re 
 
 467 
 
 ATER- POWER 
 
 IN 
 
 THE BRITISH EMPIRE 
 
 SIR DUGALD CLERK, K.B.E., F.R.S. 
 IBSON, D.SC., M.INST.CE. 
 
 N STABLE 
 LONDON 
 

WATER-POWER IN THE 
 BRITISH EMPIRE 
 
WATER - 
 
 IN 
 
 THE BRITISH EMPIRE 
 
 THE REPORTS OF THE WATER-POWER 
 
 COMMITTEE OF THE CONJOINT BOARD 
 
 OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES 
 
 SIR DUGALD CLERK, K.B.E., F.R.S. (CHAIRMAN) 
 PROF. A. H. GIBSON, D.Sc., M.lNsr.C.E. (SECRETARY) 
 
 CONSTABLE fcj COMPANY LTD. 
 
 LONDON BOMBAY SYDNEY 
 
 1922 
 
FEINTED IN GREAT BRITAIN 
 
PREFACE 
 
 IN the first census of production for the year 1907, the total 
 power of industrial engines in use in Great Britain and Ireland 
 is given as 10,578,475 h.p., and the steam-engine power of 
 road rollers and road locomotives owned by public authorities 
 amounted to 167,192 h.p. Of the industrial engines, steam- 
 reciprocating engines were rated at 9,118,818 h.p.; steam 
 turbines, 530,892; internal-combustion engines, gas, oil, etc. 
 680,177; and water-power, 177,907 h.p. The persons em- 
 ployed in the factories using this large power numbered 
 nearly 10J millions ; so that, roughly, the power available for 
 the industries of Britain was nearly 1 h.p. per person em- 
 ployed. To support the 46 millions of people now living in 
 the United Kingdom thus requires a continuous enormous 
 expenditure of power, and a very large consumption of fuel. 
 
 The present position of the coal question is supposed by 
 some to be very temporary, and it is hoped that shortly we 
 may resume our former fortunate state when coal was plentiful 
 and motive power and heating very economical from the 
 money viewpoint. 
 
 The coal position of the world, however, must deteriorate 
 from decade to decade, and it might be of advantage to 
 consider our position in a coalless and oilless world. The 
 position of Great Britain and the Empire is, however, suffi- 
 cient for us. The combined report of the Water-Power 
 Committee of the Conjoint Board of Scientific Societies con- 
 siders Great Britain and the Empire in relation to the main 
 alternative to fuel that is, water-power. 
 
 The world may be considered as a huge solar engine, in 
 which the waters of the seas are evaporated by the heat 
 
 v 
 
 .^ 9 , i O *7 : 
 
vi PREFACE 
 
 absorbed, and much of the vapour carried to high levels, at 
 which it is deposited as water, and flows down to the sea. 
 By this process we get a complete cycle of operations, includ- 
 ing evaporation of water into steam, condensation of the 
 steam into water, evaporation again, and so on. In falling 
 from the high level to the low level of the sea, power can be 
 obtained from this water. Hydraulic power, in fact, is a 
 form of sun power, and will continue in existence long after all 
 the coal and oil in the world have been exhausted. Coal and 
 oil have also been produced by the action of the great solar 
 engine, and they contain a portion of the energy of radiation 
 of past ages, stored up in the growing wood and leaves of plants, 
 accumulations which are now being rapidly drawn upon by 
 mankind. Coal and oil are thus the result of past radiant 
 energy, while wind and water power are due to present radiant 
 energy. In one case the store in the earth is being used up 
 and cannot be replaced ; in the other case, so long as the solar 
 system lasts, power exists also. 
 
 Undoubtedly, as time goes on, hydraulic power must 
 become of increasing importance. We must look to water- 
 power as a substitute for coal-power in its many forms of 
 reciprocating steam engines, steam turbines, and coal gas, 
 blast-furnace gas and producer-gas engines, in an increasing 
 measure as coal becomes scarcer and therefore more expensive. 
 
 It is obviously of importance for us to consider the posi- 
 tion of hydraulic power in this country and throughout the 
 Empire. With this object a Committee was formed in 
 November, 1917, by the Conjoint Board of Scientific Societies 
 to collect data and report as to the position of the British 
 Empire. This Committee was followed by a Board of Trade 
 Committee on the water-power of the United Kingdom. 
 
 Both Committees have now reported, and, accordingly, 
 as Chairman of the British Empire Water-power Committee 
 and a member of the Board of Trade Water-Power Resources 
 
PREFACE vii 
 
 Committee of the United Kingdom, I am now able to give 
 an outline of the present position. 
 
 Taking the United Kingdom first, there appears to be a 
 total of 1,350,000 h.p. available continuously throughout the 
 twenty-four hours, and if any great tidal scheme be included, 
 such as that of the Severn recently widely discussed, another 
 400,000 continuous h.p. must be added, giving a total of 
 1,750,000 continuous h.p. divided as follows: 
 
 England and Wales . . . . 450,000 h.p. 24 hours. 
 
 Scotland 400,000 
 
 Ireland 500,000 
 
 Tidal schemes (Severn) . . 400,000 
 
 1,750,000 h.p. continuous. 
 
 This total could be obtained if required, but at a cost higher 
 than appears necessary at present. In Scotland, however, 
 an additional power of 183,000 h.p. continuous is immediately 
 feasible, as is shown by the expert examination of nine 
 schemes having average outputs ranging from 7,000 to 40,000 
 continuous twenty-four hours h.p. These schemes could be 
 developed at a cost appreciably less than from coal-fired stations 
 built and operated under existing conditions. In England 
 and Wales the cost of development is greater, but a large pro- 
 portion of the total is quite commercial. In Ireland the posi- 
 tion appears to be highly favourable, and it is considered that 
 the whole industrial power acquired for that country could 
 be supplied seven times over. Ireland could be run for motive 
 power and railways by hydraulic power alone, and coal and 
 other fuel consumption could be entirely dispensed with for 
 power purposes. The 10 million h.p. of heat engines could 
 not be entirely supplied by water-power, but very substantial 
 fuel savings could be made by a much extended use of water. 
 In comparing water and heat-engine power it is to be re- 
 membered that continuous water-power applied twenty-four 
 
Vlll 
 
 PREFACE 
 
 hours per day gives three times the energy of heat-engine 
 power at eight hours per day, so that if storage arrangements 
 be successfully applied, 1 million horse continuous hydraulic 
 power is equivalent to 3 million steam or other heat-engine 
 power which is available at the estimated fuel cost for eight 
 hours per day only. 
 
 Seventy-five million h.p. are used for factories and general 
 industrial and municipal activities throughout the world; a 
 rough approximation of the most probable distribution would 
 appear to be, in millions of horse-power: United Kingdom 13, 
 Continental Europe 24, United States 29, British Dominions 
 and Dependencies 6, and Asia and South America 3. 
 
 Of this 75 million industrial h.p. 15 to 16 million is at 
 present developed by water-power. This is distributed in 
 various regions as follows : 
 
 
 United 
 Kingdom. 
 
 Continental 
 Europe. 
 
 United 
 States. 
 
 Colonies. 
 
 Millions of h.p 
 
 0-08 
 
 6-5 
 
 7-0 
 
 2-0 
 
 Percentage of total in- 
 
 0-6 
 
 27-0 
 
 24-0 
 
 33-0 
 
 dustrial h.p. 
 
 
 
 
 
 It is interesting to note the small proportion of our total 
 motive power which was developed from our water-power 
 resources a few years back The position is now improved 
 and the use of water-power is increasing with us. It is 
 striking, however, to find that Continental Europe uses water 
 for 27 per cent, of her total motive power, and the United 
 States 24 per cent., while the United Kingdom only used 
 0'6 per cent. Our Colonies, however, use water at present for 
 33 per cent, of their total industrial power. Canada has been 
 most active and successful in utilising her hydraulic power, 
 and the hydro-electric practice of the Canadian engineers pro- 
 vides valuable information for the United Kingdom and the 
 other parts of the British Empire. 
 
PREFACE ix 
 
 In view of the very large water-power resources of the 
 United States and the relatively large hydraulic powers possible 
 in Austria, Hungary, France, Norway, Spain, Sweden, and 
 Italy, amounting approximately to 59 million h.p., the 
 small British total appears insignificant. The case is very 
 different when we consider the British Empire. Canada has 
 nearly 27 million hydraulic h.p. available, and when India, 
 New Guinea, and New Zealand are added we attain a 
 potential power of the order of 40 millions. When we add to 
 this the water resources of East, South, and Central Africa, 
 Egypt, Ceylon, Tasmania, Australia, British Guiana, Burma, 
 the Malay States, and our own Islands, the aggregate hydraulic 
 power of the Empire approaches 70 million continuous h.p 
 a truly remarkable power to be used in the present to a 
 small extent and in the future to a very large extent as coal 
 resources become reduced. This huge source of power has 
 been neglected by us in the past for many reasons, principally 
 because we were fortunate in Great Britain in possessing abund- 
 ance of coal easily raised to the surface and adjoining large 
 iron-ore deposits. 
 
 One of our pressing duties as engineers consists in devoting 
 ourselves to the most serious consideration of applying all 
 possible water-power to supplement the work of coal, and so 
 reduce consumption or increase the utility of our most impor- 
 tant asset. 
 
 Suggestions are made in the combined report of the Con- 
 joint Board as to co-operation throughout the Empire to 
 utilise the great stores of water-power which we possess, and 
 I would recommend all engineers to study this report, the 
 Board of Trade Committee Report, and the able British 
 Association Address given by Professor Gibson in 1921. 
 
 DUGALD CLERK. 
 
NOTE, 1 k.w. is the equivalent of 1/34 e.h.p. 
 
 1 e.h.p. is the equivalent of approximately 
 1'33 water horse-power. 
 
WATER-POWER IN tlFIE 
 BRITISH EMPIRE 
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 THE Water-Power Committee of the Conjoint Board of 
 Scientific Societies was appointed in 1917, its terms of refer- 
 ence being " to report on what is at present being done to 
 ascertain the amount and distribution of water-power in 
 the British Empire." 
 
 With this in view, the Committee has endeavoured to collect 
 all available relevant information. It presented a first report 
 in July, 1918; a second report in March, 1919; and a third 
 and final report in January, 1921. 
 
 Considerable public interest has been evinced in these 
 various reports, and the present volume is an endeavour to 
 incorporate their salient features in a form readily available 
 to anyone interested in this subject. 
 
 In the light of more recent information, it has been found 
 necessary to modify some of the figures of the earlier reports. 
 In such cases the modified figures are now given. 
 
 In its preliminary report the Committee thought it desirable 
 to exceed somewhat its terms of reference, and, in view of the 
 great importance of the matter, to devote some little space to 
 the general question of water-power and its utilisation. 
 
 NEEDS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 To enable the Empire to recover, with any degree of rapidity, 
 from the financial burden imposed by the War, it will be neces- 
 sary to develop, in a much greater degree than heretofore, 
 its latent resources. The wealth embodied in its mineral 
 resources, its wheat areas, its forests, and the hundred pro- 
 ducts of its tropical dependencies, is almost incalculably great. 
 But it must be realised that without an ample supply of cheap 
 energy much of this wealth must always remain latent. 
 
 Energy is required to enable the mineral ores to be won and 
 refined. It is required for the adequate fertilisation of the 
 
2 WATEK-POWEK IN THE BBITISH EMPIEE 
 
 land, as well as for tbo harvesting and transportation of its 
 crops and products ; and any scheme for the extensive develop- 
 ment of tlie Empire's reocmrces as a whole must depend upon 
 the preliminary development of its energy supplies. 
 
 The available sources of energy are, for practical purposes, 
 few in number. They comprise our fossil fuels, our oil-fields 
 and oil shale deposits, and our water-powers. 
 
 In considering the relative value and importance of these 
 sources "of energy, it is to be remembered that while the solid 
 and liquid fuels are convenient to handle, can be easily and 
 cheaply transported to any convenient locality, and in many 
 cases form, at present, the most convenient and cheap source 
 of power, yet their supplies are strictly limited, and their 
 ultimate depletion is assured. Fortunately, public opinion 
 is now awakening in some degree to the necessity for their 
 conservation. Still, long before the supplies are actually 
 exhausted, increasing scarcity is bound to put up their cost 
 to a level much higher than that now obtaining. 
 
 In view of this, the utilisation, to the utmost possible degree, 
 of the water-powers of the Empire becomes of paramount 
 importance. Excepting the comparatively small and in- 
 convenient supply of energy obtainable from vegetable growth, 
 either by direct combustion or through the medium of alcohol, 
 these at present provide our only practical perennial source 
 of energy. 
 
 The economic development of many of our tropical depen- 
 dencies, whose latent wealth is practically untapped, is 
 directly interconnected with the development of their water- 
 power resources. Not only would an abundant supply of 
 cheap power enable railroads to be operated, irrigation schemes 
 to be developed, and mineral deposits to be tapped and 
 worked, but it would go far to solve the labour problem, which 
 promises to be one of some difficulty in the near future. 
 
 THE WORLD'S PRESENT POWER DEMAND. 
 
 It is impossible to estimate with any pretensions to accuracy 
 the power now being used in the various countries of the world. 
 
 Independent estimates,* based on such data as are avail- 
 
 * " The World's Supplies of Fuel and Motive Power." Hawksley 
 Lecture. Inst. Mech. Engineers, 1915. Sir Dugald Clerk. 
 
 "Natural Sources of Energy." A. H. Gibson. Cambridge 
 University Press, 1914. 
 
WATER-POWEK IN THE BRITISH EMPIRE 3 
 
 able, tend, however, to show that it is of the order of 120 
 million h.p. made up approximately as follows : 
 
 World's factories, including electric 
 
 lighting and street railways . . 75 million h.p. 
 
 World's railways . . . . . . 21 
 
 World's shipping 24 
 
 Total .. 120 
 
 This includes all steam, gas, and water power. 
 
 Of the 75 million h.p. used for factories and general indus- 
 trial and municipal activities, a rough approximation of the 
 most probable distribution would appear to be 
 
 
 United 
 Kingdom. 
 
 Continental 
 Europe. 
 
 United 
 States. 
 
 British 
 Dominions 
 and 
 Dependencies. 
 
 Asia and 
 South 
 America. 
 
 Millions of h.p. 1 13 
 
 24 ! 29 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 A recent estimate outlines the hydraulic situation of the 
 various countries as follows : 
 
 
 1 
 
 1114 
 
 <! 
 
 a 
 
 it 
 
 tX} I*. s& 
 
 JH p "^ 
 
 iii 
 
 Country. 
 
 1^ 
 
 4f^J jj^4 
 
 Q 
 
 ^i 
 
 
 O;2 
 
 st*^ 
 
 ^*o" 
 
 
 ^g 
 
 <ff*J 
 
 *4 
 
 ] 
 
 is 
 
 SI* 
 
 !* 
 
 United States 
 
 3,026,600^ 
 
 92,019,900 
 
 28,100,000 
 
 7,500,000 
 
 26-7 
 
 9-3 
 
 .2-48 
 
 Canada 
 
 2,000,000 
 
 8,033,500 
 
 22,900,000 
 
 3,385,000 
 
 14-8 
 
 11-45 
 
 1-69 
 
 Austria- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (0 
 
 Hungary 
 
 241,330 
 
 49,418,600 
 
 6,460,000 
 
 570,000 
 
 8-8 
 
 26-8^ 
 
 ^2-37 
 
 France 
 
 207,100 
 
 39,601,500 
 
 5,587,000 
 
 1,500,000 
 
 26-9 
 
 27-0 
 
 7-24 
 
 Norway 
 
 124,130 
 
 2,302,700 
 
 6,500,000 
 
 1,250,000 
 
 19-2 
 
 52-9 
 
 10-1 
 
 Spain 
 
 194,700 
 
 18,618,100 
 
 5,000,000 
 
 540,000 
 
 10-8 
 
 25-7 
 
 2-77 
 
 Sweden 
 
 172,900 
 
 5,521,900 
 
 5,500,000 
 
 1,100,000 
 
 20-0 
 
 31-8 
 
 6-36 
 
 Italy 
 
 91,280 
 
 28,601,600 
 
 4,000,000 
 
 1,250,000 
 
 31-3 
 
 43-8 
 
 13-7 
 
 Switzerland 
 
 15,976 
 
 3,742,000 
 
 3,000,000 
 
 650,000 
 
 21-7 
 
 188-5 
 
 40-7 
 
 Germany 
 
 208,800 
 
 64,903,400 
 
 1,425,000 
 
 750,100 
 
 52-5 
 
 6-8 
 
 3-59 
 
 Great Britain 
 
 88,980 
 
 40,831,400 
 
 900,000 
 
 200,OOOJ 22-2 
 
 10-2 
 
 2-25 
 
 Excluding Alaska (area about half a million square miles). 
 
