. All the ancient writers agree in representing the king as elected by the people for life, and as volun- tarily entrusted by them with the supreme power in the state. No reference is made to the hereditary principle in the election of the first four kings ; and it is not until the fifth king Tarquinius Priseus obtained the sove- reignty, that anything is said about the children of the deceased king. Since the people had conferred the regal power, it returned to them upon the death of the king. But as a new king could not be immediately appointed, an Interrex forthwith stepped into his place. The necessity for an immediate successor to the king arose from the circum- stance that he alone had had the power of taking the auspicia on behalf of the state ; and as the auspicia devolved npon the people at his death, it was imperative upon them to create a magistrate, to whom they could delegate the auspicia, and who would thus possess the power of mediating between the gods and the state. Originally the people consisted only of the patres or patricii ; and accordingly on the death of the king, we read res ad patres redit, or, what is nearly the same thing, auspicia ad patres rcdeunt. [ AU- GUR.] The interrex was elected by the whole body of the patricians, and he appointed (pro- debat) his successor, as it was a rule that the REX. 321 REX SACRIFICULUS. first interrex could not hold the comitia for the election ; hut it frequently happened that the second interrex appointed a third, the third a fourth, and so on, till the election took place. The Interrex presided over the comitia curiata, which were assembled for the election of the king. The person whom the senate had selected was proposed hy the interrex to the people in a regular rogatio, which the people could only accept or reject, for they had not the initiative and could not themselves pro- pose any name. If the people voted in favour of the rogation, they were said creare regent, and their acceptance of him was called jussus populi. But the king did not immediately enter upon his office. Two other acts had still to take place hefore he was invested with the full regal authority and power. First, his inaugitratio had to be performed, as it was necessary to obtain the divine will re- specting his appointment by means of the auspices, since he was the high priest of the people. This ceremony was performed by an augur, who conducted the newly-elected king to the arx, or citadel, and there placed him on a stone seat with his face turned to the south, while the people waited below in anxious suspense until the augur announced that the gods had sent the favourable tokens confirming the king in his priestly character. The inauguratio did not confer upon him the auspicia ; for these he obtained by his elec- tion to the royalty, as the comitia were held auspicato. The second act which had to be performed was the conferring of the imperium upon the king. The curiae had only deter- mined by their previous vote who was to be king, and had not by that act bestowed the necessary power upon him ; they had, there- fore, to grant him the imperium by a distinct rote. Accordingly the king himself proposed to the curiae a lex curia t a de imperio, and 1 the curiae by voting in favour of it gave him I the imperium. Livy in his first book makes i tio mention of the lex curiata de imperio, but he uses the expressions patres auctoresfierent, .. patres auctores facti ; but these expressions are equivalent to the lex curiata de imperio in the kingly period. The king possessed i the supreme power in the earliest times, and i the senate and the comitia of the curiae were very slight checks upon its exercise. In the first place, the king alone possessed the right of taking the auspices on behalf of the state ; and as no public business of any kind could be performed without the approbation of the gods expressed by the auspices, the king stood as mediator between the gods and the people, and in an early stage of society must necessarily have been regarded with religious awe. [Avci-R.] Secondly, the people sur- rendered to the king the supreme military and judicial authority by conferring the im- perium upon him. The king was not only the commander in war, but the supreme judge in peace. Seated on his throne in the comitium, he administered justice to all comers, and decided in all cases which were brought before him, civil as well as criminal. Again, all the magistrates in the kingly period appear to have been appointed by the king and not elected by the euriae. Further, the king was not dependent upon the people for his support ; but a large portion of the ager publicus belonged to him, which was cultivated at the expense of the state on his behalf. He had also the absolute disposal of the booty taken in war and of the conquered lands. It must not, however, be supposed that the authority of the king was absolute. The senate and the assembly of the people must have formed some check upon his power. But these were not independent bodies pos- sessing the right of meeting at certain times and discussing questions of state. They could only be called together when the king chose, and further could only determine upon mat- ters which the king submitted to them. The only public matter in which the king could not dispense with the co-operation of the senate and the curiae was in declarations of war. There is no trace of the people having had anything to do with the conclusion of treaties of peace. The insignia of the king were the fasces with the axes (secures], which twelve lictors carried before him as often as ho appeared in public, the ?roia,'the sella curvlit, and the toga praetexta and picta. The trabea appears to have been the most ancient offi- cial dress, and is assigned especially to Ro- mulus : it was of Latin origin, and is there- fore represented by Virgil as worn by the Latin kings. The toga praetexta and picta were borrowed, together with the sella curv- lis, from the Etruscans, and their introduction is variously ascribed to Tullus Hostilivs or Tarquinius Priscus. REX SACRIFICULUS, REX SACRIFI- CUS, or REX SACRORUM. "When the civil and military powers of the king were trans- ferred to two praetors or consuls, upon the establishment of the republican government at Rome, these magistrates were not invested with that part of the royal -dignity by virtue of which the king had been the high priest of his nation and had conducted several of the sacra publica, but this priestly part of his office was transferred to a priest called Rex Sacrificulus or Rex Sacrorum. The first rex sacrorum was designated, at the command of the consuls, hy the college of pontiffs, and inaugurated by the augurs. He RIIEDA. 322 ROSTRA. was always elected and inaugurated in the coinitia curiata under the presidency of the pontiffs, and as long as a rex sacrificulus was appointed at Rome, he was always a patri- cian, for as he had no influence upon the management of political affairs, the plebeians never coveted this dignity. Considering that this priest was the religious representative of the kings, he ranked indeed higher than all other priests, and even higher than the pontifex maximus, hut in power and influence he was far inferior to him. He held his office for life, was not allowed to hold any civil or military dignity, and was at the same time exempted from all military and civil duties. His principal functions were : 1. To perform those sacra publica which had before been performed by the kings ; and his wife, who bore the title of regina sacrorum, had also, like the queens of former days, to per- form certain priestly functions. These sacra publica he or his wife had to perform on all the Calends, Ides, and the Nundines ; he to Jupiter, and she to Juno in the regia. 2. On the days called regifugium he had to offer a sacrifice in the comitium. [REGIFUGIUM.] 3. When extraordinary portenta seemed to announce some general calamity, it was his duty to try to propitiate the anger of the gods. 4. On the nundines, when the people assem- bled in the city, the rex sacrorum announced (edicebat) to them the succession of the festivals for the month. This part of his functions, however, must have ceased after the time of Cn. Flavius. He lived in a domus publica on the via sacra, near the regia and the house of the vestal virgins. RHEDA or RKDA, a travelling carriage with four wheels. Like the COVINUS and the ESSEDUM it was of Gallic origin, and may perhaps contain the same root as the German reiten and our ride. It was the common carriage used by the Romans for travelling, and was frequently made large enough not only to contain many persons, but also bag- gage and utensils of various kinds. The word Epirhedium, which was formed by the Romans from the Greek preposition eiri and the Gallic rheda, is explained by the Scholiast on Juvenal as " Ornamentum rhedarum aut plaustrum." RHETRAE (/wJTpai), specially the name of the ordinances of Lycurgus. The word Rhetra means a solemn compact, either originally emanating from, or subsequently sanctioned by the gods, who are always parties to such agreements. The Rhetra of Lycurgus ema- nated from the Delphian god : but the kings, senators, and people all bound themselves, both to each other and to the gods, to obey it. RHTTON (pwroc), a drinking-horn (icepas). Its original form was probably the horn of the ox, but one end of it was afterwards ornamented with the heads of various ani- mals and birds. The rhyton had a small opening at the bottom, which the person who drank put into his mouth, and allowed the wine to run in : hence it derived its name. Rhyton, drinlting-ho liorbonico.) RlCA. ^ [FLAMEN.] RICINIUM, an article of female dress, appears to have been a kind of mantle, with a sort of cowl attached to it, in order to cover the head. The mavortium, mavorte, or ma- vors of later times was thought to be only another name for what had formerly been called ricinium. ROBIGALIA, a public festival in honour of the god Robigus, to preserve the fields from mildew, is said to have been instituted by Numa, and was celebrated April 25th. The sacrifices offered on this occasion con- sisted of the entrails of a dog and a sheep, accompanied with frankincense and wine : a prayer was presented by a flamen in the grove of the ancient deity, whom Ovid and Columella make a goddess. A god Robigus or a goddess Robigo is a mere invention from the name of this festival, for the Romans paid no divine honours to evil deities. ROG5.TIO. [LEX, p. 225.] ROG5.TORES. [COMITIA, p. 107.] ROGUS. [FUNUS, p. 188, 6.] ROMPHEA. [HASTA.] RORARII. [EXERCITUS, p. 165.] ROSTRA, or The Beaks, was the name ap- plied to the stage (suggestus) in the Forum, from which the orators addressed the people. This stage was originally called templum, be- canse it was consecrated by the augurs, but obtained its name of Rostra at the conclusion of the great Latin war, when it was adorned with the beaks (rostra) of the ships of the Antiates. The Greeks also mutilated galleys in the same way for the purpose of trophies : this was called by them euc/ximjpiafeii'. [ACRO- TERIUM.] The rostra lay between the Comi- tium or place of meeting for the curies, and the Forum or place of meeting for the tribes, ROSTRUM. 323 SACERDOS. so that the speaker might turn either to the one or the other ; but down to the time of C. Gracchus, even the tribunes in spealcng used to front the Comitium ; he first turned his back to it and spoke with his face towards the forum. The rostra was a circular build- ing, raised on arches, with a stand or plat- form on the top, bordered by a parapet, the access to it being by two flights of steps, one on each side. It fronted towards the comi- tium, and the rostra were affixed to the front of it, just under the arches. Its form has been in all the main points preserved in the ambones or circular pulpits of the most an- cient churches, which also had two flights of steps leading up to them, one on the east side, by which the preacher ascended, and another on the west side, for his descent. The speaker was thus enabled to walk to and fro, while addressing his audience. The suggestus or rostra was transferred by Julius Caesar to a corner of the Forum, but the spot where the ancient rostra had stood still continued to be called Rostra Vetera, while the other was called Rostra Nova or Rostra Julia. Both the rostra contained statues of illustrious men. ROSTRUM. [NAVIS.] ROTA. JCuRRi-s.] RUDIARII. [GLADIATORES.J RUDIS. [GLADIATORES.] SACCUS (O-OKKOS) signified in general any kind of sack or bag made of hair, cloth, or other materials. We have only to notice here its meaning as (1) Ahead-dress. [COMA.] (2) Asieve for straining wine. [COLVJI.] (3) A purse for holding money. Hence the phrase in Plautus ire ad saccum, "to go a begging." SACELLUM is a diminutive of sacer, and signifies a small place consecrated to a god, containing an altar, and sometimes also a statue of the god to whom it was dedicated, but it was without a roof. It was therefore a sacred inclosure surrounded by a fence or wall, and thus answered to _the Greek SACERDOS, SACERDGTIUM. As all the different kinds of priests are treated of sepa- rately in this work, it is only necessary here to make some general remarks. In com- parison with the civil magistrates, all priests at Rome were regarded as homines privati, though all of them, as priests, were sacerdotes publici, in as far as their office (sacerdotium) was connected with any worship recognised by the state. The appellation of sacerdos publicus was, however, given principally to the chief pontiff and the flamen dialis. who were at the same time the only priests who were members of the senate by virtue of their office. All priestly offices or sacerdotia were held for life, without responsibility to any civil magistrate. A priest was generally allowed to hold any other civil or military office besides his priestly dignity ; some priests, however, formed an exception, for the duumviri, the rex sacronim, and the flamen dialis were not allowed to hold any state office, and were also exempt from service in the armies. Their priestly cha- racter was, generally speaking, inseparable from their person as long as they lived : hence the augurs and fratres arvales retained their character even when sent into exile, or when they were taken prisoners. It also occurs that one and the same person held two or three priestly offices at a time. Thus we find the three dignities of pontifex maxi- mus, augur, and decemvir sacrorum united in one individual. Bodily defects incapaci- tated a person at Rome, as among all ancient nations, from holding any priestly office. All priests were originally patricians, but from the year B.C. 367 the plebeians also began to take part in the sacerdotia [PLEBES] ; and those priestly offices which down to the latest times remained in the hands of the patricians alone, such as that of the rex sacrorum, the flamines, salii, and others, had no influence upon the affairs of the state. As regards the appointment of priests, the ancients unani- mously state, that at first they were appointed by the kings, but after the sacerdotia were once instituted, each college of priests for nearly all priests constituted certain corpora- tions called collegia had the right of filling up, by cooptatio, the vacancies which oc- curred. [PONTIFEX.] Other priests, on the contrary, such as the vestal virgins and the flamines, were appointed (capiebantur) by the poutifex maximus, a rule which appears to have been observed down to the latest times ; others again, such as the duumviri sacrorum, were elected by the people, or by the curiae, as the curiones. But in whatever manner they were appointed, all priests after their appointment required to be inaugurated T ~ SACRA. 324 SACRIFICIUM. by the pontiffs and the augurs, or by the latter alone. Those priests who formed col- leges had originally, as we have already observed, the right of cooptatio ; but in the course of time they were deprived of this right, or at least the cooptatio was reduced to a mere form, by several leges, called leges de saccrdotiis, such as the Lex Domitia, Cor- nelia, and Julia ; their nature is described in the article PONTIFEX, and what is there said in regard to the appointment of pontiffs ap- plies equally to all the other colleges. All priests had some external distinction, as the apex, tutulus, or galerus, the toga praetexta, as well as honorary seats in the theatres, circuses, and amphitheatres. Most of the priestly colleges possessed landed property, and some priests had also a regular annual salary (stipentlium), which was paid to them from the public treasury. This is expressly stated in regard to the vestal virgins, the augurs, and the curiones, and may therefore be supposed to have been the case with other priests also. The pontifex maximus, the rex sacrorum, and the vestal virgins had moreover a domus publica as their place of residence. SACRA. This word, in its widest sense, expresses what we call divine worship. In ancient times, the state, as well as all its subdivisions, had their own peculiar forms of worship, whence at Rome we find sacra of the whole Roman people, of the curies, gentes, families, and even of private indi- viduals. All these sacra, however, were divided into two great classes, the public and private sacra (sacra publica et privata], that is, they were performed either on behalf of the whole nation, and at the expense of the state, or on behalf of individuals, families, or gentes, which had also to defray their expenses. This division is ascribed to Numa. All sacra, publica as well as privata, were superintended and regulated by the pontiffs. SACRAMENTUM, the military oath, which was administered in the following manner : Each tribunus militum assembled his legion, and picked out one of the men, to whom he put the oath, that he would obey the commands of his generals, and execute them punctua'.ly. The other men then came for- ward, one after another, and repeated the same oath, saying that they would do like the first. SACRARIUM was any place in which sacred things were deposited and kept, whether this place was a part of a temple or of a private house. SACRIFICIUM (ipe0 f a sacrifice. Sacri- fices or offerings formed the chief part of the worship of the ancients. They were partly signs of gratitude, partly a means of propi- tiating the gods, and partly also intended to Induce the deity to bestow some favour upon the sacriflcer, or upon tiose on whose behalf the sacrifice was offered. Sacrifices in a wider sense would also embrace the Do- NAKIA ; in a narrower sense sacrificia were things offered to the gods, which merely afforded momentary gratification, and which were burnt upon their altars, or were be- lieved to be consumed by the gods. All sa- crifices may be divided into bloody sacrifices and unbloody sacrifices. Bloody sacrifices. In the early times of Greece we find mention of human sacrifices, but with a few excep- tions these had ceased in the historical ages. Owing to the influence of civilisation, in many cases animals were substituted for hu- man beings ; in others, a few drops of human blood were thought sufficient to propitiate the gods. The custom of sacrificing human life to the gods arose from the belief that the nobler the sacrifice and the dearer to its possessor, the more pleasing it would he to the gods. Hence the frequent instances in Grecian story of persons sacrificing their own children, or of persons devoting themselves to the gods of the lower world. That the Romans also believed human sacrifices to be pleasing to the gods, might be inferred from the story of Curtius and from the self-sacri- fice of the Decii. The symbolic sacrifice of human figures made of rushes at the Lemu- .ralia [LEMURALIA] also shows that in the early history of Italy human sacrifices were not uncommon. For another proof of this practice, see VER SACRUM. A second kind of bloody sacrifices were those of animals of various kinds, according to the nature and character of the divinity. The sacrifices of animals were the most common among the Greeks and Romans. The victim was called iepeiov, and in Latin hostia or victima. In the early times it appears to have been the general custom to burn the whole victim (a\oKo.vrf~(.v) upon the altars of the gods, and the same was in some cases also observed in later times. But as early as the time of Homer it was the almost general practice to burn only the legs (ja\poi, nijpia, M>}p a ) en- closed in fat, and certain parts of the intes- tines, while the remaining parts of the victim were consumed by men at a festive meal. The gods delighted chiefly in the smoke arising from the burning victims, and the greater the number of victims, the more pleasing was the sacrifice. Hence it was not uncommon to offer a sacrifice of one hundred bulls (e/caTo/i^rj) at once, though it must not be supposed tha t a hecatomb always signifies a sacrifice of a hundred bulls, for the name was used in a general way to designate any great sacrifice. Such great sacrifices were not less pleasing to men than to the gods, SACRIFICIUM. 325 SAECULUM. for in regard to the former they were in reality a donation of meat. Hence at Athens the partiality for such sacrifices rose to the highest degree. The animals which were sacrificed were mostly of the domestic kind, as bulls, cows, sheep, rams, lambs, goats, pigs, dogs, and horses ; and each god had his favourite animals which he liked best as sacrifices. The head of the victim, before it was killed, was in most cases strewed with roasted barley meal (ouAo^vra or oiiAoxv mixed with salt (mola salsa). The persons who offered the sacrifice wore generally gar- lands round their heads, and sometimes also carried them in their hands, and before they touched anything belonging to the sacrifice they washed their hands in water. The victim itself was likewise adorned with gar- lands, and its horns were sometimes gilt. Before the animal was killed, a bunch of hair was cut from its forehead, and thrown into the fire as primitiae (Karapxeotfat). i n the heroic ages the princes, as the high priests of their people, killed the victim ; in later times this was done by the priests them- selves. When the sacrifice was to be offered to the Olympic gods, the head of the animal was drawn heavenward ; when to the gods of the lower world, to heroes, or to the dead, it was drawn downwards. While the flesh was burning upon the altar, wine and in- cense were thrown upon it, and prayers and music accompanied the solemnity. The most common animal sacrifices at Rome were the suovetaurilia or solitaurilia, consisting of a pig, a sheep, and an ox. They were per- formed in all cases of a lustration, and the victims were carried around the thing to be lustrated, whether it was a city, a people, or a piece of land. [LUSTBATIO.] The Greek trittya (jpnrva), which like wise . consisted of an ox, a sheep, and a pig, was the same sa- crifice as the Roman suovetaurilia. The customs observed before and during the sacrifice of an animal were on the whole the same as those observed in Greece. But the victim was in most cases not killed by the priests who conducted the sacrifice, but by a person called popa, who struck the animal with a hammer before the knife was used. The better parts of the intestines (exta) were strewed with barley meal, wine, and incense, and were burnt upon the altar. Those parts of the animal which were burnt were called prosecta, prosiciae, or ablegmina. When a sacrifice was offered to gods of rivers, or of ' the sea, these parts were not burnt, but thrown into the water. Respecting the use which the ancients made of sacrifices to learn the will of the gods, see HAKUSPEX and DIVI- KATIO. Unbloody sacrifices. Among these we may first mention the libations (lihationen, Aoi0ai or mrovSai). Bloody sacrifices were usually accompanied by libations, as wine was poured upon them. The wine was usually poured out in three separate streams. Libations always accompanied a sacrifice which was offered in concluding a treaty with a foreign nation, and that here they formed a prominent part of the solemnity, is clear from the fact that the treaty itself was called )y the name of the Pyrrhic foot (""), which must be connected with this dance. In the non-Doric states it was probably not prac- tised as a training for war, but only as a mimetic dance : thus we read of its being danced by women to entertain a comp my. Coryoontian Dance. (Visconti, Mu. Pio Cle vol. iv. tav. 9.) It was also performed at Athens at the greater and lesser Panathenaea by ephebi, who were called Pyrrhichists (Trvppixiorai'), and were trained at the expense of the cho- ragus. In the mountainous parts of Thessaly and Macedon dances are performed at the present day by men armed with muskets and swords. The Pyrrhic dance was introduced in the public games at Rome by Julius Caesar, when it was danced by the children of the leading men in Asia and Bithynia. There were other dances, besides the Pyrrhic, in which the performers had arms ; but these seem to have been entirely mimetic, and not practised with any view to training for war. Such was the Carpaea (Kapiraia), peculiar to the Aenianians and Magnetes, and described by Xenophon in the Anabasis. Such dances were frequently performed at banquets for the entertainment of the guests, where also the tumblers (v/3ist all slaves in Greece, with the excep- tion of the serfs above-mentioned, were bar- SERVUS. 338 SERVrS. barians. The chief supply seems to have come from the Greek colonies in Asia Minor, which had abundant opportunities of obtain- ing them from their own neighbourhood and the interior of Asia. A considerable number of slaves also came from Thrace, where the parents frequently sold their children.' At Athens, as well as in other states, there was a regular slave-market, called the (cvfcAos, because the slaves stood round in a circle. They were also sometimes sold by auction, and were then placed on a stone, as is now done when slaves are sold in the United States of North America : the same was also the practice in Rome, whence the phrase homo de lapide emttts. [Avcrio.] At Athens the number of slaves was far greater than the free population. Even the poorest citizen had a slave for the care of his house- hold, and in every moderate establishment many were employed for all possible occupa- tions, as bakers, cooks, tailors, &c. Slaves either worked on their masters' account or their own (in the latter case they paid their masters a certain sum a day) ; or they were let out by their -master on hire, either for the mines or any other kind of labour, or as hired sen-ants for wages. The rowers on board the ships were usually slaves, who either belonged to the state or to private persons, who let them out to the state on payment of a certain sum. It appears that a consider- able number of persons kept large gangs of slaves merely for the purpose of letting out, and found this a profitable mode of investing their capital. Great numbers were required for the mines, and in most cases the mine- lessees would be obliged to hire some, as they would not have sufficient capital to purchase as many as they wanted. The rights of pos- session with regard to slaves differed in no respect from any other property ; they could be given or taken as pledges. The condition, nowever, of Greek slaves was upon the whole better than that of Roman ones, with the exception perhaps of Sparta, where, accord- ing to Plutarch, it is the best place in the world to be a freeman, and the worst to be a slave. At Athens especially the slaves seem to have been allowed a degree of liberty and indulgence which was never granted to them at Rome. The life and person of a slave at Athens were also protected by the law : a person who struck or maltreated a slave was liable to an action ; a slave too could not be put to death without legal sentence. He could even take shelter from the cruelty of his master in the temple of Theseus, and there claim the privilege of being sold by him. The person of a slave was, of course, Dot considered so sacred as that of a free- man : his offences were punished with cor- poral chastisement, which was the last mode of punishment inflicted oil a freeman ; he was not believed upon his oath, but his evi- dence in courts of justice was always taken with torture. Notwithstanding the generally mild treatment of slaves in Greece, their insurrection was not unfrequcnt : but these insurrections in Attica were usually confined to the mining slaves, who were treated with more severity than the others. Slaves were sometimes manumitted at Athens, though not so frequently as at Rome. Those who were manumitted (in-eAevOepoi) did not become citizens, as they might at Rome, but passed into the condition of mctoici. They were obliged to honour their former master as their patron (TrpooraTiy?), and to fulfil certain duties towards him, the neglect of which rendered them liable to the it'ioj airooro- criov, by which they might again be sold into slavery. Respecting the public slaves at Athens, see DKSIOSII. It appears that there was a tax upon slaves at Athens, which was probably three oboli a year for each slave. (2) ROMAN. The Romans viewed liberty as the natural state, and slavery as a condition which was contrary to the natural state. The mutual relation of slave and master among the Romans was expressed by the terms Servtts and Dominus ; and the power and interest which the dominus had over and in the slave was ex- pressed by Dominium. Slaves existed at Rome in the earliest times of which we have any record ; but they do not appear to have been numerous under the kings and in the earliest ages of the republic. The different trades and the mechanical arts were chiefly carried on by the clients of the patricians, and the small farms in the country were cultivated for the most part by the labours of the proprietor and of his own family. But as the territories of the Roman state -were ex- tended, the patricians obtained possession of large estates out of the ager publicus, since it was the practice of the Romans to deprive a conquered people of part of their land. These estates probably required a larger number of hands for their cultivation than could readily be obtained among the free population, and since the freemen were constantly liable to be called away from their work to serve in the armies, the lands began to be cultivated almost entirely by slave labour. Through war and commerce slaves could easily be obtained, and at a cheap rate, and theii number soon became so great, that the poorer class of freemen was thrown almost entirely out of employment. This state of things was one of the chief argu- ments used bv Licinius and the Gracchi for SERVUS. 339 SERVL'S. limiting the quantity of public land which a person might possess. In Sicily, which sup- plied Rome with so great a quantity of corn, the number of agricultural slaves was im- mense : the oppressions to which they were exposed drove them twice to open rebellion, and their numbers enabled them to defy for a time the Roman power. The first of these servile wars began in B. c. 134 and ended in B. c. 132, and the second commenced in B. c. 102 and lasted almost four years. Lonp, however, after it had become the custom to employ large gangs of slaves in the cultiva- tion of the land, the number of those who served as personal attendants still continued to be small. Persons in good circumstances seem usually to have had one only to wait upon them, who was generally called by the name of his master with the word par (that is, puer) affixed to it, as Caipor, Liicipor, Ifarcipor, Publipor, Qulntipor, &c. But during the latter times of the republic and under the empire the number of domestic slaves greatly increased, and in every family of importance there were separate slaves to attend to all the necessities of domestic life. It was considered a reproach to a man not to keep a considerable number of slaves. The first question asked respecting a person's fortune was Quot pascit serros, " How many slaves does he keep?" Ten slaves seem to have been the lowest number which a person could keep in the age of Augustus, with a proper regard to respectability in society. The immense number of prisoners taken in the constant wars of the republic, and the increase of wealth and luxury, augmented the number of slaves to a prodigious extent. A freedman under Augustus, who had lost much property in the civil wars, left at his death as many as 4,116. Two hundred was no uncommon number for one person to keep. The mechanical arts, which were formerly in the hands of the clients, were now entirely exercised by slaves : a natural growth of things, for where slaves perform certain duties or practise certain arts, such duties or arts are thought degrading to a freeman. It must not be forgotten, that the games of the amphitheatre required an immense num- ber of slaves trained for the purpose. [GLA- DIATORES.] Like the slaves in Sicily, the gladiators in Italy rose in B. c. 73 against their oppressors, and under the able general- ship of Spartacus, defeated a Roman con- sular army, and were not subdued till B. c. 71, when 60,000 of them are said to have fallen in battle. A slave could not contract a marriage. His cohabitation with a woman was contubcrnium ; and no legal relation between him and his children was recognized. A slave could have no property. He was not incapable of acquiring property, but his acquisitions belonged to his master. Slaves were not only employed in the usual do- mestic offices and in the labours of the field, but also as factors or agents for their masters in the management of business, and as me- chanics, artisans, and in every branch of industry. It may easily be conceived that, under these circumstances, especially as they were often entrusted with property to a large amount, there must have arisen a practice of allowing the slave to consider part of his gains as his own ; this was his Peculium, a term also applicable to such acquisitions of a filiusfamilias as his father allowed him to consider as his own. [PATRIA POTESTAS.] According to strict law, the peculium was the property of the master, but according to usage, it was considered to be the property of the slave. Sometimes it was agreed be- tween master and slave, that the slave should purchase his freedom with his pecu- lium when it amounted to a certain sum. A runaway slave (fugiticus) could not lawfully be received or harboured. The master was entitled to pursue him wherever he pleased ; and it was the duty of all authorities to give him aid in recovering the slave. It was the object of various laws to check the running away of slaves in every way, and accord- ingly a runaway slave could not legally be an object of sale. A class of persons called Fugitivarii made it their business to recover runaway slaves. A person was a slave either jure gentium or jure civilL Under the re- public, the chief supply of slaves arose from prisoners taken in war, who were sold by the quaestors with a crown on their heads (*ui corona venire, vendere), and usually on the spot where they were taken, as the care of a large number of captives was inconve- nient. Consequently slave-dealers usually accompanied an army, and frequently after a great battle had been gained many thousands were sold at once, when the slave-dealers obtained them for a mere nothing. The slave trade was also carried on to a great extent, and after the fall of Corinth and Carthage, Delos was the chief mart for this traffic. When the Cilician pirates had pos- session of the Mediterranean, as many as 10,000 slaves are said to have been imported and sold there in one day. A large number came from Thrace and the countries in the north of Europe, but the chief supply was from Africa, and more especially Asia, whence we frequently read of Phrygians, Lycians, Cappadocians, &c. as slaves. The trade of slave-dealers (mangones) was con- sidered disreoutable j but it was very lucra- z 2 SERVUS. SERVUS. live, and great fortunes were frequently realised from it. Slaves -were usually sold by auction at Rome. They were placed cither on a raised stone (hence de lapide emtim), or a raised platform (catasta), so that every one might see and handle them, even if they did not wish to purchase them. Pur- chasers usually took care to have them stripped naked, for slave-dealers had recourse to as many tricks to conceal personal defects as the horse-jockeys of modern times : some- times purchasers called in the advice of me- dical men. Newly imported slaves had their feet whitened with chalk, and those that came from the East had their ears hored, which we know was a sign of slavery among many eastern nations. The slave-market, like all other markets, was under the juris- diction of the aediles, who made many regu- lations by edicts respecting the sale of slaves. The character of the slave was set forth in u scroll (tituliix] hanging around his neck, which was a warranty to the purchaser : the vendor was bound to announce fairly all his defects, and if he gave a false account had to take him back within six months from the time of his sale, or make up to the purchaser what the latter had lost through obtaining an inferior kind of slave to what had been warranted. The chief points which the vendor had to warrant, were the health of the slave, especially freedom from epilepsy, and that he had not a tendency to thievery, run- ning away, or committing suicide. Slaves sold without any warranty wore at the time of sale a cap (pileus) upon their head. Slaves newly imported were generally pre- ferred for common work : those who had served long were considered artful (vetera- tores) ; and the pertness and impudence of those born in their master's house, called vernae, were proverbial. The value of slaves depended of course upon their qualifications ; but under the empire the increase of luxury and the corruption of morals led purchasers to pay immense sums for beautiful slaves, or such as ministered to the caprice or whim of the purchaser. Eunuchs always fetched a very high price, and Martial speaks of beautiful boys who sold for as much as 100,000 or 200,000 sesterces each (885?. 8*. 4rf. and moi. 16s. 8rf.). Slaves who possessed a knowledge of any art which might bring profit to their owners, also sold for a large sum. Thus literary men and doctors fre- quently fetched a high price, and also slaves fitted for the stage. Slaves were divided into many various classes : the first division was into public or private. The former belonged to the state and public bodies, and their con- dition was preferable to that of the common slaves. They were less liable to be sold, and under less control, than ordinary slaves : they also possessed the privilege of the tes- tamenti factio to the amount of one half of their property, which shows that they were regarded in a different light from other slaves. Public slaves were employed to take care of the public buildings, and to attend upon ma- gistrates and priests. A body of slaves be- longing to one person was called familia, but two were not considered sufficient to consti- tute a familia. Private slaves were divided into urban (familia urbana) and rustic (familia rustica) ; but the name of urban was given to those slaves who served in the villa or country residence as well as in the town house ; so that the words urban and rustic rather characterised the nature of their occupations than the place where they served. Slaves were also arranged in certain classes, which held a higher or a lower rank accord- ing to the nature of their occupation. These classes arc ordinarii, vulgares, and mcdiastini. Ordinarii seem to have been those slaves who had the superintendence of certain parts of the housekeeping. They were always chosen from those who had the confidence of their master, and they generally had certain slaves under them. To this class the actores, pro- curatores, and dispensatores belong, who occur in the familia rustica as well as the familia urbana, but in the former are almost the same as the villici. They were stewards or bailiffs. To the same class also belong the slaves who had the charge of the different stores, and who correspond to our house- keepers and butlers : they are called ccllarii, promi, condi, ptocuratores pcni, &c. Vulgares included the great body of slaves in a house who had to attend to any particular duty in the house, and to minister to the domestic wants of their master. As there were dis- tinct slaves or a distinct slave for almost every department of household economy, as bakers (pistores), cooks (coqui], confectioners (didciarii], picklers (salmentarii], &c., it is unnecessary to mention these more parucu- larly. This class also included the porters (ostiarii), the bed-chamber slaves (cubimi- larifj, the litter-bearers (lecticarii), and all personal attendants of any kind. Medias- tini, the name given to slaves used for any common purpose, was chiefly applied to cer- tain slaves belonging to the familia rustica. The treatment of slaves of course varied greatly, according to the disposition of tlioir masters, but they were upon the whole, as has been already remarked, treated with greater severity and cruelty than amonp the Athenians. Originally the master could uso the slave as he pleased ; under the republic 341 SESTERTIUS. the law does not seem to have protected the person or life of the slave at all; but the cruelty of masters was to some extent re- strained under the empire by various enact- ments. In early times, when the number of slaves was small, they were treated with more indulgence, and more like members of the family : they joined their masters in offering up prayers and thanksgivings to the gods, and partook of their meals in common with their masters, though not at the same table with them, but upon benches (siibsellia) placed at the foot of the lectus. But with the increase of numbers and of luxury among masters, the ancient simplicity of manners was changed : a certain quantity of food was allowed them (diniensum or demcnsum], which was granted to them either monthly (men- struum) or daily (diarium). Their chief food was the corn called far, of which either four or five modii were granted them a month, or one Roman pound (libra) a day. They also obtained an allowance of salt and oil : Cato allowed his slaves a sextarius of oil a month and a modius of salt a year. They also got a small quantity of wine, with an additional allowance on the Saturnalia and Compitalia, and sometimes fruit, but seldom vegetables. Butcher's meat seems to have been hardly ever given them. Under the republic they were not allowed to serve in the army, though after the battle of Cannae, when the state was in imminent danger, 8000 slaves were purchased by the state for the army, and subsequently manumitted on account of their bravery. The offences of slaves were punished with severity, and frequently with the utmost barbarity. One of the mildest punishments was the removal from the familia urbana to the rustica, where they were obliged to work in chains or fetters. They were frequently beaten with sticks or scourged with the whip. Runaway slaves (fugitivi) and thieves (fares) were branded on the forehead with a mark (stigma), whence they are said to be notati or itiscripti. Slaves were also punished by being hung up by their hands with weights suspended to their feet, or by being sent to work in the Ergastulum or Pistrinum. [ERGASTULUM.] The carrying of the furca was a very common mode of punishment. [FUBCA.] The toilet of the Roman ladies was a dreadful ordeal to the female slaves, who were often barbarously punished by their mistresses for the slightest mistake in the arrangement of the hair or a part of the dress. Masters might work their slaves as many hours in the day as they pleased, but they usually allowed them holi- days on the public festivals. At the festival of Satumus, in particular, special indulgences were granted to all slaves, of which an ac- count is given under SATURNALIA. There was no distinctive dress for slaves. It was once proposed in the senate to give slaves a distinctive costume, but it was rejected, since it was considered dangerous to show them their number. Male slaves were not allowed to wear the toga or bulla, nor females the stola, but otherwise they were dressed nearly in the same way as poor people, in clothes of a dark colour (pullati) and slippers (cre- pidae). The rights of burial, however, were not denied to slaves, for, as the Romans re- garded slavery as an institution of society, death was considered to put an end to the dis- tinction between slaves and freemen. Slaves were sometimes even buried with their masters, and we find funeral inscriptions addressed to the Dii Manes of slaves (Dis Manibus). SESCUNX. [As.] SESTERTIUS, a Roman coin, which pro- perly belonged to the silver coinage, in which it was one-fourth of the denarius, and there- fore equal to 2j asses. Hence the name, which is an abbreviation of semis tertitts (sc. nummus), the Roman mode of expressing 2J. The word nummus is often expressed with sestertius, and often it stands alone, meaning sestertius. Hence the symbol H S or 1 1 S, which is used to designate the ses- tertius. It stands cither for L L S (Libra Libra et Semis), or for IIS, the two I's merely forming the numeral two (sc. asses or librae), and the whole being in cither case equivalent to dttpondiiis et semis. When the as was reduced to half an ounce, and the number of asses in the denarius was made sixteen instead' of ten [A*, DENARIUS], the sestertius was still of the denarius, and therefore contained no longer 2j, but 4 asses. The old reckoning of 10 asses to the denarius was kept, however, in paying the troops. After this change the sestertius was coined in brass as well as in silver ; the metal used for it was that called aurichalcum, which was much finer than the common aes, of which the asses were made. The sum of 1000 sestertii was called sestertium. This was also denoted by the symbol H S, the obvious explanation of which is " I I S (2J millia)." The sestertium was always a sum ol money, never a coin ; the coin used in the pay- ment of large sums was the denarius. Accord- ing to the value we have assigned to the DENA- RIUS, up to the time of Augustus, we have . s. d. farth. the sestertius =002-5 the sestertium = 817 1 After the reign of Augustus the sestertius =0 1 3'5 the sestertium = 7 16 3 SEVIR. 