4 WATER-POWER IN THE BRITISH EMPIRE 
 
 Canada. 2,000,000 square miles is taken as the area treated 
 in the Conservation Commission's estimate of available water- 
 power, and the area which we may expect to see fairly thickly 
 settled during the next few decades. The area of the whole 
 Dominion is 3,729,750 square miles. 
 
 These developed powers include schemes in course of con- 
 struction, and refer to the ultimate installed turbine capacity. 
 
 THE EMPIRE'S WATER-POWER POSSIBILITIES. 
 
 The question as to the amount of potential water-power 
 in the Dominions and Dependencies of the Empire is dealt 
 with in more detail in the following pages/* So great is the 
 lack of reliable data, however, in references all but one or two 
 of the Colonies, that any estimate of the total power must be 
 looked upon as highly speculative. The main powers are to 
 be looked for in Canada, India, New Guinea, and New Zealand, 
 and it is fairly certain that in these countries alone there is a 
 potential water horse-power of the order of 40 millions. When 
 to this are added the resources of East, South, and Central 
 Africa, Egypt, Ceylon, Tasmania, Australia, British Guiana, 
 Burma, the Malay States, and our own Islands, it appears 
 that in the aggregate the hydraulic resources of the Empire 
 are extremely large, and that they are as yet barely tapped. 
 
 Reason for Neglect in the Past. There have been many good 
 reasons for their comparative neglect in the past. The general 
 abundance of coal in proximity to centres of industry; the 
 necessity for a heavy initial outlay to bring most of the larger 
 powers into bearing ; the lack of co-ordination between possible 
 producers, users, and financiers of power ; the lack of markets 
 for the energy which would be made available ; and the remote- 
 ness of most of the powers from present centres of activity, 
 have all contributed. Moreover, the highly efficient combina- 
 tion of the hydraulic turbine and the electric generator, 
 capable of handling large powers, is of comparatively recent 
 development. 
 
 Recent Development. The developments in engineering 
 science in the past decade, and more particularly the develop- 
 ments in electro-chemical, electro-physical, and electro- 
 
 * Wherever hereafter in this report the term " horse-power" is used, 
 it is to be taken as meaning continuous twenty-four-hour power unless 
 otherwise stated. 
 
WATER-POWER IN THE BRITISH EMPIRE 5 
 
 metallurgical processes, and in the possibility of high-voltage 
 electrical transmission, have removed some of these reasons. 
 Transmission lines exceeding 200 miles in length are in exist- 
 ence to-day, and only financial considerations now set a limit 
 to their possible length. Any distance is feasible electrically 
 and mechanically. 
 
 Electro-metallurgy and electro-chemistry have rendered it 
 possible to handle materials not workable by any other means, 
 have made available new materials, and have greatly cheap- 
 ened the production of many important materials of wide use. 
 Aluminium, calcium carbide, chromium, cyanide, silicon, 
 carborundum are products rendered commercially possible 
 only by electrical processes, while alkalies, hypochlorite, phos- 
 phorus, magnesium, and sodium nitrate are produced most 
 economically by such processes. Great developments have 
 recently taken place in the production of electrolytic copper 
 and zinc and in processes of the electric smelting and refining 
 of metallic ores. 
 
 All these processes demand relatively large amounts of 
 energy. The world's production of calcium carbide, for 
 example, was 340,000 tons in 1913, requiring 400,000 con- 
 tinuous e.h.p. for its production, while the energy used at the 
 end of 1915 for electric furnaces in the United States alone 
 was approximately 300,000 e.h.p. 
 
 In the utilisation of atmospheric nitrogen for the production 
 of nitric acid and the manufacture of nitrates, great develop- 
 ments have taken place during the last decade, and in Norway 
 alone over 400,000 e.h.p. is now absorbed in its production. 
 The world's annual consumption of nitrogen in its various 
 combinations is about 750,000 tons, representing a value of 
 about 50,000,000, and this demand is increasing yearly. 
 Four-fifths of this supply has been produced hitherto from 
 natural nitrate deposits, but in view of the rapid depletion 
 of these deposits, and of the diminution in the fertility of most 
 of the great wheat and cotton growing areas of the world, 
 the production of artificial fertilisers by one or other system 
 of nitrogen fixation must, in the near future, become a question 
 of national importance. 
 
 At the present time the world's consumption of fertilisers 
 amounts to close upon 6,000,000 tons per annum, and this 
 will probably be doubled within the next twenty years. 
 
6 WATER-POWER IN THE BRITISH EMPIRE 
 
 To-day the efficiency of the electrical production is low, 
 amounting in the case of calcium nitrate to about three- 
 quarters of a ton per e.h.p. year. By adopting the cyanamide 
 process the consumption of energy may be cut down to about 
 one-fourth, but even in this case the production of the equi- 
 valent of 12,000,000 tons of fertilisers per annum would require 
 4,000,000 continuous e.h.p. 
 
 It is estimated that the 200,000,000 acres of arable land in 
 Canada alone may ultimately require some 10,000,000 tons 
 of nitrates per annum to maintain their fertility, and this in 
 itself would necessitate the absorption of an appreciable 
 portion of the whole hydraulic energy of the Dominion. 
 
 When to these demands are added those of India, Australia, 
 and Africa, it is evident that the fertiliser demand of the 
 Empire will in itself call for an enormous supply of energy. 
 
 Apart from these requirements, which are admittedly for 
 the future, electric power has a wide and practically unlimited 
 field as a motive power conveniently and economically adapt- 
 able to any class of service. In the heating and welding of 
 metals as a part of the process of manufacture, electricity, by 
 its control, speed, and concentration of distribution, has many 
 advantages over coal or gas. 
 
 Great developments in the electrification of trunk lines 
 have taken place during recent years. In the United States, 
 440 miles of the Chicago, Milwaukee, and St. Paul Railway, 
 comprising 590 miles of single track, have already been electri- 
 fied, while contracts for the electrification of other sections of 
 the line have been let. On the completion of this work the 
 total length of electrified track on the system will be about 
 860 miles. Electric power for operation is obtained from 
 hydro-electric stations. 
 
 In France much of the line of the Compagme du Midi in the 
 region of the Pyrenees has already been electrified with the aid 
 of water-power, and the electrification of trunk lines in many 
 other countries is at present under consideration. It is apparent 
 that the electrification of railways will open up a very large field 
 for the utilisation of water-power where this is available. 
 
 NECESSITY*"FOR STATED CONTROL. 
 
 The considerations already outlined would indicate that the 
 conservation and utilisation of the water-power resources of 
 
WATER-POWER IN THE BRITISH EMPIRE 7 
 
 the Empire is likely to be one of the most important problems 
 in our political economy. 
 
 The solution of this problem involves many complex 
 questions of law, of administration, and of engineering and 
 economic investigation, if the public interest is to be best 
 served by the development. 
 
 In view of the immensity of the interests involved, it is 
 urged that nothing short of statutory control of these develop- 
 ments is desirable. The exact method of control is not for the 
 Committee to suggest. So far as is possible private enterprise 
 should be encouraged, but under conditions which would 
 prevent the perpetual rights being lost to the community. 
 
 In this connection it is worthy of note that Canada and New 
 Zealand have State control over the majority Txt tEeir water- 
 powers, and that in all provinces in India there are Canal 
 Acts which expressly lay down that Government is entitled 
 to use and control for public purposes the water of all rivers 
 and streams flowing in natural channels. In the case of 
 Australia, each State has enacted lengthy legislation in relation 
 to water conservation, but no special clauses appear in respect 
 of developable water-power. It is also suggestive that the 
 Administration in Washington is at present taking steps to 
 control the development of water-powers on all public lands 
 and navigable streams in the United States ; that, in spite of 
 the revolution in Russia, the Provisional Government has 
 recently appointed a Water-Power Committee, with absolute 
 control over the development of all water-power schemes in 
 the Empire exceeding 300 h.p. ; and that the Austrian Govern- 
 ment has, quite recently, introduced a Bill for the promotion 
 of hydro-electrical development, giving the State the right 
 to acquire any undertaking after the expiration of twenty- 
 five years, and at the end of any subsequent period of five 
 years. 
 
 It should be recognised, however, that while it is essential 
 that the State should have the right of ultimate purchase, 
 the period of such purchase should not be unduly short or 
 the terms too onerous. It will be remembered that such 
 legislation had the effect of severely handicapping the 
 electric power and lighting industry in the early days of its 
 development. 
 
 
 
8 WATER-POWER IN THE BRITISH EMPIRE 
 
 NECESSITY FOB PRELIMINARY INVESTIGATIONS. 
 
 In spite of the great importance of water-powers, many of 
 the potential powers in existence must of necessity prove 
 economically useless, either on account of their great distance 
 from centres of industry, the lack of transport facilities, or 
 from the fact that the storage necessary to give a continuous 
 or fairly continuous supply would be too costly. Of many 
 potential powers it can be said without further investigation 
 that for the present this is, and for a long period to come will 
 be, the case. Of others the reverse is true, and it is evident 
 that the scheme will amply repay development. But in the 
 majority of cases the extent to which a scheme is capable of 
 economic development can only be determined after a careful 
 examination of the catchment area and of the site of the pro- 
 posed works ; after a careful and prolonged investigation of the 
 rainfall and run-off: records ; and, especially in an undeveloped 
 country, after an investigation of the mineral and forestal or 
 agricultural possibilities of the surrounding region. 
 
 It has usually been understood that the usefulness of a water- 
 supply depends on the possibility of maintaining its uniformity 
 over the whole period of the year, and that the maximum 
 useful power is strictly limited by the minimum power which, 
 by the aid of any suggested storage system, will be available 
 towards the end of the longest probable period of drought. 
 
 Where the power is utilised for the supply of some industrial 
 centre this is undoubtedly true, but if the idea were to be 
 generally adopted it would cut out an enormous aggregate 
 of potential power, more particularly in tropical and semi- 
 tropical countries. The possibility of utilising flood supplies 
 for seasonal operations in connection with mining, agriculture, 
 and forestry, or for the production of nitrates in such cases, 
 would appear to be worthy of close consideration. 
 
 In any case, the possibilities of a given scheme can only be 
 determined after a prolonged hydrographical and meteoro- 
 logical investigation of the site and surroundings. To be of 
 real value such an investigation should extend over a long 
 series of years. Rainfall records, though forming the basis of 
 any such investigation, are only of partial assistance in dealing 
 with water-power questions. The actual run-of? from the catch- 
 ment area is the all-important factor, and the ratio of run- 
 
WATEK-POWER IN THE BRITISH EMPIRE 9 
 
 off! to rainfall varies with the physical characteristics of the 
 area, the vegetation, and the climate, so that rainfall gaugings 
 cannot be substituted for the more laborious and costly collec- 
 tion of continuous records of river levels, combined with 
 frequent gaugings of flow. It must be emphasised that each 
 scheme of development requires independent and extended 
 investigations to determine completely the local conditions 
 governing the flow from the area intended to be utilised. 
 
 The United States Government, which has given close 
 attention to this matter for the past thirty years, lays repeated 
 and urgent stress on this point. It states,* for instance: 
 
 "It is essential that records of stream-flow should be 
 kept, during a period of years, long enough to determine, 
 within reasonable limits, the range of flow from maximum to 
 minimum. The length of such a period manifestly varies for 
 different streams. Experience has shown that the records 
 should be kept for from five to twenty years." 
 
 The Dominion Water-Power Branch, Canada, states :f 
 
 "It is essential that the records, in order that they may 
 properly cover all possible range in stage of the rivers in- 
 vestigated, should extend over a considerable term of years. 
 On some streams this term should be from five to ten years, 
 while in other cases it should extend over a much longer 
 period, say from ten to twenty years. . . . The standpoint 
 taken by the U.S. Geological Survey is that, owing to the con- 
 stantly changing flow of streams, data of reasonable accuracy 
 showing the distribution of flow over several consecutive years 
 are of more importance than very accurate measurements 
 covering short periods of time." 
 
 It should be remembered also that these investigations 
 are of value, not only in relation to water-power, but also 
 to navigation, irrigation, reclamation, flooding, and domestic 
 use. In this connection the United States Commission of 
 Conservation! have made an estimate of the benefits that 
 would accrue in that country from improvements to water- 
 
 * Water-Supply Paper, No. 336. Washington, U.S.A. 
 
 t Water Resources, Paper No. 4. Dominion Water-Power Branch, 
 Ottawa. 
 
 J Report of the National Conservation Commission, Washington, 
 1909. Vol. i., p. 48. 
 
10 WATER-POWER IN THE BRITISH EMPIRE 
 
 ways for the purpose of navigation and from the utilisation 
 of only such water-powers as would thereby be created. 
 The report states : 
 
 " It has been roughly estimated that the inland water- 
 ways of the country could be improved in ten years at a cost 
 of 10,000,000 annually in such a manner as to improve inter- 
 State commerce, and at the same time greatly reduce the waste 
 and extend the use of the waters ; . . . and that the direct 
 benefits would comprise an 
 
 
 
 " Annual saving in transportation ,. .. 50,000,000 
 
 flood damage .. .. 30,000,000 
 
 forest fires . . . . 5,000,000 
 
 cheapened power . . 15,000,000 
 
 Annual saving in soil erosion or benefit 
 
 through increased farm production . . 100,000,000 
 
 Total .. 200,000,000 
 
 "It is estimated that the income derived from power de- 
 veloped by works for the improvement of navigation, if utilised 
 at current market rates, . . . would alone compensate the 
 entire cost of maintenance and continued development after 
 the initial expenditure of 200,000,000 as a working capital." 
 
 Much can be done to ascertain the approximate possibilities 
 of a potential scheme before deciding to incur the heavy cost 
 of a detailed survey by 
 
 (1) Installation and continuous recording of river gauges 
 on all likely channels. 
 
 (2) Installation and recording of rainfall gauges at suitable 
 places. 
 
 (3) Observation of river discharges for a series of gauge 
 readings. 
 
 If a reasonably long record of rainfall exists, the determina- 
 tion of the run-off for a few years will serve to give a relation 
 between precipitation and run-off which can be carried back 
 as far as the rainfall records go. The initiation of operations 
 (1) to (3) costs little, and no time is lost in collecting the more 
 important data. 
 
 While this is true, it should be borne in mind 
 
 (1) That to be of reliable value from a commercial point of 
 
WATER-POWER IN THE BRITISH EMPIRE 11 
 
 view the hydrometric studies must give a continuous record 
 for a number of years, and show not only the minimum low 
 water flow, but also the maximum flood conditions that have 
 to be met in designing the head works. 
 
 (2) That the investigation of suitable rivers should include 
 contour plans of the sites, profiles along the entire power reach 
 of the river, and along the banks; also studies of lakes or 
 lochs for storage, where they exist, and of the possibility of 
 interconnecting two or more such lakes to feed one large 
 project. These studies should be in sufficient detail to allow 
 of preparing preliminary plans and estimating capital and 
 operating costs, in order to demonstrate the capacity avail- 
 able and the commercial feasibility of development. 
 
 (3) That to develop the most obvious power site on a river 
 without full investigation of the whole power reach of the river 
 may not secure, and may make it impossible to secure, the 
 maximum advantageous use of the river by the development 
 of two or more sites. 
 
 (4) That to secure the maximum possible use of a river 
 the investigations should therefore be made by the Govern- 
 ment rather than by private interests. 
 
 (5) Especially is this the case where storage may be de- 
 veloped, in order that the maximum possible storage may be 
 secured, and that the water may be equitably distributed to, 
 and the cost of the works equally borne by, the various interests 
 benefited. Proper storage may greatly improve flood con- 
 ditions and enhance the value of land as well as increase the 
 power available. 
 
 (6) That without complete surveys the capacity of a river 
 cannot be accurately judged. The pondage created by the 
 dam will in many cases more than take care of the daily peak 
 load, thus increasing the power available beyond that due to 
 the minimum low water flow, and this may be still further 
 increased by storage at the head waters. The power capacity 
 of a river may sometimes be increased by such means by 100 
 or 150 per cent, or more. 
 
 DEVELOPMENT IN OTHER COUNTRIES. 
 
 The Committee would draw attention to the intense interest 
 in the development of their hydraulic powers which has been 
 in the immediate past and is at present being shown by the 
 
12 WATER-POWER IN THE BRITISH EMPIRE 
 
 majority of the European States. This has been largely due 
 to the great demand for power for the manufacture of muni- 
 tions, combined with the general world shortage of coal. In 
 the countries at war, the normal development has been acceler- 
 ated in a very large degree. Thus in France since the end of 
 1915, some 850,000 h.p. has been actually put into commission 
 or is in process of active development, and by the end of 1921 
 the country will have at least 1,600,000 h.p. under control, 
 as compared with 750,000 h.p. before the War. 
 
 In Italy concessions totalling over 250,000 h.p. are already 
 under way, while favourable consideration has been given 
 by the Government to concessions totalling another 50,000 h.p. 
 It is estimated that schemes totalling 2,000,000 h.p. will be 
 in working operation in a few years. In Sicily also large 
 projects are under active consideration. 
 
 In Russia the National Economic Council is reported to have 
 undertaken the erection of various hydro-electric stations 
 capable of supplying power sufficient for all the industrial 
 requirements of Petrograd. 
 
 In Norway, Sweden, and Switzerland large developments 
 have been in train, while in Iceland a hydro-electric scheme 
 contemplating the development of over 1,000,000 h.p. from 
 the River Fjorsaavasdraget is planned by an Icelandic Com- 
 pany. In Sweden the three State hydro-electric stations at 
 Trollhatten, Porjus, and Alfkarleby now develop about one- 
 third of the aggregate output of electric energy in the kingdom. 
 Their present output of 800 million k.w. hours per annum 
 is to be largely increased in the near future. The State also 
 owns a number of other important falls which are estimated 
 as being capable of developing between 2,000 and 3,000 million 
 k.w. hours. 
 
 In Spain great interest is at present being taken in hydro- 
 electric developments. By a Royal Decree, dated September, 
 1918, the regulations governing the granting of water-powei 
 concessions have been unified and brought up to date. Water- 
 powers exceeding 1,000 b.h.p. may now only be developed as 
 a result of such concession granted by the Provincial or 
 Imperial Governments. Various large projects are under con- 
 sideration, including one on the Douro, which is estimated to 
 be capable of giving some 350,000 h.p. 
 
 Germany. During the War many extensions of hydro- 
 
WATER-POWER IN THE BRITISH EMPIRE 13 
 
 electric schemes appear to have taken place, and many further 
 schemes are projected. In Bavaria a large project has been 
 initiated, to be financed in part by the State, in part by the 
 various towns interested, and in part by existing stations. 
 Of a capital of 10 million marks, the State subscribes 51 
 million marks, and so has a controlling interest in the scheme. 
 The towns of Munich, Nuremburg, and Augsburg each sub- 
 scribe 400,000 marks. The State is to have the option of 
 taking over the whole concern at the end of fifty years at a 
 price which represents the cost of the first installation and of 
 extensions, subject to a reduction of 1 per cent, per annum. 
 The total cost of the scheme, which is to be raised by loans, 
 is about 78 million marks. 
 
 In Wurtemburg and Saxony the State is to participate in the 
 development and administration of electricity works, while 
 Prussia also seems to be committed to the State control 
 of hydro-electric schemes. 
 
 Austria. In Austria the late Government had drafted a 
 comprehensive plan for the development of the hydro-electric 
 resources of the country, the eventual object being the electrifi- 
 cation of some of the principal railway systems. At the 
 instance of the Austrian Railways Department, some 433 falls 
 with an aggregate average yield of 1,500,000 k.w., have been 
 surveyed. Of these 17 have been secured outright, while 
 7 additional concessions are pending. The aggregate of these 
 24 schemes totals 135,000 k.w. In addition the State 
 Department has exercised its right of option in 16 cases in 
 which concessions had been granted to private concerns, 
 and in 37 other cases steps for utilising the right of option have 
 been taken. The present political unrest has, however, 
 relegated these schemes to the background for the time being, 
 Other large hydro-electric schemes have in the meantime 
 been planned, and include an installation of some 25,000 
 k.w. on the Talebor River, and one of some 120,000 k.w. on 
 the Wallsee. 
 
 It is estimated that in Russia some 20,000,000 h.p. is avail- 
 able, of which 1,000,000 h.p. is developed; in Brazil 26,000,000 
 h.p. with 320,000 h.p. developed; while over 1,000,000 h.p. 
 is now developed or in course of construction in Japan. 
 
 The Empire's position in water-power development at the 
 present time compares unfavourably with that of its com- 
 
14 WATER-POWER IN THE BRITISH EMPIRE 
 
 mercial competitors. Statistics of available and developed 
 water-supply have recently received considerable attention 
 both by Governments and private interests. The latest 
 available figures are those compiled by Mr. Arthur Surveyor, 
 of Montreal, Canada, a member of the Advisory Council for 
 Scientific and Industrial Research, and by Professor Luigi 
 Luiggi. 
 The summarised figures show the following : 
 
 
 Hydraulic 
 Horse-Power 
 Available. 
 
 Hydraulic 
 Horse-Power 
 Developed. 
 
 Per Cent, of 
 Available 
 now 
 Developed. 
 
 Europe : 
 Germany, Italy, Switzer- 
 land, Spain, Sweden, 
 Austria -Hungary, 
 France, and Norway . . 
 United States 
 British Empire 
 
 47,300,000 
 32,000,000 
 60,000,000 
 
 8,450,000 
 6,500,000 
 3,000,000 
 
 18-0 
 20-3 
 5-0 
 
 Of the total developed water-power in the British Empire, 
 about 72 per cent, is in Canada. If the foregoing table be 
 reconstituted, so as to show Canada and the United States 
 together as North America, it becomes : 
 
 
 Hydraulic 
 Horse-Power 
 Available. 
 
 Hydraulic 
 Horse-Power 
 Developed. 
 
 Per Cent, of 
 Available 
 now 
 Developed. 
 
 Europe 
 North America 
 British Empire (except 
 Canada) 
 
 47,300,000 
 50,800,000 
 
 41,200,000 
 
 8,450,000 
 8,805,000 
 
 695,000 
 
 18-0 
 17-3 
 
 1-7 
 
 Summarised in this way, the figures afford striking evidence 
 of the relative scope for development throughout the Empire. 
 
 INVESTIGATION AND DEVELOPMENT IN THE BRITISH EMPIRE. 
 
 The state of investigation and of development of the water- 
 power resources of the Empire is briefly reviewed in the follow- 
 ing pages. 
 
WATER-POWER IN THE BRITISH EMPIRE 15 
 
 Great Britain and Ireland. In 1918 a Committee was 
 appointed by the President of the Board of Trade to investi- 
 gate the water-power resources of the United Kingdom. A 
 Sub-committee of this Committee has been appointed to 
 report upon the water-powers of Ireland. The main Com- 
 mittee issued its first interim report in 1919. At this stage 
 the Committee had carried out preliminary investigations 
 of nine of the more promising sites in Scotland, of the most 
 promising areas in North Wales, of the English Lake District, 
 and of certain typical English rivers. By far the greater 
 part of the water-power of the United Kingdom is situated in 
 Scotland, and from the nine sites examined for the Committee, 
 some 183,000 continuous h.p. is available. This is only a 
 fraction of the total water-power in the country, and it 
 would appear probable that the possible output is well over 
 1,000,000 h.p. of which a considerable proportion is com- 
 mercially feasible under present conditions. 
 
 Over a considerable extent of the area of tHe Scottish 
 Highlands the rainfall exceeds 60 inches per annum, and 
 this area is studded with lochs, which form natural storage 
 reservoirs at considerable elevation. Moreover, no part of 
 this area, which is some 12,000 square miles in extent, is more 
 than 20 miles from some arm of the sea or from the Cale- 
 donian Canal. 
 
 The largest installation as yet developed in the United 
 Kingdom is the Kinlochleven Works of the British Aluminium 
 Co. Although the drainage area is only 55 square miles, the 
 high rainfall, amounting to 70 inches per annum, and the large 
 fall of 920 feet, are sufficient to give an output of about 
 30,000 e.h.p. These works are now being increased by the 
 addition of the power to be obtained from Loch Eilde Mor. 
 
 While in England there are larger rivers than in Scotland, 
 there are fewer natural lakes, and the possibility of water-power 
 development is restricted by the general lack of elevation. 
 
 The powers are, in general, small and widely distributed, 
 and must usually be developed without storage by utilising 
 the natural river flow, as has been done, for example, on the 
 Dee at Chester. 
 
 Like England, Ireland's possibilities of power appear to 
 lie in her great rivers. A large part of the interior of the 
 country forms a flat plateau at no great height above sea- 
 
16 WATER-POWER IN THE BRITISH EMPIRE 
 
 level. On this plateau flow large sluggish rivers, the Erne, 
 Corrib, Shannon, Bann, Lee, Inny, etc., most of which have 
 a steep fall to the sea for the last few miles of their length. 
 This feature of the rivers makes them valuable for power pro- 
 duction. The best of the lochs lie in agricultural country, 
 and the raising of their levels would flood much valuable 
 arable and pasture lands. The amount of power available 
 is probably considerable, and it is hoped that the Final Report 
 of the Board of Trade Committee will afford some idea as to 
 its actual amount. 
 
 In the mountainous area of North Wales, where the rainfall 
 is high, two power installations have already been established, 
 developing some 12,000 e.h.p. There are possibilities of 
 further development in this region which are well worth 
 investigation. 
 
 While the possible water-powers of the United Kingdom 
 are comparatively small, yet, occurring as they do at no great 
 distance from industrial regions, they are relatively valuable, 
 and every effort should be made, by close investigation, to 
 ascertain their commercial value at an early date. 
 
 A second interim report of the B.O.T. Committee, issued in 
 June, 1920, deals with the suggested machinery of control 
 of the water resources of Great Britain. It recommends 
 the formation of a Board of Water Commissioners, to whom 
 all questions of the allocation of water-supplies, whether for 
 power or other purposes, shall be referred, and whose duties 
 shall include the systematic collection of stream-flow and rele- 
 vant data. 
 
 A third interim report issued in December, 1920, deals solely 
 with the question of tidal power, with special reference to the 
 possibilities of the Severn Estuary. The Committee concludes 
 that while insufficient data are available to enable a definite 
 opinion as to the economic practicability of the scheme to be 
 expressed, it merits further detailed investigation. It offers 
 a possibility of an output of some 350,000 h.p. daily over a 
 10-hour working period, corresponding to a saving of 1,270,000 
 tons of coal per annum on the basis of the consumption in 
 modern large coal-fired power stations. 
 
 British India. The question of the development and utilisa- 
 tion of water-powers in India was discussed at some length 
 at the meetings of the Indian Industrial Commission between 
 
WATER-POWER IN THE BRITISH EMPIRE 17 
 
 1916 and 1918. The evidence brought before the Commission 
 emphasised tho meagreness of the available information and 
 the urgent need for further investigation, and as a result of 
 their recommendation the Government appointed the Chief 
 Engineer of Irrigation in the United Provinces and the 
 Electrical Adviser to the Government to report on the possi- 
 bilities of promising water-power sites. This work is now in 
 progress, and Mr. J. W. Meares, the Chief Engineer to the 
 Hydro-Electric Survey, has already issued a valuable prelim- 
 inary report.* This shows that although a large number of 
 possible sites have been brought to notice, very little precise 
 information as yet exists in regard to the majority of them. 
 Local Governments in India have each been asked to nominate 
 an experienced officer of the Public Works Department 
 with a view to carrying out further and detailed surveys as 
 speedily and thoroughly as possible, and arrangements have 
 been made to ensure that these investigations shall be carried 
 out on uniform lines. The Government of India anticipate 
 that the results of a number of such investigations will very 
 shortly be available. 
 
 Since the issue of the preliminary report much additional 
 work has been done by Mr. Meares, and the present state of 
 investigation would appear to show that some 213,000 k.w. 
 is already developed; 55,600 k.w. is under construction; 
 1,194,000 k.w. (twenty-four-hour power) has been investi- 
 gated; 1,102,000 k.w. (twenty-four-hour power) is known and 
 worth examination; while probably over 3,000,000 additional 
 k.w. has not yet been examined. The total forecasted 
 amounts to 5'6 million k.w. on minimum flow; 7*5 million 
 k.w. on "average minimum flow"; and 12*7 million k.w. on 
 maximum development. 
 
 Mr. Meares considers these figures extremely conservative. 
 
 The power problem in India is in general complicated by 
 the urgent necessity for conserving as much water as possible 
 for irrigation purposes. There are numerous great perennial 
 canals with drop falls at fairly short intervals ; there are also 
 numerous large reservoirs. At first sight it might seem that 
 these sources of power should be utilized. When carefully 
 examined most of these are, however, found to be useless for 
 
 * Preliminary Report on the Water-Power Resources of India 
 Calcutta, 1919. Superintendent of Government Printing, 
 
18 WATER-POWER IN THE BRITISH EMPIRE 
 
 power purposes, owing to the paramount necessity for opera- 
 ting the works with reference to irrigation requirements. 
 Periodical closures are necessary for the execution of repairs ; 
 the canal branches are operated in rotation so as to lessen 
 loss by absorption; and in times of heavy rainfall it may be 
 necessary to close the canal completely. All these methods 
 of working are directly opposed to power requirements. 
 
 Over the greater part of the country there are few perennial 
 streams, and storage reservoirs for conserving the high rainfall 
 of the monsoon season would be necessary. In Bombay, 
 on the Eastern side of the crest of the Western Ghats, the mean 
 rainfall is approximately 150 inches per annum, the whole 
 of this rainfall occurring within four months. Many of the 
 elevated valleys of the Ghats lend themselves to the construc- 
 tion of storage reservoirs, and, owing to the geological con- 
 ditions, a very large proportion (up to 90 per cent.) of the 
 rainfall may be collected and stored. 
 
 The Tata Hydro-Electric Undertaking receives its water- 
 supply from three such valleys. The total catchment area 
 is only 22 square miles, but this is sufficient to give 100,000 
 e.h.p. for 3,600 hours per annum. 
 
 Other projects of a similar type are under investigation 
 in the Western Ghats. It is estimated that a continuous 
 300,000 e.h.p. maybe obtained from the Koyna River alone; 
 that approximately 100,000 e.h.p. may be obtained from each 
 of the rivers Vaiturna and Kali Nadi, and about the same 
 amount from the Andrha Valley. It is estimated that a con- 
 tinuous 20,000 e.h.p. is available at the Kali Nadi, Gersappa, 
 and Lushington Falls, and that, by a combined system of 
 storage reservoirs, suitable also for irrigation purposes, a 
 continuous 50,000 e.h.p. might be developed from this system. 
 