342 SICA. The sestertius was the densmination of money almost always used in reckoning considerable amounts. There are a very few examples of the use of the denarius for this purpose. The mode of reckoning was as follows : Sestertius = sestertius nunvnus = nummus. Sums below 1000 sestertii were expressed by the numeral adjectives joined with either of these forms. The sum of 1000 sestertii = mille sestertii = M sestertium (for sestertio- rwn] = M nummi = M nummttm (for num- morum) = M sestertii nummi = M sestertium nummum = sestertium. These forms are used with the numeral adjectives below 1000 : sometimes mi Ilia is used instead of sestertia : sometimes both words are omitted : some- times nummum or sestertium is added. For example, 600,000 sestertii = sescenta sestertia = sescenta millia = scscenta = sescenta ses- tertia nummum. For sums of a thousand sestertia (i. e. a million sestertii) and upwards, the numeral adverbs in ies (decies, undecies, vicies, v'Av- *a), while that of all other marketable commodities was superintended by the agora- nomi. It was their business to see that meal and bread were of the proper quality, and sold at the legal weight and price. Notwith- standing these careful provisions, scarcities (crtTofieiat) frequently occurred at Athens. The state then made great efforts to supply the wants of the people by importing large quantities of corn, and selling it at a low price. Public granaries were kept in the Odeum, Pompuum, Long Porch, and naval storehouse near the sea. Sitonae (O-ITWI/itA>), a carving-knife) exercised his art in Samoa, Aegina, and other places, and some remarkable works were attributed to STATUARIA ARS. 350 STATUARIA ARS. him. Endoeits of Athens is called a disciple of Daedalus. According to the popular trr.- ditions of Greece, there was no period in which the gods were not represented in some form or other, and there is no doubt that for a long time there existed no other statues in Greece than those of the gods. The earliest representations of the gods, however, were only symbolic. The presence of a god was indicated by the simplest and most shapeless symbols, such as unhewn blocks of stone (Ac#oi afyoi), and by simple pillars or pieces of wood. The general name for a representation of a god not consisting of such a rude symbol was ayoA/xa. In the Homeric poems there are suffi- cient traces of the existence of statues of the gods ; but they probably did not display any artistic beauty. The only work of art which has come down to us from the heroic age is the relief above the ancient gate of Mycenae, representing two lions standing on their hind legs, with a sort of pillar between them (wood- cut under MDECS). The time which elapsed between the composition of the Homeric poems and the beginning of the fifth century before our aera may be termed the age of dis- covery ; for nearly all the inventions, upon the application of which the developement of the arts is dependent, are assigned to this period. Glaucus of Chios or Samos is said to have invented the art of soldering metal (a, used in Greece) and in bronze appears to have acquired a high degree of perfection. In 267 B. c. no fewer than 2000 bronze statues are said to have existed at Volsinii, and numerous works of Etruscan art are still extant, which show great vigour and life, though they do not possess a very high degree of beauty. Some of their statues are worked in a Greek style ; others are of a character peculiar to themselves, and entirely different from works of Grecian art, being stiff and ugly : others again are exaggerated and forced in their movements and attitudes, and resemble the figures which we meet with in the repre- sentations of Asiatic nations. The Romans previously to the time of the first Tarquin are said to have had no images of the gods ; and for a long time afterwards their statues of gods in clay or wood were made by Etrus- can artists. During the early part of the republic the works executed at Rome were altogether of a useful and practical, and not of an ornamental character ; and statuary was in consequence little cultivated. But in the course of time the senate and the people, as well as foreign states which desired to show their gratitude to some Roman, began to erect bronze statues to distinguished persons in the Forum and other places. V. Fifth Period, from B. c. 146 to the fall of the Western Empire. During this period Rome was the capital of nearly the whole of the ancient world, not through its intellectual superiority, but by its military and political power. But it nevertheless became the centre of art and literature, as the artists STATUAKIA ARS. 353 8TATUARIA ARS. tWlher from all parts of the empire for the purpose of seeking employment in the houses of the great. The mass of the peo- ple, however, had as little taste for and were as little concerned about the arts as ever. In the time of Nero, who did much for the arts, we meet with Zenodorus, a founder of metal statues, who was commissioned by the emperor to execute a colossal statue of 110 feet high, representing Xero as the Sun. In the reign of Hadrian the arts seem to begin a new aera. He himself was undoubtedly a real lover of art, and encouraged it not only at Rome, but in Greece and Asia Minor. The great Villa of Hadrian below Tivoli, the ruins of which cover an extent of ten Roman miles in circumference, was richer in works of art than any other place in Italy. Here more works of art have been dug out of the ground than anywhere else within the same compass. Some statues executed at this time arc worthy of the highest admiration. Fore- most among these stand the statues and busts of Antinous, for whom the emperor enter- tained a passionate partiality, and who was represented in innumerable works of art. The colossal bust of Antinous in the Louvre is reckoned one of the finest works of ancient art, and is placed by some critics on an equality with the best works that Greece has produced. There are also some very good works in red marble which are referred to this period, as that material is not known to have been used before the age of Hadrian. As the arts had received such encouragement and brought forth such fruits in the reign of Hadrian, the effects remained visible for some time during the reigns of the Antonines. The frieze of a temple, which the senate caused to be erected to Antoninus Pius and Faustina, is adorned with griffins and vessels of very exquisite workmanship. The best among the extant works of this time are the equestrian statue of M. Aurelius of gilt bronze, which stands on the Capitol, and the- column of M. Aurelius with reliefs represent- ing scenes of his war against the Marco- inanni. After the time of the Antonines the symptoms of decline in the arts became more and more visible. The most numerous works continued to be busts and statues of the em- perors, but the best among them are not free from affectation and mannerism. In the time of Caracalla many statues were made, espe- cially of Alexander the Great. Alexander Severus was a great admirer of statues, not from a genuine love of art, but because he delighted in the representations of great and good men. The reliefs on the triumphal arch of Scptimius Severus, representing his victories over the Parthians, Arabs, and Adia- benians, have scarcely any artistic merits. Art now declined with great rapidity : busts and statues were more seldom mad? than before, and are awkward and poor ; the hair is frequently indicated by nothing else but holes bored in the stone. The reliefs on the sarcophagi gradually become monotonous and lifeless. The reliefs on the arch of Constan- tine, which are not taken from that of Trajan, arc perfectly rude and worthless, and those on the column of Theodosius were not better. Before concluding, it remains to say a few words on the destruction of ancient works of r.rt. During the latter part of the reign of Constantine many statues of the gods were destroyed, and not long after his time a sys- tematic destruction began, which under 'J'heo- dosius spread to all parts of the empire. The spirit of destruction, however, was not di- rected against works of art in general and as such, but only against the pagan idols. The opinion, therefore, which is entertained by some, that the losses we have sustained in works of ancient art, are mainly attributable to the introduction of Christianity, is too sweeping and general. Of the same cha- racter is another opinion, according to which the final decay of ancient art was a consequence of the spiritual nature of the new religion. The coincidence of the general introduction of Christianity with the decay of the arts is merely accidental. That the early Christians did not despise the arts as such, is clear from several facts. We know that they erected statues to their martyrs, of which we have a specimen in that of St. Hippolytus in the Vatican library. The numerous works, lastly, which have been found in the Christian cata- combs at Rome, might alone be a sufficient proof that the early Christians were not hos- tile towards the representation of the heroes of their religion in works of art. In fact, Christianity during the middle ages became as much the mother of the arts of modern times, as the religion of Greece was the mo- ther of ancient art. Another very general and yet incorrect notion is, that the northern barbarians after the conquest of Rome inten- tionally destroyed works of art. This opinion is not supported by any of the contemporary historians, nor is it at all probable. The bar- barians were only anxious to carry with them the most precious treasures in order to enrich themselves ; a statue must have been an object of indifference to them. What pe- rished, perished naturally by the circum- stances and calamities of the times. In times of need bronze statues were melted down and the material used for other purposes ; marble statues were frequently broken to pieces and used for building materials. If we consider 2 A STILUS. 354 S'lOLA. the history of Rome during the first centuries after the conquest of Italy by the Germans, we have every reason to wonder that so many specimens of ancient art have come down to our times. The greatest destruction, at one time, of ancient works of art is sup- posed to have occurred at the taking of Con- stantinople, in the beginning of the thirteenth century. Among the few works saved from this devastation are the celebrated bronze horses which now decorate the exterior of St. Mark's church at Venice. They have been ascribed, but without sufficient au- thority, to Lysippus. STILUS or STYLUS is in all probability the same word with the Greek crrvAos, and conveys the general idea of an object taper- ing like an architectural column. It signi- fies, (1) An iron instrument, resembling a pencil in size and shape, used for writing upon waxed tablets. At one end it was sharpened to a point for scratching the characters upon the wax, while the other end, being flat and circular, served to render the surface of the tablets smooth again, and o to obliterate what had been written. Stilus. (MUMO Borbonico, vol. vi. tar. 85.) Thus, vertere stilum means to erase, and hence to correct. The stylus was also termed griiphium, and the case in which it was kept ffraphiarium. ( 2 ) A sharp stake or spike placed in pitfalls before an entrenchment, to embarrass the progress of an attacking enemy. STIPENDIARY. The stipendiariae urbes of the Roman provinces were so denominated, as being subject to the payment of a fixed money-tribute, stipendium, in contradistinc- tion to the vectigalcs, who paid a certain portion as a tenth or twentieth of the pro- duce of their lands, their cattle, or customs. The word stipendium was used to signify the tribute paid, as it was originally imposed for and afterwards appropriated to the purpose of furnishing the Roman soldiers with pay. The condition of the urbcs stipondiariae is generally thought to have been mere honour- able than that of the vectigales, but the dis- tinction between the two terms was not always observed. The word stipendiarius is also applied to a person who receives a fixed salary or pay, as a stipendiarius miles. STIPENDIUM, a pension or pay, from stipem and pendo, because before silver was coined at Rome the copper money in use was paid by weight and not by tale. According to Livy, the practice of giving pay to the Roman soldiers was not introduced till B.C. 405, on the occasion of the taking of Tarra- cina or Anxur. It is probable, however, that they received pay before this time, but, since it was not paid regularly, its first institution was referred to this year. In B.C. 403 a certain amount of pay was assigned to the knights also, or EQVITES, p. 156, 6. This, however, had reference to the citizens who possessed an equestrian fortune, but had no horse (eyuus publicus) assigned to them by the state, for it had always been customary for the knights of the 18 centuries to receive pay out of the common treasury, in the shape of an allowance for the purchase of a horse, and a yearly pension of 2000 asses for its keep. [AES EQUESTBE ; AES HORDEARFUM.] In the time of the republic the pay of a legionary soldier amounted to two oboli, or 3J asses ; a centurion received double, and an eques or horseman triple. Polybius states that foot soldiers also received in corn every month an allowance (demensum) of jj of an Attic medimnus, or about 2 bushels of wheat : the horsemen 7 medimni of barley and 2 of wheat. The infantry of the allies received the same allowance as the Roman : the horse- men 1^ medimni of wheat and 5 of barley. But there was this difference, that the allied forces received their allowances as a gra- tuity ; the Roman soldiers, on the contrary, had deducted from their pay the money value of whatever they received in corn, armour, or clothes. There was indeed a law passed by C. Gracchus, which provided that besides their pay the soldiers should receive from the treasury an allowance for clothes ; but this law seems either to have been repealed or to have fallen into disuse. The pay was doubled for the legionaries by Julius Caesar before the civil war. He also gave them corn whenever he had the means, without any restrictions. Under Augustus it appears to have been raised to 10 asses a day (three times the original sum). It was still fur- ther increased by Domitian. The praetorian cohorts received twice as much a* th legionaries. STOLA, a female dress worn over the tunic ; it came as low as the ankles or feet, STRATEGUS. 355 SUFFRAGIUM. and was fastened round the body by a girdle, leaving above the breast broad folds. The tunic did not reach much below the knee, but the essential distinction between the tunic and stola seems to have been that the latter always had an instita or flounce sewed to the bottom and reaching to the instep. Over the stola the palla or pallium was worn [PALLIUM], as we see in the cut annexed. The stola was the characteristic dress of the Roman matrons, as the toga was of the Roman men. Hence the meretrices were not allowed rto wear it, but only a dark- coloured toga ; and accordingly Horace speaks of the matrona in contradistinction to the togata. For the same reason, women who had been divorced from their husbands on account of adultery, were not allowed to wear the stola, but only the toga. Stola, female <3 Borbonico, vol. ill. tnv. 37.) STRATEGUS (ffrponryoi), general. This office and title seems to have been more especially peculiar to the democratic states of ancient Greece : we read of them, for instance, at Athens, Tarentum, Syracuse, Argos, and Thurii ; and when the tyrants of the Ionian cities in Asia Minor were deposed by Aristagoras, he established strategi in their room, to act as chief magistrates. The strategi at Athens were instituted after the remodelling of the constitution by Clisthenes, to discharge the duties which had in former times been performed either by the king or" the archon polemarchus. They were ten in number, one for each of the ten tribes, and chosen by the suffrages (xeipoTovia) of the people. Before entering on their duties they were required to submit to a docimatia, or examination of their character ; and no one was eligible to the office unless he had legiti - mate children, and was possessed of landed property in Attica. They were, as their name denotes, entrusted with the command on mili- tary expeditions, with the superintendence of all warlike preparations, and with the regu- lation of all matters in any way connected with the war department of the state. They levied and enlisted the soldiers, either per- sonally or with the assistance of the taxiarchs. They were entrusted with the collection and management of the property taxes (ropat) raised for the purposes of war ; and also pre- sided over the courts of justice in which any disputes connected with this subject or the trierarchy were decided. They nominated from year to year persons to serve as trierarchs. They had the power of con- vening extraordinary assemblies of the people in cases of emergency. But their most im- portant trust was the command in war, and it depended upon circumstances to how many of the number it was given. At Marathon all the ten were present, and the chief com- mand came to each of them in turn. The archon polemarchus also was there associated with them, and, according to the ancient custom, his vote in a council of war was equal to that of any of the generals. Usually, however, three only were sent out; one of these (rptro? ovrck) was considered as the commander-in-chief, but his colleagues had an equal voice in a council of war. The military chiefs of the Aetolian and Achaean leagues were also called strategi. The Achaean strategi had the power of convening a general assembly of the league on extra- ordinary occasions. Greek writers on Ro- man affairs give the name of strategi to the praetors. STRENA, a present given on a festive day, and for the sake of good omen. It was ehiefly applied to a new year's gift, to a present made on the calends of January. In accordance with a senatusconsultum, new year's gifts had to be presented to Augustus in the Capitol, even when he was absent. STRIGIL. [BALNEUM.] STROPHIUM (TOJ.VM, TaivCSiov, airoSev ), a girdle or belt worn by women round the breast and over the inner tunic or che- mise. It appears to have been usually made of leather. STUPRUM. [ADTOTERFUM.] 6UBSIGNANI, privileged soldiers in the time of the empire, who fcught under a standard by themselves, and did not form part of the legion. They seem to have been :he same as the vexillarii. SUFFRAGIA SEX. [EftuiTES.] SUFFRAGIUM, a vote. At Athens the -ruling in the popular assemblies and the courts of justice was either by chow of hands 2*2 SUGGESTUS. 356 STLAE. (xetpoTovia) 01 by ballot OA>j4>oO. Respecting the mode of voting at Rome, see COMITIA, p. 107, and LEGES TAHKM.ARIAE. SUGGESTUS, means in general any ele- vated place made of materials heaped up (sub and gero), and is specially applied : (1) To the stage or pulpit from which the orators addressed the people in the comitia. [ROS- TRA.] (2) To the elevation from which a general addressed the soldiers. (3) To the elevated seat from which the emperor beheld the public games, also called cubiculum. [CUBICULUM.] SUOVETAURILIA. [SACBiFicrcu, p. 325 ; LCBTHATIO; and woodcut on p. 343.] SUPPARUM^ [NAVIS, p. 207, 6.] SUPPLICATIO, a solemn thanksgiving or supplication to the gods, decreed by the se- nate, when all the temples were opened, and the statues of the gods frequently placed in public upon couches (puhinaria), to which the people offered up their thanksgivings and prayers. [LECTISTERNIUM.] A supplicatio was decreed for two different reasons. 1. As a thanksgiving, when a great victory had been gained : it was usually decreed as soon as official intelligence of the victory had been received by a letter from the general in com- mand. The number of days during which it was to last was proportioned to the import- ance of the victory. Sometimes it was decreed for only one day, but more commonly for three or five days. A supplication of ten days was first decreed in honour of Pompey at the conclusion of the war with Mithridates, and one of fifteen days after the victory over the Belgae by Caesar, an honour which had never been granted to any one before. Sub- sequently a supplicatio of twenty days was decreed after his conquest of Vercingetorix. A supplicatio was usually regarded as a pre- lude to a triumph, but it was not always followed by one. This honour was conferred upon Cicero on account of his suppression of the conspiracy of Catiline, which had never been decreed to any one before in a civil ca- pacity (togatut). 2. A supplicatio, a solemn supplication and humiliation, was also decreed in times of public danger and distress, and on account of prodigies, to avert the anger of the gods. 8TCOPHANTES (cnMco^xuTTjO. At an early period in Attic history a law was made pro- hibiting the exportation of figs. Whether it was made in a time of dearth, or through the foolish policy of preserving to the natives the most valuable of their productions, we cannot say. It appears, however, that the law continued in force long after the cause of UK enactment, or the general belief of its Utility, had ceased to exist; and Attic fig- growers exported their fruit in spite of pro- hibitions and penalties. To inform against a man for so doing was considered harsh and vexatious ; as all people are apt to think that obsolete statutes may be infringed with im- punity. Hence the term aiTei>>, which originally signified to lay an information against another for exporting figs, came to be applied to all ill-natured, malicious, ground- less, and vexatious accusations. Sycophantei in the time of Aristophanes and Demosthenes designated a person of a peculiar class, not capable of being described by a*y single word in our language, but well understood and appreciated by an Athenian. He had not much in common with our sycophant, but was a happy compound of the common bar- rator, informer, pettifogger, busybody, rogue, liar, and slanderer. The Athenian law per- mitted any citizen (jov /SovA.dju.ei/ov) to give information against public offenders, and prosecute them in courts of justice. It was the policy of the legislator to encourage the detection of crime, and a reward (such as half the penalty) was frequently given to the successful accuser. Such a power, with such a temptation, was likely to be abused, unless checke'd by the force of public opinion, or the vigilance of the judicial tribunals. Un- fortunately, the character of the Athenian democracy and the temper of the judges furnished additional incentives to the in- former. Eminent statesmen, orators, ge- nerals, magistrates, and all persons of wealth and influence were regarded with jealousy by the people. The more causes came into court, the more fees accrued to the judges, and fines and confiscations enriched the public treasury. The prosecutor therefore in public causes, as well as the plaintiff in civil, was looked on with a more favourable eye than the defendant, and the chances of suc- cess made the employment a lucrative one. It was not always necessary to go to trial, or even to commence legal proceedings. The timid defendant was glad to compromise the cause, and the conscious delinquent to avert the threat of a prosecution, by paying a sum of money to his opponent. Thriving informers found it not .very difficult to pro- cure witnesses, and the profits were divided between them. STLAE (ovAai). When a Greek state, or any of its members, had received an injury or insult from some other state or some of its members, and the former was unwilling, or not in a condition, to declare open war, it was not unusual to give a commission, or grant public authority to individuals to make reprisals. This was called , awaAAayfia, mt^mj), are all words used to signify a contract, but are distinguishable from one another. 2v/t- p6\aioi> is used of contracts and bargains between private persons, and peculiarly of loans of money. Thus, v, comissatio, con- vivium), a drinking-party. The symposium must be distinguished from the dcipnon (S*iir vov\ for though drinking almost always fol- lowed a dinner-party, yet the former was regarded as entirely distinct from the latter, was regulated by different customs, and fre- quently received the addition of many guests, who were not present at the dinner. For the Greeks did not usually drink at their dinner, and it was not till the conclusion of the meal that wine was introduced. Sym- posia were very frequent at Athens. Their enjoyment was heightened by agreeable con- versation, by the introduction of music and dancing, and by games and amusements of various kinds : sometimes, too, philosophical subjects were discussed at them. The sym- posia of Plato and Xenophon give us a lively idea of such entertainments at Athens. The name itself shows, that the enjoyment of drinking was the main object of the sym- posia : wine from the juice of the grape (k ofurcXtrof ) was the only drink partaken of by the Greeks, with the exception of water. The wine was almost invariably mixed with water, and to drink it unmixed (axparop) was considered a characteristic of barbarians. The mixture was made in a large vessel called the CBATER, from which it was con- veyed into the drinking-cups. The guests at a symposium reclined on couches, and were crowned with garlands of flowers. A master of the revels (opx""" T i s jnxreuw, mumxriapxiK, or 0rafe, in order to avoid the old and hateful name of opo? or tribute. The name of ovv&piov was given at Athens to any magisterial or official body, as to the court of Areiopagus, or to the place where they transacted business, their board or council-room. SYNEGORUS (crvr^yopos). In causes of importance, wherein the state was materially interested, more especially in those which were brought before the court upon an eio-oy yeAia, it was usual to appoint public advo- cates (called avvr/yopoi, ovcSueoi, or Kanjyopoi) to manage the prosecution. In ordinary cases however the accuser or prosecutor ((eanjyo- pos) was a distinct person from the o-vi/rjyopos, who acted only as auxiliary to him. It might be, indeed, that the o-vn/yopo? per- formed the most important part at the trial, or it might be that he performed a subordi- nate part, making only a short speech in support of the prosecution, which was called sTriAoyos. But however this might be, he was in point of law an auxiliary only, and was neither entitled to a share of the reward (if any) given by the law to a successful ac- cuser, nor liable, on the other hand, to a penalty of a thousand drachms, or the an/aux consequent upon a failure to get a fifth part of the votes. The fee of a drachm (TO o-vnj- yopucoV) mentioned by Aristophanes was probably the sum paid to the public advocate whenever he was employed on behalf of the state. There appears to have been (at least at one period) a regular appointment of o-voj- yopoi, ten in number. For what purpose they were appointed, is a matter about which we have no certain information : but it is not unreasonable to suppose that these ten o-vioj- yopoi were no other than the public advocates who were employed to conduct state prose- cutions. SYNGRAPHfi (<7vyypaAoyia is, strictly speaking, a verbal agreement. At Athens important contracts were usually re- duced to writing ; such as leases (fuo-ftoo-eis), loans of money, and all executory agree- ments, where certain conditions were to be performed. The whole was contained in a little tablet of wax or wood (/St/SAtor or ypw iMTtiov, sometimes double, Sinruxov), which was scaled, and deposited with some third person, mutually agreed on between the parties. SYNOIKIA (owoucux). (1) A festival cele- brated every year at Athens on the 16th of Hecatombaeon in honour of Athena. It was believed to have been instituted by Tliosrus to commemorate the concentration of the government of the various towns of Attica at Athens. (8) A house adapted to bold SYNTHESIS. 359 SYSS1TIA. several families, a lodging-house, instila, as the Romans wsuld say. The lodging-houses were let mostly to foreigners who came to Athens on business, and especially to the ftrroucot, whom the law did not allow to acquire real property, and who therefore could not purchase houses of their own. The rent was commonly paid by the month. Lodging-houses were frequently taken on speculation by persons called pauxAijpoi or oraOfioGxoi, who made a profit by underletting them. SYNTHESIS, a garment frequently worn at dinner, and sometimes also on other occa- sions. As it was inconvenient to wear the toga at table, on account of its many folds, it was customary to have dresses especially ap- propriated to this purpose, called testes coe- natoriae, or coenatoria, accubitoria, or synthe- tet. The synthesis appears to have been a kind of tunic, an indumentum rather than an amictus. [Amcrcs.] That it was, however, an easy and comfortable kind of dress, as we should say, seems to be evident from its use at table above mentioned, and also from its oeing worn by all classes at the SATURNA- LIA, a season of universal relaxation and enjoyment. More than this respecting its form we cannot say ; it was usually dyed with some colour, and was not white, like the toga. SYRINX (V. The Latin word pu- yillareg, which is the name frequently given to tablets covered with wax, may perhaps be connected with the same root, though it is usually derived from pttgillus, because they were small enough to be held in the hand. Three tablets fastened together were called triptycha ; in the same way we also read of peninptyr.hn, and of polyptycha or iiiullijilicfx (cerae). The pages of these tablets were frequently called by the name of cerae alone ; thus we read of prima cera, altera cera, " first page," " second page." In tablets containing important legal documents, espe- cially wills, the outer edges were pierced through with holes (foramina), through which a triple thread (linum) was passed, and upon which a seal was then placed. This was intended to guard against forgery, and if it was not done such documents were null and void. Waxen tablets were used among the Romans for almost every species of writing, where great length was not re- quired. Thus letters were frequently written upon them, which were secured by being fastened together with packthread and sealed with wax. Legal documents, and especially wills, were almost always written on waxen tablets. Such tablets were also used for ac- counts, in which a person entered what he received and expended (tabulae or codex accepti et expensi], whence novae tabulae mean an abolition of debts either wholly or in part. The tablets used in voting in the comitia and the courts of justice were also called tabulae, as well as tabellae. [TABELLA.] TABULARII were notaries or accountants, who are first mentioned under this name in the time of the empire. Public notaries, who had the charge of public documents, were also called tabularii. They were first established by M. Antoninus in the provinces, who ordained that the births of all children were to be announced to the tabularii within thirty days from the birth. TABULiRIUM, a place where the public records (tabulae publicae) were kept. These records were of various kinds, as for instance senatusconsulta, tabulae censoriae, registers of births, deaths, of the names of those who assumed the toga virilis, &c. There were various tabularia at Rome, all of which were in temples ; we find mention made of ta- bularia in the temples of the Nymphs, of Lucina, of Juventus, of Libitina, of Ceres, and more especially in that of Saturn, which was also the public treasury. TAGUS (rayos), a leader or general, was more especially the name of the military leader of the Thcssalians. lie is sometimes called king (/SownAevs). His command was of a military rather than of a civil nature, and he seems only to have been appointed when there was a war or one was apprehended. We do not know the extent of the power which the Tagus possessed constitutionally, nor the time for which he held the office ; probably neither was precisely fixed, and de- pended on the circumstances of the times and the character of the individual. TALARIA. 361 TALUS. TALARIA, small wings, fixed to the ancles of Hermes and reckoned among his attri- butes (jre'SiAa, imivoiTf&ikos'). In many works of ancient art they are represented growing from his ancles (see cut, p. 63) ; but more frequently he is represented with sandals, which have wings fastened to them on each side over the ancles. Tallinn. (Pn i Statue at Hermi* at Napln.) TALASSIO. [MATRnroNnm.] TALENTUM (riWroiO meant originally a balance [LIBRA], then the substance weighed, and lastly and commonly a certain weight, the talent. The Greek system of money, as well as the Roman [As], was founded on a reference to weight. A cer- tain weight of silver among the Greeks, as of copper among the Romans, was used as a representative of a value, which was origin- ally and generally that of the metal itself. The talent therefore and its divisions are denominations of money as well as of weight. The Greek system of weights contained four principal denominations, which, though dif- ferent in different times and places, and even at the same place for different substances, always bore the same relation to each other, These were the talent (rd^avrov), which was the largest, then the mina (^>'js KOIITJ? rrpoo-oSov) was a more important personage than those last mentioned. lie was not a mere keeper of monies, like them, nor a mere receiver, like the apodectae ; but a general paymaster, who received through the apodectae all money which [was to be dis- bursed for the purposes of the administration (except the property-taxes, which were paid into the war-office, and the tribute from the allies, which was paid to the hollenotamiae [HELLENOTAMIAE]), and then distributed it in such manner as he was required to do by the law ; the surplus (if any) he paid into the war-office or the theoric fund. As this per- son knew all the channels in which the public money had to flow, and exercised a general superintendence over the expendi- ture, he was competent to give advice to the people upon financial measures, with a view to improve the revenue, introduce economy, and prevent abuses ; he is sometimes called taj TT)S fitoiKTJtrews, or o eiri r!)? Sioiioj- y the treasurer of the revenue was sonic- times paid directly to the various persons in the employ of the government, sometimes .hrough subordinate pay offices. Many pub- ic functionaries had their own paymasters who were dependent on the treasurer of tht TAXIARCHI. 363 TELA. revenue, receiving their funds from him, and then distributing them in their re- spective departments. Such were the Tpirjpo- iroioi, Tei^oiroioi, b&OTroioi, Ta4>poiroioi, 7re/xe- AijTai reuip'uav, who received through their own tamiac such sums as they required from time to time for the prosecution of their works. The payment of the judicial fees was made by the Colacretae ((twAaxpeToi), which, and the providing for the meals in the Prytancium, were the only duties that remained to them after the establishment of the apodectae by Cleisthcnes. The tamhie of the sacred vessels (r>j? IlapoAov and TTJ? SoAanirt'a?) acted not only as treasurers, but as trierarchs, the expenses (amounting for the two ships tog-ether to about sixteen ta- lents) being provided by the state. They were elected by vote. Other trierarchs had their own private tamiac. The war fund at Athens (independently of the tribute) was provided from two sources : first, the pro- perty-tax (ei?, to whom the management of the war fund was entrusted. He had under him a treasurer, called the radios n>v trrparuaTueiav, who gave out the pay of the troops, and defrayed all other expenses inci- dent to the service. So much of the surplus revenue as was not required for the pur- poses of war, was to be paid by the treasurer of the revenue into the theoric fund ; of which, after the archonship of Euclides, special managers were created. [THEORICA.] Lastly, we have to notice the treasurers of the demi (S^/iwc Tofiwu), and those of the tribes (v\0> Tofiun), who had the care of the funds belonging to their respective com- munities, and performed duties analogous to those of the state treasurers. The demi, as well as the tribes, had their common lands, which were usually let to farm. The rents of these formed the principal part of their revenue. TAXIARCHI (Tofwipx0, military officers at Athens, next in rank to the strategi. They were ten in number, like the strategi, one for each tribe, and were elected by vote (xpoToi/i'a). In war each commanded the infantry of his own tribe, and they were fre- quently called to assist the strategi with their advice at the war-council. In peace they assisted the strategi in levying and enlisting soldiers, and seem to have also assisted the strategi in the discharge of many of their other duties. The taxiarchs were so called from their commanding tajcels (rofeis), which were the principal division's of the hoplites in the Athenian army. Each tribe ('A>j) formed a taxis. As there were ten tribes, there were consequently in a complete Athe- nian army ten taxeis, but the number of men contained in each would of course vary ac- cording to the importance of the war. Among the other Greeks, the t0, magistrates at Athens, whose business it was to build and keep in repair the public walls. They ap- pear to have been elected by vote (xpo- Ta.vrai, textores and textrices, linteones), yet every considerable domestic establishment, especially in the country, con- tained a loom, together with the whole appa- ratus necessary for the working of wool (lanificium, roAao-ta, ToAsuriovpyi'a). [CALA- THTS.] These occupations were all supposed to be carried on under the protection of Athena or Minerva, specially denominated Ergane ('Epyan)). When the farm or the palace was sufficiently large to admit of it, a portion of it called the histon (io-noi/) or tcx- trinum was devoted to this purpose. The work was there principally carried on by TELA. 364 TELA. female slaves (quasillariae), under the super- intendence of the mistress of the house. Every thing woven consists of two CBsential parts, the warp and the woof, called in Latin stamen and sublet/men, subtemen, or trama; in Greek wipx*?*> and was their representative to the state. Sure- ties were required of the farmer for the pay- ment of his dues. The office was frequently undertaken by resident aliens, citizens not liking it, on account of the vexatious pro- ceedings to which it often led. The fanner was armed with considerable powers : he carried with him his books, searched for con- traband or uncustomed goods, watched the harbour, markets, and other places, to pre- vent smuggling, or unlawful and clandestine sales ; brought a phasis (tfwwrts) or other legal process against those whom he suspected of defrauding the revenue ; or even seized their persons on some occasions, and took them before the magistrate. To enable him to perform these duties, he was exempted from military service. Collectors (Aoyei?) were sometimes employed by the farmers ; but frequently the farmer and the collector were the same person. The taxes were let by the commissioners (nvoAiJTcu), acting under the authority of the senate. The payments were made by the farmer on stated prytancias in the senate-house. There was usually one payment made in advance, irpoicaTajSoAjj, and one or more afterwards, called 7rpooxaTo/3Aj/|ia. Upon any default of payment, the farmer became atimus, if a citizen, and he was Liable to be imprisoned at the discretion of the court, upon an information laid against him. If the debt was not paid by the expiration of the ninth prytaneia, it was doubled ; and if not then paid, his property became forfeited to the state, and proceedings to confiscation might be taken forthwith. Upon this sub- ject, see the speech of Demosthenes against Timocrates. TELOS (reXos), a tax. The taxes imposed by the Athenians, and collected at home, were either ordinary or extraordinary. The former constituted a regular or permanent source of income ; the latter were only raised in time of war or other emergency. The ordinary taxes were laid mostly upon property, and upon citizens indirectly, in the shape of toll or customs ; though the resident aliens paid a poll-tax (called iumutov\ for the liberty of residing at Athens under protection of the state. There was a duty of two per cent. (jrm)/co<7T^), levied upon all exports and im- ports. An excise was paid on all sales in the market (called i-mavia), though we know not what the amount was. Slave-owners paid a duty of three obols for every slave they kept ; and slaves who had been emancipated paid the same. This was a very productive tax before the fortification of Deceleia by the Lacedaemonians. The justice fees (wpuroifta, Trapderrourw, &c.) were a lucrative tax in time of peace. The extraordinary taxes were the property-tax, and the compulsory service* called liturgies (AeiToupywu). Some of these last were regular, and recurred annually ; the most important, the trierarehia, was a war-service, and performed as occasion re- quired. As these services were all performed, wholly or partly, at the expense of the indi- vidual, they may be regarded as a species of tax. [EISPHORA; LEITOUROIA ; TKIKKAKCHIA.] The tribute (pof) paid by the allied states to the Athenians formed, in the flourishing period of the republic, a regular and most important source of revenue. In Olymp. 91 2, the Athenians substituted for the tribute a duty of five per cent. (iico)Aa), because every one was allowed to walk in the latter. This separation was in early times indicated by very simple means, such as a string or a rope. Subsequently, however, they were surrounded by more effi- cient fences, or even by a wall (epos, nepifio- Aos). The whole space enclosed in such a irepi^oAo? was called Te/uevos, or sometimes lepov ; and contained, besides the temple itself, other sacred buildings, and sacred ground planted with groves, &c. Within the precincts of the sacred enclosure no dead were generally allowed to be buried, though there were some exceptions to this rule, and we have instances of persons being buried in or at least near certain temples. The religious laws of the island of Delos did not allow any corpses to be buried within the whole extent of the island, and when this law had been violated, a part of the island was first purified by Pisistratus, and subse- quently the whole island by the Athenian people. The temple itself was called vafa or wws, and at its entrance fonts (jrepip/xurjjpia) were generally placed, that those who entered the sanctuary to pray or to offer sacrifices might first purify themselves. The act of consecration, by which a temple was dedi- cated to, a god, was called ifipvo-is. The cha- racter of the early Greek temples was dark and mysterious, for they had no windows, and they received light only through the door, which was very large, or from lamps burning in them. Architecture in the con- struction of magnificent temples, however, made great progress even at an earlier time than either painting or statuary, and long before the Persian wars we hear of temples of extraordinary grandeur and beauty. All temples were built either in an oblong or round form, and were mostly adorned with columns. Those of an oblong form had columns cither in the front alone, in the fore and back fronts, or on all the four sides. Respecting the original use of these porticoe* see POETICUS. The friezes and metopes were adorned with various sculptures, and no ex- pense was spared in embellishing the abod of the gods. The light, which was formerly TEMPLUM. 367 TEMPLUM. let in at the door, was now frequently let in from above through an opening in the middle. Most of the great temples consisted of three parts : 1. the irpovaos or irpoiojios, the vesti- bule ; 2. the cella (''wJs, OTJKO?) ; and 3. the ojri/u.os. The cella was the most important part, as it was, properly speaking, the tem- ple or the habitation of the deity whose statue it contained. In one and the same cella there were sometimes the statues of two or more divinities, as in the Erechtheum at Athens, the statues of Poseidun, Hephaestus, and Butas. The statues always faced the en- trance, which was in the centre of the pro- stylus. The place where the statue stood was called foot, and was surrounded by a balus- trade or railings. Some temples also had more than one cella, in which case the one was generally behind the other, as in the temple of Athena Polias at Athens. In tem- ples where oracles were given, or where the worship was connected with mysteries, the cella was called a&vroi', /iryopoi', or avaJCTOpov, and to it only the priests and the initiated had access. The on-wrtdSoftot was a building which was sometimes attached to the back front of a temple, and served as a place in which the treasures of the temple were kept, and thus supplied the place of ftpravpoi', which were attached to some temples. Quad- rangular Temples were described by the fol- lowing terms, according to the number and arrangement of the columns on the fronts and sides. 