 The north-west corner of the United Provinces would also 
 appear to be a promising locality for early development. 
 There are possible sites on the Ganges, Tons, Jumna, Paisani, 
 and Kosi Rivers, and at present the erection of a generating 
 station on the Jumna is under consideration. It is estimated 
 that from 40,000 to 50,000 h.p. can be easily and economically 
 developed on the rivers Jumna and Tons, and as this region 
 is thickly populated, there would be immediate markets for 
 energy for the operation of cotton, rice, sugar, flour, oil, and 
 saw mills, and for other industrial undertakings. 
 
WATEK-POWER IN THE BRITISH EMPIRE 19 
 
 There are also known to be many promising sites in the 
 Central Provinces, and the aggregate of power should be large ; 
 but little detailed information is available. 
 
 In Mysore there is the very successful Government under- 
 taking on the Cauvery River. As now extended, the power- 
 house has a capacity of over 22,000 e.h.p. The power is 
 transmitted some 90 miles to the Kolar goldfields and to 
 Bangalore and Mysore, respectively 57 and 37 miles distant. 
 
 The provinces of Bengal and Madras do not appear to show 
 any great possibilities in the matter of hydraulic power. 
 The question of utilising the lake at Periyar for power pur- 
 poses is, however, now being investigated. 
 
 In the Native State of Kashmir an installation on the 
 Jhelum River at Mohora is designed to develop 20,000 h.p., 
 and transmits its power to Baramula and Srinagar. 
 
 Under existing regulations, the sanction of the Secretary of 
 State is necessary for the granting of any concession 
 
 (a) If the concession is intended to endure for more than 
 ten years and is not accompanied by an unconditional power 
 of revocation or cancellation, and imposes on the revenues 
 of India an annual liability in excess of 50,000 Rs. ; or 
 
 (b) Imposes on such revenues, expenditure, or liability to 
 damages in excess of 1,200,000 Rs. ; or 
 
 (c) Involves the cession of property or rights estimated in 
 value at more than 1,200,000 Rs. ; 
 
 and the sanction of the Indian Government is necessary 
 
 (i) If the period in Clause (a) exceeds five years and the 
 liability 5,000 Rs. ; 
 
 (ii) If the sum in Clauses (b) and (c) exceeds 100,000 Rs. 
 
 Below these amounts the local Government can sanction 
 the concession. 
 
 A number of rain-gauge stations have been established in the 
 catchment areas of rivers in Bombay, and the detailed record 
 of the rainfall is available in the offices of the Executive 
 Engineers concerned. Also a record of river gaugings in the 
 Ghat area is published annually. While these observations 
 are being made with the primary object of developing irriga- 
 tion schemes, any information thus collected, if required for 
 the consideration of a hydraulic power scheme, may be obtained 
 
20 WATER-POWER IN THE BRITISH EMPIRE 
 
 on application to the Secretary to Government, Public Works 
 Department (Irrigation). 
 
 The Joint Secretary to the Government of Madras P.W.D. 
 states that on the Nilgiri Plateau the water-power prospects 
 are very promising. Three rivers running off the plateau 
 have been gauged, and the prospect of their being successfully 
 utilised is practically assured. From the largest of these, 
 with storage, a continuous supply of 100 cubic feet per second 
 can be obtained and, as there is an almost precipitous fall of 
 about 3,000 feet down to the plains, the power obtainable 
 should be very large. Further gauging observations are being 
 initiated to ascertain the maximum and minimum discharges 
 of a number of rivers and to collect reliable data regarding the 
 rainfall and run-off from different catchment areas. 
 
 In view of the Committee's recommendations (see p. 51) 
 regarding the question of training in hydro-electric engineer- 
 ing, it is of interest to note that the Government of India have, 
 as a preliminary measure, given instructions that in the major 
 engineering colleges in the control of the Governments of 
 Bombay, Madras, Bengal, and the United Provinces, a course 
 of lectures should be given in this subject by an expert in 
 hydro-electric engineering. 
 
 In general the hydraulic possibilities of India appear to be 
 very great. The country possesses in abundance the minerals 
 necessary for metallurgical development, the climate and land 
 for the cultivation of cotton, flax, jute, and many other com- 
 modities, and an enormous population which, if trained, would 
 provide abundant skilled labour. It is certain, too, that once 
 it is determined by experimental trial for what crops and soils 
 nitrogenous fertilisers can be used with profit to the cultiva- 
 tors, the demand for these, provided they can be produced at 
 sufficiently low rates, will be enormous. 
 
 The development of Indian water-powers would appear to 
 offer a most promising field to British manufacturers, and 
 one in which some initial sacrifice would probably be amply 
 repaid. 
 
 It would appear that under the Indian " Reforms " the 
 question of hydro-electric investigation has now become a 
 Provincial one, and as the Government of India can conse- 
 quently grant no further funds for this purpose, there is some 
 fear that the Local Governments may follow suit. 
 
WATEK-POWER IN THE BRITISH EMPIRE 21 
 
 Ceylon. The question of the utilisation of water-power in 
 the island is under the consideration of a Committee appointed 
 by the Local Government. The amount of power should be 
 very considerable, but little definite information is available. 
 Mr. H. T. S. Ward, M.Inst.C.E., estimates that at least 68,000 
 continuous h.p. is available even in the dry season at the falls 
 of the Mahaweliganga. This is said to be a very conservative 
 estimate. The water rights belong to the Ceylon Govern- 
 ment. There are a number of rain-gauge stations on the 712 
 square miles of catchment area feeding the Mahaweliganga. 
 
 Rainfall records for these are available for periods varying 
 from five to forty-five years. The mean rainfall is 115 inches 
 per annum. 
 
 The flow of the Walawe Ganga is about one-half that of the 
 Mahaweliganga, but the information as to the fall of the former 
 river is not sufficient to enable any estimate of its probable 
 power to be made. 
 
 The Committee has received a copy of a report by Mr. 
 Meares, on the Laxapana- Aberdeen Hydro-Electric project 
 in the Central Province, Ceylon. This involves the utilisa- 
 tion of the waters of the Kehelgomu Oya and the Maskeliya 
 Oya, under a head of about 1,950 feet. The complete scheme 
 is capable, with little storage, of giving a continuous output 
 of 100,000 b.h.p., which could be increased very largely by 
 additional storage. 
 
 British East Africa (Kenya Colony and Protectorate). A 
 Report from the Director of Public Works of the East African 
 Protectorate states that the highlands of the Protectorate, 
 where development of power schemes is chiefly proceeding, are 
 not at all badly supplied with water-power resources. On 
 some few sites it is estimated that very substantial develop- 
 ments, ranging from 5,000 to 50,000 h.p., are possible. At the 
 present time, three projects, each of about 2,000 h.p., are being 
 negotiated within 50 miles of Nairobi, and numerous smaller 
 projects are being developed. 
 
 There is a general lack of definite data as to the possibilities 
 of most of the water-powers. In 1918, however, Government 
 sanction was accorded to the appointment of a special Water 
 Engineer to organise and carry out, so far as funds may allow, 
 a hydrographic survey of the Protectorate. The Committee 
 had an opportunity, during 1919, of meeting the Engineer, 
 
22 WATER POWER IN THE BRITISH EMPIRE 
 
 who explained very fully the present position regarding water- 
 power development in the Protectorate, and submitted a series 
 of Memoranda, which are available for reference in the offices 
 of the Conjoint Board at Burlington House. 
 
 While the present financial resources of the Protectorate 
 do not appear adequate to allow of any extended investigation 
 being carried on at the moment, in view of the apparent water- 
 power possibilities it is to be hoped that such investigation 
 may be found possible in the near future. It is suggested 
 that the investigation of the hydrographic features of the 
 Protectorate, of Uganda, and of the territory previously 
 forming German East Africa, might be co-ordinated under 
 central control. Since the Upper Nile Basin is partly in the 
 three dependencies, and many of the rivers traverse more 
 than one of them, it would appear desirable that river investi- 
 gation should be controlled as little as possible by intercolonial 
 boundaries. 
 
 The probable power resources of Uganda in the Nile Basin 
 are greater than those of either of the other two dependencies, 
 and the possible transmission of power from the Ripon Falls 
 to the settled districts of British East Africa, west of the Rift 
 Valley and north of the Uganda Railway, may acquire import- 
 ance in the near future. Moreover, the unification of water 
 laws, in the initial stages of development, is desirable. 
 
 All water-powers in the Protectorate are definitely Crown 
 property, and in the past the Director of Public Works has 
 acted as custodian of public rights in this respect. No grants 
 for the use of water-power are made in perpetuity. Up to 
 the present time there has been no legislative enactment 
 guiding the action of the Department of Public Works in 
 dealing with water rights. A draft Ordinance for dealing with 
 this question has been drawn up, and will probably be con- 
 sidered at an early date in the Legislative Council. 
 
 An Electric Power Ordinance on very progressive lines has 
 recently been adopted, and, with the Water-Power Ordinance 
 on similar lines, the Protectorate promises to be in a strong 
 position to foster and develop supplies of electrical energy 
 over extensive areas of the country on very favourable terms. 
 
 British Guiana. A preliminary survey of the water-powers 
 of British Guiana was carried out in May, 1919, by Mr. S. X. 
 Comber, M.Am.Soc.C.E., under the instructions of the Govern- 
 
WATER-POWER IN THE BRITISH EMPIRE 23 
 
 ment of the Colony. This report is available for reference 
 at the offices of the Conjoint Board. The Government intends 
 to provide automatic gauging stations on the Essequibo, 
 Cuyuni, Demerara, and Potaro Rivers, which should give 
 extremely valuable information. 
 
 The principal available water-powers lie on the Essequibo 
 River, with its tributary the Potaro, the Mazuruni River, and 
 the Cuyuni River. Other possible sources are the Demerara 
 and the Berbice Rivers. 
 
 On the Potaro River, the Kaieteur Gorge has a total drop 
 of over 1,000 feet. The Kaieteur Fall itself has a vertical drop 
 of over 740 feet, the width of the head of the fall being about 
 400 feet when the river is full. In times of exceptional drought, 
 however, the width shrinks to 50 or 60 feet. 
 
 To the north of the Kaieteur, a relatively small river, the 
 Curiebrong, descends from the Kaieteur plateau by a fall at 
 Amaila and a series of cataracts. After flowing for 15 miles 
 or so from the Kaieteur Falls, the Potaro River, after receiving 
 in its course the waters of some affluents, arrives at the mouth 
 of the great Kaieteur Gorge and leaves the sandstone district 
 at the Amatuk Falls. Here the river, flowing at a high velocity 
 through a relatively narrow channel, descends about 30 feet, 
 20 feet of this being practically vertical. The volume of water 
 at this fall is probably 50 per cent, more than at the Kaieteur. 
 Twelve miles further on the Potaro, having had the volume of 
 its water materially increased by affluents, flows over the great 
 series of Pakatuk-Cobanituk-Aurituk Falls, where is a series of 
 nine cataracts in a space of about 2 miles. The total drop of 
 these cataracts is estimated at 20 to 25 feet. Below them the 
 Potaro is joined by the Curiebrong River, and at a distance of 
 about 15 miles from Aurituk traverses the Tumatumari 
 Cataract with a total fall of from 16 to 20 feet. From the 
 Kaieteur to Tumatumari the Potaro offers one long series of 
 potential sites for water-power stations. 
 
 The Great Falls of the Essequibo River are a long series of 
 rapids or low cataracts about 6 miles in length, where the 
 Essequibo River, with an average width of about 1J miles, 
 descends to its tidal waters. The total fall of these cataracts 
 is unknown, but is very appreciable. 
 
 The Mazaruni, a river of about f to 1 mile in width, is 
 constantly interrupted in its course by rapids and cataracts. 
 
 3 
 
24 WATER-POWER IN THE BRITISH EMPIRE 
 
 The lowest series of rapids and cataracts, extending practically 
 from Maripa to Marshall Fall, a distance of perhaps 5 miles, 
 has probably a similar total fall to that of the Great Falls of 
 the Essequibo River. 
 
 On the Cuyuni River, a narrower but deeper river, not much 
 more than J mile across above the lowest cataract, there are 
 two sites available for water-power, the upper one being 
 at Arawak-Matope Falls, about 18 miles from the junction 
 of the river with the Mazaruni River, where the river falls 
 perhaps 12 to 16 feet, or possibly more; and the lower ones, 
 the Kamaria-Akaio series of cataracts, starting at about 
 8 miles above the junction of the rivers, their total fall, in 
 a distance of about 3 miles, being similar to that of the Great 
 Falls of the Essequibo. 
 
 There are also numerous falls, cataracts, and rapids in the 
 interior of the Colony, the details of which are very little 
 known, while the distance from the coastlands and the sparsely 
 inhabited state of the country where they occur remove them 
 from any practical potentiality as power stations. 
 
 No actual measurements or river gaugings have as yet been 
 made by the Government of the Colony, and the foregoing 
 estimates have no pretensions to any high degree of accuracy. 
 Still, it is evident that the potential water-power of British 
 Guiana is extremely large. Thus the Kaieteur alone at the fall 
 and gorge, assuming a mean depth of 10 feet over the fall, 
 offers possibilities of 2*5 million b.h.p. The power develop- 
 able in periods of drought, assuming a width of 60 feet and 
 a mean depth of 5 feet, would be about 125,000 b.h.p. 
 
 As very extensive deposits of bauxite have been proved in 
 British Guiana, the country would appear to be exceptionally 
 well situated for becoming an important producer of alumin- 
 ium for the Empire. 
 
 In view of these facts the early investigation of the 
 possibilities of the various large falls is well worth serious 
 consideration. 
 
 Rainfall records have been kept at a number of stations in 
 the Colony. The rainfall of the coastal districts averages 
 about 100 inches per annum. In the forest regions it ranges 
 from about 90 to 160 inches, with a mean value of about 115 
 inches. In the Savannah regions in the far interior of the 
 Colony records have only been taken during the past seven 
 
WATER-POWER IN THE BRITISH EMPIRE 25 
 
 or eight years. The rainfall in this region is much less than 
 in the forestal or coastal districts. 
 
 British Honduras. A communication from the Governor 
 of British Honduras has been submitted to the Committee, 
 through the Colonial Offi.ce. This states that there do not 
 appear to be any falls within 90 miles of Belize of sufficient 
 volume to afford any appreciable supply of energy. There 
 are, however, various rapids in remote parts of the Colony, 
 of which only two, the Machaka and Monkey Falls on the 
 Moho River, possess any appreciable fall. The Vaca Falls, 
 about 90 miles from Belize, are about 700 feet high, and are 
 capable of supplying at all times about 25,000 h.p., and in the 
 rainy season about 1,000,000 h.p. Much further investiga- 
 tion would be required to determine whether any of these 
 sites could be made industrially useful. 
 
 Australia. Though comparable in area with the United 
 States, there has as yet been no notable hydro-electric develop- 
 ment in Australia. Except on the East Coast, the topography 
 is too flat or the rainfall too low to provide the necessary 
 conditions. Some of the large irrigation schemes are capable 
 of being utilised for power production, but the aggregate 
 of such possible power is small. 
 
 The only possibilities of considerable powers are to be 
 found in the rivers draining the Great Dividing Chain of the 
 East Coast. A large area of the district of the Australian 
 Alps, situated partly in Victoria and partly in New South 
 Wales, has a rainfall of 50 inches per annum, and the run-off 
 is probably as much as 18,000 cubic feet per second. The 
 level is high, Mount Kosciusko attaining an elevation of 7,200 
 feet, and the sea is distant less than 100 miles. There are 
 plenty of opportunities for damming back the rivers, so that a 
 considerable aggregate fall might be secured. Probably the 
 possibilities of this region lie between 300,000 and 500,000 
 h.p. Among others, the following rivers appear to deserve 
 careful inspection: The Snowy, Tambo, Dargo, Wonnan- 
 gatta, Thompson, Goulburn, Ovens, Mitta Mitta, Indi, Tumut, 
 and Murrumbidgee. 
 
 In Victoria a scheme has been suggested to utilise the head 
 waters of the Kiewa River. From surveys it is estimated that 
 about 40,000 e.h.p. may be developed from this source. 
 
 The Blue Mountains, to the west of Sydney, form an impor- 
 
26 WATER-POWER IN THE BRITISH EMPIRE 
 
 tant high-level catchment. The altitudes attain about 
 4,000 feet, the rainfall is about 40 inches, and the run-off 
 probably about 1*5 cubic feet per second per square mile. 
 The physical character of the region, as a plateau deeply cut 
 up by canyons, suggests the possibility of efficient utilisa- 
 tion of the run-off, and the available economic power is likely 
 to be between 25,000 and 50,000 h.p. Already useful power 
 schemes have been put forward for the Cataract and War re - 
 gamba Rivers. 
 
 The New England Range in New South Wales, and extending 
 into Queensland, contains heights of over 5,000 feet, and 
 descends steeply to the coastal lowlands. The rainfall 
 averages about 50 inches per annum, and the available 
 catchment is about 6,000 square miles. The available 
 power probably lies between 200,000 and 500,000 h.p. 
 
 In 1914 the Government of New South Wales directed that 
 a systematic preliminary investigation of the most important 
 water-powers should be made, and some of these preliminary 
 surveys have been carried out. Among the rivers already 
 investigated or to be investigated are the Murray, Mur- 
 rumbidgee, Tumut, Snowy, Shoalhaven, Hawkesbury, War- 
 regamba, Hunter, Hastings, Macleay, Clarence, and Rich- 
 mond. Although the Water Conservation and Irrigation 
 Commission has published the results of various river gaugings, 
 these refer to such rivers as are suitable for water-supply or 
 irrigation rather than for power purposes. Certain new 
 gauging stations have been and are being established in 
 order to obtain data on which to base estimates of available 
 power. 
 
 In Queensland the Cairns District offers useful possibilities. 
 The effective mountainous catchment areas of the rivers enter- 
 ing the sea between Lucinda Point and Cairns are roughly 3,000 
 square miles, and the rainfall ranges from 50 to 140 inches. 
 The available horse-power probably lies between 150,000 and 
 400,000 h.p. The Barron River Falls, 19 miles from Cairns, 
 are approximately 1,000 feet in height, and it is probable 
 that the river in their vicinity would yield at least 10,000 h.p. 
 This district is favoured in respect of shipping facilities 
 and is rich in copper, tin, and other minerals, so that a 
 market could probably be found for any power likely to be 
 developed. 
 
WATER-POWER IN THE BRITISH EMPIRE 27 
 
 The aggregate power suggested as being capable of economic 
 development in the Great Dividing Chain is as follows : 
 
 Australian Alps 300,000 to 500,000 h.p. 
 
 Blue Mountains 25,000 to 50,000 
 
 New England Range . . . . 200,000 to 500,000 
 
 Cairns District 100,000 to 250,000 
 
 Total .. 625,000 1,300,000 
 
 As little in the nature of an actual hydrographical survey 
 has been made, these estimates are of a very general nature. 
 Sufficient, however, has been said to indicate that 1,000,000 
 h.p. may reasonably be expected from Australia. 
 
 In all cases the scheme would be somewhat expensive to 
 develop, but in view of the general high cost of power in 
 Australia, it would probably not be prohibitive. The possi- 
 bilities are certainly sufficiently promising to justify a careful 
 and extensive hydrographical survey. 
 
 New South Wales.- The Committee has received a copy 
 of an Interim Report by Mr. Wm. Corin, the Chief Electrical 
 Engineer, on the Gorge scheme for developing power on the 
 Clarence River. From this it appears that at least 100,000 
 h.p. can be developed in the neighbourhood of the Gorge, 
 while suggestions are made as to initial developments for 
 utilising a portion of the power. Mr. Corin is at present engaged 
 on a comprehensive report on the water-powers of the State. 
 
 Victoria, The Committee has received communications 
 from Mr. A. S. Kenyon, the State Water Engineer, from Mr. 
 Nalby, the Secretary to the State Rivers and Water Supply 
 Commission, and from the Secretary to the Electricity Com- 
 missioners, Melbourne. The latter body has had four survey 
 parties in the field since the spring of 1919. From Mr. 
 Nalby's memorandum, supplemented by the other com- 
 munications, it appears that the total power at present 
 developed in the State does not exceed about 1,000 h.p. 
 There are installations on the Yarra, Barwon, and Loddon 
 Rivers in which turbines are used for working flour mills, 
 etc., subsidiary steam plants being provided for use when 
 there is not sufficient water. These and a few minor plants, 
 used generally for milling and mining purposes, are the only 
 instances. The chief reasons assignable for this seeming neglect 
 
28 WATER-POWER IN THE BRITISH EMPIRE 
 
 lie in the great variation between (a) summer and winter flows ; 
 and (b) the annual flows in different years, the effect of which 
 would render the power output of any but the smallest plants 
 of too variable a nature. 
 
 This is illustrated by the following records of gaugings of 
 the chief rivers from which power may be expected, taken 
 between the years 1906 and 1918: 
 
 River. 
 
 Gauging Station. 
 
 Mean Flow for One Month. 
 Cubic Feet per Second. 
 
 Minimum. 
 
 Maximum. 
 
 Upper Murray 
 Mitta 
 
 Upper Goulburn . . 
 Snowy 
 
 Jingellic 
 Tallangatta 
 JEildon (4 years) 
 \Murchison (13 years) 
 Orbost 
 
 105 
 32 
 215 
 20 
 206 
 
 19,400 
 13,500 
 12,000 
 21,000 
 12,000 
 
 Storage for irrigation purposes has been effected to some 
 extent, and is likely to be extended in the future, and it might 
 be supposed that the regulation of streams effected in this 
 way would minimise the difficulty referred to. In practice 
 it is likely that conflict would arise between the use of the 
 stored water for irrigation and for power purposes in dry 
 seasons when the natural flow of the rivers is low, thus to 
 some extent nullifying the use of stored water for power 
 purposes, as there is no doubt that irrigation interests should 
 and would prevail. 
 
 An instance of this exists in the case of the plant on the 
 Loddon River already referred to, which is largely dependent 
 on the Laanecoorie Storage for summer supplies, and where 
 the power requirements are of necessity made secondary to 
 irrigation needs. 
 
 The principal stream in South-Eastern Australia is the 
 River Murray. It is possible that on the head waters, which 
 rise in very rugged, inaccessible country, sites for installa- 
 tions capable of developing several thousand horse-power 
 may eventually be located; but from where the rivers enter 
 the plain country, extending from Albury to the sea, power de- 
 velopment on a considerable scale is not likely to be attempted 
 on account of the very flat river grades the total fall through- 
 
WATER-POWER IN THE BRITISH EMPIRE 29 
 
 out the distance of about 1,400 miles being only about 400 
 feet, the slope decreasing gradually from 9 inches per mile 
 near Albury to about 4 inches per mile at the Victorian Border. 
 
 The most important scheme hitherto suggested relates to 
 the utilisation of the head waters of the Kiewa River. These 
 rise amongst the higher peaks of the State, and though the 
 water volume is not very considerable, the available fall is 
 great, about 3,700 feet. It is proposed to make use of the 
 water in two drops of about 2,600 feet and 1,100 feet each 
 respectively. The promoters of this project estimate a total 
 output of about 30,000 k.w., but the data on which this esti- 
 mate rests are meagre as yet. In this case the extremes of 
 summer and winter flows are to some extent equalised 
 naturally, the catchment being snow-covered for a considerable 
 portion of the year. In addition to this natural advantage 
 there are facilities for forming fairly cheap artificial storages. 
 
 Another important scheme refers to the waters of the 
 Thomson River at the junction of the Aberfeldy, in the neigh- 
 bourhood of Walhalla. In the same locality the Long Tunnel 
 Gold Mining Company of Walhalla have proposed to utilise 
 the waters of the Cascade Creek on the slopes of Mount Baw 
 Baw, supplemented by a small storage at the head of the Creek 
 near the summit of the mountain. The water flow in this 
 case is small, but the head considerable, about 2,000 feet. 
 The estimated output at the power station is 1,200 h.p. 
 
 Another somewhat vague proposal relates to the waters of 
 the Snowy River, but the actual site of the power station in this 
 case might be outside of the Victorian border. The promoters 
 of the scheme are interested in the Kiewa River scheme, 
 and propose to link up the two and work them as one project. 
 Without having actually investigated the scheme, they have 
 estimated an output of about 40,000 h.p. 
 
 The list is not by any means exhaustive, and, of course, does 
 not in any sense represent the full possibilities of the State. 
 
 The Commonwealth of Australia : Tasmania. Estimates 
 have already been made of a few of the more promising 
 hydraulic powers of Tasmania. The State Hydro-Electric 
 Department has investigated the possibilities of the upper 
 reaches of the Ouse, Arthur's Lakes, Lake St. Clair, the Dee, 
 Franklin, and King Rivers. No complete survey of the 
 water-power of Tasmania has, however, yet been made. 
 
30 WATER-POWER IN THE BRITISH EMPIRE 
 
 The late Agent-General (Sir John McCall) estimated the possi- 
 bilities at about 400,000 h.p. 
 
 The Government Hydro-Electric Department is now sur- 
 veying, as opportunity permits, the more promising sites. 
 It is carrying out a survey of the King River Gorge on the 
 Mount Lyell Co.'s railway with regard to the suitability of that 
 part of the river for the installation of a second power scheme. 
 It is estimated that 15,000 h.p. can be developed at King River 
 Gorge, and this, taken in conjunction with the original power 
 scheme of 45,000 h.p. on the river, will yield 60,000 h.p. 
 If the scheme materialises the power generated will be suffi- 
 cient to supply all mining and smelting works on the West 
 Coast of Tasmania and will leave a surplus for manu- 
 facturing enterprises. 
 
 The general policy of the Hydro-Electric Department is 
 to develop the water-powers of the State wherever this can be 
 done profitably, and in accordance with this view the adminis- 
 tration of the Department are urging on the Government the 
 necessity for a complete survey of the water-powers of the 
 State at as early a date as possible. 
 
 So far only three hydraulic installations have been de- 
 veloped. These are the Great Lake Scheme, at present develop- 
 ing something over 12,000h.p. ; the South Esk Scheme, develop- 
 ing 1,350 h.p. ; and the Lake Margaret Scheme of the Mount 
 Lyell Mining Co., developing 4,000 h.p. The Great Lake 
 is on the central plateau, and with a catchment area of only 
 216 square miles, and with a head of 1,120 feet, is capable of 
 developing 70,000 h.p. The plant is now being enlarged. Part 
 of the power is to be used for zinc reduction and calcium 
 carbide production. 
 
 At present the principal purchasers of power from the 
 Hydro-Electric Department are the Hobart Corporation, for 
 tramways and general municipal requirements, the Electro- 
 lytic Zinc Co., and the Hydro-Electric Power and Metal- 
 lurgical Co., Ltd., which has installed works for the manu- 
 facture of calcium carbide. The present capacity of these 
 works is 5,000 tons per annum, but it is proposed to in- 
 crease this. It is estimated that the electrolytic zinc plant 
 may eventually absorb up to 26,000 h.p. Other contemplated 
 industrial developments involving the purchase of power from 
 the Hydro-Electric Department include a woollen mill and 
 
WATER-POWER IN THE BRITISH EMPIRE 31 
 
 works for smelting steel scrap, and there would appear to be 
 every prospect of a ready demand for all the hydraulic power 
 which can be developed by the Department. 
 
 Tasmania certainly should be capable of developing a rela- 
 tively large amount of hydraulic power, for the rainfall exceeds 
 100 inches per annum over a large area of the mountainous 
 region of the west, and there is no doubt that much of this 
 area has a run-off of as much as 4 cubic feet per second per 
 square mile. 
 
 It is probable that Sir John McCall's rough estimate of 
 power is well within the mark. In view of the shortage of 
 water-powers in Australia, and of the future demand of the 
 Commonwealth for nitrogen products, etc., there should 
 be no difficulty in finding a market for the output of all the 
 energy which can be developed in Tasmania. 
 
 Papua (British New Guinea). The following data are from 
 a Report submitted to the Committee by R. E. Stanley, Esq. 
 
 Papua, or British New Guinea, has an area of approximately 
 90,540 square miles. It is for the most part mountainous 
 even to the off-lying islands, with the exception of perhaps a 
 few coral islands scattered about its coastline, and a portion 
 of the mainland in the Western Division to the extent of about 
 18,000 square miles. Its mountain systems are complex, 
 and reach an altitude of over 13,000 feet in Mount Victoria. 
 The main Cordillera occupies the central portion of the main- 
 land, running more or less parallel with the coastline near 
 its south-eastern extension, but trends northerly towards the 
 late Anglo-German boundary. Proceeding westerly, another 
 system is seen in the Albert Mountains, 6,000 feet, which con- 
 tinue and connect with the ranges north of the Gulf of Papua. 
 Still further west, and broken from the former, are Mounts 
 Donaldson and Bliicher, 2,000 and 5,000 feet respectively. 
 These are offshoots from the Victor Emmanuel Range, 
 10,000 to 12,000 feet. From these huge mountain systems 
 many large rivers flow carrying tremendous quantities of water 
 to the coast. The largest of these rivers is the Fly with three 
 large tributaries the Strickland, Alice, and Palmer which 
 take their source in the Western Cordillera. The Fly and 
 its tributaries drain practically the whole of the western portion 
 of the Division. An estimate has been made, at a point above 
 the tidal influence, of the quantity of water discharged by the 
 
32 WATER-POWER IN THE BRITISH EMPIRE 
 
 Fly, which is about 650 miles in length. At the point referred 
 to the river is 600 yards wide, 40 feet deep, and travelling at 
 3J miles per hour, and is discharging some 327,500 cubic feet 
 per second. During Sir William Macgregor's expedition up the 
 Fly more data were obtained in connection with the amount of 
 water carried by the Fly and its tributaries. These are as follow : 
 
 FIGURES TAKEN NEAR THE CONFLUENCE OF THE FLY AND ITS 
 TRIBUTARIES. 
 
 River. 
 
 Width in 
 Yards. 
 
 Depth in 
 Feet. 
 
 Rate in Miles 
 per Hour. 
 
 Cubic Feet 
 Discharged 
 per Second. 
 
 My .. 
 Strickland . . 
 
 302 
 420 
 
 42 
 32 
 
 1-5 
 3-3 
 
 83,500 
 196,000 
 
 Fly . . 
 Alice 
 
 207 
 152 
 
 15 
 12 
 
 1-5 
 
 2-0 
 
 20,500 
 15 ; 700 
 
 Fly .. 
 Palmer 
 
 130 
 120 
 
 10 
 
 18 
 
 3-0 
 2-5 
 
 17,150 
 23,750 
 
 A rough estimate can be made of the other rivers along the 
 coastline, the most important of which are the Bamu, Turama , 
 Kikori, Purari, Vailala, Tauri, Lakekamu, Biaru, Angabunga, 
 Vanapa, Kemp Welch, Ormond, along the south coast, and the 
 Musa, Barigi, Kumusi, Ope, Mambare, and Gira along the 
 northern coastline* These rivers, which take their sources 
 in the Victor Emmanuel, Sir Arthur Gordon, Albert and Owen 
 Stanley Range respectively, have many important tributaries 
 with a tremendous fall in a short distance. 
 