1. 'AorvAos, astyle, without any columns. 2. '>' n-apcumuri, in antis, with two columns in front between the antae. 3. IIpooTuAof, prostyle, with four columns in front. 4. 'Afu^MrjxxjTvAcrc, amphiprostyle, with four columns at each end. 5. neptVrepo? or ifuj>ucuav, peripteral, with columns at each end and along each side. 6. Aim-epos, dip- teral, with two ranges of columns (nrepa) all round, the one within the other. 7. *eu&>- iiVrepos, psevdodipteral, with one range only, but at the same distance from the walls of the cella as the outer range of a Sinrepos. To these must be added a sort of sham invented by the Roman architects, namely : 8. *v6o- wtpinTepof, pseudoperipteral, where the sides had only half-columns (at the angles three- quarter columns), attached to the walls of the cella, the object being to have the cella large without enlarging the whole building, and yet to keep up something of the splendour of a peripteral temple. Names- were also ap- plied to the temples, as well as to the porti- coes themselves, according to the number of columns in the portico at either end of the temple : namely, TerpaoruAos, tetrastyle, when there were four columns in front, efeurn/Aos, hexastyle, when there were six, OKTCKTTVAOS, octastyle, when there were eight, cd<7rvAo?, decastyle, when there were ten. There were never more than ten columns in the end por- tico of a temple ; and when there were only two, they were always arranged in that pecu- liar form called in antis (iv iropcurrcuri). The number of columns in the end porticoes was never uneven, but the number along the sides of a temple was generally uneven. The number of the side columns varied : where the end portico was tetrastyle, there were never any columns at the sides, except false ones, attached to the walls : where it was hexastyle or octastyle, there were generally 13 or 17 columns at the sides, counting in the corner columns : sometimes a hexastyle temple had only eleven columns on the sides. The last arrangement resulted from the rule adopted by the P.oman architects, who counted by intercolumniations (the spaces between the columns), and whose rule was to have twice as many intercolumniations along th* sides of the building as in front. The Greek architects on the contrary, counted by columns, and their rule was to have twice as many columns along the tides as in front, and one more, counting the corner columns in each case. Another set of terms, applied to temples and other buildings having porticoes, as well as to the porticoes themselves, was derived from the distances between the columns as com- pared with the lower diameters of the co- lumns. They were the following : 1. IIuap/icueot). It appears probable, however, that this sacrifice did not take place annually, but only in case of a heavy calamity having befallen the city, such as the plague, a fa- mine, &c. The victims appear to have been criminals sentenced to death. The second day of the thargelia was solemnized with a procession and an agon, which consisted of a cyclic chorus, performed by men at the expense of a choragus. The prize of the victor in this agon was a tripod, which he had to de- dicate in the temple of Apollo which had been built by Pisistratus. On this day it was customary for persons who were adopted into a family to be solemnly registered, and received into the genos and the phratria of the adoptive parents. This solemnity was the same as that of registering one's own children at the Apaturia. THEATRUM (fleorpoiO, a theatre. The Athenians before the time of Aeschylus had only a wooden scaffolding on which their dramas were performed. Such a wooden theatre was only erected for the time of the Dionysiac festivals, and was afterwards pulled down. The first drama that Aeschylus brought upon the stage was performed upon such a wooden scaffold, and it is recorded as a sin- gular and ominous coincidence that on that occasion (500 B. c.) the scaffolding broke down. To prevent the recurrence of such an accident, the building of a stone theatre was forthwith commenced on the south-eastern descent of the Acropolis, in the Lcnaea ; for it should be observed, that throughout Greece theatres were always built upon emi- nences, or on the sloping side of a hill. The new Athenian theatre was built on a very large scale, and appears to have been constructed with great skill in regard to its acoustic and perspective arrangements. Subsequently theatres were erected in all parts of Greece and Asia Minor, although Athens was the centre of the Greek drama, and the only place which produced great masterworks in this department of literature. All the theatres, however, which were con- structed in Greece were probably built after the model of that of Athens, and, with slight deviations and modifications, they all re- sembled one another in the main points, aa - is seen in the numerous ruins of theatres in various parts of Greece, Asia Minor, and Sicily. The Attic theatre was, like all the I Greek theatres, placed in such a manner that the place for the spectators formed the upper or north-western, and the stage with all that belonged to it the south-eastern part, and between these two parts lay the orchestra. The annexed plan has been made from the remains of Greek theatres still extant, and from a careful examination of the passage* in ancient writers which describe the whole or parts of a theatre. 1. The place for the spectators was in a narrower sense of the word called theatrum. The. seats for tho TIIEATKOI. 371 THEATRUM. spectators, which were in most cases cut out of the rock, consisted of rows of benches rising one above another ; the rows them- selves (a) formed parts (nearly three-fourths) of concentric circles, and were at intervals divided into compartments by one or more broad passages (6) running between them, and parallel with the benches. These pas- Plan of Greek Theatre. sages were called Suxfiujxara, or (caraTo/oat, Lat. praecinct times, and when the concourse of people was very great in a theatre, many persons might stand in them. Across the rows of benches ran stairs, by which persons might ascend from the lowest to the highest. But these stairs ran in straight lines only from one praecinctk) to another ; and the stairs in the next series of rows were just between the two stairs of the lower series of benches. By this course of the stairs the seats -were divided into a number of com- partments, resembling cones from which the tops are cut off; hence they were termed iceoKi'Ses, and in Latin ctinei. The whole of the place for the spectators (Siarpov) was sometimes designated by the name KO!\OV, Latin cavea, it being in most cases a real excavation of the rock. Above the highest row of benches there rose a covered portico (e), which of course far exceeded in height the opposite buildings by which the stage was surrounded, and appears to have also contributed to increase the acoustic effect. The entrances to the seats of the spectators were partly underground, and led to the lowest rows of benches, while the upper rows must have been accessible from above. 2. The orchestra (6pxi)ai>t',) who undertook to keep it in repair, and con- stantly ready for use, on condition of being allowed to receive the profits. This payment continued to be exacted after the stone theatre was built. Pericles, to relieve the poorer classes, passed a law which enabled them to receive the price of admission from the state ; after which all those citizens who were too poor to pay for their places applied for the money in the public assembly, which was then frequently held in the theatre. In process of time this donation was extended to other entertainments besides theatrical ones ; the sum of two oboli being given to each citi- zen who attended ; if the festival lasted two days, four oboli ; and if three, six oboli ; but not beyond. Hence all theoric largesses re- ceived the name of diobelia (iuojSeAi'a). It is calculated that from 25 to 30 talents were spent upon them annually. So large an ex- penditure of the public funds upon shows and amusements absorbed the resources, which were demanded for services of a more im- portant nature. By the ancient law, the whole surplus of the annual revenue which remained after the expense of the civil admi- nistration (TO irepCovra. xprjiia.ro, T>) fiioiic>]s) was to be carried to the military fund, and applied to the defence of the commonwealth. Since the time of Pericles various demagogues had sprung up, who induced the people to divert all that could be spared from the other branches of civil expenditure into the theorio fund, which at length swallowed up the whole surplus, and the supplies needed for the pur- pose of war or defence were left to depend upon the extraordinary contributions, or pro- perty-tax (eio-^opou). An attempt was made by the demagogue Eubulus to perpetuate this system. He passed a law, which made it a capital offence to propose that the theorio fund should be applied to military service. The law of Eubulus was a source of great embarrassment to Demosthenes, in the prose- cution of his schemes for the national de- fence ; and he seems at last, but not before THEORI. 375 THESMOPHORIA. B. c. 339, to hare succeeded in repealing it. In the earlier times there was no person, or board of persons, expressly appointed to manage the theoric fund. The money thus appropriated was disbursed by the Helleno- tamiae. After the anarchy, the largess eft- tern having been restored by Agyrrhius, a board of managers was appointed. They were elected by show of hands at the period of the great Dionysia, one from each tribe. THE5RI (Sopoi), persons sent on special missions (flewpi'ai) to perform some religious duty, as to consult an oracle, or to offer a sacrifice, on behalf of the state. There were among some of the Dorian states, as the Aegi- netans, Troezenians, Me -senians, and Manti- neans, official priests called Thtori, whose duty it was to consult oracles, interpret the responses, &c., as among the Spartans there were men called Pythii, chosen by the kings to consult the oracle at Delphi. At Athens there were no official persons called Theori, but the name was given to those citizens who were appointed from time to time to conduct religious embassies to various places ; of which the most important were those that were sent to the Olympian, Pythian, Nemean, and Isthmian games, those that went to con- sult the God at Delphi, and those that led the solemn procession to Delos, where the Athenians established a quadriennial festival, in revival of the ancient Ionian one, of which Homer speaks. The expense of these embas- sies was defrayed partly by the state, and partly by wealthy citizens, to whom the ma- nagement of them was entrusted, called Ar- chitheori (ap\iOfxf>opo), and other symbols of civilised life. The women spent the night at Eleusis in celebrating the mys- teries of the goddess. The second day, called vrfirrtia., was a day of mourning, during which the women sat on the ground around the statue of Demeter, and took no other food than cakes made of sesame and honey. On this day no meetings either of the senate or the people were held. It was probably in the afternoon of this day that the women held a procession at Athens, in which they walked barefooted behind a waggon, upon which baskets with mystical symbols were conveyed to the thesmophorion. The third day, called KoAAryeVeta, from the circumstance that De- meter was invoked under this name, was a day of merriment and raillery among the women themselves, in commemoration of lambe, who was said to have made the god- dess smile during her grief. THESMOTHETAE. 376 TIBIA. THESMOTHETAE. [ARCHOX.] THETES. [CENSUS.] THOLOS (SoAo?, also called triuas), a name given to any round building which termi- nated at the top in a point, whatever might be the purpose for which it was used. At Athens the name was in particular applied to the new round prytaneium near the senate- house, which should not be confounded with the old prytaneium at the foot of the acro- polis. It was therefore the place in which the prytanes took their common meals and offered their sacrifices. It was adorned with some small silver statues, and near it stood the ten statues of the Attic Eponymi. THORAX. [LowcA.] THRACES. [GLADIATORES.] THRANITAE. [NAVIS.] THRONUS (tfpovos), a throne, is a Greek word, for which the proper Latin term is Solium. This did not differ from a chair (icade'Spa) [CATHEDRA ; BELLA] except in being higher, larger, and in all respects more mag- nificent. On account of its elevation it was always necessarily accompanied by a foot- stool (subselliitm, viroiro&iov, Opavutv). The accompanying cut shows two gilded thrones with cushions and drapery, intended to be the thrones of Mars and Venus, which is ex- pressed by the helmet on the one and the dove on the other. Throni. (From nn ancient Painting.) THYMELE. [THEATRTJM.] THYRSUS (9upo-os), a pole carried by Bacchus, and by Satyrs, Maenades, and others who engaged in Bacchic festivities and rites. [DIONYSIA.] It was sometimes terminated by the apple of the pine, or fir- cone, that tree (irev*> a distinction which applies to civil as wefl as to criminal trials. Where a man sought to recover an estate in land, or a house, or any specific thing, as a ring, a horse, a slave, nothing further was required, than to determine to whom the estate, the house, or the thing demanded, of right be- longed. The same would be the case in an action of debt, XP /OV * ^"J where a sum cer- tain was demanded. In these and many other similar cases the trial was ari/jHiros. On the other hand, wherever the damages were in their nature unliquidated, and no provision had been made concerning them either by the law or by the agreement of the parties, they were to be assessed by the di- casts. The following was the course of pro- ceeding in the TIJM/TO! ayuwt. The bill of indictment (ryj/aa) -was always super- scribed with some penalty by the person who preferred it. He was said jriypoif>mjpia opyava), a mili- tary engine, so called from the twisting (torquendo) of hairs, thongs, and vegetable fibres. The principal military engines were the balista and catapulta. The lalista (jrerpo/SoAos) was used to shoot stones ; the catapulta (taToireXr>}, KaraireATuo)) to project darts, especially the falarica [HASTA], and a kind of missile, 4i feet long, colled trifax. "Whilst in besieging a city the ram [ABIES] was employed in destroying the lower part of the wall, the balista was used to overthrow the bat- tlements (propugnacula, tiroAfsis), and the ca- tapult to shoot any of the besieged who appeared between them : the forms of these machines being adapted to the objects which they were intended to throw ; the catapult was long, the balista nearly square. Instances are recorded In which the balista threw stones to the dis- tance of a quarter of a mile. Some balistae threw stones weighing three hundredweight. Of the scorpio or onager, which was also a spe- cies of tormentum, we know next to nothing. TORMEXTUM (/Wow), torture. (1) CREEK. By a decree of Scamandrius it was ordained that no free Athenian could be put to the torture, and this appears to have been the general practice. The evidence of slaves was, however, always taken with torture, and their testimony was not otherwise received. From this circumstance their testimony ap- pears to have been considered of more value than that of freemen. Any person might offer his own slave to be examined by tor- ture, or demand that of his adversary, and the offer or demand was equally called The parties interested either superintended the torture themselves, or chose certain persons for this purpose, hence called /Sourou'ioral, who took the evidence of the slaves. (2) ROM AX. During the time of the republic freemen were never put to the torture, and slaves only were exposed to this punishment. Slaves, moreover, could not be tortured to prove the guilt of their own master, except in the case of incestus, which was a crime against the gods, or un- less the senate made an exception in some special instance. At a later time slaves might be tortured to bear witness against their masters in cases of majestas and adul- tery. Under the emperors even free persons were put to the torture to extract evidence from them in cases of majestas ; and although this indignity was confined for the most part to persons in humble circumstances, we read of cases in which even Roman senators and equites were exposed to it. TORQUES or TORQUIS (cTrporros), an ornament of gold, twisted spirally and bent into a circular form, wliich was worn round the neck by men of distinction among the Persians, the Gauls, and other Asiatic and northern nations. It was by taking a collar from a Gallic warrior that T. Manlius ob- tained the cognomen of Torquatus. Such collars were among the rewards of valour bestowed after an engagement upon those who had most distinguished themselves. TORUS, a bed covered with sheets or blankets, called Toralia, TRABEA. [TooA.] TRAGOEDIA (rpay^M), tragedy. (1) GREEK. The tragedy of the ancient Greeks as well as their comedy confessedly origi- nated in the worship of the god Dionysus. The peculiarity which most strikingly dis- tinguishes the Greek tragedy from that of modern times, is the lyrical or choral part. This was the offspring of the dithyrambic and choral odes from which, as applied to the worship of Dionysus, Greek tragedy took its rise. The name of Tragedy (TpaytaSia) is probably derived from the goatlike appear- ance of the Satyrs who sang or acted with mimetic gesticulations (opxqais) the old Bac- chic songs, with Silenus, the constant com- panion of Dionysus, for their leader. The Dionysian dithyrambs were sometimes of a gay and at other times of a mcurnful charac- ter : it was from the latter that the stately and solemn tragedy of the Greeks arose. Great improvements were introduced in the dithyramb by Arion, a contemporary of Pe- riander. Before his time the dithyramb was sung in a wild and irregular manner ; but he is said to have invented the Cyclic chorus, by which we are to understand that th TXAGOEDIA. 382 TRAGOEDIA. Dithyramb was danced by a chorus of fifty men round an altar. The choral Dithy- rambic songs prevailed to some extent, as all choral poetry did, amongst the Dorians of the Peloponnesus ; whence the choral ele- ment of the Attic tragedy was always written in the Dorian dialect, thus showing its origin. The lyrical poetry was, however, especially popular at Sicyon and Corinth. In the latter city Arion made his improvements ; in the former "tragic choruses," i. e. dithy- rambs of a sad and plaintive character, were very ancient. From the more solemn Dithy- rambs then, as improved by Arion, ultimately sprang the dramatic tragedy of Athens, some- what in the following manner. The cho- ruses were under the direction of a leader or exarchus, who, it may be supposed, came forward separately, and whose part was sometimes taken by the poet himself. We may also conjecture that the exarchus in each case led off by singing or reciting his part in a solo, and that the chorus dancing round the altar then expressed their feelings of joy or sorrow at his story, representing the perils and sufferings of Dionysus, or some hero, as it might be. The subjects of this Dithyrambic tragedy were not, however, always confined to Dionysus. Even Arion wrote Dithyrambs, relating to different heroes, a practice in which he was followed by succeeding poets. It is easy to conceive how the introduction of an actor or speaker independent of the chorus might have been suggested by the exarchs coming forward separately and making short off-hand speeches, whether learnt by heart beforehand, or made on the spur of the moment. [CHOBUS.] But it is also possible, if not probable, that it was suggested by the rhapsodical recitations of the epic and gnomic poets formerly pre- valent in Greece : the gnomic poetry being generally written in Iambic verse, the metre of the Attic dialogue. This however is cer- tain, that the union of the Iambic dialogue with the lyrical chorus took place at Athens under Pisistratus, and that it was attributed to Thespis, a native of Icaria, one of the country demcs or parishes of Attica where the worship of Dionysus had long prevailed. The alteration made by him, and which gave to the old tragedy a new and dramatic cha- racter, was very simple but very important, lie introduced an actor, as it is recorded, for the sake of giving rest to the chorus, and in- dependent of it, in which capacity he pro- bably appeared himself, taking various parts in the same piece, under various disguises, which he was enabled to assume by means of linen masks, the invention of which is attributed to him. Now as a chorus, by means of its leader, could maintain a dia- logue with the actor, it is easy to see how with one actor only a dramatic action might be introduced, continued, and concluded, by the speeches between the choral songs ex- pressive of the joy or sorrow of the chorus at the various events of the drama. With respect to the character of the drama of Thespis there has been much doubt : some writers, and especially Bentley, have main- tained that his piays were all satyrical and ludicrous, i. e. the plot of them was some story of Bacchus, the chorus consisted prin- cipally of satyrs, and the argument was merry. But perhaps the truth is that in the early part of his career Thespis retained the sa- tyrical character of the older tragedy, but afterwards inclined to more serious composi- tions, which would almost oblige him to dis- card the Satyrs from his choruses. That he did write serious dramas is intimated by the titles of the plays ascribed to him, as well as by the character of the fragments of Iambic verse quoted by ancient writers as his. It is evident that the introduction of the dia- logue must also have caused an alteration in the arrangement of the chorus, which could not remain cyclic or circular, but must have been drawn up in a rectangular form about the thymele or altar of Bacchus in front of the actor, who was elevated on a platform or table (cAeos), the forerunner of the stage. The lines of Horace (Ar. Poet. 276) : " Dicitur ct plaurtris vcxisse pocmatn Thespis, Quae canerent ngcrenfcjue peruncti faecibiu ora " are founded on a misconception of the origin of the Attic tragedy, and the tale about the waggons of Thespis probably arose out of a confusion of the waggon of the comedian Su- sarion with the platform of the Thespian actor. The first representation of Thespis was in B. c. 535. His immediate successors were the Athe- nian Choerilus and Phrynichus, the former of whom represented plays as early as B. c. 524. Phrynichus was a pupil of Thespis, and gained his first victory in the dramatic contests B. c. 511. In his works, the lyric or choral ele- ment still predominated over the dramatic, and he was distinguished for the sweetness of his melodies, which in the time of the Peloponnesian war were very popular with the admirers of the old style of music. The first use of female masks is also attributed to him, and he so far deviated from the general practice of the Attic tragedians as to write a drama on a subject of contemporary history, the capture of Miletus by the Persians, B. c. 494. We now come to the first writer of Satyrical dramas, Pratinas of Phlius, a town not far from Sicyon, and which laid claim to the invention of tragedy as well as comedy. TRAGOEDIA. TRAGOEDIA. For some time previously to this poet, and probably as early as Thespis, tragedy had been gradually departing more and more from its old characteristics, and inclining to heroic fables, to which the chorus of Satyrs was not a fit accompaniment. But the fun and mer- riment caused by them were too good to be lost. Accordingly the Satyrical drama, dis- tinct from the recent and dramatic tragedy, but suggested by the sportive element of the old Dithyramb, was founded by Pratinas, who however appears to have been surpassed in his own invention by Choerilus. It was always written by tragedians, and generally three tragedies and one Satyrical piece were represented together, which in some instances at least formed a connected whole, called a tetralogy (TtrpaAoyia). The Satyrical piece was acted last, so that the minds of the spec- tators were agreeably relieved by a merry after-piece at the close of an earnest and en- grossing tragedy. The distinguishing feature of this drama was the chorus of Satyrs, in appropriate dresses and masks, and its sub- jects seem to have been taken from the same class of the adventures of Bacchus and of the heroes as those of tragedy ; but of course they were so treated and selected, that the presence of rustic satyrs would seem appro- priate. In their jokes and drollery consisted the merriment of the piece ; for the kings and heroes who were introduced into their company were not of necessity thereby divested of their epic and legendary character, though they were obliged to conform to their situation and suffer some diminution of dignity, from their posi- tion. Hence Horace (Ar. Poet. 231) says: " Efiutire lev indignn Tragoedia Tenus Intererit Satyris puulum pudibunda protervis," alluding in the first line to the mythic or epic element of the Satyric drama, which he calls Tragoedia, and in the second represent- ing it as being rather ashamed of its com- pany. The " Cyclops " of Euripides is the only Satyric drama now extant. The great improvements in tragedy were introduced by Aeschylus. This poet added a second actor, diminished the parts of the chorus, and made the dialogue the principal part of the action. He also availed himself of the aid of Aga- tharchus, the scene-painter, and improved the costume of his actors by giving them thick-soled boots (c^/3arat), as well as the masks, which he made more expressive and characteristic. Horace (Ar. Poet. 278) thus alludes to his improvements : " pcnonae paUaeqne repertor honetta* Aeichylus, et modicii inravit puipita tignu Et docuit magnui&que loqui, nitiquc cothurno.'* The custom of contending with trilogies (rpi- Xoyuu), or with three plays at a time, is said to have been also introduced by him. In fact he did so much for tragedy, and so com- pletely built it up to its " towering height," that he was considered the father of it. The subjects of his dramas were not connected with the worship of Dionysus ; but rather with the great cycle of Hellenic legends and some of the myths of the Homeric Epos. Ac- cordingly, he said of himself that his dramas were but scraps and fragments from the great feasts of Homer. In the latter part of his life Aeschylus made use of one of the im- provements of Sophocles, namely the rptra- yuincmjs, or third actor. This was the finish- ing stroke to the dramatic element of Attic tragedy, which Sophocles is said to have ma- tured by further improvements in costume and scene-painting. Under him tragedy ap- pears with less of sublimity and sternness than in the hands of Aeschylus, but with more of calm grandeur and quiet dignity and touching incident. The plays of Sophocles are the perfection of the Grecian tragic dra- ma, as a work of art and poetic composition in a thoroughly chastened and classic style. In the hands of Euripides tragedy deterio- rated not only in dignity, but also in its moral and religious significance. He intro- duces his heroes in rags and tatters, and busies, them with petty affairs, and makes them speak the language of every-day life. As Sophocles said of him, he represented men not as they ought to be, but as they are, without any ideal greatness or poetic charac- ter. His dialogues too were little else than the rhetorical and forensic language of his day cleverly put into verse : full of sophistry and quibbling distinctions. One of the peculiarities of his tragedies was the wpdAo- yos, an introductory monologue, with which some hero or god opens the play, telling who he is, what is the state of affairs, and what has happened up to the time of his address, so as to put the audience in possession of every fact which it might be necessary for them to know : a very business-like pro- ceeding no doubt, but a poor make-shift for artistical skill. The "Deus ex machina," also, though not always, in a " nodus, tali vindice dignus," was frequently employed by Euripides to effect the denoiiment of his pieces. The chorus too no longer discharged its proper and high functions either as a re- presentative of the feelings of unprejudiced observers, or, as one of the actors, and a part of the whole, joining in the development of the piece. Many of his choral odes in fact are but remotely connected in subject with the action of the play. Another novelty of Euripides was the use of the monodies or lyrical songs, in which not the chorus, but TRAGOEDIA. 384 TRAGOEDIA. the principal persons of the drama, declare their emotions and sufferings. Euripides was also the inventor of tragi-comedy. A specimen of the Euripidean tragi-comedy is still extant in the Alcestis, acted B. c. 438, as the last of four pieces, and therefore as a substitute for a Satyr ical drama. Though tragic in its form and some of its scenes, it has a mixture of comic and satyric characters (e. g. Hercules) and concludes happily. The parts which constitute a Greek tragedy, as to its form, are, the prologue, episode, exode, and choral songs ; the last divided into the parode and stasimon. The n-pdAoyos is all that part of a tragedy which precedes the parodos of the chonis, *. e. the first act. The enei.cr6Si.ov is all the part between whole cho- ral odes. The e'foSos that part which has no choral ode after it. Of the choral part the ndpoSos is the first speech of the whole chorus (not broken up into parts) : the stasimon is without anapaests and trochees. These two divisions were sung by all the choreutae, but the " songs on the stage " and the KO/I/XOI by a part only. The commus, which properly means a wailing for the dead, was generally used to express strong excitement, or lively sympathy with grief and suffering, espe- cially by Aeschylus. It was common to the actors and a portion only of the chorus. Again the Jropo6"o9 was so named as being the passage-song of the chorus sung while it was advancing to its proper place in the orches- tra, and therefore in anapaestic or marching verse : the orao-tfioc, as being chaunted by the chorus when standing still in its proper position. The materials of Greek tragedy were the national mythology, " I'rifratmg Tlichcs, or Pelop's line, Or the tale of Troy divine." The exceptions to this were the two histori- cal tragedies, the " Capture of Miletus," by Phrynichus, and the " Persians " of Aeschy- lus ; but they belong to an early period of the art. Hence the plot and story of the Grecian tragedy were of necessity known to the spectators, a circumstance which strongly distinguishes the ancient tragedy from the modern. The functions of the Chorus in Greek Tragedy were very important, as de- scribed by Horace (Ar. Poet. 193), " Actorw paries chorus offiriumquc viri'.c I ). l, mlat : neu quid mixlioe intercinat actus, Quod mm prupoeito conducat, ct Imcreat npte," He. It often expresses the reflections of a dispas- sionate and right-minded spectator, and in- culcates the lessons of morality and resigna- tion to the will of heaven, taught by the occurrence of the piece in which it is engaged. With respect to the number of the chorus sec CHOHUS. ( 2 ) ROMAX. The tragedy of the Romans was borrowed from tie Greek , but the construction of the Romui theatre afforded no appropriate place for the chorus, which was therefore obliged to appear on the stage, instead of in the orchestra. The first tragic poet and actor at Rome was Livius Andronicus, a Greek by birth, who began to exhibit in B. c. 240. In his monodies (or the lyrical parts sung, not by a chorus, but by one person), it was customary to separate the singing from the mimetic dancing, leav- ing the latter only to the actor, while the singing was performed by a boy placed near the flute-player (ante tibicinem) ; so that the dialogue only (diverbia) was left to be spoken by the actors. Livius Andronicus was fol- lowed by Naevius, Ennius, Pacuvius, and Attius. These five poets belong to the earlier epoch of Roman tragedy, in which little was written but translations and imitations of the Greek, with occasional insertions of original matter. How they imitated the structure of the choral odes is doubtful perhaps they never attempted it. In the age of Augustus the writing of tragedies, whether original or imitations, seems to have been quite a fashion- able occupation. The emperor himself at- tempted an Ajax, but did not succeed. One of the principal tragedians of this epoch was Asinius Pollio, to whom the line (Virg. Eclog. viii. 10) applies " Sola Sophoclco tua carmina digna cotlmmo." Ovid wrote a tragedy on the subject of Me- dea. Quintilian says of Varius, who was distinguished in epic as well as tragic poetry, that his Thycstes might be compared with any of the Greek tragedies. Some fragments of this Thyestes are extant, but we have no other remains of the tragedy of the Augustan age. The loss perhaps is not great. The only complete Roman tragedies that have come down to us are the ten attributed to the philosopher Seneca ; but whether he wrote any of them or not is a disputed point. To whatever age they belong, they are be- yond description bombastic and frigid, ut- terly unnatural in character and action, full of the most revolting violations of pro- priety, and barren of all theatrical effect. Still they have had admirers : Heinsius calls the Hippolytus " divine," and prefers the Troadcs to the Hecuba of Euripides : even Racine has borrowed from the Hippolytus in PhMre. Roman tragedians sometimes wrote tragedies on subjects taken from their na- tional history. Pacuvius, c. g. wrote a Paulus, L. Accius a Brutus and a Dcciut. Curiatius Maternus, also a distinguished oru- tor in the reign of Domitian, wrote a Do- mitius and a Cato, the latter of which gava olTence to the rulers of the state. TRAGULA. 385 TRIBUXUS. TUAGCLA. [HASTA.] TRAXSTRA. [XAns.l TltAXSVECTIO EQCITUM. [Eavrns, P. 157.] TBIARII. [ExERcrrrs.] TRIBULA or TRIBULUM (rpi/SoXos), a corn-drag-, consisting of a thick and pon- derous wooden board, which was armed un- derneath with pieces of iron or sharp flints, and drawn over the corn by a yoke of oxen, either the driver or a heavy weight being placed upon it, for the purpose of separating: the grain and cutting the straw. TRIBULUS (Tpi/3oAo), a caltrop, also called murcx. When a place was beset with troops, the one party endeavoured to impede the cavalry of the other party, either by throwing before them caltrops, which neces- sarily lay with one of their four sharp points turned upwards, or by burying the caltrops with one point at the surface of the ground. TRIBG'XAL, a raised platform, on which the praetor and judices sat in the Basilica. [BASILICA.] There was a tribunal in the camp, which was generally formed of turf, but sometimes, in a stationary camp, of stone, from which the general addressed the sol- diers, and where the consul and tribunes of the soldiers administered justice. When the general addressed the army from the tribunal the standards were planted in front of it, and the army placed round it in order. The ad- dress itself was called Allocutio. TRIBUXUS, a tribune. This word seems originally to have indicated an officer con- nected with a tribe (ti-ibus], or who repre- sented a tribe for certain purposes ; and this is indeed the character of the officers who were designated by it in the earliest timec of Rome, and may be traced also in the later officers of this name. ( 1 ) TRIBUNES OP THE THREE ANCIENT TRIBES. At the time when all the Roman citizens were contained in the three tribes of the Ramnes, Titles, and Lu- ceres, each of them was headed by a tribune, and these three tribunes represented their respective tribes in all civil, religious, and military affairs ; that is to say, they were in the city the magistrates of the tribes, and performed the sacra on their behalf, and in times of war they were their military com- manders. The tribunus celerum was the commander of the celeres, the king's body- guard, and not the tribune of the tribe of the Ramnes, as is supposed by some modern writers. In what manner the tribunus ce- lerum was appointed is uncertain, but it is probable that he was elected by the tribes ; for we find that when the imperium was to be conferred upon the king, the comitia were held under the presidency of the tribunus celerum ; and in the absence of the king, to whom this officer -was next in rank, he con- voked the comitia : it was in an assembly of this kind that Brutus proposed to deprive Tarquinius of the imperium. A law passed under the presidency of the tribunus celerum was called a lex tribitnicia, to distinguish it from one passed under the presidency of the king. The tribunes of the three ancient tribes ceased to be appointed when these tribes themselves ceased to exist as political bodies, and when the patricians became in- corporated in the local tribes of Servius Tulliu?. [THIBVS.] (2) TRIBVNES or TIU: SERVIAN- TRIBES (<<>uAapxot, Tpirrudpxoi). When Servius Tullius divided the common- alty into thirty local tribes, we again find a tribune at the head of these tribes. The duties of these tribunes, who were without doubt the most distinguished persons in their respective districts, appear to have consisted at first in keeping a register of the inhabit- ants in each district, and of their property, for purposes of taxation, and for levying the troops for the armies. When subscquentlv the Roman people became exempted from taxes, the main part of their business was taken from them, but they still continued to exist. The tribimi aerarii, who occur down to the end of the republic, were perhaps only the successors of the tribunes of the tribes. When (B. c. 40G) the custom of giving pay (stipendium) to the soldiers was introduced, each of the tribuni aerarii had to collect the tributum in his own tribe, and with it to pay the soldiers; and in case they did not fulfil this duty, the soldiers had the right of pig- noris capio against them. In later times their duties appear to have been confined to collecting the tributum, which they made over to the military quaestors who paid the soldiers. [QUAESTOR.] The Lex Aurelia, B. c. 70, called the tribuni aerarii to the exercise of judicial functions,' along with the senators and equites, as these tribunes re- presented the body of the most respectable citizens. But of this distinction they were subsequently deprived by Julius Caesar. (3) TRIBPNI PLEBIS (irjuapx 01 , the office Srmapxia-). The ancient tribunes of the plebeian tribes had undoubtedly the right of convoking the meetings of their tribes, and of maintaining 1 the privileges granted to them by king Servius, and subsequently by the Valerian laws. But this protection was very inadequate against the insatiable am- bition and usurpations of the patricians. When the plebeians, impoverished by long wars, and cruelly oppressed by the patri- cians, at last seceded in B. c. 494 to the Mons Sacer, the patricians were obliged to grant 2 c TRIBUNUS. 386 TRIBUNUS. to the plebeians the right of appointing tri- bunes (tribuni plebis) with more efficient powers to protect their own order than those which were possessed by the heads of the tiibes. The purpose for which they were appointed was only to afford protection against any abuse on the part of the patrician magistrates ; and that they might be able to afford such protection their persons were declared sacred and inviolable, and it was agreed that whoever invaded this inviola- bility should be an outlaw, and that his pro- perty should be forfeited to the temple of Ceres. A subsequent law enacted that no one should oppose or interrupt a tribune while addressing the people, and that who- ever should act contrary to this ordinance should give bail to the tribunes for the pay- ment of whatever fine they should affix to his offence in arraigning him before the commonalty ; if he refused to give bail, his life and property were forfeited. The tri- bunes were thus enabled to afford protection to any one who appealed to the assembly of the commonalty or required any other assist- ance. They were essentially the representa- tives and the organs of the plebeian order, and their sphere of action was the comitia tributa. With the patricians and their co- mitia they had nothing to do. The tribunes themselves, however, were not judges, and could inflict no punishments, but could only propose the imposition of a fine to the com- monalty (mult am irrogare}. The tribunes were thus in their origin only a protecting magistracy of the plebs, but in the course of time their power increased to such a degree that it surpassed that of all other magistrates, and the tribunes then became a magistracy for the whole Roman people, in opposition to the senate and the oligarchical party in gene- ral, although they had nothing to do with the administration or the government. During the latter period of the republic they became true tyrants, and may be compared to the national convention of France during the first revolution. At first the number of the tribunes was only two, but soon afterwards they were increased to five, one being taken from each of the five classes, and subse- quently to ten, two being taken from each of the five classes. This last number appears to have remained unaltered down to the end of the empire. The tribunes entered upon their office on the 10th of December, but were elected, at least in the time of Cicero, on the 17th of July. It is almost superfluous to state that none but plebeians were eligible io the office of tribune ; hence when, towards the end of the republic, patricians wished to obtain the office, they were obliged first to renounce their own order and to become ple- beians; hence also under the empire it was thought that the princcps should not be tri- bune because he was a patrician. But the influence which belonged to this office waa too great for the emperors not to covet it. Hence Augustus was made tribune for life. During the republic, however, the old regu- lation remained in force, even after the tri- bunes had ceased to be the protectors of the plebs alone. There is only one instance re- corded in which patricians were elected to the tribuneship, and this was probably the consequence of an attempt to divide the tri- bnneship between the two orders. Although nothing appears to be move natural than that the tribunes should originally have been elected by that body of Roman citizens which they represented, yet the subject is involved in considerable obscurity. Some writers state that they were elected by the comitia of the curies ; others suppose that they were elected in the comitia of the centuries ; but whether they were elected in the latter or in the comitia of the tribes, it is certain that at first the sanction of the curies to the election was at all events necessary. But after the time of the Lex Tublilia (B.C. 472) the sanction of the curies is not heard of, and the election of the tribunes was left entirely to the co- mitia tributa, which were convoked and held for this purpose by the old tribunes previous to the expiration of their office. One of the old tribunes was appointed by lot to preside at the election. As the meeting could not be prolonged after sunset, and the business was to be completed in one day, it sometimes happened that it was obliged to break up before the election was completed, and then those who were elected filled up the legiti- mate number of the college by cooptatio. But in order to prevent this irregularity, the tribune L. Trebonius, in 448 B. c., got an ordinance passed, according to which the college of the tribunes should never be com- pleted by cooptatio, but the elections should be continued on the second day, if they were not completed on the first, till the number ten was made up. The place where the elec- tion of the tribunes was held was originally and lawfully the Forum, afterwards also the Campus Martius, and sometimes the area of the Capitol. We now proceed to trace the gradual growth of the tribunitian power. Although its original character was merely protection (auxilium or /3oij0eia) against pa- trician magistrates, the plebeians appear early to have regarded their tribunes also as mediators or arbitrators in matters among themselves. The whole pewcr possessed by the college of tribunes was designated by tho TRIBUNUS. 