 The most important centre appears to be that portion of the 
 main range near the watershed of the tributaries of the last- 
 named rivers. For instance, the Rouna Fall, situated on the 
 Laloki River, is within easy distance of Port Moresby, and is 
 capable of generating between 20,000 and 22,000 h.p. The 
 falls have a direct drop of 350 feet, but a maximum fall of 
 800 feet is available in 4 or 5 miles. Below the falls the Laloki 
 joins the Goldie, a larger tributary, then the Brown, and finally 
 empties itself into Galley Reach, near the tributaries of a still 
 larger river called the Vanapa. It was estimated that the 
 Laloki discharges 20,000 cubic feet per second, and this is 
 one of the smallest of the rivers and a branch tributary. 
 
WATER-POWER IN THE BRITISH EMPIRE 33 
 
 In another instance, at the head waters of the Irura River 
 (a tributary of the Musa in the North-eastern Division near 
 Mount Obree), there is a fall of 2,500 feet in 2 miles. The river 
 is about 60 feet wide and travelling at a rate of 10 miles an 
 hour, practically 8,800 cubic feet per second. This is repre- 
 sentative of one of the many mountain tributaries in Papua, 
 and by no means the largest. 
 
 Taking all the rivers of any size, with their tributaries, in 
 the Central, North-Eastern, Kumusi, and Mambare Divisions, 
 it is estimated that the available horse-power would be 
 somewhere in the vicinity of 6,000,000 ; and if we include the 
 huge river systems in the Gulf, Delta, and Western Divisions, 
 10 million h.p. would be well under the mark. 
 
 In addition to the 10 million h.p. available from Papua itself, 
 it is estimated that the occupied territory of German New 
 Guinea affords possibilities of between 7 and 10 million h.p. 
 
 This accumulation of energy in a country of approximately 
 the same size as the British Isles would appear to afford 
 the means, at some future time, of opening up industries 
 demanding large blocks of cheap power, on a scale hitherto 
 undreamed of in the Southern Hemisphere. 
 
 New Zealand. The physical characteristics of the two 
 islands forming New Zealand render the country particularly 
 well adapted for providing large stores of water-power, 
 and for facilitating their development. The backbone of high 
 mountains leads to heavy precipitation from the moist westerly 
 winds, giving a mean rainfall of some 50 inches for the whole 
 of the Dominion, while over a large portion of the South Island, 
 the rainfall exceeds 100 inches per annum. The mountain 
 ranges are studded with extensive lakes, situated above a 
 deeply indented coastline. The mountains of the Southern 
 Alps attain a height of over 12,000 feet, and support many 
 glaciers of large size which act beneficially in equalising the 
 run-of! throughout the year. 
 
 Reports by Mr. P. S. Hay and Mr. L. M. Hancock, pub- 
 lished in the New Zealand Parliamentary Papers of 1904, 
 gave a list of seventy-two important and promising schemes, 
 and placed the economically workable water-powers of the 
 Dominion at 3,700,000 b.h.p. on the turbine shafts. Of this, 
 500,000 h.p. is found in North Island and 3,200,000 in South 
 Island. 
 
34 WATER POWER IN THE BRITISH EMPIRE 
 
 Since Mr. Hay's report of 1904, the Public Works Depart- 
 ment has examined further schemes, adding to the original list. 
 The latest and most complete statement is published in the 
 New Zealand Government Year Book for 1914. 
 
 This table gives particulars of the more important available 
 water-powers exceeding 1,000 h.p., showing also the nearest 
 city or actual or potential port. 
 
 According to this report, the total available power is about 
 3,822,000 b.h.p. This is at the rate of about 37 h.p. per square 
 mile of territory, or 3'5 h.p. per head of the population. 
 
 The power actually developed and in use in 1916 is given 
 in the Government returns as 42,600 b.h.p. Many other 
 projects are, however, in course of construction or under con- 
 sideration. 
 
 A scheme for the development of three important sites in 
 the North Island has been prepared. From these it is pro- 
 -posed to develop 130,000 h.p., requiring a plant capacity, 
 in the main power stations, of 1 60,000 h.p. From these stations 
 at Manganao, Waikaremoana, and Arapuni, a network of 
 transmission lines, 1,420 miles in length, distributes the power 
 over the whole of the Island, The scheme is intended to 
 render power available for every householder in the Island 
 and for any industry ; also for main line electrification light 
 railways, and for coal and other mines. The sources men- 
 tioned are capable of supplying much more power than it is 
 proposed to develop under the present scheme, and an ample 
 reserve remains for any probable future demands. When 
 these schemes are completed the total water-power developed 
 in New Zealand will be approximately 180,000 h.p., but, as 
 this is only a small fraction of the available power, it is apparent 
 that the possibilities of future development, when the demand 
 for power arises, are very bright. 
 
 A report is also in course of preparation regarding the de- 
 velopment of water-power in the Province of Southland. 
 
 Various new industries depending on the supply of electric 
 energy are either started or are proposed, and it seems clear 
 that the Government will be drawn into extensive hydro- 
 electric development for the whole of the Dominion. 
 
 As regards State control, the Public Works Act of 1908 
 vests the sole right to use water-power in His Majesty, subject 
 to any existing rights, and gives the Government the right 
 
WATER-POWER IN THE BRITISH EMPIRE 35 
 
 to develop, or to delegate such power to any local authority, 
 or, outside a mining district, to any person or company, 
 subject to conditions. Advantage has been taken of this in 
 several cases, the right in the case of local authorities being 
 issued free of royalty, and in the case of private individuals 
 developing water-power for electrical distribution, subject to 
 a royalty of -^d. per unit generated. 
 
 The outlook for New Zealand, at the dawn of what promises 
 to be an era of unexpectedly great electro-chemical and electro- 
 metallurgical activity, is most promising. 
 
 As a centre for the manufacture of nitrogen products, 
 aluminium, calcium carbide, and the like, its situation is ideal. 
 The fundamental requirement, a great excess of energy over 
 the power needs of the country, is provided.* Further, that 
 power is convenient to the coast ; in some of the largest schemes 
 the generating plant will be actually on the coast, on deep- 
 water harbours. 
 
 To quote Mr. Hancock : 
 
 " The manufacturing of all Australasia and a great portion 
 of the Orient could be done here better and cheaper than 
 anywhere else. Being so near these markets, with this 
 unlimited power, and having a climate suited to a degree 
 to manufacturing purposes, the possibilities of the colony, 
 are almost beyond the bounds of fancy." 
 
 South Africa. -Little information is available regarding the 
 water-powers of the Union of South Africa. 
 
 The Governor-General reports that a systematic survey 
 of water-powers in South Africa, commenced in the latter 
 part of 1917, is now in progress. In view of the great shortage 
 of qualified staff, the work is at present being confined to a 
 general cataloguing and classification of water-powers. At 
 a later date it is intended to investigate the more promising 
 powers more fully. 
 
 Owing to the seasonal character of the rainfall throughout 
 South Africa, the flow of the rivers either is greatly diminished, 
 or entirely ceases, during a considerable period in each year, 
 and their value as sources of power is correspondingly dimin- 
 ished. It is, however, known that a number of important 
 
 * In 1904 the total developed boiler -power in the country, including 
 all locomotives, was given as 250,000 h.p. 
 
36 WATER-POWER IN THE BRITISH EMPIRE 
 
 falls occur, particularly on the eastern slopes of the Drakens- 
 berg Range, some of which are perennial and capable of de- 
 velopment. Some energy may also be developed on the Vaal 
 and Orange Rivers and the Mooi River of Natal and the 
 Transvaal. 
 
 Rhodesia. In Rhodesia the rivers capable of developing 
 large powers are in general very remote from present centres 
 of industry, and few powers have as yet been developed. 
 
 There are three great river systems in Southern Rhodesia 
 the Zambesi, the Sabi, and the Limpopo. Of these the 
 Zambesi is the more important. The 1918 Report of the 
 Rhodesian Munitions and Resources Committee gives details 
 of a gauging of this river at a point 5 miles above the Victoria 
 Falls. This gauging was carried out from the middle of 
 April to the middle of December, and, presumably, gives the 
 low- water flow for that particular year (1905). The results 
 show that the volume of water was then 11,750 cubic feet per 
 second. It is estimated that the available fall is 315 feet, 
 which would correspond to an output of about 350,000 b.h.p. 
 No definite data are available as to the flood power. At the 
 Kariba and Mapata Gorges the river offers further possi- 
 bilities, and units of 5,000 to 10,000 h.p. could probably be 
 installed. 
 
 Of the rivers in the Zambesi system, only the Hunyani, 
 Ruia, Mazoe, Inyagui, and Nyagadzi offer any possibilities 
 of power. The Hunyani cannot be relied upon for uniform 
 flows of any magnitude. 
 
 The other rivers of this system have a more or less uniform 
 flow. It is worthy of note that in this region, not only does 
 the uniformity of flow increase, but also in rivers of equal catch- 
 ments the percentage of run-off increases as their directions 
 bear round from West to East. 
 
 The Limpopo and its feeders offer practically no possi- 
 bilities owing to the great variability of flow, the flatness of 
 the gradients, the sandy nature of the bed and banks, and the 
 large amount of silt carried in suspension. 
 
 The Sabi river system offers greater possibilities. Its feeders 
 have a fairly uniform supply and steep gradients with occa- 
 sional falls, and it is estimated that it should be possible to 
 develop some 90,000 h.p. from this system. 
 
 Assuming that 75,000 h.p. can be usefully developed at the 
 
WATER-POWER IN THE BEITISH EMPIRE 37 
 
 Victoria Falls, the resources of Southern Rhodesia total about 
 220,000 e.h.p., made up as follows: 
 
 Victoria Falls 75,000 e.h.p. 
 
 Kariba Gorge 10,000 
 
 Mapata 10,000 
 
 Ruia River 5,000 
 
 Mazoe River 5,000 
 
 Inyagui 5,000 
 
 Nyagadzi 5,000 
 
 Sabi System 91,000 
 
 Plateau 13,000 
 
 Total .. 219,000 
 
 Large areas in the neighbourhood of the Sabi Rivers consist 
 of rich alluvial plateau land, which only requires irrigation 
 to render it capable of bearing ample crops of sugar, cotton, 
 rubber, etc., and as water is plentiful and only requires pump- 
 ing, there would appear to be an immediate use for any such 
 power as could be developed, in the irrigation and agricultural 
 development of the region. The success of such a scheme 
 would, however, depend on facilities for economical transport 
 to Beira or the Union. The district is, moreover, rich in 
 deposits of coal, copper, and other minerals, which are at 
 present not developed owing to the large cost of power and 
 the lack of transport facilities. 
 
 The possibilities appear sufficiently promising to warrant 
 a thorough hydrographical survey being carried out. 
 
 West Africa. It is estimated that some 250,000 h.p. is 
 available from the rivers of the Gold Coast. In Nigeria the 
 Kwa River is said to be capable of developing between 60,000 
 and 70,000 h.p.; the Calabar at Uivet, probably between 
 30,000 and 40,000 h.p. ; and the Niger, between Jebba and 
 Lokoja in the Northern Province, probably at least 150,000 
 h.p. A report from the Central Secretariat of Nigeria states 
 that the entire property in, and control of all rivers, streams, 
 and water-courses throughout the Dependency, is vested in the 
 Crown, except for any express grants made before the Minerals 
 Ordinance of 1916. The rainfall of various stations is given 
 in the Blue Book of Nigeria, Section G.G. 
 
 Federated Malay States. Information from the Director of 
 
38 WATER-POWER IN THE BRITISH EMPIRE 
 
 Public Works indicates that it is not possible to state even 
 approximately the potential horse-power of the Federated 
 Malay States. There are several large rivers, notably the 
 Perak and the Pahang, from which power could be de- 
 veloped, but the localities are too remote for any present use 
 to be made of the power. 
 
 Altogether some 11,250 h.p. is at present developed hydrauli- 
 cally; of this, 8,800 h.p. is used on mines for hydraulicking, 
 and 2,450 h.p. for hydro-electric plants. All but 300 h.p. 
 of this was used for power purposes on mines. With the excep- 
 tion of mining, there appears to be little demand for power at 
 present. 
 
 There are a fair number of records of rainfall in the various 
 small towns throughout the States, some extending over 
 twenty years. The greater part of the country is covered with 
 jungle, and it has not been possible to take records in such 
 localities. 
 
 A beginning was made about four years ago to record the 
 discharges of weirs which are likely to be useful for irrigation 
 purposes, and these records are to be extended. As yet, 
 however, the amount of information is very small. 
 
 Canada. During recent years the Canadian Government, 
 through the Dominion Water-Power Branch of the Depart- 
 ment of the Interior, has devoted much attention to the 
 systematic examination and development of the hydraulic 
 resources of the Dominion, and the data, as regards the largest, 
 most readily available, and most promising water-powers 
 are sufficiently complete to permit a reasonably close idea of 
 their possibilities to be obtained. These data are published 
 in a series of some twenty-four reports issued by the Dominion 
 Water-Power Branch. This Department has instituted a 
 comprehensive system of mapping, indexing, and filing all 
 available information concerning every important water-power 
 throughout the populated portion of the Dominion. This 
 system has been developed in collaboration with all the 
 Provincial Authorities, and is intended to form a clearing- 
 house from which all available information regarding the water - 
 power and allied resources of any given district can be immedi- 
 ately supplied. Much information is also contained in the 
 reports of the Commission of Conservation, and in the Annual 
 Reports of the Hydro-Electric Power Commission of Ontario. 
 
WATER-POWER IN THE BRITISH EMPIRE 39 
 
 In view of the fact that hydro-electrical development in 
 Canada has attained a stage far in advance of that as yet 
 obtaining in any other part of the Empire, the following in- 
 formation as to the organisation existing in the Dominion 
 for the collection of information as to water resources and their 
 developments may be of interest. 
 
 These organisations are both Federal and Provincial. 
 
 Federal. (a) The Department of the Interior operates 
 through the Dominion Water-Power Branch and the Irrigation 
 Branch. 
 
 1. The Dominion Water-Power Branch 
 
 (1) Carries on stream measurement work in British Columbia 
 under the name of the British Columbia Hydrometric Survey, 
 and co-operates with the Provincial Water Rights Branch. 
 
 (2) Carries on all power and storage investigations in Alberta 
 and Saskatchewan, and co-operates with the Federal Irriga- 
 tion Branch in these two provinces. 
 
 (3) Carries on all stream measurement work and power 
 and storage investigations in the Province of Manitoba under 
 the name of the Manitoba Hydrometric Survey. 
 
 (4) Carries on all stream measurement work and power and 
 storage investigations in the Province of New Brunswick in 
 co-operation with the New Brunswick Water-Power Com- 
 mission. 
 
 (5) Carries on all stream measurement work and power 
 and storage investigations in the Province of Nova Scotia in 
 co-operation with the Nova Scotia Water-Power Commission. 
 
 (6) Co-operates with the Census and Statistics Bureau of 
 the Department of Trade and Commerce in the securing of 
 power census statistics throughout the Dominion, 
 
 2. The Irrigation Branch 
 
 Carries on all stream measurement work in Alberta and 
 Saskatchewan. 
 
 (b) The Public Works Department carries out investigations 
 on International and navigable waters. 
 
 (c) The Department of Trade and Commerce through the 
 Census and Statistics Branch includes in its operations a 
 census of all electrical central stations, including hydro- 
 electric undertakings, co-operating in this work with the 
 Dominion Water-Power Branch. 
 
 4 
 
40 WATER-POWER IN THE BRITISH EMPIRE 
 
 (d) The Department of Marine and Fisheries maintains a 
 Meteorological Service for Canada. 
 
 Provincial. The British Columbia Water Rights Branch 
 has administrative control, and co-operates with the Dominion 
 Water-Power Branch as outlined above. 
 
 Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba are administered 
 and investigated federally by the Dominion Water-power 
 Branch. 
 
 The Ontario Hydro-Electric Commission has a Hydraulic 
 Division which is charged with the investigation of power 
 possibilities and stream measurements in Ontario. 
 
 The Quebec Streams Commission carries out all investiga- 
 tions in Quebec. 
 
 The New Brunswick Water-Power Commission has adminis- 
 trative control in New Brunswick, and co-operates with the 
 Dominion Water-Power Branch as outlined above. 
 
 The Nova Scotia Water-Power Commission has administra- 
 tive control in Nova Scotia, and co-operates with the Dominion 
 Water-Power Branch as outlined. 
 
 Commission on Conservation. This Commission is advisory 
 in function and status, and, while financed by an annual 
 appropriation from the Federal Parliament, forms no portion 
 of the ordinary Governmental Administration, and possesses 
 no executive or administrative powers. It is authorised solely 
 to study, investigate, and advise. The Commission has formed 
 itself into seven Committees dealing, among other matters, 
 with lands, forests, water and water-power, minerals, and 
 fisheries. It has done much excellent work, and has issued 
 a series of very comprehensive summary reports of the water- 
 powers of Canada as a whole. It has also issued reports 
 dealing with the water-powers of Manitoba, Saskatchewan, 
 and Alberta, and is at present engaged on a comprehensive 
 report of the water-powers of British Columbia. It is also 
 responsible for a number of special reports dealing with power 
 matters of pressing importance, including those concerning 
 international interests and rights. 
 
 The Canadian Government, by an Order in Council dated 
 April 25, 1918, has established a body to be known as the 
 " Dominion Power Board." This Board, under the chairman- 
 ship of the Minister of the Interior, consists of nine engineer 
 officials selected from the permanent staff of the different 
 
WATER-POWER IN THE BRITISH EMPIRE 41 
 
 departments of the Dominion Government. Its function is to 
 make a systematic study of the fuel-power situation through- 
 out Canada with a view to encourage the substitution of water- 
 power for fuel-power wherever practicable, and so to co- 
 ordinate the use of water and fuel resources that fuel, and in 
 particular coal, may in future be reserved for purposes such 
 as heating for which it is at present indispensable. It is felt 
 that the rail and water transportation facilities will thereby 
 be relieved of an unnecessary burden, the nation's balance of 
 trade will be favourably affected, since a large part of the coal 
 supply is now imported, fuel resources will be conserved, and 
 the substituted agency, water-power, can never be depleted 
 through use. 
 
 Canada is exceptionally fortunate in the extent and distribu- 
 tion of its water-powers. Extending over a belt of several 
 thousand miles in length, from Alaska to Labrador, and over a 
 width of several hundred miles, there is an almost continuous 
 network of lakes and rivers. The table on p. 46 shows how 
 general is the distribution of water-power throughout the 
 Dominion. 
 
 The Canadian Conservation Committee estimates that of 
 the 3,730,000 square miles of the Dominion, 2,000,000 miles 
 may be expected to be fairly thickly settled within th.e next 
 few decades. The remaining area, comprising the North- 
 West Territories, the Northern and Eastern portions of 
 Quebec, and the greater part of the Yukon, is known to have 
 thousands of water-powers, but the capacities of these are so 
 imperfectly known, and they are so remote from any present 
 market, that they are not included in any statistics. 
 
 Excluding these districts, it is estimated that 18,803,000 h.p. 
 is available. This amount includes, in the case of Niagara, 
 Fort Frances, and the St. Mary's River at Sault St. Marie, 
 only the development permitted by international treaties, 
 and does not take into account the possibilities of storage for 
 the improvement of present capacities. 
 
 The power actually developed up to 1919 amounted to 
 approximately 2,300,000 h.p. About 75 per cent, of this is 
 used for electric light and electric railway and motive-power 
 work, but some 450,000 h.p. is utilised in the manufacture 
 of paper from wood-pulp. 
 
 The Department of the Interior in 1917 prepared a sum- 
 
42 WATER-POWER IN THE BRITISH EMPIRE 
 
 mary of powers as yet undeveloped, but which were capable 
 of rapid and easy development and which aggregate 5.400,000 
 h.p. In addition to these it was estimated that existing plants 
 could be extended so as to develop an additional 280,000 h.p., 
 so that an aggregate of 7,500,000 h.p. is readily available 
 within range of present markets. At the present accelerated 
 rate of development it appears more than probable that the 
 whole of this energy will be utilised within the next twenty 
 years or so. 
 
 On the Winnipeg River almost as much power is available 
 as is now in use at Niagara. In addition to two plants now 
 in operation, and supplying the city of Winnipeg and district, 
 a further seven sites, aggregating 313,500 h.p. (twenty-four- 
 hour power) have been exhaustively investigated, and detailed 
 plans and estimates prepared by Government engineers show 
 that these powers can be developed at from 9 2s. to 14 125. 
 per h.p. installed, equivalent to from 195. to 29s. per h.p. year. 
 
 In Quebec, the Saguenay River alone offers three power 
 sites which can be easily developed to give a total of 1,000,000 
 h.p. at tide water, with facilities for industrial sites and docks 
 for ocean-going vessels of the largest type, and railroad con- 
 nection with Quebec. On the Nelson River, Manitoba, 
 there is available at a number of sites, with heads from 17 to 
 52 feet, some 2,000,000 twenty-four-hour continuous power, 
 or 4,000,000 h.p. for eight months of the year. The river is fed 
 by large lakes, and has very uniform flow, while, owing to the 
 proximity of the Hudson Bay Railway, the power reach is 
 readily accessible. 
 
 Shawinigan Falls on the St. Maurice River, about 80 miles 
 east of Montreal, forms an interesting example of a case in 
 which an industrial community has been brought into exist- 
 ence around a water-power. On completion of the storage 
 works now under construction, the river will have a capacity 
 of 204,000 h.p. at the minimum flow period, and this is practi- 
 cally the present capacity of the installed machinery at the 
 Falls. Water is used in the electric generating stations of the 
 Shawinigan Water and Power Co., and is also sold to the 
 Northern Aluminium Co., which generates 33,000 h.p. for 
 use in reduction furnaces, and to the Belgo-Canadian Pulp 
 and Paper Co., which utilises 14,000 h.p. for pulp-machinery. 
 The Canadian Carbide Co. also absorbs 12,000 h.p., so that 
 
WATER-POWER IN THE BRITISH EMPIRE 43 
 
 besides a miscellaneous local load, industries have been created 
 using 60,000 h.p. at a site where only a few years ago no com- 
 munity existed, and transportation facilities were entirely 
 absent. 
 
 Hydro-Electric Power Commission of Ontario. In initiating 
 a new development at Niagara this Commission has issued 
 specifications that show a notable increase in the size of units 
 to be employed. 
 
 This is known as the Chippawa-Queenston development, 
 and is on the Niagara River about 1 mile south of the village 
 of Queenston. The water will be brought from beyond the 
 Falls along a canal 13 miles in length, now under construction, 
 and the total capacity will be 300,000 h.p. 
 
 Specifications have been issued for four single runner 
 vertical turbines of 52,500 h.p. each, at 305 feet head and 187 '5 
 r.p.m. Tenders are stated to have been received from three 
 well-known American firms. The generators will be of 45,000 
 kilovolt-amperes capacity at 80 per cent, power factor, 
 25 cvcles, 12,000 volts. 
 
 These turbines will be considerably the largest ever built. 
 The highest powered machines now in operation are believed 
 to be the two 22,500 h.p. units at 168 feet head of the Washing- 
 ton Water-Power Co., Washington, U.S.A., with an overload 
 capacity of nearly 25,000 h.p., and the largest in dimensions 
 the nine 10,800 h.p. units at 30 feet head, of the Cedar Rapids 
 Manufacturing and Power Co., St. Lawrence River, Quebec, 
 Canada. The highest powered vertical turbines are the six 
 20,000 h.p. units of the Laurentide Company, at Grand Mere, 
 Quebec, Canada. 
 
 It may be noted that this Commission initiated, organised, 
 and operates what is believed to be the largest electric trans- 
 mission system in the world. It has ten systems in operation 
 in Ontario. The largest is that known as the Niagara system, 
 which now supplies 118 municipalities with a total population 
 of nearly 1,000,000, the greatest length of transmission from 
 the source of power being 274 miles and the main line voltage 
 110,000. Including the other nine systems some 225 munici- 
 palities are supplied by 3,000 miles of transmission lines. 
 
 The following recent developments in Canada are of interest : 
 
 St. Lawrence River. As is well known, this large navigable 
 river forms, for part of its length, the boundary between Canada 
 
44 WATER-POWER IN THE BRITISH EMPIRE 
 
 and the United States, and is the subject of international 
 treaties. There are some 700,000 h.p. capable of inter- 
 national development by the two countries. Of this inter- 
 national portion Canada's share is 400,000 h.p., and the 
 Canadian share of the total power capacity of the river is 
 1,800,000 h.p. 
 
 An Order in Council by the Canadian Government, dated 
 September 2, 1918, in reference to this river contains some 
 important announcements on matters of policy. 
 
 It makes a proposal " that the two Governments should 
 take immediate steps jointly to prepare and carry out a scheme 
 looking to the most economical and comprehensive develop- 
 ment of the waters of the St. Lawrence River in the interests 
 of the people of both countries. Even though the utilisation 
 of only a portion of the whole capacity of the river can be im- 
 mediately contemplated, yet the endeavour should be to 
 design at the outset a complete scheme into which successive 
 developments might be fitted from time to time as and when 
 occasion might demand. . . . 
 
 "It is certain that the subordinate (to navigation) and 
 incidental, but important, use of these international boundary 
 waters for power purposes can never be rendered as efficient 
 and productive through a policy of simply permitting a hap- 
 hazard series of unrelated private enterprises as through a 
 carefully considered and comprehensive scheme of develop- 
 ment carried out under public auspices by the two 
 countries. ..." 
 
 A comprehensive scheme is stated to have already been 
 tentatively submitted in its broad outlines. Surplus power 
 generated and not needed in Canada would be exported to the 
 United States under treaty arrangements, permitting of its 
 return when required on the Canadian side of the inter- 
 national boundary. 
 
 A complete census of hydro-electric developments through- 
 out Canada has recently (February, 1919) been completed by 
 the Dominion Water-power Branch in co-operation with the 
 Dominion Bureau of Statistics, and shows a total of 2,305,310 
 hydro-electric horse-power now developed. The increase in the 
 last eight years has been 126 per cent. It is of interest to note 
 that this brings up the developed hydraulic horse-power in 
 Canada to 276 per 1,000 of the population. The most recent 
 
WATER-POWER IN THE BRITISH EMPIRE 45 
 
 figures available for the United States indicate less than 
 100 h.p. 
 
 Respecting capital cost, an analysis of the returns for 70 
 representative hydro-electric stations with an aggregate 
 capacity of 746,000 h.p., omitting real estate, transmission, 
 and distribution, shows an average total construction cost 
 of $69.11 (14 4s.) per installed turbine horse-power. 
 
 The complete census covers the whole field of Central 
 Station industry in Canada and is published in two volumes. 
 Part I., comprising a statistical survey, will be obtainable 
 from the Dominion Bureau of Statistics, Ottawa. Part II. 
 forms a comprehensive directory of all power stations in opera- 
 tion throughout Canada, showing the principal features of 
 each, the locations where blocks of electric energy are for sale 
 and at what price, transportation facilities available, etc. 
 Part II. will be obtainable from the Dominion Water-power 
 Branch, Ottawa. 
 
 The table on p. 46 gives a summary of the results shown 
 by this census as regards hydro-electric power. 
 
 State Control. It has been fortunate that in Canada the 
 water-power rights have mainly remained in the control of 
 the Dominion or Provincial Governments. The Dominion 
 Government controls navigable and floatable streams and their 
 water-powers, and in addition, through the Water-power 
 Branch of the Department of the Interior, controls all water- 
 power developments in the provinces of Manitoba, Saskatche- 
 wan, Alberta, the North-west Territories, and the Yukon, and 
 has now nearly completed a revision of the Dominion Water- 
 Power Law and Regulations designed to bring these in line 
 with the best and most modern practice. 
 
 The policy of the Government in respect to the control and 
 administration of water-powers is that the title should be 
 retained by the Crown, that the public should be protected 
 by securing the maximum possible advantageous development 
 of each river, by control of the rates, by reasonable rentals, 
 etc., and that at the same time the inducements should be such 
 as to encourage legitimate enterprise for the development of 
 power resources. 
 
 In the province of Ontario the Department of Lands, 
 Forests, and Mines, in conjunction with the Hydro-Electric 
 Commission of Ontario, controls the powers on other than 
 
46 WATEK-POWER IN THE BRITISH EMPIRE 
 
 navigable streams. This Commission is virtually a Govern- 
 ment Commission acting in trust for the various municipalities 
 which have combined for the securing of cheap power. 
 
 DOMINION WATER-POWER BRANCH AND DOMINION BUREAU or 
 STATISTICS. 
 
 Distribution of developed water-power in Canada by provinces and by 
 use of power, 1918. Figures represent installed turbine horse-power. 
 
 
 1. 
 
 2. 
 
 3. 
 
 4. 
 
 
 Central 
 Electric 
 Stations. 
 
 Pulp and 
 Paper. 
 
 Other 
 Industries. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 H.P. 
 
 H.P. 
 
 H.P. 
 
 H.P. 
 
 Yukon 
 
 10,000 
 
 
 
 3,392 
 
 13,392 
 
 British Columbia 
 
 221,625 
 
 46,450 
 
 44,348 
 
 312,423 
 
 Alberta 
 
 32,580 
 
 
 
 300 
 
 32,880 
 
 Saskatchewan 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Manitoba 
 
 64,100 
 
 
 
 12,072 
 
 76,172 
 
 Ontario 
 
 791,163 
 
 133,952 
 
 59,945 
 
 985,060 
 
 Quebec 
 
 597,601 
 
 155,512 
 
 89,648 
 
 842,761 
 
 New Brunswick 
 
 6,878 
 
 2,800 
 
 5,191 
 
 14,869 
 
 Nova Scotia 
 
 3,354 
 
 13,500 
 
 9,170 
 
 26,024 
 
 Prince Edward Island 
 
 170 
 
 
 
 1,559 
 
 1,729 
 
 
 1,727,471 
 
 352,214 
 
 225,625 
 
 2,305,310 
 
 Column 1 includes only hydro -electric stations which develop 
 electrical power for sale. The stations in this column are designed 
 for extensions of 530,000 h.p., and the Hydro -Electric Power Commis- 
 sion of Ontario has commenced construction of a 300,000 h.p. plant 
 on Niagara River, a total of 830,000 h.p. new construction or exten- 
 sions in view. 
 
 Column 2 includes only the water-power owned by pulp and paper 
 companies. In addition to this total, upwards of 100,000 hydro- 
 electric h.p. is purchased by pulp and paper companies, mainly 
 from the Central Electric Stations included in Column 1 . The hydraulic 
 power utilised in the pulp and paper industry of Canada therefore 
 totals 450,000 h.p. 
 
 In the province of Quebec the Department of Lands and 
 Forests controls the power in provincial waters. In Nova 
 Scotia many of the water-rights are privately owned outright, 
 from eighteenth-century land grants, but the remaining sites, 
 as in New Brunswick, are under full provincial control. 
 
WATER-POWER IN THE BRITISH EMPIRE 47 
 
 To its wealth of water-power, the Dominion adds the advan- 
 tage of a great share in the world's forest and mineral resources. 
 Coal, iron, copper, nickel, gold, silver, cobalt, lead, asbestos, 
 and mica are widely distributed, and the proximity of large 
 hydraulic powers to the mineral deposits will prove a great 
 stimulus to the development of both. 
 