387 TRIBUNUS. name tribun Ida potestas, and extended at no time farther than one mile beyond the gates of the city ; at a greater distance than this they came under the imperium of the ma- gistrates, like every other citizen. As they were the public guardians, it was necessary "that every one should have access to them and at any time ; hence the doors of their houses were open day and night for all who were in need of help and protection, which they were empowered to afford against any one, even against the highest magistrates. For the same reason a tribune was not al- lowed to be absent from the city for a whole day, except during the Fcriae Latinae, when the whole people were assembled on the Alban Mount. In B.C. 456 the tribunes, in opposition to the consuls, assumed the right of convoking the senate, in order to lay before it a rogation, and discuss the same ; for until that time the consuls alone had had the right of laying plebiseita before the senate for approbation. Some years after, B. c. 452, the tribunes demanded of the con- suls to request the senate to make a senatus- consultum for the appointment of persons to frame a new legislation ; and during the discussions on this subject the tribunes them- selves were present in the senate. The written legislation which the tribunes then wished can only have related to their own order ; but as such a legislation would only have widened the breach between the two orders, they afterwards gave way to the re- monstrances of the patricians, and the new legislation was to embrace both orders. From the second decemvirate the tribune- ship was suspended, but was restored after the legislation was completed, and now assumed a different character from the change that bad taken place in the tribes. [TRIBUS.] The tribunes now had the right to be present at the deliberations of the senate ; but they did not sit among the senators themselves, but upon benches before the opened doors of the senate house. The inviolability of the tribunes, which had'before only rested upon a contract between the two estates, was now sanctioned and confirmed by a law of M. Horatius. As the tribes now also included the patricians and their clients, the tribunes might naturally be asked to interpose on behalf of any citizen, whether patrician or plebeian. Hence the patrician ex-decemvir, Appius Claudius, implored the protection of the tribunes. About this time the tribunes also acquired the right of taking the auspices in the assemblies of the tribes. They also assumed again the right, which they had exercised before the time of the decemvirate, of bringing patricians who had -violated the rights of the plebeians before the comitia of the tribes. By the Lex Valeria passed in the Comitia Centuriata (B.C. 449), it was enacted that a plebiscitum, which had been voted by the tribes, should bind the patricians as well. While the college thus gained outwardly new strength every day, a change took place in its internal organisation, which to some ex- tent paralysed its powers. Before B.C. 394, every thing had been decided in the college by a majority; but about this time, we do not know how, a change was introduced, which made the opposition (intercessio] of one tribune sufficient to render a resolution of his colleagues void. This new regulation docs not appear in operation till 394 and 393 B. c. ; the old one was still applied in B. c. 421 and 415. From their right of appearing in the senate, and of taking part in its dis- cussions, and from their being the represen- tatives of the whole people, they gradually obtained the right of intercession against any action which a magistrate might undertake during the time of his office, and this even without giving any reason for it. Thus we find a tribune preventing a consul from con- voking the senate, and preventing the pro- posal of new laws or elections in the comitia ; they interceded against the official functions of the censors ; and even against a command issued by the praetor. In the same manner a tribune might place his veto upon an ordi- nance of the senate ; and he could thus either compel the senate to submit the subject to a fresh consideration, or could raise the session. In order to propose a measure to the senate they might themselves convene a meeting, or when it had been convened by a consul they might make their proposal even in opposition to the consul, a right which no other magis- trates had in the presence of the consuls. The senate, on the other hand, had itself, in certain cases, recourse to the tribunes. Thus, in B. c. 431 it requested the tribunes to com- pel the consuls to appoint a dictator, in com- pliance with a decree of the senate, and the tribunes compelled the consuls, by threatening them with imprisonment, to appoint A. Fos- tumius Tubertus dictator. From this time forward we meet with several instances in which the tribunes compelled the consuls to comply with the decrees of the senate, si non essent in auctoritate senatus, and to execute its commands. In their relation to the senate a change was introduced by the Plebiscitum Atinium, which ordained that a tribune, by virtue of his office, should be a senator. When this plebiscitum was made is uncertain ; but we know that in B. c. 170 it was not yet in operation. It probably originated with C. Atinius, who was trfbune in B. c. 132. 2 c 2 TRIBUNUS. 388 TRIBUS. But as the quaestorship, at least in later times, was the office which persons held pre- viously to the tribuneship, and as the quaes- torship itself conferred upon a person the right of a senator, the law of Atiniuo was in most cases superfluous. In their relation to other magistrates we may observe, that the right of intercessio was not confined to stop- ping a magistrate in his proceedings, but they might even command their viatores to seize a consul or a censor, to imprison him, or to throw him from the Tarpeiun rock. When the tribunes brought an accusation against any one before the people, they had the right of prehetisio, but not the right of vocatio, that is, they might command a per- son to be dragged by their viatores before the comitia, but they could not summon him. They might, as in earlier times, propose a fine to be inflicted upon the person accused before the comitia, but in some cases they dropped this proposal and treated the case as a capital one. The college of tribunes had also the power of making edicts. In cases in which one member of the college opposed a resolution of his colleagues nothing could be done, and the measure was dropped ; but this useful check was removed by the example of Tiberius Gracchus, in which a precedent was given for proposing to the people that a tribune obstinately persisting in his veto should be deprived of his office. From the time of the Hortensian law the power of the tribunes had been gradually rising to such a height that at length it was superior to every other in the state. They had acquired the right of proposing to the comitia tributa or the senate measures on nearly all the im- portant affairs of the state, and it would be endless to enumerate the cases in which their power was manifested. Their proposals were indeed usually made ex auctoritate senatus, or had been communicated to and approved by it; but cases in which the people itself had a direct interest, such as a general legal regulation, granting of the franchise, a change in the duties and powers of a magistrate, and others, might be brought before the people, without their having been previously commu- nicated to the senate, though there are also instances of the contrary. Subjects belonging to the administration could not be brought before the tribes without the tribunes having previously received through the consuls the auctoritas of the senate. This, howevei, was done very frequently, and hence we have mention of a number of plebiscita on matters of administration. It sometimes even occurs that the tribunes brought the question con- cerning the conclusion of peace before the tribes, and then compelled the senate to ratify the resolution, as expressing the wish of the whole people. Sulla, in his reform of the constitution on the early aristocratic principles, left to the tribunes only the jus auxiliandi, and deprived them of the right of making legislative or other proposals, either to the senate or the comitia, without having previously obtained the sanction of the senate. But this arrangement did not last, for Fom- pey restored to them their former rights. During the latter period of the republic, when the office of quaestor was in most cases held immediately before that of tribune, the tribunes were generally elected from among the senators, and this continued to be the case under the empire. Sometimes, how- ever, equites also obtained the office, and thereby became members of the senate, where they were considered of equal rank with the quaestors. Tribunes of the people continued to exist down to the fifth century of our era, though their powers became naturally much limited, especially in the reign of Nero. They continued however to have the right of inter- cession against decrees of the senate, and on behalf of injured individuals.' (4) TRIBVNI MILITUM CVM CONSULARI POTESTATE. "When in B. c. 445 the tribune C. Canuleius brought forward the rogation that the consulship should not be confined to cither order, the patricians evaded the attempt by a change in the constitution ; the powers which had hitherto been united in the consulship were now divided between two new magistrates, viz. the Tribimi militum cum consulari potcs- tate and the censors. Consequently, in B. c. 444, three military tribunes, with consular power, were appointed, and to this office the plebeians were to be equally eligible with the patricians. For the years following, how- ever, the people were to be at liberty, on the proposal of the senate, to decide whether consuls were to be elected according to the old custom, or consular tribunes. Hence- forth, for many years, sometimes consuls and sometimes consular tribunes were_.appointed, and the number of the latter varied from three to four, until in B. c. 405 it was in- creased to six, and as the censors were re- garded as their colleagues, we have some- times mention of eight tribunes. At last, however, in B. c. 367, the office of these tribunes was abolished by the Licinian law, and the consulship was restored. These consular tribunes were elected in the comitia of the centuries, and undoubtedly with less solemn auspices than the consuls. (5) TBI- BUNI MlLITARES [EXKRCITVS, p. 169.] TRIBUS (<}>v\ov, vA>j), a tribe. (1) GBKF.K. In the earliest times of Greek history men- tion is made of people being divided into TKIBUS. 389 TRIBUS. tribes and clans. Homer speaks of such di- visions in terms which seem to imply that they were elements that entered into the composition of every community. A person not included in any clan (p), was re- garded as a vagrant or outlaw. These divi- sions were rather natural than political, depending on family connection, and arising out of those times, when each head of a family exercised a patriarchal sway over its members. The bond was cemented by reli- gious communion, sacrifices and festivals, which all the family or clansmen attended, and at which the chief usually presided. Of the Dorian race there were originally three tribes, traces of which are found in all the countries which they colonised. Hence they are called by Homer Aupu'es TpixaiVes. These tribes were the Ilyllcis ('YAAis), Pamphyll (IIa/uc>vAoi), and Di/mana- tae or Dymanes (Av^avaTat or Av^afcs). The first derived their name from Hyllus, son of Hercules, the two last from Pamphylus and Dymas, who are said to have fallen in the last expedition when the Dorians took pos- session of the Peloponnesus. The Hyllean tribe was perhaps the one of highest dignity ; but at Sparta there does not appear to have been much distinction, for all the freemen there were by the constitution of Lycurgus on a footing of equality. To these three tribes others were added in different places, either when the Dorians were joined by other foreign allies, or when some of the old inha- bitants were admitted to the rank of citizen- ship or equal privileges. Thus the Cadmean Aegeids are said by Herodotus to have been n great tribe at Sparta, descended (as he says) from Aegeus, grandson of Theras, though others have thought they were in- corporated with the three Doric tribes. The subdivision of tribes into phratriae (^parpiat) or patrae (n-arpai), gene (ye^T)), trittyes (rpCr- TVS), &c. appears to have prevailed in various places. At Sparta each tribe contained ten obae (uijScu), a word denoting a local division or district ; each obe contained ten triacadcs (rptaicaSe!), communities containing thirty families. But very little appears to be known of these divisions, how far they were local, or how far genealogical. After the time of Cleomenes the old system of tribes was changed ; new ones were created correspond- ing to the different quarters of the town, and they seem to have been five in number. The first Attic tribes that we read of are said to have existed in the reign, or soon after the reign, of Cecrops, and were called Ce- cropis (KeicpoTri?), Autochthon (AvTox^W), Actaea ('AKTCU'CI), and Paralia (ITapaAia). In the reign of a subsequent king, CratEus, these names wei-e changed to Cranais (Kpa- vaw), Atthis ('Arflt's), Mesogaea (Metrayaia), and Diacris (Aioucpi's). Afterwards we find a new set of names ; Dias (Aias), Atkenais ("Affyfais), Poseidonias (noa-eiScocias), and He- phaestias ('H^aiorias) ; evidently derived from the deities who were worshipped in the country. Some of those secondly mentioned, if not all of them, seem to have been geo- graphical divisions ; and it is not improbable that, if not independent communities, they were at least connected by a very weak bond of union. But all these tribes were super- seded by four others, which were probably founded soon after the Ionic settlement in Attica, and seem to have been adopted by other Ionic colonies out of Greece. The names Gcleontcs (TeAt'ocres), Hoplctes (?Oir, AIJTCS), Argadcs ('ApyaSeis), Aegicores (Aiyt- (copeis), are said by Herodotus to have been derived from the sons of Ion, son of Xuthus. Upon this, however, many doubts have been thrown by modern writers. The etymology of the last three names would seem to sug- gest, that the tribes were so called from the occupations which their respective members followed ; the Iloplctcs being the armed men, or warriors ; the Argades, labourers or hus- bandmen ; the Aegicores, goatherds or shep- herds. But whatever be the truth with respect to the origin of these tribes, one thing is certain, that before the time of Theseus, whom historians agree in representing as the gi - eat founder of the Attic commonwealth, the various people who inhabited the country continued to be disunited and split into fac- tions. Theseus in some measure changed the relations of the tribes to each other, by introducing a gradation of ranks in each ; dividing the people into Eupatridae (Evwa- rpiSai), Geomori (reujAopot), and Deminrgi (Aijfuovpyoi), of whom the first were nobles, the second agriculturists or yeomen, the third labourers and mechanics. At the same time, in order to consolidate the na- tional unity, he enlarged the city of Athens, with which he incorporated several smaller towns, made it the seat of government, encouraged the nobles to reside there, and surrendered a part of the royal prerogative in their favour. The tribes or phylae were divided, either in the age of Theseus or soon after, each into three phratriae ($pa- rpuxi, a term equivalent to fraternities, and analogous in its political relation to the Roman curiac), and each phratria into thirty gene (yV>}, equivalent to the Roman Gentes], the members of a gcnos (yeVos) being called gennctae (y>aXoi) or people of the sea- coast. The first two remind us of the an- cient division of tribes, ifesogaca and Dia- cris ; and the three parties appear ia some measure to represent the classes established by Theseus, the first being the nobles, whose property lay in the champaign and most fertile part of the country ; the second, the smaller landowners and shepherds ; the third, the trading and mining class, who had by this time risen in wealth and im- portance. To appease their discords, Solon was applied to; and thereupon framed his celebrated constitution and code of laws. Here we have only to notice that he retained the four tribes as he found them, but abo- lished the existing distinctions of rank, or at all events greatly diminished their import- ance, by introducing his property qualifica- tion, or division of the people into Pentaco- siomcdimni (nevrajcoo-iojuefiifii/oi), Hippels ('Iirircis), Zctigitae (Zevyirat), and Thctcs (TJTCS). [CENSUS, GREEK.] The enactments of Solon continued to be the law at Athens, though in great measure suspended by the tyranny, until the democratic reform effected by Ciisthenes. He abolished the old tribes, and created ten new ones, according to a geographical division of Attica, and named after ten of the ancient heroes : Erechtheis, Acacis, Pandionis, Lcontis, Acamantis, Ocncis, Cecropis, Hippothoontis, Acantis, Antiochis. These tribes were divided each into ten demi (ifi/aoi), the number of which was after- wards increased by subdivision ; but the arrangement was so made that several dcnii not contiguous or near to one another were joined to make up a tribe. [DEMUS.] The object of this arrangement was, that by the breaking of old associations a perfect and lasting revolution might be effected, in the habits and feelings, as well as the political organisation of the people. Solon allowed the ancient phratriae to exist, but they were deprived of all political importance. All foreigners admitted to the citizenship were registered in a phyle and demus, but not in a phratria or gcnos. The functions which had been discharged by the old tribes were now mostly transferred to the dcm i. Among others, we may notice that of the forty-eight naticrariae into which the old tribes had been divided for the purpose of taxation, but which now became useless, the taxes being collected on a different system. The reforms of Ciisthenes were destined to be perma- nent. They continued to be in force (with some few interruptions) until the downfall of Athenian independence. The ten tribes were blended with the whole machinery of the constitution. Of the senate of five hundred, fifty were chosen from each tribe. The allotment of dicasts was according to tribes ; and the same system of election may be observed in most of the principal offices of state, judicial and magisterial, civil and mili- tary, &c. In B. c. 307, Demetrius Polior- cctes increased the number of tribes to twelve by creating two new ones, namely, Antigo- nias and Demctrias, which afterwards re- ceived the names of Ptolcmais and Attalis ; and a thirteenth was subsequently added by Hadrian, bearing his own name. (2) RO- MAN. The three ancient Romulian tribes, the Ramnes, Titles, and Luceres, or the Ramnenses, Titienses, and Lucerenses, to which the patricians alone belonged, must be distinguished from the thirty plebeian tribes of Servius Tullius, which were entirely local, four for the city, and twenty-six for the country around Rome. The history and organisation of the three ancient tribes are spoken of under PATRICII. They continued of political importance almost down to the period of the decemviral legislation ; but after this time they no longer occur in the history of Rome, except as an obsolete in- stitution. The institution and organisation of the thirty plebeian tribes, and their sub- sequent reduction to twenty by the conquests of Porsena, arc spoken of under PLEBES. The four city tribes were called by the same names as the regions which they occupied, viz. Siibtirana, Esquilina, Collina, and Pitla- tina. The names of the sixteen country tribes which continued to belong to Rome after the conquest of Porsena, arc in their alphabetical order as follows : Acinilia, Ca- nYpillia t TRIBUTUM. 391. TRICLINIUM. Pupinia, Romilia, Scrgia, Tcturia, and Vol- linia. As Rome gradually acquired posses- sion of more of the surrounding territory, the number of tribes also was gradually in- creased. When Appius Claudius, with his numerous train of clients, emigrated to Rome, lands were assigned to them in the district where the Anio flows into the Tiber, and a new tribe, the tribtts Claudia, was formed. This tribe was subsequently enlarged, and was then designated by the name Cnts- tiimina or Cliistiimina. This name is the first instance of a country tribe being named after a place, for the sixteen older ones all derived their name from persons or heroes. In D. c. 387, the number of tribes was in- creased to twenty-five by the addition of four new ones, viz. the Stcllatina, Tromen- tina, Sabatina, and Arniensis. In u. c. 358 two more, the Pomptina and Pub/ilia, were formed of Volscians. In B.C. 332, the cen- sors Q. Publilius Philo and Sp. Postumius increased the number of tribes to twenty- nine, by the addition of the JIaecia and Scaptia. In it. c. 318 the Ufentina and Palermo were added. In B. c. 299 two others, the Aniensis and Tercntina, were added by the censors, and at last in B. c. 241, the number of tribes was augmented to thirty-five, by the addition of the Qitirina and Velina. Eight new tribes were added upon the termination of the Social War, to include the Socii, who then obtained the Ro- man franchise , but they were afterwards incorporated among the old 35 tribes, which continued to be the number of the tribes to the end of the republic. When the tribes, in their assemblies, transacted any business, a certain order (nrdo tribuum] was observed, in which they were called upon to give their votes. The first in the order of succession was the Suburana, and the last the Ar- niensis. Any person belonging to a tribe had in important documents to add to his own name that of his tribe, in the ablative case. Whether the local tribes, as they were established by the constitution of Servius Tullius, contained only the plebeians, or included the patricians also, is a point on which the opinions of modern scholars are divided : but it appears most probable that down to the dedemviral legislation the tribes and their assemblies were entirely plebeian. From the time of the decemviral legislation, the patricians and their clients were un- doubtedly incorporated in the tribes. Re- specting the assemblies of the tribes, see COMITIA TRIBVTA. TRlBfJTUM, a tax which was partly ap- plied to cover the expenses of war, and partly those of the fortifications of the city. The usual amount of the tax was one for every thousand of a man's fortune, though in the time of Cato it was raised to three in a thousand. The tributum was not a pro- perty-tax in the strict sense of the word, for the accounts respecting the plebeian debtors clearly imply, that the debts were not de- ducted in the valuation of a person's pro- perty, so that he had to pay the tributum upon property which was not his own, but which he owed, and for which he had conse- quently to pay the interest as well. It was a direct tax upon objects without any regard to their produce, like a land or house-tax, which indeed formed the main part of it. That which seems to have made it most op- pressive, was its constant fluctuation. It was raised according to the regions or tribes instituted by Servius Tullius, and by the tri- bunes of these tribes, subsequently called tribuni aerarii. It was not, like the other branches of the public revenue, let out to farm, but being fixed in money it was raised by the tribunes, unless (as was the case after the custom of giving pay to the soldiers was introduced) the soldiers, like the knights, demanded it from the persons themselves who were bound to pay it. [AES EQUKSTRF. and HORDEARIUM.] When this tax was to be paid, what sum was to be raised, and what portion of every thousand asses of the census, were matters upon which the senate alone had to decide. But when it was decreed, the people might refuse to pay it when they thought it too heavy, or unfairly distributed, or hoped to gain some other advantage by the refusal. In later times the senate some- times left its regulation to the censors, who often fixed it very arbitrarily. No citizen was exempt from it, but we find that the priests, augurs, and pontiffs made attempts to get rid of it : but this was only an abuse, which did not last. After the war with Ma- cedonia (B.C. 147), when the Roman trea- sury was filled with the revenues accruing from conquests and from the provinces, the Roman citizens became exempted from pay- ing the tributum, and this state of things lasted down to the consulship of Hirtius and Pansa (43 B. c.), when the tributum was again levied, on account of the exhausted state of the aerarium. After this time it was imposed according to the discretion of the emperors. Respecting the tributum paid by conquered countries and cities, see YECTI- OALIA. , TRICLINIUM, the dining-room of a Ro- man house, the position of which, relatively to the other parts of the house, is seen in the " house of the Tragic poet " (see p. 144). It was of an oblong shape, and was twice TRICLINIUM. 392 TRIERARCUIA. as long as it was broad. The superintend- ence of the dining-room in a great house was intrusted to a slave called tricliniarcha, who, through other slaves, took care that everything was kept and proceeded in proper order. A triclinium generally contained three couches, and as the usual number of persons occupying each couch was three, the triclinium afforded accommodation for a party of nine. Sometimes, however, as many as four lay on each of the couches. Each man in order to feed himself lay flat upon his breast or nearly so, and stretched out his hand towards the table ; but afterwards, when his hunger was satisfied, he turned upon his left side, lean- ing on his elbow. To this Horace alludes in describing a person sated with a particular dish, and turning in order to repose upon his elbow. (Sat. ii. 4, 39.) We find the relative positions of two persons who lay next to one another, commonly expressed by the prepositions super or supra, and infra. A passage of Livy (xxxix. 43), in which he relates the cruel conduct of the con- sul L. Quintius Flamininus, shows that infra aliquem cubare was the same as t/ tinu alievjus cubare, and consequently that each person was considered as below him to whose breast his own head approached. On this principle we are enabled to explain the denominations both of the three couches, and of the three places on each couch. Sup- posing the annexed arrangement to represent lectus medius the plan of a triclinium, it is evident that, as each guest reclined on his left side, the countenances of all when in this position were directed, first, from No. 1 towards No. 3, then from No. 4 towards No. C, and lastly, from No. 7 towards No. 9 ; that the guest No. 1 lay, in the sense explained, abore No. 2, No. 3 below No. 2, and so of the rest ; and that, going in the same direction, the couch to the right hand was above the others, nnd the couch to the left hand below the others. It will be found, that in a passage in the eighth satire of the second book of Ho- race, the guests are enumerated in the order imus medius summus summus 654 7 3 imus medius 8 2 medius imus 9 I summus cf their accubation an order exhibited ia the annexed diagram. Vibi'iias Maecenas Scrvilius Nomentanus Varius Xasidienus Porcius Vise us Fundanius TRIDENS. [FusciXA.] TRIENS. [As.] TRIKRARCIIIA (rpirjpapxia), one of the extraordinary war services or liturgies at Athens, the object of which was to provide for the equipment and maintenance of the ships of war belonging to the state. The persons who wore charged with it were called trierarchs (rptijpapxoi.), as being the captains of triremes, though the name was also ap- plied to persons who bore the same charge in other vessels. It existed from very early times in connection with the forty-eight naucraries of Solon, and the fifty of Clis- thenes : each of which corporations appears to have been obliged to equip and man a ves- sel. [NAUCRAIUA.] Under the constitution of Clisthencs the ten tribes were at first severally charged with five vessels. This charge was of course superseded by the later forms of the trierarchy. The state furnished the ship, and either the whole or part of the ship's rigging and furniture, and also pay and provisions for the sailors. The tricr- archs were bound to keep in repair the ship and its furniture, and were frequently put to great expense in paying the sailors and sup- plying them with provisions, when the state did not supply sufficient money for the pur- pose. Moreover, some trierarchs, whether from ambitious or patriotic motives, put themselves to unnecessary expense in fitting out and rigging their ships, from which the state derived an advantage. The average expense of the trierarchy was 50 minae. In ancient times one person bore the whole charge of the trierarchy, afterwards it was customary for two persons to share it, who were then called syntrierarchs (avirpujpap- X, &c., to perforate ; a large and flat spoon or ladle, pierced with holes ; a trowel. The annexed woodcut represents such a ladle. The trttlla tinaria seems to Trua. (From the House of Paiua at TompcMi.) have been a species of colander [COLVM], used as a wine-strainer. TRUTINA (rpvTanj), a general term, in- cluding both libra, a balance, and staff ra, a steelyard. Payments were originally made by weighing, not by counting. Hence a ba- lance (trutind) was preserved in the temple of Saturn at Rome. TUBA (craA.7ri.yf), a bronze trumpet, dis- tinguished from the cormi by being straight while the latter was curved. [CORXU.] The tuba was employed in war for signals of every description, at the games and public festivals, and also at the last rites to the dead : those who sounded the trumpet at fune- rals wore termed siticines, and used an instru- ment of a peculiar form. The tones of the tuba are represented as of a harsh and fear- inspiring character. The invention of the tuba is usually ascribed by ancient writers to the Etruscans. It has been remarked that Homer never introduces the (roAn-iyf in his narrative except in comparisons, which leads us to infer that, although known in his time, it had been but recently introduced into Greece ; and it is certain that, notwith- standing its eminently martial character, it was not until a late period used in the armies of the leading states. By the Greek tragedians its Tuscan origin is fully recog- nised. According to one account it was first fabricated for the Tyrrhenians by Athena, who in consequence was worshipped by the Argivcs under the title of SaAmyj, while at Rome the tubilustrium, or purification of sacred trumpets, was performed on the last day of the Quinquatrus. [QVINQUATRVS.] There appears to have been no essential difference in form between the Greek and Roman or Tyrrhenian trumpets. Both were long, straight, bronze tubes, gradually in- creasing in diameter, and terminating in a bell-shaped aperture. Soldier* blowing Tubac nnd Cornua. (From Column of Trajan.) TUBILUSTRIUM. [QUIXQCATRCS.J TULLIANUM. [CARCER.] TUMULTUARII. [TUMVLTTS.] TUMULTUS, the name given to a sudden or dangerous war in Italy or Cisalpine Gaul, and the word was supposed by the ancients to be a contraction of timor multus. It was, however, sometimes applied to a sudden or dangerous war elsewhere ; but this does not appear to have been a correct use of the word. Cicero says that there might be a war without a tumultus, but not a tumultus without a war ; but it must be recollected that the word was also applied to any sudden alarm respecting a war ; whence we find a tumultus often spoken of as of less import- ance than a war, because the results were of TUNICA. 400 TUNICA. less consequence, though the fear might have been much greater than in a regular war. In the case of a tumultus there was a cessation from all business (justitium), and all citizens were obliged to enlist without regard being had to the exemptions (vacationes) from mi- litary service, which were enjoyed at other times. As there was not time to enlist the soldiers in the regular manner, the magis- trate who was appointed to command the army displayed two banners (vexilla) from the Capitol, one red, to summon the infantry, and the other green, to summon the cavalry, and said, Qui rempttblicam saham vult, me sequatur. Those that assembled took the military oath together, instead of one by one, as was the usual practice, whence they were called conjurati, and their service conjuratio. Soldiers enlisted in this way were termed Tumultuarii or Subitarii. TUNICA (xtTcic, dim. x lT X' T< ">- fioi>), an under-garment. ( 1 ) GREEK. The chiton was the only kind of ev&vna, or under- garment worn by the Greeks. Of this there were two kinds, the Dorian and Ionian. The Dorian chiton, as worn by males, was a short woollen shirt, without sleeves ; the Ionian was a long linen garment, with sleeves. The former seems to have been originally worn throughout the whole of Greece ; the latter was brought over to Greece by the lonians of Asia. The Ionic chiton was com- monly worn at Athens by men during the Persian wars, but it appears to have entirely gone out of fashion for the male sex about the time of Pericles, from which time the Dorian chiton was the under-garment universally adopted by men through the whole of Greece. The distinction between the Doric and Ionic chiton still continued in the dress of women. The Spartan virgins only wore this one gar- ment, and had no upper kind of clothing, whence it is sometimes called ITimation [PALLIUM] as well as Chiton. They appeared in the company of men without any further covering ; but the married women never did so without wearing an upper garment. This Doric chiton was made, as stated above, of woollen stuff; it was without sleeves, and was fastened over both shoulders by clasps or buckles (jrdpirai, irepoWt), which were often of considerable size. It was frequently so short as not to reach the knee. It was only joined together on one side, and on the other was left partly open or slit up ()M'- &m\ot&iov). It appears not to have been a separate article of dress, but merely the upper part of the cloth forming the chiton, which was larger than was required for the ordinary chiton, and was therefore thrown over the front and back. The following cuts will give a clearer idea of the form of this garment than any description. Since the Diploidia, double Chitons. (Mu lav. 4, 6.) i Borbonico, vol Diploidion was fastened over the shoulders by means of buckles or clasps, it was called i'pomis (eirco/it's), which is supposed by some writers to have been only the end of the gar- ment fastened on the shoulder. The chiton was worn by men next their skin ; but females were accustomed to wear a chemise (xtTunov') tinder their chiton. It was the practice among most of the Greeks to wear an himation, or outer garment, over the chiton, but frequently the chiton was worn alone. A person who wore only a chiton was called futvoxiTiov (oloxlnav in Homer), an tjjilhet given to the Spartan virgins. In the suiue way, a person who wore only an Ixima- tion, or outer garment, was called i\iruv> The Athenian youths, in the earlier times, wore only the chiton, and when it became the fashion, in the Peloponnesian war, to wear an outer garment over it, it was re- garded as a mark of effeminacy. (2) RO- MAN. The Tunica of the Romans, like the Greek chiton, was a woollen under garment, over which the toga was worn. It was the Indumentum or Indittus, as opposed to the Am id us, the general term for the toga, pal- lium, or any other outer garment. [AMIC- TVS.] The Romans arc said to have had no other clothing originally but the toga ; and when the tunic was first introduced, it was merely a short garment without sleeves, and was called Culolium. It was considered a mark of effeminacy for men to wear tunics with long sleeves (manicatrte) and reaching to the feet (talares}. The tunic was girded (cincta) with a belt or girdle around the waist, but it was usually worn loose, without being girded, when a person was at home, or wished to be at his ease. Hence we find the terms cinctus, praccinctus, and succinctus, applied, like the Greek tvQavos, to an active and diligent person, and discinctus to ont who was idle or dissolute. The form of the tunic, as worn by men, is represented in many woodcuts in this work. In works of art it usually terminates a little above the knee ; it has short sleeves, covering only the upper part of the arm, and is girded at the waist : the sleeves sometimes, though less fre- quently, extend to the hands. Both sexes at Home usually wore two tunics, an outer and an under, the latter of which was worn next the skin, and corresponds to our shirt and chemise. The under tunics were called Stibucula and In. dusium, the former of which is supposed to be the name of the under tunic of the men, and the latter of that of the women : but this is not certain. The word Interula was of later origin, and seems to hare been applied equally to the under tunic of both sexes. It is doubtful whether the Supparits or Sup- parum was an outer or an under garment. Persons sometimes wore several tunics, as a protection against cold : Augustus wore four in the winter, besides a subucula. As the dress of a man usually consisted of an under tunic, an outer tunic, and the toga, so that of a woman, in like manner, consisted of an under tunic, an outer tunic, and the palla. The outer tunic of the Roman matron was properly called stola [STOLA], and is repre- sented in the woodcut on p. 355 ; but the annexed woodcut, which represents a Roman empress in the character of Concordia, or Abundantia, gives a better idea of its form. Over the tunic or stola the palla is thrown 2 i) TUNICA. 402 TURR1S. in many folds, but the shape of the former is still distinctly shown. The tunics of women Roman Tunic. (Visconti, Monument! Cabin!, n. 84.) were larger and longer than those of men, and always had sleeves ; but in ancient paintings and statues \ve seldom find the sleeves covering more than the upper part of the arm. Sometimes the tunics were adorned with golden ornaments called Lcria. Poor people, who could not afford to purchase a toga, wore the tunic alone, whence we find the common people called Tunicati. A per- son who wore only his tunic was frequently called NUDUS. Respecting the clavus latus and the clavus angustus, worn on the tunics of the senators and equites respectively, sec CLAVTJS LATTJS, CLAVUS ANGL T STUS. When a triumph was celebrated, the conqueror wore, together with an embroidered toga (Toga picta), a flowered tunic (Tunica palmata], also called Tunica Jovis, because it was taken from the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus. Tu- nics of this kind were sent as presents to foreign kings by the senate. TORIBULUM (0ujuiaT7Jptoi>), a censer. The Greeks and Romans, when they sacrificed, commonly took a little frankincense out of the ACERRA and let it fall upon the flaming altar. [ABA.] More rarely they used a cen- ser, by means of which they burnt the incense in greater profusion, and which was in fact a small moveable grate or Focur.us. The an- nexed cut shows the performance of both of these acts at the same time. Winckelmann supposes it to represent Livia, the wife, and Octavia, the sister of Augustus, sacrificing to Mars in gratitude for his safe return from Spain. The censor here represented has twc handles for the purpose of carrying it from place to place, and it stands upon feet so that the air might be admitted underneath, and pass upwards through the fuel. TURMA. [EXEKCITVS, p. 166, b.] and Octavia Sacrificing. (From an ancient Painting.) TURRIS (wvpyoO, a tower. Moveable towers were among the most important en- gines used in storming a fortified place. They were generally made of beams and planks, and covered, at least on the three sides which were exposed to the besieged, with iron, not only for protection, but also to increase their weight, and thus make them steadier. They were also covered with raw hides and quilts, moistened, and sometimes with alum, to pro- tect them from fire. Their height was such as to overtop the walls, towers, and all other fortifications of the besieged place. They were divided into stories (tabulata or feeta'j, and hence they are called ttirres contabitlntrif. The sides of the towers were pierced with j TUTOR. 403 TTRAXXUS. windows, of which there were several to each story. The use of the stories was to receive the engines of war (tormenta). They con- tained balistae and catapults, and slingers and archers were stationed in them and on the tops of the towers. In the lowest story was a battering-ram [ARIES] ; and in the middle one or more bridges (pontes) made of beams nud planks, and protected at the sides by hurdles. Scaling-ladders (scalae) were also carried in the towers, and when the missiles had cleared the walls, these bridges and lad- ders enabled the besiegers to rush upon them. These towers were placed upon wheels (gene- rally 6 or 8), that they might be brought up to the walls. These wheels were placed for security inside of the tower. TCTOR. [CURATOR.] TYMPANUM (rvVn-a^ov), a small drum carried in the hand. Of these, some resem- bled in all respects a modern tambourine with bells. Others presented a flat circular disk on the upper surface and swelled out beneath like a kettle-drum. Both forms are represented in the cuts below. Tympana Tympana. (From ancient Paintings.) were covered with the hides of oxen, or of asses ; were beaten with a stick, or with the hand, and were much employed in all wild enthusiastic religious rites, especially the orgies of Bacchus and Cybele". (2) A solid wheel without spokes, for heavy waggons, such as is shown in the cut on p. 298. TYRAXXUS (rvporvo?). In the heroic age all the governments in Greece -were mon- archical, the king uniting in himself the functions of the priest, the judge, and mili- tary chief. In the first two or three cen- turies following the Trojan war various causes were at work, which led to the aboli- tion, or at least to the limitation, of the kingly power. Emigrations, extinctions of families, disasters in war, civil dissensions, may be reckoned among these causes. Here- ditary monarchies became elective ; the dif- ferent functions of the king were distributed ; he was called Archon (fi. rjs)- The tyrannus must be distinguished, on the one hand, from the aesymnetes, inas- much as he was not elected by general con- sent, but commonly owed his elevation tc ? D 2 TYRANXUS. 404 UMBRACULUM. some violent movement or stratagem, such as the creation of a body-guard for him by the people, or the seizure of the citadel ; and on the other hand, from the ancient king, whose right depended, not on usurpation, but on inheritance and traditionary acknow- ledgment. The power of a king might be more absolute than that of a tyrant ; as Phidon of Argos is said to have made the royal prerogative greater than it was under his predecessors ; yet he was still regarded as a king ; for the difference between the two names depended on title and origin, and not on the manner in which the power was ex- ercised. The name of tyrant was originally so far from denoting a person who abused his power, or treated his subjects with cruelty, that Pisistratus is praised for the moderation of his government. Afterwards, when tyrants themselves had become odious, the name also grew to be a word of reproach, just as rex did among the Romans. Among the early tyrants of Greece those most worthy of mention are : Clisthenes of Sicyon, grandfather of the Athenian Clisthenes, in whose family the government continued for a century since its establishment by Ortha- goras, about B. c. 672 ; Cypselus of Corinth, who expelled the Bacchiadae, B. c. 656, and his son Periander, both remarkable for their cruelty ; their dynasty lasted between seventy and eighty years ; Procles of Epidaurus ; Pantaleon of Pisa, who celebrated the thirty- fourth Olympiad, depriving the Eleans of the presidency ; Theagenes of Megara, father- in-law to Cylon the Athenian ; Pisistratus, whose sons were the last of the early tyrants on the Grecian continent. In Sicily, where tyranny most flourished, the principal were Phalaris of Agrigentum, who established his power in B. c. 568 ; Theron of Agrigentum ; Gelon, already mentioned, who, in conjunc- tion with Theron, defeated Hamilcar the Carthaginian, on the same day on which the battle of Salamis was fought ; and Ilieron, his brother : the last three celebrated by Pindar. The following also are worthy of notice : Polycrates of Samos ; Lygdamis of Xaxos ; Ilistiacus and Aristagoras of Mile- tus. Perhaps the last mentioned can hardly be classed among the Greek tyrants, as they were connected with the Persian monarchy. The general characteristics of a tyranny were, that it was bound by no laws, and had no recognised limitation to its authority, how- ever it might be restrained in practice by the good disposition of the tyrant himself, or by fear, or by the spirit of the age. It was commonly most odious to the wealthy and noble, whom the tyrant looked upon with jealousy as a check upon his power, and whom he often sought to get rid f by send- ing them into exile or putting them to death. The tyrant usually kept a body-guard ol foreign mercenaries, by aid of whom he con- trolled the people at home ; but he seldom ventured to make war, for fear of giving an opportunity to his subjects to revolt. The causes which led to the decline of tyranny among the Greeks were partly the degene- racy of the tyrants themselves, corrupted by power, indolence, flattery, and bad educa- tion ; for even where the father set a good example, it was seldom followed by the son ; partly the cruelties and excesses of particular men, which brought them all into disrepute ; and partly the growing spirit of inquiry among the Greek people, who began to spe- culate upon political theories, and soon be- came discontented with a form of govern- ment, which had nothing in theory, and little in practice, to recommend it. Few dynasties lasted beyond the third generation. Most of the tyrannies, which flourished be- fore the Persian war, are said to have been overthrown by the exertions of Sparta, jea- lous, probably, of any innovation upon the old Doric constitution, especially of any ten- dency to ameliorate the condition of the Pe- rioeci, and anxious to extend her own in- fluence over the states of Greece by means of the benefits which she conferred. Upon the fall of tyranny, the various republican forms of government were established, the Dorian states generally favouring oligarchy, the Ionian democracy. Of the tyrants of a later, period, the most celebrated are the two Dionysii. The corruption of the Syracusans, their intestine discords, and the fear of the Carthaginian invaders, led to the appoint- ment of Dionysius to the chief military com- mand, with unlimited powers ; by means of which he raised himself to the throne, B. c. 406, and reigned for 38 years, leaving his son to succeed him. The younger Dionysius, far inferior in every respect to his father, was expelled by Dion, afterwards regained the throne, and was again expelled by Timoleon, who restored liberty to the various states of Sicily. UDO, a sock of goafs-hair or felt, worn countrymen with the low boots called perones. [PERO.] ULNA. [PES.] UMBILICUS. [LIBEE.] TIMBO. [CurEUS.] UMBRACULUM, UMBELLA (incid&ciov, space between the walls. There was a paM sage for the besiegers through the middle of each tower. On the outside of each wall wa a ditch (Ta-/>po). This description would almost exactly answer to the Roman mode ol VALVAE. 407 VECTIGALTA. circumvallation, of which some of the best examples are that of Carthage by Scipio, that of Numantia by Scipio, and that of Alesia by Cae- sar. The towers in such lines were similar to those used in attacking fortified places, but not eo high, and of course not moveable. [Tv&Ris.j VALVAE. [JAXCA.] VAXXUS (Aucfio, Aucvov), a -winnowing- van, t. e. a broad basket, into which the corn mixed with chaff was received after thrash- ing, and was then thrown in the direction of the wind. Virgil dignifies this simple imple- ment by calling it mystica ran it us lacchi. The rites of Bacchus, as well as those of Ceres, haying a continual reference to the occupations of rural life, the vannus was borne in the processions celebrated in honour of both these divinities. In the cut annexed the infant Bacchus is carried in a vannus by two dancing bacchantes clothed in skins. Bacchu* carried in a Vnnnu. (From an Antefix* in the Bniuti Miucum.) VAS (pi. rata], a general term for any kind of vessel. Thus we read of tas tinariiun, ras argenlevm, tasa Corinth ia et Deliaca, vasa Samia, that is, made of Samian earthen- ware, tasa Murrhina. [MVURHIXA VASA.] The word ras was used in a still wider signi- fication, and was applied to any kind of utensil used in the kitchen, agriculture, &c. The utensils of the soldiers were called tasa, and hence tasa colligere and rasa conclamare sign ifj- to pack up the baggage, to give the signal for departure. VKCTIGALlA, the general term for all the regular revenues of the Roman state. It means anything which is brought (tchitur) into the public treasury, like the Greek us). At the venatio given by Pompey in his second consulship, B. c. 55, upon the dedication of the temple of Venns Vietrix, there w;is ;\n immense number of animals slaughtered, VEN'ATIO. 400 VEXEFICIUM. among which \vc find mention of 600 lions, and 18 or 20 elephants; the latter fought with Gactulians, who hurled darts against them, and they attempted to break through the railings (clathri) by which they were separated from the spectators. To guard apainst this danger Julius Caesar surrounded the arena of the amphitheatre with trenches (ruripi). In the games exhibited by J. Caesar in his third consulship, B. c. 45, the venatio lasted for five days, and was conducted with extraordinary splendour. Cameleopards or giraffes were then for the first time seen in Italy. The venationes seem to have been first confined to the ludi circenses, but during the later times of the republic, and under the empire, they were frequently exhibited on the celebration of triumphs, and on many other occasions, with the view of pleasing the people. The passion for these shows con- tinued to increase under the empire, and the number of beasts sometimes slaughtered seems almost incredible. Under the emperors we read of a particular kind of venatio, in which the beasts were not killed by bestiarii, but were given up to the people, who were al- lowed to rush into the area of the circus aiid carry away what they pleased. On such oc- casions a number of large trees, which had been torn up by the roots, was planted in the circus, which thus resembled a forest, and none of the more savage animals were admit- ted into it. One of the most extraordinary venationes of this kind was that given by Probus, in which there were 1000 ostriches, 1000 stags, 1000 boars, 1000 deer, and num- bers of wild goats, wild sheep, and other animals of the same kind. The more savage animals were slain by the bestiarii in the amphitheatre, and not in the circus. Thus, in the day succeeding the venatio of Probus just mentioned, there were slain in the am- phitheatre 100 lions and 100 lionesses, 100 Libyan and 100 Syrian leopards, and 300 bears. Vcnntionci. (From Bna-rrliub on the Tomb of Scauras at Toinpcii.) VKN'KFICIUM, the crime of poisoning, is frequently mentioned in Roman history. Women were most addicted to it : but it seems not improbable that this charge was frequently brought against females without sufficient evidence of their guilt, like that of witchcraft in Europe in the middle ages. We find females condemned to death for this crime in seasons of pestilence, when the peo- ple are always in an excited state of mind, 1 and ready to attribute the calamities under ! which they suffer to the arts of evil-disposed J persons. Thus the Athenians, when the | pestilence raged in their city during the Pe- j loponnesian war, supposed the wells to have ! been poisoned by the Pcloponncsians, and similar instances occur in the history of almost all states. Still, however, the crime of poisoning seems to have been much more frequent in ancient than in modern times ; VER SACRUM. 410 VESTALES. and this circumstance would lead persons to suspect it in cases when there was no real ground for the suspicion. At Athens the PHAUMACOX GRAPHE was brought against poisoners. At Rome the first legislative enactment especially directed against poi- soning was a law of the dictator Sulla Lex Cornelia de Sicariis ct Veneficis passed in B. c. 82, which continued in force, with some alterations, to the latest times. It con- tained provisions against all who made, bought, sold, possessed, or gave poison for the purpose of poisoning. The punishment fixed by this law was the interdictio aquae et ignis. VER SACRUM (rcs, p. 142, a.] VETERANUS. [Tino.] VEXILLARII. [ExEnciTcs, p. 170, b.] VEXILLUM. [SlONA MlLITARIA.] VIA, a public road. It was not until the period of the long protracted Samnite wars that the necessity was felt of securing a safe communication between the city and the legions, and then for the first time we hear of those famous paved roads, which, in after ages, connected Rome with her most distant provinces, constituting the most lasting of all her works. The excellence of the prin- ciples upon which they were constructed ia sufficiently attespd by their extraordinary durability, many specimens being found in the country around Homo which have been used without being repaired for more than a thousand years. The Komans are said to have adopted their first ideas upon this subject from the Carthaginians, and it is extremely probable that the latter people may, from their commercial activity and the sandy nature of their soil, have been com- pelled to turn their attention to the best means of facilitating the conveyance of mer- chandise to different parts of their territory. The first great public road made by the Romans was the Via Appia, which extended in the first instance from Rome to Capua, and was made in the censorship of Appius Claudius Caecus (B. c. 312.) The general con- struction of a Roman road was as follows : In the first place, two shallow trenches (stilci) were dug parallel to each other, marking the breadth of the proposed road ; this in the great lines is found to have been from 13 to 15 feet. The loose earth between the sulci was then removed, and the excavation continued until a solid foundation (greminm) was reached, upon which the materials of the road might firmly rest ; if this could not be attained, in consequence of the swampy nature of the ground or from any peculiarity in the soil, a basis was formed artificially by driving piles (fistiwatwnibus). Above the premium were four distinct strata. The lowest course was the statumen, consisting of stones not smaller than the hand could just grasp ; above the statumen was the rtidut, a mass of broken stones cemented with lime, (what masons call rubble-work,) rammed down hard, and nine inches thick; above the nidus came the nucleus, composed of fragments of bricks and pottery, the pieces being smaller than in the rudus, ce- mented with lime, and six inches thick. Uppermost was the pavimentum, large poly- gonal blocks of the hardest stone (silex), usually, at least in the vicinity of Rome, basaltic lava, irregular in form, but fitted and jointed with the greatest nicety, so as to present a perfectly even surface, as free from gaps or irregularities as if the whole had been one solid mass. The general aspect will be understood from the cut given below. The centre of the way was a little elevated, so as to permit the water to run off easily. Occasionally, at least in cities, rectangular slabs of softer stone were employed instead of the irregular polygons of silcx, and hence the distinction between the phrases silire sternere and saxo quadrato ste^nrrr. Nor was this all. Regular fool-paths (marginti, crtpidines, umboncs] were raised upon each VIA. 413 VIA, lide and strewed with gravel, the different parts were strengthened and bound together blocks -were set up at moderate interval on the side of the foot-paths, in order that tra-- with gomphi or stone wedges, and stone ' vellers on horseback might be able to mount Stret* at the entrance of Pompeii. without assistance. Finally, Caius Gracchus erected mile-stones along the whole extent of the great highways, marking the dist- ances from Rome, which appear to have been counted from the gate at which each road Issued forth, and Augustus, when appointed inspector of the viae around the city, erected in the forum a gilded column (milliarium nurcum], on which were inscribed the dis- tances of the principal points to which the Yiae conducted. During the earlier ages of the republic the construction and general superintendence of the roads without, and the streets within the city, were committed like all other important works to the censors. These duties, when no censors were in office, devolved upon the consuls, and in their ab- sence on the praetor urhanus, the aediles, or such persons as the senate thought fit to ap- point. There were also under the republic four officers, called quatuortiri riorum, for superintending the streets within the city, and two called curatoret riorum, for super- intending the roads without. Under the empire the curatorei riorum were officers of high rank. The chief roads which issued from Home are : 1 . The VIA APPIA, the Great South Road. It issued from the Porta Capet/a, and passing through Aricia, Tret Tabrrnnc, Ap/iii Forum, Tarracina, Fundi, Formiac, Minturnae, Sinuetsa, and nuni, terminated at Capua, but was event- ually extended through Calatia and Caudium to Benetentwn, and finally from thence through Venusia, Tarentum, and Uria, to Srundusium. 2. The VIA LATIXA, from the Porta Capena, another great line leading to Benevcntum, but keeping a course farther inland than the Via Appia. Soon after leaving the city it sent off a short branch (VIA TVSCULAXA) to Tusculum, and passing through Compitum Anayinum, Fereiitinum, Frutino, Fregellae, Fabrateria, Aqitinum, Casinum, Vena/rum, Teanum, Allifae, and Teletia, joined the Via Appia at Beneventum. A cross-road called the VIA HADBIAXA, run- ning from Minturnae through Suessa Au- runca to Teanum, connected the Via Appia with the Via Latino. 3. From the Porta Esquilina issued the VIA LABICANA, which passing Labicum fell into the Via Latino at the station ad fflcium, 30 miles from Rome. 4. The VIA PKAEXESTINA, originally the VIA GABINA, issued from the same gate with the former. Passing through Gabii and Prae- nette, it joined the Via Latina just below Anagnia. 5. The VIA TIBUBTIXA, which issued from the Porta Tiburtina, and pro- ceeding N. E. to Tibtir, a distance of about 20 miles, was continued from thence, in the same direction, under the name of the VIA VALERIA, and traversing the country of the VIATICUM. 414 VICUS. Sabines passed through Carseoli and Cbrfi- nhon to Aternum on the Adriatic, thence to Adria, and so along the coast to Castrum Truer.tinum, where it fell into the Via Sa- laria. 6. The VIA NOMENTANA, anciently FICULXEXSIS, ran from the Porta Collina, crossed the Anio to Nomcntum, and a little beyond fell into the Via Solaria at Erctum. 7. The VIA SALARIA, also from the Porta Collina (passing Fidcnae and Crustumeriitm) ran north and east through Sabinum and Piccnum to Reate and Asculum Picenum. At Castrum Ttiientinum it reached the coast, which it followed until it joined the Via Flaminia at Ancona. 8, The VIA FLAMINIA, the Great North Road, carried ultimately to Ariminum. It issued from the Porta Fla- in in in, and proceeded nearly north to Ocri- cnlum and ffarnia in Umbria. Here a branch struck off, making a sweep to the east through Interamna and Spolctium, and fell again into the main trunk (which passed through Mcvania) at Fulginia. It continued through Fanum Flaminii and Nuceria, where it again divided, one line running nearly straight to Fanum Fortunae on the Adriatic, while the other diverging to Ancona continued from thence along the coast to Fanum Fortunae, where the two branches uniting passed on to Ariminum through Pisaurum. From thence the Via Flaminia was extended under the name of the VIA AEMILIA, and traversed the heart of Cisalpine Gaul through Bono- nia, Mutina, Parma, Placentia (where it crossed the Po), to Mediolanum. 9. The VIA AURELIA, the Great Coast Road, issued originally from the Porta Janiculensis, and subsequently from the Porta Aurelia. It reached the coast at Alsium, and followed the shore of the lower sea along Etruria and Liguria by Genoa as far as Forum Julii in Gaul. In the first instance it extended no farther than Pisa. 10. The VIA POH- ruExsis kept the right bank of the Tiber to Portus Augusti. 11. The VIA OSTIENSIS originally passed through the Porta Trige- mina, afterwards through the Porta Osticnsis, and kept the left bank of the Tiber to Ostia. From thence it was continued under the name of VIA SEVERIAXA along the coast southward through Laurentum, Antium, and Circaei, till it joined the Via Appia at Tar- racina. The VIA LAUREXTIXA, leading direct to Laurentum, seems to have branched off from the Via Osticnsis at a short distance from Borne. 12. The VIA ARDEATINA from Rome to Ardea. According to some this branched off from the Via Appia, and thus the circuit of the city is completed. VIATICUM is, properly speaking, every- thing necessary for a per Km setting out on a journey, and thus comprehends money, pro* visions, dresses, vessels, &c. When a Roman magistrate, praetor, proconsul, or quaestor went to his province, the state provided him with all that was necessary for his journey. But as the state in this, as in most other cases of expenditure, preferred paying a sum at once to having any part in the actual business, it engaged contractors (redftnp- tores), who for a stipulated sum had to pro- vide the magistrates with the viaticum, the principal parts of which appear to have been beasts of burden and tents (muli et taber- nacula). Augustus introduced some modifi- cation of this system, as he once for all fixed a certain sum to be given to the proconsuls (probably to other provincial magistrates also) on setting out for their provinces, so that the redemptores had no more to do with it. VIATOR, a servant who attended upon and executed the commands of certain Roman magistrates, to whom he bore the same rela- tion as the lictor did to other magistrates. The name via tores was derived from the cir- cumstance of their being chiefly employed on messages either to call upon senators to at- tend the meeting of the senate, or to summon people to the comitia, &c. In the earlier times of the republic we find viatores as ministers of such magistrates also as had their lictors : viatores of a dictator and of the consuls are mentioned by Livy. In later times, however, viatores are only men- tioned with such magistrates as had only potestas and not imperium, such as the tri- bunes of the people, the censors, and the aediles. VICTIMA. [SACRiFicnm.] VICESIMA, a tax of five per cent. Every Roman, when he manumitted a slave, had to pay to the state a tax of one-twentieth of his value, whence the tax was called viccsima manumissionis. This tax was first imposed by the Lex Manlia (B.C. 357), and was not abolished when all other imposts were done away with in Rome and Italy. A tax called vicesitna hereditatum et legatorum was intro- duced by Augustus (Lex Julia Vicesimaria) : it consisted of five per cent., which every Roman citizen had to pay to the aerarium militare, upon any inheritance or legacy left to him, with the exception of such as were left to a citizen by his nearest relatives, and such as did not amount to above a certain sum. It was levied in Italy and the pro- vinces by procurators appointed for the purpose. VlCOMAGISTRI. [Vicus.] VICUS, the name of the subdivisions into which the four regions occupied by the four VICTORIATUS. 415 VINEA. city tribes of Servius Tullius were divided, while the country regions, according to an Institution ascribed to Xuma, were subdivided into pagi. This division, together with that of the four regions of the four city tribes, remained down to the time of Augustus, who made the vici subdivisions of the fourteen regions into which he divided the city. In this division each vicus consisted of one main street, including several smaller by-streets ; their number was 424, and each was super- intended by four officers, called vico-magistri, who had a sort of local police, and who, ac- cording to ihe regulation of Augustus, were every year chosen by lot from among the people who lived in the vicus. On certain days, probably at the celebration of the com- pitalia, they wore the praetexta, and each of them was accompanied by two lictors. These officers, however, were not a new in- stitution of Augustus, for they had existed during the time of the republic, and had had the same functions as a police for the vici of the Servian division of the city. VICTORIATUS. [DENARIUS.] VIGILES. [EXERCITL-S, p. 171.] YIGILIAE. [CASTRA.] VIGIXTISEXVIRI, twenty-six magistrate minores, among whom were included the Tri- umviri Capitales, the Triumviri Monetales, the Quatuorviri Viarum Curandarum for the city, the two Curatores Viarum for the roads outside the city, the Decemviri Litibus (stlitibus) Judicandis, and the four praefects who were sent into Campania for the purpose of administering*justice there. Augustus reduced the number of officers of this college to twenty (vigintiviri), as the two curatores viarum for the roads outside the city and tHe four Campanian praefects were abolished. Down to the time of Augustus the sons of senators had generally sought and obtained a place in the college of the vigintisexviri, it being the first step towards the higher offices of the republic ; but in A. u. 13 a senatus- consultum was passed, ordaining that only equites should be eligible to the college of the vigintiviri. The consequence of this was that the vigintiviri had no scats in the senate, unless they had held some other magistracy which conferred this right upon them. The age at which a person might become a vigintivir appears to have been twenty. VIGINTIVIRI. [VlGINTISEXVIRI.] VILLA, a farm or country-house. The Roman writers mention two kinds of villa, the villa rustica or farm-house, and the villa ttrbana or pseudo-urliana, a residence in the country or in the suburbs of a town. When both of these were attached to an estate they were generally united in the same range of buildings, but sometimes they were placed at different parts of the estate. The interior arrangements of the villa urlana corresponded for the most part to those of a town-house. [Doxrus.l VILLICUS, a slave who had the super- intendence of the villa rustica, and of all the business of the farm, except the cattle, which were under the care of the magister pecoris. The word was also used to describe a person to whom the management of any business was entrusted. VIXALIA. There were two festivals of this name celebrated by the Romans : the Vinalia iirbana or priora, and the Vinalia rustica or altera. The vinalia urbana were celebrated on the 23rd of April, when the wine-casks which had been filled the pre- ceding autumn were opened for the first time, and the wine tasted. The rustic vinalia, which fell on the 19th of August, and was celebrated by the inhabitants of all Latium, was the day on which the vintage was opened. On this occasion the flamen dialis offered lambs to Jupiter, and while the flesh of the victims lay on the altar, he broke with his own hands a bunch of grapes from a vine, and by this act he, as it were, opened the vintage, and no must was allowed to be con- veyed into the city until this solemnity was performed. This day was sacred to Jupiter, and Venus too appears to have had a share in it. VIXDEMIALIS FERIA. [FEEIAE.] VINDEX. [Ac-no.] V1NDICTA. [MANUMISSIO.] VIXEA, in its literal signification, is a bower formed of the branches of vines ; and, from the protection which such a leafy roof affords, the name was applied by the Romans to a roof under which the besiegers of a town protected themselves against darts, stones, fire, and the like, which were thrown by the besieged upon the assailants. The whole machine formed a roof, resting upon posts eight feet in height. The roof itself was generally sixteen feet long and seven broad. The wooden frame was in most cases light, so that it could be carried by the soldiers ; sometimes, however, when the pur- pose which it was to serve required great strength, it was heavy, and then the whole fabric probably was moved by wheels at- tached to the posts. The roof was formed of planks and wicker-work, and the uppermost layer or layers consisted of raw hides or wet cloth, as a protection against fire, by which the besieged frequently destroyed the vineac. The sides of a vinea were likewise protected by wicker-work. Such machines wre con- VINUM. 416 VINUM. gtructed in a safe place at some distance from the basieged town, and then carried or wheeled (agere) close to its walls. Here several of them were frequently joined to- gether, so that a great number of soldiers might he employed under them. When vineae had taken their place close to the walls, the soldiers began their operations, either by undermining the walls, and thus opening a breach, or by employing the bat- tering-ram (aries). VINUM (olcos). The general term for- the fermented juice of the grape. In the Ho- meric poems the cultivation of the grape is represented as familiar to the Greeks. It is worth remarking that the only wine upon whose excellence Homer dilates in a tone approaching to hyperbole is represented as having been produced on the coast of Thrace, the region from which poetry and civilisation spread into Hellas, and the scene of several of the more remarkable exploits of Bacchus. Hence we might infer that the Pelasgians introduced the culture of the vine when they wandered westward across the Hellespont, and that in like manner it was conveyed to the valley of the Po, when at a subsequent period they made their way round the head of the Adriatic. It seems certain that wine was both rare and costly in the earlier ages of Roman history. As late as the time of the Samnite wars, Papirius the dictator, when about to join in battle with the Samnites, vowed to Jupiter only a small cupful (vini pocillum") if he should gain the victory. In the times of Marius and Sulla foreign wines were considered far superior to native growths ; but the rapidity with which luxury spread in this matter is well illustrated by the saying of M. Varro, that Lucullus when a boy never saw . an entertainment in his father's house, however splendid, at which Greek wine was handed round more than once, but when in manhood he returned from his Asiatic conquests he bestowed on the people a largess of more than a hundred thousand cadi. Four different kinds of wine are said to have been presented for the first time at the feast given by Julius Caesar in his third consulship (B. c. 46.), these being Falernian, Chian, Lesbian, and Mamertine, and not until after this date were the merits of the numerous varieties, foreign and do- mestic, accurately known and fully appre- ciated. But during the reign of Augustus and his immediate successors the study of wines became a passion, and the most scrupu- lous care was bestowed upon every process connected with their production and preser- vation. Pliny calculates that the number of wines in the whole world deserving to be ac- counted of high quality (nobilia) amounted to eighty, of which his own country could claim two-thirds ; and that 195 distinct kinds might be reckoned up, and that if all the varieties of these were to be included in the computation, the sum would be almost doubled. The process followed in wine-making was essentially the same among both the Greeks and the Romans. After the grapes had been gathered they were first trodden with the feet in a vat (Aijvos, torcular) ; but as this process did not press out all the juice of the grapes, they were subjected to the more powerful pressure of a thick and heavy beam (prchtm) for the purpose of obtaining all the juice yet remaining in them. From the press the sweet unfermented juice flowed into another large vat, which was sunk below the level of the press, and therefore called the under u-ine-vat, in Greek vvoXriviov, in Latin lacus. A portion of the must was used at once, bcjng drunk fresh after it had been cla- rified with vinegar. When it was desired to preserve a quantity in the sweet state, an amphora was taken and coated with pitch within and without, and corked so as to be perfectly air-tight. It was then immersed in a tank of cold fresh water or buried in wet sand, and allowed to remain for six weeks or two months. The contents after this process were found to remain unchanged for a year, and hence the name oei yAeOicos, i. e. semper mustum. A considerable quantity of must from the best and oldest vines was inspissated by boiling, being then distinguished by the Greeks under the general names of f^rri^a or yAufis, while the Latin writers have various terms according to the extent to which the evaporation was carried. Thus, when the must was reduced to two-thirds of its original volume it became carenum, when one-half had evaporated dcfrutum, when two-thirds sapa (known also by the Greek names siraeum and hepsema), but these words are frequently interchanged. Similar preparations are at the present time called in Italy musto cotto and sapa, and in France sabe. The process was carried on in large caldrons of lead (vasa defrutaria), over a slow fire of chips, on a night when there was no moon, the scum being carefully removed with leaves, and the liquid constantly stirred to prevent it from burning. These grape-jellies, for they were nothing else, were used extensively for giving body to poor wines and making them keep, and entered as ingredients into many drinks, such as the burranica potio, so called from its red colour, which was formed by mixing sapa with milk. The whole of the mustum not employed for some of the a~bovc purposes was conveyed from the lacus to the ccf/a pi- VIXUM. 417 VIXUM. ".aria, an apartment on the ground-floor or a little below the surface. Here -were the dolia (jri'floi), otherwise called seriae or ciipae, long Dcll-mouthcd vessels of earthenware, very carefully formed of the best clay, and lined with a coating of pitch. They were usually sunk (depressa, defossa, demersa) one-half or two-thirds in the ground ; to the former depth, if the wine to be contained was likely to prove strong, to the latter if weak. In these dolia the process of fermentation took place, which usually lasted for about nine days, and as soon as it had subsided, and the mtutum had become vinum, the dolia were closely covered. The lids (opcrcula doliorum), were taken off about once every thirty-six days, and oftener in hot weather, in order to cool and give air to the contents, to add any preparation required to preserve them sound, and to remove any impurities that might be thrown up. The commoner sorts of wine were drunk direct from the dolium, and hence draught wine was called vinum doliare or vinum de cupa, but the finer kinds were drawn off (diffundere, titrafyiffiv}, into am- pliorae. On the outside the title of the wine was painted, the date of the vintage being marked by the names of the consuls then in office. [AMPHORA.] The amphorae were then stored up in repositories (apothecae, horrea, tabulata), completely distinct from the cella vinaria, and usually placed in the upper story of the house (whence descende, testa, and deripere horreo in Horace), for a reason explained afterwards. It is manifest that wine prepared and bottled in the man- ner described above must have contained a great quantity of dregs and sediment, and it became absolutely necessary to separate these before it was drunk. This was sometimes effected by fining with yolks of eggs, those of pigeons being considered most appropriate by the fastidious, but more commonly by simply straining through small cup-like uten- sils of silver or bronze perforated with nume- rous small holes. Occasionally a piece of linen cloth (o-aitKos, sacciis] was placed over the co/iim, and the wine filtered through. [COLUM.] In all the best wines hitherto described the grapes are supposed to have been gathered as soon as they were fully ripe, and fermen- tation to have run its full course. But a great variety of sweet wines were manufac- tured by checking the fermentation, or by partially drying the grapes, or by converting them completely into raisins. Passum or raisin-wine was made from grapes dried in the sun until they had lost half their weight, or they were plunged into boiling oil, which produced a similar effect, or the bunches ifter they were ripe were allowed to hang for some weeks upon the vine, the stalks being twisted or an incision made into the pith of the bearing shoot so as to put a stop to vegetation. The stalks and stones were removed, the raisins were steeped in must or good wine, and then trodden or subjected to the gentle action of the press. The quantity of juice which flowed forth -was measured, and an equal quantity of water added to the pulpy residuum, which was again pressed, and the product employed for an inferior passum called tecundarium. The passam of Crete was most prized, and next in rank were those of Cilicia, Africa, Italy, and the neighbouring provinces. The kinds known as Psythium and Melampsythium possessed the peculiar flavour of the grape and not that of wine. The grapes most suitable for passum were those which ripened early, especially the varieties Apiana, Scirpula, and Psithia. The Greeks recognised three co- lours in wines : red ftu'Aaf), white, i. e. pale straw-colour (Atvxds), and brown or amber- coloured (tippos). The Romans distinguish f ur / albus, answering to Aev/eos, fulcut to o?, while pc'Aoc is subdivided into san- gttineus and niger, the former being doubt- less applied to bright glowing wines like Tent and Burgundy, while the niger or atcr would resemble Port. We have seen that wine intended for keeping was racked stride upon a Wine-skin (Musco Borbuni-o vol. iii. tuv. 8.) VIM'M. 418 VINUM. off from the dolia into amphorae. "When it was necessary in the first instance to trans- port it from one place to another, or when carried by travellers on a journey, it was contained in hags made of goat-skin (aoxoi, vires) well pitched over so as to make the seams perfectly tight. As the process of wine-making among the ancients was for the most part conducted in an unscientific man- ner, it was found necessary, except in the case of the finest varieties, to have recourse to various devices for preventing or correct- ing acidity, heightening the flavour, and in- creasing the durability of the second growths. The object in view was accomplished some- times by merely mixing different kinds of wine together, but more frequently by throw- ing into the dolia or amphorae various con- diments or seasonings (oprvaets, mcdicamina, conditurae). The principal substances em- ployed as conditurae were, 1. sea- water ; 2. turpentine, either pure, or in the form of pitch (pix], tar (pix liquida), or resin (resitia). 3. Lime, in the form of gypsum, burnt marble, or calcined shells. 4. In- spissated must. 5. Aromatic herbs, spices, and gums ; and these were used either singly, or cooked up into a great variety of complicated confections. But not only were spices and gums steeped in wine or incor- porated during fermentation, but even the precious perfumed essential oils (unguenta) were mixed with it before it was drunk (/uvppiVij, murrhina.} Of these compound be- verages the most popular was the oenomeli (oli/d/wXi) of the Greeks, the mulsum of the Romans. This was of two kinds ; in the one honey was mixed with wine, in the other with must. The former was said to have been invented by the legendary hero Aris- taeus, the first cultivator of bees, and was considered most perfect and palatable when made of some old rough (autterum) wine, such as Massic or Falernian (although Ho- race objects to the latter for this purpose), and new Attic honey. The proportions were four, by measure, of wine to one of honey, and various spices and perfumes, such as myrrh, cassia, costum, malobathrum, nard, and pepper, might be added. The second kind was made of must evaporated to one half of its original bulk, Attic honey being added in the proportion of one to ten. This, therefore, was merely a very rich fruit syrup, in no way allied to wine. Mulsum was considered the most appropriate draught upon an empty stomach, and was therefore swallowed immediately before the regular business of a repast began and hence the whet (ijutiatio) coming before the cup of mulsum was oa!lod the promulsis. Mulsum was given at a triumph by the impcrator to his soldiers. Mulsum (sc. cinum) or oenomeli (oiro^eAi) is perfectly distinct from mulsa (sc. aqua). The latter, or mead, being made of honey and water mixed and fermented, is the melicraton (ju.eA.iaTOi') or liydromeli (vSpo/AeA.i) of the Greeks. The ancients considered old wine not only more grateful to the palate, but also more wholesome and invigorating. Gene- rally speaking the Greek wines do not seem to have required a long time to ripen. Nestor in the Odyssey, indeed, drinks wine ten years old ; but the connoisseurs under the empire pronounced that all transmarine wines arrived at a moderate degree of ma- turity in six or seven. Many of the Italian varieties, however, required to be kept for twenty or twenty-five years before they were drinkable (which is now considered ample for our strongest ports), and even the humble growths of Sabinum were stored up for from four to fifteen. Hence it became a matter of importance to hasten, if possible, the na- tural process. This was attempted in various ways, sometimes by elaborate condiments, sometimes by sinking vessels containing the must in the sea, by which an artificial mel- lowness was induced (praccox vettistas) and the wine in consequence termed thalassites; but more usually by the application of heat. Thus it was customary to expose the am- phorae for some years to the full fervour of the sun's rays, or to construct the apothecae in such a manner as to be exposed to the hot air and smoke of the bath-furnaces, and hence the name fumaria applied to such apartments, and the phrases fumosos, funnim bibere, fuligine testae, in reference to the wines. If the operation was not conducted with care, and the amphorae not stoppered down perfectly tight, a disagreeable effect would be produced on the contents. In Italy, in the first century of Jhe Christian aera, the lowest market price of the most ordinary quality of wine was 300 sesterces for 40 urnae, that is, 15 sesterces for the amphora, or 6rf. a gallon nearly. At a much earlier date, the triumph of L. Metellus during the first Punic war (B.C. 250), wine was sold at the rate of 8 asses the amphora. The price of native wine at Athens was four drachmas for the metretes, that is, about 4 id. the gallon, when necessaries were dear, and we may perhaps assume one half of this sum as the average of cheaper times. On the other hand, high prices were given freely for the varieties held in esteem, since as early as the time of Socrates a mctrctes of Chian sold for a mina. With respect to the way in which wine was drunk, and the customs observed by the Greeks and VIXUM. VIXUM. Romans at their drinking entertainments, the reader is referred to the article SYMPOSICM. The wine of most early celebrity was that which the minister of Apollo, Maron, who dwelt upon the skirls of Thracian Ismarus, gave to Ulysses. It was red (fpvOpov), and honey-sweet (fieAiT^ea), so precious, that it was unknown to all in the mansion save the wife of the priest and one trusty .house- keeper ; so strong, that a single cup was min- gled with twenty of water ; so fragrant, that even when thus diluted it diffused a divine and most tempting perfume. Homer men- tions also more than once Pramnian wine (olcos IIpa/iios), an epithet which is variously in- terpreted by different writers. In after times a wine bearing the same name was produced in the island of Icaria, around the hill vil- lage of Latorea in the vicinity of Ephesus, in the neighbourhood of Smyrna, near the shrine of Cybele, and in Lesbos. But the wines of greatest renown at a later period were grown in the islands of Thasos, Lesbos, Chios, and Cos, and in a few favoured spots on the opposite coast of Asia, such as the slopes of Mount Tinolus, the ridge _ which separates the valley of the Hermus from that of the Cayster, Mount Messogis, which di- vides the tributaries of the Cajteter from those of the Meander, the volcanic region of the Catacecaumene, which still retains its fame, the environs of Ephesus, of Cnidus, of Miletus, and of Clazomenae. Among these the first place seems to have been by gene- ral consent conceded to the Chian, of which the most delicious varieties were brought from the heights of Ariusium in the central parts, and from the promontory of Phanae at the southern extremity of the island. The Thasian and Lesbian occupied the se- cond place, and the Ccan disputed the palm with them. In Lesbos the most highly prized vineyards were around Mytilene and Methymna. There is no foundation what- ever for the remark that the finest Greek wines, especially the products of the islands in the Aegean and Ionian seas, belonged for the most part to the luscious sweet class. The very reverse is proved by the epithets av- imjpds, oxAijpos, Aeirroi, and the like, ap- plied to a great number, while yAvjtvs and y\vicv are designations comparatively rare, except in the vague language of poetry. The most noble Italian wines, with a very few exceptions, were derived from Latium and Campania, and for the most part grew with- in a short distance of the sea. In the first rank we must place the Setinum, -which fairly deserves the title of Imperial, since it was the chosen beverage of Augustus and most of his courtiers. It grew upon the hills of Setia, above Forum Appii, looking down upon the Pomptine marshes. Before the age of Augustus the Caeevbum was the most prized of all. It grew in the poplar swamps bordering on the gulf of Amyclae, close to Fundi. In the time of Pliny its reputation was entirely gone, partly in consequence of the carelessness of the cultivators, and partly from its proper soil, originally a very limited space, having been cut up by the canal of Xero extending from Baiae to Ostia. It was full-bodied and heady, not arriving at ma- turity until it had been kept for many years. The second rank was occupied by the Faler- nitm, of which the Fattstianum was the most choice variety, having gained its character from the care and skill exercised in the cul- tivation of the vines. The Falerma ager commenced at the Pons Campanus, on the left hand of those journeying towards the Urbana Colonia of Sulla, the Faustianus ager at a village about six miles from Sinuessa, so that the whole district in question may be regarded as stretching from the Massic hills to the river Vulturnus. Falernian became fit for drinking in ten years, and might be used until twenty years old, but when kept longer gave headachs, and proved injurious to the nervous system. Pliny distinguishes three kinds, the rough (austerum), the sweet (dulce), and the thin (tenue). Others ar- ranged the varieties differently ; that which grew upon the hill tops they called Cauci* num, that on the middle slopes Faustianum, and that on the plain Falernum. In the third rank was the Albanum, from the MOM Albanus, of various kinds, very sweet (prae- dulce}, sweetish, rough, and sharp ; it was invigorating (nervis utile], and in perfection after being kept for fifteen years. Here toe we place the Surrentinum, from the promon- tory forming the southern horn of the bay of Xaples, which was not drinkable until it had been kept for five-and-twenty years, for, being destitute of richness, and very dry, it required a long time to ripen, but was strongly recommended to convalescents, on account of its thinness and wholesomeness. Of equal reputation were the Massicum, from the hills which formed the boundary be- tween Latium and Campania, although some- what harsh, and the Gauranum, from the ridge above Baiac and Puteoli, produced in small quantity, but of very high quality, full-bodied, and thick. In the same class are to be included the Calenum from Cales, and the Fundanum from Fundi. The Cah- num was light and better for the stomach than Falernian ; the Fundanum was full- bodied and nourishing, but apt to attack both stomach and head; therefore little sought 2 F. 2 VIRGIXES VESTALES. 420 VITRUM. after at banquets. This list is closed by the Feliturninum, Pricernatinum, and Signinum, from Velitrae, Privernum, and Signia, towns on the Volscian hills ; the first was a sound wine, but had this peculiarity, that it always tasted as if mixed with some foreign sub- stance ; the second was thin and pleasant ; the last was looked upon only in the light of a medicine valuable for its astringent qua- lities. We may safely bring in one more, the Formianum, from the Gulf of Caieta, associated by Horace with the Caecuban, b'alernian, and Calenian. The fourth rank contained the Jfamertinum, from the neigh- bourhood of Messana, first brought into fashion by Julius Caesar. The finest was sound, light, and at the same time not with- out body. VIRGINES VESTlLES. [VESTALES VlR- GINES.] VIS. Leges were passed at Rome for the purpose of preventing acts of violence. The Lex Plotia or Plautia was enacted against those who occupied public places and car- vied arms. The lex proposed by the consul Q. Catulus on the subject, with the assist- ance of Plautius the tribunus, appears to be the Lex Plotia. There was a Lex Julia of the dictator Caesar on this subject, which imposed the penalty of exile. Two Juliae Leges were passed as to this matter in the time of Augustus, which were respectively entitled De Vi Publica and De Vi Private. VISCERATIO. [Fu.NUS, p. 190, b.] VITIS. [CENTURIO.] VITRUM (voAos), glass. A story has been preserved by Pliny, that glass was first dis- covered accidentally by some merchants who, having landed on the Syrian coast at the mouth of the river Belus, and being unable to find stones to support their cooking-pots, fetched for this purpose from their ships some of the lumps of nitre which composed the cargo. This being fused by the heat of the fire, united with the sand upon which it rested, and formed a stream of vitrified mat- ter. No conclusion can be drawn from this tale, even if true, in consequence of its vagueness ; but it probably originated in the fact, that the sand of the district in question was esteemed peculiarly suitable for glass-making, and exported in great quan- tities to the workshops of Sidon and Alex- andria, long the most famous in the ancicot world. Alexandria sustained its reputation for many centuries : Rome derived a great portion of its supplies from this source, and as late as the reign of Aurelian we find the manufacture still flourishing. There is some (iifllculty in deciding by what Greek author glass is first mentioned, because the term iiaAos unquestionably denotes not only artifi- cial glass but rock-crystal, or indeed any transparent stone or stone-like substance. Thus the veXos of Herodotus, in which the Ethiopians encased the bodies of their dead, cannot be glass, for we are expressly told that it was dug in abundance out of the earth ; and hence commentators have con- jectured that rock-crystal or rock-salt, or amber, or oriental alabaster, or some bitu- minous or gummy product, might be indi- cated. But when the same historian, in his account of sacred crocodiles, states that they were decorated with ear-rings made of melted stone, we may safely conclude that he intends to describe some vitreous ornament for which he knew no appropriate name. Glass is, however, first mentioned with cer- tainty by Theophrastus, who notices the circumstance alluded to above, of the fitness of the sand at the mouth of the river Belus for the fabrication of glass. Among the Latin writers Lucretius appears to be the first in which the word vitrwn occurs ; but it must have been well known to his country- men long before, for Cicero names it along with paper and linen, as a common article of merchandise brought from Egypt. Scau- rus, in his aedilcship (B. c. 58), made a dis- play of it such as was never witnessed even in after-times ; for the sccna of his gorgeous theatre was divided into three tiers, of which the under portion was of marble, the upper of gilded wood, and the middle compartment of glass. In the poets of the Augustan age it i< constantly introduced, both directly and in similes, and in such terms as to prove that it was an object with which every one must be familiar. Strabo declares that in his day a small drinking-cup of glass might be pur- chased at Rome for half an as, and so com- mon was it in the time of Juvenal and Martial, that old men and women made a livelihood by trucking sulphur matches for broken fragments. When Pliny wrote, manu- factories had been established not only in Italy, but in Spain and Gaul also, and glass drinking-cups had entirely superseded those of gold and silver ; and in the reign of Alex- ander Severus we find titrearii ranked along with curriers, coachmakers, goldsmiths, sil- versmiths, and other ordinary artificers whom the emperor taxed to raise money for his thermae. The numerous specimens trans- mitted to us prove that the ancients were well acquainted with the art of imparting a great variety of colours to their glass ; they were probably less successful in their attempts to render it perfectly pure and free from all colour, since we are told that it was con- sidered most valuable in this state. It w&s. VITTA. 421 XENAUI. wrought according to the different methods now pra;a&cd, heing fashioned into the re- quired shape by the blowpipe, cut, as we term it, although ground (teritur) is a more accurate phrase, upon a wheel, and engraved with a sharp tool like silver. The art of etching upon glass, now so common, was en- tirely unknown, since it depends upon the properties of fluoric acid, a chemical discovery of the last century. The following were the chief uses to which glass was applied : 1. Bottles, vases, cups, and cinerary urns. 2. Glass pastes, presenting fac-similes either in relief or intaglio of engraved precious stones. 3. Imitations of coloured precious stones, such as the carbuncle, the sapphire, the ame- thyst, and, above all, the emerald. 4. Thick sheets of glass of various colours appear to have been laid down for paving floors, and to have been attached as a lining to the walls and ceilings of apartments in dwelling houses, just as scagliuola is frequently employed in Italy, and occasionally in our own country also. Rooms fitted up in this way were called vitreae cameras, and the panels vitreae quad- raturae. Such was the kind of decoration introduced by Scaurus for the scene of his theatre, not columns nor pillars of glass as some, nor bas-reliefs as others have imagined. 5. Glass was also used for windows. [DOMVS, p. 144.] VITTA, or plural VITTA E, a ribbon or fillet, is to be considered, 1. As an ordinary portion of female dress. 2. As a decoration of sacred persons and sacred things. 1. When considered as an ordinary portion of female dress, it was simply a band encircling the head, and serving to confine the tresses (crinalei vittae}, the ends when long (longae t ufiiia vittae) hanging down behind. It was worn by maidens, and by married women also, the vitta assumed on the nuptial day being of a different form from that used by virgins. The Vitta was not worn by liber- tinae even of fair character, much less by meretrices ; hence it was looked upon as an insigne pudoris, and, together with the stola and instita, served to point out at first sight the freeborn matron. The colour was proba- Vitlae- (Stmtuoe from Hcrculuneum.) bly a matter of choice : white and purple are both mentioned. When employed for sacred purposes, it was usually twisted round the infula [INFULA], and held together the loose flocks of wool. Under this form it was em- ployed as an ornament for 1. Priests, and those who offered sacrifice. 2. Priestesses, especially those of Vesta, and hence vittata sacerdos for a vestel, KO.T i&xqv. 3. Pro- phets and poets, who may be regarded as priests, and in this case the vittae were fre- quently intertwined with chaplets of olive or ! laurel. 4. Statues of deities. 5. Victims decked for sacrifice. 6. Altars. 7. Temples. 8. The JTTjpia of suppliants. The sacred vittae, as well as the infulae, were made of wool, and hence the epithets lanca and mollis. They were white (tiiceae), or purple (puiii- ceae), or azure (caeruleae], when wreathed round an altar to the manes. VOLONES is synonymous with Voluntarii (from tola), and might hence be applied to all those who volunteered to serve in the Roman armies without there being any obli- gation to do so. But it was applied more especially to slaves, when in times of need they offered or were allowed to fight in the Roman armies. Thus when during the second Punic war, after the battle of Cannae, there was not a sufficient number of freemen to complete the army, about 8000 young and able-bodied slaves offered to serve. Their proposal was accepted ; they received armour at the public expense, and as they distin- guished themselves they were honoured with the franchise. In after times the name vo- lones was retained whenever slaves chose or were allowed to take up arms in defence of their masters, which they were the more willing to do, as they were generally re- warded with the franchise. VOLCMEN. [LIBER.] VOLUNTARII. [VOLONES.] VOMITORIA. [AMPHITHEATEUM.] VULCANALIA, a festival celebrated at Rome in honour of Vulcan, on the 23rd of August, with games in the circus Flaminius, where the god had a temple. The sacrifice on this occasion consisted of fishes, which the people threw into the fire. It was also cus- tomary on this day to commence working by candle-light, which was probably considered as an auspicious beginning of the use of fire, as the day was sacred to the god of this element. VULGARES. [SEBVUS.] "V" ENAGI (f fvayoi). The Spartans, as being A. the head of that Peloponnesian and Do- rian league, -which was formed to secure the XENKLASIA. 422 ZOPHORUS. independence of the Greek states, had the sole command of the confederate troops in lime of war, ordered the quotas which each state was to furnish, and appointed officers of their own to command them. Such officers were called Xenayi. The generals whom the allies sent with their troops were subordinate to these Spartan xenagl, though they attended the council of war, as representatives of their respective countries. After the peace of Antalcidas, the league was still more firmly established, though Argos refused to join it; and the Spartans were rigorous in exacting the required military service, demanding levies by the scytale, and sending out xenagi to collect them. The word Xcnagus may be applied to any leader of a band of foreigners or mercenaries. XENELASIA (fenjAaffia). The Lacedae- monians appear in. very early times, before the legislation of Lycnrgus, to have been averse to intercourse with foreigners. This disposition was encouraged by the lawgiver, who made an ordinance forbidding strangers to reside at Sjarta without special permission, and empowering the magistrate to expel from the city any stranger who misconducted him- self, or set an example injurious to public morals. XENIAS GRAPHE (fo-i'as ypaTJ). As no man could be an Athenian citizen except by birth or creation (yeVei or irotrj6pos or Siafu>na), the frieze of an entablature. TABLES OF GREEK AND ROMAN MEASURES. WEIGHTS, AND MONEY, TABLE Page I. GREEK MEASURES OF LENGTH. (1) Smaller Measures . . . 424 II. ROMAN MEASURES OP LENGTH. (1) Smaller Measures . . . 424 III. GREEK MEASURES OF LENGTH. (2) Land and Itinerary . . 425 IV. ROMAN MEASURES OF LEMUTH. (2) Land and Itinerary . . 426 V. GREEK MEASURES OF SURFACE . 426 VI. ROMAN MEASURES OF SURFACE . 427 VE[. GREEK MEASURES OF CAPACITY.' (1) Liquid Measures . . . 428 VIII. HOJIAN MEASURES OF CAPACITY. (1) Liquid Measures . . . 429 TABLE IX. GREEK MEASURES OF CAPACIIY. (2) Dry Measures .... X. ROMAN MEASURES OF CAPACITY. (2) Dry Measures .... XI. GREEK WEIGHTS XII. CHEEK MONEY XIII. ROMAN WEIGHTS. (1) The As and its Uncial Di- visions ...... XIV. ROMAN WEIGHTS. (2) Subdivisions of the Uncia XV. ROMAN MONEY (1) Before Augustas . . . XVI. ROMAN MONEY. (2) After Augustus. . . . rape 43C 430 431 432 433 43? 434 424 APPENDIX. TABLES I., H TABLE X. GRECIAN MEASURES OF LENGTH. I. SMALLEB MEASUUKS. Feet. Inches. AOJ 2 4 8 10 ii TU\O K6l 2 4 5 1 SiAo M.i 2 7584375 3'03375 6-0675 7-584575 r Wrr Au jA Tj, AiLjjoi', Ao\/irj, 01 as, or H/xi7roiov Aa^W J l| IjL 'OpOoSiapOv ....... 8-3428125 12 6 3 J l Ii- !n S^rtfla^^ . . > 9-10125 16 IT 20 8 9 10 4 5 2 "S ~~T no Y2 nu wn n^ iiav . I I I 0-135 1-651875 3-16875 24 12 6 3 2f 2 T7 2 i| ji ii HHXY2 I 6-2025 72 36 18 9 7i &n 6 4| 4 ? 8 is 3 HvA.oi' . 4 6 6-6075 o-8r 96 48 24 12 9| 8A 8 6 5i 4S 4 I| 'OPPYIA' N.B. Approximate Valuet. From the above Table, it will be seen that the Greek Foot, Cubit, and Orguia, only exceed the English Foot, foot and a half, and Fathom, by about i-ioth, 2-ioths, and 8-ioths of an inch respectively. TABLE XX. ROMAN MEASURES OF LENGTH. I. SMALLER MEASURES. Feet. Inches. Dig 5 4 12 16 20 24 tllH UN< 3 9 12 15 18 !IA 01 Pal 3 4 5 6 Poll mis Pali T A 2 ex mis T PES ~O~ '* ilajor Pali ^T 7281 9708 2-9124 8-7372 11-6496 2-562 5 '4744 (of late times) mipes ........ CCBITUS I I N.B. Approximate Valuet. The Roman Uncia, I'es, and Cttbitits only fall short of our /ie,%, Foot, and Foot and a half, by less than i-ioth, 4-ioths, and 6-ioths of an inch respectively. TAJILK 111. GREEK AND ROMAN MEASURES. 425 1 3 J r'^\ eo ib t . s t . 3 JT fl r* o b O - ob M e ^ II 'S b - M - - S fl to Ml 1 * o || 1 ! 8 1 - * " r s S r 1 m 11 Is c d _ 1 ^ i HI - |, a S v II Q ^ H H U a I | g _^ 'g 'S S s " " 1 b 3 I O M bo o >*> H . J o /I S X " 8 S I ? H _.^ *"* ^- O c S S o V< i - ^ JC 2 i? c t. -o g> S 23 ^ I; 2 * != g S 7 g 8 - M r< i - ^ 1 "-2 H tn 55 - Vi V * * H^ M < 3 b s o 5 i n -r tr & I 111 " 1 1 i i r, - * oo ? s 5 > I 68 2i if 5 3 2 PASSUS 10 6! 4 2 Decempeda, or Pertica . 120 80 48 24 12 Actus (in length) 5000 33335 200O 1000 500 41 1 Mil ~^l 75 .LB PASSUCM Gallic Leuga . 7500 5000 250,000 300O 1500 750 62 i 375.000 150,000 75-000 37.500 3^5 5 DEGREE* * See Note to Table III. N.B. The Roman mile only differs from the English by less than i-ioth. V. GRECIAN MEASURES OF SURFACE. ORDINARY LAND MEASURES. Perches. Square Feet. HOY2 (Square Foot) 1-02:6 IO2-:6266 35-439 70-877 106-318 153-02* 3 6 9 37 36 Efcw 06?)? AVI w(S 2 >quare of the KoAofiot) .... ItKTOS ....... 'ECTO IOO 2f 833 i 23^ i666| 4&& i6 2500 6g| 25 3 n ij *Ap< ~6~~ >vpa ...... HAE'ePON . 10,000 rn\ IOO * This differs from a rood, or a quarter of an acre, by little more than 2 perches ; for the i contains 40 perches. TAIII.B VI. GREEK AND ROMAN MEASURES. 427 ft o C* .2 O > APPENDIX. * a 1 3 s -g -.8 -.5 -iS -2 -x H- - sO "I Gallons. : i s s : : -. : so - 1 ? 3 8 3" =5 2 j* * ^ vT OD i g '" sO J2 i i c : r : i : r 1 * ' - oo ffi I E I tr s 3 5 5 t | r 3 1 - M H /. i 1 . c ff B O XT H i R bq HI SP * P. < ta J -5 M n o * M I 4 s r " r> jj g p " - OB 3f "v c^ so < m - a B. u $ ... 5 * M to N H jr 5 H OO M S. ^b r< ^ sO s n jr * 1 J rl 1 5" ^H- ** ... * fc J w * w> A a ft 1 f i " ff - S M a g ft I S. P 5 S c >? 9 k ! TAULE VIII. GREEK AND ROMAN MEASURES. 429 S > o /: H | H x -* M O R g- & 9. 430 APPENDIX. TABLES IX., X. TABLE IX. GRECIAN MEASURES OF CAPACITY. II. ATTIC DRY MEASURES. Gallons Pints. Approximate.* Gallons" Pints. KoxAiaf IO 008 08 12 48 96 1-92 7-68 7-36 4'i6 I 2 at Tzb J 1 l i I It 902 >Qo,ihoif KOTVA 15 4 Hor 2TH XO 4 II;.. 2(S< [NI3 /a jcf grs. Obol . Drachma ....... 12 70 6 600 IOO Mina j6,coo 6000 ' fo Talent .... * Or i of an oz. i32 APPENDIX. TABLE XII tely, 250?., the difference being only i-4oth. c, according to the ratios given in Table XI., Xo. i. od., and the Drachmae were equal respectively to tabular form ; they will be found in the articles TABLE XXX. GRECIAN MONKY. Farthings. M ^ ij, - C ~> N M > ** a ::::" * o * - - - : * M > IH "fc * . * ? I. ATTIC COPPER AND SILVEE. TALEXT (TaAai/ro^) 4 2 Tetradrachm (TerpaSpaxnoi') 'S '_ a i g ~ S DRACHMA * (ApoxH) X a i^ | * The Drachma was very nearly equal to the French Franc. t Or, approxima II. Aeginetan and Euboic Silver. The coins of these systems can be easily calculated from the Att As thus calailated, the Aeginetan Talent was equal to 406^. 5., and the Euboic was equal to })Zl. lot. i Jt. 4id. for the Aeginetan, and i*. ltd. + g of a farthing for the Kuboic. III. Grecian Gold. The values of the Grecian gold money cannot be conveniently reduced to the STATES and DAUEICUS. Tetrobolus (TTp6j3oAoi>) Triobolus (Tpid/SoAov) O 8 I Diobolus (AidjSoAov) . fc * - O M 1 M N * CO s | ^ a j j I Half Obol CHfuoJ36;.:oO (soyos/o.) loeQ * n * a I ** * - * 1 I " -i- - a * R | * cc a * 1 | * X fi ^ ft cc r * M I 00 r... 2 N \a VI M i -t K ' .* i I >" S TABLES XIII., XIV. ROMAN WEIGHTS. TABLE XZZZ. ROMAN WEIGHTS. I. THE USCIAL DIVISIONS OF THE POUND. Avoirdupois Weight. Oz. On. Use "T 2 3 IA Sesc H 2 203-75 168-7500 uncu Sex i,org ana Qua ICSCUIIX ........ I I 2 iran , or Teruncius . . 4 2j 2 l Triens 3 270- 83 5 3l 34 ly i Quincunx . . 4 354 '16 * 6 4 3 2 it ^T SEMIS, or Semissis . ... 5 337-5 7 4s 3i 2s if if l| Septunx . .... 6 320-333 8 5s 4 2 2 I? IB I? Bcs , or Bessla .... 7 104- 16| 9 10 6 5 3 Ii JL 2 l| "f I ', "iT Dodrans I^ Des 8 9 277-5 270-83 i tans . ii 7i 5i 3! 2f 2 5 if l> l! l IT\I Deunx TO II 260-83 * 237-5 12 8 6 4 5 3 * 2 If lit X 5 Ji *n As, or LIBRA This only differs from the ounce avoirdupois by less than 7 grain*. TABLE XXV. ROMAN WEIGHTS. II. SUBDIVISIONS OF THE UKCIA. Grains. Siliqui 2-92:4 8-767361 I7'53472 35'C694 70-138 105-1083 140-277 120-416 420-833 5050 Obolus 3 6 2 SCRUPULUM . .... .... 12 4 2 Scmisi ;xtnla SEXTI 24 8 4 2 Sicilicus 36 12 6 3 I| 48 16 8 4 2 M DuelU Scruuncia .... 72 24 12 6 3 2 it 144 48 24 12 6 4 3 2 UNCW L . . As or LIBRA 1728 576 238 144 72 48 36 24 12 2 Jt 434 APPENDIX. TABLES XV., XVI. TABLE XV. ROMAN MONEY. I. BKFOUE THE EEIGS OF AUGUSTUS : when the Denarius was i-^th of an Ounce, or about 60 Grains. i. Copper Coins. Sextula '.V Quadrans jil Triens 3 2 ij Semissis jJ_2j_AS' _6_|_4_|_2_ i6 8 Dupondius . 2 i SESTERTIUS 8 4 2. Silver Coins. Teruncius Sembella Libella _LL 16 1 8 | 4 3216 24 3 2 SBSTEKTIUS Quinarius 2 DENARIUS i. d. Farthings 35416 53125 7083 I '0625 2-125 25 5 I 2 Gold Coin*. AUREUS" (value In proportion to Roman Silver) (value In English current Coin) 4. Money of Account (not a Coin). SESTEBTIUM, or Mille Nummi . 8 * For the subdivisions of the gold money, see AUBUII. TABI.E XVI. ROMAN MONEY. II. AFTER THE RKIGN OP AUGUSTUS : of an Ounce, or 52 when the Denarius was i-8th 5 Grains. . s. d. Farthings. Sex JL 2 3 6 12 24 48 96 tula Qua H 2 4 8 16 32 64 draii. Trie ]T 3 6 12 24 48 > 3125 46875 625 '9375 1-875 3'75 3'5 3 2 1 ;ns Sen 2 4 8 ~i6~ 32 ilssis As 2 4 6 16 Dti] 2 4 8 >ondi SE3 2 4 OS PERT Qul T" I 3 7 " aarius, or Victoriatu? Denarius . . . " AUREUH, reckoned at 25 Denarii , , reckoned in English Current Coin . . . . SKSTERTIUBT, or Mille Nummi 1 5 18 16 7 5 3 2 3-25 PARALLEL YEARS. 435 PARALLEL YEARS. (See page 276.) B.C. 01. B.C. 01. B. C. 01. B.C. 0!. B.C. 01. B.C. OL 776. i. i. 616. 41. i. 558. 55- 3. 518. 65. 3. 478. 75. 3. 4J8. 85. 3. 772. 2. I. 612. 42. i. 557- 4- 517. 4. 477- 4- 4?7- 4- 768. 3. I. 608. 4?. i. 556. 56. i. 516. 66. i. 476. 76. i. 436. 86. i. 764. 4. I. 604. 44. i. 555- 2. 515. 2. 475- 2. 4J5- 2. 760. 5. I. 600. 45. i. 5J4- 3- 5M- 3- 474- 3- 4*4- * 756. 6. i. 596. 46. i. 553. 4- 5U 4- 473- 4- 4JJ- 4- 752. 7. i. 592. 47. i. 552. 57. i. 512. 67. I. 472. 77. I. 432. 87. i. 748. 8. i. 591. 2. 551. 2. 511. 2. 471. 2. 431. 2. 744- 9- i- 59- 3- 550. 3- 5io. 3- 470. 3. 430. 3. 740. 10. i. 589. 4- 549- 4- 509. 4. 469. 4, 429. 4. 736. 11. i. 588. 48. i. 548. 58. i. 508. 68. I. 468. 78. I. 428. 88. I. 732. 12. I. 587. 2. 547- 2. 507. 2. 467. 2. 427- 2. 728. I}. I. 586. 3- 546. 3. 506. 3- 466. 3- 426. 3- 724. 14. I- 585. 4. 545- 4- 505. 4- 465. 4- 425. 4- 720. 15. I- 584. 49. I. 544- 59. I. 504. 69. I. 464. 79. i. 424. 89. i. 716. 16. i. 583. 2. 54J- 2. 503. 2. 463. 2. 423. 2. 712. 17. i. 582. 3- 542. 3. 502. 3. 462. 3. 422. 3- 708. 18. I. 581. 4. 541- 4- 501. 4. 461. 4. 421. 4, 704. 19. I. 580. 50. I. 540. 60. I. 500. TO. ' 460. 80. I. 420. 90. I. TOO. 20. i. 579- 2. 539- 2. 499- * 459. 2. 419. 2. 696. 21. I. 578. 3. 5?8. 3- 498. 3- 458. 3. 418. 3 692. 22. I. 577- 4- 5J7- 4- 497- 4- 451- 4- 417- 4- 688. 23. i. 576. 51- I- 536. 61. i. 496. 71- I- 456. 81. I. 416. 91. I 684. 24. I. 575- 2. 53). 2. 495. 2. 455- 2. 415. 2. 680. 25. i. 574- * 534- J- 494- J- 454- 3- 414. 3 676. 26. I. 57*. 4- SM. 4- 49J- 4- 45J. 4- 413. 4- 672. 27. I. 572- 52. i. 532. 62. I. 492- 72. i. 452. 82. i. 412. 92. 1. 668. 28. I. 571. a. 5JI- 2. 491. 2. 451. 2. 411. a. 664. 29. I. JTO. 3. 530. 3. 490- J- 450. 3. 410. 3. 660. 30. 1. 569. 4. 529- 4- 489. 4, 449- 4- 409, 4- 656. 31. I' 568. S3. I. 528. 63. I. 488. TJ. i. 448. 83. I. 408. 9J. 1. 652. 32. I. 567. 2. 527. 2. 487. 2 447- 407. 2. 648. 31- I. 566. 3. 526. 3. 486. }. 446. 3. 406. 3- 644. 34- I- 565- 4- 525- 4- 485. ** 445- 4- 405. 4- 640. 35- I- 564. 54- * 524. 64. i. 484. T4- I- 444. 84, i. 404. 94. I- 636 36. I. 563. 2. 523. 2. 483. 2. 44?- * 403. 2. 632. 37- I. 562. 3 522. 3- 482. 3. 442. 3. 402. 3. 628. 38. I. 561. 4 521. 4. 481. 4. 441. 4, 401. 4. 624. 39- I- 560. 55. i 520. 65. I. 480. 75. i. 440. 85. I. 400. 95. I. 620. 40. i. 559- * 519. 2. 479- 2. 439. 2. 399. x o _ m 43(5 APPENDIX. B.C 01. B. C. 01. B.C. 01. B.C. 01. n. c. 01. A. D. 01. 398- 95- 3. 352. 107. i. 306. 118. 3. 224. 139. I. 40. 185. i. 121. 225. I. J97- 4- 351. 2. 305. 4- 220. 140. I. 36. 186. i. 125. 226. I. 396. 96. i. 350. 3- 304. 119. i. 216. 141. i. 32. 187. i. 129. 227. I. 395- 2- J49- 4- 303. 2. 212. 142. I. 28. 188. I. IJJ. 228. I. 394- 1- 348. 108. I. 302. i. 208. 143. I. 24. 189. I. 137- 229. I. 39J- 4- 347- 2. 301. 4. 204. 144. I. 20. 190. I. 141. 230. I. 392. 97. i. 346. J- 3OO. I2O. I. 200. 145. I. 16. 191. i. 145. 231. I. 391. 2. 345- 4- 299. 2. 196. 146. I. 12. 192. I. 149. 232. I. 390. 3. 344. 109. r. 298. 3- 192. 147. I. 8. igj. i. 153. 233- I- 389. 4- 34}. 2. 297- 4- 188. 148. I. 4- 194- * 157. 234- I. 388. 98. i. 342. 3- 296. 121. I. 184. 149. i. 161. 235. i. 387. 2. 3V> 4- 29?. 2. 180. 150. i. 165. 236. I. 386. 3. 340. no. i. 294. 3. 176. 151. I. 169. 237. i. 385. 4. 339. 2. 293. 4- 172. 152. i. 173- 238. i. 384. ^9. i. 338. 3. 292. 122. I. 168. 153. i. 177- 239. i. 383. 2. 7- 4- 291. 2. 164. 154. i. A. D. 01. 181. 240. I. 382. 3- 336. in. I. 290. 3- 160. tf 5. i I. 195. I. 185. 241. I. 381. 4. 335- 2. 289. 4. 156. 156. i 5. 196. I. 189. 242. I. 380. ioo. i. 334- * 288. 123. I. 152. 157 i. 9. 197. I. 193. 24}. I. 379. 2. 333- 4- 287. 2. 148. 158. i. 13. 198. I. 197. 244. I. 378. 3- 332. 112. I. 286. 3. 144. 159- 1- 17. 199. I. 201. 245. I. 377- 4- 331- 2. 285. 4. 140. 160. i. 21. 200. I. 205. 246. I. 376. 101. I. 3JO. 3. 284. 124. I. 136. 161. i. 25. 201. I. 209. 247. I. J75- 2- 329. 4. 283. 2. 132. 162. i. 29. 202. I. 213. 248. I. 374- 3- 328. 113. I. 282. 3. 128. 163. I. 33. 203. I. 217. 249/1. 313- 4- 327. 2. 281. 4. 124. 164. i. 37. 204. I. 221. 250. I. 372. 102. I. 326. 3. 28o. 125. I. 120. 165. I. 41. 205. I. 225. 251. I. 371. 2. 325. 4. 279. 2. lid. 166. I. 45. 206. I. 229. 252. I. 370. 3. 324. 114. I. 278. 3. 112. 167. I. 49. 207. I. 233- 253. I. 369. 4. 323. 2. 277- 4- 108. 168. i. 53. 208. I. 237- 254. I. 368. 103. I. 322. 3. 276. 126. i. 104. 169. i. 57- 209. i. 241. 255- I 367. 2. 321. 4. 275. 2. ioo. 170. i. 6l. 210. I. 245. 2,6. I. 366. 3. 320. 115. I. 274- 3 96. 171. I. 65. 211. I. 249. 257- I. 365. 4. 3I9. 2. 273. 4- 92. 172. i. 69. 212. I. 253. 258. I. 364. 104. I. 318. 3. 272. 127. r. 88. 173. i. 13. 213. i. 257. 259. I. 36j. 2. 317- 4- 268. 128. I. 84. 174. I. 77- 214. i. 26l. 260. I. 362. 3. 316. 116. i. 264. 129. i. 80. 175. I. Si. 21$. I. 265. 26l. I. 36l. 4. 315- 2. 260. 130. I. 76. 176. I. 85. 216. i. 269. 262. I. 360. 105. I. iM- 3- 256. 131. i. 72. 177. I. 89. 217. I. 273. 263. I. 359- I- 313. 4- 252. 132. i. 68. 178. i. 93- 21 8. I. 277. 264. I. 358. 3. 312. 117. I. 248. 133. i. 64. 179. i. 97. 219. I. 281. 265. I. *57- 4- 311. 2. 244. 134- ! 60. 180. i. 101. 220. I. 28$. 266. I. 356. 106. i. 3io. 3. 240. 135- i. 56. 181. i. 105. 221. I. 289. 267. I. 355. 2. 309. 4. 236. 136. i. 52. 182. I. 109. 222. I. 293. 268. I. J54- 3. 308. 118. I. 232. 137- I- 48. 183. i. 113. 223. I. 297. 269. I. SJ. 4. 307. 2. 228. 138. i. 44- 184. i. 117. 224. I. 301. 270. I. CALENDAIUUM. 437 CALENDARIUM. Chir days of the Month. March, May, July, October, have ji days. January, August, December, have )i days. April, June, Sep- tember, November, have jo days. February has 28 days, and in Leap Year 29. I. KALKNDIS. KALESDIS. KALENDIS. KALENDIS. 2. VI. IV. 7 ante IV. ) ante IV. > ante ). V. ante 111. J Nonas. III. 5 Nonas. III. ) Nonas. 4 IV. S'onas. Pridie Nonas. Pridie Nonas. Pridie Nonas. 5 III. NOMS. NONIS. Nosis. 6. Pridie Nonas. VIII. V VIII. >. VIII. 1. NOMS. VII. VII. VII. 3. VIII. VI. I ante VI. 1 ante VI. 9. VII. V. f Idus. V. 1 Idus. V. 10. VI. ante IV. IV. IV. it. V. Idus. HI. > III. ; III. n. IV. Ilidle Idus. Pridie Idus. Pridie Idus. IJ. III. IDIBUS. IDIBUB. IDIBCS. 14. Pridie Idus. XIX. N XVIII. v XVI. ^ ij. IDIBUS. XVIII. XVII. XV. m 16. XVII . XVII. 5 XVI. XIV. 17. XVI. a XVI. XV. 2 X11I. 73 H iC XV. 1 XV. 6 XIV. a) XII. i 19. XIV. H XIV. o XIII. 3^ XI. 20. X11I. a XIII. d ^ XII. "S 5P X. o 21. XII. XII. o .5 XI. " '.3 IX. ' a 22. XL if XI. y opo'. 587, b. 'Anutru(', 19, b. A. Aiupo, i r, a. 'A^[>i7rpdp-7}9, 72, b. 'Axovnov, 2OO, b. *AcpaTt(rfxa, 95, ft- 'Ai/oOij/ioTa, I4J, a ; Jjo, b, 'Ai'cucaAmmjpia, 2JO, b. 'Ayip-opux, 72, b. 'AxpOKe'poio, 267, a. 'AwxictiMfVa, 145, a. 'AyKiorpoi', 191, b. 'AicpoAifloi, 4, a; jjo, b. 'Ai'a/ceior, 24, b. 'AyKoiya, 267, b. 'AxpdiroAi?, 4, a. 'Ai/axAii'Tpoi', 222, a. AyfcvArj, 200, a. 'AKpoordAioi/, 4, a ; 26j, b. 'Ai/aicpicris, 24, b ; J4, b. 'Ayievpa, 268, ft. ' \icpu>Tr)pidfiv, 4, b; J22, b. ' AvaicTopov, 367, a. 'Ayopa, 15, b. 'Axpajrijpioi', 4, a. * Avaf , j 20, a. 'Ayopavdjio?, 8, b ; 15, b. "AlCTUX, j> ft- 'Ai'd^upi'^e?, 62, a. 'Aypofd/u-ot, 16, a. ' AKWKJJ, 199, b. 'Ai'fipftct, J59 b- 'Aypore'pas 8vj)Toi, IJ2, b; J77, b. 'AA/xa, 289, a. 'Ai'eudvw)?, 160, a. rifiTfroi, IJ2, b ; J77, b. 'AywvioTai, 47i ft- "AAoTnjyioi', J27, a. 'AAucrtiiOf , 76, b. 'Arei^/iaJoi)?. 2OJ, a. 'Ai/ci//id$, 2OJ, a. 'AyupoSticat, 15, a. 'AAvo-iov, 76, b. 'Acfleonjpia, IJJ, b. 'Ayufode'roi, IJ, ft. 'A5Ai5ovs, 20J, a. 'AAveris, 70, b. 'AAurat, 18, a; 275, a. 'A^^caT7/pui', 6j, b. *Ai'9eer^>dpia, 26. b. 'ASeAcjxk, 2OJ, a. 'AAvropxn, 1 8, a; 27$, a. 'Av0paiaa, 141, b. 'ASfO-iroroi, 2O2, a. 'AAoia, 18, a ; 37, a. 'Afdvn-aTO?, j 10, a. 'ASucaTOi, 8, b. 'AAua, 1 8, a. 'Av6viru>iJ.o5, J7, a. 'AvoSos, J75, b. 'Afivroi', J&7, a. '\H.afa, 297. b. *Ai/07rAoi, 41, b. ' AeiViTOi , i i ; , b. 'AfiapvvSia, 1 8, a. 'Avriydveio, jgo, b. 'Ac'rufio, 176, a. 'A^iapvirca, 1 8, a. 'Aio'typoip^, 27, a ; IJ2, s. 'AOAijrai, 47, a. 'Aju^pocri'o, 19, a. *AfTi6oa; 282, a. 'A/xirexdnj, 19, b. '\fiJTiTTapft, 2O2, a. 'A'TiTiV*) ft 'An-Aio, 27, a. Aiyio^of, IO, b. *A(X7rvf, 24, a. *AVTV , 27, a ; 94, a. Aiyi'v, IO, b. 'A/Jilf}\7lipo/xia, 21, a. 'AfiVr,, JJI, b. 'Afoi/es, 54. b; 271. b. 'Af iav, 1 24, a. AKTU/JLI'T/TIJ?, 12, by 15, a. *AjLi4>t0aAa/X(K, 141, b- 'Aop, 196, a. A 'XM>}i '99i b. A/i*""'w"i ^67, a. 'Arraycoyjj, 27, b. GREKK INDEX. 439 'Airerroupia. Boiarrapx 7 ?*- r^9nt. 'ATarovpia, 27, b. 'Aaicoi, 418, a. BoAt's, 76, a. 'AiravAia, 250, b. 'AiOs, 355. b. Boufou, 60, b. 'Airo0ewjio|, 28, b; 207, b. 'A&Tptifir), 154* ^* Bpa/3vrat, 15, b. 'Airouu'a, 98, b. 'AcrTpdyoAos, 45, a ; j6i, b. Bpavpiuria, 62, a. 'Airoucot, 93, a. 'AorpoTd'as ypa'^>}, 45, b. Bpoyoi, 319, b. 'AirdxAi7TOi, I J, a. *A<7TvAos, 767, a. Bv/3Aos, 2j3, a. 'AiroAfi'i^fio? Si'oj, 139, a. "AoTvi'dfiOi, 46, a. BuxdiTj, 62, b. 'AjroAAwna, 28, b. 'AoT/Ai'o, 4'j, a. Bvo-erds, 63, a. 'AjroiTf/ii^eciK Ji'oj, 1 59, a. "AcrvAoc, 46, a. Buifid?, 3', a. ' A-jropprfra, 28, b. 'Are'Atia, 46, b ; j66, a. 'AjrooTaffiou Sun), 338, b. 'Arifiio, 8, a ; 47, b. 'ArroaroAtvs, 28, b. *\n/uos, j6, a; 47, b. r. 'AiroTA77AaTucds, 45* b. "ArpaitTos, 191, b. 'AirOTtfiTjp.a, 14?, b. Av0(\jrri<;, 54, a. Taio-ds, 192, b. Anda<7t5, ^8, a* AvAata, 372, a; 408, a. FdAios, 1 3, b. "Amxjbopd, 28, b. AvAoKts, J2, b. Fa/uTjAi'a, 191, a. 'Airot^pdo'es TJ/icpat, 301, a. AOAeio? Ovpa, 140, b. Ta.fi.opoi, 91, A. *AiroxipOTorti% 35* a. AvAjj, 16, b ; 48, a ; 140, b. Fd/xos, 249, b. 'AwoxeiporoKui, 83, b. AvA(Tpio>s, J7", b. reAe'opre?. 389, b. 'Airwfxoaia, 171, b. AvAds. 207, a ; J7f>, b. rf5AtoAoyui, 4V, b. 'ApaidirruAos, 367, b. Aurdvo^ioi, 54, a. TVi-eiop, 57. a. 'Ap/3uA7, 291, a. AVTO^IO, 150, b. rtveVio, 187, b. |Apydis, 389, b. 'A^TO, 202, a. TeVto-is, 46, a. 'ApyvpdtTjptoi' opyavoi', j3l, a. rTj, 389, a. 'ApyvpOKOirtiop, 40, a. *A$Acwrroi', 264, b. Ttwrira*, 389, b. Apyvpos, 43, a. "Ac^oJos, 85, b. rVos, 301, a. 'ApiaAiop, 185, a. *A<^paxTOs I'avs, ?6f, b. IVpat-os, 327, a. 'Apidnof, 185, a. 'A

jTOp, 789, a. Tcpovaia, 193, b. 'Aptios ird-yos, 37, a. 'A^poJtVto, 28, a. Teppa, 194, a. "AptoroicpaTia, 40, b. 'A\iriav, 401, b. Tvpa, 302, a. "Aptoroi', 95. * 'Aijit's, 29, b. rbvpi$ti.v, 151, a. 'Ap/xa, I2J, b; 274, b. rijl)vpiTJ(Tios, 7. a. Apmj. 17 J, b. BoAciiTioi', 248, b. Tviafiiuv, 206, a. 'Apprft>opia, 42, b. 'App7)opot, 42, b. BoAAiirfioi, 28j, b. BdpaOpop, 57, a. Topytipa, 72, 0. rpanpa., 331. a. 'Aprdfir]. 4 J, a. Bdp0iTor, -os, 57, b; 245, b rpa/up.arevs, 3, b ; 196, a. 'ApTt.iiicrio, 4}. a. Ba<7-t's, 6, b. (ftapfidicuv, 292, b. Apxtflt'wpos, 1:9, a; J75, a. BeV/3i)f, 1 98, a. VtevSeyypeu^^s, 314. * *ApxiTitTO'ta, }}, a. Bcfii&cia, 58, a. rpatnj, 293, b. *Ap\iTticToiuoj. 3J, a. BnAds, 215, a. Tpo^is, 295, b. *ApxtT'*Tioi', 374, b. Apxtui', J4 b. Bijfia, 146, b ; 249, a. Bt'pVurcs, 328, b. Fpiipos, 357- b. rpdinfros, 200, b. ^ouriArvs, J5, a. Bi/3Aio0ijc7j, 58, b. ri^s, JI, b. rirturv/ios, J5, a ; 66, a j 86, a. Bi/3Atov, 238, a. IYfii'a<7tdpx7>s, 197. b. 'ApY<6fi}s, 365, a. BcJtatot, 59, a. rufipaauipx&s, 197, b. *Ao-dfiii9n, 44, a. BoTjipdfiio, 59, b. Tvnvrjo~ux, 198, a. *A^Ts, 41, b ; 198, b. -140 GREEK INDEX. Tv/j-voi. E,Vary f A(a. 'E|7, 7 ^Tr. TVILVOI, 41, b; 272, b. Aim; avTOTtATJs, IJ2, b. Eicrmjpia, 148, b I'vuvoiraiSia., 198, b. /3Ad/3ijs, 248, b. EioTroieicrSai, 7, a. 1'ui'aiKOKocr/j.oi, 198, b. |ouAj)S, 152, a. Ei 7, a. rv^aiKw^Tt? 140, a. rcopvros, 37, b. crtrou, J45, a. Ej)Toy, 146, b. A.iHcuri.i, I'M, b; 3OI, b. AlOCTTJ/Atlll, Ij8, b. *EKi, 127, a. AiVrepos, J&7, a. AI'TTTUXO, i ?7, b ; J58, b ; j(x>, a. AiV/cos, IJ7, b. ) 'EKTUS,*EKTIJ, 2OI, a. 'Ex^iopd, 185, a. 'Eit(|>vAAo4>opt'a, 172, b. AcKapX'Of 127, a. Ai'p09, 1 24, b. "EAaia/EAaior, 27 J, b. AeKacrjuds, 127, a. Aiiu/ScAi'a, 374, b. 'EAarrjp, 398, a. Aeicd ) 65, b. AeicaTevToi, 128, b. AoKi/xao-i'a, IJ9, b; I5J, b. 'EAe'os, 382, b. AeKOTT), 128, b. AeicaTrjAoyoi, 128, a. AoAixos, 274, b ; 348, b. AdAcoj', 140, a. 'EAevSepta, 151, b. "EAevo'H'io, 149, b. AeKrtTwrai , 1 28, 11. Aopdrioi', 199, b. 'EAKvoriVSa Trai^eiv, 198, a. AeAiJiiria, 129, a. AopTror, 95, a. 'EAAai'oSi'icai, 18, a; 201, b; AeAijbi's, 1 29, a. Aopv, 41, b; 199, b. 275, a. ^ Ae(T/j.coT>jpior, 72, a. AovAof, 337, a. 'EAAni'OTa/iii'ai, 2OI, b. Ae<7jro<7iocavTai, 202, a. Apaxuv, 343, b. 'EAAojSior, 211, b. AeuTpayu>i>i7jLia, 152, a. Ajjjxios, 2O2, a. Au/aoi/es, 389, a. 'E/ujSoA^, 40, b. Ai)/u.oKpaTta, 129, b. Aco/udrio, 140, b. 'Eju/SoAoc, 264, a. A^/j.0?, 129, b; i jo, a. Ao>pa, 145, a. *Eju./3oAos, 124, a; 264, a. Arj/idcrioi, 129, b. A(upoo/ci'a9 ypa.(j>rj, 127, a. 'Efi/txe'Aeia, 85, b. Aijfxdcrioi', ii, b; jj, a. Aupoi', 28l, a. 'Eju/uijcot 5iKt, 152, a. Ay)p6rq, 1 27, a. *Eju7raiets, 140, a. Aid^w/xa, 422, D. 'EjiTroptov, 152, b. 'EjuiTropos, 152, b. Atu^,,M IITH, 571. a. *E/u.)4>ijyr)Tai', 160, a; 160, b. GREEK INDEX. 441 *Efy>iy. 'H/jipa. ^copjy. 'Efnpei?, 262, a. "EcrTiaTUp, 204, b. 'Hfxepoipdfioi. 202, a. 'EfoSta, 171, a. "E a; 141. b ; 180, b. 'HjuueKTcdi-, 201, a. 'EfovAns Suo), I>2, a. 'ETotpio, 98, a ; 159, a; 359. b - 'Hfiie'icTOp, 201, a. 'E|up.is, 171, a. 'ETaipoi, 163, b. 'HfiucvKAiov, 2C2, a 'Eu/zocrux, 17', b. 'ETCpOOTO/iOS, 268, b. 'Il/it'/ii'a, or 'I!/j.ira, I2O, b; 'Efuorpo, 171, b. EOSttTTpos, ii, a. 202, b. 'Eopnj, 274, b. 'EirayyeAio, 153, n. 'En-aAfei?, 381, a ; 4-6, b. EO^upot, 401, b. Ev8v&iK(a, in, a. Eiidvvr), 154, b; 160. a. "Hpi'oxo?, 124, b. 'Hpata, 202, b. "Hpuop, 1 86, a. 'EirapiTOt, 153, a. EvOvvoi, 160, b. Hwf, 1 34, b. 'ETrauAio, 250, b. Evp.oAiri'Sat, 159, t- 'EueKToiiop, 384. a. EUP^, 222, a. 'Eirt/Sddpo, 303, 11. Eu7raTpt'6ai, 91, a , iV>, a. 'En-i/SoYai, 155, a. EuorvAos, 367, b. e. 'Eirij3Anj*Ma, '9. to. Ei<)T|/llT, I 38 b. 'Ejri/3dA5, a. 'Ee'<7"t5, 29, a. aAa/otos, 141, b; 265, b. ' Eiriypofi/Lia, 377, b. 'Eif>e'Tai, 15?, b. 0aAAo^>dpot, 282, b. ' Etrtypai^eis, 149, a. 'Eopoi, 154, a. QeaTpuipj)?, 374, b. 'Em'Aoyoi, 358, b. *Evpot. 150, b. H, ii , 46, a. 'ETrt/ifATjTai, 155, 1>; 316,8. 'EXIPOS, 24, b ; i j2, a ; 249, n. Qco^cti'ta, 374- a * TOU envopiov, 1 5;, b; I55> to. 'E\frqfi.a, 416, b. epdn-up, i6c, b; 202, a. Tns Koii'rii irpoaoSov, 155> b; 'Kupo, 1 1, a. Wep^'i, 55, a. 362, b. e'ais, 7, a. Tup /xoptup 'I' Aaiwp, 1 55> to. 6r/io0eTat, 35, a. TUP Mvornpi'up, I ? 5. b. eea/uo?, 35, b; 271, b. TUP peiupi'ur, 155, b. Z. eovuKx/xjpio?, 375, b. TUP<#>wAup, 155, b. 0Tot, 7, a. * En-ifivAtop, 2?6, a. . ' EiriVpoiKoi, 203, a. Zaxopoi, IO, a. ZnryiTot, 81, b; 162, a; ;, a. euptAcd, 374, a. eupt's, 128, b; 283, b. ' Eirioxoiroi, i 5, b. 'E7Ti<7Tra to. 'En-ioroAeus, 155, b. ETTKTTV'AIOP, IO2, a ; 155, b. ZvyXit, 266, a. ZeyKTijpi'ai, 266, a. ZnTTjTui, 422, b. Zuya, 265, b. Zuyiot, 124, b; 26?, b. Zvyiroi, 124, b; 265, b. Zvyov, 161, a; 217, a; 245, b; 0^Tet, 81, b ; 390, a. i-p ' f tfij K 329, a. Zuyos, 217, a; 329, a. oAi'a, 405, a. 0dAo?, 376, a. 'EiriVopoi, 222, a ; 267, b. Zv0O9, 82, b. 00WK05, 15, b. 'EjriVpojro?, 155, b. 'Eiri\ei.pOTOi>ia, 35, a; 83, b. Zu/io, 422, b. pdviop, 376, a. 'Ejroirrai, 150, b. 'Eiroirrei'a, 150, b. 'E7ru/3eAi'a, 156, a. Zu/xos /xeAa9, 360, a. Zupa, 41, a ; 422, b. Z&> 'Eirwpia, 365, b. yfie'Arj, 371, b. 'Eirui'u/i09, 35, a. u/uurnjpiop, 2, a ; 40 2, b. 'Epapo?, 95, b; 159, a 0upa, 214, b. 'Epycipai, 363, b. II. avActo;, 140, b. 'Epya^Ttycu, 282, a. ^aAapuTOf, 141, a. 'Ep^tat, 204, a. 'Epnaia, 204, a. ' Uyejoidpe; (rvuuopiup, 39 ?, n. 'Hyefiovia 5cKacm)piov. 249, a. mjirat'a, 141, b. ju.eVuvAo9, 141, a. 'Fppi^opoi, 42, b. "Hfyxd?, ioi, a. jneVauAov , 141, a. Epo*7j/)dpoi, 42 , b. 'HAajcan), 191, b; 267, a. upeos, 331, a. Epuna, 159, b. "HAeitrpop -OT, 149, b. 1 HAiorpoTriop, 207, a. upeTpop, 2(5, a. &vpiSet, 141, b. 'EpuTi'Sia, 159, b. *Hjxop Seif AOP, J 34i b. upcros, 376, . "Eaon-rpop, 347, a. fxe'(rop, 134, b. upup, 140, b. 'Eo-Ti'o, 1 80, b. 'Eorcacrif, 204, a. 'H/ie'pa Kupi'a TOU pof/ov, 94> * /if'cn), 134, b. vpiopetop, 140, b. vpupd;, 140, b, 215, a. 442 GEEEK INDEX. Qvffavoi. KAtf,5rt. KD M - GvtTai>oi, IO, b. KoAAicpetv, Ij8, b. KAqpoi'dju.of, 2oj, a. vnjpiov, ji, a. KaAAirrTcta, 68, b. KA^pos, 20j, a. 0wpaf , 41, a ; 240, b. KaAojSdnjf, 184, b. KAripoux'" 1 , 9J> a i 98, b. KdAoi, 260, b ; 267, b. KAr)poux a - Kaprcdrai, 72, b. Kapfeia, "2, b. Kddoppo?, 1 20, a. KJHAOI, 65, b. Icpo^ioj^iopc?, 20, a | 205, a. "lepdr, }62, a; j66, b "Ifpoi'ucou, 47, a. Kapirat'a, J28, a. Kapx^', fl, a. Kopvo, 7 Ji a. KoiAoi', J7I, a. Koivbv riav AlrwAwr, \ ?, a. KoiToires, 140, b. Icpot'djiio?, Joj, a. 'lepoTroioi, 2O5, a. Kopvart?, 7J, a. KoAed?, 196, a. KoAodm}, 150, a; 159, b; KaTayuyiii/, 77, a. KardAoyof , 76, a. KdAjros, 401, a. KoAurai, 186, a. Joj, a. 'Ifpo, 148, b. "1(70 ma, 214, a. 'lo-oiroAiTeio, 91, a; 255, a - 'lo-ore'Aeia, 9 1, a ; 2; 5, u ; j66, a. "Iivos, 117, a. KoxAidptor, 94, b. KoyAi'as, 94, b. Kpacof, 192, b. Kpari/p, 121, a. Kpcdypa, 199, b. KpTJt^j, 29, b; 181, a. Kpjjjri's, 121, a. Kpi/cos, 211, b. Kptdf, 40, a. KpiTot, 121, a. Kpucpartoe;, IDJ, a. Ke^aAi;, 40, b. KpoKij, j64, a. Ki)Trat'a 9vpa, 141, b. KTJTTOJ, 207, b. KpoKioToi' -I'K. 121, X KpdroAoi', 126, a. Kripoypa(a, 295, a. Kpoueiv. 215, a. K. Krjpds, 82, b. Kpunreio, 1 21, b. Kjjpuieeioi', 6j, a. I\p(o/3iiAo?, IOJ, a. Ka/3ei'pia, 6;, a. KrjpvKtoi'. 6j, a. KT, 288, a. Kd5o, KdS5o, 2J, b; 6j, b. Ki/SuiTci;, J2, a. Kua9o, 125, a. KaOdirat , 47, b. Ki'doptf, 245, a. K r.' "in.-. 96, a. KdOapcris, 244, a. Ki'orej, 1 86, a. Ku^fpr^Tttt, 2>9> ^" HapCTTflp, Jl8, b. KiVn), 90, a. Ku/3i;, a. MatTcum 276, b. Nad?, 366, b. Koijiof, no, b. Mdvrei?, U7, b. Navapxt'a, 259, a. Ku>^Lu>6ta, IIO, b. MatTiKjj, 1 17, b. Navopxofi 259, a. TUwvoittlov, 113, a. Mapcrvn-ion 248, b. NovVAripoi, 259, b ; 359, a Ko>7T7J, 265, b. Maprvpia, 24, b ; 248, b. NavKpapi'o, 259, a. MaoTiyoi'dfiOi, 249, a. Nauicpapo?. 259, O. Mao-Tiyo^opoi, 249, a. MdffTif, 179, b. Nav?, 259. b. NairriKoi', 176, b. Md\aipa, 122, a; } 1 5, a. NauToiocai, 268, b. A. Mryopov, 367, a. NedfcaOai, 32, b. Mt'Sy^ot, 25 J. a. Ncp6J(in-i/oi>, 187,8. AdfiTraJapxi'a, 22O, ft. VMurraaOai, 172, a. Nexvcria, 187, b. AanTaSjjSpOfiia, 22O, a. MeAia, 199, b. Ne/ixaia, 269, a. AafiJro5)pio, 220. b. Meuau'Aios flvpa, 141. a. New, 32, b. A'/3>js, 273, b. McVavAot fli'pn, 141, a. Neov7/u/3pia, iJ4,b. Nf b. Atjpcua, I}5> b. MtroiKioi', 255, a ; 365, b. Ndfiot, 271, b. Ai)i/ot', 185, b. Me'roixoi, 254, b. No/u.o' > 134, b. AJjfis, ijr.b. Miji/ /j/3oAi/xcs, 65, b. Ai/3apu>Tpi'?, 2, b. MjjTpdiroAi!, 98, b. Ai0vpyic, 239, a ; 262, b. Mnrpoiov, 33, a. Ai/3vpr6V, 2J9, a ; 262, b. Mifio?, 255, b - S. Al00TO/ju'ai, 221, a. MiaSoi KA)j b. Md0wi'e5, 202, a. SfviovfS, 141, b. AocTpdi/, 54, b. Mdixfa; ypa<^^, 8, a. Ern7$, 422, a. Aoi/3ai, 325, b. MoAvj3i'tf, 184, b. Ei'/io?, 41, b; 196, a. Aovnjp, 55, a. Aovnjpioy, 55, a. Mocopvi'a, 256, b. Morondxoi, 194, b. Eoavov, 349- Ei/>)A>], 161, b. AovTpoV, 54, b. Aovrpcx/idpo?, 250, a. MoroxiVair, 401, a. Mdpo, 161, a. SuAoKoirio, 191, b. Suirr^p, 17, b. AdT7)coerr>j, 28Q, a. Ou-os, 416, a. HcuSoTpi/Sai', 197, b. ITei'TTjicocrT^p, loi, a. OuitPUrrilttj, I 38, b. Hau-qwv, 279, a. IIem)o. ! 21J' b. X>AKdfi, 262, a. IToAaicTTpa, 279, b. IldAq, 242, a. TlepiaTTTOV, 24, ft. ncpi'/3AT)fxo, 19, b. 'OAicoi', 261, b. Tlafx^OKUTta, 281, b. Ilepi/SdAaioi', 19, b. 'OA^ios, 257, ft- TTa/XjLiaxot, 282, b. ITcpi/3oAo?, 323, a. 'OAoicavTeic, 324, b. nd/u.(/>vAot, 389, a. IleptSetTrvoc, 187, a. 'OAufiirio, 274, a. Ilai'ad^faia, 281, b. Ilept'oiKOt, 290, b. 'OAufijrids, 276, a. IWSoKeioi/, 77, a. HepiTraTOs, 258, b. 'OfioydAaitTS, 389, b. I laj ,,-, r,i) ^-, 283, a. HtplTToScOt', 213, ft- 'O/xotoi, 91, b ; 161, b; 206, a. 'OftoAoyta, 358, b. Uaviiavta, 283, a. riai'OTrAtci, 283, ft* Ilt/uVoAoi, 153, b; 162, a. Uepiirrepo?, 367, a. '(Voi>, 2, b ; I2O, b. IlapaAtTai, 283, b. nTids, 172, b. 'Ovypd(J>oi, 272, a. ndpaAot, 283, b; 390, a. nTa7J, 147, b; TIjjfidAioi', 265, b. 'OirAiTot, 41, b. 284, a. n>)A7)f, 192, b. "Opyta, 258, b. TlapdrufX^o?, 250, a. lliji'ri, 364, a. "Opymd, 278, ft. napaTre'racr^a, 140, b ; 372, ft. Ibji-iK)), 104, a. 'Opet'xaAicos, 278, ft. IIapa7rp(7/3eMi, 284, b. n^ctov, 192, a. 'Opicos, 2 1 8, a. IlapacrTiiSe?, 26, a. njpa, 290, a. 'Opfxos, 256, b ; 328, b. IlapoirvAis, 305, a. nijxf, 122, a; 245, b. 'Opvy/oto, 57> ft- ITapappv/xara, 267, b. niflos, 417, a. *Opx>j(rts, 327, b. Ilapao-dyyi)?, 284, b. IliOoiyt'a, 136, a. 'Opxyarrpa, 371, b. I lapdcTTlftOl', 263, b. IIiArj^ia, 297, a. 'Opxijtrrvs, ^27, b. riapdo-iTO?, 284, b. IliAo?, 297, a. 'Oo-ioi, 277, a. llnpaaiojl'ioi', 372, a. IIiAcoToi', 297, a. 'Otrrpoxioi', 178, b. Ilopacrrd;, 141, ft. Hivaxutrj, 45, b. 'O(TTpaici(7-/t;>0), 29?, b. 'OerrpaKOp, 172, b; 178, b; UapatTTaToi, 266, ft IIAayt'avAo?, 376, b. 185, a. IldptSpoc, 284, b. 1 1 Aajni\dat, IJI, a. OvA.ofi.oi, 161, b. naoTot, 289, b. 1 1 ',,-,.,. 151, a. OiiAdxvTo, 325, * Tldrpai, 389, a. IIAijpets, 65, b. OuAoxvVai, 32?, a. IltSicuot, 390, a. XIAii/flo?, 22O, b. Oupoyos, 161, b; 166. b. Ile'SiAov, 64, b. Tl\olov, 259, b ; 262, a. Oiipioxos, 200, a. Tlc^e'raipoi, 163, b. IIAvrnjpla, 3OI, a. *Ois, 42, b. ncAdrat, 288, b. IId5, 260, b; 267, b. OXCLIT;, 94, a. nt'Aeicus, J3I, b. noielv, 7, a. *O\Q-vov t 94, a. IleAracTTai, 42, ft ; 16 J, a ; IloieicrOai, 7, a. 'OxAofCpaTt'a, 129, b. 289, a. I If.Djtrnr, 7, ft. 'OifirjfJ-a, 276, b. IleATT), 42, a; 288, b. IIot>)Tos, 7, a. Oi)ioi>, 276, b. llei'etrrai, 289, a. IIoiiTJ, 301, a. 'Oi/wojf, 276, b. n.6iftiv, 362, a. IIoAv/bUTOf, 364, b. ITayKpariof, 282, b. IIefTdAi0os, 198, a. IIoAuTTTVX a ' J^O' Ilaidr, 279, ft. nevrdnrvxa, 360, a. IIO(U.TTlJ f 3I b. GREEK INDEX. 44 5 flopiffrai. STjuaiai. f^" 7 "' Hdpiraf, l6l, b. DbwuDribT^^* Srjjaeioypd^ot, 272, a Ildpin), 178, b. 1 1 r-./ii;, 315, a. Srjjxeioi', 34)1 a - Iloaetfiecor, 65, b. IIvyfiocrv'iT), 315, a. Siyuw^>v, 289, a. IIoC?, 292, a. IIv'Aoi, 54, bj l8j, b. 2 IKll'I'tf , 85, O. TIpdxTopw, 306, b. ITuflta, 315, b. 2trrjpe'<7ioi', 162, b. JIpociyyvo~4$, 150, a. Ilvdtot, 316, a. 2iTo6ciai, 345, a. IIpo/SoAr), 310, a. IIiwci/dtTTvAos, 367, b. StroiruAai, 345, a. npo/SovAcufio, 61, b. ITi/KTat, 315, a. 2ITO?, 144, b. Upd/Soi-Aoi, 310, a. II/Aoydpai, 23, a. 2tVou t'/c)7, )45, a. Mpoydficta, 2?o, a. ITuAaia, 2O, a. tTcxj>vAaKior, 2O7, b. JlpdSoiios, 367, a. ITuAn, 305, a. 2tro^)uAas, 15, b; 344 b npofioo-io, Jio, b. HuAi;, 305, a. StTUf'at, 345. a. IlpdSpOfio?, 141, a. Uv\iuv, 140, b; 305, b. SicaAMOi', 264, b. Ilpofopt'a, 214, b. Iluf, 315, a. Sxarre'fpu, 198, a. Updcopot, 61, b. ITv^t'^toy, JlO, a. 2/cdi^jj, 262, b. IIpd0eo-is, 1 8;, a. Ilufn, 316, a. SxeVaproi-, 44, a. ripo0ca>ua, 311, b. nvpiypo, 254, b. iicf ri; Kpf^acrrd, 265, b. ITpoOecr^t'a? I'dfiot, 311, b. ITupat, 185, b. fi/Ati/a, 265, b. Ilpddvpa, I4">, a. Ilupyot, 402, a. S(C7j^, 372, a. IlpdOvpoi', 16, b. Hi/pta. 55, b. SicijirTpoi', 330, a. IIpoi), j6;, a. Ilwywr, 57> il - iKidSijpoi', 206, a. tIp6rd.07), 364, b. IIpoaxaTa/SAijjua, 36;, a. 'Pafl&iov, 295, b. Sirapyafoi', 212, a. IIp07Ke'^aAetor, 222, a. "Po^Soi'd^LOi, 15, a. Sn-etpa, 347, b. Dpo a - EtpooTifiav, 378, a. 'Pdp.0of, 198, a. ST^TUIOV, in, a; 384,0. Hpo<7Tiuao*$cu, 378, a. 'Pu/xos, 31, b; 124, a. STOTTJP, 349. a - IIpoo-TiViTHia, 132, b; 378, a. PUTO*-, 322, b. Sravpdv, 121, a. Upocrrdov, 140, b. Sre'^xxvof, 1 1 8, a. IIpdoTvAot, 367, a. Sr^Aat, 1 86, a. TIpocrujn-flor, 291, a. Sny/nuv, 364, a. npocrwiroi', 291, a. X SrAeyyK, 17, b; 56, b. ITpOTfAeui yd^wr, 249, b. A Srod, 140, b ; 305, b. TIpOTOn>i, 4> b. SroAos, 261, b. flpoTocoi, 259, b; 267, b. SayijvT), 32O, b. 'S.TOfLiOV, I8J, b. ITpo^jjrTjv, 1 50, a. SaxKOf, 1 01, b ; 103, a; 323, a. Srotxetoi/, 206, a. IIpo>)Tis, 277, a. 2s, 53, a. ".vyypri, 358, b. Mp b. Seurrpop, 344, a. UKO^diTT]?, 35^*1 ^ |TpuTo7> ^* Tetxojroids, 363, b. Tpvrdvr), 3j, 95, b. Telxos, 257, a. Tpv<^dAeta, 193, a. 2vfxjuaxot, 345, b. TtAap-wf, 47, b; 57, a. Tv\eiov, 222, a. 2v/^|uopia, 149, a ; 393, a. TcAerot, 258, b. Tv\r), 222, a. 2v^7rocrior, 357, a. Te'Aos, 163, b; 365, b. Ti;/u.j3os, 1 85, a. 2vfdAAayp.a, 357, a. TeAaivopxi)?, 365, a. Tviniravov, 403, a. "S-vvSiKOt, 271, b; 358, a. TfAwnjs, 289, b ; 365, a. TUTTOS, 178, b. 2vpepiov, 358, a. Te/ievos, 366, b. Tvpoivvk, 403, b. 2ui*poi, 3>8, a. Te'p/uo, 205, b. Tvpoj/cos, 403, a. 2vMjyopiicd>', 158, b. TTpdpa;moi', 145 > b. 2vprjyopos, 160, b ; 358, a. TerpoAoyio, 383, a. 2ui/0T)KT), 357. a. Terpaopio, 124, a. ~S.vvOriiJ.ti, 368, b. 2vfo6os, 117, -a x Terpapxns, 37O, a. Terpopxto, 163, a; 370, a. Y. 2vpotKt'a, 358, b. TerpaoTuAo?, 367, a. 'YaiciVflta, 209, b. 2vi'Tay/xa, 163, H. Terp^ptis, 262, a. 'YaAos, 420, a. 2virais, 358, a. TerropaKoira, 01, 16, a ; 37. a - 'YjSpcws ypa a. Tq/3evro, 378, a. ' YpaAT7)5, 2j6, a. 2vrArs, 39), a. Tioipa, 376, b. 'Yfipards, 15, a. 2vprpnjpapxot, 392, b. Ttopas, 376, b. 'YpauAis, 2IO, a. 2vi'wpis, 124, b. Tifj.rifj.a., 81, b; 377> b. 'Ypt'o, 345, a. 25piyf , 359. a - Ti/iijjTia, 78, b. 'Ypta^>opi'a, 2IO, b. 2vp/uo, 359. b. Ti/Ltijnjs, 78, b. ' YcSpo/itAi, 418, b. 2 v> ryyvoi, 176, b. 'YA>j, 260, b. 2voTa<7ts, 163, b. vavTttcoi, 176, b. 'YAAeis, 389, a. 2uo-TvAo5, 367, b. TOKOS, 176, b. '\'iratOpov, 141, b. 24>ayt's, 122, a. ToAujrjj, 191, b. 'YnmOpos, IO2, a. Scjtatpa, 296, a. TdfOi, 222, a. 'YiraoTTKrTai, l6l, b; 163, b. 24>atpi(7TtKij, 198, a ; 296, a. Tdfoi', 37, b. "firepatpioTpa, 296, b. Toireia, 267, b. 39 J. b. S^evSdrTj, IO3, b; 1841 b. Topomnj, 6i, b. "Ymji^j, 57, a. "S.tjxv&oi'rJTa.i, 184, b. Topiii/17, 399, a. "firripeiria, 3Q}, b. 24>(es, 246,-a. Tpayvt'o, 381, b. "YmipeYjjs, Io2, b. i'.'.jj.i-j'is , 25, b. 24>vpvp>)AaTOi', 254. b. SevTtpai, 96, a. 'Yn-oypa^t's, 295, b. 2x*' / ii 260, a. trpurai, 96, a. 'Yn-d))fia, 64, b } 329, a. 2xoiKia, 267, b ; 268, a. Tpairtfirai, 30, a. 'YTTofaKopoi, 10, a. ~gH9Ofttnft, 184, b. Tpo^Tjf , 264, b. 'Vwofuinara, 267, a. 2xoiyo, 330, b. Tpt'oico, 191, b. 'YTTOKplTTJS, 2O), b. 2wpon'crrai, 197, b. Tpuucafes, 389, a. 'YjroA^aoi', 416, b. 2wpofio, b; 362, a. Tpirrus, 389, a. *aAayvapX' a . *6j, b. Tofi'opxoi, 163, b; 363, a. Tpiw/SoAoc, 394, a. oAoyf, Ifco, b; 163, b. ToAos, 192, b. Td(/>oi, 1 86, a. TpdxiAos, 347. b. 4>ai/ds> 176, a. Tac/jpoToiot', 363. a. Tpovds, 124, a ; 178, b ; 398, a. 4>appos, 406, b. Tpv/3Ai'oi', 120, b. 4>ap/xaot, 272, a. Tpvyoiiros, IOI, b. 'I'up/iatcoi, 370, a. Tiflptmros, 124, n. Tpvyu>to, no, b. '1'apfj.a.Kiar ypiKJ'ij, 292, b. GREEK INDEX. 447 *apos, 280, b. XaAivos, 182, a. Xputrovs, 349, a. 4>opof , 292, b. XoAxioucia, 83, a. Xvrpo, 273, D. Qdoyavov, 196, a. XoAxot, 12, a. Xurpot, 136, a. taoTjAos, 293, a. XoAxovt, 12, a ; 83, a. Xijia, 14, b; 186, a. *ao-ts, 293, a. Xopoxe?, 406, b. fl'etiiTr/s, 360^ a. Xcipdypa^of, 83, b. *evo0opa, 8, a. Xe'Aw, 245, b. i'aAtoi') 42, b. toAT), 28;, b. XtAcotT), 245, b ; 369, a. *e'Atop, or ^'AAiov, 42, b. $if*6?, 182, b. XlfPUTKOf, 26}, b. *euSeyypa7;s ypa^uj, 314, a. $opj3eia, 7, b. XiAap^t'a, 163, b. *u6o6i7TTepo, 367, a. 4>opeioi', 221, a. XtTW*', 400, a. 'I'tviojrfpiTrTepo?, 367, a. *dp/iiyf, 24?, a. (TVIOTOS, 4OO, 8. *>j<^icrna, 62, a ; 147, b; 272,8. *opos, 358, a. \ITUVIOV, 400, a; 401, a. Vfios, 221, a; iij, b. 4'opnj-ycu, 262, a. XtTun/i'iTKo?, 400, a. *iAoi, 41, b. 4>opriKa, 262, a. XAaii'O, 22O, a. *u(CT^'p, 3 14, a 4>paTpi'a, 38), a. XAa^iu?, 84, a. 'frpcLTpixbv ypc^ziittTctov, 7 *^- XAo/uv&oy, 84, a. "frvyjj, 172, a. XAtSwi-, 42, b. *0*o?, 183, b. Xoai, 187, b. O. 'K'Aoxes, 155, b. X69, 136, a. IVAeucTTJpioi', 24> a. Xo*v?, 85, b. 'O/3at, 191, b; 389, a. *uAopxoi, 162, b; 293, a. Xomf , 84, b. '(ISfiov, 27 3, a. *uAij, 162, a; 388, a. Xopijyia, 84, b. 'np* toe, 207, b. *uAo0aurayfyi'a, 150, b. Xopof, 85, a ; 198, b. 'n(7xo6pia, 178, T - KvicAucof , 85, a. XoOi, 8j, b. Xp'ovt Sucrj, J77, b. X. Xprja/aoAoyoi, 138, a. Xpijor^piot', 276, b. XaAatW fieSotoi, 4", b. Xpoi-oAoy ia, 85, b. XaAjai(i i/rr$i6, 45, b. Xpv<7Of, 53, ! 448 LATIN INDEX. LATIN INDEX. ABACUS. AES. ALLOCUTIO. 1 ' Actus simplex, 6, b. Afs grave, 12, a ; 4?, b. A ' 1 1 s, 6, b. hordearium, or bordiarlun: Adcrescendi jure, 204, a. 12, a; 156, b. Addico, 48, b ; 50, a. mllitare, 12, a. Addictl, 269, b. uxorium, 12, b. Abacus, I, a. Ademptio equl, 80, b. Aestivae feriao, 177, b. Ablegmina, 325, a. Adfines, i ), a. Aetolloum fo?dus, i }, a. Abolla, i, a. Aillinitas, I}, a. A (lines, I}, a. Abrogare legem, 225, b. Adgnati, 98, a. Afflnltas, 13, a. Absolutio, 216, a. Adgnatio, 98, a. Agaso, ij, b. Accensi, 165, b; 168, b. Adlecti, 6, b. Agema, 13, b. Accensus, i, b. Admisstonales, 6, b. Ager, ij, b. Acclamatlo, 2, a. Admissionum proximus, 6, b. iteratus, )l, b. Accubatio, 2, a. Adolescentes, 212, b. publicus, i }, b. Accubitoria vestis, .559, a. Adoptio, 7, a. scriptuarlus, }}i, a. Accusatio, 121, a. Adoratio, 7, b. Agger, 14, b; 7J, a; 302, b. Accusator, 6, a; 216, a. Adrogatio, 7, a. Agitator, 89, a. Accusatorial llbelli, 237, b. Adsertor, 45, a. Agmen, 167, a. Acerra, 2, b. Adsessor, 45, a. pilatum, 167, a. Acetabulum, 2, b. Adversaria, 8, a. qnadratum, 167, a. Acliaicum fcedus, }, a. Adversarius, 6, a. Agnati, 98, a. Acies, 199, b. Adulterium (Greek), 7, b. Agnatio, 98, a. Acilia lex, 22$, a. Adulterium (Roman), 8, a. Agnomen, 271, b. Acilia Calpurnia lex, 18, b. Adulti,6, b; 212, b. Agonales, 316, b. Aril i.i ccs, ), b. Advocatus, 8, b. Agonalia, 15, a. Aclsculus, 44, b. Aebutia lex, 226, a. Agonensis, 326, b. Aclis, 4. a; 201, a. Aedes, }66, b. Agonla, 15, a. Acroama, 4, a. sacra, }66, b. Agonlum Martialo, 15, a. Acropolis, 4, a. Aediles, 8, b. Agonus, 15, a. Acroterium, 4, a. cereales, 9, b. Agoranomi, 15, b. Acta, 4, b. Aeditimi, 10, a. Agrariae leges, 14, b. diuroa, 4, b. AeOitui, 10, a. Agraulia, 15, b. forensia, 4 b. Aedituml, 10, a. Agrlmensorcs, 16, a. Jurare In, 4, b. Aegis, 10, b. Agronomi, 16, a. militaria, 4 b. Aelia lex, 226, a. Abenum, 1 1, a. patrum, 4, b. Sentia lex, 226, a. Ala, 16. b. senatus, 4, b. Acmilia lex, 226, a. Alae, 142, b; 171, b. Actio, 5, a; 2ij,b. Baebia lex, 228, a. Alabaster, 16, b. exercitorla, 160, b. I^epidi lex, 255, b. Alabastrum, 16, b. fiduclaria, 179, a. Scauri lex, 248, b. Alares, 16, b. injuriarum, 21), a. Aenatores, ri, a. Alarii, 16, b. In Jure, 6, a. Aenei nummi, 12, a; 341, b Alauda, 17, a. Legls or Legltima, 5, a. Aenum, n, a. legio, 17, a. de pauperie, 288, a. Aeora, n, a. Albogalerus, 28, a. de peculio, JJ9, b. Aera, 1 2, a. Album. 17, a. rei uxoriae, or dotis, 145, b. Aerarii, n, a. Judlcum, 17, a. restitutoria, zij, b. Tribuni, 12, b; 385, b. Senatorlum, 17, a Sepulchri violati, 190, b. Aerarium, 1 1, b. Alea, 17, a. Actionem dare, 5, b. milltare, n, b. Aleator, 17, a. edere, 5, b. 1'racinrcs ad, II, b. Ales, 50, a. Actor, (>, a. sanctum, n, b. A!icu:.i. 17, a. publicus, 6, a. Aeril numml, 241, b. Allmentarii pucrl et pucllae Actuarial naves, 6, a ; 262, a. Aes, 12, a. 17. b. Acmarli, 6, a; 272, b. Aes (money), 12, a. Alipllus, 17, b. Ac ti is, 6, b; jco, b. allenum, 12, a. Aliptae, 17, b. minimus, 6, b. circumforaneum, 12, a. Alites, 50, a. quadratua, 6, b. efiuestre, 12, a; 156, b. AUocutfo, 17, b; 285, .1. LATIN INDEX. 449 ALTARS. AREA. AUSPICIUM. Altare, JT, a. Apodyterlum, 56, a. Arrogatlo, 7, a. Aluta, 65, b. Apollinares ludi, 241, b. Ars Chaldaeorurn, 4$, b. Amanuensis, 18, a. Apopboreta. 28, b. Artaba, 41, a. Ambarvalia, 4J, a. Apotbeca, 28, b ; 58, b. Artopta, 297, a. Ambitus, 18, a. Apotheosif, 28, b. Artoptlcii, 297, a. Ambrosia, 19, a. Apparitio, 29, a. Arvales Fratres, 4J, a. Ambubaiae, 19, a. Apparitores, 29, a. Anindo, 364, a. Ambulationes. 208, a, Appellatio (Greek), 29, a. Anira, 4?, a. Amburbiale, 19, a. (Roman), 29, a. Arnsplces, 199, b. Amburbinm, 19, a. Aprilis, 66, a. Arx, 41, b. Amentum, iso, a. Apuleia lex, 226, b. As, 4J, b. Amicire, 19, a. agraria lex, 226, b. As libralis, 4?, b. Amictorium, 19,8; J}$, b. frumentaria lex, 226, b. Asamenta, 326, b. Amictus, 19, a. majestatis lex, 226, b. Ascia, 44, a. Ampliictyones, 19, b. Aqua, 29, b. Aslarchae, 45, a. Amphitbeatrnm, 21, a. Alexnudrina, jo, b. Assamenta, J26, b. Amphora, 13, a ; 316, b ; Algentia, }O, b. Assarius, 44, a. 417, a. Alsietina, or Augusta, jo, a. Asseres lecticarii, 121, b. Ampllatio, 2), b; 215, b. Appia, jo, a. Assertor, 45, a. Ampulla, 17, b; zj.b; 56, b. Claudia, jo, a. Assert us, 45, a. Ampullarius, 24, a. Crabra, jo, b. Asses Usurae, I76> b. Amuletum, 24, a. Julia, jo, a. Assessor, 45, a. Amussis, or Amussinm, 14, b. Marcia, jo, a. A&sidui, 240, b. Anagiiostae, 74, b. Septimiana, jo, b. Assiduitas, 18, b. Anatocismus, 1 77, a. Tepula, jo, a. Astragalus, 45, a. Ancilia, Ji6, b. Trajana, jo, b. Astrologi, 45, b. Ancora, 268, a. Virgo, jo, a. Astrolugia, 4J, b. Ancones, j 20, b. Aquae duel us, 29, b. Astronomi, 45, b. Andabatae, 195, a. et Ignis interdictio, i"j), a. Asyli jus, 46, a. Angarla, 25, a. Aquarii, ji, a. Asylum, 46, a. Angariarum exbibitlo, or prae- Aquila, MJ, a. Atellanae Fabnlae, 46, b. statio, 25, a. Aquilifer, 169, b. Aternia Tarpeia lex, 126, b. Angiportus, or Angiportnm, Ara, ji, a. Athenaeum, 46, b. 25, a. Aratrnm, jt, b. Atbletae, 47, a. Anffiistus clavns, 92, b. Arbiter, 215, b. Atia lex, 226, b. Anlmadversio censoria, 80, a. Arbiter bibendi, J57, b. Atilia lex, 226, b. Anio novus, y>, a. Arbitrium, 188, a. Atlnia lex, 226, b. vetus, jo, a. Area, J2,a; 188, b. Atlantes, 47, b. Annales maximi, 175, b; 504, b. Area, ex, J9, b. Atramentum, 48, a. Annalis lex, 226, b; 134, a. Area publica, ))(>, b. Atrium, 48, a; 142, b. Annona, 2$, a. Arcera, jj, a. Auctio, 48, b. civlca, 18?, b. Archiater, jj, a. Auctor, 48, b. Annul! aurei jus, 2$. b. Archimagirus, 97, a. Auctores fieri, 49, b. Annulorum Jus, 25, b. Archimimos, 188, a; 256, a. Anctoramentum, 58, b; 194,5. Annulus, 25, b. Architectura, }), a. Auctorati, 194, b. Annus magnus, 66, a. Arcbon, J4, b. Auctoritas, 49, b. Anquina, 267, b. Arcus, j6, a ; 37, b. senatna, jj6, a. Anquisitlo, 26, a ; 216 b. ' trinmpbalis, ?6, b. Auditorium, 49, b. Antae, 26, a. Constantini, j-j, b. Aufidla lex, 18, b. Anteambulones, 26, b. Prnsl, J7, a. Augur, 49, b. Antecessores, 26, b. Gallienl, J7, b. Auguraculum, 4?, b; 50, b: Antecoena, 96, b. Septimii Severi, y], J66,a. Antecnrsores, 26, b. Titi, J7, a. Augurale, 50, b ; 74, b. Antefixa, 26, b. Area, }"j, a. Augu rium, 49, b; 1)9, b. Antemeridiannm tempns, 134, Areiopagus, J7, a. Augustales, 52, b. b. Arena, 21, a. Augustalia, 52, b. Antenna, 267, a. Aretalogi, ^9, a. Augustas, 5), a ; 68, Antepilani, 165, b; 168, b. Argei, 19, a. A via, ij, a. Antesignani, 168, b. Argentarii, ^9, a. Aulaeum, J72, a. Antia lex, 2)6, a. Argentum, 40, a. Aurelia lex, 226, b. Anticum, 214, b. Argyraspides, 40, a. Anres, J2, a. Antiquarli, 259, a. Aries, 40, a. Aureus nummus, $j,b; 341 b. An ilia, 17, a. Arma, Armatura, 41, a. Aurichalcum, 341, b. Antoniae leges, 226, b. Amiarinm, 42, a. Auriga, 89, a. Apaturia, 27, b. Armatura levis, 170, a. A \i rum, 5), b. Aperta navla, 261, b. Armilla, 42, b. coronarium, 54, a. Apex, 28. a. Armilnstrinm, 42, a. vicesimarium, n, b. Aplustre, 264, b. Arra, Arrabo, or Arrha, Al- Auspex, 49, b. Apodectac, 28, a. rbabo, 42, a. Auspicium, 49, b ; i J8, b. 2 a 450 LATIN INDEX. AUTHEP8A. CAPISTUUM. CENSUS. Autbepsa, 54. a. Buccinator, n, a. Capite censi, 71, a. AuUmomi, 54, a. Bncculae, 191, b. Capitis deminutio, 71,*. Auxllia, 346, )>. Bulla, 62, b. Capitis minutlo, 71, a. AuxilUres, 170, b. Burn, or Buris, jt, b. Capitolini, 242, b. Auxiliarii, 170, b. Bustuaril, 6j, a. ludi, 242, b. Axamenta, 126, b. Butum, 6j, a; 189, a. Capsa, 70, b. Axis, 114, a. Buxum, 6], a. Capsarii, 56, a; *i, a. Hyssiis, (>f, a. Captio, 305, b. Capulum, 188, a. Capulus, }2, a. T> Caput, 71, a. D. .^ extorum, 7l,b. C. Caracalla, 72, a. Babyloiiii, 45, b. Career, 72, a. ni'.meri, 45, b. Caduceator, 6j, b. Carceres, 87, b; 107, b. Bacchanalia, I )6, b. Baebia lex, 227, a. Caducous, 6j, a. Caducum, to, a. Carchesium, 7?, a ; 266, b. Carenum, 410, b. Aeniilia lex, 228, a. Cad us, 2J, b; 6[, b. Carmen seculare, 247, b. Balineae, 54, b. Caecilialexdeceiisoribus, 227,8. Carmentalla, 72 a. Balineum, $4, b. lex de vectigalibus, 227, a. Carnlfex, 72, b. Balista, Ballista, ?8i, a. Didia lex, 227, a. Carpentum, 72, b. Balneac, 54, b. Caelatura, 6j, b. Carptor, 97, a. Balneator, 55, b. Caclia lex, 2j6, a. Carrago, 7J, a. Balneum, $4, b. Caementa, 258, a. Carruca, 7?, a. Balteus, or Baltea, 379, b. Caesar, 64, a. Carrus, or Camim, 7}, a. Balteus, 57, a. Caetra, 8j, a. Caryatides, 7}, a. Baptisterium, 56, a. CalamUtrum, 64, a. Caryatis, 7}, a. Barathrum, 57, a. Calanius, 64, a. Cassia lex, 227, a. Barba, 57, a. Calantica, 10;, a. agraria, 227, a. Barbati bene, 57, b. Calalhus, 64, a. tabellaria, 2 ;6, a. Barbaluli, 57, b. Calatorcs, 10;, a. Terentia frumentarla, 227, a Bascauda, 57, b. Calceamen, 64, b. Cassis, 41, b; 192, b. Basilica, 57, b. Calceamentum, 64, b. Castellarii, ji, a. Basis, 101, b. Culceus, 64, b. Castellum aquae, ji, a. Basterna, 58, a. Calculator, 65, a. Castra, 7;, a. Baxa, or Baxea, 58, a Calculi, 65, a; 221,8. stativa, 7}, b. BelUrto, 97, a. Calda lavatio, 56, a. Castrt-nsis corona, 118, b. Beneftciarius, 58, b. Caldarium, ;6, a. Cataphracti, 76. a. Beneficium, 58, b. Calendae, 67, b. Catapulta, }8i, a. Benignltas, 18, b. Calendariuin, 6j, a; 176, b. Cataracta, 76, a. Bes, 44, a. Calida, 77, a. Catasta, 240, a. Bessis, 176, b. Caliga, 68, a. Cateia, 76, b ; 201 a. Bestiarii, 58, b. C.ili.x, 68, a. Catella, 76, b. Bibasis, 528, b. Callls, 68, b. Catena, 76, b. Bibliopola, $8, b. Calones, 68. b. Catervarii, 195,8. Blbliotheca, 58, b. Calpurnia lex de ambltu, 18, b. Cathedra, 76, b. Bldcns, 59, a; 268, b. lex de repetundis, 3 19, a. Catillum, or Catillus, ',-. a. Bidenlal, $9, a. Calvatlca, ioj, a. Catlllus, 256, a. Bidiad, 59, a. Calumnia, 68, b. Catinum, or Catituis, 77, a. Higa, or Hlgae, 124, b. Calx, 88, a. Cavaedlura, 142, b. Blgati, 1 56, b. Camaru, 69, a. Cavea, 87, a; 171, a. Billix, 564, b. Camera, 69, a. Cavere, 217, b; 77, b. Bipennis, jji, b. Camillae, Camilll, 69, a; 252, a. Caupo, 77, a. Hlremis, 59, b ; 260, a. Caminus, 141. a. Canpona, 77, a. Bissextilis arums, 67, b. Campestre, 69, a. Causia, 77, b. BLssextnm, 67, b. Canal is, so, b. Cauterium, 29$, b. Bissextug. 67, b. Cancellartus, 69, b. Cautio, 77, b. Bombycinum, JJ7, a. Cancelll, 69, a; 107, b. Cavum aedium, 142, b. Bona, $9, b. Candela, 69, b. Celeres, 78,8, caduca, 60, a. Candelabrum, 69, b. Celerutn tribunus, }8;, a. fides, (>->,&. Candidarll, 297, h. Cclla, 78, a ; 142, b; 167, a. Bonorum cesslo, 60, a. Candidate, 18, b; j8o, a. caldaria, 56, a. collitlo, 60, a. Cunepliorus, 70, a. Cellarius, 78, a. emtlo, et em tor, 60, b. Canlsirum, 70, a. Celtes, IJ9, b. possestlo, 5, b ; 60, b. Bracae, or Uraccae, 62, *. Canlharus, 70, b. Cantbus, 1 24, a. Cenotapblum, 78, b, Censere, } j6, a. Bravium, 90, a. Canticum, 70, b. Censor, 78, b; 101, a. Brutiiuni, 62, b. Canuleiu lex, 227, a. Censura, 78, b. B'jccina, 62, b. .Cnpigtrum, 70, b. Census, 78, b; 3i, b; 248,1 LATIN INDEX. 451 CENSUS. COMPITALIA. CORNELIA ONCIARIA. Census (Greek), 8 1, b. Clepsydra, 207, a. Compitalicll Indi, 112, b. Centesima, 82, a. Clibanaril, 76, a. Compluvium, 142, b. rerum venalium, 8!, a. Centesimae usurae, 176, b. Ontumviri, 8i, a, Cliens,9j, b. Cllentela, 9?, b. Clipeus, 41, b; 94, a. Concamerata sudatio. 56, a. Concept! vae feriae, 112, b. Concilium, 1 12, b. Centurla, 105, b; 166, b; 168, a; Clitellae, 94,8. C-inditlvum, 190, a. 217, a. Ontnriata comltia, 105, a. Cloaca, 94, a. Cloacarium, 94, a. Ojnditorium, 190, a. Conditurae, 418, a. Centurio, 165,3; 166, b; 169, a. Cloacarum curatores, 94, b. Conductor, 81, a. primus, 169, b. Cludtae leges, 181, a; 227, b. Condus, 78, a. primlpill, 169, b. Coa vestis, 94, b. Confarreatio, 251, b. Centussls, 44, a. Coactor, 82, a; 94, b; 407, b. G>ngiariiim, 112, b. Cera, 8j, b. Cochlea, 27, a; 94, b. Con^ius, ill, a. Cerae, 295, b ; 160, b. Ceratae tabul&e, 160, a. Cochlpjxr, 94, b. Codex, 19, b; 95, a. Conjurati, 400, a. CoTijuratio, 400, a. Cerealla, 82, b. Codex Gregorianus et Hermo- O^nnubium, 251, a. Cerevisia, 82, b. Cernere hereditatem, 203, b. gianus, 95, a. Justinianus, 95, a. Conopeum, 1 1 1, a. Conquisi tores, I ij, a. Ceroma, 82, b. Theodosianus, 9;, a. Consanguinei, 98, a. Certamen, 52, b. Coelia, or Caelia, lex, 216, a. Conscript!, )}t, a. Ceruchi, 267, a. Cessio bonorum, 60, a. Cestius pens, 102, a. Coemptio, 251, a, Coena, 95, a ; 96, b. Coenaculum, 141, b. Consecratio, 29, a; in, b. Consllium, 104, a. Consualia, m.a. Cestrnm, 295,0. Coenatlo, 97, b. Consul, 111, b. Cestus,82,b. Coenatoria. 97, b; I59,ft. Consulares, 116, b. Cetra, 8}, a. Cognati, 98, a. Consularls, 116, b. Chaldoei, 45, b. Cognatio, 08, a. Consulti, 217, b. Charistia, 81, b. Cognitor. 6, a. Consultores, 217, b. Charta, 2i8,b. Cognomen, 271, b. Contlo, 1 1 6, b. Chelronomia, 8l,b. Coheres, 20 j, b. Controversia, 215, b. Cheniscus, 26}, b. Cohere, 167, b. Contubernales, 116, b. Chirographum, 8i,b. Cohortes Alariae, 16, b. Contubernium, 117, a; 168, b; Chlarnys, 94. a. equitatae, 171, a. JJ9, a. Choregia, 84. b. peditatae, 171, a. Contus, 266, b. Choregus, 84, b. vlgilum, 171, a. Conventio in mannm 151, a. Chorus, 85,8. Chronologia, 85, b. tirbanae, 171, a. Collectio, 215, b. Conventos, 112, b; 117,8. Convicium, 212, b. Chrysendeta, 86, b. Collegae, 98, a. Convivil magister, 157, b. Cldaris, 176, b. Collegium, 98, a. rex, 157, b. Cincia,or Muneralis, lex, 217. b. Colobium, 401, b. Convnlum, 157, a. t'inctus, 401, b. Colonia, 98, b. Cooptari, 98, b. Gablnua, 180, a. Colonus, 98, b. Cophinus, 117,8, Cinerarins, 64, a. Colores, 295, a. Corbicula, 1 1 7, b. Cingultim, 4i,b; 422, b. Colossus, 101, a. Corbls, ii7,b. Ciniflo, 64, a. Colum, toi, a. Corbitae, 117, b. Clppus, 86, b. Columbarium, ioi,b; 190, a. Corbula, 117, b. Drcenses ludi, 89, a. Columna, 101, b. Cornelia lex Srcnltores, ji, a. rostrata, 102, b. agraria, 228, a. Circus, 87, a. Columnarinm, 102, b. de alea, 17, a. ?isium, 90, a. Colus, 191, b. de civitate, 228, a. -ista, 90, a ; 74*, b. Coma, 101, a. de falsis, I7i,b. Sstupborus, 90, b. Commentarii senatns, 4, b. f rumen t aria, 181, a. "iihara, 245, a. Commissatio, 104, a; 157, a. de injuriis, 212, b. Jivica corona, 118, a. Comitla, 104, a. jndiciarla, 216, b. Civile Jus, 218, a. calata, 105, a. majestatis, 247, a. Jivis, 91, b. centuriata, 105,3. de novis tabellis, 228, a. Civitas (Greek), rp, b. curiata, 104, b. nummarfa, 228, a. (Roman), 91. b. tributa, 108, a. de parricidio, 228, a. Harigatio, 178, b 'la&sica corona, iifl b. Commeatus, no, b. Commentarii sacromm, 104, a de proscriptione et pro- scriptis, in,b. "lassid, 171,8. Conirnen tarinm, 1 10, b. de repetundis, jig, a. 'lassicum, 118, a. Commentarius, no, b. de sacerdotiis, 124, a. Hathri, 144, b ; 409, a. Commerctnm, 92, a. de sicariis et veneflcls, 212, Claudia lex, 227, b. Commissoria lex, 227, b. a; 228,8. Clavis, 198, a. Comoedla, 1 10, b. sumptnaria, 215, b. Jlanstra, 88. a; 215, a. ;iavus angustus, 92, b. Comperendinatlo, 215, b. Comperendinl dies, 115, b. testamentaria, 171, b; 228, a. armalls, 92, b. Competitor, 18, b. tribunlda, 228, a. latus, 92, b. Compitalia, 112, b. unciaria, 228, a. 2 G 2 452 LATIN INDEX. CORNELIA. DEDUCTORES. DIV1NATIO. Cornelia Baebia lex, 18, b; Cumatium, 125, h. Defrutum, 416, b. 228, a. Cumera, 252, a. Delator, 1 28, b. Caectlla lex, i8j, a. Cumerum, 252, a. Delectus, 167, a. et Caecilta lex, 228, a. Cunabula, 212, a. Delia, 128, b. Corniciiies, n, a. Cuneus, 2j,a; 122, b; ^71, a. Delphinae, 87, b. Cornu, 117, a. Cuniculus, 122, b. Delphlnla, 129, a. Cornua, 2|8, a ; 241;, b ; 267, a. Cupa, 122, b; 417, a. Delubruro, j66, b. Corona, 102, b ; 1 1 8, a. Curator, ioi, a; 122, b. Demarchl, 1 29, a. castrensis, 118, b. Curatores, 1 2}, a. Demens, I2j, a. civica, 1 1 8, a. annonae, 12;, a. Demensum, 129, a ; ^41, a. classlca, 1 1 8, b. aquarum, ji, a. Dementia, 123, a. convlvialls, 119, b. ludornm, 12}, a. Deminutio capitls, 71, a. funebris, 119, a. religlonum, 12;, a Demiurgt, 129, a. graminea, 118, a. vlarurn, 41 J, a. Demus, i)o, a. muralis, 118, b, Curia, too, b; 12 J, a. Denarius, I jo, a natalitla, 1 19, b. Curiae, 100, b; JJ4, b. aureus, 5J, b. navalis, 118, b. Curiales, 100, b. Denicales feriae, 190, b. nuptial is, 1 19, b. Curiata comitia, 104, b. Dens, or Dentale, ji, b; 191, b. obsldionalls, 118, a. Curio, izj, b. Deportatlo, 173, b. oleagina, 118, b. maxtmns, 12?, b. in insulam, 17], b. ovalis, Tl8, b. Curriculum, izj, b Deportatus, 177, b. rostrata, ii 8, b. Currus, I2J, b. Depositum, ^9, b. sacerdotal is, 119, a. Cursores, 125, a. Derogare legem, 225, b. sepulchralls, 1 19, a. triumphalis, 118, b. Cursus, 89, a. Curulls sells, jji, b. Designator, 188, a. Desultor, ijo, b. vallaris, 118, b. CuspU, 199, b. Dctestatio sacrorum, 105, Cbronis, ioi, b ; 1 19, b. Custodes, Custodiae, 75, b. Deversorium, 77, a. Corporati, 98, a. Custos urbis, 307, b. Deunx, 44, a. Corporal io, 98, a. Cyathus, 125, a. Dextans, 44, a. Corpus, 98, a. Cyclas, 125, b. Diadema, i)o, b. Cortina, 119, b. Cyma, 125, b. Dtaeta, 97, b; 14?, b. Corvus, 119, b. Cymatiurn, I2J, b. Diaetetae, ijo, b. Corytos, J7, b. Cymba, 125, b. Dlalis flamen, 180, a. Cosmetae, no, a. Cymbalum, 125, b. Diarium, 541, a. Cosmi, 120, a. Dicere, i;j, a. Cothurnus, 120, a. Dictator, IJ2, b. Cotyla, 120, b. DMia lex, 2J5, b. Covinaril, 121, a. Diem dicere, 216, a. Covinus, 1 20, b. D. Dies, IJ4, b. Crater, Cratera, I2t, a. Clvilis, 1 54, b. Credltum, 59, b. comltiales, i}J, b. Crepida, 12 r, a. Dare actlonem, 5, b. comperendini, I j;, b. Crepidata tragoedla, 112, a. Darlcus, 126, b. fasti, i J5, a; 175, a. Crepidines, 412, b. Decanus, 117, a. ferlati, 1 77, b. Greta, 88, a. December, 66, a. iesti, us, a. Cretio hereditatis, 103, b. Decempeda, 127, a. Intercisi, ijj, a. Crlmen, 121, a. Decemviri, 127, a. Natural ii, 174, b. Crista, 192, b. legibus scribendls, 127, a; nefastl, IJ5, a. Crocota, 121, a. 2:8, b. proeliales, iJS, b, Crotalistria, 126, a. lltlbus, or stlitibtu, judlcan- profestl, i ;;, a. Crotalum, 126, a. dig, 127, b. stati, i;i, 1'. Crusta, 64, a; 152, a. sacrorum, or sacris faciendls, Diffarreatio, 119, b. Crux, i zi, a. 127, b. I>igitn>>, 292, a. Crypta, 88, a; m, b. Decennalia, or Decennla, 128, a. Dtmacbae, i ;;, b. Cryptoportlcus, in, b. Declmatio, 128, a. Pimensum, 741, a. Ctcsibica machlna, 27, a. Decretum, 128, a ; 215, b ; 1 'in limit io capilis, 71, & Cubicularli, 122, a. J)(>, a. Dionysia, 175, b. Cubiculum, 22, b; 78, a; 122, Decumae, 128, a. Dlota, IJ7, a. a; I4>. Decumanl, 128, a. Diploma, m, a. Cubltorls, 97, b. Decuncis, 128, b. Diptycha, lit, b. Cnl ill us, 122, a. Decuriae, }jo, b. iMribitores, 107, b. Cncullus, 122, a. Decurlones, 100, b ; 166, b. DiscesEio, j j6, a. Cudo, or Cudon, 122, a Decursoria, .joz, b. Discinctus, 401, b. Culcita, 222, .1. Decussls, 44, a. Discipula, 410, b. CuleuB, 122, a. Dedlcare, 14?, a. Discus, IJ7, b. Ctilina, 141, a. Dedicatlo, 211, b. Dispensator, 6$, a. Ciilleus, 122, a. Dedltlcii, 118, b. Divorsorlum, 77, a. Culler, ?2, a; 122, a. Deditio, 128, a. Divlnatio, 1)7, b. Cultrarius, 122, b. Deductorea, 18, b. (law term), i {9, a. LATIN INDEX. 453 DIVISOKES. FABULA TABERNARIA. FIDCC1ARIA ACTIO. Pivisores, 18, b. Endromis, 152, b. Fabula trabeata, 112, a. Divortium, I $9, a. Kn.-is, 41, b; 196, a. Fabulae Atellanae, 46, b. Divus, 29, a. Entasis, 101, b; 152, b. Factiones aurigarum, 89, a. DoUrans, 44, a. Ephebia, i ;}, b. Falarica, 201, a. Dolabella, i 39, b. Kpbippium, 154, a. Falcidia lex, 2?7, b. Dolabra, 139, b. Kphori, 1 54, a. Falcula, 17?, b. Dolitim, 140, b; 417, a. Epibatae, 155, a. Falsum, 17?, b. Dolo, 140, a. Epidemiurgi, 129, b. Falx, I7J, b. Dominium, 14, a ; 140, a. Epirhedium, }22, a. Familia, 1 74, b ; 194, b ; J4O, b. Dorainus, 140, a; 194, b; jj3, b. Epistylium, 155, b. Familiae emptor, 174, a. funeris, 188, a. Epitaphium, 189, a. Famosi libelli, 2^7, b. Domitia lex, 524, a. Epiihalamium, 250, b; 252, b. P'ainulus, 174, a. Domo, de, $9, b. Epuloncs. 156, a. Fannia lex. 2 jj, b. Domus, 140, a. Epulum Jovis, 156, a. Fanum, ;66, a. Dona, 145, a. Equestris ordo, 157, b. Farreum, 251, a. Donaria, 14;, a. Equiria, 156, a. Fartor, 174, a. Donatlo, 182, b. Equites, 156, a; 314, b. Fas, 218, a. Donativum, nj, a. Equitum transvectio, 157, a. Fasces, 114, b; 174, a. Dormitoria, 141, a. Equuleus, 159, a. Fascia, 175, a; 222, a. Dos (Greek), 14;, a. Equus October, 280, a. Fascinum, i", a. (Roman), 14;, b. i'ublicus, 156, b. Fasti, 175, a. Drachma, 14;, b; 405, b. Ergastulum, 159, a. annales, 175, b. Draco, 34?, b. Erlcius, 159, a. caletidares. 175, b. Draconarius, 241, b. Esseda, 159. b. Capitolini, 175, b. Ducenarii, 146. a ; 217, a. EsseJarii, 1 59, b ; 195, b. dies, 175, a. Ducentesima, 82, a ; 408, a. Essedum, 15), b. historic), 175, b. Duillia lex, 228, b. Everriator, 190, b. sacri, 175, b. Macula lex, 228, b. Evocati, 167, b. Fastigium, 175, b. Dulclarii. 297, b. Eurlpus, 22, a ; 408, b. Fata Sibyllina, 347, b. Duodeclm scripta, 221, a. Exauctorati, 170, b. Fauces, 88, a ; 14?, a. Duplarii. 146, a. Exaugu ratio, 160, b. Favete linguis, 138, b. Duplicarii, 146, a. Exceptio, 5, b; jo8, a. Fax, 176, a. Duplicatlo, 6, a. Exceptores, 272, a. Februare, 244, a. Dupondium, 292, a. Excubiae, 75, b. Februarius, 67, a ; i\\, a. Dupondius, 44, a. Excubitores, 160, b. Februum. 244, a. Dussis, 44, a. Exedra, 14?, a; 160, b. Februus, 244, a. Duumviri, 101, a; 146, a. Exercitor navis, 160, b. Feciales, 178, a. juri dicnudo, 100, b. Exercitoria actio, ifco, b. Feminalia, 176, a. navales, 146, a. Exercitus, 160, b. Fenestra, 144, b. perduellionls, 290, a. Exodia, 171, a. Fenus, 176, a. quinquennalrs, 146, b. Exostra, I7i,b. nauticum, 176, b. sacri, 146, b. Expeditus, 170, a; 171, b. Feralla, 191, a. sacrorum, 146, b. Exploratores, 547. * Ferculnm, 97, a ; 177,*. Exsequiae, 188, a. Ferentarii, 168, b. Exsilium, 172, a. Feretrum, 188, a. liberum, il),b. Feriae, 177, b. jr Exsul, 17 3, a. aestivae, 177, b. Mi Esta, J25, a. conceptivae, or conceptae, Extispices, 199, b. 177, b. Eculeus, 1 59, a. Extispicium, 199, b. denicales, 190, b. Kdere actlonem, 5, b. Extranet henedes, 2oj, b. imperativae, 177, b. Ed c turn, 148, a. Extraordiuarii, 167, a ; ^46, a. Latinae, 177, b. novum, 148, a. Exverrae, 190, b. publicae, 177, b. perpetnum, 148, a. Exverriator, 190, b. stativae, 177, b. repentlnum, 148, a. Exuviae, 348, a. ttultorum. i9l, a. tralatitium, 148, b. vindemiales, 177, b. yetus, 148, a. Ferre legem, 225, b. Edititii, 216, a. Fescenniua. 178, a. Editor, 194, b. Festi dies, 155, a. Elaeotbesium, 56, a. . Festuca, 248, a. Electrum, 149, b. Fetiales, 178. a. Eleusinia, 149, b. Fabla lex, 297, b. Fibula, 178, b. Ellychniam, 241, b. Fablani, 244, a. Fictile, ji, a; 178, b. Emancl patio, 151, b. Fabii, 244, a. Fideicommissarii praetore^ Km lil' 111,1, 152, a. Fabri, 17}, b. jo8, b. Emeriti, 152, a; 167, b. Fabula palliata, 112, a. Fldeicommlssam, 179, a Emissarium. 152, a. praetextata, 112, a. Fides, 245, a. Emporium, 152, b. t - 1 1 : i, 1 1 2, a, Fiducia, 179, a. Encaustic*, 295, a. taberoaria, 112, a. Fiduciaria actio, 179. a. 454 LATIN INDEX. FIGULINA. HAUMOSTAE. JANUA. Figulina are, 178, b. Fumarium, 418, b. Harpago, 199, a. Figulus, 178, b. Funalis equus, 124, b. Harpastum, 297, a. Filiafainilias, 286, a. Funambulus, 184, b; 328, b. Haruspices, 199, b. Filiasfamlllas, 286, a. Fuiida, 184, b; 320, b. Haruspiclna off, 138, a; 199, b. Filum, 191, b. Fundl tores, 184, b. Haruspiclum, 1 38, a. Fiscus, ii, b; 179, a. Fuues, 222, a; 267, b. Ilasta, 41, b; 82, a; 199, b. Flstuca, 144, b. Funus, 184, b. celibarls, 201, a. Fistucatio, 412, b. indictivum, 188, a. pura, 201, a. Fistula, 359, a. plebeium, 188, a. vendere sub, 48, a. Flabelliferea, 179, b. publicum, 188, a. Hastarium, 201, a. Flabellum, 179, b. taciturn, 188, a. Haslati, 165, a; 168, b. Flagellum, 179, b. transUititiuui, 168, a. Hclepolis, 201, b. Flagrum, 179, b. Furca, 191, a. Hcliocaminus, 145. a. Flamen, 180, a. Furclfer, 191, a. Hellanodicae, 201, b. Dialis, 1 80, a. Furia, or Fusla Caninla lex. Hellenotamlae, 201, b. Murtialls, 180, a. 229, a. Helotes, 201, b. Quirinalis, 180, a. Furlosus, 123, a. Hemina, 120, b; 202, b. 1'ornonalls, 189, a. Fuscina, 191, b. Heraea, 202, b. Flaminia lex, 219, a. Fustuarium, 191, b. Hereditas, 20?, b. Flaniinlca, 1 80, b. Fusus, 191, b. Heredium, 217, a. Flamraeum, 252, a. Heres (Greek), 203, a. Flavia agrarla lex, 219, a. (Itoman), 203, a. Flfxumines, 157, a. Hermae, 204, a. Floralia, 180, b. G. Hcrmaea, 204, a. Focale, 180, b. Hcrmanubis, 204, b. Foculus, 14;, a; 180, b. Gubinla lex, 229, b ; 2}6, a. Hermares, 204, b. Focus, 1 80, b. Gabinus cinctus, 380, a. Hermathena, 204, b. Foederatae clvitates, 181, a. Gaesum, 192, a. Henneracles, 204, b. Foederati, 181, a. Galea, 41, b; 192, b. Hermogenianus codex, 9,, a. Foedus, 1 8 1, a; 346, b. Galerus, -urn, 104, a; 19), a. Hermuli, 88, a ; 204, a. Foenus, 176, a. Galli, 19?, a; 195, b. Hexaphoron, 221, b. nauticnm, 176, b. Ganea, 77, a. Heseres, 262, a. Follis, 181. b; 296, b. Gausapa, 19}, a. Hieronlca lex, 229, b. Fons, 181, a. Gausape, 19;, a. Hieronicae, 47, a. Fores, 88, a ; 142, b. Gausapum, 19?, a. Hilaria, 205, a. Fori, 87, a ; 265, b. Geminae frontcs, 238, a. Hippodromus, 205, a. Foris, 215, a. Gener, 13, a. Hlster, 20?, b. Forma, 178, b. Genetbliad, 4$, b. Histrio, 188, a; 205, b. Formido, 319, b. Genitura, 46, a. Honorarii, 116, b. Formula, j, b ; 346, a. Gens, 19?, a. Honorarium, 8, b. Foraacalia, 182, a. Gentllitla sacra, 193, b. Honores, 206, b. Fornax, 182, a. German!, 98, a. Hoplomacbi, 195, b. Fornix, $6, a; 18?, a. Gerrae, 194, a. Hora, i? 5, a. Foro cedere, or abire, )<), b. Gladiatores, 194, a. Hordearium aes, 12, b ; 156, b mergi, 39, b. Gladiatorium, 194, b. Horologium, 2c6, b. Foruli, 87, a. Gladlus, 41, b ; 196, a. Horreum, 207, b ; 417, a. Forum, 74, b; 117, a ; 1-90, a. Glandes, 184, b. Hortator, 305, b. Fossa, 14, b ; 75, a. Glonius, 191, b. Hortensia lex, 229, b ; joo, b. Framea, 201, a. Glos, 13, b. Hortus, 207, b. Fratres arvales, 43, a. Gompbi, 41}, a. Hospes, 209, a. Frenum, 182, a. Gradus, 21, b; 182, b. Hospitium, 208, a. Frigidarium, 56, a. ( iraecostasis, 196, a. Hostia, 324, b. Fritillus, 182, b. Frontale, 24, a. Graphiarium, 354, a. Gregorianus codex, 95, a. Hostia atnb.irvalis, 43, b. Hostis, 208, a. Fructuaria res, 406, a. Gremium, 412, b. Humare, 189, b. Fructuarius, 406, a. Gubernaculum, 265, b. Hyacinthia, 209, b. Frumentariae leges, 182, b. Gubernator, 266, a. Hydraulis, 210, a. Frumentarii, i8j, b. Gustatlo, 96, b. Hypaethrae, 102, a. Fucus, 18;, b. Guttus, 17, b ; 56, b. Hypocaustum, 56, a. Fuga lata, 17 j, 1>. Gymnasium, 197, a. Hypogeum, 186, a. libera, 17}, b. Fugalia, 318, b. Fugitivarii, 359, b. FiiRitivus, 339, b. H. I, J- Fulcra, 222, a. Fullo, 184, a. Haeres, 203, a. Jaculatores, 201, a. Kullonica, 184,8. FuUonlcum, 184, a. Fulloiiiuin. if*. Halteres, 198, b. Harmamaxa, 199, a. Hormostae, 11^9, a. Jaculum, 209, b ; 320, b. Janitor, 142, b; 21$, n. Janua, 141, b; 214, b. LATIN INDEX. 455 JANUARIUS. JCVESALIA. LKilUKALlA. Jannarius, 67, a. Julia lex de civi'-ate, 181, b; Icouicae statuae, jfi, a. 229, b. Idus, 67, a. de foenore, 2?o, a. L. Jentaculum, 96, a. jndiciaria, 216, b. Ignomiuia, 80, a; 212, a. de liberis legationibus, 224, a. Labaram, 544, a. llicet, 189, a. majestatis, 247, a. Labrum, $6, a. Imagines, 210, b; 273, a. niuniclpalis, jjo, a. I jibyrintbus, 219, b. Iminunitas, no, b. et Papia Poppaea, 2 J3, a. Lacerna, 219, b. Imperatlvae feriae, 177, b. peculatus, 2}o, b. Laciniae, 220, a. Imperator, 211, a. et Plautia, 2jo, b. Laconicnm, $6, a. . Imperium, 21 1, a. de provlnciis, }(2, b. Lacunar, 144, b. Impluvium, 141, b. repetundarum, 519, b. Lacus, 182, a; 416, b. Impubes, in, a. de saccrdotiii, H4- a. Laena, 220, a. In bonis, 59, b. de sacrilegis, 2jo, b. Laet-a majestas, 246, b. Inauguratio, in, b. sumptuaria, 2?f>, a. Lancea, 200, a. regis, }2i,a. theatralls, 2}o, b. Lances, 2?9, a. Inauris, 2ii,b. et Titia, 250, b. Lanificium, j6}, b. Incendium, 211, b. de vi publicact privata, 21 2, a. l^anista, 194, b. Incensus, 71, b ; 79, b. viceslmaria, 414, b. Laax, 220, b. Inceramenta naviuni, 195, a. Julius, 67, b. Laplcidinae, 221, a. Incest urn, -us, 212, a. Juiiea, or Junia, Norbana lex, Lapis, 25$, b. Incunabula. 212, a. 2 JO, b. specularis, 144, b. Index, 2j8, b. Junta lex repetundarum, } 19, a. Laquear, 144, b. Induere, 19. a. Jun iores. 10$, b. I^aqneatores, 19$, b. Jmlumentum, }$$, a; 401, b. ' Junius, 66, a. Laqueus, 220, b. Indusium, 401, b. Jure, actio in, $, b. Lararium, 220, b. Indutus, 19, a; 401, b. adcrescendi, 204, a. Larentalia, 220, b. Infamia, 212, a. agere, $, a. Larentinalia, 220, b Infans, 212, b. Jure cessio. in. 7, b ; 60, a. Largitio, 18, b. Infantia, 212, b. Jureconsulti, 217, b. I-arva, 291, a. Inferiae, 191, a. Juris auctores, 217, b. Lata fuga, i"j, b Infula, 212, b. Jurisconsulti, 217, b. Later, 220, b. Infundibulum, 256, a. Jurisdictio, 117, a; 218, a. Lateraria, 220, b. Ingenul, 212, b. Jnrisperiti, 217, b. Laticlarius, 92, b. Injuria, 212, b. Jurisprndentes, 217, b. Laiii jus, 220, b. Injiiriarum actio, 2ij, a. Jus, 218, a. Latinae feriae, 177, b. Inliciuro, 106, b. annul! aurei, 2$, b. Latmitas, 220, b. Inquilinus, 17}, a. annulorum, 2$, b. I^atinus, 92, a; 181, a. Insigne, 26?, b. applicationls, 17?, a. l,atium, 220, b. Instita, 21}, a; 222, a. augurium, or auguram, $2, b. Latomiae, 221, a. Insula, 21 i, a. Censurae, 79, a. Latrone?, 221, a. Intentlo, 5, b. civile, 218, a. I jitrunculi, 221, a. Intercessio, 21}, a. civile Papirianum, or Papl- Latumiae, 221, a. In tercisi dies, i j ;, a. sianum, 2}j, b. Latns clavus, 92, b. Interdictio aquae et ignis, clvitatis, 92, a. Lavatio calda, $6, a. 17?, a. comniercii, 92, a. Laudatio funebris, 188, b. Interdictum, 21 j, a. connubii, 92, a. I^aurentalia, 220, b. prohibitorium, 21 j, a. edicendi, 9, a ; 148, a. Lautomiae, 221, a. restitutorium, 21 }, a. exsulandi, 17}, a. I^autuniiae, 221, a. Interpres, 18, b; $9, b; 21}, b. fetiale, 219, a. I^ectica, 221, a. Interregnum, 214, a. honorum, 92, a. Lecticarii, 221, b. Interrex, 21 }, b ; J2O, b. Latii, 92, a; 220, b. Lectisternium, 221, b. Interula, 401, b. llberorum, 230, b. Lectus, 222, a. Iselostici ludi, 47, a. IVutificium, 218, a; 304, a. funebris, 188, a. Iter, )02, b. postliminii, jo6, a. Legatio libera, 224, a. Iterare, j2, b. privatum, 92, a. I^egatum, 222, b. Jubere, j}6, a. publice epulandl, JJ7, a. Legatus, 222, b ; }i}, a. Judes, 215, a. pubticum, 92, a. Leges, 22$, a. Jndices editi. 216, a. Quiritium, 79, b; 218, a. censoriae, 81, a. edititii, 216, a. senatus, })j, b. centuriatae, 79, a ; 22$, a Judiciutn, 21$. a. suffragiorum, 92, a. curiatae, 225, a. album, 216, b. vocatio, in, 5, a. Juliae, 226, a. populi, 215, b; 216, a. Jusjurandum, 218, a. Legio, 164,8; 170, b. privatum, 215, b. judiciale, 219, a. Legis actiones, $, a. publlcum, 21$, b. Justa funera, 188, a. I>egitima hereditas, 20}, b. Jugerum, 217, a. Jiistinianeus codex, 9$, a. Legitimae actiones, 5, a. Jugiim. 217, a; 2jg, a; 164, a. Justitium, 191, a ; 219, a. Lembus, 224, b. Jugnmentura, 215, a. Juvenalia, or Juvenales ludi, Lemniscus, 224, b. fuiiae leges, 2:9, b. 219, b. Lemuralia, 224, b. 456 LATIN INDEX. LEMDRIA. LEX MAJESTATIS. LEX ROSOIA. Lemuria, 224, b. Lex Cornelia Lex Mamllla de Jugurtbae Lenaea, 1 3 5, b. de novis tabellis, 228, a. Fautoribus, 2}l, b. Leria, 402, a. nuramaria, 228, a. Mamilia fmiutn reguudarum, Lessus, 1 88, a. de parrlcidio, 228, a. 2ji, b. Levir, ij, b. de proscriptione et pro- mancipii, 247, b. Lex, 22$, a; 229,8. scriptis, 311, b. Manilla, 231, b. Acilia, 226, a. de repetundis, 319, a. Manila de vicesima, 231, b. Acilia Calpurnia, 18, b. de sacerdotlis, 324, a. Marcia, 2ji, b. Aebutla, 226, a. de sicarils et veuencis, 212, a; Maria, 2{i,b. Aelia, 226, a. 228, a. Memniia, or liemmia, 69, a. Aelia Sentia, 226, a. Bumptuaria, 235, b. Mensia, 231, b. Aemilia, 226, a. testamentaria, 173, b; 228,a. Minucia, 231, b. Aemilia, de censorious, 226, a. tribunicia, 228, a. Nervae Agraria, 231, b. Aemilia Baebia, 228, a. unciaria, 228, a. Octavia, 182, bj 2jl, b. Aemilia Lepldi, 23$, b. Baebia, 18, b ; 228, a. Ogulnia, 232, a. Aemilia Scauri, 248, b. Caecilia, 187, a. Oppia, 235, b. agraria, 14, b ; 226, a. et Caecilia, 228, a. Orchia, 235, b. ambitus, 18, b. Lex Curiata de imperlo, 49, a ; Ovinia, 232, a. Ampia, 226, b. 104, b; 2.3.3, b. Papia de peregrinis, 232, a. aunalis, or Villia, 226, b; Curiata de adoptione, 7, b. Papia Poppaea, 2 30, a. J34,a. Decemviralis, 228, b. Papiria, or Julia Papiria dc annua, 148, b. Decia de duumviris nava- mulctarum aestimatione, Antia, 236, a. libns, 228, b. 232, a. Antonia, 226, b. Didia, 235, b. Papiria, 232, a. Apuleia, 226, b. Apuleia agraria, 226, b. Domitia de sacerdotiis, 324, a. Duilia, 228, b. Papiria Plautia, 232, a. Papiria Poetelia, 232, a. Apuleia frumentaria, 226, b. Duilia maenia, 228, b. Papiria tabellaria, 2.36, a. Apuleia majestatis, 247, a. DuoJecim Tabularnm, 228, b. Pedia, 232, a. Ateruia Tarpeia, 226, b. Fabia de plagio, 297, b. Peducaea, 232, a. Atia de sacerdotlis, 226, b. Fabia de numero sec tatorum, Pesulania, 232, a. Atilia, 226, b. 229, a. Petreia, 232, a. Atilia Marcia, 226, b. Falcidia, 237, b. Petronia, 232, b. Atinia, 226, b. Fannia, 235, b. 1'inaria, 2J2, b. Aufidia, 1 8, b. Flamlnia, 229, a. Plaetoria, 122, b. Aurelia, 226, b. Flavia agraria, 229, a. Plautia, or Plotia de vi. Aurelia Tribunlcia, 226, b. frumentariae, 182, b; 229, a. 231, b. Baebia, 227, a. Futia do religlone, 229, a. Piantia, or Plotia judiciaria, Baebia Aemilia, 226, a. Fu&a judiciaria, 217, a. 232, b. Caecilia de Censoribus, or Furla or Fusia Caniuia, 229, a. Plautia Papiria, 232, a. Censorla, 227, a. Furla or Fusia testamentaria, Poetelia, 232, b. Caecilia de Vectigalibus, 229, a. Poetelia Papiria, 2J2, b. 227, a. Oabinia tabellaria, 229, b; Pompeia, 232, b. Caecilia Didia, 227, a. 236, a. Pompeia de ambitu, 217, a. Calpurnia de ambitu, 18, b. Oellia Cornelia, 229, b. Pompeia de civitale, 22, b. Calpurnia de repetuudis, Genucia, 229, b. Pompeia de imperio Caesarl JI9, a. Hieronica, 229, b. prorogaudo, 232, b. Campana, 235, a. Hortensla de plebiscitis, Pompeia Judiciaria, 217, b. Canuleia, 227, a. 229, b; joo, b. Pompeia de Jure magistra- Cassia, 227, a. Icilia, 229, b. tuum, 2? 2, b. Cassia agraria, 227, a. Julia de ad u I ten is, 8, a. Pompeia de parricidiis, 28 5, b. Cassia tabellaria, 2 {6, a. Julia de ambitu, 18, b. Pompeia tribunitia, 232, b. Cassia Terentia frumentaria, Juliae, 229, b. Pompeia de vi, 2i2,a;232,b. 227, b. Junia de peregrinis, 230, b. Pompeiae, 232, b. Centuriata, 79, a. Junia Licinia, 231, a. Pupil ia, 232, a. Cincla, 227, b. Junia Norbana, 230, b. Porclae de capite civium. Claudia, 227, b. Junia repetundarum, 319, a. 232, b. Claudia de Senatoribus, Laetorla, 2jo, b. Porcia de provinclls, 232, b. 227, b. Licinia de sodalitiis, 19, a. Publicia, 232, b. Clodiae, 181, a; 227. b. Licinia de ludis Apollinari- Publllia, 232, b. Coelia or Caelia, 230, a. bus, 231, a. Publiliai-, 23 J, a. Lex Cornelia Licinia Junta, 2 ji, a. Pupla, 233, a. agraria, 228, a. Licinia Mucia de clvibus rc- Quina vicemaria, 122, b. de civltate, 228, a. gundi.s 231, a. (Juinlia, 233, a. de falsis, 173, b. Licinia sumptiiaria, 2j?,a. regia, 233, a. frumentaria, 181, a. Liclniae rogatloues, 231, a. regiae, 2(3. b. de Injuriis, 212, b. Liviae, 211,0. Bemmia, 69, a. judiciaria, 216, b. Lutatla de vi, 231, b. repetundarum, 319, a. dc magistratibus, 228, a. Maenia, 231, b. Kliodia, 233, b. majeBtatis, 247, a. majestatis, 246, b. Uoscia tueatralis, 233, b. LATIN INDEX. 45"< LEX RUBRIA. LYRA. Lex Rubria, 234. a. Rupiliae, 214, a. Librarlum, 48, a. Librarla taberna, 58, b. sacratae, 254. a. Librarii, 58, b; 239, a. Saeuia de patiiciorum nu- Librator, 2J9, a. mero augendo, 234, a. Libripens, 247, b. Satura, 226, a. l.lbumo, 2J9, a; 262, b. Scautinla, 2M. Liburnlca, 239, u; 262, b. Scrlbonia, 234, a. Liccn, 48, b. Scribonia viaria, 214. a. Licia, J04, b. Sempronla de focnore, 254, b. Setnproniae, 214, a. Liciatorum, 564, b. Licinia lex de sodalitiis, 19, a. Servilla agraria, 2? 5, a. Junia lex, 2)1, a. Servilia Glaucia de civitatc, Mucia le.x, 231, a. 5i';. a. lex suuiptuaria, 235, b. Servilia Glaucia de repetun- Llclnlae rogationes, 231. a. dis, ; i .. '. Licitari, 48, b. Servilia judiclaria, 235, a, Silia,2)5, a. Lk tor, 2 19, b. Ligula, 239, b. Silvanl et Carbonis, 92, a. Limen, 215, a. Sulpicia Sempronia, 235, a. Sulpiciae, 2J 5, a. Linteones, 363, b. Linter, 259, b. Sumptuariae, 2?5, a. Linieum, 17, b; 222, b. '1'abellariae, 2 56, a. Linum, 360, b. Tarpela Atemia, 226, b. Lirare, 32, b. Terentia Cassia, 183, a. Literae, 360, a. Terentilia, 2}6, b. Lithostrotum, 144, b. Testamcntariae, 236, b. Lituus, 240, a. Tboria, 216, b. Lixae, 68, b. Tltia, 236, b. I/>catio, 80, b. Titla de alea, 17, a. Loculus, 32, b; i88,b. Tltia de tutoribus, 230, b. Trebonia, 236, b. Locuples, 240, b. Ijocns liberatus et effatus, 366, a. Trebonia de provinciis con- Ixidix, 240, b. sularlbus, 236, b. Loglstae, 160, b. Tribunicia, 231, a; 236, b. Lorica, 41,^8; 240, b. Tullia de ambitu, 18, b. Lucar, 2c6* a. Tullia de legatlone llbera, Lucerences, 286, b. 224, a. Luceres, 286, b. Valeria, 237, a. Lucerna, 241, b. Valeriae, 236, b. Lucta, 242, a. Valeriae et Horatlae, 29, b ; Luctatiu, 242, a. 237. a, Ludi, 242, a. Varla, 247, a. Apollinares, 242, a. Vatinia de provinciis, 237. a. Vatinla de colonis, 237, a. Augnstales, 52, b. Capitolini, 242, b. Vatinia de rejectione Judi- Circenses, 89, a; 242, a. cum, 237. a. compitalitii, 112, b. de vi, 420, a. Florales, 1 80, b. viaria, 237, a. funebres, 191, b; 242, b. riceslmaria, 414, b. liberales, 137, a. Villia annalis, 226, b. magui, 242, b. Visellla. 217. a. Megalenses, 253, b. Voconia, 237, b. Osci, 46, b. Libatio, 325, b. plebell, 242, b. Libella, 90, a ; 237. *> Roman), 242, b. Libellus, 194, b; 237, b. saeculares, 242, b. Liber, 238, a. Ecenici, 206, a ; 242, a. Llberafuga, 173, b. Tarentlni, 242, b. Libel-ales ludl, 137, a. Taurii, 242, b. Liberal ia, 1 37, a. Lndus, 194, b. Liberalis causa, 45, a. Trojae, 90, a. manus, 4;, a. Lupanar, 77, a. Liberalitas, 1 8, b. Lupatum, 182, b. Libert, 2 j 8, b. Lupercalia, 24}, b. Libertus, 2t8, b. Lnpercl, 243, b ; 244, b. Libertinus, 2U, b; 2)9, b. Lupus ferreus, 244, a. Libitinarii, 187, b. Lustratio, 41, b; 244, a. Libra, 239, a. Lustrum, 66, a ; 244, b. or as, 2 39, a. Lyra, 245, a. ilEMMIA LEX. M. Macerla.257, a. Maculae, 319, b. Macula lex, 231, b. Macniauum, 22, b; 246, a. Magadls, 245, b. Manistcr, 246, a. adnii- Mansio, 247, b. Mansionarius, 248, a. Mansiones, 248, a. Manubiae, 306, b; 348,8. Manuni, conventio in, 251, a. Manumissio, 248, a. Manus ferrea, 199, b. Mappa, 97, b. Marcia lex, 23 1, b. Marglnes, 412, b. Maria lex, 2ji, b. Marsupium, 248, b. Martialls flamen, 180, a. Martius, 66, a. Materfamilias, 251, a. Matbematici, 45, b. Matbesis, 45, b. Mutrulia, 249, a. Matrinionium, 249, b. Matrona, 2>t, a. Matronales feriae, 249, b. Matronalia, 249, b. Matura, 201, a. Mausoleum, 190, a ; 2;?, a. Mediastini, 253, a ; 340, b. Medicamina, 418, a. Medimnus, 253, a. Medix tuticus, 253, b. Megalenses ludi, 253, b. Megalensia, 251, b. Megalesia, 253, b. Membrana, 238, b. Memmia k-x, 69, a 4:58 LATIN INDEX. MENSA. NUEU8. 08TIAR1U8. Jlensa, 25}, b. Murrhina vasa, 257, a. de, J9, b. Murus, 257, a. Mensae scripturam, per, y), b. Musculus, 258, b. Mensam per, 39, b. Museum. 258, b. i Mensarii, 254, a. Musica inuta, 28), a. Mensularil, 254, a. Musivum opus, 144, b ; 296, a. Obices, 215, a. Mensia lex. 231, b. Miistum, 416, b. Obntmtiatio, ji, a. Mt-nsis, 66, a. Mysteria, 258, b. Obolus, 145, a; 405, b. Menstruum, j^t, a. Obrogare legem, 225, b. Mercedonius, 66, b. Obsidionalis corona, 118, a. Meridian), 195, b. Obsonium, 276, b. Meridies, 134, b. N. Occatio, J2, b. Metae, 87, a. Ocrea, 41, a ; 27 ), a. MeUllum, 254, a. Nacra, 184, a. Octavae, 408, a. Metator, 73, b. Naenia, 188, a. Octavia lex, 182, b; 2.}!, b. Metretes, 2j, b; 255. b. Narthecia, 405, b. October, 66, a. Mille passuum, 255, b. Natatio, 56, a. equus, 280, a. Milliare, 255, b. Natatorium, 56, a. Octophoron, 221, b. Milliarium, 255, b. Nationes, 170, b. Odeum, 27 j, a. aureum, 255, b. Navales Socil, 171, a. Oecus, 14), a. Minius, 255, b. Navalis corona, 118, b. Oenomelum, 418, a. Minores, I2j, a; 246, b. Navarchus, 259, a. Officiura admissionis, 6, b. Mlnucia lex, 231, b. Navis, 259, b. Offringere, }2, b. Mitiutio capitis, 71, a. aperta, 261, b. Ogulnia lex, 232, a. Mirmillone*, 195, b. Naumachia, 268, a. Olea, 27?, b. Missio, 167, b; 19?, a. Naumachiarii, 268, a. Oleagina corona, 118, b. causarta, 167, b. Necessaril heredes, 2oj, b. Oleum, 27^, b. honesta, 1 67, b. Nefasti dies, ij?, a, Oliva, 27^, b. ignominlosa, 167, b. Negotiatores, 269, a. Olla, 190, b; 27?, b. Missus, 90, a. Nenia, 188, a. Olynipia, 274, a. aerarius, 90, a. Neptunalia, 269, b. Onager, j8i, a. Mitra, 104, a; 256, a. Nexum, 269, b. Onerariae naves, 117, b: 262, a. Modiolus, 124, a. Nexus, 269, b. Onyx, alabaster, 16, b. Modius, 256, a. Nobiles, 270, a. Opalia, 276, b; 330, a. Moenia, 257, a. Nobilitas, 270, a. Opifera, 267, b. Mula, 2^6, a. Nornen, 270, b. Opima spolia, 348, a. aquaria, 256, a. expedire, or expungere, 39, b. Oppta lex, 235, b. asinaria, 256, a. Latinum, 345, b. Oppidum, 87, b. tnanuaria, 256, a. (Greek), 270, b. Opsonator, 2"6, b. trusatille, 256, a. (Roman), 270, b. Opsonium, 276, b. versatilis, 256, a. Nomenclator, 18, b. Optio, 166, b. salsa, 325, a. Nonae, t6, a. Optimates, 270, b. llonarchia, 256, b. Nota, 272, a. Opus incertum, 258, a. Monaulos, j-;6, b. censoria, 80, a. Oraculum, 276, b. Moneris, 261, a. Notarii, 272, a. Orarium, 277, b. Moneta, 256, b. Notatio censoria, 80, a. Oratio, 7, b. Monetales triumviri, 256, b. Novale, J2, b. Orator, 277, b. Monile, 256, b. Novare, 52, b. Orbis, 178, b. Monstrum, jio, b. November, 66, a. Orca, 345, a. Monumentum, 190, a. Novendlale, 190, b; 272, b. Orchestra, J7I, b. Morator, 89, b. Noverca, ij, b. Orchia lex, 2J5, b. Morbus comitialis, 108, a. Novi bomines, 270, a. Orcinus senator, jjj. a. Mortarium, 257, a. Novitas, 270, a. Ordinarii servi, 340, b. Morum cura, or praefcctura, Nucleus, 412, b. Ordinum ductores, 166, b; 79, a. Nudus, 272, b. 168, b; 169, a. Mos, 251, b. Numeratio, j}6, a. Ordo, loo, b; 165, b; 168, a; Motio e senatu, 80, b. Numeri, 168, a. 27, a. e tribu, 80, b. Nummularii, 254, a. decurionum, 100, b. Mullens, 65, b. Numularit, 254, a. equestris, 157, b. Mulsa, 418, b. Nummus, or Numus, 541, a. senatoriu!', j }}, b. M iilsuni, 41 8, a. aureus, ?j, b. Oreac, 1 82, b. Munerator, 194, b. Nuncupatio, 369, a. Orichalcum, 278, a. Municeps, ico, b. Nundinae, 66, a ; 272, b. Ornamenta triumphalia, 597, a. Municipes, ico, b Nundinum, 27 j, a. Ornatrix, loj, b. Munlcipiura, too, b. NnMii.it in, 51, a. Oscines, 50, a. Munus, 194, b; 206, b. Nuptiae, 249, b. Oscillum, 278, a. Mural is corona, 118, b. Nurus, ij.a. Ostentum, jio, b. Murtes, 411, a. Ostiarinm, 278, b. Murrea vsa, 257, a. Ooilmius, 142, b. LATIN INDEX. 450 OSTICM. PIGNORIS CAPTIO. PORTA POMPAE. Ostinni, 88, a; 142, b; 214, b. Patres, 286, b. Pila, 257, a; 296, a; J4J, b. Ova, 87. b. conscripti, jj}, a. Pilanl, 168, b. Ovalis corona, 118, b. PatrU poiestas, 286, a. Bleati, 188, a. Ovaiio, 278, b. Patricil, 286, b. Pileutuni, 297, a. Ovile, 101, b. Patrimi et njatrlml, or Patrl- Pileum, 297, a. Oviuia lex, 2j2, a. nies et matrimes, 287, b. Plleus, 297, a. Patrimoninm, 174,8. Pilum, 200, a; 257, a. Patronomi, 287, b. Pinacotheca, 14?, a. Itttronus, 9J, b; 287, b. Pinaria lex, 232, b. Pavimeiuum, 144, b ; 412, b. I'SciiM, 30, a ; ji, a ; 56, a. . Pauperie, actio de, 288, a. Pistor, 297, b. Pauperies, 288, a. Plstrlnum, 257, a. Paean, 2-79, a. I'ausarii, 305, b. Plaetoria k-x, 122, b. Paedagogia, 279, a. Pecten, 2i!8, a; 564, b. Plagiarius, 297, b. Paedagogus, 279, a. Peculator, 2i 8, a. Plagium, 297, b. Paenula, 2-9, a. Peculatus, 288, a. Planctaiit, 45, b. Paganalia, 279, b. Peculio, actio de, }J9, b. Planipede?, 256, a. Pagani, 279, b. Peculium, JJ9, b. 1'laustrum, or Plostrum, 297, b. Paganica, 296, b. Pecunia, 12, a; 40, a; 5 J, b. Plautia, or Plotia lex de vi, Pagi, 279, b. vacua, J9, b. 2?i, b. Pala, 26, a, Pecuniae repetundae, ji8, b. judiciaria, 2J2, b. Palaestra, 198, a ; 279, b. Pecus, 288, a. Plebeli, 298, a. Palangae, 160, b. Pedarii senatores, 754, a. ludi, 242, b. Palilia, 280, a. Pedisequi, 288, a. Plebes, 2^8, a. Palimpsestus, 2; 8, a. Peducaea lex, 2J2, a. Pltbiscituui. 225, b; joo, b. Palla, 280, a. Peduua, 288, a. Plebs, 298, a. Palliata fabula, 112, a. Pegma, 288, b. Plectrum, 246, a. Palliolum, 280, a. Pegmarea, 288, b. Pluteus, 58, a; 222, a; jol, a. Pallium, 280, a. Pelta, 288, b. Pnyx, 146, b. Palmipes, 281, a. Penicillus -urn, 295, b. Poculum, ^31, a. Palmus, 281, a. Peutacoslomedimni, 81, b; Podium, 21, b ; 101, b. Paludamentum, 28 1, a. 59. Poena, joi, a. Paludatus, 39;, a. Pentathli, 289, a. Poetelia Papiria lex, 2j2, b. Panathenaea, 28l, b. Pentathlon, 289, a. Pullinctores, 187, b. Pancratiastae, 282, b. Pepluui, 289, b. Polus, 206, a. Pancratium, 282, b, Pera, 290, a. Polychromy, 295, b. Panegyris, 28;, a. Perduellio, 247, a; 290, a. Pomeridianum tempus, 124, b. Pantomimus, 28 j, a. Perduellionis duumviri, 2, a. Septum, 107, b. gacrificulus, jzi, b. Sandapila, 188, a. Septunx, 44, a. sacrificus, I ;, a ; 321, b. Sapa, 4i6,b. Sepulchri violati actlo, 190, b. sacrorum, ^04, a; 321, b. Siircopbagus, 188, b. Sepulchrum, 189, b. Rheda, 322, a. Sarissa, 201, a. Sequestres, 18, b. Rhinthonica, 112, a. Sarracum, 329, a. Sera, 215, a. Rhodia lex, 2JJ, b. Satlra, 529, a. Seriae, 417, a. Rica, J22, b. Satura, ;:<(, a. Serlcum, 337, a. Ricinium, 322, b. lex, 226, a ; 329, a. Serrati, sc. numml, ijo, b. Rubigalia, }22, b. Saturnalia, 329, a. Serta, J31, a. Robur, 72, a. Scabellum, jjo, a. Servare de coelo, 51, a. Rogare legem, 225, b. Scalae, 2j, a ; 266, a. Servilia agraria lex, 275, a. Rogatlo, 107, a; 216, b; 225, b. Scalmi, 264, b. Glaucla lex, 719, a. Rogationcm accipere, 225, b. Scalptura, ; ;o, a. Judidarla lex, 2j;, a. promti Igare, 22;, b. Scamnum, 222, a ; j jo, a. Servus (Greek), 337, a. Rogattones Llclnlae, 2 ji, a. Scantinia lex, 234, a. (Roman), 338, b. Rogator, 107, b. Scapha, I, b; 262, b. ad manum, 18, a. Rogiis, 1 88, b. Scapus, 101, b. publicus, 740, a. Rompbea, 201, a. Scena, ^72, a. Sescuncia, 44, a. Rorarii, 165, b; 168, b. Scenici ludi, 206, a ; 242, a. Sescunx, 44, a. Roscia theatralis lex, 233, b. Sceptrum, )}o, a. Sestertium, J4t, b. Rostra, 322, b. Schoenus, jjo, b. Sestertius, 341, b. Rostrata columna, 102, b. Sciothericum, 207, a. Sevlr turmae equitum, 159, t corona, 118, b. Scire, j}6, a. Sevlrl, sj, a. Rostrum, 264, a. Scissor, 97, a. Sex suffragia, 136, a. Rota, 124, a; 178, b. Scitum populi, 225, b. Sextans, 44, a. Rubrla lex, 2^4, a. Scorpio, 180, a; 381, a. Sextarius, 342, A 40^, b, Rnbrica, 179, a. Scotia, J47, b. Sextllis, 66, a. Ruderatio, 144, b. Scribae, }}o, b. Sibina, 201, a. LATIN INDEX. SIIJVLLINI LIRRI. TABELLARIAE LEGES. TIARAS. Sibyllini libri, J42, b. S tat era, 599, a. Tabellarius, j6o, a. Sica, J42, b. Stati dies, ijj, b. Tabenia, jg, b ; 17, a. Sicarius. )4), a. Ktationes, 7?, b. divereoria, 77, a. Sicila, J42, b. Stativae feriae, 177, b. Tabernaria fabula, 112, a. Sidus natalitium, 46, a. Stator, )49, a. Tablinum, 142, b. Sigillaria, ))o, a. Statuaria ars, ^9, a, Tabulae, J9, b ; )6o, a. Signa militaria, J4), a. Statumen, 412, b. censoriae, 79, b. Signifer, 166, b; J4), b. Stesichorus, j62, a. novae, j6o, b. Signum, ij8, b; 168, a. Stilus, )54, a. 1 publicae, JI7, a. Silentium, 51, a. Stipendiarii, JJ4, a. Tabulam, adesse ad, 48, b. Silla lex, 2J5, a. Stipendium, J54, b. Tabularii, )6o, b. Silicarii, ji, a. Stiva, J2, a. Tabularium, j6o, b. Silicernlum, i^o, b. Stola, j?4, b. Tabulatum, 417, a. Siliqua, 405, b. Stragulum, 222, b. Talaria, )6i, a. Silvae, j)o, b. Stratum, 154, a. Talasius, 252, b. Silvuni et Carbonis lex, 92, a. Strena, j;5, b. Tahissio, 252, b. Sirnpulum, or Simpuvium, Strigil, 56, b. Taleuttim, j6i, a. jji, b; J44, a. Strophium, jyy, b. Talio, )6i, b. Siparium, 144, a; J72, a. Structor, 97, a. Talus, j6r, b. Sistrum, )44, a. Stultorum feriae, 182, a. Tarentini ludi, 242, b. Sitella, J45, a. Stuprum, 8, a. Tarpeia Aternia lex, 226, b. Siticines, 188, a. Stylus, )?4, a. Taurii iudi, 242, b. Situla, J45, a. Subitarius exercitus, 167, a. Tectores, ji, a. Socculus, J4?, b Stibitarii, 400, a. Tectorium, 48, a. Soccus, J45, b. Subrogare legem, 22 J, b. Tegula, )6j, b. Soccr, ij, a. Subscriptores, ijg, a. Tela, )6j, b. magnus, I ), b. Subscriptio censoria, 80, a. Telamones, 47, b. Sock- las, jo, b. Subsellium, J7&, a. Temo, ji, b; 124, a; 297, b. Socii, 170, b; 181, a; J45, b. Subsignanus, 168, b; 355, b. Templiim, J22, b. Socrus, ij, a. Subtegmen, 364, a. TeiiijKjris praescriptio, jo8, a. magna, ij, b. Subtemen, j&4, a. Tensae, )7J, b. Bodales, 98, a. Subucula, 401, b. Tepidarium, 56, a. Augnstales, 5J, a. Suburana, )9o, b. Terentilia lex, 2)6, b. Titil, 4 j, a. Succinctus, 401, b. Tcrentiiil ludi, 242, b Sodalitium, 19, a. Sudatio concamerata, 56, a. Terminalia, )68, a. Solarium, IJ5, a; MJ, b; 207, a. Sudatorium, 56,8. Termini, 204, b. Solea, J4&, b. Suffibulum, 412, a. Tertiare, j i, b. Solidorum vendltio, J9, b. Suffitio, 190, b. Tcrunclus, 44, a ; 2J7, b. Solidns, 54, a. Suffragia sex, 156, a. Tessera, j68, b. Solitaurilla, J25, a; 244, b. Suffragium, J55, b. bospi tails, 209, b. Solium, 56, a ; J76, a. Suggestus, 22, b; J22, b; J5&, a. nummaria, or frumentaria, Solum, 144, b. Suggrundarium, 188, b. i8j, a. Sophronistae, 179, b Sui beredes, 2OJ, b. Testamentariae leges, 2)6, b. Sordidati, j8o, a. Sulci, 412, b. Testamentifactio, j68, b. Sortes, J45, a ; J47, a. Sulcus, )2, b. Testamentum, 248, a; j68, b. Sparus, 200, b. Sulpiciae leges, 2j$, a. Testator, j68, b. Spectacula, 87, a. Spectlo, 51, a. Sulpicia Sempronia lex, 2J5, a. Sumptuariae leges, 2JJ, a. Testis, 248, a; 218, b. Testudo, 40, b ; 245, b ; j&9, & Specularia, 144, b Specularis lapis, 144, b. Suovetaurilia, 244, b; ;:;, a, Supparum, 267, b; 401, b. Tetrarcha, J7O, a. Tetrarches, )7o, a. Speculatores, J47, a. Supparus, 401, b. Textores, j6), b. Speculum, J47, a. Supplicatio, J5&, a. Texlrices, j6), b. Specus, jo, b. Supposititli, 19;, b. Textrinum, j6j, b. Sperata, 252, b. Susceptores, 81, a. Thalassites, 418, b. Spbaeristeriiim, 296, b. Spiculum, 199, b ; 200, b. Snspensura, 56, a. Sutorium, 48, a. Thargelia, J7O, a. Thcatrum, J7o, b. Spina, 87, a. Symposium, J57, a. Thensae, )7J, b. Spira, 101, b; J47, b. Syndicus, J58, a. Theodoslanus codex, 95, a. SpiruU, J47, b. Syngrapha, J58, b. Thermae, 54, b. Spolia, J47, b. Synthesis, )29, b; J59, a. Thonnopolium, 77, a. Sponda, 222. a. Syrinx, J59, a. Tbesmophorla, j-jj, b. Sponsa, 251, b. Syssitia, J59, b. Thorax, 240, b. Sponsalia, 251, b. Thoria lex, 2)6, b. Sponfus, 251, b. T braces, 195, b. Sportula, J48, a. Tbreces, 195, b. Stadium, 148, b. T. Thronus, )7&, a. Stalagamla, 211, b. Thyrsus, )i6, a. Stamen, 191, b; j64, a. Tabella, )6o, a. Tiara, )-;6, b. Stater, J 4 9, a. Tabtllari.il- leges, 2j6, a. Tiaras, J7&, b. LATIN INDEX. 463 TIttlA. VALERIAE LEGES. VINDEMIALIS FERIA. Tibia, 576. b. Tripllcatio, 6, a. Valeriae et Horatiae legea. Tll>:cinium, 177, a. Tripos, J94, a. 29, b; 2?7, a. Tmtinnulnilum, $78, a. Tripudium, 50, b. Valeria lex, 237, a. 'J'irocintum, ^78, a. Triremes, 260, b. V'allaris corona, 118, b. Tiro, 578, a. Triticum, 182, b. Vallum, 14, b; 75, a; 406, a. Titla lex, 2j6, b. Triumphaliaoniamenta, 197, a, Valius, 75, a; 406. b. Titienses, 286, b. Triumphalis corona, 118, b. Valva, 215, a. Tilies, 286, b. Trinmplius, 594, a. V'annus, 407, a. Tiiii Sodales, 578, a. castrensis, 597, a. Vari, ?2o, b. Titulus, 189, a; 2j3, b. navalis, J97, a. Varia lex, 247, a. Toga, )-8, a. Triumviri, 197. a. Vas, 407, a. Candida, 380, a. agro dlvidundo, 597, b. Vatinia lex, 277, a. palmata, 380, b. capit.ilis, {97, b. Udo, 404, b. plcta, j3o, b. coloniae doduci-ndae, 99, b; Vectigal renim venalium, 82. a. praetexta, j8o, b. W. b. Vt-ctifialia, 407, a. pulla, }8o, b. epulones, i;6, a. Velarium, 2}, a. pura, }8o, a. equitum turmas recocnio- Veliies, 166, b ; 168, b ; 408, 1. sordida, }8o, a. scendi.or legendis equitum Velum, 267, a; 408, a. virilig, j8o, a. decuriis, 397, b. Venabulum, 408, a. Topata fabula, n:, a. mensarii, 254, a. Venatio, 21, a; 408, a. Togatus, J78, b. monetales, 256, b. Venditio, 80, b. Tonsor, j8i, a. nocturni, 597, b. Venencium, 409, a. Topiaria are, 208, b. reficiendis acdibus, 197, b. Vt-nereusjactus, ^62, a. Topiarius, 208, a. reipubllcae constituendae, Venus, j62, a. Toralia, 222, b. J97. b. Vtr sacrum, 410, a. Torcular, 416, b. sacris conquirendis donlsque Verbena, ji, b; 126, a. Torculum, 416, b. persignandis. 198, a. Verbtnarius, 178, a. Tormentum, 267, a; jti, a. senatus legendi, ^98, a. \'enia, {4?, a. Torques, j8i, b. Trocbleae, 267, a. Verrlculum, J2o, b. Torquis, j8i, b. Trocbus, 598, a. Versura, 177,0. Torus, 222, a; 147, b; j8i, b. Trojao ludus, 93, a. Veni, 200, b. Tralx-a, j8o, b. Trcpaeum, 598, a. Ven-actum. }2, b. Trabeata fabula, 112, a. Trossuli, 157, a. Verutum, zoo, b. Tragoedia, j8i, b. Trna, 599, a. Vespac, 188, a. Tragula, 201, a ; }lo, b. Tnilla, J99, a. Vcsplllones, 188, a. Trogum, }2. b. Trutlna, 199, a. Vesialis, 410, a. Trama, 564, a. Tuba, ?i,9, a. maxima, 410, b. Transactio in vl.i, 5, a. Tubicen, it, a. Vestibulum, 142, a. Transtillum, 245, b. Tuhilustrium, ji8, a. Veteranus, 167, b; j"8, a. Transtra, 265, b. Tullia lex de ambitn, 18, b. Vetera tores, 140, a. Transvectio eqnitnm, 158, b. do legatione libera, 224, a. Vexillarii, 165, b; 170, b. Trebonia lex, 2}6, D. Tullianum, 72, a. Vexillum, 165, b ; J4t, b. Tremissls, 54, a. Tnmultuani, 400, a. Via Principalis, 75, a. Tressis, 44, a. fresviri, 597, a. TumultuariusExercitus, 167, a. Tumultus, ^99, b. Viae, 412, a. Viaria lex, 2} 7, a. Triarii, 165, b; 168, b. Tunica, 400, a. Viaticum, 414, a. Tribula, j85, a. Tunica recta, 252, a. Viator, 414, b. Tribulum, 485, a. Tunicati, 402, b. Victima, 524, b. Tribulus, $85, a. Turibulum, 402, b. Vicesima, u,b; 414, b. Tribunal, 585, n. Turma, 166, b. hereditatnm et legatonnn, Tribtini Laticlavil, 169, a. Turricula, 182, b. 414, b. mllitum, 166, a ; 169, a. Turns, 402, a. nianumissionis, 248, b; 414, b. Tribunicia lex, 2}j, a; 2)6, b. Tutela, 264, b. Vicesiinaria lex, 414, b. potestas, 387, a. Tutor, 122, b. V'icesimaril, 414, b. Tribnnus, 385, a. Tympanum, 27, a ; 298, a ; Vico magistri, 415, a. celernm, 76, a. 40j, a. Vicus, 414, b. Tribus (Greek), ?88, a. Victorlatus, ijo, a. (Roman), j V. Vigintiviri, 415, a. Triclinium, jai, b. Villa, 415, a. Tridens, 191, b. Vacatlo, 152, a ; 167, b. publica, 79, a. Triens, 44, a. Vadarl reum, 5, b. rustica, 415, a. Trifax, }8i, a. Vades, 216, a. Villia annalis lex, 226, b. Trtga, 124, a. Vades dare, 5, b. Villlcns, )i,&; 208, a; 140, b Tril;x, 364, b. Vadlmonium, Vas, 5, b 415, b- Trinum nindlnmn, 277, a. Vagina, 196, a. Vinalia, 415, b. Trinundinum, 27;, a. Valeriae leges, Ij6, b. Vindemialis ferla, 177, b. 4C4 LATIN INDEX. VINDEX. DSUS. ZOPHORC8. Vindex, 5, a. Uncia, 44, a ; 176, b ; 405, a. Usus fructuarius, 406, a. Vindicta, 248, a. Unciarum fenus, 177, a. Ususfructus, 406, a. Vinea, 415, b. Unctores, 17, b. Uterini, 98, a. Vinum, 416, a. Unctorium, 56, a. Utres, 418, a. Virglnes Vestales, 410, a. Virgo maxima, 411, a. Unguenta, 405, b. Unguentaria, 405, b. Utricularlus, 376, b. Vulcanalia, 421, b. Viridarium, 2c8, b. Unguentariae, 405, b. Vulgarcs, 140, b. Viridarius, 208, a. Unguentaril, 405, b. Uxor, 251, a. Virilis toga, 380, a. Universitag, 98, a. Uxorium, 12, b. Vis, 420, a. Vocatio, }83, a. Visceratlo, 190, b. Voconia lex, 217, b. Viscellia lex, 2^7, a. Volones, 421, b. Vitls, 1 69, a. Volumen, 2;8, a. *r Vitlum, 5 1, a. Voluntarii, 421, b. X. Vitrearii, 420, b. Vomer, 32, a. Vitricus, ij,b. Vomitorla, 2}, a. Xystus, 208, a. Vltrum, 420, a. Vorticellum, 191, b. Vitta, Vittae, 421, a. Urceus, 406, a. Vittata sacerdos, 421, b. Urna, 189, a ; 745, a ; 406, a. Ulna, 404, b. Ustrina, 6), a; 189, a. M Umbella, 404, b. Ustrinum, 189, a. z. Umbilicus, 2 j8, a. Usucaplo, 406, a. Umbo,94,a; $79, b; 412, b. Usurae, 176, b. Zona, 422, b. Umbraculum, 404, b. Usue, 251, a. ZopboniD, 102, ?. ; 422.. b. ENGLISH INDEX. 465 ENGLISH INDEX. ACTOB8, COMEDY. EXECUTIONER. Bottomry, 176, b. Comedy (Roman), in, b. Bow, J7, b. Cooks, 97, a. A. Boxing, JI5, a. Cordage, 267, b. Bracelet, 42, b. Corn crops, 744, b. Actors (Greek), 705, b. Brass, 12, n; 278, a. preservation of, J4J, a. (Roman), 205, b. Brazier, 180, b. Couches, n i, a. Adoption (Greek), 7, a. Breakfast, 95, a. Cowl, 122, a. (Roman), 7, a. Bribery (Greek), 127, a. Cretan constitution, I2o, a. Advocate, 558, a. (Roman), 18, b. Criers, jo6, b. Adze, 44, a. Bricks, 220, b. Crook, 288, a. Altar, }i, a. Bridge, )al, a. Crops, J44, b. Ambassadors, 12?, a. Bridle, 182, a. Cross, 121, a. Anchor, 268, a. Bronze, 12, a. Crown, ii 8, a. Anvil, 254, b. Brooch, 1 78, b. Crucifixion, i2t, a. Aqueduct, 29, b. Burial (Greek). 184, a. Cubit, 122, a. Arch, 36, a. (Roman), 187, b. Cup, 68, a. Archers, J7, b. Cymbal, 125, b Armour, 41, a. Arms, 41, a. Army (Greek), 160, b. c, (Roman), 164, a. D. Astronomy, 45, b. Calendar (Greek), 65, a. Auction (sale), 48, b. (Roman), 66, a. Daggers, m. a $42, b. Axe, })i. b. Cameos, }jo, a. Dance, the Pyrrhic, 328, a. Axle, 124, a. Camp, 71, a. Dancing, $27, b. breaking up of, 76, a. Day, i J4, a. choice of ground for, 7 j, b. Dice, )68, b. construction of, 74, a. Dice-box, 182, b. B. Candle, 69, b. Dinner, 95, a. Candlestick. 69, b. Dish, 77, a; 285, a. Bail (Greek), 152, b. Canvassing, 18, a. IMstaff, igr, b. (Roman), 5, b. Capital (of columns), 101, b. Dithyramb, }8i,b. Bakers, 29-7, b. Cart, 72, b. Divorce (Greek), 1 39, a. Balance, the, 239, a. Casque, 192, b. (Roman), 09, a. Ball, game at, 181, b; 296, a. Ceilings, 144, b. Door, 214, b. Bankers, 59, a. Celt, IJ9, b. Dowry (Greek), 145, a. Banishment (Greek), 172, a. Censer, 402, b. (Roman), 145, b. (Koman), 173, a. Chain, 76, b. Drains, 94. a. Barber, 57, a. Chariot, I2J, b. Draughts, game of, ui, a, Basket, 57, b. Chimneys, 145, a. Drum, 40], a. Baths (Greek), 54, a. Chisel, IJ9, b. Dynasty, 34, b. (Roman), 55, b. Circumvallation, 406, b. Beard, 57, a. Citizenship (Greek), 90, b. Beds, 222, a. (Roman), 91, b. Beer, 82, b. Clerks (Athenian), 196, a. E. Bell, J78. a. (Roman), 6, a. Bellows, 181, b. Clocks, 206, b. Ear-ring, 211, b. Belt, 57, a. Coffins, 185, b; 188, b. Earthenware, 178, b. Bit (of horses), 182, b. Colony (Greek), 98, b. Eleven, the, 202, b. Boeotian constitution, 59, b. (Roman), 99, b. Ensigns, military, 74 J, a. Books, 2 j8, a. Column, ici, b. Era, 86, a. Bookseller, 249, a. Combs, 288. a. Evil Eye, 175. a. BooU,64,b: 120, a. Comedy (Greek), no, b- Executioner, 71, b. 2 B 46G ENGLISH INDEX. FAN. N'AMES. ROPE-DANCERS. Italy, too, b. Necklaces, 256, b. Judges (Greek), 121, a ; 131,0. Nemean games, 269, a. F. (Roman), 215, a. Nets, ji(), b. Notary, j6o, b. *~an, 1 79, b. Felting, 297, a. Fire-place, 180, b. K. Floors of bouses, 144, b. 0. Fresco, 295, a. Kiln, 182, a. Fuller, 184, a. King (Greek), J2o, a. Oars, 265, b. Funerals (XJreek), 184, b. (Roman), 1 87, b. (Homan), 320, b. Kitchen, 14), a. Oath (Greek), 218, a. (Roman), 218, b. Furnace, $6, a; 182, a. Knife, 122, a. October-horse, 280, a. Knights (Athenian), 81, b. Officers, duty of, 75, b. ' Roman), 1 56, a, parade of, 75, b. Knockers, 215, a. Olympiad, 276, a. G. Olympic games, 274, a. Oracles, 276, b. Gambler, Gaming, 17, a. Orders of architecture, 101, b ; Garden, 207, b. L. 102, a. Gates of cities, 305, a Organ, 210, a. Girdle, 422, b. Ladders, 266, a. Ostracism, 172, a. Gladiators, 194, a. Lamps, 241, b. Oven, 182, a. Glass, 420, a. Law, 218, a; 225, a. Ounce, 105, a. Gold, JJ, b. Legacy, 222, b. Granary, 207, b. Legion, 164, a. Greaves, 27 ?, a. Letter-carrier, 360, a. Guards, 75, b. Levy, 167, a. Library, 58, b. i Light-house, 29;, a. Litters, 221, b. Painting, 29?, b. H. Liturgies, 224, a. Paper, 2j8, b. Hair (Greek), loj, a. Looking-glass, 247, a. Loom, }6 3, b. Parasol, 404, b. Parchment, 2j8, b. (Roman), ioj, b. Hammers, 247, a; 254, b. Lots, J47, a. Luncheon, 9$, a. Pay of soldiers, 554, b. Pediment, 176, a. Harp, $29, a. Lyre, the, 245, a. Pen, 64, a. Hatchet, jji, b. Perfumes, 405, b. Hearth, 180, b. Pipe, ^76, b. Heir (Greek), 2oj, a. Plough, ji, b. (Roman), 20), a. M. Poisoning, 409, a. Helmet, 192, b. Poles, 266, a. Hemlock, 202, b. Marriage (Greek), 2 19, b. Portcullis, 76, a. Heraclean tablet, 2)o, a. (Roman), 250, b. Pottery, 178, b. Holidays, 177, b. Masks, 29 1, a. Priests, 32}, b. Hoop, 398, a. Masts, 266, a. Prison, 72, a. Hospitality, 208, a. Meals (Greek), 95, a. Prodigies, jio, b. Hour, 207, a. (Roman), 96, a. Property-tax (Greek), 148, b. House (Greek), 140, a. Mile, 255, b. (Roman), 591, b. (Roman), 142, a. Mile-stones, 255, b ; 41 }, a. Prow, 26}, a. Hunting, 408, a. Mills, 2;6, a. Purification, 244, a. Hunting-spear, 408, a. Mines, 407, b. Mint, 256, b. Purses, 248, b. Pyrrhic dance, J28, a. Mirror, 347, a. Money, coined, 12, a. Pythian games, 3 1 5, b. IT (Greek), gold, 5}, b. 1 (Roman), 5J, b. Month (Greek), 65, a. Q. Informer, 118, b. (Roman), 66, a. Inheritance (Greek), 203, a. Mortars, 257, a ; 258, a. Quiver, 292, b. (Roman), 2oj, a. Mosaics, 141, b ; 144, b. Ink, 48, a. Mourning for the dead, 190, b ; Inn, 77, a. 187,0. Intaglios, jjo, a. R. Intercalary month, 66, b. Interest of money (Greek), N. Races, 87, a. 176, b. Rings, 25, b. (Human), 176, b. Istumiuu games, 114, a. Names (Greek), 270, b. (Roman), 270, b. Road, 412, a. Rope-dancers, 184, b. ENGLISH INDEX. 467 ROPES. TROUSERS. YOKE. Ropes, 267, b. Rounds, 75, b. Rudder, 165, b. Spindle, 191, b. Standards, military, J4J, a, Statuary, 749, a. Trumpet, 62, b: ^99. a. Tumblers, 128, a. Stern, 264, b. Stoves, 145, a. Sun-dial, 206, b. U, V. S. Sword, 196, a. Sacrifices, 524, a. Vase-paiuting, 295, 6. Veil, 408, a. Saddles, 154, a. Voting (Greek), jj$, b. Sails, 26-;, a. T. (Kom.ui), 107, a ; 355, b. Salt, J27, a. Salt-cellar, J2-J, a. Tables, 25?, b. Usurers, 176, b. Salt-works, 527, a. Talent, ;6i, u. Sandal, 5 8, a. Tapestry, 544, a. Scales, 2 19, a. Taxes (Greek), }6;, b. W. Screw, 94, b. (Roman), ?6;, b; 391, a. Scythe, ITJ, b. Temple, j66, a. Waggon, 297, b. Senate (Greek), 61, a ; 19;, b. Testament, }68, b. Wall, 257, b; }ci, b. (Roman), }J2, b. Sentinels, 75, b. Theatre, 570, b. Thessalkin constitution, j6o, b. ^\'eaving, J&4, a. Wheel, 124, a. Shawl, 289, b. Threshold, 214, b. Whip, 179, b. Shields, 94,8; 285, a; jji, a; Throne, 576, a. Wills, 368, b. 288, b. Tiles, roofing, j6j, b. Window, 144, b. Ships, 259, b. Tombs, 1 86, a. Wine, 416, a. Shoe, 64, b; 151, b. Shops, J9, b. Sibyl, J 4 2, b. Sickle, J42, b. Torch, 176, a. Torture, ?8l, a. Tower, 402, a. Tragedy (Greek), j8i. b. Witnesses (Greek), 148, b, (Roman), 218, a. Wrestling, 242, a. Silk, j J7 , a. (Roman), 5.34. a. Silver, 40, a. Triangle, the. 181, a. Slaves (Greek), m, a. (Roman), j)8, b. Sling, 184, b. Tribes (Greek), J88, b. (Roman). 390, b. Tribunes, 185, a. Y. Sllngers, 184, b. Trident, 191, b. Yards of a sail, 267. a Spartan constitution, 19], b. Spear, 199, b. Tripod, J94, a. Trophy, ^98, a. Year (Greek), 65, a, (Roman), 66, b. Speiisinians, 129, b Trousers, 62. *. Yoke, 117, a. 468 CLASSIFIED INDEX. CLASSIFIED INDEX. Outer each head the names of the artidet in tlte Index are given in which the subject is explained. Armour and Weapons Assemblies and Coun- AGRICULTURE. ARCHITECTURE. continued. cils continued. Hj-irina Abacus. Arcus. Panionla. onus. Aero terl urn. Arma. Senatus. ftsclllum. Scamnum. Antae. AiiU-Iixa. Apsis. Armatura. Capulus. Cateia. Synedri. Villa rustica. V inum. Architecture. Areas. Astragalus. Cetra. Clipeus. Dolo. ASTUONOMT. Allan tes. Funda. Astrologia. Balteus. Qalea. AGRICULTURAL IM- PLEMENTS. Camara. Canal is. Columbaria. CJerrha. Gladius. Hasta. CAMPS AND FOET. Aratrum. Jugum. Pala. Pecten. Pedum. Plaustrum. Prelnm. Sarracum. Stilus. Tintinnabulunx Columna. Coronls. Cortina. Crypta. Cyma. Entasis. Eplstyllum. Fascia. Fastiglum. Janua. Lorica. Ocrea. Palrna. Pelta. Pharetra. Pugio. Scutum. Securis. Sica. Veuabulum. Acropolis. Agger. Arx. Can-ago. Castra. st.it iva. Pagi. Praetoriuin. Turris. Vallum. Torculnm. Jugum.' Tribula. Later. Tympanum. Vunnus. Maenianum. Metopa. Peristylium. Podium. ASSEMBLIES AND COUNCILS. CHARITIES AND DONA- TIONS. Porticus. AMUSEMENTS AND PLAYTHINGS. Spira. Testndo. Tholus. Agora. Amphlctyones. Areiopagus. Alimentarii. Conglarla. Dianomae. Abacus. Aenigma. Tympanum. Zophorus. Boule. Comitia calata. curiata. Donaria. Frumentariae Leges. Strena, Alea. centurlata. Ascollasmus. ARITHMETIC. tributa. Buzum. Concilium. Calculi. Abacus. Conclo. CIVIL PUNISHMENTS. Cottabos. Calculi Conventus. P'ollis. Curia. Area. Fritillos. Ijitriincult. ABMOUR AND WEA- Ecclesla. Eccleti. Barathron, or Orugma Career. Talus. PONS. Gerousia. Ceadas. Tessera. Aclnaccs. Myrii. Cms. Trochua. Aegis. Panegyris. Equulcus. CLASSIFIED INDEX. 469 Civil Punishments Crimes continued. Dress, ararium. MANOEUVRES. Music AND MUSICAL Augnrium, auspicium. I>ater. INSTRUMENTS. Caput fxtunini. Paries cratltius. CuneuB. Oraculum. formaceus. F orfex. Acroama. Siliyllini Librt. l.itoritius. Testodo. Acneatores. Sortes. reticulata structura CLASSIFIED IXDEX. 473 Private Buildings- Public Officers con- Roman Law con- continued tinued. EOMAN LAW. tinued. Paries structure an- Boonae. Actio. Impubea. tiqua. Camifex. Actor. Incendlum. emplecton. Choregus. Adoptio. Incestnm. e lapide quadrate. Coactor. Advocatus. In', i mi. i. Pergula. Critae. Aediles. Infans. Pinacotheca. Cura tores. Affinitas. Ingenul. Pluteus. [An alphabetical litt Agrariae leges. Injuria. Puteal. of curatoret it Album. Intercessio. Scalae. given.] Ambitus. Interdiction. Synoikia. Diaetetae. Appellatio. Judex. Taberna. Diribitores. Arra, Arrha. Jure, cessio in. Tegula. Ducenarii. Arrabo, Arrhabo. Jurisconsult!. Triclinium. Ecdicus. Assertor. Jurisdiclio. Villa. Eplscopt Assessor. Jus. EpUtates. Auctio. Civile Papirianum. Ku'hyni. Auctor, Anctorltns. Jnsjurandum. PUBLIC BciLDDfGS. . Exetastae. Basilica. I^atinltas. . Frumentarii. Beneflcium. I^egatum. Amphitheatrum. Archoion. Arcus triumphalis. Argyrocopeion. Athenaeum. Gnunmateus Hleropoii. HodopoeL Legatus. Lelturgia. Lictor. Buna, caduca. fides. Bonorum cessio. collatlo. emptio. Lex. [ Under this head an alphabetical Hit of the principal taict it given."] Libelli accusatorum. Balneae. Basilica, chaU idicmn. Bibliotbeca. Magister. [An alphabetical litt of magittri it given.] possessio. Calumnia. Caput. Caupo. famosi. Libertus. Magistratus. Majestas. Circus. Cochlea. rSlMn Manceps. Mastigophori. Mensarii. Cautio, cavere. Ccntnmviri. Certl, incerti actio. Mancipium. Mandatum. Manumissio. uuna. Notaril. Chirograpbum. Negotia tores. Paredri. Cl vitas. Nexum. draecostasis. Hippodromus. Horrenm. Labyrinthus. Lautumiae. Parochi. Practores. Praecones. Praefectns Annonae. Urbi. Cliens. Codex Gregorianns. Hermogenianus. Justinianeus, Tbeodosianus. Orator. Patria potestas. Patronns. Pauperies. Peculatus. Lesche. Probouli. Cognati. Piagium. Moneta. Procurator. Collegium. llebiscitum. M useuui. Publicani. Colonia. Poena. Paradisus. Pythii. Commlssorla lex. Possessio. Porticus. Prytanefon. Rostra. Quaestores classicl. parricidii. Crimen, delictum. Curator. Postliminium. Praedlum. Stadium. Qulnqueviri. Scribae. Decretum. Dedlticii. Praejudicinm. Praes. SoBjMtus. Tuwariuin. Thesaurus. 'I'riKllnnl Sitophylaces. Statoi Stra tores. Depositum. Divortlum. Dominium. IVaescrlptio. Praetor. Procurator. i nDUBai. SyllogeU. Domlnus. Proscriptio. Tabularii. 1)03. Provlncia. PUBLIC OFFICERS. Tamias. Teichopoeus. Edlctnm. Theodorici. Kepetundae pecuniae. Sectlo. Accensi. Tettaraconta, hoi. Em an ci patio. Senatns consultum. Actuarii. Theori. Exercitorla actio. Societas. Adlecti. Trierarcbia. Exsillum. Suniptuariae leges. Admissionales. Triumviri. Falsum. Tubellariae leges. Aediles. V r ia tores. Familia. Talio. Agathoergi. Zetetae. Fenus. Testamentum. AgoDotbetae. Fidel commissum. Tormentum. Agoranomi. Fiducia. Tutor. Agrimensorc-s. Agronomi. KOADS AND STREETS. Fiscus. Foederatae civitates. Vindicta. Vis. Apcxiectae. Angiportus. Frumentariae leges. Universitas. Apostoleis. CalUs. Gens. Usufrnctus. Appari tores. Mansio. Heres. Asiarchae. Viae. Honores. AgtynomL Vlctw. Imperium. 474 CLASSIFIED INDEX. SACHIPICES AND STATDAKT. Tools, &c. continued. Utensils continued. RELIGIOUS RITES.- Acerra. Acrolithi. Caryatides. Norma. Securis. Cadua. Calathus. Calix. Amburbium. Colossus. AnakleterU. Antigoneia. Apotheosis. Daedala. Hermac. Imago. TRADW AND OCCUPA- TIONS. Candelabrum. Cantharus. Capsa, Ara. Canephoros. Corona sacerdotalis. Cortina. Dlamastlgosis. Etsiteria. Sculptura. Statuarla ars. Typus. SUPEftSTTTIONS. Ambubaiae. Argeutarii. Athletae. Bestlarii. Bibliopola. Calculator. Carchesfum. Catinus. Chrysendita, asta. Cochlear. Colum. Eleusinla. Exauguratlo. Inauguratio. Lttm, Lustratio. Lustrum. Sacra. Sacrlficium. Sagraina. Amuletum. Apophradcs hemeral. Astrologia. Fasclnum. Oscillum. Prodigium. Sortes. Caupo. Fabri. Fullo. Funambnlus. Gladiatorcs. Hemerodroiui. Histrio. Interpres. Notarii. Cophinus. Corbls, Corbula, Cor- bicula. Cortina. Crater. Cupa. Cyathns. Fax. Ferculuni. Secesplta. Simpulum. TEMPLES AND HOLY Pelatae. Pistor. Guttus. Sapplicatio. Thensae. Tripos. Turibulum. PLACES. ArgeL Asylum. BidenUL Redemtor. VEHICLES AND TIIEIU Lecythns. Lncerna. Modloln. Murrhina va>a. SLAVES AND BONDS- MEN. Docana. Propylaea. Sacellum. PABTS. Antyx. Oenophorum. Olla, aula. 1'atera, Patella. Agaso. Alipilus. Aliptae. Amanuensis. AnagnosLae. Sacrarium. Templum. Velum. Arcera. Itasterna. Canathron. Oipistrum. Carpentum. I'atina. Poculum. 1'sycter. I>yxls. Rhyton. An teambulones. Aquarii. BruttianL Calones. TITLE& Augustus. Caesar. Cbiramaxium. Cisium. Covlnus. Salinum. Si tula, Sitella. Tripos. Trua, Trulla. Capsarii. Essoda. Vas. Colon!. Cosmetae. TOOLS AND ISfPLE- Harmamaxo. Urceus. Cubicularii. ttmtst. Jugum. Lectica. Cursores. Demosii. Fartor. Acus. Amussia. Petorrltum. Pilentum. PVio^a WRITING AND WBCT IXQ MATERIALS. Gymnesii. Apsis. iviieua. Set la. Adversaria. Helotes. Ascla. Album. leroduli. Col us. Atramentuni. Libraril. WediastinL Contus. Culler. UTENSILS. Itiixum. Calamus. Notaril. Dolabra, Dolabella. Acetabulum. Codex. Paedagogus. Falx. Aenura. Libellus. Pedisequi. Fistuca. Alabastrum. memorialls. Penestae. Follis. Amphora. Liber. Servus, I. Greek. Fuscina. Ampulla. Nota. 2. Roman. Fusus. Anaglypha. liegula. Tabellarius. Harpago. Authepsa. Scytale. Thetes. Jugum. Bascauda. Stylus. Villicus. j Malleolus. JBicos. Tabulae. THE END. LONDON : PRINTED BT WM. CLOWES AND SONS, I IM11 1 I>, bIAMF(ji:i) STREET AND CHABINO CROSS. DR. WM. SMITH'S EDUCATIONAL COURSE. INTRODUCTION TO THE LATIN COURSE. THE YOUNG BEGINNER'S FIRST LATIN BOOK. Containing the Rudiments of Grammar, Easy Grammatical Questions and Exercises, with Vocabularies. Being a Stepplng-Stone to Prlncipia Latina, Part I., for Young Children. 12mo. 2s. THE YOUNG BEGINNER'S SECOND LATIN BOOK. Con- taining an easy Latin Heading Book, with an Analysts of the Sentences, Notes, and a Dictionary. Being a Stepping-Stone to Principla Latina, Part II., for Young Children. 12mo. 2*. LATIN COURSE. PRINCIPIA LATINA, PART I. A FIRST LATIN COURSE. Comprehending Grammar, Delectus, and Exercise Book. With Vocabularies. 12mo. as. 6d. APPENDIX TO PRINCIPIA LATINA, PART I. Being Additional Exercises, with Examination Papers (125 pp.) 12mo. 2*. 6d. PRINCIPIA LATINA, PART II. LATIN PROSE READING BOOK. Serving as an Introduction to Ancient Mythology and Geography, Roman Antiquities and History. With Notes and a Dictionary. 12mo. 3*. 6ci. PRINCIPIA LATINA, PART III. LATIN POETRY. Containing: 1. Easy Hexameters and Pentameters. 2. Ecloga; Ovidianas. 3. Prosody and Metre. 4. First Latin Verse Book. 12mo. as. 6d. PRINCIPIA LATINA, PART IV. LATIN PROSE COMPO- SITION. Containing the Rules of Syntax, with Copious Examples, Explanations of Synonyms, and a Systematic Course of Exercises on the Syntax. 12mo. 3s. 6d. PRINCIPIA LATINA, PART V. SHORT TALES and ANEC- DOTES from ANCIENT HISTORY, for Translation into Latin Prose. 12mo. 3s. ; A LATIN VOCABULARY, arranged according to Subjects and Etymology; with a La tin- English Dictionary to Phadrus, Cornelius Nepos, and Cesar's Gallic War.' 12mo. as. 6d. THE STUDENTS LATIN GRAMMAR, for the Upper Forms in Schools. Post 8vo. 6s. A SMALLER LATIN GRAMMAR, for the Middle and Lower Forms ; abridged from the above. 12mo, 3s. 6d. A CHILD'S FIRST LATIN BOOK. Including a Systematic Treat- ment of the NEW PRONUKCIATION; and PBAXIS OF NOUNS, ADJECTIVES, and PBOKOUKS. By T. D. HALL, M.A. I6mo. 2s. FRENCH COURSE. FRENCH PRINCIPIA, PART I. A FIRST FRENCH COURSE, con- taining Grammar, Delectus, Exercises, and Vocabularies. 12mo. 3s. 6d. FRENCH PRINCIPIA, PART II. A READING BOOK ; containing Fables, Stories, and Anecdotes, Natural History, and Scenes from the History of France. With Grammatical Questions, Notes, and copious Etymological Dic- tionary. 12mo. 4*. 6d. THE STUDENT'S FRENCH GRAMMAR, a Practical and His- torical Grammar of the French Language. By C. HERON-WALL, late Assistant Master at Brighton College. With an Introduction by M. LITTB. Post 8vo. 7s. 6d. A SMALLER GRAMMAR OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. For the Middle and Lower Forms. Abridged from the above. 12mo. 3s. 6d. [Continued. 2 MR. MURRATS LIST OF SCHOOL BOOKS. Scripture and Church History. THE STUDENT'S OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY. FROM THE CKEATION or THE WORLD TO THE RETUKN OF THE JEWS FKOM CAPTIVITY. With an Introduction to the Books of the Old Testament. By PHILIP SMITH, B.A. With 40 Maps and Woodcuts. (630 pp.) Post 8vo. 7.1. 6d. THE STUDENT'S NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY. WITH AN INTKODUCTION, CONTAINING THE CONNECTION OF THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS. By PHILIP SMITH, B.A. With 30 Maps and Woodcuts. (680 pp.) Post 8vo. js. 6d. THE STUDENT'S MANUAL OF ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. A Histrry of the Christian Church from the Times of the Apostles to the Reformation. By PHILIP SMITH, B.A. 2 vols. Post 8vo. 7*. 6rf. each. PART I. A.D. 301003. (654 pp.) With Woodcuts. PART II. A.D. 1003 1614. (744 pp.) With Woodcuts. THE STUDENT'S MANUAL OF ENGLISH CHURCH HISTORY. By G. G. PERRY, M.A., Canon of Lincoln. 2 Vols. tst Period. From the Planting of the Church in Britain to the Accession of Henry VIII. A.D. 596 1509. (576 pp.) Post 8vo. js.6d. ind Period. From the ACCESSION OF HENRY VIII. to the Silencing of Convocation in the EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. (A.D. 1509 1717-) (635 PP-) Post 8vo. 7*. 6d. THE STUDENT'S MANUAL OF THE EVIDENCES OF CHRISTIANITY. By the Rev. H. WACE, D.D. Post 8vo. [/ Preparation. Ancient History. THE STUDENT'S ANCIENT HISTORY OF THE EAST. From the Earliest Times to the Conquests of Alexander the Great, including Egypt, Assyria, Babylonia, Media, Persia. Asia Minor, and Phoenicia. By PHILIP SMITH, B.A. With 70 Wood- cuts. (608 pp.) Post 8vo. ^i. 6d. THE STUDENT'S HISTORY OF GREECE. FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE ROMAN CONQI-EST. With Chapters on the History of Literature and Art. By WM. SMITH, D.C.L. With Coloured Maps and Woodcuts. (640 pp.) Post 8vo. ^s. dd. ** Questions on the "Student's Greece," unto. as. THE STUDENT'S HISTORY OF ROME. FROM THE EAKI.IHST TIMES TO THB ESTABLISHMENT OF THE EMPIRE. With Chapters on the History of Literature and Art. By DEAN LIDDELL. With Coloured Map and Woodcuts. (686 pp.) Post 8vo. js. 6rf. THE STUDENT'S HISTORY OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE. FKOM THE ESTAHLISHMENT OF THE EMPIRE TO THE ACCESSION OF COMMODIJS, A.D. 180. Post 8vo. [/ Preparation, THE STUDENT'S GIBBON : AN EPITOME OF THE HISTORY OF THE DECLINE AND FALL OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE. By EDWARD GIBBON. Incorporating the Researches of Recent Historian*. With 100 Woodcuts. (700 pp.) Post 8ve. 7*. & MR. MUKRA YS LIST OF SCHOOL BOOKS. 3 Europe. THE STUDENT'S HISTORY OF EUROPE DURING THE MIDDLE AGES. By HENRY HALLAM, LL D. (650 pp.) Post Svo. -JS. dd. THE STUDENT'S HISTORY OF MODERN EUROPE. FROM THE END OF THE MIDDLE AGBS TO THE TREATY OF BERLIN, 1878. Post 8vo. [/ Preparation. France. THE STUDENT'S HISTORY OF FRANCE. FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE FALL OF THE SECOND EMPIRE. With Notes and Illustrations on the Institutions of the Country. By W. H. JERVIS, M.A. With 4 Coloured Maps, and Woodcuts. (760 pp.; Post 8vo. 7*. 6c. Geography and Geology. THE STUDENT'S MANUAL OF ANCIENT GEO- GRAPHY. By CANON BEVAN, M.A. With 150 Woodcuts. (710 pp.) Post 8vo. 7*. (xt. THE STUDENT'S MANUAL OF MODERN GEO- GRAPHY, MATHEMATICAL, PHYSICAL, AND DESCRIPTIVE. By CANON BEVAN M.A., With 120 Woodcuts. (684 pp.) PostSvo. 7 s. 6et. THE STUDENT'S GEOGRAPHY OF BRITISH INDIA. POLITICAL AND PHYSICAL. By GEORGE SMITH, LL.D. With Maps. Post 8vo. 7*. 6d. THE STUDENT'S ELEMENTS OF GEOLOGY. By SIR CHARLES LYELL, F.R.S. A New Edition, thoroughly revised by PROFESSOR P. MARTIN DUNCAN. With 600 Wood- cuts. Post 8vo. of. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. By MARY SOMERVILLE. 7th Edition, corrected and revised. Post Svo. 9*. Law and Philosophy. THE STUDENT'S MANUAL OF MORAL PHILOSO- PHY. With Quotations and References. By WILLIAM FLEM- ING, D.D. (440 pp.) PostSvo. 7*. 6d. THE STUDENT'S EDITION OF AUSTIN'S JURIS- PRUDENCE. Compiled from the larger work. By ROBERT CAMPBELL. (544 pp.) PostSvo. 121. AN ANALYSIS OF AUSTIN'S LECTURES ON JURISPRUDENCE. By GORDON CAMPBELL. (214 pp.) Post Svo. may meet with in prose or poetry, and to appreciate ii; i works of art. A carefully prepared set of QUKSTIOMS is appended, the answers to which will be louii'l in the corresponding pa^es of the volume. MR. MURRAY'S LIST OF SCHOOL BOOKS. 5 A SMALLER MANUAL OF ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. By CANON BEVAN, M.A. (240 pp.) With Woodcuts. i6mo. y.fxi "This work has been drawn up chiefly for the lower forms in schools, at the request of several teachers who require for their pupils a more elemen- tary work than the 'Student's Manual of Ancient Geography.' The arrange- ment of the two works is substantially the same. The more important towns alone are mentioned ; the historical notices are curtailed ; modern names are introduced only in special cases, either for the purpose of identifi- cation or where any noticeable change has occurred ; and the quotations from classical works are confined for the most part to such expressions as are illustrative of local peculiarities. A very ample Index is supplied, so that the work may supply the place of a dictionary for occasional reference," A SMALLER MANUAL OF MODERN GEOGRAPHY. By JOHN RICHARDSON, M.A, i6rao. (290 pp.) vs. &.'. "Great pains appear to have been spent on the verification of facts, and the arrangement is a model of good method. Throughout the book there are unmistakable indications of solid, conscientious work, sound judgment, and practical acquaintance with teaching." School Guardian. This "Smaller Manual" has been compiled for pupils who are acquiring for the first time the chief facts of General Geography, and no pains have been spared to render the learner's task as easy and as pleasant as the nature of the subject admits of. Accuracy as to details has been striven after, in order that the young student may have a solid and safe foundation Cor his future studies in the advanced branches of the Sciences. A SMALLER HISTORY OF ENGLAND. FROM TUB EARLIEST TIMES TO THE YEAR 1880. By PHILIP SMITH, B.A. With Coloured Maps and 68 Woodcuts. (400 pp.) 161110. y. (*i. " The most recent authorities have been consulted, and it is confidently believed that the Work will be found to present a careful and trustworthy account of English History for the lower forms in schools, for whose use it is chiefly intended." Prefcut. " This little volume is so pregnant with valuable information, that it will enable anyone who reads it attentively to answer such questions as arc set forth in the English History Papers in the Indian Civil Service Examina- tions." Rtadtr. A SMALLER HISTORY OF ENGLISH LITERATURE: Giving a Sketch of the Lives of our Chief Writers. By JAMES ROWLEY. (276 pp.) i6mo. 3*. &/. The important position which the study of English literature is now taking in education has led to the publication of this work, and of the accompanying volume of specimens. Both books have been undertaken at the request of many eminent teachers, and no pains have been spared to adapt them to the purpose for which they arc designed as elementary works to be used in schools. SHORT SPECIMENS OF ENGLISH LITERATURE. Selected from the chief authors and arranged chronologically. By JAMES ROWLEY. With Notes. (368 pp.) xfimo. y. dd. While the " Smaller History of English Literature " supplies a rapid but trustworthy sketch of the lives of our chief writers, and of the successive influences which imparted to their writings their peculiar' charactei , the present work supplies choice examples ot the works themselves, accom- panied by all the explanations required for their perfect explanation. The two works are thus especially designed to be used together. 6 MR. MURRA YS LIST OF SCHOOL BOOKS. Dr. Wm. Smith's Biblical Dictionaries. A DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE : COMPRISING ITS ANTIQUITIES. BIOGRAPHY, GEOGRAPHY, AND NATURAL HISTORY. By Various Writers. Edited by WM. SMITH, D.C.L. and LL.D. With Illustrations. 3 vols. (3158 pp.) Medium 8vo. 5 ss, " The most complete, learned, and trustworthy work of the kind hithert prod uced. "A thenaum. A CONCISE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE. Con- densed from the larger Work. For Families and Students. With Maps and 300 Illustrations. (1039 pp.) 8vo. 2 if. A Dictionary of the Bib!e. in some form or another, is indispensable for every family. To students in the Universities, and in the I'ppcr Forms at Schools, to private families, and to that numerous class of persons who desire to arrive at results s mply, this CONCISE DICTIONARY will, it is !> licved, supply all that is necessury for the elucidation and explanation of the bible. A SMALLER DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE. Abridged from the larger Work. For Schools and Young Persons. With Maps and Illustrations. (620 pp.) Crown 8vo. 7$. d. " An invaluable service has been rendered to students in the condensation of Dr. Win Smith's Bible Dictionary. The work has been done as onlv careful and intelligent scholar could do it. which preserves to us the essential scholarship and value of each article." British Quarterly Kevieui. The two following Works are intended to furnish a complete account of the leading personages, the Institutions, Art, Serial Life, Writings, and Controi'crsies of the Christian Church from the time of the Apostles to the Age of Charlemagne. They commence at the period at -which the "Dictionary of the Bible " /eaves off t and form a continuation of it. A DICTIONARY OF CHRISTIAN ANTIQUITIES. The History, Institutions, and Antiquities of the Christian Church. Edited by WM. SMITH, D.C.L., and ARCHDEACON CHEE'JTIAM, D.D. With Illustrations. 2 vols. Medium &vo. 2 '3*- 6rf- " The work before us is unusually well done. A more acceptable present for a candidate for holy orders, or a nrore valuable book for any library, than the 'Dictionary of Christian Antiquities' could not easily be found." Saturday Review. A DICTIONARY OF CHRISTIAN BIOGRAPHY, LITERATURE, SECTS, AND DOCTRINES. Edited by WM. SMITH, D.C.L., and HENRY WAGE, D.D. Vols. I , II., and III. Medium 8vo. 31*. 6ed, b'e found suitable for schools in which children of various denominations are taught. "This Primary History admirably fulfils the design of the work. Its style is good, its matter is well arranged, and the pupil must be very stupid who fails to gather from its lively pages an intelligent account of the history of our united nation. It cannot fail to be a standard book." John Bull. A SCHOOL MANUAL OF MODERN GEOGRAPHY, PHYSICAL AND POLITICAL. By JOHN RICHARDSON, M.A. (400 pp.) Post 8vo. 5*. This work has been drawn up for Middle Forms in Public Schools, Ladies' Colleges, Training Colleges, Assistant and Pupil Teachers, Middle Class and Commercial Schools, and Civil Service Examinations. "It fully sustains the high reputation of Mr. Murray's series of school manuals, and we venture to predict for it a wide popularity. Bearing in mind its high character, it is a model of cheapness." School Guardian. A SMALLER MANUAL OF MODERN GEOGRAPHY. FOR SCHOOLS AND YOUNG PERSONS. By JOHN RICHARDSON, M.A. (290 pp.) i6mo. 2*. dd. " Great pains appear to haye been spent on the verification of facts, and the arrangement is a model of good method. Throughout the book there are unmistakable indications of solid, conscientious work, sound judgment, and practical acquaintance with teaching." School Guardian, 14 MR. MURRA TS LIST OF SCHOOL BOOKS. Eton College Books. THE ETON LATIN GRAMMAR. PART I. ELE- MENTARY. For Use in the Lower Forms. Compiled with the sanction of the Headmaster. By A. C. AINGER, M.A., and H. G. WJNTLE, M. A., Assistant Masters at Eton College. Post 8vo. Also, ly tJte same Editors, A FIRST LATIN EXERCISE BOOK. Adapted to the Eton Latin Grammar. THE ETON FOURTH FORM OVID. Ecing Easy Passages selected from the ELEGIAC POEMS of OVID and TIBVI.LUS. With Explanatory Notes. By H. G. WINTLE, M.A., Assistant- Master at Eton College. Third Edition, post 8vo. at. bd. Standard School Books. A CHILD'S FIRST LATIN BOOK. COMPRISING NOUNS, PRONOUNS, AND ADJECTIVES, WITH THE ACTIVE VERBS. \Vith ample and varied Practice of the easiest kind. Both old and new order of Cases given. By THEOPHILUS D. HALL, M.A. (124 pp.) New and Enlarged Edition. i6mo. 21. The speciality of this book lies in its presenting a great variety of t'/txi voce work for class-room practice, designed to render the young beginner thoroughly familiar with the use ofthe Grammatical forms. " This work answers thoroughly to its title. The explanations arc very clear and very full, indeed AN INEXPERIENCED TEACHtR WILL FIND HERE A METHOD SUPERIOR TO ANYTHING OF THE KIND WE HAVE SEEN." Watchman. KING EDWARD VI.'s LATIN GRAMMAR; or, An Introduction to the Latin Tongue. (32^ pp.) izmo. 35. 6V/. KING EDWARD VI.'S FIRST LATIN BOOK. ACCIDENCE, SYNTAX and PROSODY. (220 pp.) 121110. as. fxf. OXENHAM'S ENGLISH NOTES FOR LATIN F.LEGIACS, designed for early proficients in the art of Latin Versification. (156 pp.) izmo. 3*. & HUTTON'S PRINCIPIA GR^ECA. AN INTRO- DUCTION TO THE STUDY OF GREEK. A Grammar, Delectus and Exercise Book, with Vocabularies. (154 pp.) I2mo. 35. 6rf. A PRACTICAL AND CONVERSATIONAL DIC- TIONARY OF THE ENGLISH, FRENCH, AND GERMAN LANGUAGES, containing numerous colloquial phrases and idioms. By G. F. CHAMBERS. (73PP-) > 6m o. 6s. LEATHES' HEBREW GRAMMAR. With the Hebrew Text of Genesis i. vi., anil Psalms L vi. Grammatical Analysis and Vocabulary. (252 pp.) Post 8vo. 7*. 6d. MR. MURRATS LIST OF SCHOOL BOOKS. 15 Natural Philosophy and Science. THE FIRST BOOK OF NATURAL PHILOSOPHY; an Introduction to the Study of Statics, Dynamics, Hydrostatics, Light, Heat, and Sound, with numerous Examples. By SAMUEL NEWTH, M.A., D.D., Fellow of University College, London. (200 pp.) Small 8 vo. y. 6tt. ** This work embraces all the subjects in Natural Philosophy re- quired at the Matriculation Examination of the University of London. ELEMENTS OF MECHANICS, INCLUDING HYDRO- STATICS. With numerous Examples. By SAMUEL NEWTH, M.A., D.D., Principal of New College, London, and Fellow of University College, London. (3<5app.) Crown 8vo. 8*. 6d. This Edition (the Sixth) has been carefully revised throughout, and with especial reference to changes recently made in the Regulations of the University of London. MATHEMATICAL EXAMPLES. A Graduated Series of Elementary Examples in Arithmetic, Algebra, Logarithms, Trigono- metry, and Mechanics. (378 pp.) Small 8vo. 6s. 6d. THE STUDENT'S ELEMENTS OF GEOLOGY. By SIR CHARLES LYELL. A New Edition, thoroughly revised, by Professor P. MARTIN DUNCAN. With 600 Woodcuts. Post 8vo. 9*. " The work before us may be regarded as an almost perfect introduction to the sciences of geology and paleontology. Sir Charles Lyell has admir- ably abridged some portions of his larger work, and has adverted briefly to some ol the more important recent discoveries. He has entirely succeeded in his attempt to unite brevity with the copiousness of illustration, which is almost a necessity in a volume intended for beginners." Examiner. THE CONNECTION OF THE PHYSICAL SCIENCES. By MARY SOMERVILLE. Revised by A. B. Buckley. Portrait and Woodcuts. (468 pp.) Post 8vo. of. " Mrs. Somerville's delightful volume. The style of this astonishing pro- duction is so clear and unaffected, and conveys, with so much simplicity, so great a mass of profound knowledge, that it should be placed in the hands of every youth, the moment he has mastered the general rudiments of education." Quarterly Rcrino. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY, By MARY SOMERVILLE. Revised by John Richardson, M.A. Portrait. (548 pp.) Post 8vo. 9*. " Mrs. Somerville's ' Physical Geography' is the work she is most gene- rally known by, and notwithstanding the numerous works on the same sub- ject that have since appeared, it still holds its place as a first authority. "_ ' 16 MR. MURRAY'S LIST OF SCHOOL BOOKS. A Mrs. Markham's Histories. " Mrs. Markham's Histories are constructed on a plan which IB novel and w think, well chosfn. and we are glad to find thit they are deservedly popular, for they cannot be too strongly recommended." JOURNAL OF EDUCATION. HISTORY OF ENGLAND, FROM THE FIRST INVASION BY THE ROMANS. New and revised edition. Continued down to 1880. With Conversations at the end of each Chapter. With 100 Woodcuts. (528 pp.) 121110. y. fid. " Mrs. Markham's ' History of England ' is the best history for the young that ever appeared, and is far superior to many works of much higher pre- tensions. It is well written, well informed, and marked by sound judgment and good sense, and is moreover extremely interesting. I know of no history used in any of our public schools ;it all comparable to it." QQ in A'I>/,-I and Queries. HISTORY OF FRANCE, FROM THE CONQUEST OF GAUL BY JULIUS CAESAR. New and revised edition. Continued down to 1878; With Conversations at the end of each Chapter. With 70 Woodcuts. (550 pp.) 121110. y. dd. " Mrs. Markham's Histories are well known to all those engaged in the instruction of youth. They are deservedly very popular; and we have been given to understand, in proof of this assertion, that of her Histories many thousand copies have been sold. ' Bel ft Messenger. HISTORY OF GERMANY, FROM ITS INVASION HY MAKIUS. New and revised edition. Continued down to 1880. With 50 Woodcuts. (460 pp.) izmo. y. dd. " A very valuable compendium of all that is most important in German History. The facts have been accurately and laboriously collected Iroin authentic sources, and they are lucidly arranged so as to invest them with the interest which naturally pertains to them. Evangelical .Magazine. LITTLE ARTHUR'S HISTORY OF ENGLAND. By LADY CALLCOTT. New and revised editinn. Continued down to 1878. 48o// thousand. With 36 Woodcuts. i6mo. ir. 6d. "I never met with a history so well adapted to the capacities of children or their entertainment, so philosophical, and written with such simplicity." Mrs. MARCETT. LITTLE ARTHUR'S HISTORY OF FRANCE. FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE FALL OF THE SECOND EMPIRE. With Map and Illustrations. i6ino. 2S. dd. "The jaded schoolboy, surfeited with talcs and the 'over-pressure' arising from long attention to lives and adventures, will, towards the latter part of his holiday, turn with some relief to this book, and begin l'c..-1-.t :.g afresh. Those who know what ' Little Arthur's England ' did to pontilmice the subject among little folks, will know what to expect in this ' France. The book is capitally illustrated, and very wisely the compiler does not reject the exciting and legendary parts of the subject." Schoolmaster. AESOP'S FABLES. A NEW VERSION. Chiefly from the Original Sources. By REV. THOMAS JAMES. With 100 Wood- cuts. (i68pp.) Post 8vo. zs. (xt. " Of A'-SOP'S FADI.ES there ought to be in every school many copies, full of pictures." Fraser's Magazine. THE BIBLE IN THE HOLY LAND. By DrAN STANLEY. With Woodcuts. (210 pp.) i6mo. as. M. JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET. Bradbury, Ague*, Sc Co.] [Printer*. WhitefrUn. I