 Newfoundland. No estimate has been made of the water- 
 powers of Newfoundland, but these are known to be of con- 
 siderable importance. So far about 6,000 h.p. has been de- 
 veloped for general industrial purposes and lighting. About 
 54,000 h.p. has been developed for use in the pulp and paper 
 mills, and in view of the extent of the forests available for 
 pulp-making, it is probable that the future demand for power 
 for this purpose will be very large. 
 
 Smaller Islands of the South Pacific Ocean. Some few of the 
 islands of the South Pacific Ocean offer possibilities of hydraulic 
 power on a fairly large scale in spite of their comparatively 
 small size. The more promising are New Britain, New 
 Ireland, Guadalcana, Ysabel, Bougainville, Espiritu Santo, 
 Viti Levu, and Vanua Levu. These islands may be expected 
 to produce a total of quite 500,000 h.p. On the other hand, 
 the greater part of such power would be available only after 
 considerable expenditure in retaining walls and dams, and 
 as the islands are subject to outbreaks of earthquake activity, 
 the question of the maintenance of the necessary hydraulic 
 works would be serious. 
 
 PRESENT STATE OF INVESTIGATION WORK. 
 
 The present state of affairs as regards investigation through- 
 out the Empire may briefly be summarised as follows : 
 
 United Kingdom. Active investigations are being made 
 and definite steps taken by the Water-power Resources 
 Committee of the Board of Trade. 
 
 Canada. Water-power investigation and development is 
 highly organised and carried out on a large scale. 
 
 India. Investigation commenced under Government 
 Departments. A preliminary report already issued. More 
 detailed surveys proceeding and reports expected shortly. 
 Lecture courses in hydro-electric engineering instituted in 
 all chief colleges controlled by Government. 
 
 Commonwealth of Australia. The N.S.W. Government 
 
48 WATER-POWER IN THE BRITISH EMPIRE 
 
 has made some investigations and issued an interim report. 
 Victoria has a Hydro-Electric Department, and is urging on 
 the Government the necessity for further investigation. In 
 Queensland no definite information is available. 
 
 Tasmania has a State Hydro-Electric Department, and is 
 carrying out investigations of some of the most promising 
 sites. A fair amount of development work has already been 
 carried out. 
 
 New Zealand. Many fine powers. Considerable investiga- 
 tions carried out by Government since 1903, and it is pursuing 
 an active development policy. 
 
 Union of South Africa. Systematic investigation is pro- 
 posed by the Government, and preliminary cataloguing and 
 classification is in hand. 
 
 Ceylon. The matter is being considered by a Committee 
 appointed by the Government. Some investigation work in 
 progress. 
 
 East Africa Protectorate. The Government has appointed 
 an engineer to make a hydrometric survey. Funds not avail- 
 able for any extended work. 
 
 British Guiana. A preliminary investigation of a number 
 of sites has been made. Stream gauging operations are in- 
 tended, and a further and more extended examination of the 
 more promising sites is probable. 
 
 Egypt. The subject is under consideration, particularly 
 as regards the possibility of utilising the power rendered avail- 
 able by the construction of the Aswan Dam. 
 
 Honduras, New Guinea, and Newfoundland are portions of 
 the Empire known to have very large water-power resources, 
 but in which little investigation has been made, and in which 
 no definite steps to that end are being taken. 
 
 Gold Coast, Pacific Islands, and Rhodesia are known to have 
 considerable water-power, but even less information avail- 
 able, and no steps being taken. 
 
 Malay States* Nigeria, and West Africa. Practically no 
 information available and no steps being taken. 
 
 * Since the publication of the final report of the Water -Power 
 Committee, a report dated May, 1921, on Electric Light and Power 
 Supplies for Malaya, by Mr. F. Bolton, M.Inst.C.E., has become 
 available. This is a record of investigations carried out for the Crown 
 Agents for the Colonies since 1919, and deals, among other things, 
 with the hydro -electric possibilities of Malaya. 
 
WATER-POWER IN THE BRITISH EMPIRE 49 
 
 It will be seen that in Great Britain, India, Canada, New 
 Zealand, Tasmania, and some portion of Australia, more or 
 less adequate steps are being taken by the various Govern- 
 ments, and that definite preliminary steps have been taken 
 in the Union of South Africa, in British East Africa, in Ceylon, 
 in British Guiana, and in Egypt. In the remaining coun- 
 tries of the Empire nothing definite is being done, or appears 
 to be projected, although the potential water-power in many 
 of these is known to be very large indeed; while where investi- 
 gation work has been initiated, with the exception of Great 
 Britain, Canada, New Zealand, and possibly India, the scope 
 of the work does not appear to be in any way commensurate 
 with the importance of the subject. 
 
 Taking the Empire as a whole, no attempt is being made to 
 ascertain the total resources, to secure any uniformity in 
 methods of investigation and recording of data, to encourage 
 such investigations as are being made, or to collect the informa- 
 tion as it becomes available at a central bureau. At present 
 not even an approximately complete inventory exists, much 
 less the practical and commercial information that would 
 assist development -of this important national resource. 
 
 CONCLUSIONS. 
 
 The main conclusions to be drawn from the evidence avail- 
 able to the Committee are : 
 
 (1) That the potential water-power of the Empire amounts 
 in the aggregate to at least 50 to 70 million horse-power. 
 
 (2) That much of this is capable of immediate economic 
 development. 
 
 (3) That except in Canada and New Zealand, and to a less 
 extent in India, New South Wales, and Tasmania, no 
 systematic attempt has as yet been made by any Government 
 Department to ascertain the true possibilities of the hydraulic 
 resources of its territories, or to collect the relevant data. 
 
 (4) That the development of the Empire's natural resources 
 is inseparably connected with that of its water-powers. 
 
 (5) That the development of such enormous possibilities 
 should not be left to chance, but should be carried out under 
 the guidance of some competent authority. 
 
50 WATER-POWEK IN THE BRITISH EMPIRE 
 
 In view of these conclusions the Committee would submit 
 the following recommendations : 
 
 RECOMMENDATIONS. 
 
 1. That the British Government bring before the notice of 
 the Indian Government, of the various Dominion Govern- 
 ments, and of the Governing Bodies of the Crown Colonies, the 
 necessity for a close systematic investigation of all reason- 
 ably promising water-powers, and of their economic possi- 
 bilities. 
 
 2. That the British Government take steps to ascertain 
 whether the Governments concerned are prepared to under- 
 take this work. 
 
 3. That where such an enquiry is beyond the powers of any 
 governing body, the British or Imperial Government place 
 the work under the direct control of an " Imperial Water - 
 Power Board " or " Conservation Commission." 
 
 4. That the Government take steps to initiate the formation 
 of such an " Imperial Water-Power Board " or " Imperial 
 Conservation Commission," to include a representative from 
 each of the Dominions and Dependencies. 
 
 5. That this Board act in an advisory capacity. 
 
 It should decide on the sequence of such investigation work 
 as comes under its purview. 
 
 It is suggested that all schemes for the development of which 
 local resources are inadequate, should be submitted to the 
 Board by the Governments concerned, and that the Board 
 should make recommendations on which the Imperial Govern- 
 ment might take action. 
 
 Such a Board would be able to take a broad and compre- 
 hensive view of the advantages to the Empire as a whole, 
 attending the development of any given scheme, and would be 
 able to form a reasonable decision as to the relative advan- 
 tages of such different schemes as might be brought forward 
 from different parts of the Empire. 
 
 6. That since it is unlikely that private capital will be 
 available for many years for hydraulic development on any 
 large scale, powers should be obtained to enable the State 
 to assist or to undertake such development if thought 
 advisable. 
 
WATER-POWER IN THE BRITISH EMPIRE 51 
 
 It is suggested that much might be done to attract private 
 capital, if the State, after careful investigation, were to 
 guarantee a suitable minimum interest on the necessary capital, 
 sharing at the same time in any profits beyond the amount 
 necessary to provide that interest. By this method of assist- 
 ance private enterprise would be untrammelled, and the 
 management of the concerns so assisted would remain in 
 private hands. 
 
 7. In view of the great developments in hydro-electric 
 engineering which are inevitable throughout the Empire 
 during the coming decade, it would appear to be of the greatest 
 importance that the engineers of Great Britain should be pre- 
 pared to take a commensurate part in such development. 
 In the past large scale hydro-electric engineering has been 
 confined very largely to Canadian, American, or Continental 
 engineers and corporations, and unless some definite and early 
 endeavour is made in this country to make up the leeway, 
 it is probable that the bulk of the Empire's future water- 
 power will be developed outside the country. 
 
 While there is some indication that strong financial and 
 manufacturing interests are now considering such develop- 
 ments, the Committee would draw attention to the lack of 
 facilities in our Universities for giving the necessary specialised 
 scientific training to the young engineer wishing to enter this 
 field of engineering. 
 
 The Committee would emphasise the fact that an adequate 
 supply of suitably trained engineers is essential to the attain- 
 ment and maintenance of such a position in the hydro-electric 
 world as is commensurate with the importance and capacity 
 of the British engineering industry. It attaches great im- 
 portance to the early provision of training facilities of such a 
 standard as those, for example, at Cornell University, in one 
 or more of the engineering schools in this country, and would 
 recommend that its views in this matter be brought to the 
 notice of the Minister of Education and of the Secretary for 
 Scotland. * 
 
 8. That the Government be advised to take steps to con- 
 vene an Imperial Water-Power Conference in London in the 
 near future. This Conference would include a member from 
 each of the Dominions and Dependencies of the Empire. 
 
52 WATER-POWER IN THE BRITISH EMPIRE 
 
 PROPOSED IMPERIAL WATER-POWER BOARD. 
 
 In view of the importance which the Committee attach to 
 the formation of this Board, they would desire to make a few 
 suggestions as to the principal objects that it should endeavour 
 to carry out. 
 
 (a) It should get into touch with every Dominion and 
 Dependency with a view to ensuring comprehensive investiga- 
 tion on a uniform method and system, and to secure the initia- 
 tion of investigations where these are not already in hand. 
 The Water-power Resources Committee of the Board of 
 Trade are making a thorough study of methods of securing and 
 recording water-power data, and it would have many advan- 
 tages if the methods suggested by that Committee or some 
 modification of these could be adopted as far as possible 
 throughout the Empire. Uniformity in this matter would add 
 greatly to the commercial value of the data secured . 
 
 (6) The Board should endeavour to make co-operative 
 arrangements for carrying out investigations in such Depen- 
 dencies as are not in a position to undertake them unaided, 
 on some such basis as is arranged under similar circumstances 
 by the United States. 
 
 (c) Arrangements should be made with all Overseas authori- 
 ties for complete copies of all data secured and reports issued 
 to be on file at an Imperial headquarters in London for the 
 information of promoters or companies seeking for water- 
 power to develop, and for incorporation as desired in Imperial 
 publications on water resources. 
 
 (d) From these the Board should compile and publish an 
 Annual Report, and detailed annual records of investigations 
 throughout the Empire in a uniform form, as is done by the 
 United States in its " Water Supply Papers," and by the 
 Dominion of Canada in its " Water Resources Papers." Such 
 a course could not fail to stimulate the investment of capital in 
 the development of natural resources. 
 
 (e) The Board should keep a complete and up-to-date file 
 at its headquarters in London of all information obtained on 
 water-power resources in all parts of the Empire, in such a 
 form that the information available as to any river or district 
 could be immediately produced and summarised. It should, 
 
WATER-POWER IN THE BRITISH EMPIRE 53 
 
 in fact, be a Central Clearing House of information on this 
 subject for the whole Empire. 
 
 (/) The information on record should include such particulars 
 as are known of allied natural resources available for manu- 
 facturing purposes, transportation facilities, etc. It is not 
 suggested that the Board should investigate natural resources 
 other than water-power, but that it should collate brief particu- 
 lars of such resources locally available with references as to 
 where fuller information can be obtained. 
 
 (g) It should be possible for any capitalist or company 
 needing cheap power in large quantities to ascertain at the 
 offices of the Board, from information immediately available, 
 all the water-powers in certain districts, with the state of in- 
 vestigation for each, in such a form that it could be decided 
 which locality and which power appeared sufficiently promising 
 to justify further detailed investigation. If a definite enquiry 
 were received by mail it should be possible to send promptly 
 a digest of the information available. 
 
 (h) For such purposes, whenever possible, investigations 
 of rivers should be carried out with sufficient thoroughness to 
 allow of reasonably close estimates of costs being obtained. 
 These estimates should be made by the engineers of the 
 Government concerned. 
 
 (i) To carry out these functions the Board would require 
 a permanent staff consisting of administrative officers, techni- 
 cal experts, and clerical assistants. A permanent staff dealing 
 with the resources of all parts of the Empire would be necessary 
 to secure continuity of policy and absolute impartiality. 
 
 The Committee feel that the creation of such a Central Board 
 to assist and record all available data would give an impetus 
 to the investigation of water-power resources, and that the 
 greater uniformity of methods of investigation and recording 
 to be secured by such a Board would add greatly to the com- 
 mercial value of the information. 
 
 While the Committee have been able to deal with the 
 enquiries submitted to them and with the somewhat meagre 
 information so far available, they feel that, forming as they 
 do a body without any permanent staff and without financial 
 resources, it will be quite beyond their powers to deal efficiently 
 with the results of the many Empire investigations recently 
 
54 WATER-POWER IN THE BRITISH EMPIRE 
 
 initiated when these become available. Under the circum- 
 stances they have come to the conclusion that little further 
 benefit would result from a continuation of their activities, 
 and have decided to conclude these with the presentation of 
 these reports. 
 
 The personnel of the Committee is as follows ; 
 
 Mr. John Ashford, M.Inst.C.E. 
 
 Sir John Benton, K.C.I.E. 
 
 Sir Dugald Clerk, K.B.E., F.R.S. 
 
 (Chairman}. 
 Professor E. David, C.M.G., 
 
 F.R.S. 
 Professor A. H. Gibson, D.Sc., 
 
 M.Inst.C.E. (Hon. Secretary}. 
 Mr. W. Vaux Graham, M.Inst.C.E. 
 Mr. H. E. M. Kensit, M.Inst.E.E. 
 Mr. A. E. Kitson. 
 The Right Hon. Lord Lamington, 
 
 G.C.M.G., G.C.I.E. 
 Sir Murdoch Macdonald, K.C.M.G., 
 
 M.Inst.C.E. 
 Sir Douglas Mawson, D.Sc. 
 
 Professor J. C. McLennan, Ph.D., 
 
 F.R.S. 
 
 Mr. H. R. MiU, D.Sc., LL.D. 
 Mr. A. Newlands, M.Inst.C.E. 
 Mr. Evan Parry, B.Sc., M.Inst.C.E., 
 
 M.Inst.E.E. 
 
 Sir John Snell, M.Inst.C.E. 
 Mr. A. A. Campbell Swinton, F.R.S. 
 The Right Hon. Lord Sydenham, 
 
 G.C.S.I., G.C.M.G., F.R.S. 
 Sir Joseph J. Thomson, O.M., 
 
 Pres.R.S. (Chairman of the Con- 
 
 joint Board). 
 
 Professor W. C. Unwin, F.R.S. 
 Professor W. W. Watts, F.R.S. 
 (Hon- .Sec. of the Conjoint Board). 
 
 PRINTED IN QKEAT BRITAIN BY BILLING AND SONS, LTD., OUILDFORD AND 
 
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY 
 BERKELEY 
 
 fairn to desk from which 
 This book is DUE on the last date stamped below. 
 
 
 28Apr'49CP 
 
 6JUL'55DS 
 
 JUN231955LI 
 
 LD 21-100m-9,'48(B399sl6)476 
 
YB 53326 
 
 
 a 
 
 52027 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY