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 THE LIBRARY 
 
 OF 
 
 THE UNIVERSITY 
 
 OF CALIFORNIA 
 
 LOS ANGELES 
 
 GIFT OF 
 
 Mrs. -Feres

 
 A VISION OF WHAT MIGHT BE 
 Signor Ulivi Claims That with His "F-Rays" Explosives Can Be 
 
 Ignited at a Distance
 
 EXCITING PERSONAL EXPERIENCES 
 
 EUROPE AT WAR 
 
 Thrilling Stories of the Great Battles of the World 
 and the Greatest War of all Wars 
 
 Showing the causes that led up to it, including the assasi- 
 
 nation of the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne and 
 
 his wife, together with the history of previous European 
 
 wars of modern times. 
 
 Also giving the Military and Naval Strength of the Nations at War, Their 
 Previous Relations and National Characteristics. 
 
 ILLUSTRATED WITH PHOTOGRAPHS, MAPS AND DRAWINGS 
 
 By JUDGE HENRY NEIL 
 
 Known Throughout the World as the Father of Mothers' Pensions 
 
 Also known by his pen name 
 
 MARSHALL EVERETT 
 
 Author of a History of Japanese-Russian War, History of the Spanish- 
 American War, Life of William McKinley, Story of the Titanic Disaster 
 
 THE BIBLE HOUSE 
 
 CHICAGO, ILLINOIS
 
 Copyright 1914, by 
 
 THE BIBLE HOUSE 
 
 CHICAGO, ILLINOIS 
 
 ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
 
 Dm 
 
 3i& 
 
 PREFACE 
 
 The spectacle of all but one of the really great powers of 
 Europe at war eclipses all the other war spectacles in the 
 history of the world in the number of troops, the magnitude 
 of armament and the theater of operations. 
 
 Millions of men met upon battlefields where tens of 
 thousands had met before. Siege guns of a size unheard of 
 before were used to reduce fortifications, and perfected 
 machine guns mowed down battalions, while submarine and 
 aeroplanes and monster Zeppelins played for the first time 
 their deadly parts in the carnage of battles. 
 
 In order to understand and appreciate the importance of 
 events of the great European war of 1914 it is desirable, and 
 more or less necessaiy, to know the previous war history of 
 Europe, the relations of the contending powers, their 
 peoples and their history. 
 
 In this volume, Europe at War, will be found a history 
 of the events leading up to the outbreak of hostilities 
 between Austria- Hungary and Servia, which plunged a con- 
 tinent into the most gigantic armed conflict ever known or 
 conceived. 
 
 In this great work will be found the thrilling story of 
 the assassination of the Archduke Francis Ferdinand, heir 
 
 a 
 
 0.4 c~b<7)<r\r»
 
 b Preface 
 
 to the Austrian throne and his morganatic wife, which was 
 the overt act that precipitated the war. 
 
 The form and manner in which war was declared by the 
 several powers, giving their reasons therefor, including the 
 speeches of the German Kaiser; the British Foreign Min- 
 ister, Sir Edward Grey; the manifesto of the aged Austrian 
 Emperor, Franz Joseph, together with the ultimatums and 
 declarations of war are also set forth. 
 
 The Triple Alliance and Triple Entente are described 
 and explained, thus explaining the alignment of the forces 
 engaged in the gigantic conflict. 
 
 Europe at War contains the history of all the decisive 
 battles of the world from Marathon to the battle that 
 ended the Russo-Japanese war. In these thrilling descrip- 
 tions of the world's greatest battles preceding the great 
 European war of 1914 may be found facts and figures for 
 comparison with the greatest of all wars in the history of the 
 world. 
 
 The Seven Years' war waged by the great ancestor of 
 the Kaiser, Frederick the Great, in which all Europe was 
 arrayed against him, is given a special chapter. 
 
 Another chapter is devoted to the Franco-Prussian war 
 of 1870, which left France and Germany mortal enemies, 
 and which resulted in the enormous armaments and war 
 preparations of those nations, which were under May for 
 more than forty years. This work also contains a descrip- 
 tion of the fair provinces of Alsace and Lorraine, which 
 Germany exacted from France as a Mar prize, and which 
 Mere the scenes of hard fighting in the great war of 1914. 
 
 One of the underlying causes of the world's greatest M"ar 
 Mas the growth of Pan- Slavism and Pan-Germanism, the 
 sentiments which united the Slav races into one faction and
 
 Preface c 
 
 the Germanic races into another, with resulting rivalries and 
 antagonisms, all of which are fully explained herein. 
 
 Thrilling Personal Experiences in the War constitute a 
 chapter to stir red blood, reciting daring deeds of individuals 
 in battles of earth, sea and air. 
 
 Under the title Best Stories of the War are given a 
 series of incidents replete with tragedy, adventure, humor, 
 pathos and human interest. 
 
 All the rulers of the nations at war in 1914 were related 
 by blood or marriage except the King of Servia. Just what 
 these relationships were, giving the various marriages 
 between European royalty are accurately told herein. 
 
 The biographies and personal histories of the leading 
 commanders and rulers make another attractive feature. 
 Among them will be found faithful pen portraits of the 
 German Kaiser, Lord Kitchener of Khartoum, the young- 
 King of the Belgians and others. 
 
 This great work also contains descriptions of the modern 
 methods of warfare, submarines, aeroplanes, the deadly 
 mines sown on land and sea and how they are operated. 
 
 The characteristics and habits of the various peoples and 
 interesting and valuable facts concerning the nations at war 
 
 are given. 
 
 The army and navy strength of the Great Powers are 
 
 accurately set forth. 
 
 In fact, everything of historical and educational value 
 necessary to an understanding of the world's greatest war 
 has been made a feature of this great work.
 
 THE GREAT BATTLE AT LIEGE, BELGIUM,
 
 TWEEN GERMAN AND BELGIAN FORCES
 
 Preface 
 
 THE REAL SUFFERERS IX A WAR ARE THE ONES 
 
 LEFT AT HOME
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 THE GREAT EUROPEAN WAR OF 1914 
 
 PAGE 
 
 The Beginning of the Greatest War in the History of the World, Involving Five 
 of -the Greatest Nations of Europe, Great Britain, Germany, France, Aus- 
 tria-Hungary and Russia and the Smaller Nations of Belgium, Servia and 
 Montenegro, Followed the Shots of an Assassin Who Killed the Heir to 
 the Throne of Austria-Hungary. A Summary of the Events That Pre- 
 ceded the Greatest of all International Conflicts . . . .43 
 
 CHAPTER II 
 THE 'ASSASSINATION THAT STARTED THE WAR 
 
 Archduke Francis Ferdinand, Heir to Austrian Throne, and His Wife, the 
 Duchess of Hohenberg, Slain in Bosnia — First Attempt on Their Lives 
 with a Bomb — History of Their Courtship and Marriage — Assassins In- 
 volve High Servian Officials . . . . . .51 
 
 CHAPTER III 
 AUSTRIA DECLARES WAR ON SERVIA 
 High Feeling Against Servia in Austria — Demand for Satisfaction — Servia's 
 Reply — Austria Declares War on Servia — Efforts to Settle Differences 
 by European Mediation — Emperor Francis Joseph Explains Austria's 
 Attitude Toward Servia — The Match Touched to the European Powder 
 Barrel .......♦•• 59 
 
 CHAPTER IV 
 HOW THE WAR CLOUD SPREAD 
 Austria, Invades Servia — Eussia Mobilizes for War — Germany Orders Czar 
 to Cease Warlike Preparations — Kaiser Declares War on Russia — Kaiser 
 Appeals to His People ........ 69 
 
 CHAPTER V 
 
 THE INVASION OF LUXEMBURG 
 
 Germany's Early Moves in War Game — France in a State of War with Ger- 
 many — Kaiser's Demand on Belgium — Great Britain Stands by France 
 and for the Neutrality of Belgium . . . . .77 
 
 CHAPTER VI 
 
 FIVE NATIONS IN THE GRIP OF WAR 
 
 Great Britain Declares War on Germany — Kaiser Blames Other Nations 
 for Trouble — Czar Puts Blame on Germany — France Also Blames Kaiser's 
 Government — Montenegro Declares War on Austria — Great Britain De- 
 clares War on Austria . . . . . • • .87
 
 f Contents 
 
 r m,i. 
 CHAPTEB VII 
 
 JAPAN TAKES A HANI) IX THE TROUBLE 
 Japan Soon Takes Steps to Take a Hand in the Great War — Kiaochou Tei 
 ritory Leased by Germany in China Causes Japan to Prepare for War — 
 Mikado's Government Sends an Ultimatum to Germany Demanding That 
 German Ships Leavi Oriental Waters and Thai Germany EvacuaU Kiao- 
 chou — Time Limit Set in Note Expires with Germany Failing to Notice 
 the Communication- Japan Declares War mi Germany — Japan's Strength 
 on Land That Js Thrown in with the Allies — Strength of the Japanese 
 Navy .......... 97 
 
 CHAPTER YITI 
 
 YOUNG KING OF THE BELGIANS 
 
 Grandson of a German "Prince— His Queen the Grand Niece of the Murdered 
 
 Empress of Austria — His Visit to America When Crown Prince — His 
 
 Large. Possessions in the Congo with 30,000,000 Belgian Subjects — 
 
 A Democratic Monarch ....... 103 
 
 CHAPTER IX 
 
 GERMANY'S WAR LORD 
 
 Personal Description of Kaiser Wdhelm II — Sis Work as Emperor and 
 
 Methods of Lift — Has a Big Body, Short Legs and a Withered Ann — 
 
 Tin German Navy His Personal Creation — His Income $7,000,000 a 
 
 Year — His Hobbies ........ 107 
 
 CHAPTER X 
 
 THE RUSSIAN COMMANDER 
 
 The Grand Duke Nicholas Nicholaevitch Was Prominent in the Russo-Japa- 
 
 nese War — One of the Finest Cavalry Officers of the Great Empire — 
 
 His Mother a German — Known as the Strong Man of Russia Who Might 
 
 Become Regent or Even Czar . . . . . . .113 
 
 CHAPTER XI 
 
 KITCHENER OF KHARTOUM 
 
 The Great Soldier Who Was at the Head of England's War Department in 
 
 the European War of 1914 — He Organized the British Army in India and 
 
 Was Chief of Staff of Lord Roberts in the Boer War — How He Destroyed 
 
 the Tombs of the Prophets After Slaying 17,000 of the Enemy in One Day 115 
 
 CHAPTER XII 
 
 A WAR OF COUSINS 
 
 All of the Royal Families of Europe in the Great War of 1914 Were Related 
 by Blood or Marriage Except Servia's — Many Grandchildren of King 
 Christian of Denmark and Queen Victoria of England — Also Held Mil 
 itary Titles in Each Other's Armies and Navies — A Continental Family 
 Row .......... 121 
 
 CHAPTER XIII 
 ARMED STRENGTH OF WARRING NATIONS 
 Strength of the Rival Nations — Twenty Million Men Prepare for War — Allies 
 Have Advantage in Land Power — Naval Strength of Allies Also Greater 
 — Great Britain 's Powerful Navy — Classification of Great Sea Fleets — ■ 
 Aerial Strength of Powers Favors Allies — Wealth of Warring Nations, 
 with Revenue, Expenditure and Debt — Cost of General War . . 129
 
 Contents g 
 
 PACK 
 CHAPTER XIV 
 
 BATTLES IN THE AIR 
 
 Lord Tennyson's Remarkable Propliecy Realized — Aerial Crafts 'Revolution- 
 izing Warfare — Germany's Zeppelins Veritable Aerial Battleships — How 
 Aerial Farces Were Distributed Along Frontiers — The Aeroplane by Day 
 and the Dirigible by Night — England's Attempt to Bar Foreign Air Craft 
 — All Nations Steadily Increasing Their Air Strength — Biplanes More 
 Adaptable for Dropping Bombs — Damage by Bombs an Open Question — 
 Zeppelin a Convertible Cruiser ...... 137 
 
 CHAPTER XV 
 THE TRIPLE ALLIANCE AND THE TRIPLE ENTENTE 
 
 The Former a Signed and Sealed Compact, the Latter a "Gentlemen's Agree- 
 ment" — How They Were Formed and Why — Germany, Austria- Hungary 
 and Italy Composed the Alliance and Russia, France and Great Britain 
 Composed tlie Entente — Bismarck the Originator . . . 153 
 
 CHAPTER XVI 
 PAN-SLAVISM VS. PAN-GERMANISM 
 
 Racial Hatred Primary Cause of the War, with Over-Armament a Contrib- 
 uting Factor — Disruption of Turkish Empire Hastened Coming Conflict — 
 Pan-Germanism Against Pan-Slavism — Definition of the Two Terms — 
 Deeply Rooted Racial Hatred Apparent Everywhere — Servia Once a 
 Mighty Empire Subjugated by Turkey — Scrvia's Struggle for Thirty- 
 five Tears for a Seaport Checkmated by Austria-Hungary — Growth of 
 Pan-German Movement — Deep-Seated Reason for Racial Hatred — The 
 Rule of the Hohenzollerns Versus the Rule of the Czar . . . 159 
 
 CHAPTER XVII 
 MODERN METHODS OF WARFARE 
 
 Weapons Used by Modern Armies and Navies — Machine Guvs — The Submarine 
 — The Aeroplane — Present Day Ammunition — Mines on Land and Sea — : 
 Modern War's Death Power — Submarines of Warring Powers — The Chem- 
 ical Mine — Classes of Mines — Explosives Used — Placing of Destroyers 
 — How Japan Treated Mines Planted by Russia — Attack on Modern 
 Mine Field — Invention of Mines ...... 167 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII 
 
 SERVIA AND HER PEOPLE 
 
 Most Picturesque of the Countries at War — The Servian Empire Overthrown 
 
 by the Turks in 1389 Regained in Part by a Revolution in 1804 — People 
 
 Love Politics, Poetry, Music and Dancing — Description of Their Brilliant 
 
 Costumes and Chief Characteristics . . . , . .173 
 
 CHAPTER XIX 
 
 THE REPUBLIC OF FRANCE 
 
 A Nation Great in Art and Literature, with a War-Ridden History, Is Made 
 
 Up of Many Different Elements Whose Chief Industry Is Agriculture — 
 
 The Bretons, Basques and Flemings Still Retain Their Original Customs 
 
 and Distinctive Languages . . . . . . .177
 
 h Contents 
 
 PAGE 
 
 CHAPTER XX 
 
 THE GERMAN EMPIEE 
 
 Second in Area and Third in Population Among the Warring Nations of 
 
 Europe— The Extent and Diversity of lt& Commerce An Empire Made 
 
 Up of Prussia and the German < onfederation — Its Form of Government 
 
 — The Kaiser Supreme in War ...... 1S1 
 
 CHAPTEE XX] 
 
 TIIK GEEAT RUSSIAN EMPIEE 
 
 It Comprises One-Sixth of the Land Surface of the Globe and the Greatest 
 Diversity of "Races — Its Government and Characteristics of Its People — 
 Land of Contrasting Uiches and Poverty— Nobility Spends Money Freely 
 on Entertainments ........ 1S5 
 
 CHAPTEE XXII 
 ALSACE-LORRAINE, THE PAIE PHIZES OF WAE 
 Division of Charlemagne's Vast Empiri A mum! His Grandsons — Lothair, the 
 Weakest, Gets as His Heritage Alsace-Lorraine Among Other Lands — 
 Provinces a Bone of Contention Between France and Germany — France 
 Gets Alsace and All Lorraine but I'm City of Strassburg by Treaty of 
 Westphalia— Louis XIV Takes Strassburg for Frana Provinces a The- 
 atre of Operations in Franco-Prussian War — Germany Gt ts Them as a 
 Price of Peace — German Government — The Zabem Affair — Character- 
 istics of Natives ........ 1S9 
 
 CHAPTER XXiri 
 FEEDERICK THE GREAT AND THE SEVEN YEARS' WAR 
 Battles in Which the Ancestor of Kaiser Wilhelm II Won His Title — Fought 
 Against Six X at mux with Odds of More Than Two to One Against Him 
 and Won — The Eleven Gnat Faiths That Cost One Million I. ires — -The 
 Great Military Genius of Prussia After Fighting Seven Years Died in 
 Peace and Amidst Plenty ....... 195 
 
 CHAPTEE XXIV 
 THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 
 
 Louis XVI a Poor Rider — Z7i.s Personal Characteristics — Marie Antoinette, 
 His Queen — Conditions at Hie Court of Louis — Huge Funds Wasted by 
 the Courtiers — Power of the King Over Jlis Subjects — Protests of the 
 People Against Heavy Taxation — Opening of the French /■'< volution — 
 Talcing of the BastUe — Formation of the National Assembly — Thi King 
 Is Defied — Chaotic Conditions in Frame- Effects of the New Constitu- 
 tion on Europe — France Embroiled in War -The King's Death War- 
 rant — The New Republic — Its Early Troubles — The Rise of Napoleon-^ 
 His Career — The Restoration — The Second Republic — The Second Em- 
 pire — The Third Republic ....... 203 
 
 CHAPTEE XXV 
 THE WARS OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE 
 
 History of His Campaigns Against Austria, Italy, Prussia, Russia and Eng- 
 land — Cut Up Germany and Italy and Distributed Them Among Jlis 
 Favorite Generals — His Defeat i/n thi "Faille of the Nations" and 
 Final Defeat at Waterloo, Belgium, Scene of the Great European ll'ar 
 of 1914 211
 
 Contents i 
 
 PAGE 
 
 CHAPTER XXVI 
 THE FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR 
 
 Napoleon III Makes War on Prussia Over tlie Selection of a King to the 
 Spanish Throne — Gen. Von Moltke, in Bed, Tells Messenger Where to 
 Find Plans for Mobilisation and Goes to Sleep — Historic Battles of the 
 Short War — Flight of the Emperor and the Empress Eugenie — The Be- 
 ginning of the German Empire ....... 223 
 
 CHAPTER XXVII 
 
 DECISIVE BATTLES AT SEA 
 
 The Building of Modern Navies Began in the United States with the Monitor 
 
 and Merrimac — China and Japan in Next Battle of Ironclads at the 
 
 Mouth of the Yalu — Naval Fights in the Spanish- American War and 
 
 the llusso- Japanese War — The Decisive Naval Battles of the World . 233 
 
 CHAPTER XXVIII 
 
 THE WORLD'S DECISIVE BATTLES 
 
 (Marathon to Orleans) 
 
 The Battle of Marathon — The Peloponnesian War — The Battle of Arucla-— 
 
 The Battle of the Metaurus — Defeat of Varus, the Soman, by Arminius 
 
 — The Battle of Chalons — The Battle of Tours — The Battle of Hastings 
 
 — Joan of Arc at Orleans ....... 239 
 
 CHAPTER XXIX 
 THE WORLD'S DECISIVE BATTLES— Continued 
 (Defeat of Spanish Armada to Waterloo) 
 The Spanish Armada — Battle of Blenheim — Battle of Pultowa — Burgoyne's 
 
 Defeat at Saratoga — Battle of Valrny — Battle of Waterloo . . 255 
 
 CHAPTER XXX 
 
 THE WORLD'S DECISIVE BATTLES— Continued 
 
 QUEBEC TO TSU-SHIMA 
 
 '"he Fall of Quebec — Surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown — Battle of Vicks- 
 burg — Battle of Gettysburg — Battle of Sedan — Battle of Manila Bay — 
 Battles of Santiago — Battle of Tsu-Shima .... 26.1 
 
 CHAPTER XXXI 
 NEUTRALITY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 President Wilson's Proclamation of Neutrality — United States Declared to 
 Be Absolutely Neutral in Great Conflict — Becognises the State of War — 
 Acts Forbidden to Americans — Acts Forbidden to Belligerents — Pres- 
 ident's Warning to Americans to Keep Calm — Wilson's Offer of Medi- 
 ation to Warring Powers — Powers Courteously Decline Proffer . 279 
 
 CHAPTER XXXII 
 AMERICANS ABROAD AT OUTBREAK OF WAR 
 Americans Caught in War Zone — Service Bendered by American Diplomats — 
 President Wilson's Call on Congress for Funds — $250,000 Immediately 
 Voted for Belief of Stranded Americans— $3,500,000 More Voted for 
 Same Purpose — Battleship Tennessee Sails with Gold Cargo on Mission 
 of Belief — Befugees Arrive on the Philadelphia — The France and New 
 York Beturn Crowded with Befugees — Stories of Thrilling Experiences . 287
 
 j Contents 
 
 PAGl 
 
 CHAPTEB X.WIII 
 FIRST SEA BATTLE OF THE WAR 
 
 English, Under Screen of Heavy Fog, Enter the Bight of Heligoland and 
 Lure German Ships from Their Bast -Two of tht Kaiser's Cruisers 
 Sunk, Set Afire and Tun Torpedo Hunts Are Destroyed Sii David 
 Beatty, Who Married a Daughter of America's Merchant Prince, Mar 
 shall Field, i» Command of the Victorious British Squadron — English 
 Rescue German Sailors — German Official "Report .... 303 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIV 
 
 BOMB ATTACK' MY A ZEPPELIN 
 
 \'ight of Horror in Belgium Capitol When a Monster Airship Dropped Bombs 
 on a Sleeping City — Story of an Eyewitness Who Heard and Saw Die 
 Great German Airship — How an Aeroplane Directed Artillery Where to 
 Place Shells — Other Thrilling Experiences ..... 315 
 
 CHAPTER XXXV 
 THE DEFENCE OF LIEGE 
 
 The Defence of Belgium — The Liege Forts — The Sicqe of Liege — Heavy 
 Losses on Both Sides — The Belgian Commander — Honor to tlie Brave — 
 Reprisals for the Delay ....... 323 
 
 CHAPTER XXXVI 
 THRILLING WAR EXPERIENCES |\ THE EIEKI), IN THE CLOUDS 
 
 AND ON THE SEA 
 
 Belgian Officer Creates Havoc Among German Troops with His Armored 
 Automobile — His Narrow Escape from Capture — Routing the Enemy — 
 Sinking of the Koenigin Luise — British Cruiser Amphion Sunk- by a 
 Mine in the North Sea — German Submarine Destroyed by British — 
 Austria ns Wall: Into Russian Trap — Gallantry of French Turcos — The 
 Chase of the Goeben anil Brcslau — How Leaders Went to Their Deaths 
 — Fights in the Clouds — Experiences of Antwerp as Bombs Fall on City 
 — Escape of the Kronprinzessin Cecilie — Mauretania Dodges (1< rman 
 Battleship ......... 331 
 
 CHAPTER XXXVII 
 
 BEST STORIES OF THE WAR 
 
 Narratives of Heroism, Disaster, Humor and Pathos — Alsatian Who Went to 
 War to Kill His Son — German Sailors Sink Cheering the Kaiser — Eng- 
 lish Poacher Who Became Killer of Uhlans — Heroism of Women Vic- 
 tims of War and Talcs of Human Interest in Scenes of Carnage . 343
 
 WORLD 
 
 Area, Country 
 
 Area with Possessions . . . 
 Population, Country . . . . 
 Population with Possessions 
 
 British 
 
 Empire 
 
 Germany 
 
 121,633 
 
 11,429,078 
 
 46,035,570 
 
 124,775,160 
 
 208,780 
 
 1,236,600 
 64,925,983 
 
 76,991,985 
 
 France 
 
 Austria- 
 EC ongary 
 
 Russian 
 Empire 
 
 207,054 241,491 1,862,524 
 
 4,745,597 8,764,586 
 
 39.601,5(1'! 19,458.421 122,550.700 
 
 80,587,752| 171,059,900
 
 ' "*S co -. 8U"« L0 . "• Y> 
 
 NORTH AMERICA 
 
 ffiSfcffiES 2,973,890 sa. mi. Populate United St, ,91,972,206. 
 
 SEE SS3SSSS2: S;l5 f&oyers. 8 an,,,.,,, .in:, 
 
 i snai,\ (Pari of British Empire). 
 
 1 | 3 603,910 -j mi. Population, 7,206,643. 
 iyk Militia: 7:;,900. 
 
 Total British Possessions in North and S America. 
 
 \kka: 1,010,91 I. Population, 10,096,863.
 
 ^> Shetland 
 
 Islands 
 
 Berwick 
 
 WallnV, tfr.jv. ■!•,„... 1 
 
 C.Wratli 
 
 y o San lay 
 
 i """^^Orkney Islands 
 
 Malntad^*"^ 
 
 ' V """^A.. 
 
 iirao ^ rtrt/i 
 
 Duncimfltiy Head 
 
 The Matthews-Northrup 
 
 HANDY-MAP OF THE 
 
 BRITISH ISLES. 
 
 
 Pcnzanq 
 Lands End 
 
 
 2.06 I Longitude West 
 
 Alderney ^ 
 
 1. Guernsey j, 
 Sl.IWrpoWS . 
 Channel Is. 
 I.Jersey 
 from Greenwich 
 
 CQPrflluHT 1314 
 
 THE J. N. MATTMLWS CO., BUFFALO, N. Y. 
 
 Reigning Monarch: George V, King and Emperor. 
 
 Area: 121,633 sq. mi. Population, 45,370,530. 
 
 Army: Peace footing, 399,000; total strength, 730,000: unorganized, but available, 2,000,000. 
 
 Navy: Dreadnoughts and cruisers. 197; destroyers, submarines, and smaller craft, 488; men, 
 163,700. 
 
 Aerial Equipment: Aeroplanes, 400; dirigibles, 9; hydroplanes, 10. 
 
 Cities: London, canital, 4,521,685; Greater London, 7,251,358; Liverpool, 746,421 ; Manches- 
 ter, 714,333; Birmingham, 525,833; Leeds, 445,550 ; Sheffield, 454.632.
 
 A " 
 
 i 
 
 >>;■<. n ■■',. e i 
 
 s\ p a i i\ /n / "y 
 
 The Matttaews-Northrup 
 
 II LNDY-II IP Dl 
 
 FRANCE 
 
 10 30 40 60 100 
 
 -I I — I — I ' 
 
 BI«.. '" C 'ir.r... '. " 
 
 1 
 
 COPYSIOHT, 1»14, BY THE J. N. MATTHEWS CO., BUFFALO, N. Y. 
 
 President in Office: Raymond P°jjjcare. 
 
 i££ (S^Keria P °aStt ^'Pe^footing, 800,000: total strength, 1,380,000; unor- 
 
 N^virSadno^an^ffiS-SQ; destroyers, submarines, and smaller craft, 384: men.
 
 Reigning Monarch: William II, German Emperor and King of Prussia. 
 
 Area: 208,780 sq. mi. Population, 64.925,993 (32,040,166 males). 
 
 Army: Peace footing, 800,985; total strength, 3,350,000. Unorganized, but available, 1,000,000. 
 
 Navy : Dreadnoughts and cruisers, 97 ; destroyers, submarines, and smaller craft, 290 ; men, 
 
 176,783. 
 Aerial Equipment: Aeroplanes, 1,000; dirigible , 40; hydroplanes, 14. 
 Cities: Berlin, capital, 2,071,257; Hamburg, 931,035; Leipzig, 589,850; Munich, 596,467; 
 
 Dresden, 548,308; Cologne, 516,527.
 
 Reigning Monarch: Francis Joseph [, Emperor of Austria and King of Hungary. 
 
 Area: 241,491 so, mi. Population, 49,458,42] 24,379,355 males). 
 
 Army: Peace footing, 590,000; total strength, 2,000,000; unorganized, bu1 available, H.000,000. 
 
 Navy - : Dreadnoughts and cruisers, 28; destroyers, submarines, and smaller craft, 107; men, 
 
 IT.: 
 
 Aerial Equipment: Aeroplanes, !<»>: dirigibles, 10; hydroplanes. 4. 
 
 Cities: In Austria, Vienna, capital, 2,031,498; Prague, 233,741; Lemberg, 206,113; Trieste, 
 
 160,993; Krakau, 154,141; in Hungary, Budapest, 880,371; Bosnia and Herzegovina: 
 
 Adi i b] Vustria-IImmary since IS7S; under Austro-Hungarian rule since 1908. 
 
 Area, 19,768 q mi. Population, 1,962,411, chiefly Servian.
 
 COPYRIGHT, 1914, BY THE J. N. MATTHEWS CD 
 
 FAIO, H. Y- 
 
 Reigning Monarch: Victor Emmanuel III, King. 
 
 Area: 110,550 sq. mi. Population, 35,238,997. . , , • , , , . ™„^ 
 
 \rmy- Peace footing, 304,672 ; total strength, 1,200,000. Unorganized, but available, 1.200,000. 
 Navy: Dreadnoughts and cruisers, 34; destroyers, submarine--, and smaller craft, 153; men, 
 33,095. 
 
 33,uao. _ 
 
 Aerial Equipment: Aeroplanes, 200; dirigihles.il; hydroplanes, i. 
 Cities: Rome, capital, 542,123; Naples, 678,031 ; Milan, 599,200; C 
 
 Genoa, 272.221.
 
 H 
 
 10' K U 
 
 SO 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 Scale of Statute Miles. 
 
 190 200 300 40J 
 
 Kilometers. 
 > 20c 300 490 soo 6QQ ? oo 39 
 
 Capitals of Countries • @ 
 Ballroarls : Canal? : — ^— 
 
 Longitude East 
 
 
 -l c J*ct E 
 
 /, o,£r 
 
 ^Inten^;. 
 
 Compnriitlve Arcu. 
 
 r E X N . 
 
 - 
 
 "Si'litjeti, 
 
 
 Mo 
 
 -»lcn T^r^ 1 
 
 ^j^r^** 
 
 iy j», 
 
 -m.w< 'Ki..«^f ' fc vil 
 
 
 
 >C«S 
 
 ** 
 
 
 r„._ ."'fid ^* 
 
 arl-kroo* 
 tiaastad* 
 
 %S%, ;2±. _ JOrabriahinm I 
 " V'' !'""/,:'■,' " ,l " l >a " 
 
 10" 
 
 15'
 
 
 VKoVc\ 
 
 lupin es 
 

 
 H0L1 VM>. B] I Ml H . .'..? A 
 
 I an. I 1 t \MII:| lit,, —.^z?-''*'. < 
 
 
 E 
 
 
 ■■ATTHEWS CO., BUFFALO, 
 
 a. y. 
 
 
 
 1 lOUNTRY 
 
 REIGNING 
 
 MON w» H 
 
 
 I [ON 
 
 \ i:\iy 
 
 Nwi 
 
 
 
 \ VMK 
 
 Pop. 
 
 Holland 
 
 Queen Wilhelmlna 
 
 12.648 
 
 6,114 
 
 P. 22,955 
 1,000 
 
 B 11 
 
 '1 l.i- 1 1 
 
 Vmsterdam 
 Rotterdam 
 
 294,693 
 587,876 
 
 IIC.M'7 
 
 BELGI1 u 
 
 Libert 
 
 1 1,373 
 
 7,571,387 
 
 P. 47,603 
 T. 275,000 
 
 V.nr 
 
 Brussels, I ip 
 Antwerp 
 i iege 
 
 cr,:;. t.i: 
 312,884 
 170.634 
 
 In \'.l IRK 
 
 King Christian X 
 
 15.585 
 
 2.775,076 
 
 P. 1 
 
 1". £ 
 
 1). 34 
 
 t bpenhagen, Cap. 
 
 Aarin 
 
 61,755 
 
 Switzerland . . 
 
 lent, Col. 
 Di \. 1 Loflmann 
 
 15,976 
 
 3,781,430 
 
 1'. 2 
 
 r 275,000 
 
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 19,891 T. 5,000 
 
 None 
 
 Luxemburg, Cap. 
 
 Jn.Ms 
 
 P. — Peace Footing. T. — Total Strength. B. — Battleships and Cruisers. D. — Destroyers, Submarines, etc.
 
 SERVIA, RUMANIA, 
 BULGARIA, 
 
 MONTENEGRO, ALBANIA, 
 
 GREECE and TURKEY. 
 
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 Servia 
 
 Rumania 
 
 Bulgaria 
 
 Montenegro 
 
 Greece 
 
 Turkish Empire 
 
 Reigning 
 
 Monarch 
 
 King Peter I 
 
 King Charles I 
 
 King Ferdinand 
 
 King Nicholas I 
 
 Area 
 Sq. Mi. 
 
 Popula- 
 tion 
 
 33,891 
 
 53,489 
 
 ■13,305 
 
 4,547,992 
 
 7,516,418 
 
 4,467,006 
 
 ARMY 
 
 Navy 
 
 P. 175,000 „ 
 T. L'TO.000 None 
 
 Cities 
 
 Name 
 
 Belgrade, Cap. 
 Nish 
 
 P. 60.000 ^ 17 
 T. 300,000 u - u 
 
 5,603 
 
 516,000 
 
 King Constantine I 
 
 Sultan 
 Mohammed V 
 
 41,933 4,363,000 
 
 710,224 
 
 21, 273. '.Mill 
 
 P L03.460 B. 1 
 V. 290,000 D. 26 
 
 Bucharest, Cap. 
 Jassy 
 
 Sofia, Cap. 
 Philippopolis 
 
 T. 40,000 None 
 
 Cettinje, Cap. 
 Podgoritza 
 
 P. 50,000 B. 5 'Athens, Cap. 
 T. 250,000 D. 28 Piraeus 
 
 Pop. 
 
 ■W.V.IO 
 24,949 
 
 338,109 
 
 76,882 
 
 102,812 
 17,981 
 
 4,500 
 10,000 
 
 167,479 
 73,579 
 
 B. 7 Constantinople, cap 1,200,000 
 
 p. -du.uuu D oq Adrianople 
 
 83,000 
 
 P.- Peace Footing. T.- Total St rength. B.- Battleshius and Cruisers. D.- Destroyers, Submarines, etc.

 
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 37 .990. 222 
 
 ( Ierm \'. i 
 
 931. Kill 
 11,428,429 
 
 French 
 
 i. I SI. 101 
 
 25.681 ,243
 
 Japan 
 Reigning Monarch: Yoshihito, Emperor. 
 Area: 260,738. Population, 52,985 423. 
 
 Army: Peace footing, 250,000; total strength, 600,000. 50 930 
 
 Navy: Battleships and cruisers, 53; destroyers, submarines, and smaller craft. 99 men oO,93U 
 Cities: Tokyo, capital, 2,099,181 ; Osaka, 1,226,590; Kyoto, 442,462 ; Yokohama, 394,303.
 
 AUSTRALIA M « Zl U VXI ' 
 
 b Empire) (Pari ol British Em 
 
 \,-, v 2 974,581 sq. mi. Population. 4,836,625. Vrea: 103,861 sq mi. Population, 1,128,160. 
 
 Militia: 173,967. Militia aboul 30,1 
 
 Total Bbittsh Pi - in Oceanica Area: 3,191,773 sq. mi. Population, 6,551,513. 
 
 [A u»d other British Possessions in Asia Area: 1,969,496 sq. mi. Population, 323,-
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 THE GREAT EUROPEAN WAR OF 1914 
 
 The Beginning of the Greatest War in the History of the 
 World, Involving Five of the Greatest Nations of Eu- 
 rope, Great Britain, Germany, France, Austria-Hun- 
 gary and Russia and the Smaller Nations of Belgium, 
 Servia and Montenegro, Followed the Shots of an As- 
 sassin Who Killed the Heir to the Throne of Austria- 
 Hungary. A Summary of the Events that Preceded 
 the Greatest of all International Conflicts. 
 
 THE shots fired by a Herzogovinan student in the city of 
 Serajeve, Bosnia, on June 28, 1914, which killed the 
 Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the crown of Austria- 
 Hungary, and his wife the Duchess of Hohenberg, were 
 echoed by the roaring guns of five of the most powerful 
 nations of Europe. 
 
 The "shot heard 'round the world" in the American rev- 
 olution was fired by a patriot; the shot heard 'round the 
 world in the Great European war of 1914 was fired by an 
 assassin. 
 
 Actually, the greatest war the world had ever known, 
 which at the beginning involved Austria-Hungary, Servia, 
 Russia, Germany, France and England, and later Japan in 
 
 43
 
 44 The Great European War of 1914 
 
 the order named began on July '27, 1914, when Austria-Hun- 
 gary invaded Servia , although Austria-Hungary did not de- 
 clare war upon the little Servian state until the following 
 day. 
 
 The act of the Herzogivanan assassin and his bomb- 
 throwing confederate was not the cause of the war; it was 
 the preliminary overt act which, so to speak, touched the 
 match to the European powder barrel. 
 
 The causes had been multiplying for years and are to be 
 found in the racial hatreds, the commercial rivalries, the 
 Su bjugation Q f the weak by the strong, the theft of terri- 
 tory, the pride and arrogance of autocracy and the bitter 
 memories of other wars. 
 
 THE BALANCE OF POWER IN EUROPE 
 
 The peace of Europe for a half century has depended 
 upon the proper maintenance of the balance of power, so 
 that no one nation or combination of nations should become 
 so powerful that it or they could dominate the others. To 
 maintain this balance of power among peoples naturally an- 
 tagonistic the nations of Europe have for years been build- 
 ing up the most powerful armies and navies the world has 
 ever known until the burden of war taxes has well nigh 
 broken the backs of the people and has been one reason for 
 the large emigration to America of thousands who found 
 the burden greater than they could bear. 
 
 But while these monster preparations for w T ar have been 
 going on the statesmen of the several countries have sought 
 to prevent or at least to delay armed conflict by alliances, 
 understandings, treaties and all the arts of diplomacy.
 
 The Great European War of 1914 45 
 
 So enormous and powerful were the great war machines 
 which grew in size and cost every year that they became in 
 themselves a sort of guarantee of peace. It seemed incred- 
 ible that nations so armed should risk annihilation by such 
 powerful engines of destruction. The mere thought of a 
 European war to the average person became a grotesque ab- 
 surdity. The alliances to preserve the balance of power 
 seemed too well adjusted, the means of warfare too 
 destructive. 
 
 To aid in the preservation of the balance of power little 
 states lying between the possessions of the great powers were 
 permitted to retain their independence of the great powers 
 which guaranteed their neutrality, thus relieving tension and 
 friction along the boundaries of the great states. All the 
 safeguards of peace seemed to have been taken. 
 
 Yet when the first blast of war sounded treaties and al- 
 liances were in some cases disregarded and the neutrality of 
 the so-called little "buffer" states was violated. 
 
 CAUSE OF THE ASSASSINATION 
 
 In considering the causes of the Great European war 
 of 1914, the greatest in the history of the world, and the 
 direct acts leading up to hostilities it is necessary to recall 
 that in 1909 Austria seized from Turkey the territory of 
 Bosnia and Herzogovina, inhabited by Serbs, whose dream 
 had been to unite with Servia in a Servian empire and who 
 resented the rule of Austria. It was this resentment to- 
 gether with pride of race that led the young Serb, Prinzip, 
 to assassinate the heir to the Austrian throne. 
 
 Despite this crime against his family and throne it was
 
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 46 The Great European War of 1914 
 
 not believed that the aged Emperor of Austria-Hungary, 
 Francis Joseph, then in his eighty-fourth year, would re- 
 taliate upon the Servian nation, although it was made clear 
 that the plot of the assassin and his accomplice was hatched 
 in Servia. The history of the world, however, shows that 
 some of its greatest wars have directly resulted from indi- 
 vidual acts far less important and malicious than this. 
 
 On July 2.'J, following the assassination of his nephew 
 and heir, the government of the venerable Emperor Franz 
 Joseph issued an ultimatum to the Servian govern ment de- 
 manding guarantee of reforms calculated to protect Aus- 
 tria-Hungary from alleged Servian plotting and to pre- 
 clude a like tragedy. 
 
 The Servian reply granted all points of the ultimatum 
 except one and that was not rejected but left open for fur- 
 ther negotiations. 
 
 Austria-Hungary's reply was that the Servian reply was 
 unsatisfactory. On the same day shots were exchanged be- 
 tween the two nations across the Danube River near Bel- 
 grade, the Servian capital. 
 
 RUSSIA BEGINS MOBILIZATION 
 
 Servia's one dependence was upon Russia, which like 
 Austria had an enormous Serb population. Almost coinci- 
 dent with the exchange of notes between the two govern- 
 ments llussia began to mobilize her enormous army, alleg- 
 ing her action to be but a precautionary measure. 
 
 Germany, which with Austria and Italy composed the 
 Triple Alliance, supported Austria-Hungary and demanded 
 of Russia that she cease mobilizing her army.
 
 The Great European War of 1914 47 
 
 Prior to this, however, Great Britain, through her for- 
 eign minister, Sir Edward Grey, proposed an international 
 peace conference, France and Italy agreeing, but Germany 
 holding off. 
 
 Russia having continued her mobilization beyond the 
 twenty-four hours named in Germany's ultimatum-, Ger- 
 many on August 1st declared war on Russia, and on the same 
 day France and Germany began mobilizing their forces. 
 
 Russia and France and Great Britain constituted what 
 is known as the Triple Entente, that is to say, these three 
 nations had a verbal understanding, a sort of "gentlemen's 
 agreement" as to what they would do in the event their in- 
 terests or safety were menaced, whereas in the # Triple Al- 
 liance the terms were signed and sealed and had the force 
 and effect of a written contract. 
 
 Altho'ugh Germany's declaration of war was against 
 Russia the mobilization of three of her armies was directed 
 against Russia's long time ally, France, and on the following 
 day the forward movement upon her ancient foe of the 
 Franco-Prussian War began, breaking a peace which had ex- 
 isted for nearly forty- three years between them. On the 
 
 a/ * * 
 
 same day Russia invaded Germany. 
 
 Between Germany and France lay the neutral little king- 
 dom of Belgium, the neutrality of which had been guaran- 
 teed by the Treaty of London in 1867, to which Germany 
 and Great Britain were both signatories. 
 
 By marching her armies straight across Belgium it 
 would have been possible for Germany to reach the French 
 frontier before the French army could arrive there to 
 defend,
 
 48 The Great European War of 1914 
 
 GEKMANY [NVADED BELGIUM 
 
 Basins her action upon military necessity Germany, in- 
 vaded Belgium — a violation of the neutrality treaty. It is 
 only lair and impartial to state, however, that Germany did 
 not expect Belgium to offer any opposition to this move- 
 ment and offered to reimburse Belgium for any damage she 
 might sustain. The German chancellor freely and publicly 
 acknowledged that the invasion of the German troops was a 
 violation of Belgium's neutrality, but declared that the 
 menace was so great that she was justified. 
 
 Belgium not only rejected Germany's offer, but ap- 
 pealed to Great Britain and at the same time prepared to 
 resist the invasion with force. 
 
 Great Britain's response was a declaration to defend 
 both France and Belgium and on August 4th a declaration 
 of war was issued against Germany by Great Britain and be- 
 gan the mobilization of her army for the purpose of sending 
 an expeditionary force to join the French and Belgians. 
 Germany on the same day declared war against Great 
 Britain. 
 
 Italy, the third member of the Triple Alliance, was called 
 upon by Germany and Austria-Hungary to join forces with 
 them, but instead of doing so declared that she would re- 
 main neutral, alleging that the terms of the alliance only 
 required her to aid her allies in a war of defense, wherc;is 
 in this war she considered them the aggressors. 
 
 GREATEST WAR OPENS 
 
 Under these conditions the greatest war in the history of 
 the world was in full blast by .August 5th, upon which date
 
 The Great European War of 1014 49 
 
 the first of the three enormous armies which Germany sent 
 against France crossed the Belgian frontier in force and be- 
 gan an attack upon the forts at Liege where the Belgians 
 made a desperate and brilliant defense. 
 
 In the meantime Austrian warships were battering the 
 deserted Servian capital of Belgrade and Austrian troops, 
 facing the hail of Servian shells and bullets, were forcing a 
 passage of the Drina and Save rivers. 
 
 The Russian army, like a huge bear, was moving slowly 
 but steadity upon the frontiers of its enemies. 
 
 The activities of the powerful navies of Great Britain, 
 Germany and France were screened in mystery. 
 
 With the most powerful nations at war even the neutral 
 nations summoned their fighting men to the colors to defend, 
 if need be, their frontiers. 
 
 Europe trembled beneath the feet of twenty millions of 
 men under arms. 
 
 The war which had figured only in the imagination of 
 writers, the war which the world had dreaded, the incon- 
 ceivable war which enveloped a continent and was to remake 
 the map of Europe and be felt to the uttermost ends of the 
 earth was a reality.
 
 50 
 
 The Great European War of 1914 
 
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 VALWC I ENKTES^VSV 
 
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 ^/RMf CORKS CENTERS 
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 -10MTBELIAR.D # jS £>> ^ 
 
 SCALE OE MILES' 
 25MI. .50MI, IOOMI. 
 
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 RELATIONS OF DISTANCES, COMPARED TO 
 AMERICAN ('IT IKS
 
 CHAPTER II 
 
 THE ASSASSINATION THAT STARTED THE 
 
 WAR 
 
 Archduke Francis Ferdinand, Heir to Austrian Throne, and 
 His Wife, the Duchess of Hohenberg, Slain in Bosnia — 
 First Attempt on Their Lives with a Bomb — History of 
 Their Courtship and Marriage — Assassins Involve High 
 Servian Officials. 
 
 ARCHDUKE FRANCIS FERDINAND, the heir to 
 the throne of Austria-Hungary, journeyed to Bosnia 
 on a martial errand but on a peaceful mission. Created 
 head of the army, he went there to represent Francis Joseph, 
 Emperor of Austria and King of Hungary, at the grand 
 manoeuvres. It was his first official visit to Bosnia and he 
 paid for it with his life. Foiled in their first attempt to slay 
 him and his wife, the Duchess of Hohenberg, the band of 
 Servian assassins were successful in the second effort. 
 Where a bomb failed to put an end to the heir to the Aus- 
 trian throne a bullet was successful. 
 
 On the morning of June 28 the archduke and his wife 
 decided to attend a reception at the town hall in Sarajevo. 
 Many fetes had been arranged in their honor and to show 
 that the Austrians had a kindly feeling toward the people of 
 
 51
 
 52 The Assassination That Started the War 
 
 the annexed provinces, the archduke and duchess planned 
 to niiiude freely with the Bosnians at entertainments. 
 
 As Archduke Francis Ferdinand and the duchess were 
 driving to the town hall a honib was thrown at their motor 
 car. Only the great presence of mind of the archduke 
 saved their lives then. The deadly missile was thrown as 
 the automobile was going- ahead at a snail's pace and the 
 archduke warded it off with his arm. The dynamite did 
 not explode until after the archduke's car had passed. Then 
 there was a crash and the occupants of the following car 
 were injured. They were Count von Boos-Waldeck and 
 Colonel Merizzi, the archduke's aide-de-camp. Neither was 
 seriously hurt. Six persons in the crowd that lined the 
 street were also injured. 
 
 THE DOUBLE ASSASSINATION 
 
 It was when the archduke was going to the hospital to 
 see how his aide-de-camp was recovering from the effects of 
 the explosion that he lost his life. The assassin, a student of 
 eighteen, named Gavrio Prinzip, stationed himself in the 
 front rank of a cheering crowd, at a point on the route from 
 the town hall to the palace, and, as the royal automobile 
 slowed down at a turning, he opened fire with an automatic 
 pistol, hitting the archduke in the face as he sought to pro- 
 tect his consort. 
 
 As he fell back in the seat the murderer turned his 
 weapon on the duchess, who sank across her husband's knees 
 with bullets through her throat and abdomen. 
 
 Thus, for the second time, the aged Emperor Francis 
 Joseph, then in his eighty-fifth year, was robbed in tragic
 
 The Assassination That Started the War 53 
 
 fashion of an heir, and the House of Hapsburg sustained 
 one more crushing blow in its unhappy history. 
 
 The two attempts evidently were carefully planned. The 
 archduke and his consort arrived at Sarajevo in the morn- 
 ing from Ilidza, a little seaside resort where they had spent 
 a brief holiday. The first attempt against the life of the 
 archduke was made as he was about to leave the girls' high 
 school, where he made a brief inspection. The archduke 
 remained calm throughout this trying ordeal. He stopped 
 his car to inquire as to the injuries of Count von Boos-Wal- 
 deck and Colonel Merizzo. After giving orders that the in- 
 jured be properly attended, he drove on to the town hall, 
 where the mayor proceeded to read his address of welcome. 
 
 The archduke, however, interrupted the proceedings to 
 exclaim : 
 
 "What is the good of your speeches? I come to Sara- 
 jevo on a visit and I get bombs thrown at me. It is out- 
 rageous!" Then, after a pause, he said: "Now you may 
 speak." 
 
 The reception ceremony was overshadowed by the bomb 
 explosion, and his royal highness was still indignant 
 when the time came to leave. The duchess endeavored to 
 restrain her husband from getting into the automobile again, 
 but the governor of Bosnia, General Potiorek, said : 
 
 "It's all over now. We have not got more than one 
 murderer in Sarajevo!" 
 
 A SECOND BOMB THROWN 
 
 At this the archduke decided to enter the car again. As 
 the machine proceeded along the Appel Quay another bomb
 
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 ."> l The Assassination Thai Started the War 
 
 was thrown. It failed to explode, whereupon the assassin 
 drew an automatic pistol and fired a fusillade. The iirst 
 bullet hit the archduke in the neck, the second in the leg and 
 the third struck the duchess in the abdomen. 
 
 Governor Potiorek, who was seated in the royal car, was 
 covered with blood as the archduke and the duchess sank 
 on the floor. lie had them conveyed to his official residence, 
 Itiit they were past aid, and after receiving the last sacrament 
 the duchess expired, the archduke breathing his last a few 
 minutes later. 
 
 Spectators asserted that the archduke saw the glint of 
 the automatic pistol as the assassin approached, and en- 
 deavored to shield the duchess. The fury of the crowds of 
 peasantry, all decked out in gala costume to welcome their 
 prince, knew no bounds. They tried to tear the assassin 
 to pieces, and he was rescued with difficulty by the police, 
 with his clothes almost torn from his back. 
 
 The assassin was a native of Herzegovina, and his fel- 
 low conspirator who threw the bomb was a compositor 
 named Xedeljo Gabrinovics, twenty-one, who also came 
 from Herzegovina. When interrogated by the police they 
 seemed proud of their exploits. Both had spent some time 
 in Belgrade, where Gabrinovics asserted he had obtained the 
 bomb from an anarchist, whose name he did not know. He 
 said lie had been employed in the government printing- 
 works. He made no concealment of his sympathy with the 
 King of Servia. 
 
 Spectators of the death scene state that the Duchess of 
 Hohenherg did not know she was seriously wounded, and, 
 while dying of internal hemorrhage, supported her husband
 
 The Assassination That Started the War 55 
 
 and sought to comfort him, while streams of blood flowed 
 from his wound. 
 
 The day, which began with bands playing, the streets 
 decked in bunting and the inhabitants in festive mood, ended 
 in somber tragedy. The gay flags were soon torn down, and 
 in their place were hung crape and festoons of black cloth. 
 The bright costumes of the peasantry were exchanged for 
 robes of mourning, and a silence of stunned consternation 
 hung over the city, except where infuriated bands of stu- 
 dents threatened the residences of Servians. 
 
 STORY OF A ROYAL ROMANCE 
 
 Meanwhile the bodies of the heir to the Austrian throne 
 and his wife were lying in state with a sad faced stream of 
 mourners passing before the biers. That morning most of 
 them had seen the couple pulsating with life and the joy 
 of living either at the high school on their trip of inspec- 
 tion or as they drove through the crowded streets. Many 
 had seen the first attempt on their lives; many others had 
 seen the successful attempt of the young student. All had 
 heard of the devotion of the couple; how the archduke had 
 tried to shield the duchess and how she thought only of him 
 in her dying moments. 
 
 Theirs had been a love match. In the circles of royalty 
 the Duchess of Hohenberg was a Cinderella transformed by 
 the magic wand of love to the highest grandeur and magnifi- 
 cence. She appealed with an especial romantic interest to 
 Americans. She was a girl of good birth, as we would con- 
 sider it, although not good enough to mate with royalty, as 
 royalty thought. She was modest, unsophisticated and care-
 
 56 The Assassination That Started the War 
 
 fully educated for the conventional life of the Austrian 
 court— the most conventional in Europe, with the excep- 
 tion of that of Spain, upon which it is modelled. 
 
 A more unlikely place than either court could scarcely 
 be found for such a girl to make an advantageous marriage., 
 or a more barren spot Tor the growth of the woodland rose 
 of unworldly love. The differences in rank among the 
 nobility themselves create barriers well nigh impassable for 
 marriage unless accompanied by such extraordinary wealth 
 that one might call it colossal. And royal blood is exalted 
 with a mediaeval reverence long since dead and gone else- 
 where in Europe. 
 
 Sophie von Chotek, who became the Duchess of Hohen- 
 berg, was not an actress nor a prima donna whom the 
 jeunesse dore crowned queen of their night-life and then 
 yielded to the prince whose superior position demanded their 
 submission. She was not a Pompadour, a Du Barry or a 
 Xell Gwyn, inveigling with the fascinations of the experi- 
 enced courtesan a worn-out roue willing to sell his crown for 
 the sensations of a new pleasure. 
 
 AN OLD-FASHIONED LOVE STORY 
 
 When Archduke Francis Ferdinand fell in love with her 
 she was not beautiful and she was not rich. A motherless 
 girl at eighteen, she had been since that time earning her 
 living in an exacting position as companion, or hofdame, in 
 the household of royalty — about the only conventional way 
 open to women of good birth who do not wish to take the 
 
 veil. 
 
 But at the age of thirty-two she made one of the most
 
 The Assassination That Started the War 57 
 
 brilliant marriages in all history and became as much the 
 legal wife of the future ruler of the Dual Monarchy as^vvas 
 possible with the rites of the Catholic Church and the decrees 
 of the Imperial Parliament. The marriage could not have 
 been more free from sordid considerations if both she and 
 her husband had been simple peasant lovers. And on the 
 other hand, the wife's position could not have been legally 
 more secure if she had been born an archduchess. 
 
 It was a sweet old-fashioned love story, such as we are 
 accustomed to think comes true only in our own democratic 
 freedom. 
 
 This gentle Bohemian girl upset all the preconceived 
 ideas of the marriages of princes, with their pompous fam- 
 ily councils to weigh the microscopic differences in royal 
 lineage and inherited fortune, and their solemn pourparlers 
 of statesmen to use the alliance to strengthen the state 
 against its enemies and provide successors upon its throne. 
 And she upset the plans and the ideas of the Austrian Em- 
 peror and his cabinet, with the archdukes and archduchesses, 
 just about one hundred strong, fighting them all and holding 
 her lover true to his pledge through a period of twelve long 
 years before he could make her his wife. 
 
 During; those twelve vears she exhibited talents for state- 
 craft and diplomacy of the highest order. After the mar- 
 riage, no one at the Austrian court or any other court in 
 Europe was foolish enough to speculate about Austria's fu- 
 ture without taking into account the Duchess of Hohenberg. 
 But the most far-seeing statesmen were not afraid that she 
 would attempt to become Empress of Austria or even Queen 
 of Hungary. She was far too wise. 
 
 Hardlv had the last Bosnian peasant viewed the bodies
 
 .")S 
 
 The Assassination Thai Started the War 
 
 of the archduke and his wife than unexpected developments 
 came to light; the developments that later shook the civilized 
 world and were responsible for plunging practically all Eu- 
 rope into a titanic struggle. 
 
 Questioned by the police, Prinzip and his confederate in- 
 volved high Servian officials in the plot to slay Francis Fer- 
 dinand and his duchess. Prinzip, a mere hoy, said he had 
 heen reading anarchist books and periodicals from the time 
 he was fourteen years old. He gloried in his deed, admit- 
 ting his guilt and saying he felt no compunction for his act. 
 
 WddSAWi 
 
 \PQ5EN 
 
 \LISSA 
 
 &2&r<SZ/3J\ 
 
 GERMANY 
 
 GZ&TZSTOCHOWA. 
 
 AUSTRI A 
 
 CITIES FIRST ATTACKED BY THE GERMAN ARMY
 
 CHAPTER III 
 
 AUSTRIA DECLARES WAR ON SERVIA 
 
 High Feeling Against Servia in Austria — Demand for Sat- 
 isfaction — Servians Reply — Austria Declares War on 
 Servia — Efforts to Settle Differences by European 
 Mediation — Emperor Francis Joseph Explains Aus- 
 tria's Attitude Toward Servia — The Match Touched to 
 the European Powder Barrel. 
 
 AUSTRIA and Hungary seethed with feeling following 
 the assassination of the archduke and his wife. It 
 was only a question of days when Emperor Francis Joseph 
 demanded a heavy reckoning. 
 
 Austria, knowing many of the details of the assassina- 
 tion plot and guessing at others, sent an ultimatum to Ser- 
 via on Thursday, July 23rd, to which an answer was de- 
 manded in forty-eight hours. The note, which threw Bel- 
 grade into a state bordering on panic, reviewed the relations 
 with Servia since 1909 and complained that, although the 
 Servian government promised loyalty to the Austro-Hun- 
 garian government, it had failed to suppress subversive 
 movements and agitations by the newspapers, and that this 
 tolerance had incited the Servian people to hatred of the 
 Austro-Hungarian monarchy and contempt for its in- 
 stitutions. 
 
 59
 
 <"»() Austria Declares }] r ar on Servia 
 
 'This," said the note, "culminated in the Sarajevo as- 
 sassinations, which are proved by depositions and confes- 
 sions of the perpetrators to have been hatched at Belgrade, 
 the arms and explosives having been supplied by the con- 
 nivance of Servian officers and functionaries. 
 
 The Austro-Hungarian government is unable longer 
 to pursue an attitude of forbearance, and sees the duty im- 
 posed upon it of putting an end to the intrigues which form 
 a perpetual menace to the monarchy's tranquillity. It there- 
 fore demands from the Servian government formal assur- 
 ance that it condemns the dangerous propaganda whose aim 
 is to detach from the monarchy a portion of its territory, 
 and also that the Servian government shall no longer per- 
 mit these machinations and this criminal, perverse propa- 
 ganda." 
 
 The note then gave the terms of a long formal declara- 
 tion which the Servian government was required to publish 
 in its official journal on the front page, condemning the sub- 
 versive propaganda, deploring the fatal consequences of 
 this, regretting the participation of Servian officers in this 
 propaganda, repudiating any further interference with 
 Austro-Hungarian interests and warning all Servian officers 
 and functionaries and the whole Servian population that 
 rigorous proceedings would be taken in the future against 
 any persons guilty of such machinations. 
 
 This declaration should also be officially proclaimed to 
 the Servian army and the Servian courts should undertake 
 to suppress subversive publications and dissolve immediately 
 the Pan-Servian society styled "Narodna Odbrana," con- 
 fiscating all its means of carrying on a propaganda and
 
 Austria Declares War on Servia 61 
 
 suppress all similar societies having anti- Austrian tenden- 
 cies, it was demanded. 
 
 Servia was further enjoined to eliminate from the edu- 
 cational system such tendencies, to remove all officers 
 and functionaries guilty of an anti- Austrian propa- 
 ganda, whose names and deeds the Austrian govern- 
 ment reserved to itself the right of communicating to the 
 Servian government; to accept the assistance of represent- 
 atives of the Austro-Hungarian government in this work 
 of suppression; to prosecute the accessories to the Sarajevo 
 plot; to arrest Major Tankavitch, and a Servian state em- 
 ployee, Giganovitch, who were compromised hy the Sara- 
 jevo magisterial inquiry; to stop the illicit traffic of arms 
 and explosives across the frontier; to dismiss and punish the 
 Servian officials in the frontier service guilty of assisting the 
 assassins across the frontier ; to furnish the Austrian govern- 
 ment with explanations of anti- Austrian utterances credited 
 to high Servian officials since the Sarajevo crime, and finally 
 to notify the Austrian government promptly of the execu- 
 tion of all the foregoing demands. 
 
 Appended to the note was a long memorandum detailing- 
 all the facts of Servian complicity elicited by the magisterial 
 inquiry at Sarajevo. 
 
 SERVIANS REPLY TO AUSTRIA"^ ULTIMATUM 
 
 Servia took the full time allotted to answer the ultima- 
 tum. Then the little country granted every condition de- 
 manded by Austria except the participation of Austrian of- 
 ficials in the inquiry, qualifying the refusal, however. A 
 summary of the reply follows :
 
 02 Austria Declares War on Servia 
 
 First — Servia agrees to the publication in its official jour- 
 nal, on the front page, of the formal declaration submitted 
 by the Austrian government condemning the subversive 
 propaganda and deploring its fatal consequences, regretting 
 the participation of Servian officers in this propaganda, re- 
 pudiating any further interference with Austro-Hungarian 
 interests and warning all Servians that rigorous proceedings 
 will he taken in the future against any persons guilty of such 
 machinations. 
 
 Second — Servia agrees to communicate this declaration 
 to the army in the form of an order of the day. 
 
 Third — It promises to dissolve those societies which may 
 be considered capable of conducting intrigues against 
 Austria. 
 
 Fourth — Revision of the laws governing the press. 
 
 Fifth — Dismissal from the army and navy of office is 
 and the removal also of civilian officials whose participation 
 in an anti-Austrian propaganda may be proved. The Ser- 
 vian government, however, protests against Austrian offi- 
 cials taking any part in the inquiry. 
 
 Sixth — -The Servian government asks for an explana- 
 tion as to just what part the Austrian officials are to be 
 called upon to take in the inquiry into the Sarajevo plot, 
 and it is announced that Servia can only admit such par- 
 ticipation as would be in accordance with international law 
 and good neighborly relations. 
 
 Seventh — To sum up, Servia accepts all the conditions 
 and all the demands of Austria, and makes reservations only 
 regarding the participation of Austrian officials in the in- 
 quiry. It does not give its formal refusal to this point, but 
 confines itself to asking explanations.
 
 Austria Declares War on Servia 03 
 
 Finally, if the Austrian government finds this reply in- 
 adequate, Servia appeals to The Hague Tribunal and to the 
 powers which signed the declaration of 1909 relative to Bos- 
 nia and Herzegovina. 
 
 The note expressed the hope that the response would dis- 
 pel all misunderstandings that threaten neighborly relations, 
 and said that Servia had given proofs of her pacific and 
 moderate policy throughout the Balkan crisis. 
 
 "The Servian government," the note continued, "can- 
 not be held responsible for manifestations of a private char- 
 acter, such as are common in all lands and escape official 
 control. The Servian government has been painfully sur- 
 prised by the statements connecting persons in the kingdom 
 with the Sarajevo outrage. 
 
 "It expected to be invited to co-operate in the inves- 
 tigation of the crime and was ready to prove by deeds the 
 earnestness of its action against all persons concerning 
 whom communications should be made, without regard to 
 situation or rank. 
 
 "The government of Servia condemns all propaganda 
 directed against Austria-Hungary, namely, all aspirations 
 to detach from the Austro-Hungarian monarchy territories 
 which form a part thereof, and sincerely deplores the 
 lamentable consequences of such criminal actions. 
 
 "It regrets that certain Servian officers and officials, ac- 
 cording to the Austrian communication, have participated in 
 these, thereby compromising neighborly relations. The 
 government disapproves of and repudiates any attempt to 
 interfere with the destinies of the inhabitants of any part of 
 Austria-Hungary."
 
 64 Austria Declares }\ r <tr on Servia 
 
 AUSTRIA BREAKS WITH SERVIA 
 
 Apparently Austria was ready for conflict, for on the 
 afternoon of the reply from Servia M. Jovanovitch, the Ser- 
 vian minister to Vienna, was handed his passports and war 
 was virtually under way. Meanwhile other powers in Eu- 
 rope sought to prevent a general war, as war feeling ran 
 high in Germany and Austria, with people in Russia and 
 France resentful of the attitude of the two members of the 
 Triple Alliance and making demonstrations hostile to them. 
 Europe was rapidly being worked up to a warlike pitch; 
 Mars so long in an eclipse was again in the ascendent as 
 the stage was being set for his bloody role. 
 
 Russia early took a hand in the affair. The Czar as 
 his first step asked Austria to extend the time limit of the 
 Servian ultimatum thereby showing his sympathy with the 
 little country. It was the beginning of the alignment of 
 nations for the conflict. Here it was that Germany took a 
 hand in the trouble, following Russia's warning that Aus- 
 tria must not invade Servian territory. The Kaiser's gov- 
 ernment declared for a "hands off" policy by other nations, 
 leaving Austria un interfered with in its plans to discipline 
 Servia. 
 
 Sir Edward Grey, British foreign minister, proposed an 
 international conference of mediation, backed up by France 
 and Italy. This was on July 27th. The plan favored by 
 Sir Edward Grey was that the four powers, Great Britain, 
 France, Germanv and Italv, should endeavor to settle the 
 misunderstanding between Austria and Servia on the basis 
 of Servia's reply to the ultimatum, or, failing this, to try 
 to prevent hostilities spreading to other nations.
 
 Austria Declares War on Servia 65 
 
 Austria and Germany did not wait louir to decline to 
 take part in a conference looking to an amicable settlement 
 of the trouble. Within twenty- four hours Austria had for- 
 mally declared war on Servia and Germany had rejected the 
 British offer. 
 
 As soon as Germany heard that Austria had declared 
 war it communicated with the British foreign ministry and 
 declared that, while it considered Sir Edward Grey's sug- 
 gestion well meant and in principle good, it was not feasible 
 in practice for a great power to submit its differences with 
 a smaller nation to the judgment of other countries. 
 
 The counter suggestion was made by Germany that, in- 
 stead of an international conference, negotiations for peace 
 should be conducted by the cabinets of the governments in- 
 volved. Germany stated further that she would welcome 
 suggestions to localize the conflict. 
 
 Austria's declaration of war on Servia marked the be- 
 ginning of the European-wide struggle. The text of the 
 declaration, issued July 28 was as follows: 
 
 The royal government of Servia not having replied in a 
 satisfactory manner to the note remitted to it by the Austro- 
 Hungarian minister in Belgrade on July 23, 1914, the im- 
 perial and royal government finds itself compelled to pro- 
 ceed itself to safeguard its rights and interests and to have 
 recourse for this purpose to force of arms. 
 
 Austria-Hungary considers itself, therefore, from this 
 moment in a state of war with Servia. 
 
 Count Berchthold, 
 Minister of Foreign Affairs of Austria-Hungary.
 
 60 J ust rid Deri, n-cs War on Servia 
 
 EMPEROR FRANZ JOSEPH'S MANIFESTO 
 
 \\ itli it went a manifesto from the aged Emperor 
 Francis Joseph stating that it had heen his fervent wish to 
 dedicate his declining years to preserving the empire from 
 the burdens and sacrifices of war. 
 
 "Providence has decreed otherwise," he said. "The in- 
 trigues of a malevolent opponent compel me in defense of 
 the honor of my monarchy and for the protection of its dig- 
 nity and the security of its possessions, to grasp the sword 
 after long years of peace." 
 
 The manifesto referred to the ingratitude of Servia for 
 the support the emperor's ancestors afforded to Servian in- 
 dependence; how Servia for years had pursued a path of 
 open hostility to Austria-Hungary; how Austrian annexa- 
 tion of Bosnia and Herzegovina, which injured no Servian 
 rights, called forth in Servia outbreaks of the bitterest 
 hatred. 
 
 "My government," continued the emperor, "then em- 
 ployed the handsome privileges of the stronger and with ex- 
 treme consideration and leniency only requested Servia to 
 reduce her army to a peace footing and promise to tread the 
 paths of peace and friendship." 
 
 Then recalling that it was Austrian forbearance two 
 vears ago that enabled Servia to reap the fruits of the 
 struggle against Turkey, the emperor said: "The hope that 
 Servia would keep its word has not been fulfilled; the flame 
 of its hatred for myself and my house has blazed always 
 higher. The design to tear from us by force inseparable por- 
 tions of Austria-Hungary has been manifested with ever 
 lessening disguise."
 
 Austria Declares War on Servia 07 
 
 The manifesto then dwelt on the "criminal propaganda 
 which has extended over the frontier, aiming at the destruc- 
 tion of the foundations of order and loyalty in the south- 
 eastern part of the monarchy and the leading astray of 
 growing youth and inciting it to deeds of madness and high 
 treason." 
 
 It continued: "A series of murderous attacks in an or- 
 ganized and well carried out conspiracy, whose fruitful suc- 
 cess wounded me and my loyal people to the heart, forms 
 the visible and bloody track of those secret machinations 
 which were operated direct in Servia." 
 
 Declaring that a stop must be put to these intolerable 
 provocations, the honor and dignity of the monarchy pro- 
 tected, and its political, military and economic developments 
 guarded from continuous shocks, he said : 
 
 "In vain did my government make a last attempt to in- 
 duce Servia to desist. Servia rejected the just and mod- 
 erate demands of my government and refused to conform 
 to the obligations forming the natural foundations of peace 
 in the life of peoples and states. I must therefore proceed 
 by force of arms to secure those indispensable pledges which 
 alone can insure tranquillity in new states within and lasting 
 peace without. 
 
 "In this solemn hour I am fully conscious of the whole 
 significance of my resolve and my responsibility before the 
 Almighty. I have examined and weighed everything, and 
 with serene conscience I set out on the path that duty points. 
 I trust in my peoples, who throughout every storm have 
 always rallied in united loyalty around my throne, and ha\ e 
 always been prepared for the severest sacrifices for the 
 honor, greatness and might of the fatherland.
 
 68 
 
 J nst ria Declares War on Servia 
 
 I trust in Austria-Hungary's brave and devoted forces 
 and in the Almighty to give victory to my arms." 
 
 And now the battle of nations was on; the Armageddon 
 of modern times followed on the heels of the assassination 
 of an Austrian prince in Bosnia when Austria sought re- 
 venge on Servia. The match had been touched to the Eu- 
 ropean powder barrel. 
 
 PATRIOTISM
 
 CHAPTER IV 
 
 HOW THE WAR CLOUD SPREAD 
 
 Austria Invades Servia — Russia Mobilizes for War — Ger- 
 many Orders Czar to Cease Warlike Preparations- 
 Kaiser Declares War on Russia — Kaiser Appeals to His 
 People. 
 
 AFTER Austria's declaration of war came a series of 
 climaxes that shook all Europe. Developments, each 
 more startling than the other, rapidly piled up until soon it 
 was evident that the horrors of war were to be enacted 
 throughout Europe. 
 
 Opening their campaign the day following the declara- 
 tion of war, the Austrian forces bombarded Belgrade. 
 While this was being done, Russia, living up to the letter 
 of her demand to Austria that she keep her troops out of 
 Servian territory, began to mobilize for war. Russia had 
 not swerved in her determination to support Servia. 
 
 The czar called to the colors all the reservists of twenty- 
 three whole governments and of seventy-one districts in 
 fourteen other governments; part of the reservists of nine 
 districts of four governments, the naval reservists in sixty- 
 four districts of twelve Russian governments and one Fin- 
 nish government; the time-expired Cossacks of the terri- 
 tories of Don, Kuban, Terek, Astrakhan, Orenburg and 
 
 69
 
 70 Sow tin War Cloud Spread 
 
 Ural and a corresponding number of reservist officers of 
 the medical and veterinary services, in addition to needful 
 horses, wagons and transport services in the governments 
 and districts thus mobilized. 
 
 All this took place on July 29 and was the signal for 
 Germany to declare that unless the Russian mobilization 
 was suspended that Germany would proclaim partial mobili- 
 zation within twenty-four hours. War talk which was so 
 rife in Russia and Germany was beginning to be heard in 
 Great Britain and France. The governments of the four 
 countries were laying plans so as to be in partial readiness 
 in case of need. 
 
 Russia did not heed the kaiser's ultimatum relative to 
 mobilization which was issued on July 29th. On July 30th 
 England took a hand in the trouble. On that date the 
 British foreign office dispatched a note to Germany setting 
 forth her view of the possibilities of a general European 
 conflict and indicating very plainly that Great Britain could 
 not afford to stand aloof if the balance of power in Europe 
 were endangered. At the same time the good offices of Ger- 
 many were urged as the only sure means of localizing the 
 conflict before interests were compromised which might 
 make a universal war inevitable. 
 
 The following day was marked by some sensational de- 
 velopments. As Russia and Austria renewed direct nego- 
 tiations and Great Britain and France exerted further ef- 
 forts to bring a normal state out of chaos the kaiser made 
 war moves that shook the civilized world. He issued a de- 
 cree of martial law and made a stirring speech to the Berlin 
 populace in which he said the sword had been forced on Ger- 
 many. Tt was about 6 o'clock when the kaiser, accompanied
 
 How the War Cloud Spread 71 
 
 by his whole family, walked out on the historical balcony of 
 the royal palace, where his grandfather, Emperor William 
 I, appeared years ago under much the same circumstances. 
 
 "THE SWORD IS FORCED INTO OUR HAND" — THE GERMAN 
 
 KAISER 
 
 A tremendous ovation greeted the kaiser, and as he 
 started to speak it was impossible to hear him. But Prince 
 Edelbert, the "marine prince," lifted his hand and everybody 
 knew then that the German emperor was about to say some 
 momentous words. And so he began the most serious speech 
 that perhaps was ever delivered by a mighty monarch to his 
 people. He said: 
 
 "A heavy hour has come today upon Germany. Envious 
 peoples everywhere force us to take measures for our own 
 protection. The sword is forced into our hands. But I 
 hope that in the last hour it will be given to me to sheath 
 the sword again and do all that we can for peace. But if 
 war comes, that same sword, with the help of God, will lead 
 us to victory, and we will sheath it then with all honor. 
 
 "War would demand of us an enormous sacrifice in 
 property and life, but we would show our enemies what it 
 means to provoke Germany. And now I commend you to 
 God. Go to church and kneel before God and pray for 
 His help for our gallant army." 
 
 The people of Berlin after the speech of the emperor 
 were in pessimistic mood. All eyes are turned toward Rus- 
 sia, for whose benefit Emperor William apparently spoke. 
 
 The decree proclaiming martial law and the prohibition
 
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 TORPEDO SHOT OUT BY POWDER GUN 
 
 
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 TORPEDO LEAVING GUN
 
 72 H ow the War Cloud Spread 
 
 of the publication of news of the movements of German 
 troops and war material was issued earlier in the day. 
 
 The proclamation announced military measures on the 
 frontiers, the armed protection of the railroads and the re- 
 striction of telegraphic, postal and railroad services except 
 for military purposes. 
 
 All dispatches regarded by the authorities as objection- 
 able were returned to the senders, and a rigid censorship on 
 telegrams to all parts of the world was put into operation. 
 
 Crown Prince Frederick William was appointed 'jo the 
 command of the First Division of the Imperial Guards 
 Army Corps. 
 
 Germany, in short, was getting ready for the develop- 
 ments of the following day. That day was Saturday, 
 August 1st, and it will be a memorable date in the history of 
 the world. It was then that the kaiser declared war on Rus- 
 sia, it being officially announced that the time limit of the 
 German ultimatum to Russia had expired at noon. 
 
 After Count von Pourtales, the German ambassador to 
 St. Petersburg, delivered the declaration of war, he and his 
 staff left the Russian capital immediately. 
 
 A DRAMATIC SCENE 
 
 The rupture of diplomatic relations between Russia and 
 Germany took place under dramatic circumstances. It was 
 midnight Friday when Count von Pourtales visited Foreign 
 Minister SazonofF and asked for an urgent interview. As 
 soon as he was received he formally called upon Russia to 
 cease her mobilization in twelve hours. The allotted period 
 of time passed without an answer. At 7 o'clock Saturday
 
 IIozc the War Cloud Spread 73 
 
 evening Count von Pourtales again called upon M. Sazonaff 
 and again asked if Russia would cease mobilizing her forces. 
 
 To this the Russian statesman replied: 
 
 "Inasmuch as the Russian Government has not answered 
 within the time you specified, it follows that Russia has de- 
 clined to agree with your demand." 
 
 Three times Count von Pourtales repeated the German 
 ultimatum, and each time the Russian Foreign Minister met 
 his statement with the same firm negative. Finally Count 
 von Pourtales rose from his chair, bowed to the Foreign 
 Minister and left the room without another word. He and 
 the members of his staff at once departed from St. Peters- 
 burg; by way of Finland. 
 
 According to the Xovoe Vremya, Count von Pourtales 
 held in his hand the typewritten texts of two replies from 
 •Germany. One was for presentation in the event of Rus- 
 sian acceptance of the German ultimatum, and the other 
 in case of its rejection. In his great agitation the German 
 Ambassador presented both replies to M. Sazonoff at the 
 same time. The one that counted and plunged two more 
 nations into war was the rejection reply. 
 
 At about the same time Count von Pourtales was being 
 handed his passports in St. Petersburg, Emperor William 
 again addressed the Berlin populace from a window of the 
 Imperial Palace. More than 50,000 of his subjects cheered 
 him wildly. He said: 
 
 "I thank you for the love and loyalty shown me. When 
 I enter upon a fight let all party strife cease. We are Ger- 
 man brothers and nothing else. All parties have attacked 
 me in times of peace. I forgive them with all my heart. I
 
 74 How the War Cloud Spread 
 
 hope and wish that the good German sword will emerge vic- 
 torious in the right." 
 
 The Imperial Chancellor also addressed the assembly, 
 saying: 
 
 "All stand as one man for our Emperor, whatever our 
 opinions or our creeds. I am sure that all the young Ger- 
 man men are ready to shed their blood For the lame and 
 greatness of Germany. We can only trust in God, who 
 has hitherto always given us victory. 
 
 "At this serious hour, in order to give expression to your 
 feelings for your Fatherland, you have come to the house 
 of Bismarck, who, with Emperor A\"illiiiin the Great, and 
 Field Marshal von Moltke, welded the German Empire for 
 us. 
 
 'We wished to go on living in peace in the empire which 
 we have developed in forty-four years of peaceful labor. 
 
 'The whole work of Emperor William has been devoted 
 to the maintenance of peace. To the last hour, he has worked 
 for peace in Europe, and he still is working for it. Should 
 all his efforts prove vain, and should the sword be forced 
 into our hands, we will take the field with a clear conscience 
 in the knowledge that we did not seek war. We then shall 
 wage war for our existence, and for the national honor, to 
 the last drop of our blood. 
 
 "In the gravity of this hour I remind you of the words 
 of Prince Frederick Charles to the men of Brandenburg: 
 
 'Let your hearts beat for God and your fists on the 
 enemv.' "
 
 tlotc the War Cloud Spread 75 
 
 GERMANY CALLS 5,000,000 MEN TO THE COLORS 
 
 Twenty-four hours later the total mobilization of the 
 German army was ordered. This placed in the field ap- 
 proximately 5,000,000 men. All male citizens between the 
 ages of eighteen and forty-five were called upon to bear 
 arms. The general mobilization previously ordered called 
 to the colors the second and third reserves. The order of 
 August 2 called out the Landsturm and put every available 
 fighting man in Germany in active service. 
 
 The Russian Ambassador was handed his passports, a 
 special train placed at his disposal and he was escorted to the 
 frontier. Germany regarded the last hope of peace as hav- 
 ing disappeared. The temper of the people of Berlin had 
 changed in twenty- four hours. The enthusiasm of the pre- 
 vious day gave way to sober realization of the tremendous 
 possibilities of the pending conflict. 
 
 An official statement issued early in the day following 
 the arrival of Kaiser Wilhelm from Potsdam, read : 
 
 "In consequence of a Russian attack on German terri- 
 tory, Germany is in a state of war with Russia. 
 
 The French reply to the German representations is of an 
 unsatisfactory character. Moreover, France has mobilized, 
 and an outbreak of war with France must therefore be reck- 
 oned with any day or any moment." 
 
 Another statement, issued officially, declared: 
 
 "Russia has invaded Germany during a time of peace, in 
 flagrant contradiction of Russia's peaceful assurances."
 
 70 
 
 HOW the War Cloud Spread 
 
 UNTIL THE SLATS COME OFF
 
 CHAPTER V 
 
 THE INVASION OF LUXEMBURG 
 
 Germany's Early Moves in War Game — France in a State 
 of War with Germany— Kaiser's Demand on Belgium 
 —Great Britain Stands by France and for the Neutrality 
 of Belgium. 
 
 DEVELOPMENTS on August 2 showed that all hope 
 for peace was at an end. They also showed that the 
 Kaiser was ready for eventualities and that Germany had 
 planned to strike quickly in its effort to gain the ascendency. 
 On that date German troops entered the Grand Duchy of 
 Luxemburg despite the protest of the young Grand Duchess. 
 The French Embassy at London issued a statement declar- 
 ing that German troops had invaded French territory at 
 Cirey without a declaration of war. 
 
 This was the statement from the Embassy: 
 
 FRANCE STATES HER POSITION 
 
 "German troops have invaded Luxemburg. Germany 
 has violated the neutrality of Luxemburg. This neutrality 
 was established by a treaty negotiated and signed in London 
 in April of 1867. Ratifications of this treaty were ex- 
 changed in London, May SO, 1867. Article II of it reads as 
 
 77
 
 78 The Invasion of Luxemburg 
 
 follows: 'The Grand Duchy of Luxemburg will be a state 
 perpetually neutral. The powers which sign the present 
 treaty declare themselves as hound to respect this neutrality 
 and to make it respected by others. This neutrality is placed 
 under the guarantee of the powers which have signed this 
 treaty.' 
 
 •The British Ambassador at Berlin asked the German 
 Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs whether Germany 
 was prepared to respect the neutrality of Belgium. The 
 German Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs declared 
 that he was not able to answer. The neutrality of Belgium 
 has bedi established by a treaty signed in London. 
 
 "The German Ambassador at St. Petersburg notified 
 Russia of the declaration of war by his Government when 
 negotiations were pending between Austria-Hungary and 
 Russia, and at the very moment when Austria-Hungary had 
 declared that she was prepared to consider the matter of 
 the Austro-Serb conflict with Scrvia or with a neutral power 
 on behalf of Servia. 
 
 "The German Ambassador at Paris yesterday morning 
 had an interview with the French Prime Minister concerning 
 the Austro-Serb conflict, and especially about the decision 
 reached by Austria-Hungary to consider the matter with 
 Servia or with a neutral power speaking in behalf of Servia. 
 In spite of this, on the afternoon of the same day war was 
 declared by Germany on Russia. 
 
 "France was asked to tell what she would do in case of 
 war between Russia and Germany, and the German Am- 
 bassador at Paris began to prepare everything for his de- 
 parture from the French capital. 
 
 "July 31, Germany called to the flag the last five classes
 
 The Invasion of Luxemburg 7 ( .> 
 
 of her reservists. This she could do by means of the martial 
 law proclaimed by Germany, which permitted her to keep 
 this news secret. Consequently, on July 31 mobilization was 
 going on in Germany. 
 
 "In spite of this France waited until August 1, at .5 
 o'clock in the afternoon, to order a general mobilization. 
 This was done for the purpose of making it clear that she 
 was not the aggressive power, and also that she might be 
 able to claim British support. 
 
 "General mobilization was ordered in France August 1, 
 at 5 o'clock in the afternoon. The first day of mobilization 
 began August 2 at midnight. 
 
 The fateful order for French mobilization consisted of 
 only seventeen words, and read as follows : 
 
 "Ministry of War. Order of general mobilization. Ex- 
 treme urgency. First day of the mobilization Sunday, Au- 
 gust 2." 
 
 The words were written in a large hand and appeared 
 on sheets of white paper about eight by twelve inches. These 
 posters were manifolded by a duplicating machine and not 
 printed. 
 
 The organization immediately began in Paris of bat- 
 talions of foreign volunteers, notably Belgians, Slavs and 
 Syrians. Italians paraded through the downtown section 
 carrying Italian and French flags and shouting "Down 
 with Germany!" and "Long live France!" 
 
 The war spirit which was so rampant in France reached 
 a fever heat on August 3 when the German Ambassador 
 to Paris received word from Emperor William to demand 
 his passports.
 
 
 
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 En 

 
 so The Invasion of Luxemburg 
 
 GERMANY BLAMES FRANCE 
 
 Germany in an official communication placed the blame 
 for the rupture of diplomatic relations and the existence of 
 a state of war on France. The communication said: 
 
 "On the morning of August 2, French airmen flew over 
 Nuremberg and threw bombs, while during the night of 
 August 1 French aeroplanes flew over the Province of the 
 Rhine. During the forenoon of August 2 a number of 
 French officers dressed in German uniforms crossed the Ger- 
 man frontier from Holland, while on the same day French 
 troops crossed the German border in Upper Alsace near 
 Belfort. 
 
 "We consider ourselves as having been attacked by 
 France before diplomatic relations had been broken off. 
 
 'The German troops hitherto have obeyed the orders 
 given them hv the German commanders not to cross the 
 French frontier. French troops, on the contrary, since yes- 
 terday have made several attacks on our frontier posts with- 
 out any declaration of war having- been made. 
 
 'The French have crossed the frontier at several places 
 in spite of the fact that the French Government a few 
 davs ago informed us that it would not infringe on the un- 
 occupied zone of six miles from the frontier, and since last 
 night companies of French troops have been in the occu- 
 pation of a number of German villages. 
 
 "French army aeronauts have been flying over Baden 
 and Bavaria yesterday and today throwing bombs, and have 
 violated Belgian neutrality flying over Belgian territory into 
 the province of the Rhine in an effort to destroy our rail- 
 ways. In this way France has opened the attack upon us
 
 The Inversion of Luxemburg 81 
 
 and has established a state of war which has compelled the 
 German Empire to take defensive measures for the security 
 of its territory." 
 
 Germany continued her policy of rapid movements. The 
 Kaiser's Government sent a note to Belgium on the evening 
 of August 2, proposing to Belgium friendly neutrality, cou- 
 pled with the free passage through Belgian territory of 
 German troops, the maintenance of Belgian independence 
 at the conclusion of peace and threatening in case of refusal 
 to treat Belgium as an enemy. The time limit of twelve 
 hours was fixed for a reply. Belgium refused to accede to 
 the demand. 
 
 GREAT BRITAIN TAKES A HAND 
 
 When this communication was read in the British House 
 of Commons by Sir Edward Grey, Great Britain, too, got 
 ready to unleash the dogs of war. 
 
 "Belgium answered that an attack on her neutrality 
 would be a flagrant violation of the rights of nations, that to 
 accept the German proposal would be to sacrifice her honor, 
 and, being conscious of her duty, Belgium was firmly re- 
 solved to repel aggression by all possible means," Sir Edward 
 said in a speech to the House on August 3. 
 
 The text of the Belgian King's telegram to King George, 
 which was read by Sir Edward, follows : 
 
 "Remembering the numerous proofs of Your Majesty's 
 friendship, and that of your predecessor, of the friendly atti- 
 tude of England in 1870, and the proof of the friendship 
 which she has just given us again, I make a supreme appeal 
 to the diplomatic intervention of Your Majesty's Govern- 
 ment to safeguard the integrity of Belgium."
 
 82 The Invasion of Luxemburg 
 
 Sir Edward Grey, at his first appearance before the 
 House of Commons on August .'i. stated that the I Louse \\ as 
 free to decide what the British attitude- in the present Euro- 
 pean conflict would be. lie added that Great Britain bad 
 not committed herself to anything but diplomatic support. 
 Sir Edward requested the House to approach the considera- 
 tion of the European crisis from the point of view of British 
 interests, British honor and British obligations. He re- 
 quested the House to deal with the issue without passion, 
 and added : 
 
 "When the documents are made public it will be seen 
 bow genuinely and wholeheartedly we have made efforts to 
 preserve peace." 
 
 Dealing with the question of Great Britain's obligations. 
 Sir Edward said: 
 
 "Up to yesterday, we bad given no promise of more than 
 diplomatic support. 1 was asked at the time of the Algeciras 
 crisis if we would give armed support, and I said I could 
 promise nothing to any foreign power, unless it received the 
 whole-hearted support of public opinion. I gave no prom- 
 ise, but I told both the French and German Ambassadors 
 that if war were forced on France public opinion in the 
 British Isles would rally to France." 
 
 Sir Edward added that, if a foreign fleet came down 
 the English Channel to bombard the French coast, "we would 
 not stand aside." 
 
 The Foreign Secretary stated that the British fleet had 
 been mobilized, and the mobilization of the British army was 
 taking place, but that no engagement had yet been made by 
 the British Government to send an expedition abroad. lie 
 continued:
 
 The Invasion of Luxemburg 83 
 
 "The French fleet is in the Mediterranean, and the 
 Northern coasts of France are defenseless. If a foreign 
 fleet, engaged in war against France, should come down 
 and battle against those defenseless coasts, we could not 
 stand aside. We felt strongly that France was entitled to 
 know at once whether, in the event of an attack on her un- 
 protected coasts, she could rely on our support. I gave as- 
 surance to the French Ambassador last night that, if the 
 German fleet goes into the English Channel or into the 
 North Sea to attack French shipping or the French coast, 
 the British fleet will give all the protection in its power. 
 That answer is subject to the approval of Parliament. It is 
 not a declaration of war. I understand that the German 
 Government would be prepared, if we would pledge our- 
 selves to neutrality, to agree that its fleet would not attack 
 the northern coast of France. That is far too narrow an 
 engagement." 
 
 Sir Edward Grey then recited the history of Belgian 
 neutrality, saying: 
 
 "Our interest is as strong today as it was in 1870. We 
 cannot take a less serious view of our obligations now than 
 did the late Mr. Gladstone in that year. When mobilization 
 began I telegraphed to both the French and German Gov- 
 ernments, asking whether they would respect Belgian neu- 
 trality. France replied that she was prepared to do so un- 
 less another power violated that neutrality. The German 
 Foreign Secretary replied that he could not possibly give 
 a response before consulting the Imperial Chancellor and the 
 German Emperor. He intimated that he doubted whether 
 it was possible to give an answer, because that answer would 
 disclose the German plans. We were sounded last week as
 
 8-4 The Invasion of L/uccemburg 
 
 to whether, if Belgian neutrality were restored after the war 
 it would pacify us, and we replied that we could not barter 
 our interests or our obligations." 
 
 Toward the close of his speech Sir Edward said: 
 "We must be prepared, and we are prepared, to face the 
 consequences of using all our strength at any moment, we 
 know not how soon, in order to defend ourselves." 
 In other parts of his speech Sir Edward had said: 
 'The intervention with Germany in regard to the inde- 
 pendence of Belgium was carried out by England last night. 
 If the independence of Belgium should be destroyed the in- 
 dependence of Holland also would be gone. Do not imagine 
 that if a great power stands aside in a war like this it is 
 going to be in a position to exert its influence at the end. I 
 am not quite sure whether the facts regarding Belgium are 
 as thev reached this Government, but there is an obligation 
 on this country to do its utmost to prevent the consequences 
 to which those facts would lead if they were not opposed. 
 So far as the forces of the Crown are concerned, the Premier 
 and the First Lord of the Admiralty have no doubt what- 
 ever of their readiness and their efficiency. They never were 
 at a higher mark of readiness. There never was a time 
 when confidence was more justified in their ability to protect 
 our shores and our commerce."
 
 CATfl e ft- -tf 
 
 1870— THE PILOTS— 1914
 
 86 
 
 The Invasion of Luxemburg 
 
 ■&- 
 
 
 f 
 
 
 
 
 TO ARMSi
 
 CHAPTER VI 
 
 FIVE NATIONS IN THE GRIP OF WAR 
 
 Great Britain Declares War on Germany — Kaiser Blames 
 Other Nations for Trouble — Czar Puts Blame on Ger- 
 many — France also Blames Kaiser's Government- 
 Montenfgro Declares War on Austria — Great Britain 
 Declares War on Austria. 
 
 SIR EDWARD GREY'S speech indicated the prelimi- 
 nary step to Great Britain's becoming involved in the 
 war of nations. Twenty- four hours later the Brit- 
 ish Government declared war on Germany follow- 
 ing the expiration of the time limit set in her 
 ultimatum to Germany demanding a satisfactory reply 
 on the subject of Belgian neutrality. Germany's reply 
 was the summary rejection of the request that Belgian neu- 
 trality should be respected. These words brought the force 
 of British arms with France, Russia, Belgium and Servia 
 against Germany and Austria-Hungary: 
 
 "Owing to the summary rejection hy the German Gov- 
 ernment of the request by His Britannic Majesty's Govern- 
 ment that the neutrality of Belgium should be respected, 
 His Majesty's Ambassador at Berlin has received his pass- 
 ports and His Majesty's Government has declared to the 
 German Government that a state of war exists between 
 
 87
 
 88 Five Nations in the Grip of War 
 
 Great Britain and Germany from 11 o'clock P. M., August 
 4." 
 
 On the day Great Britain declared war Emperor Wil- 
 liam in opening the Imperial Parliament again declared he 
 was forced to grasp the sword, saying: 
 
 THE KAISER'S SPEECH 
 
 'The world has been a witness of the indefatigable man- 
 ner in which we stood in the front rank during the worries 
 and troubles of recent years in the endeavor to spare the 
 nations of Europe from a war between the great powers. 
 The greatest perils which had arisen owing to the events in 
 the Balkans appeared to have been overcome, but then the 
 assassination of my friend, the Archduke Francis Ferdi- 
 nand, opened up a great abyss. My ally, the Emperor 
 Francis Joseph, was compelled to take up arms for the pro- 
 tection of his empire against the dangerous agitation exist- 
 ing in a neighboring state. In pursuing its interests the 
 Russian Empire stepped in the way of Austria-Hungary. 
 
 "Not only our duty as an ally called us to the side of 
 Austria-IIi:n< ary, but the great task was cast upon us at the 
 same time, with the ancient community of culture of the 
 two empires, to protect our own position against the at- 
 tack of unfriendly forces. It was with a heavy heart that 
 I was compelled to mobilize my army against a neighbor 
 with whose troops mine had fought side by side on so many 
 fields of battle, and with sincere regret I saw the breaking 
 of a friendship to which Germany had been so faithful. The 
 imperial Russian Government, giving way to an insatiable 
 nationalism, has stepped to the side of a state which, through
 
 Five Nations in the Grip of War 89 
 
 a criminal act, had brought about the calamity of this war. 
 That France also placed herself on the side of our opponent 
 was not surprising to us. Only too often had our efforts to 
 bring about more friendly relations with the French Repub- 
 lic come into contact with the expression of old hopes and 
 with long standing malice. 
 
 "The present situation arose not from temporary con- 
 flicts of interest or diplomatic combinations, but is the result 
 of ill-will existing for years against the strength and pros- 
 perity of the German Empire. We are not pushed on by 
 the desire of conquest. We are moved by the unbending 
 desire to secure for ourselves and those coming after us the 
 place on which God has put us. My Government, and above 
 all my Chancellor, tried until the last moment to prevent 
 the worst happening. In enforced self-defense, with clear 
 conscience and clean hands we grasp the sword. To the peo- 
 ples and races of the German Empire my appeal goes forth 
 to stand together fraternally with our allies in defense of 
 that which we have created in peaceful work. 
 
 "Following the example of our forefathers, firm and 
 faithful, earnest and chivalrous, humble before our God and 
 ready to fight when in face of the enemy, let us confide our- 
 selves to the everlasting Almighty, who will strengthen our 
 defense and conduct it to a good end." 
 
 THE CZAR'S MANIFESTO 
 
 The da3 r previous the Czar of Russia had laid the blame 
 for the trouble at the Kaiser's door. The manifesto issued 
 by Xicholas was as follows: 
 
 "By the grace of God we, Nichojas II., Emperor and
 
 00 Five Nations in the Grip of War 
 
 autocrat of all the Russians, King of Poland and Grand 
 Duke of Finland, etc., to all our faithful subjects make 
 known that Russia, related by faith and blood to the Slav 
 peoples and faithful to her historical traditions, has never 
 regarded her fates with indifference. But the fraternal 
 sentiments of the Russian people for the Slavs have been 
 awakened with perfect unanimity and extraordinary force 
 in these last few days when Austria-Hungary knowingly ad- 
 dressed to Servia claims inacceptable for an independent 
 state. Having paid no attention to the pacific and concilia- 
 tory reply of the Servian Government, and having rejected 
 the benevolent intervention of Russia, Austria-Hungary 
 made haste to proceed to an armed attack and began to bom- 
 bard Belgrade, an open place. 
 
 "Forced by the situation thus created to take necessarv 
 measures of precaution, we ordered the army and the navy 
 put on a war footing, at the same time using every endeavor 
 to obtain a peaceful solution. Pourparlers were begun amid 
 friendly relations with Germany and her ally, Austria, for 
 the blood and the property of our subjects were dear to us. 
 Contrary to our hopes in our good neighborly relations of 
 long date, and disregarding our assurances that the mobiliza- 
 tion measures taken were in pursuance of no object hostile 
 to her, Germany demanded their immediate cessation. Be- 
 ing rebuffed in this demand, Germany suddenly declared 
 war on Russia. Today it is not only the protection of a 
 country related to us and unjustly attacked that must be ac- 
 corded, but we must safeguard the honor, the dignity and the 
 integrity of Russia and her position among the great powers. 
 
 "We believe unshakably that all our faithful subjects 
 will rise with unanimity and devotion for the defense of
 
 Five Nations in the Grip of War 91 
 
 Russian soil; that internal discord will be forgotten in this 
 threatening hour; that the unity of the Emperor with his 
 people will become still more close, and that Russia, rising 
 like one man, will repulse the insolent attack of the enemy. 
 With a profound faith in the justice of our work, and with 
 a humble hope in omnipotent Providence in prayer, we call 
 God's blessing on holy Russia and her valiant troops." 
 
 THE FRENCH PREMIERES STATEMENT 
 
 When Great Britain declared war on Germanv the 
 French Minister of War announced that his country was 
 also officially at war with Germany. When Premier Viviani 
 made the French Government's statement on the war in the 
 Chamber of Deputies on August 4 his remarks roused the 
 deepest enthusiasm. He detailed at great length the history 
 of the events of the past fortnight, presenting strong argu- 
 ments in the case against Germany, which, he declared, 
 "irrefutably and logically justified the acts of the French 
 Government." 
 
 During the course of his remarks the Premier said: 
 "France has been unjustly provoked — she did not seek 
 the war ; she has done all in her power to avoid it. Since war 
 was forced upon her she will defend herself against Ger- 
 many and any other power who, not yet having made known 
 its sentiments, takes part by the side of Germany in the con- 
 flict between the two countries. Against an attack which 
 violates all the laws of equity and all the rights of nations 
 we have now taken all necessary dispositions. They will be 
 carried out rigorously, methodically and calmly. The mobil- 
 ization of the Russian army is proceeding with remarkable 
 energy and boundless enthusiasm."
 
 MOBILIZED
 
 Five Nations in the Grip of War 
 
 93 
 
 AS IT WAS IN THE BEGINNING
 
 9-1 /•'/';< Nations in I he drip of War 
 
 The House turned toward the Russian Minister, M. 
 Iswolsky, who sat in the diplomatic gallery, and cheered 
 Russia. 
 
 The Premier continued: 
 
 "Belgium now lias 250,000 men in arms, prepared to de- 
 fend with magnificent ardor the neutrality and independence 
 of their native land. The English fleet is mobilized to the 
 smallest vessel and the English army is mobilizing." 
 
 The Deputies rose again and turned toward where the 
 British Ambassador, Sir Francis Bertie, was sitting, in the 
 gallery, and cheered wildly round after round. 
 
 The French Minister of War issued the following note 
 earlier in "the day: 
 
 "The German Ambassador has demanded his passports, 
 and diplomatic relations between France and Germany 
 have been broken off. 
 
 "War is declared." 
 
 The Government sent a message to Jules Cambon, 
 French Ambassador in Berlin, telling him to ask for his 
 passports and to leave the embassy and consulate in the care 
 of the United States. 
 
 Two more declarations of war followed within a week. 
 The first was when little Montenegro lined up with the allies 
 against Germany and Austria by declaring war against the 
 latter country on August 8. In this connection came a dec- 
 laration from the Czar of Russia that it was a Slav war. 
 Addressing the members of the Council of the Empire and 
 the Duma in audience at the Winter Palace Nicholas said: 
 
 "In these days of alarm and anxiety through which Rus- 
 sia is passing, I greet you. Germany, following Austria, 
 has declared war on Russia. The enormous enthusiasm, the
 
 Five Nations in the Grip of War 95 
 
 patriotic sentiments and the love and loyalty to the throne — 
 an enthusiasm which has swept like a hurricane through the 
 country — guarantee for me, as for you, I hope, that Russia 
 will bring to a happy conclusion the war which the Almighty 
 has sent it. It is also because of this unanimous enthusiasm, 
 love and eagerness to make every sacrifice, even of life itself, 
 that I am able to regard the future with calm firmness. It is 
 not only the dignity and honor of our country that we are de- 
 fending, but we are fighting for brother Slavs, co-religion- 
 ists, blood brothers. 
 
 "I see also with joy the union of the Slavs with Russia 
 progressing strongly and indissolubly. I am persuaded that 
 all and each of you will be in your place to assist me to sup- 
 port the test, and that all, beginning with myself, will do 
 their duty. Great is the God of the Russian Fatherland!" 
 
 GKEAT BRITAIN DECLARES AVAR ON AUSTRIA 
 
 On August 12, Great Britain made her stand clear to 
 take a leading part in the struggle when she declared war 
 on Austria. This was done by handing the Austro-Hun- 
 garian Ambassador his passports. The British Foreign Of- 
 fice issued the following statement in doing so : 
 
 "His Majesty's government has declared to His Excel- 
 lence the Austro-Hungarian Ambassador that thev feel 
 themselves obliged to announce that a state of war exists be- 
 tween Great Britain and Austria-Hungary as from mid- 
 night." 
 
 Austria later attacked Great Britain for her stand in the 
 following note: 
 
 "Austria's war against Servia, an independent state, and
 
 96 
 
 Five Nations in the Grip of War 
 
 for a cause which did not affect international politics, can- 
 not be considered as the cause for the present European 
 war." 
 
 Great Britain's note to Austria, the statement continued. 
 Tailed to point out the fact thai Austria was obliged to de- 
 clare war against Russia because the latter's mobilization 
 threatened Austria. It is denied that Austria sent troops 
 to the frontier, a fact, the statement says, which France al- 
 ready knew from the Austrian Ambassador. The note 
 ended : 
 
 "It is evident that Great Britain's alleged reasons for de- 
 claring war not only are arbitrary alterations of facts, but 
 deliberate lies. England has thus lightly broken her tradi- 
 tional friendship with Austria in order to support France; 
 but, nevertheless, she will not find Austria unprepared." 
 
 LOCATION OF THE GREAT BATTLE AT LIEGE, BELGIUM
 
 CHAPTER VII 
 
 JAPAN TAKES A HAND IN THE TROUBLE 
 
 Japan Soon Takes Steps to Take a Hand in the Great War 
 —Kiaochou. Territory Leased by Germany in China 
 Causes Japan to Prepare for War — Mikado's Govern- 
 ment Sends mi Ultimatum to Germany Demanding that 
 German Ships Leave Oriental Waters and That Ger- 
 many Evacuate Kiaochou — Time Limit Set in Note 
 Expires with Germany Failing to Notice the Communi- 
 cation — Japan Declares War on Germany — Japan s 
 Strength on Land That Is Thrown in with the Allies- 
 Strength of the Japanese Navy. 
 
 JAPAN did not wait long to become embroiled in the great 
 European struggle. The Mikado's Government, it 
 seemed, had been casting covetous eyes on Kiaochou for some 
 time and on August 23, only a few days, so to speak, after the 
 Kaiser had shown his hand, the Eastern people were at war 
 with the Germans. On August 15 the Japanese Government 
 sent an ultimatum to Germany demanding the withdrawal 
 of the German warships from the Orient and the evacuation 
 of Kiaochou and giving Germany until August 23 to comply 
 with the demand and until September 15 in which actually 
 to carry out the evacuation. 
 
 97
 
 98 Japan Takes a Hand in Vie Trouble 
 
 The ultimata ultimatum was as follows: 
 
 "We consider it highly important and necessary in the 
 j) resent situation to take measures to remove the causes of 
 all disturbances of the peace in the Far East, and to safe- 
 guard the general interests as contemplated by the agree- 
 ment of alliance between Japan and Great Britain. 
 
 "In order to secure a firm and enduring peace in Eastern 
 Asia, the establishment of which is the aim of the said agree- 
 ment, the Imperial Japanese Government sincerely believes 
 it to be its duty to give the advice to the Imperial German 
 Government to carry out the following two propositions : 
 
 "First — To withdraw immediately from Japanese and 
 Chinese waters German men-of-war and armed vessels of all 
 kinds, and to disarm at once those which cannot be so with- 
 drawn. 
 
 "Second — To deliver on a date not later than September 
 15 to the Imperial Japanese authorities, without condition 
 or compensation, the entire leased territory of Kiaochou, with 
 a view to the eventual restoration of the same to China. 
 
 "The Imperial Japanese Government announces at the 
 same time that in the event of it not receiving by noon on 
 August 23, 1914, an answer from the Imperial German 
 Government signifying its unconditional acceptance of the 
 above advice offered by the Imperial Japanese Government, 
 Japan will be compelled to take such action as she may deem 
 necessary to meet the situation." 
 
 KIAOCHOU THE BONE OF CONTENTION 
 
 Kiaochou was the only European holding in that section 
 of China and diplomats declared at the time Japan issued
 
 Japan Takes a Hand in the Trouble 00 
 
 its ultimatum to Germany that the Mikado was anxious to 
 get the region and that if he did not obtain it during the 
 European crisis it was only a question of time when he 
 would do so. The German Government, as was expected, 
 refused to accede to Japan's demands. In fact Germany 
 took no notice of the communication. So it was that on 
 August 23, when the time limit stated in the ultimatum had 
 expired, that Japan joined the warring nations. Her dec- 
 laration of war on Germany which lined her up with the 
 allies was as follows: 
 
 "We, by the grace of heaven, Emperor of Japan, seated 
 on the throne occupied by the same dynasty from time 
 immemorial, do hereby make the following proclamation to 
 all our loyal and brave subjects: 
 
 "We hereby declare war against Germany, and we com- 
 mand our army and navy to carry on hostilities against that 
 empire with all their strength, and we also command all our 
 competent authorities to make every effort, in pursuance of 
 their respective duties, to attain the national aim by all means 
 within the limits of the law of nations. 
 
 "Since the outbreak of the present war in Europe, calami- 
 tous effect of which we view with grave concern, we, on our 
 part, have entertained hopes of preserving peace of the Far 
 East by the maintenance of strict neutrality, but the action 
 of Germany has at length compelled Great Britain, our ally, 
 to open hostilities against that country, and Germany is at 
 Kiaochou, its leased territory in China, busy with warlike 
 preparations, while its armed vessels, cruising seas of Eastern 
 Asia, are threatening our commerce and that of our ally. 
 'Peace of the Far East is thus in jeopardy.
 
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 100 Japan Takes (i Hand in the Trouble 
 
 "Accordingly,, our Government and that of His Britannic 
 Majesty, alter full and frank communication with each 
 other, agreed to take such measures as may be necessary for 
 the protection of the general interests contemplated in the 
 agreement of alliance, and we, on our part, being desirous 
 to attain that object by peaceful means, commanded our 
 Government to offer with sincerity an advice to the Imperial 
 German Government. 
 
 "By the last day appointed for the purpose, however, our 
 Government failed to receive an answer accepting their 
 advice. It is with profound regret that we, in spite of our 
 ardent devotion to the cause of peace, are thus compelled to 
 declare war, especially at this early period of our reign, and 
 while we are still in mourning for our lamented mother. 
 
 "It is our earnest wish that, by the lovaltv and valor of 
 our faithful subjects, peace may soon be restored and the 
 glory of the empire he enhanced." 
 
 WAR FEVER RAMPANT IN JAPAN 
 
 Japan had had the war fever for some days and the 
 declaration of war was received with great enthusiasm in 
 Tokio. Japan took prompt steps to enforce her demands on 
 Germany. The Mikado's Government apparently was ready 
 for war. In any event the declaration of war by the 
 Japanese left Germany and Austria arrayed against a great 
 host of men. At this time the two parties to the old triple 
 alliance were at war with llussia, France, England, Belgium, 
 Servia, Montenegro and Japan. It was a great force that 
 these allies commanded, one far in excess of the land and 
 sea forces of German v and Austria.
 
 Japan Takes a Hand in the Trouble 101 
 
 Japan was able to put 1,000,000 more fighting men in 
 the field against Germany and Austria. She also had 181 
 warships to add to the combined fleets of the allies. This 
 brought the land forces of the allies up to a strength almost 
 double that on land and several times as great on sea. In 
 addition to the 1,000,000 available men Japan had to put in 
 the field she had a powerful reserve army. 
 
 It is true that Japan had suffered great financial loss in 
 the war with Russia and was in a poor condition so far as 
 ability to wage Mar was concerned in the matter of wealth 
 but the war fever was rampant in Japan and the Mikado's 
 Government was anxious to drive the Germans from 
 Kiaochou even if it was necessary to plunge the country 
 into a war that might cost millions. Japan did not reckon 
 the cost. Whether it was so that she was seeking an excuse, 
 as many diplomats said, is a question. But certain it was 
 that Japan acted promptly in delivering an ultimatum to 
 Germany and in taking quick action on Germany's failure 
 to answer the communication.
 
 102 Japan Takes a I laud in the Trouble 
 
 SOME, SWEET HOME
 
 CHAPTER VIII 
 YOUNG KING OF THE BELGIANS 
 
 Grandson of a German Prince — His Queen the Grand 
 Niece of the Murdered Empress of Austria — His Visit 
 to America When Crown Prince — His Large Posses- 
 sions in the Congo with 30,000,000 Belgian Subjects — 
 A Democratic Monarch. 
 
 KING ALBERT of the Belgians also became a prom- 
 inent personality early in the struggle. When he made 
 such a brilliant record as a soldier while the Germans were 
 battering at the gates of his nation the civilized world awoke 
 to the fact that his would be a name that would go down in 
 history. King Albert is the grandson of the first King of 
 the Belgians, a German prince from Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, 
 who was invited to rule as Leopold I. His sovereignty 
 lasted for thirty-four years. The sovereignty of his son, 
 Leopold II., lasted for forty-four years. That of his grand- 
 son, King Albert, began only in 1909. Belgium has been 
 prosperous and united under their rule. Each sovereign 
 identified himself thoroughly with his subjects and gave his 
 life to the adopted country so completely that the royal fam- 
 ily of Belgium is considered by the Belgians themselves as 
 Belgian. 
 
 103
 
 V. 
 
 
 Eh 
 
 PG 
 <
 
 BRITISH TROOPS CROSSING A RIVER
 
 nil- Young King of the Belgians 
 
 King Albert and Queen Elizabeth have had to sacrifice 
 their nearest and dearest family ties to remain loyal to Bel- 
 gium during this war. Both are as German as centuries of 
 German hlood can make them. The Queen, who is the 
 daughter of Duke Carl Theodore of Bavaria, one of the most 
 celebrated eye specialists of his generation, is the name-sake 
 and god-daughter of her aunt, the murdered Empress Eliza- 
 beth of Austria. She had always maintained the most af- 
 fectionate relations with her uncle, the Emperor Francis 
 Joseph, whose army was allied to Germany's. 
 
 KING ALBERT KNOWN TO AMERICANS 
 HIS VISIT TO AMERICA 
 
 King Albert was thirty-nine years old and Queen Eliza- 
 beth a year younger at the outbreak of the war. Many 
 Americans have met the king. In 1808 he visited America 
 for several months. He had dinner in Washington with 
 President and Mrs. McKinley, went to Newport to be enter- 
 tained by Mrs. Potter Palmer, took luncheon at the Law- 
 yers' Club in Wall street with Frederic R. Coudert, went 
 over to the Standard Oil works at Bayonne, N. J., visited 
 the United States Navy Yards and saw also a cavalry drill, 
 and as a diversion after such strenuous labors tried to visit 
 the scene of a murder in Brooklyn. A burly policeman 
 baffled him. ordering him away from the house of crime. 
 The oil fields in AVestern Pennsylvania were thoroughly 
 inspected and the manufacturing establishments in Massa- 
 chusetts investigated, after which Prince Albert — as he was 
 then — went out West and made a tour with J. J. Hill of the 
 railroad centres. Society hastened to entertain him where-
 
 Young King of the Belgians 105 
 
 ever he went and occasionally it interfered with the engineer- 
 ing and industrial studies he was making by the commands 
 of his uncle, King Leopold II., in order to fit him for his 
 later duties as King, so that he finally hid his identity under 
 an assumed name. In New Orleans he was C. A. Harris. 
 In St. Louis he stayed for three days at a hotel as "John 
 Banks of New York." 
 
 In 1909, a few months before he became King, he vis- 
 ited the Belgian Congo, where he had 30,000,000 subjects 
 and a territory which yielded great revenues to his private 
 purse as well as to the Belgian Government. The Belgian 
 Congo was Leopold II. 's gift to the nation which elected to 
 have his father come from Germany to rule over them. Its 
 government has been full of difficult problems, which Leo- 
 pold II.'s masterful mind ignored, having in view only its 
 development to increase the wealth and importance of Bel- 
 gium, but King Albert carried out reforms in the Congo to 
 add to the happiness of the natives. King Leopold con- 
 trolled it personally, King Albert had to share its control 
 with his Government, sharing also its revenues with the 
 nation. His private fortune was twenty-odd millions of 
 dollars, in addition to a sufficient grant from the state to 
 maintain his palaces and household. 
 
 NO TAX FOR A CORONATION 
 
 He and Queen Elizabeth did not have any formal corona- 
 tion, such as most of the bther sovereigns have, following the 
 example of Leopold II., who gave to the people the large 
 sum of money, many thousands of dollars, for which they 
 had been taxed to pay for the coronation. The new King
 
 106 Young King of the Belgians 
 
 and Queen had, however, a state entry into Brussels the day 
 before Christinas in 1909, when the cannon boomed a royal 
 salute and the church bells rang out as hundreds of thousands 
 of their subjects from all quarters of the small kingdom 
 shouted themselves hoarse in welcome. The Queen rode 
 first in the procession, sitting in the royal coach with her 
 children, Prince Leopold and Prince Charles and the dainty 
 little Princess Marie Jose, the coach drawn by six horses 
 in gay harness and escorted by a squadron of soldiers; the 
 King, behind them, astride a spirited horse, looking quite 
 kingly in his military uniform of white embroidered in gold, 
 and with his own military escort. 
 
 lie and the Queen have been democratic, easily acces- 
 sible to all classes of society, and they became so popular 
 that the Socialists who used to demand a republic for Bel- 
 gium, were seldom heard from. 
 
 The court at Brussels was visited by many foreigners 
 during King Albert's reign and was considered one of the 
 most delightful courts of Europe.
 
 CHAPTER IX 
 
 ■ 
 
 GERMANY'S WAR LORD 
 
 Personal Description of Kaiser Wiihelm II — His Work as 
 Emperor and Methods of Life — Has a Big Body, Short 
 Legs and a Withered Arm — The German Navy His 
 Personal Creation— His Income $7,000,000 a Year- 
 His Hobbies. 
 
 BULKING largest in the great struggle which tore 
 Europe asunder was Emperor William of Germany. 
 Often times he had been called the War Lord and the manner 
 in which he took the aggressive and began to force matters 
 at the opening of the campaign seemed to prove that he had 
 the right of title as a son of Mars. He personally encour- 
 aged his men and his warlike utterances thrilled the German 
 Empire. He took the attitude that Germany would fight 
 the whole world if necessary. He held that the sword had 
 been forced into his hand, that other nations were jealous 
 of Germany and that they alone were to blame for the great 
 war. His attitude was one of studied aggressiveness and 
 whatever the merits of his claims he didn't waste time in 
 pushing matters. 
 
 A year before the war Germany was celebrating the 
 quarter of a century reign of William II. At the time Ger- 
 many was in a great state of prosperity following a long 
 
 107
 
 108 German if s War Lord 
 
 period of peace with a big increase in the population and a 
 
 corresponding large increase in the wealth of the nation. 
 Then the Kaiser risked everything by casting the mailed 
 gauntlet in the face of Europe, lint this did not seem to 
 bother him and he had the mass of his people behind him. 
 
 The following describes him at the outbreak of the great 
 war of 1914: 
 
 William II, "Der Kaiser" — for Bismarck insisted that 
 the new German emperors should assume the ancient style 
 of the old emperors of Germany — the ninth monarch of the 
 House of Hohenzollern to rule over the Kingdom of Prus- 
 sia and the third of the house to rule over the Empire of 
 United Germanv. He is a grav-haired man of fifty-five, 
 not more than 5 feet 8 or 9, with a distinct tendency to cor- 
 pulency. He carries most of his fat about his waist, and 
 although he bears himself erect his shoulders are round. His 
 legs are too short for his body, but when walking he takes 
 long strides and lets his gold spurs clank. Of late years he 
 has worn a flowing military cape, as it permits him to retain 
 something of the martial air of his younger days. Naturally 
 he looks his best when on horseback. 
 
 The real countenance of the much advertised man was 
 perceptibly different from the thousands of his portraits on 
 sale all over the world which showed the dashing, dauntless, 
 somewhat defiant head of the Hohenzollerns. That is a pose 
 assumed for the photographer, a pose intended to idealize 
 him to his subjects and to convey the impression that "Dei- 
 Kaiser" is devoted to lofty aims and is elevated above the 
 common herd. All his official photographs have the same 
 expression, the look that the Germans call "ernst," but his
 
 Germany's War Lord 109 
 
 natural face is a very sad face furrowed by anxiety; a casual 
 observer might say that he looks cross. 
 
 KAISER A CRirPLE FROM BIRTH 
 
 The Kaiser's face is always pale and pasty and after 
 fatigue or in illness he looks ashen gray. He has been a 
 cripple from birth. His left arm was injured so severely by 
 the straining of the main nerves that it is atrophied and 
 shrunken and hangs limp and practically useless save to 
 repose on the gold sword hilt at his side. The extent to 
 which this cripples his movements can best be judged by the 
 fact that he cannot even hold a fork in his left hand and eats 
 with one which he holds in his right and which has a specially 
 heavy outside prong with a flat cutting edge that answers the 
 purposes of a knife as well. Yet by a wonderful display of 
 pluck, perseverance and suppleness he has made himself an 
 adept at most sports. He can fence, swim, row, shoot, ride 
 and play billiards a great deal better than many men who 
 have the use of both their arms. In shooting he takes aim 
 with his right arm, and only when hunting big game does he 
 use a resting rod ; at billiards he places his left arm in posi- 
 tion on the table with his right and then rests the cue upon 
 it in the ordinary way ; on horseback he merely supports the 
 reins in his left hand, which is held in place by an ingenious 
 contrivance, and guides his charger with his knees. 
 
 Since Frederick the Great no German ruler has under- 
 stood the business of being emperor as well as the Kaiser. 
 He has many traits in common with his illustrious ancestor — 
 a love of order, a love of business, the taste for things mili- 
 tary, a boundless extravagance in some things and the mean-
 
 . — 
 PC 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 P3
 
 110 Germany's War Lord 
 
 est parsimony in others, an imperial spirit and an irritable 
 temper. His mind is like an elephant's trunk, which finds 
 it just as easy to pick up a needle as to unroot a tree. Take 
 his hobbies, for instance. One is the navy. In 1871 the 
 ships thai Ihw the flag of the North German Confederation 
 — that striking design of black and white and red which is the 
 battle emblem of the Kaiser's navy today — were so weak that 
 they could take little part in the conflict, and France was 
 able to bottle up the North Sea with impunity. Today the 
 German navy is second only to that of England. 
 
 The German navy is literally the Kaiser's own personal 
 creation. He is one of the greatest living authorities on 
 naval construction, and his collection of ship models is per- 
 haps the finest and most costly in the world. No error of 
 proportion is too slight, no mistake in construction is too 
 insignificant to escape his critical eye, and his knowledge of 
 things naval can truly be said to spring from a real love of 
 the sea. For years he labored to fire his people with the 
 same spirit, and at last succeeded. Tie forced enormous 
 credits from reluctant parliaments, built the ships and found 
 the crews to man them. Not only did he build up the navy, 
 he also built up a merchant marine, and when the war started 
 Germany had nearly four million tons of shipping on the 
 seven seas. In contrast, the Kaiser's other hobby is collecting 
 old shoes. lie has the slippers of Voltaire and those of the 
 great Napoleon, the riding boots of Wallenstein and the tiny 
 dancing shoes of Talma. 
 
 HIS SUCCESS AS A BUSINESS MAN 
 
 The same extraordinary contradictions are carried into 
 .'lis finances. The Kaiser's income is derived from his hered-
 
 Germany's War Lord 111 
 
 itary kingdom of Prussia and from a vast amount of pri- 
 vate property comprising castles, forests and landed estates. 
 Also he is credited with having made millions in business ven- 
 tures, owning a considerable interest in one of the transatlan- 
 tic lines and in most of the German railroads. In 1910 it 
 was conservatively estimated that his total revenue exceeded 
 $7,000,000 a year, but it was probably more. 
 
 Although he is modest and simple to a degree in his per- 
 sonal tastes, and smokes penny Dutch cigars, he is extrava- 
 gant in the maintenance of an imperial show and display. 
 He spends millions upon millions of marks every year and 
 has incurred immense debts in order to uphold the standard 
 of imperial luxury suited to the power, prestige and dignity 
 of his position. No court in Europe since that of Louis 
 XIV of France has approached the splendor of the Kaiser's, 
 no monarch has had more servile courtiers, and it is astonish- 
 ing that he has retained as many homely virtues as he has. 
 Wherever he goes, whatever he does, he is surrounded by aris- 
 tocratic satellites, and he lives continually in an environment 
 that tends to increase his haughtiness and imperial pride and 
 the sense of his own importance. 
 
 The pomp and ceremony of the formal court functions 
 are imposing in the highest degree, but although the Kaiser 
 insists unrelentingly upon the rigid etiquette laid down by 
 the German protocol, and will not permit even the highest 
 officers of his army or the proudest of his nobles to depart one 
 hair's breadth from the ceremonial that must be observed in 
 his presence, he can when it serves his purpose, either for per- 
 sonal profit or national aggrandizement, be friends with men 
 who are not of noble birth. Among his intimates are Herr
 
 112 Germany's Jl r ar Lord 
 
 Ballin, the manager of a steamship line; Herr Belbriich, a 
 Berlin banker, and Herr Friedlander, a coal merchant. 
 
 It is from men that he learns, not from books. Tims 
 when Roentgen discovered the "X" rays the Kaiser sent for 
 him and spent hours questioning him on every phase of his 
 discovery. His thirst for knowledge was such that he never 
 slopped till he had extracted from the great savant all the 
 information he had upon the subject. 
 
 THE KAISKKIN 
 
 In 1881 the Kaiser married Princess Augusta Victoria, 
 daughter of the Duke of Augustenburg, who in 18(54 had 
 come forward as a claimant to the Duchy of Schleswig-Hol- 
 stein, and by her he has had six sons and one daughter. The 
 Empress has not been without influence on his family life, 
 which, compared to that of the other Hohenzollerns, has been 
 remarkably free from left-handed love affairs. At least she 
 has not had to lead the life of anxious jealousy that was the 
 portion of his grandmother and mother. The Empress is 
 his ideal of womanhood, a wife that loves, honors and obeys 
 her husband and is a fond and productive mother. Political 
 influence she never tries to exert, hut devotes her time to the 
 "Kaiser, Kinder, Kirehe, Kochen und Kleider" (Kaiser, 
 children, church, cooking and clothes) . 
 
 Even at his silver wedding, standing beside the Empress, 
 surrounded by their children, his first thoughts were not for 
 them. "My first and last care is for my fighting forces on 
 land and sea."
 
 CHAPTER X 
 
 THE RUSSIAN COMMANDER 
 
 The Grand Duke Nicholas Nicholaevitch Was Prominent 
 in the Russo-Japanese War — One of the Finest Cavalry 
 Officers of the Great Empire — His Mother a German — 
 Known as the Strong Man of Russia Who Might Be- 
 come Regent or Even Czar. 
 
 GRAND DUKE NICHOLAS, the leader of the Rus- 
 sian forces, was a commanding figure in the great war. 
 The Czar is nominally the supreme commander of the Rus- 
 sian army as well as of the Russian navy, and it is understood 
 that when war was declared he was ambitious to place him- 
 self at the head of the troops in the field. But he was per- 
 suaded to delegate the supreme command of the army at 
 the outset to his cousin the Grand Duke Nicholas Nicholae- 
 vitch, a soldier in looks, one of the tallest men in the army, 
 and the finest cavalry officer of the empire, making a splen- 
 did appearance on a horse ; and a commander of long experi- 
 ence who was one of the chief officers of the Russo-Japanese 
 war. His executive ability was apparent when he acted 
 as the head of the military commission in charge of the clos- 
 ing operations of this war, and he was able to cope success- 
 fully with revolution in Russia itself. 
 
 113
 
 114 The Russian Commander 
 
 LEADEB OF THE ANTI-GEEMAN FACTION 
 
 The Grand Duke Nicholas was the strong man of the 
 imperial family and always spoken of as the probable re- 
 g< nt, if Russia should need a regent. The Czar's life, being 
 in constant danger from the bombs of the Nihilists, and his 
 only son, the Grand Duke Alexis, a little boy, the Grand 
 Duke Nicholas, it was thought, might some day become 
 regent and even Czar. 
 
 As leader in the imperial family of the anti-German fac- 
 tion he strenuously opposed those visits of state which have 
 of recent years taken place between the Czar and the Kaiser, 
 preferring to come out openly as the latter's enemy. But 
 Grand Duke Nicholas might any place be taken for a Ger- 
 man, with his blond hair and blue eyes. They are an inherit- 
 ance from his German mother, who was a Duchess of Olden- 
 burg, from the family which gave a wife to the Kaiser's 
 second son, Prince Eitel, and an inheritance from his Ger- 
 man grandmother. She was Princess Charlotte, the sister 
 of Frederick "William I IT., King of Prussia, and Great- 
 grandfather of Kaiser William II. Princess Charlotte 
 became Czarina of Russia bv her marriage to the Czar 
 Nicholas I. and her second son was the father of Grand 
 Duke Nicholas.
 
 CHAPTER XI 
 KITCHENER OF KHARTOUM 
 
 The Great Soldier Who Was at the Head of England's 
 War Department in the European War of 1914 — He 
 Organized the British Army in India and Was Chief of 
 Staff of Lord Roberts in the Boer War — How He De- 
 stroyed the Tombs of the Prophets After Slaying 17 ,000 
 of the Enemy in One Day. 
 
 FIELD MARSHAL EARL KITCHENER, who was 
 made Secretary of State of War when Great Britain 
 declared war on Germany, took office as the British War 
 Lord almost immediately. He is a picturesque figure al- 
 though he lacks the glamor that surrounded the Kaiser. 
 When the European crisis broke out Lord Kitchener was at 
 home on furlough, his visit to England having a further 
 purpose — that of receiving from the King a new honor, the 
 dignity of an Earl and the titles Earl Kitchener of Khar- 
 toum and Viscount Broome of Broome in the County of 
 Kent. 
 
 Lord Kitchener was born at Crotter House, Ballylong- 
 ford, County Kerry, on June 24, 18.50, his father being the 
 late Lieutenant Colonel H. H. Kitchener of Cossington in 
 Lancashire, and his mother a Miss Chevallier of Aspall Hall, 
 Suffolk. Although born in Ireland, while his father was 
 
 11.5
 
 116 Kitchener of Khartoum 
 
 stationed there, he is of pure English stock and not Hiber- 
 nian as frequently claimed. 
 
 He was educated at the Royal Military College at Wool- 
 wich and entered the Royal Engineers in 1871. As com- 
 mander of the Egyptian Cavalry during the Soudan cam- 
 paigns of 1882-84, he first came into public notice and estab- 
 lished himself in public regard when he was made Governor 
 of Suakim. In 1800 he was made Sirdar of Egypt and 
 eight years later lie commanded the famous Khartoum ex- 
 pedition with conspicuous success and received the thanks of 
 the government, was raised to the peerage and granted 
 $510,000. 
 
 HARD WORK IN THE DESERT 
 
 This was the result of thirteen years of work in the 
 desert when he silently pursued the Kali fa and his hordes, 
 laying the railroad each mile as he pushed on, and met the 
 enemy at last, destroying at the great battle of Omdurman 
 nearlv 17.000 in the day. He concluded his work by blow- 
 ing up the Madhi's tomb, scattering the bones of the prophet 
 to the four winds, and settling the sands of the desert over 
 the spot where the tomb had been. For this he was se- 
 verely criticised, and in the House of Commons he was cen- 
 sured by some sentimentalists for an act of vandalism. lie 
 curtly replied that his instructions were to destroy the enemy, 
 and he had done so, and to insure the future peace he had also 
 destroyed the resting place of the prophet by whom the 
 fanatics swore, as the tomb would have been a rallying cen- 
 ter for the enemy. He had wiped out all traces of the
 
 Kitchener of Khartoum 117 
 
 prophet and the followers. The resulting peace has jus- 
 tified him. 
 
 When, after the three awful disasters to British arms in 
 South Africa under the command of General Buller, the 
 Daily Mail came out with the placard, "The Government's 
 Xmas present to the nation : Lord Roberts and Lord Kitch- 
 ener to leave for the front," the wdiole British people gave a 
 great sigh of relief; now the errors would be repaired. 
 Roberts for tactics, Kitchener for organization. 
 
 He lives for his life work; his passion is for efficiency. 
 He serves no other god but the god of battles. His whole 
 life was planning and organizing of forces. He never had 
 a great reputation as a skilful leader in maneuvering; it is 
 as an organizer that he is supreme. He greatly resembles 
 the German tradition of soldiering, exact in equipment, 
 mathematical in calculation, stern to ruthlessness to accom- 
 plish his end. Yet he settled the Boer war by offering to the 
 leaders of the Boers terms of surrender so generous that only 
 a man of statesmanlike mind could have seen them to be 
 justified. 
 
 For his services as chief of staff in South Africa until 
 Lord Roberts returned home, and as commander-in-chief 
 until the conclusion of the war, he was advanced to the rank 
 of a full general in the army and to a viscountcy in the peer- 
 age. There was the further consolation of a grant by Par- 
 liament of £250,000 which accompanied the thanks both 
 houses of Parliament voted him. 
 
 In 1902 he was sent to India as commander-in-chief, 
 where he thoroughly reorganized the Indian army, in which 
 operation he came into collision with Lord Curzon, who mar-
 
 118 Kitchener of Khartoum 
 
 ried Mary Leiter of Chicago, who resented his high-handed 
 methods. 
 
 His instructions were to reorganize the British army in 
 India. This required appropriations largely in excess of the 
 previous years. He sent the request for their approval to 
 the Indian Council, over which Lord Curzon, not the least of 
 autocrats himself, presided. Lord Curzon refused to pass 
 them. Lord Kitchener's tone changed. Before he had 
 asked, now he demanded. Lord Curzon refused with a curt- 
 ness that showed he helieved his will equal to the stern and 
 immobile Kitchener. He Mas wrong. Lord Kitchener 
 stood upon the broad authority of his commission, which was 
 to reorganize the army in India, and he demanded that the 
 home government support him. Lord Curzon stood upon 
 his constitutional rights as the civil power to control and 
 overrule the military. Lord Midleton, the life-long friend 
 of Lord Curzon, his fag at Eton, to whom the appeal was 
 made as Secretary of State for India, decided against Cur- 
 zon and with Kitchener. Lord Curzon resigned and re- 
 turned to England. 
 
 HIS ADMINISTRATIVE WORK IN EGYRT 
 
 Since 1011 he has held the post in Egypt made famous 
 bv Lord Cromer and his system of land reform and his en- 
 couragement of cotton grownig on the Xile have shown him 
 to be as great an administrator as he is soldier. His land 
 reform system, modelled on the plan adopted by the United 
 States in dealing with the American Indians, which forbids 
 the native to sell his land to contractors, was the system 
 advocated by the reform party in Mexico.
 
 Kitchener of Khartoum 119 
 
 On his visit to America two years ago, Lord Kitchener 
 made a very favorable impression, not by what he said but 
 by his astonishing power of saying nothing and his im- 
 perturbable demeanor. 
 
 Although in his sixty-fifth year Lord Kitchener has the 
 vigor of a man ten years younger. He is straight as a dart, 
 stands six feet two inches, his black hair only slightly tinged 
 with gray. His penetrating gray eyes and stern, cold ex- 
 pression are the terror of army loafers, who either "get on 
 or get out !" 
 
 Lord Kitchener is a bachelor. Societv he detests. For 
 women he has no time. He dedicated himself to his work 
 and did not believe in the domestic joys for the soldier. All 
 his officers when he commanded the army in Egypt had to be 
 bachelors. He did not want to have men around him sigh- 
 ing for home and wife and children. Those things are not 
 for a soldier in Kitchener's understanding of the life. 
 
 kitchener's advice to his soldiers 
 
 As soon as Lord Kitchener took charge of Great 
 Britain's war affairs he issued a pamphlet advising his men 
 how to conduct themselves. These were issued to the army 
 which landed in France early in the struggle. They read 
 as follows: 
 
 "You are ordered abroad as soldiers of the King to help 
 our French comrades against the invasion of a common 
 enemy. 
 
 "You have to perform a task which will need your cour- 
 age, your energy and your patience. 
 
 "Remember that the honor of the British army depends 
 on your individual conduct.
 
 
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 LOADING A MACHINE GUN 
 
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 ^.fHfif^rf" 
 
 LANDING ARTILLERY FROM TRANSPORTS
 
 120 Kitchener of Khartoum 
 
 "It will be your duty not only to set an example of dis- 
 cipline and perfect steadiness under fire, but also to main- 
 tain the most friendly relations with those whom you are 
 helping in this struggle. 
 
 "The operations in which you will be engaged will for 
 the most part take place in a friendly country and you can 
 do your own country no better service than in showing your- 
 self in France and Belgium in the true character of a 
 British soldier by being invariably courteous, considerate 
 and kind. 
 
 "Never do anything likely to injure or destroy prop- 
 erty and always look upon rioting as a disgraceful act. 
 
 "You are sure to meet with a welcome and to be trusted. 
 Your conduct must justify that welcome and that trust. 
 
 "Your duty cannot be done unless your health is sound 
 so keep constantly on your guard against any excesses. 
 
 "In this new experience you may find temptation both 
 in wine and women. You must entirely resist both tempta- 
 tions and while treating all women with perfect courtesy 
 you should avoid any intimacy. 
 
 "Do your duty bravely. Fear God and honor the King."
 
 CHAPTER XII 
 A WAR OF COUSINS 
 
 All of the Royal Families of Europe in the Great War of 
 1914 Were Related by Blood or Marriage Except 
 Servians — Many Grandchildren of King Christian of 
 Denmark and Queen Victoria of England — Also Held 
 Military Titles in Each Other s Armies and Navies — A 
 Continental Family Row. 
 
 VIRTUALLY all the embattled kings and queens of 
 Europe in the great war of 1914 were cousins. 
 
 Indeed, the only "outsider," who could claim no kinship 
 with the rest, was King Peter of Servia, the immediate 
 cause of the war, and the engagement had been announced 
 of King Peter's son, Prince Alexander, Crown Prince of 
 Servia, to Grand Duchess Olga, oldest daughter of the Czar 
 of Russia. 
 
 All their published photographs proclaim the cousinship 
 of the King of England and the Czar of Russia. They could 
 not look more alike if they were brothers. Their mothers 
 are sisters, both daughters of Christian IX of Denmark and 
 his matchmaking queen, who enjoyed the distinction of fur- 
 nishing more kings and queens from her family than any 
 other monarch of modern times — or ancient either, for that 
 matter. 
 
 Besides the beautiful Queen Alexandra, mother of King 
 
 121
 
 122 A War of Cousins 
 
 t reorge of England and Dagmar, consort of Czar Alexander 
 of Russia, the clever spouse of Christian IX gave two kings 
 to European thrones, Frederick VIII of Denmark and the 
 late King George of Greece. In addition, a son of Frederick 
 \ as called to the throne of Norway as Haakon VII. 
 
 QUEEN VICTORIA'S REIGNING GRANDCHILDREN 
 
 But, speaking of clever and matchmaking royal mammas, 
 to the late Queen Victoria, grandmother of King George of 
 England, belongs the palm. One of her daughters became 
 the Empress of Germany, the mother of the present Kaiser. 
 The following of her grandchildren occupied other European 
 thrones: 
 
 George V of England, son of Edward VII. 
 
 Wilhelm II, Kaiser of Germany, son of Princess Victoria. 
 
 The Czarina of Russia, daughter of Princess Alice. 
 
 Queen Maud of Norway, daughter of King Edward. 
 
 Queen Victoria of Spain, daughter of Princess Beatrice. 
 
 Queen Sophia Dorothea of Greece, daughter of Princess 
 Victoria. 
 
 An interesting group of royal cousins is made up of 
 the Kaiser Wilhelm of Germany, King George of England 
 and the Czarina of Russia. The Czarina is the daughter of 
 the Princess Alix of Hesse-Darmstadt, a daughter of Prin- 
 cess Alice of England, a daughter of Queen Victoria and an 
 aunt of King George. 
 
 The Kaiser is a son of Princess Victoria, who was mar- 
 ried to the Kaiser Frederick III, who died a few months 
 after his accession to the German throne and was succeeded 
 by the present Kaiser.
 
 A War of Cousins 123 
 
 A story is told that when Kaiser Wilhelm II was a mere 
 boy, a playmate struck him by accident and made his nose 
 bleed. When the playmate hastened to apologize the future 
 Kaiser would not listen. 
 
 "It's no matter," he replied as he wiped his bleeding nose. 
 "There goes the last drop of English blood in my body." 
 
 Nicholas I of Montenegro is entitled to a high place in 
 the matchmaking class. The Queen of Italy was the Princess 
 Helena of Montenegro. The Princess Militza of the same 
 house is the wife of the Grand Duke Nicolaievitch of the 
 Russian royal family, the Princess Anna was married to 
 Prince Francis Joseph of Battenburg, and the Princess 
 Anastasie to the Grand Duke Nicholas-Nicolaievitch. 
 
 MONTENEGRIN HOUSE RELATED TO GREAT BRITAIN, 
 GERMANY AND RUSSIA 
 
 Through the Crown Princess Militza, who was married 
 to the Montenegrin Crown Prince Alexander, the royal house 
 of Montenegro was connected with that of Great Britain. 
 Germany and Russia. The Crown Princess was the Duchess 
 Jutta of Mechlinburg-Strelitz. She took the name Militza 
 at her marriage. 
 
 Through King Constantine of Greece, nearly all the 
 crowned heads of Europe became cousins-in-law if they were 
 not already blood cousins. King Constantine married Prin- 
 cess Sophia, a sister of the present Kaiser, and thus came 
 into more or less close relationship with many of the royal- 
 ties of Europe. King Constantine is a son of that King 
 George whom the matchmaking Queen of Denmark gave 
 to the throne of Greece and thus a nephew of Alexandra, the 
 "queen mother" of England and Dagnar, the Dowager
 
 12-i A War of Cousins 
 
 Czarina of Russia, and a cousin to about every royalty of his 
 generation in Europe. 
 
 When, at the opening of hostilities in the War of 1914, 
 the territory of Belgium was threatened with invasion by the 
 Germans, King Albert of Belgium wrote an appeal to King 
 George of England to come to his assistance. He might 
 have addressed his letter, "My dear Cousin," for he is a blood 
 cousin of King George. Through Philip, Count of Flanders, 
 King Albert was descended from Leopold I, Prince of Saxe- 
 Coburg, who was elected King of the Belgians in 1831. 
 Leopold I married Charlotte, Princess of Wales. 
 
 King George of England and King Haakon of Norway 
 are not only cousins but brothers-in-law. King Haakon mar- 
 ried Princess Maud, King George's sister. He was a Danish 
 prince before his election to the throne of Norway and a son 
 of Frederick VIII, who married Louise, a daughter of 
 Queen Victoria and King George's aunt. 
 
 Innumerable royal alliances succeeded the union of the 
 houses of Hanover and Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, through the 
 marriage of King George III of England and Queen Char- 
 lotte. Both Queen Victoria and her husband, besides other 
 members of the families of Hanover, Saxe-Coburg and 
 Gotha, were united by their progeny to scions of other royal 
 houses and passed by marriage to Saxony, Hohenzollern, 
 Austria, Bavaria, Portugal, Belgium, Baden, Hesse, France, 
 Naples, Tuscany, Bulgaria, Greece, Russia Romania, the 
 Netherlands, Denmark, Sweden, Norway and Spain, with all 
 of whose royal families that of Great Britain is more or less 
 remotely connected. 
 
 The houses of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha and Hanover met 
 again in the marriage of the Duke of Kent and Princess
 
 A War of Cousins 125 
 
 Mary Louise. Their only daughter was Queen Victoria and 
 when she was married to Alhert, second son of the Duke of 
 Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, the two houses became practically one. 
 This royal house of England goes back through George I 
 to James I and Mary Queen of Scots and to the Guelphs 
 whose ancestry is probably derived from the princely house 
 of Este. 
 
 Queen Wilhelmina of Holland is also a cousin, though 
 somewhat further removed, of most of the royal houses of 
 Europe. Through the marriage of William V, Prince of 
 Orange and Sophia Wilhelmina, Princess of Prussia, from 
 whom Wilhelmina is descended, she was closely connected 
 with the reigning house of Germany. 
 
 The royal family of Romania, through its Crown Prince, 
 is closely related to other ruling families. Charles, King 
 of Romania, married Elizabeth, Princess of Wied and their 
 son, the Crown Prince Ferdinand Victor, married Princess 
 Marie of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, daughter of the late Duke of 
 Edinburgh, an uncle of King George of England. 
 
 RUSSIAN AND GERMAN ROYAL MARRIAGES 
 
 So many of the Grand Dukes of Russia have made mar- 
 riages connecting them one or another of the many divisions 
 of the German Empire that it has been said the ancient 
 Romanoff strain became almost as German as the Kaiser. 
 
 Here is an instance of the close and intricate relations be- 
 tween these two houses: Grand Duke Michael, the last sur- 
 viving granduncle of the Russian Emperor Nicholas, died
 
 120 A \V av of Cousins 
 
 in 1900. He had married the Princess Cecilia of Badeu. 
 Their eldest daughter, Anastasia, was married to the Grand 
 Duke of Mecklenburg- Schwerin. Her grand daughter is 
 Cecilia, the German Crown Princess. 
 
 A popular British Princess who is the consort to the heir 
 to a throne is the Princess Margaret of Connaught, daughter 
 of Duke Arthur of Connaught, a son of Queen Victoria. 
 She is married to the Crown Prince of Sweden. Her sister 
 i-i the favorite Princess "Pat," so much admired in America 
 as well as in England. Through the Duke of Connaught 
 and his sons and daughters there is another link with the Ger- 
 man Empire, for the Duchess of Connaught, mother of the 
 Swedish Crown Princess and of Princess "Pat/' was the 
 Princess Louise of Prussia. 
 
 Some of of the various cousins of King George of Eng- 
 land, all of whom are of royal blood, are Prince Ernest 
 Louis, Grand Duke of Hesse; Princess Frederick Charles 
 of Hesse, Princess Alexander of Ilohenlohe, Leopold 
 Charles Edward, reigning Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha: 
 Charlotte, hereditary Princess of Saxe-Meiningen ; Princess 
 Henrietta of Reuss, Princess Adolphus of Schaumberg- 
 Lippe, the Duchess of Sparta, Princess Victoria of Batten- 
 berg, Grand Duchess Sergius of Kussia, Grand Duchess Cyril 
 of Russia, Adolphus Frederick, reigning Grand Duke of 
 Mecklenburg- Strelitz; Maria, Duchess of Orleans; the Prin- 
 cess of Thurn and Taxis, Prince Gaston of Orleans, Prince 
 Ei-nest Bernhard of Saxe-Altenburg, Archduchess Otlio 
 Francis Joseph of Austria and William Prince of Iloheu- 
 zollern.
 
 A War of Cousins 127 
 
 MILITARY RELATIONSHIP OF WARRING RULERS 
 
 There was even a sort of military cousinship between the 
 principal reigning houses at war. Kaiser William, for in- 
 stance, not only ranked as the admiral-in-chief of his own 
 navy and general-in-chief of his own army, but also as a field 
 marshal of Great Britain, an admiral of the British fleet, the 
 colonel-in-chief of a regiment of British Royal Dragoons, a 
 Danish, a Norwegian and a Swedish admiral and most 
 singularly of all, an admiral of the Russian fleet also. 
 
 Queen Mary of England held the rank of a colonel of 
 Prussian hussars. Queen Wilhelmina of Holland held titles, 
 in the Prussian guard and German navy. Both the Czar and 
 the Czarina of Russia could have gone on the field with 
 their regiments of German soldiers to mow down the forces 
 of Emperor William. The Emperor of Russia was com- 
 mander of a Bavarian regiment and in the suite of the Ger- 
 man navy; the Empress was commander of a regiment of 
 dragoons of the Prussian guards. 
 
 As if these tangled royal alliances were not already suffi- 
 ciently puzzling, a number of matches were being arranged 
 between the princes and princesses of these States. One 
 was the marriage between Prince Alexander of Servia and 
 the Grand Duchess Olga. The other two were those of 
 Elizabeth, the granddaughter of the King of Roumania, to 
 George, the Crown Prince of Greece, and of Prince Charles, 
 the son of Crown Prince Ferdinand of Roumania, to the 
 Grand Duchess Tatiana of Russia.
 
 128 
 
 A War of Cousins 
 
 WAITING FOR ORDERS
 
 CHAPTER XIII 
 
 ARMED STRENGTH OF WARRING NATIONS 
 
 Strength of the Rival Nations — Twenty Million Men Pre- 
 pare for War — Allies Have Advantage in Land Power — 
 Naval Strength of Allies also Greater — Great Britain's 
 Powerful Navy — Classification of Great Sea Fleets — 
 Aerial Strength of Powers Favors Allies — Wealth of 
 Warring Nations, with Revenue, Expenditure and Debt 
 — Cost of General War. 
 
 WHEN the lines were finally drawn and the opening shots 
 had been fired, approximately 20,000,000 men, the reg- 
 ular forces of the rival armies, were being mobilized and 
 pushed to the front. The allies, in regular troops greatly out- 
 numbered Germany and Austria, the total number for 
 France, Russia, Great Britain, Belgium, Servia and Monte- 
 negro standing at 10,902,000 as against 7,200,000 for Ger- 
 many and Austria. These forces were apportioned as fol- 
 lows: France, 4,000,000; Russia, 5,500,000; England, 
 730,000; Belgium, 222,000; Servia, 300,000; Montenegro, 
 150,000; Germany, 5,200,000; Austria, 2,000,000. 
 
 The unorganized strength of the warring nations, added 
 to the organized gave the allies 17,721,000 men and Germany 
 and Austria 11,200,000. The unorganized strength was: 
 
 129
 
 130 Armed Strength of Waning Nations 
 
 Russia, 5,200,000; France, 1,000,000; Great Britain, 
 200,000; Belgium, 400,000; Servia, 100,000; Germany, 
 1,000,000; Austria-Hungary, 3,000,000. 
 
 In naval strength also the powers at war with Germany 
 and Austria had an advantage. Relatively their sea strength 
 was much greater than that of Germany and Austria, 
 although neither Belgium, Servia nor Montenegro possessed 
 any power on the water. Great Britain alone had more 
 fighting craft than Germany and Austria combined and 
 almost as many officers and men for duty on the sea. 
 
 Great Britain war ships numbered 569, with a personnel 
 of 163,700 men. France had 419 ships, manned by 60,621 
 men and Russia had 220 ships with 52,463 men. The sea 
 strength of these countries was classified as follows : 
 
 Great Britain — dreadnoughts and cruiser battleships, 
 thirty-nine; first class cruisers, forty-two; smaller craft, 488. 
 France — dreadnoughts and cruiser battleships, seventeen; 
 first class cruisers, eighteen; smaller craft, 384. Russia — 
 dreadnoughts and cruiser battleships, thirteen; first class 
 cruisers, six; smaller craft, 201. This gave the allies sixty- 
 nine dreadnoughts and cruiser battleships; sixty-six first 
 class cruisers and 1,073 smaller craft, manned by a total of 
 276,784 officers and men. 
 
 ALLIES HOLD ADVANTAGE ON SEA 
 
 Turning to a table of the sea strength of Germany and 
 Austria the advantage in favor of the allies is all too evident. 
 Germany had only twenty-six dreadnoughts and cruiser 
 battleships; nine first class cruisers and 290 smaller craft.
 
 Armed Strength of Warring Nations 131 
 
 Austria had four dreadnoughts and cruiser battleships ; three 
 first class cruisers and 107 smaller craft. This made up a 
 total of the two countries of thirty dreadnoughts and cruiser 
 battleships, twelve first class cruisers and 397 smaller craft, 
 with a sea fighting force of 19-1,233 men. 
 
 The German navy was a wonderfully efficient organiza- 
 tion in a typically German way. There was no discounting 
 the thoroughness with which the German fleet has been 
 drilled, the faithfulness that has gone into its preparation, 
 from driving the first rivet in each vessel's keel to the training 
 of the turret-pointers and the drill at manoeuvring in 
 squadron. 
 
 CRITICISM OF FRENCH NAVY 
 
 The French navy had come in in the past for some very 
 hard knocks from the critics. Discipline in that service was 
 declared to be just two jumps above the Russian standard 
 and approximating that of Spain. France's long series of 
 naval disasters were dragged out to prove that her navy is all 
 but a hopeless affair. 
 
 Asa matter of fact, the French navy suffered from very 
 much the same trouble as the Italian. The Latin doesn't 
 maintain the Teutonic idea of discipline, but he seems to get 
 along very well on his own peculiar lines. The French ships, 
 like the Italian, are very near the dirtiest afloat, and this in 
 itself is apt to prejudice an American critic. 
 
 But while, to our minds, dirt and discipline are contra- 
 dictory terms, there isn't any conclusive proof that dirt and 
 straight shooting should be. And the French can show a 
 very pretty article of the latter commodity. Ashore they are
 
 
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 132 Armed Strength of Warring Nations 
 
 handicapped by a great deal of graft and slack methods in 
 their navv yards, but at sea the French are not only good 
 sea-faring men, but plentifully supplied with enthusiasm for 
 their profession. 
 
 There are no naval men in the world who study their 
 profession along scientific lines with the zeal the French put 
 into it. Every one of them has tactics at his fingers' ends, 
 and in the torpedo branches, destroyers and submarines, they 
 easily led the world. 
 
 The strength in the air was also in favor of the allies, 
 numerically at least. Germany had a powerful fleet of 
 Zeppelins, which many experts on aviation declared before 
 the war Mould play an important part in the struggle and 
 be of great aid to the Germans. 
 
 STRENGTH FOR BATTLES IN CLOUDS 
 
 The following table shows the fighting strength of the 
 great powers in the war : 
 
 DIRIGIBLE AIRSHIPS OF THE RIVAL POWERS 
 
 Germany and Austria 
 
 Non- Semi- Gas capacity 
 
 Germany rigid rigid Rigid Totals in cu. ft. 
 
 War airships 3 2 6 11 
 
 Passenger airships ... . 213 6 8,616,7.30 
 
 Austria 
 
 War airships 1 1 2 
 
 Passenger airships ... . 1 1 561,270 
 
 Grand totals .... 20 9,178,000
 
 Armed Strength of Warring Nations 133 
 
 In construction January 1, 1914 — 
 
 Germany — Five large rigid type; capacity, 4,200,700 
 cubic feet. 
 
 Allies 
 
 Non- Semi- Gas capacity 
 
 France rigid rigid Rigid Totals in cu. ft. 
 
 War airships 9 3 1 13 
 
 Passenger airships ... . 1 1 4,115,980 
 
 England 
 
 War airships 7 7 882,500 
 
 Russia 
 
 War airships 12 1 13 2,252,140 
 
 Grand totals .... 34 7,250,620 
 
 In construction January 1, 1914 — 
 
 France — 7 non-rigid, 2 semi-rigid, 1 rigid; gas capacity, 
 6,036,300 cubic feet. 
 
 England — 3 non-rigid, 2 rigid; capacity, 2,753,400 cubic 
 feet. 
 
 Russia — 2 non-rigid, 2 rigid; capacity, 1,235,000 cubic 
 
 feet. 
 
 Total building for Allies, 10,024,700 cubic feet. 
 
 AEROPLANES OF THE RIVAL POWERS 
 (INCLUDES MONOPLANES, BIPLANES, hydroplanes) 
 
 Triple Alliance 
 Germanv 
 
 Army and navy 152 
 
 Private aeroplanes (estimated) 200
 
 134 Armed Strength of Warring Nations 
 
 Austria 
 
 A rmy 40 
 
 Navy 6 
 
 Private (estimated) 35 
 
 Triple Entente 
 France 
 
 A rmy and navy 450 
 
 Private (estimated) 1,000 
 
 England 
 
 A rmy 148 
 
 Navy GO 
 
 Private 154 
 
 Russia 
 
 Army and navy 250 
 
 Private (estimated) 150 
 
 The number of men in the armies (at war strength) of 
 the great powers, in proportion to their populations, was as 
 follows : 
 
 Germany, 1 man in 12.48 of population; Austria, 1 in 
 25.07; Italy, 1 in 29.36; United Kingdom, 1 in G2.15; France, 
 1 in 9.09; Russia, 1 in 31.10. 
 
 FINANCIAL RESOURCES OF WARRING POWERS 
 
 It will be seen from the following table that the resources 
 of the Allies substantially exeeed those of Germany and 
 Austria, although the national debts of the former far exceed 
 the aggregate of the indebtedness of the latter group.
 
 Armed Strength of Warring Nations 135 
 
 The revenues, however, of the United Kingdom, France 
 and Russia are very much larger than those of Germany and 
 Austria. Figures show, moreover, that the wealth of the 
 United States is greater than that of Germany and Austria 
 and exceeds the total resources of the Franco-Russian 
 alliance. It is greater too than that of the United Kingdom 
 and Russia combined. 
 
 Revenue. Expenditures. Debt. Total Wealth. 
 Germany ... $879,656,000 $879,656,000 $1,177,418,000 $60,500,000,000 
 
 Austria .... 636,909,000 636,852,000 1,133,511,000 25,000,000,000 
 
 Italy 512,800,000 505,841,000 2,706,609,000 20,000,000,000 
 
 Un. King'm. 918,805,000 917,929,000 3,485,818,000 80,000,000,000 
 
 France .... 914,604,000 914,550,000 6,283,675,000 65,000,000,000 
 
 Russia 1,674,038,0001,674,038,000 4,553,488,000 40,000,000,000 
 
 U S 992,249,000 965,274,000 1,028,344,000 130,000,000,000 
 
 The above tabulation does not include the resources of the 
 colonies of the respective nations or of their dependencies. 
 
 The expenses of a general war have been thus tabulated 
 by Prof. Charles Richet of the University of Paris : 
 
 NUMBER OF MEN ENGAGED 
 
 Men 
 
 Austria 2,600,000 
 
 England 1,500,000 
 
 France 3,400,000 
 
 Germany 3,600,000 
 
 Italy 2,800,000 
 
 Roumania 300,000 
 
 Russia 7,000,000 
 
 Total 21,200,000
 
 136 Anncd Strength of Warring Nations 
 
 DAILY COST OF A GREAT EUROPEAN WAR 
 
 Feed of men $12,600,000 
 
 Feed of horses 1,000,000 
 
 Pay ( European rates I 4,2.50,000 
 
 Pay oC workmen in arsenals and ports 1,000,000 
 
 Transportation 2,100,000 
 
 Transportation of provi Ions 4,200,000 
 
 .Munitions — Infantry 10 cartridges a day 4,200,000 
 
 Artillery— 10 shots per day 1,200,000 
 
 Marine — 2 shots per day 400,000 
 
 Equipment 4,200,000 
 
 Amhulances — 500,000 wounded or ill ($1 per 
 
 day) 500,000 
 
 Armature 500,000 
 
 Reduction of imports 5,000,000 
 
 Help to the poor (20 cents per day to one in ten ) 0,800,000 
 
 Destruction of towns, etc 2,000,000 
 
 Total per day $49,950,000
 
 CHAPTER XIV 
 BATTLES IN THE AIR 
 
 Lord Tennyson s Be mark able Prophecy Realized — Aerial 
 Crafts Revolutionizing Warfare — Germany's Zeppelins 
 Veritable Aerial Battleships — How Aerial Forces Were 
 Distributed Along Frontiers — The Aeroplane by Day 
 and the Dirigible by Night — England's Attempt to Bar 
 Foreign Air Craft — All Nations Steadily Increasing 
 Their Air Strength — Biplanes More Adaptable for 
 Dropping Bombs — Damage by Bombs an Open Ques- 
 tion — Zeppelin a Convertible Cruiser. 
 
 NE of the most remarkable prophecies in literature is 
 that of Lord Tennyson, made almost a century ago in 
 his "Locksley Hall." 
 
 The famous English poet realized in prevision the pos- 
 sibility of the conquest of the air. Tennyson foresaw aerial 
 warfare when he wrote: 
 
 '"For I dipped into the future, far as human eye could see; 
 Saw the vision of the world, and all the wonder tha* 
 would be; 
 
 • •••••••« 
 
 Heard the heavens fill with shouting, and there rained 
 
 ghastly dew 
 From the nations' airy navies grappling in the central 
 
 blue." 
 
 137
 
 138 Battles in the Air 
 
 This nineteenth century dream of the great poet was 
 realized in the struggle which involved practically all of 
 Europe, when the tremendous flying forces ol* the two great- 
 est rivals for aerial supremacy clashed, and the value of air- 
 craft as a military asset had its first real test. 
 
 BEGINNING OF DAY OF AIB NAVIES 
 
 But this is only the inception of the struggle in the sky 
 which may yet attain such development as to force the war- 
 ring nations to lay down their arms and usher in an era of 
 universal peace. When the full fury of the mammoth death 
 engines upon which the nations of Europe have spent the 
 staggering sum of $117,000,000 since 1008 have been un- 
 leashed the ensuing horrors may end war forever. 
 
 The perfection of aerial warfare will change into a 
 mockery the old methods of armies that creep and navies 
 that crawl over land and seas. Admiral Sir Percy Scott, 
 the inventor of the most destructive of British artillery, 
 confessed at the heginning of the European War that he 
 had exhausted his engineering skill in devising resistance 
 for dreadnoughts that were now rendered obsolete by the 
 forces in the air and under the sea, the airship and the 
 submarine. 
 
 HOW THE AERIAL FLEETS COMPARE 
 
 Here is an accurate and exhaustive statement of the 
 great aerial armaments mobilized by the warring nations at 
 the beginning of the gigantic conflict. The figures are taken 
 from government reports, and added thereto are the latest 
 statistics from authoritative technical sources:
 
 Battles in the Air 139 
 
 German}'' has already spent $28,000,000 on her aircraft. 
 France follows closely with $22,000,000, and Russia with 
 $12,000,000. Italy has spent $8,000,000, Austria $5,000,- 
 000, and England $3,500,000. So great has been the clamor 
 for aerial defense in the last six years that in Germany 
 public subscriptions for aircraft have added $3,000,000 to 
 this stupendous sum. The same situation obtained in 
 France, where, in addition to the appropriations by the 
 government, the French public enthusiastically contributed 
 $2,500,000. 
 
 STAGGERING APPROPRIATIONS FOR AERIAL DEFENSE 
 
 In the last twelve months the appropriations of Euro- 
 pean nations for this purpose reached the amazing sum of 
 $24,250,000, with France in the lead. France appropriated 
 $7,400,000; Germany, $5,000,000; Russia, $5,000,000; Eng- 
 land, $3,000,000; Italy, $2,100,000 and Japan, $1,000,000. 
 With war in the air now an accomplished fact, it is probable 
 that the appropriation of $37,000,000 made by the German 
 Reichstag to cover a period of five years may be drawn into 
 the great vortex. 
 
 ZEPPELIN A VERITABLE BATTLESHIP 
 
 Each of the eighteen Zeppelins comprising the German 
 air fleet, the most powerful in the world, is a veritable aerial 
 battleship, armed as it is with quick-firing and machine guns 
 and launching tubes for discharging aerial torpedoes. Three 
 of this vast fleet are passenger dirigibles which have been 
 converted into air cruisers.
 
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 Ten Parseval non-rigid dirigibles, armed with machine 
 guns at the bows and a launching tube in the floors of the 
 cars make up a part of the German air squadron, and added 
 to these are two of the largest rigid cruisers of the Schuette- 
 Lanz type, which mount guns, as do the Zeppelins, on top of 
 the hull. They also possess the additional advantage of 
 having machine guns displayed in sponsons projecting from 
 the sides of the hull and reached by stairways. The great 
 German air-fleet is completed by the addition of six smaller 
 non-rigid ships of the "M" type. 
 
 HOW FRANCE LINED UP 
 
 Against this imposing array France marshaled sixteen 
 serviceable dirigibles much smaller and slower than the Ger- 
 man airships. Their energies were of less power, and it 
 was the opinion of French experts that the air squadron of 
 that country would be no match for the big German Zep- 
 pelins. France depended, however, on her splendid array 
 of aeroplanes to offset the deadly work that might have been 
 wrecked by the German dirigibles on her supply depots 
 and camps. 
 
 At the beginning of the war France had 800 aeroplanes 
 and 1,200 airmen, interference by which Germany opposed 
 by hurling 700 aeroplanes fully as good as those of France 
 against superior numbers. These machines, which were to 
 protect the mammoth German dirigibles, were fully manned, 
 in most instances by two men. Some French and German 
 aeroplanes carried light machine guns, and were equipped 
 for dropping bombs of weights up to seven pounds. It is
 
 Battles in the Air 141 
 
 said that four of these 22-pound bombs have completely 
 wrecked railway stations and supply depots. 
 
 RUSSIA AND ENGLAND PLAYED SMALL PARTS 
 
 Russia and England did not play any great part in the 
 conflict with their dirigibles. Eight of Russia's air craft 
 were built by French factories, and are of relatively small 
 power. No attention need be given to England's dirigibles, 
 for until the beginning of the war she concentrated her efforts 
 on sea planes, armed with a shell-firing gun, with which she 
 trusted to destroy the dreaded Zeppelins. Russia's aero- 
 planes numbered 500, but she had less than a hundred trained 
 pilots to operate them. England's Royal Flying Corps 
 mustered 350 aeroplanes and as many pilots. Austria was 
 practically last on the list with six dirigibles of inferior 
 power and 150 aeroplanes, and an inadequate number of 
 pilots. 
 
 GERMAN AIRSHIPS ALONG FRENCH BORDER 
 
 The opening of the war was marked by the studied ef- 
 fectiveness with which both Germany and France disposed 
 their aerial forces along the frontiers. Eight Zeppelins and 
 six Parsevals were stationed in the latest type of revolving 
 airship sheds at Friedrichshafen, Strassburg, Metz and 
 Cologne, on the French border. Operated by electricity, 
 these sheds permitted a rigid airship to enter or leave always 
 with the wind, thus avoiding the former risks of breaking 
 the vessel if a sudden wind blows athwart the entrance. It 
 was found that a capacity for eight more Zeppelins could be
 
 142 Baltics in the Air 
 
 obtained in the same sheds by a system oi relays while others 
 were away on a mission. 
 
 At the beginning of the war, Germany had other units 
 of her aerial fleet in other stations at Frankfort, Gotha, 
 Thorn, Hamburg, Cuxhaven, on the North Sea; Berlin, and 
 others at Koenigsburg, Posen, Breslau near the Russian 
 frontier, and at the Island of Heligoland, in the North Sea. 
 She had converted into cruisers three passenger Zeppelins, 
 the Hansa, Victoria Luise and Saehsen. 
 
 FRANCE PLACES "FIFTH ARM" OX BORDER 
 
 "The fifth arm," as France designates her aeroplanes, 
 was depended upon by that power to repel aerial invasion. 
 She assembled practically her entire aeroplane "fleet" at 
 her great flying camps — Rheims, Verdun, Toul, Epinal and 
 Belfort, the great fortresses which stretch along the German 
 frontier, immediately upon the beginning of hostilities. The 
 aeroplane, however, has the disadvantage of being a bird 
 of the day, while the dirigibles may be operated equally as 
 well at night, and this great advantage enabled Germany 
 many times to escape the sharp eyes of the French airmen. 
 The aid of small searchlights was resorted to in the operation 
 of aeroplanes, but they do not illuminate very much of the 
 darkness, and the plan was abandoned. 
 
 ENGLAND BARS FOREIGN AIRCRAFT 
 
 Great Britain at the outset of the war emphasized her 
 vulnerability by the issuance of an order prohibiting foreign 
 aircraft from flying over seventy-six restricted districts,
 
 Battles in the Air 143 
 
 representing military or naval garrison, fortified islands, 
 piers, wireless stations, dockyards, lighthouses, railway sta- 
 tions, supply depots and towers. The opening of the conflict 
 found the naval wing of her flying corps at Eastchurch, 
 and the army wing at Salisbury Plain and Farnborough. 
 But England's sea-planes, already mentioned, were her only 
 possible resistance to Zeppelins flying overhead at night. 
 These planes, which carried two men and wireless, had a 
 flying time of six hours over sea, and much of their work 
 was to detect the approach of Zeppelins toward the British 
 coasts. 
 
 NATIONS INCREASE AIR FORCES 
 
 Realizing from the first that in the death grapple in the 
 air many men and fighting machines would inevitably go 
 down to death, each nation took steps, long before actual 
 hostilities developed, to replenish its shattered air forces. 
 France had a score of aircraft factories, all of them working 
 overtime. Germany's dozen plants worked 24 hours a day. 
 The same may be said of the two great Zeppelin works — the 
 one at Friedrichshafen, the other at Berlin, employing 2,500 
 skilled artisans — the output of which is six Zeppelins a 
 month. At the outbreak of the war the Zeppelin fleet con- 
 sisted of twenty-three ships. 
 
 Not only were England's six factories engaged in pro- 
 ducing aeroplanes, but at Farnborough the British navy was 
 constructing a great rigid dirigible of the Zeppelin type, 
 working in feverish haste because of the inadequacy of the 
 Russian and Austrian factories to keep these factories 
 supplied,
 
 14-i Battles in the Air 
 
 There was a marked perfection in the organization and 
 work of the respective air fleets of France and Germany. 
 The air dreadnought fleet of the latter, being strictly homo- 
 geneous, formed one collective striking force. The airship 
 fleet consisted of four squadrons of four airships each, with 
 two in reserve. There was a separate basis of operation for 
 the dirigibles of the army and of the navy. The Prussian 
 army possessed six airship battalions each having twenty 
 companies, while Bavaria had three companies, and Saxony 
 and Wurtemburg two companies each. 
 
 CREW OF AN AIRSHIP 
 
 A military or naval officer, assisted by two lieutenants, 
 was in command of each airship. Four helmsmen worked in 
 relays, while two helmsmen attended to naught but the rud- 
 ders for horizontal steering. Four engineers and an assist- 
 ant engineer were in charge of the motors, of which, on the 
 latest type of Zeppelins, there were five, each having 1,000 
 horse-power. Relief was furnished by two wireless opera- 
 tors. Three machines and from three to six gunners com- 
 pleted the crew, these figures varying according to the size 
 and armament of the ship. 
 
 The German factories completed but a few days before 
 the outbreak of the war the latest marine Zeppelins, of which 
 there were three, the L.3, the L.4 and L.5, and which were 
 the giants of the entire Zeppelin fleet. Scaling 30,000 cubic 
 meters and covering journeys of 2,000 miles around Ger- 
 many in thirty-four hours, achieving a speed of a mile a min- 
 ute, these great ships remained continuously in the air for 
 forty-eight hours with their full war complement and guns,
 
 Battles in the Air 145 
 
 which were of greater range than any ship of this type here- 
 tofore constructed. These marine monsters carried the most 
 powerful searchlights made, and were intended by the Ger- 
 man Admiralty for attacking the British fleet at night, should 
 the occasion arise. 
 
 FRENCH ORGANIZATION EFFECTIVE 
 
 The same degree of effectiveness was to be found in the 
 French organization. The entire nation was first divided 
 into aviation centers, and these were in turn subdivided into 
 flotillas. Much success attended observations from the 
 French aeroplanes, and the airmen returned with accurate 
 estimates of the number, kind and disposition of troops and 
 artillery. At the same time it became possible to double 
 the power of the French artillery by having its fire directed 
 by aviators who had found the target. Each artillery com- 
 mand had a section of aeroplanes attached to it for this 
 purpose, and which were carried along with the artillery, 
 mounted on wheeled transports, together with all the im- 
 pedimenta necessary to maintain the aeroplanes in the field, 
 such as automobile trucks and traction engines for wheeled 
 transports. It may be said here that these trucks, engines 
 and transports proved to be cumbersome escorts, which were 
 subjected from time to time to the deadly work of the 
 Zeppelins. 
 
 OBSERVER DISTRESSED BY WIND GUSTS 
 
 A curious feature of this work, the truth of which was 
 demonstrated by actual military work in France, is that the
 
 i h; 
 
 Battles in the Air 
 
 t1ik united states affected by the wab in 
 
 euroim;
 
 Battles in the Air 147 
 
 observer became seasick and nervous, a fact which has pre- 
 vented the greatest accuracy in machines directed by a pilot. 
 The observer's distress in time of gusts is much more marked 
 than that of the pilot, who does not fear gusts, since, in pilot- 
 ing, the latter holds in his hands the means for preventing 
 pitching and rolling. This gives him a sense of security 
 which constitutes a decided moral advantage. Experience 
 has shown that the work of the observer who is not sure of 
 his pilot is incomplete, and ofttimes valueless to the com- 
 mander on the ground, and that much better and more de- 
 pendable work has been done by single pilots. They have 
 made excellent sketches while driving, thus demonstrating 
 that the single seater has an advantage over the two seater. 
 It is a notable fact that the single seat monoplanes belonging 
 to the French army were the fastest machines in the fleet. 
 
 EFFECT OF BOMB DKOPPING 
 
 The biplanes clearly showed their serviceability in the 
 dropping of bombs, the aiming being done by an engineer 
 officer with a bomb ejector. The dropping of bombs in the 
 European war settled the much argued question of the effect 
 of bombs on troops by demonstrating that no little havoc can 
 be created among those below by the use of an occasional 
 bomb dropped among them. However, this is not to say 
 that damage will always be done thereby, for the experience 
 of many troops, notably the Italians in Tripoli, tended to 
 show that the moral and material effect on troops is very 
 small. Indeed, in many cases, the bombs did not explode. 
 
 France has not made public the results of her experi- 
 ments with projectiles, and we have no way of knowing the
 
 148 Bat lies in the Air 
 
 value thereof at the present time. Other countries as well 
 have been devising projectiles for use against aeroplanes 
 and airships. These projectiles release peculiar bullets which 
 
 fly out in all directions, and which themselves release knives 
 and hooks which tear and rend. Aerial torpedoes, fired from 
 a gun and maintaining as Hat a trajectory as any other dis- 
 charged missile, are among other of the inventions of the 
 French. There is, however, no reliable information ahout 
 the result of the experiments. 
 
 GERMANS PLACE FAITH IN BOMBS 
 
 The Germans placed much faith in the work of the Zep- 
 pelins in the matter of bomb-dropping. These giants of 
 the air, which had the advantage of well regulated speed, 
 which permitted the taking of sharp photographs, an efficient 
 working crew and a long range wireless equipment, which 
 permitted the imparting of instant information, the ability 
 to slacken speed and hover at night over a supply depot, 
 gave a good account of themselves in the European war. The 
 bombs dropped from these Zeppelins struck circles of fifteen 
 feet in diameter, even when sent from a height of one mile. 
 Four to five tons of explosives was carried by each of the 
 great German air dreadnoughts, and twice that quantity 
 was transported by the marine Zeppelins. 
 
 AEROPLANES COMPARATIVELY SAFE 
 
 A small target was afforded by the aeroplanes, which 
 were able to keep out of the range of the guns of the air- 
 ships. Comparative safety for the pilot was provided by the 
 armor plated bodies of the latest types of offensive aero-
 
 Battles in the Air 149 
 
 planes; and it was noted that no damaging effect following 
 the piercing of the wings by bullets. During the Balkan 
 war the gasoline tanks were frequently struck, but without 
 disastrous result. 
 
 About 300 pounds of explosives was carried by the mod- 
 ern French and German aeroplanes, 35 of which, carrying 
 as formidable a load as a Zeppelin, demonstrated on more 
 than one occasion their power of destroying a dirigible by 
 rising vertically over it and dropping bombs thereon — if the 
 guns on top of the Zeppelin do not get the aeroplane. 
 
 But the Germans saw to it that the Zeppelins would not 
 encounter aeroplanes. They avoided French aeroplanes by 
 traveling at night to the proposed point of attack. Travel- 
 ing very high and arriving at early» dawn, they wrecked 
 supply camps, thus, by this new form of warfare, crippling 
 the enemy and rendering him an easy prey for the army. 
 
 The armament of the Zeppelins was capable of being 
 changed from time to time, to suit the kind of attack and 
 the distances to be traveled to meet the enemy, as well as the 
 general condition of the weather. Ordered to attack Paris, 
 a Zeppelin would, to conserve its endurance, carry one quick 
 firing gun and 250 rounds of artillery ammunition, two 
 machine guns and their ammunition, and several light ma- 
 chine rifles for emergency. No bombs would be carried. 
 
 PERSEVERANCE OF GERMAN GUN BUILDERS 
 
 For more than six years German builders of guns have 
 been working to make German airship weapons certain to 
 hit the mark, pierce protective covers and explode maga- 
 zines. The Krupps several years ago turned out a light
 
 150 Hal tic; in the Air 
 
 rapid firing gun capable of throwing sixty two-inch shells 
 a minute, and which, operating from the deck of the Zep- 
 pelin I, proved a smri ss. Shortly afterward, Erhardt, of 
 Dusseldorf, produced a Light, quick firing gun. This, 
 mounted atop the rigid hull of a Zeppelin, proved that re- 
 finement of aim. attained by practice, would produce ap- 
 palling results. Kites in the air were perforated at long 
 range. 
 
 One of the problems solved during the European war 
 Mas that of getting perfect range and maintaining a iixed 
 distance between the moving airship and some object on the 
 ground. By means of ils statoscope the airship was kept 
 at a constant height above the ground, the instrument reg- 
 istering the slightest change in height above sea level, after 
 which the ship was steered in a circle at this lixed elevation, 
 the target itself being used by the helmsman as a pivotal 
 bearing in bis steering. This form of target practice was 
 first begun in 1910, over the artillery grounds at Jeuterburg, 
 and was later carried on at the airship stations at Doberitz, 
 Hanau and Metz. Perfect range was obtained, even in the 
 highest winds. 
 
 The Germans early learned that the machine gun, slav- 
 ing with an absurdly small and light bullet, was an ideal 
 aerial weapon. Because of its small size, many thousands 
 of rounds of such ammunition can be carried on a dirigible. 
 Its stream of 500 bullets a minute will, at 1,500 yards, batter 
 through a 1 trick wall as effectively as a cannon ball. 
 
 RULES OF HAGUE GOVERNING AIRCRAFT 
 
 According to the agreement reached at the Hague by 
 the nations, there was no precedent governing the use of air-
 
 Battles in the Air 151 
 
 craft in advancing the cause of a belligerent The repre- 
 sentatives of the Powers placed the launching of projectiles 
 from dirigibles in the same class as the subjection of coast 
 cities to ransom at the demand of a powerful fleet. Firing 
 upon aircraft is not prohibited. Great Britain endeavored 
 to have the dropping of bombs prohibited, because it was a 
 menace to her military isolation and, further, because her 
 strongest naval vessel might meet destruction in this way. 
 Germany's refusal to vote for the prohibiting of bomb 
 throwing was most natural. She has made great progress 
 in the use of dirigibles and has spent vast sums of money in 
 her quest for supremacy of the air. Great Britain was j oined 
 by Russia in her effort to render unfortified places immune 
 from attack by aircraft. It was finally ruled by the Hague 
 that undefended towns, villages and dwellings cannot be 
 bombarded from the air. 
 
 AERIAL WARFAEE TO BRING WOULD PEACE? 
 
 According to the rules of the Hague, crews of captured 
 aircraft will be taken as prisoners of war, and not treated 
 as spies. It was agreed that the use of aircraft for purposes 
 of war would ultimately result in the maintenance of peace. 
 The suggestion was advanced that dirigibles, being able to 
 pass over protecting armies, would speedily visit the capital 
 of a nation itself, where those individuals most responsible 
 for the war could be found, thus subjecting them to personal 
 danger immediately upon the declaration of hostilities. It 
 is therefore contended that this result of the development of 
 aerial navigation would bring the crowned heads of Europe 
 to their senses, and usher in an era of universal peace.
 
 152 
 
 Battles in the Air 
 
 
 TURKEY 
 
 RADII'S OF KFFFCTIVE ACTION OF (JKK.MAN AIRSHIPS
 
 CHAPTER XV 
 
 THE TRIPLE ALLIANCE AND THE TRIPLE 
 
 ENTENTE 
 
 The Former a Signed and Sealed Compact, the Latter a 
 "Gentlemen's Agreement 3 ' — How They Were Formed 
 and Why — Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy Com- 
 posed the Alliance and Russia, France and Great Britain 
 Composed the Entente — Bismarck the Originator. 
 
 WHAT is known as the Triple Alliance or Dreibund had 
 its beginning in October, 1879, when Prince Bismarck 
 visited Vienna and arranged with Andrassy, the Premier of 
 Austro- Hungary, a treaty by which Germany bound herself 
 to support Austro-Hungary against an attack by Russia, 
 Austro-Hungary agreeing to help Germany in the event of 
 a combined attack by Russia and France. 
 
 This alliance was strengthened three years later by the 
 adhesion of Italy. Italy had no reason to be friendly to 
 Austria, but the activity of France in northern Africa in 1881 
 aroused an apprehension which proved sufficient to outweigh 
 her historic grievance and, rather than see the Mediter- 
 ranean "turned into a French lake," Italy joined herself to 
 France's avowed enemies. 
 
 After five years the Alliance was renewed upon terms 
 supposed to be more favorable to Italy and it has been re- 
 
 153
 
 154 The Triple Alliance and the Triple Entente 
 
 newed again from time to time, so that it was nominally in 
 effect until the outbreak of the world's greatest war. 
 
 Upon what terms, however, has never been published by 
 the contracting powers. Some light was thrown on that 
 question when Italy broke away from Germany and Austria 
 at the outbreak of the war, explaining that she was not 
 bound to Germany and .Austria inoffensive warfare but only 
 for mutual defense. When, therefore, Austro-Hungary 
 declared war against the Serbs and Germany rushed to her 
 ally's defense and made the war her own, Italy was not 
 under obligation to join. Such was the Italian point of view. 
 
 It lias never proved difficult for the statesmen of Europe 
 to explain either the making or the breaking of treaties, be- 
 fore the Triple Alliance there was a Dreikaiserbund between 
 Germany, Austria and Russia. On paper it was justified by 
 the most specious pleas and Bismarck, Gortchakov and An- 
 drassy were able to defend it as a firm and lasting guaranty 
 of the "peace of Europe." 
 
 But when self-interest whistled in the Balkans or at the 
 Dardanelles the "dogs of war" were presently at the throat 
 of the "peace of Europe" and the pledges of great statesmen 
 were torn t'> shreds. 
 
 The Dreikaiserbund or Three Emperors' Alliance Mas 
 called a "mutual understanding" between the Czar of Rus- 
 sia and the Emperors of Germany and Austro-Hungary 
 rather than an actual treaty. A "gentlemen's agreement" it 
 might have been called, if that term had been in existence 
 forty years ago. 
 
 BISMARCK ORIGINATED TRIPLE ALLIANCE 
 
 The first German Kaiser, Wilhelm 1, grandfather of the 
 incumbent, was enough of an old-fashioned gentleman to
 
 The Triple Alliance and the Triple Entente L55 
 
 hesitate when Bismarck suggested the Triple Alliance, lest 
 the new arrangement should prove at variance with agree- 
 ments already in existence. 
 
 But when the "Iron Prince" pointed out to him the grow- 
 ing cordiality of France and Russia and the dangers en- 
 tailed upon Germany by the existence of a hostile power on 
 each side of his Empire, Russia to the east and France to the 
 west, the old man forgot the gentleman in the Emperor, 
 turned his back on his brother Kaisers, and gave his assent. 
 
 Though, as has been said, the exact terms of the Triple 
 Alliance have been kept secret, its general purpose is known 
 to have been one of mutual defense against military pres- 
 sure from the east and the west. Italy's identity of interest 
 has never been entirely clear but, for that matter, Italy's po- 
 sition has long been one of isolation on the political map of 
 Europe and she has been torn in divers directions by con- 
 flicting interests. 
 
 Her people, already overburdened by taxation, have al- 
 ways resented the military and naval expenditures required 
 to maintain a place in line with her comparatively rich and 
 martial allies. Doubtless this consideration, accented by the 
 cost of her recent wars in Africa, had weight with the states- 
 men of Italy in postponing, if not altogether avoiding, the 
 cost of a war in Europe whose outcome could not be foreseen 
 but out of which she could hardly expect to get any ad- 
 vantage. If she consented in the end to keep the treaty as 
 Germany and Austro-Hungary interpreted it, it was as a 
 choice of evils. 
 
 Ten years ago, when the term of the Alliance was ap- 
 proaching, it was observed that the relations between France 
 and Italv had grown and were still growing more amicable,
 
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 L56 The Triple Alliance and the Triple Entente 
 
 France had withdrawn the obstacles which she had inter- 
 posed to Italian aspirations in the direction of Tripoli and 
 Italy had signified her willingness that France should have 
 a free hand in Morocco. In addition, the common Latin 
 blood of the two nations and the traditional distrust and 
 hatred of Austria spoke loudly with the Italians for a cessa- 
 tion of an alliance which connoted hostility to France. 
 
 But meantime two "dual alliances" had sprung up, be- 
 tween France and Russia and between England and Japan 
 and apprehension lest Italy should come to a closer under- 
 standing with France spurred Germany to greater activity 
 than ever to renew the alliance. Inducements were held out 
 to Italy in the form of more favorable treatment of her 
 commercial products and it is supposed, though as usual the 
 negotiations Mere secret, that Italy was told that she would 
 no longer lie required to keep up her military expenditures 
 on the scale of her allies. 
 
 THE ALLIANCE RENEWED IX 1902. 
 
 Whatever the inducements, they proved sufficient to over- 
 come the scruples of Italy and the Alliance was renewed. A 
 new treaty was signed at Berlin June 20, 1902, which pro- 
 longed the Triple Alliance for a term of six years. Count 
 von Beulow, Chancellor of the German Empire, made a pub- 
 lic announcement that the Alliance was "entirely pacific," 
 that it contained no obligations to maintain military or naval 
 forces up to any level and that, in a word, it corresponded 
 to a "natural and historic balance of power" and was in- 
 tended solely to preserve the peace of the world. In this, the 
 people of the contracting powers apparently acquiesced,
 
 The Triple Alliance and the Triple Entente 157 
 
 Kaiser Wilhelm II is the dominant power in the Triple 
 Alliance largely because he dominates the Austrians of Ger- 
 man blood just as he dominates Teutonic sentiment at home. 
 
 Bismarck said of Bulgaria when that state instead of 
 Servia was the stormy petrel of the Balkans that "All Bul- 
 garia was not worth the bones of a single Pomeranian 
 grenadier." In supporting Austria in her demands upon 
 Servia the Kaiser risked the bones of many thousands of 
 grenadiers in a question of the honor of his ally. 
 
 THE TRIPLE ENTENTE 
 
 Against the Triple Alliance there has grown up in Eu- 
 rope a rival, not to say a defensive, alliance. It also is 
 "triple." By token it includes three great powers — all that 
 were left in Europe after the two kaisers had joined hands 
 with Italy. England, France and Russia — these comprise 
 the Triple Entente, or Triple Understanding. 
 
 The Triple Entente was formed primarily to offset the 
 military strength of the Triple Alliance, but it also had re- 
 gard to Germany's growth as a commercial power, which 
 was well illustrated when a great German steamship, new 
 from the yards at Stettin, steamed into New York harbor in 
 the summer of 1913 with a bronze eagle at her prow bearing 
 this legend: "Mein Feld ist die Welt,"— My field is the 
 world. 
 
 The rationale of the Triple Entente was to isolate Ger- 
 many as a military power with Russia on her eastern fron- 
 tier, France on the west and the British fleet free to act in 
 the North Sea and the Mediterranean.
 
 L58 The Triple Alliance and the Triple Entente 
 
 It was inevitable, therefore, that the powers of the Triple 
 Entente should act as a unit when Germany drew the sword 
 to uphold her ally, Austria-Hungary. Although the great 
 European war of 1914 came as a surprise to the world it 
 had been prepared for through the Triple Alliance and the 
 Triple Entente. 
 
 ROUTE OF ARMY THROUGH PALESTINE
 
 CHAPTER XVI 
 PAN-SLAVISM VS. PAN-GERMANISM 
 
 Racial Hatred Primary Cause of the War, with Over-Arma- 
 ment a Contributing Factor — Disruption of Turkish 
 Empire Hastened Coming Conflict — Pan-Germanism 
 Against Pan-Slavism — Definition of the Tico Terms — 
 Deeply Rooted Racial Hatred Apparent Everywhere — 
 Servia Once a Mighty Empire Subjugated by Turkey— 
 Servians Struggle for Thirty-five Years for a Seaport 
 Checkmated by Austria-Hungary — Growth of Pan-Ger- 
 man Movement — Deep-Seated Reason for Racial Hatred 
 — The Rule of the Hohenzollerns Versus the Rule of the 
 Czar. 
 
 IT HAD been long foreseen that a great European war 
 was inevitable, and that millions upon millions of dollars 
 would have to be spent and tens of thousands of lives would 
 have to be sacrificed before the European atmosphere would 
 clear. 
 
 The great increase of armaments during the decade pre- 
 ceding the outbreak of hostilities had been made with the 
 coming conflict in view. 
 
 When the European war storm broke in its full force it 
 fulfilled the prediction that it would be the greatest the world 
 had ever seen. More men were involved. More territory 
 was affected. Boundary lines of nations were changed. 
 
 159
 
 160 Pan-Slavism vs. Pan-Germanism 
 
 Racial hatred and over-armament were at the root of the 
 situation which resulted in the war in Europe. One nation 
 was angered because of the loss of territory. Another was 
 jealous of a neighbor's growing military power. Others had 
 ambitions that up to the beginning of the war had not been 
 realized. War alone could settle these differences. 
 
 Before we can understand the significance of war, we 
 must consider the question of the "nationals," or of the 
 "races," as it is sometimes called. 
 
 German was spoken by 80,000,000 people, of which 
 10,000,000 were in Austria and 2,000,000 in Hungary. Ger- 
 many has more than 3,000,000 Slavs, chiefly Polish. Only a 
 third of Austria's 30,000,000 population is German, the re- 
 mainder being Slav. Of these there are 0,000,000 Czechs or 
 Bohemians, 5,000,000 Poles, 3,500,000 Ruthenians, and 
 1,250,000 Slovenes. 
 
 In Hungary the Magyar element, 10,000,000 in number, 
 is equaled by the non-Magyar, made up roughly of 2,000,000 
 Germans, 2,000,000 Slovaks, 500,000 Ruthenians, 3,000,000 
 Serbo-Croats, all of the Slavic tongue, and about 3,000,000 
 Roumanians, who do not speak Slav at all. 
 
 The population of Montenegro, about half a million, are 
 Slavs of the Servian branch. Roumanians are of mixed 
 origin, but the Roumanian tongue is spoken by 12,000,000, 
 of which approximately half are in Roumania. The remain- 
 ing millions are found in the dual monarchy, Servia, Bul- 
 garia and Russia. 
 
 The millions of Bohemians had become almost entirely 
 Germans, and never before have they been so thoroughly 
 Slavic as today,
 
 Pan-Slavism vs. Pan-Germanism 101 
 
 One of the ruling passions of the Bohemian people has 
 always been hostility to Germany. It was not many years 
 ago that the language of the Hungarian Parliament was 
 Latin. Magyar was held fit only for peasant talk. At the 
 outbreak of the war the Magyar and Slav were marked by 
 as strong bitterness as between German and Pole. 
 
 The sympathies of the Hungarian Roumanians were with 
 the flag and the King of Roumania, rather than with their 
 country or with the Emperor of the Dual Monarchy. The 
 House of Hapsburg, by holding the sympathy of the Poles 
 of Galicia, caused them to elect to remain subjects of Aus- 
 tria, rather than suffer the fate of Poles in Prussia or Russia. 
 The hope of a reunited Poland, however was as strong in 
 Galicia as among other Poles. 
 
 ANCIENT SERVIAN EMPIRE 
 
 Servia was once an empire, and at one time very nearly 
 overcame the Byzantine Empire. Under the rule of the 
 mighty Dushan, she made extensive conquests, and soon com- 
 prehended Macedonia, Albania, Thessaly, northern Greece 
 and a part of Bulgaria. Dushan took an imperial crown, 
 with the title of Emperor of the Serbs and the Greeks. This 
 was the height of its glory. The empire, though brilliant, did 
 not last long, for, under subsequent rulers, it fell to pieces, 
 and by 1453, less than a century later, the whole Serb people, 
 including those of Servia, Bosnia, Herzegovina, Montenegro 
 and Macedonia, were overwhelmed by the Ottomans. In 
 1521, by permanent annexation, they passed into the hands 
 of Turkey, where they suffered and struggled against op- 
 pression for 400 years.
 
 h;-_' Pan-Slavism vs. Pan-Germanism 
 
 Servia practically secured autonomy in 1810. In 1875 
 and 1 S7<i insurrections broke out in this province, in Bosnia, 
 Bulgaria and others, and the atrocities committed by the 
 Turkish soldiery in suppressing them caused a thrill of horror 
 throughout the civilized world. Russia took occasion to in- 
 terfere in behalf of the religious freedom of the provinces, 
 and demanded guarantees of the Turkish government which 
 the latter refused to grant. War accordingly ensued, during 
 which the Russian armies, having invaded* the Ottoman do- 
 minions both in Europe and Asia, gained several important 
 victories. 
 
 The war was closed by the treaty of Berlin, in 1878, 
 negotiated under the influence and direction of the leading 
 powers of Europe, a congress of whose representatives met 
 in that city. By this treaty Turkey suffered a great loss of 
 territory. She was obliged to consent to the formation of 
 the principalities of Bulgaria and Servia, with the partial 
 independence of East Rumelia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, the 
 government of the last to be administered by Austria- 
 Hungary. 
 
 In 1859 the Turkish dependencies Moldavia and Wal- 
 lachia were united and a principality formed from them, to 
 which the name of Roumania was given. The independence 
 of this State was acknowledged by the Sultan of Turkey in 
 1801, and twenty years later it assumed the rank and dignity 
 of a kingdom. 
 
 The Serbs, though newly freed from Turkey, had been 
 arbitrarily divided, and part of them given over to a yoke 
 just as hateful as that of the Moslem had been. In the five 
 years' bitter fight which followed, Servia gave the other 
 provinces her entire sympathy and such material aid as her
 
 Pan-Slavism vs. Pan-Germanism 163 
 
 impoverished condition would permit. It always seemed to 
 be impossible to crush this race of fighters. Not even the 
 powerful army of occupation that always was maintained 
 there has been strong enough to control the sentiment of the 
 people. 
 
 FIGHT FOR A SEAPORT 
 
 Through all the years between the Berlin treaty and the 
 Balkan war Servia struggled for a seaport, and at every turn 
 was checkmated by Austria. Her aspirations, both politically 
 and economically, were blocked systematically and persist- 
 ently by the dual monarchy. With a persistence which to 
 Servia was maddening, Austria-Hungary denied her direct 
 access to the coast or even railway connection with the 
 Adriatic. To the failure to gain this end Servia attributed 
 her slow commercial development and the difficulty of real- 
 izing on her resources. 
 
 Servia, considering herself the natural center for the 
 South Slav kingdom, and having obtained by force of arms a 
 seaport for her plums and her pigs, fought bitterly to pre- 
 vent being absorbed, as she saw Bosnia absorbed by Austria. 
 
 The Pan-Germanism movement had its inception in Aus- 
 tria at the close of the Franco-Prussian war. To this day 
 there was a growing desire on the part of much of its German 
 element for union with the German Empire. Between 1890 
 and 1894 there were many appeals urging the union of all 
 Germanic peoples. A movement already 100 years old was 
 crystallized in the latter year by the founding of the All- 
 deutscher Verband, which has conducted a propaganda ever 
 since throughout the German world, and which has had ad-
 
 nil Pan-Slavism vs. Pan-Germanism 
 
 herence in the Austrian parliament. According to the league, 
 the War of L870 with France only made it plain that it was 
 Germany's desire to enter into closer political and economic 
 connection with Austria, The Netherlands and Switzerland, 
 comprising the other German States. 
 
 It may therefore he readily seen that there was a deep- 
 seated reason for Austria's hostility to Servia in particular, 
 some reason that far transcended in importance the imme- 
 diate act, the assassination of the crown prince of Austria by 
 a Servian fanatic, that brought the conflict into being. It is 
 also clearly seen that it was not to be removed by mediations 
 or conferences, which, at best, could only have postponed it. 
 It was Pan-Slavism against Pan-Germanism, titanic forces 
 which later faced each other over miles of serried bayonets, 
 and demonstrated that this clash of arms had been written 
 in the book of fate, for wherever Germans and Slavs stand 
 face to face in the countries of Eastern Europe there are 
 always the possibilities of war. 
 
 CZAR AS LEADER OF THE SLAVS 
 
 Pan-Germanism, which had existed 100 years, recognized 
 in Pan-Slavism a menacing foe that had welded Russia and 
 Servia into a community of sentiment. And when Russia 
 joined hands with Servia it was defense not so much of Servia 
 as of a menaced Pan-Slavism. She would have done as much 
 for any Slav people threatened by Pan-Germanism. By the 
 act of ioinim>- hands with Servia the Czar became the virtual 
 leader of the Slav people. 
 
 Pitted against him was the German Emperor, or, to be 
 more exact, the King of Prussia, and Europe could only
 
 Pan-Slavism vs. Pan-Germanism 165 
 
 make her choice between the rule of the Hohenzollerns and 
 the rule of the Czar. There was the key to all policies of 
 Eastern Europe. There was only one policy, one cause, one 
 quarrel. Every event, from the bullet of the assassin, on 
 June 28, to the declaration of war, five weeks later, took its 
 place in the drama of conflict between the German and the 
 Slav. 
 
 A few years before, over in Alexandria, in Egypt, Abbas 
 Effendi, the head of the Behaists, said that he expected a 
 great world war which would overwhelm humanity. Then, 
 having in this bitter school learned the lesson of the waste 
 and cost and needlessness of the anachronism of war, the 
 world would enter upon the long-dreamed era of universal 
 peace. 
 
 That prophecy is also the judgment of most trained ob- 
 servers of international conditions. The student at Sarajevo, 
 whose mad pistol slaughtered the heir to a throne, suddenly 
 called all mankind to school to learn the lesson of peace and 
 brotherhood, written in letters of blood and fire.
 
 160 
 
 Pan-Slavism vs. Pan-Germanism 
 
 FRENCH TOWNS BETWEEN PARIS AND GERMANY
 
 CHAPTER XVII 
 MODERN METHODS OF WARFARE 
 
 Weapons Used by Modern Armies and Navies — Machine 
 Guns — The Submarine — The Aeroplane — Present Day 
 Ammunition — Mines on Land and Sea — Modern War's 
 Death Power — Submarines of Waning Powers — The 
 Chemical Mine — Classes of Mines — Explosives Used — 
 Placing of Destroyers — How Japan Treated Mines 
 Planted by Russia — Attack on Modern Mine Field — In- 
 vention of Mines. 
 
 THE weapons used in the wars of the late nineteenth cen- 
 tury were antique compared to the weapons with which 
 modern armies are equipped. The death dealing power of 
 modern arms, it has been estimated by many military men, 
 is 50 per cent more powerful than that of the weapons used 
 in the civil war. Long range guns, the submarine, the aero- 
 plane and the increased death capacity of the ammunition 
 used, all go to make up an armament of marvellous destruc- 
 tive force. 
 
 Nor are these the only things which make for increased 
 mortality in modern war. Floating mines and other things 
 to trap the unwary on the water are a terror to the naval ves- 
 sel and even the peaceful fishing smack. Death lurks under 
 the rolling waters of the sea just as he sprints on the mod- 
 ern battlefield. It is not the leisurely secretiveness of death 
 
 167
 
 108 Modem Methods of Warfare 
 
 under the waters such as an undertow is to the swimmer, nor 
 is it death of the old battlefields. The reaper on land and 
 sea practically races to his victim so deadly are the imple- 
 ments used. 
 
 SUBMARINES OF WARRING POWERS 
 
 Submarines have been developed to a high stage in re- 
 cent years. They can lav mines and if necessarv rise to the 
 surface of the water and give battle. The torpedoes they 
 fire cut the Mater like so many knives and few of them go 
 wide of their marks. At the outbreak of the 1914 war Great 
 Britain had sixty- four submarines. France was second with 
 sixty-one and Russia had twenty-nine. Japan had about a 
 dozen. On the other hand, Germany and Austria could only 
 muster twenty-four submarines, the Kaiser had eighteen of 
 these. 
 
 The long range guns' of comparatively recent invention 
 are a terror on land and on sea. Gatling guns and other 
 types of the machine artillery spit death at the rate of so 
 much a second. They have mowed down many thousands 
 since they were first perfected. And with all these death 
 dealing implements goes the ammunition of a death dealing- 
 power that would have caused army and navy men the world 
 over to have laughed at its possibilities not so many years 
 ago. Deadly chemicals are used in mines on land and sea. 
 
 POWER OF CHEMICAL MINES 
 
 The chemical mine is a non-controllable affair. It is a 
 large iron cylinder filled with dynamite. Projecting from
 
 Modern Methods of Warfare 169 
 
 its surface are a number of plungers encased in lead tubes. 
 Any one of these plungers when struck breaks a tube of sul- 
 phuric acid imbedded in powdered sugar and chlorate of 
 potash. The explosion that results would break the back of 
 a super Dreadnought. 
 
 A country can mine its own waters as it pleases, but on 
 the high seas a mine must become ineffective within an hour. 
 That practically means that only torpedoes can be used be- 
 yond the three-mile limit, and they too come under the hour 
 rule. 
 
 That is a rule that, it has been charged, was not observed 
 by the Japanese in their war with Russia. 
 
 There are no regulation mines for nations. Great secrecy 
 is attached to them as coast defenses. Plans for mining har- 
 bors are usually intrusted to only three officers. Not even 
 their clerks know the secrets of location and composition. 
 
 There are two classes, controllable and non-controllable 
 mines. The former are always manipulated from shore. 
 
 Then there are three kinds of mines. Fixed mines mean 
 those that are set off by electricity from shore. There also 
 are those that have trigger indicators to warn shore stations 
 that a ship is over the mine. The triggers do not explode 
 the mines. When a ship hits one there is a signal on shore. 
 These are called observation mines. Both fixed and observa- 
 tion mines are controllable. 
 
 Then there are those that are set off by a ship hitting the 
 triggers. They are contact mines and are non-controllable. 
 If the plunger of the contact mine operates a firing pin it be- 
 comes a mechanical mine. If it breaks a tube of acid it is a 
 chemical mine. An electrical mine can be made either con- 
 trollable or non-controllable.
 
 '— 
 
 GERMAN GUNS SHOOTING FRENCH AEROPLANES
 
 A MODERN WAR MACHINE IN ACTION
 
 170 Modern Methods of Warfare 
 
 Dynamite and gun cotton are the explosives ordinarily 
 employed. The explosive must lie little affected by moisture, 
 have a high destructive factor and yet must not be so sen- 
 sitive as to be discharged by the action of the waves. 
 
 In placing mines an effort is made to arrange them so 
 that a war vessel passing up a harbor must come within the 
 destructive radius of one of the mines in the system. They 
 should always be placed in channels and usually at the nar- 
 rowest part. From a military standpoint mines are obsta- 
 cles and their function is to delay, the position of the mine 
 field being such that when the enemy passes over them it will 
 be under the most destructive fire of the defense on shor^ 
 
 AVI I EX J A PAX SHOWED CONTEMPT 
 
 The shore guns should he able to prevent torpedo boats 
 and submarines from destroying the mines. The Russian 
 mines in Talien Bay did not prevent the Japanese from 
 eventually using Dalny as a base from which to operate 
 against Port Arthur. They were planted beyond supporting 
 distance of the shore guns and the Japanese openly picked 
 up the mines and went ahead. 
 
 Buoyant mines are held below the surface by a steel 
 mooring rope at such a distance that the mine will be struck 
 by the hull of a vessel below its armor belt. The ordinary 
 form of a buoyant mine is a sphere, the buoyancy of a hollow 
 sphere being greater than that of any other volume having 
 the same skin thickness. 
 
 The electrical mine has a steel case, inside of which is 
 the charge. In the center of the charge is a metallic case 
 containing the fuse, a detonating charge, a special device for
 
 Modern Methods of Warfare 171 
 
 firing at will and a circuit closer. Then there is an insulated 
 wire cable running out of the bottom near the anchoring rope 
 and connecting the fuse and the firing apparatus on .shore. 
 
 Ground mines are sometimes placed in water less than 35 
 feet deep. They rest on the bottom. They can be made of 
 iron or steel. The mine itself contains the charge, the fuse, 
 the detonating charges and the device for firing at will, but 
 the circuit closer is placed in a buoy attached to the mine. 
 
 The mine operating room on shore contains generators, 
 switchboards and a gallery for the cables extending to the 
 water. 
 
 Mines are usually placed about 100 feet apart so that the 
 explosion of one may not injure an adjacent one. 
 
 HOW MINES ARE CONQUERED 
 
 An attack on a mine field consists of countermining, 
 sweeping or creeping. Countermining is exploding charges 
 that will destroy the mines or cables. Sweeping is dragging 
 a long cable attached to two boats across the mine field. 
 When a mine is located its cable is destroyed by a charge 
 placed by a diver. Creeping consists in dragging hooks along 
 the bottom to locate cables which are then severed. 
 
 The earliest record of the use of apparatus similar to the 
 submarine mine was in the siege of Antwerp in 1585. An 
 Italian engineer filled several small vessels with gunpowder, 
 arranged a clockwork with triggers in their magazines and 
 floated the vessels downstream against a bridge which had 
 been erected by the enemy. The scheme Avas successful and 
 led to the development of mine defense,
 
 172 
 
 Modem Methods of Warfare 
 
 David Bushnell, a native of Maine, proved in 1775 that 
 a charge of gunpowder could be exploded under water. Two 
 years later he Una ted kegs of gunpowder down the Delaware 
 River at Philadelphia to attack British shipping there. The 
 ships had been taken into docks to avoid the ice in the river, 
 so the plan failed, but the attempt became known as the 
 "Battle of Kegs." 
 
 In the Franco-Prussian war of 1870, the superiority of 
 the French over the Germans in the matter of ships was 
 greatly neutralized by the latter in their use of electrical, me- 
 chanical and dummy mines for harbor defense. The moral 
 effect of the planted German mines was sufficient then to 
 keep the French fleet at a respectful distance. 
 
 Til K I 
 
 MT.TZ 
 
 ROUTK ()K THE OEKMAN AKMY— ON TO PARIS
 
 CHAPTER XVIII 
 SERVIA AND HER PEOPLE 
 
 Most Picturesque of the Countries at War — The Servian 
 Empire Overthrown by the Turks in 1389 Regained in 
 Part by a Revolution in 1804 — People Love Politics, 
 Poetry, Music and Dancing — Description of Their Bril- 
 liant Costumes and Chief Characteristics. 
 
 THE most picturesque of all the countries engaged in the 
 great European War of 1914 is Servia, once an empire, 
 which was overthrown by the Turks in 1389. A revolution 
 led by a peasant in 1804 gained Servia her independence, 
 but on lesser scale in territory. 
 
 The population of Servia is about 2,750,000. More than 
 four-fifths of this number belong to the Serbo-Croatian 
 branch of the Slavonic race. Servia is a land without aris- 
 tocracy or middle class. Instead it possesses an army of 
 placemen and officials ; but these being recruited mainly from 
 the peasantry do not disturb the prevailing social equality. 
 In 1900 there was neither pauper nor workhouse in the 
 country. 
 
 The people, less thrifty and industrious than the Bulgars, 
 less martial than the Montenegrins, less versatile and intel- 
 lectual than the Rumans, value comfort far more highly than 
 progress. A moderate amount of work enables them to live 
 
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 174 Servia and Her People 
 
 well enough, and to pass their evenings at the village wine- 
 shop; although, being a sober race, they meet there rather 
 to discuss politics than to drink. 
 
 Of politics they never tire; and still greater is their devo- 
 tion to music, poetry and dancing. Perhaps their most char- 
 acteristic dance is the kolo, sometimes performed by as many 
 as 100 men and women, in a single serpentine line. 
 
 All classes delight in hearing or intoning the endless 
 romances which celebrate the feats of their national heroes; 
 for every true Serb lives as much in the past as in the present, 
 and mediaevel wars still furnish themes for new legends and 
 ballads. It is largely this enthusiasm for the past which 
 keeps alive the desire for the reunion of the whole race, in 
 another Servian empire, like that overthrown by the Turks 
 in 1389. 
 
 BRILLIANT FESTIVAL COSTUMES 
 
 The fasts of the Orthodox Church are strictly kept; while 
 the festivals, which are hardly less numerous, are celebrated 
 even by the Servian Moslems. As in Bulgaria and Rou- 
 mania, the Slava, or patron saint's day, is set aside for re- 
 joicing. A Servian crowd at a festival presents a medley 
 of brilliant and picturesque costumes, scarlet being the favor- 
 ite color. Men wear a long smock of homespun linen, beneath 
 red or blue waistcoats with trousers of white frieze. The 
 women's dress consists of a similar smock, a zouave jacket 
 of embroidered velvet and two brightly colored aprons tied 
 over a white skirt, one in front and one behind. The head- 
 dress is a small red cap, tambourine-shaped, and strings of 
 coins are coiled in the hair, or worn as necklaces or bracelets.
 
 Servia and Her People 175 
 
 In this manner a farmer's wife will often decorate herself 
 with her entire dowry. During the cold months both sexes 
 wrap themselves in thick woolen coats or sheepskins with 
 the fleece inwards; both are also shod with corded sandals. 
 
 The Roumanian women retain their native costumes and 
 are further distinguished by the wooden cradles, slung over 
 the shoulders, in which they carry their babies; the Servian 
 mothers prefer a canvas bag. Women weave most of the 
 garments and linen for their families besides sharing in every 
 kind of manual labor. Turkish ideas prevail about their 
 social position, but so highly are their services valued that 
 parents are often unwilling to see their daughters marry; 
 and wives are, in many cases, older than their husbands. 
 
 BELGIANS ON MYTHS AND CHARMS AND OMENS 
 
 At a funeral the coffin is left open to the last minute — 
 a custom found everywhere in the Balkans and said to have 
 been introduced by the Turks, who found that coffins were 
 a convenient place for hiding arms. The same practice, how- 
 ever, is common in Spain and Portugal. Few countries are 
 richer in folklore and myth than Servia. The peasants 
 believe in charms and omens, in vampires, ghosts, the evil 
 eye, and many other things. Even at the beginning of the 
 twentieth century, education had done little to dispel such 
 superstitions. 
 
 The scarcity of labor prevents the growth of any great 
 manufacturing industries. There is no native artisan class; 
 for, except in rare cases, the people value their independ- 
 ence too highly to work in factories, or even to enter domestic 
 service. A large proportion of the artisans throughout
 
 I7f> Servia and Her People 
 
 Servia are Austro-Hungarians or gypsies. The chief manu- 
 facturing industries are those for which the country supplies 
 raw material, notably meat packing, flour-milling, brewing, 
 tanning, and the weaving or spinning of hemp, flax and wool. 
 There are also iron foundries, potteries and sugar, tobacco 
 and celluloid factories. 
 
 A law of 1898 authorizes the government to grant con- 
 cessions on very favorable terms to foreign capitalists willing 
 to promote mining and manufactures in Servia; but in 1910 
 the number of large industrial establishments in the kingdom 
 did not exceed sixty, nor the number of hands employed 
 5,000. 
 
 There are a few domestic industries, such as the manu- 
 facture of sandals, and of the hand-woven carpets and rugs 
 made at Pirot, which are popular throughout the Balkan 
 Peninsula.
 
 CHAPTER XIX 
 THE REPUBLIC OF FRANCE 
 
 A Nation Great in Art and Literature, With a War-Ridden 
 History, Is Made Up of Many Different Elements 
 Whose Chief Industry Is Agriculture — The Bretons, 
 Basques and Flemings Still Retain Their Original Cus- 
 toms and Distinctive Languages. 
 
 THE most thrilling and stirring chapters of European 
 history are found in the history of France and in her 
 transition from a monarchy to a republic is to be found, 
 perhaps, the reddest chapter in all history — the French Rev- 
 olution — a chapter written from end to end in blood, but 
 which has been an inspiration to all liberty-loving peoples. 
 
 With first rank in art and literature, she has had more 
 than her share of wars. 
 
 Although, broadly speaking, we refer to the French 
 people as Gauls, the French nation is formed of many dif- 
 ferent elements. Iberian influence in the southwest, Ligurian 
 on the shores of the Mediterranean, Germanic immigrations 
 from east of the Rhine and Scandinavian immigrations in 
 the northwest have tended to produce ethnographical diver- 
 sities which ease of intercommunication and other modern 
 conditions have failed to obliterate. 
 
 177
 
 178 The He public of France 
 
 The so-called Celtic type, exemplified by individuals of 
 rather less than average height, brown-haired and brachy- 
 cephalic, is the fundamental element in the nation and peo- 
 ples the region between the Seine and Garonne; in Southern 
 France a different type, dolichocephalic, short and with 
 black hair and eyes, predominates. 
 
 The tall, fair and blue-eyed individuals who are found 
 to the northeast of the Seine and in Normandy appear to 
 be nearer in race to the Scandinavian and Germanic invaders ; 
 a tall and darker type, with long faces and aquiline noses, 
 occurs in some parts of Franche-Comte and Champagne, the 
 Vosges and Perche. 
 
 THE BRETONS, BASQUES AND FLEMINGS RETAIN ORIGINAL 
 
 CUSTOMS 
 
 The Bretons, who most nearly represent the Celts, and 
 the Basques, who inhabit parts of the western versant of the 
 Pyrenees, have preserved their distinctive languages and cus- 
 toms and are ethnically the most interesting sections of the 
 nation ; the Flemings of French Flanders, where Flemish is 
 still spoken, are also racially distinct. 
 
 The immigration of Belgians into the northern depart- 
 ments and of Italians into those of the southeast exercise a 
 constant modifying influence on the local populations. 
 
 During the nineteenth century the population of France 
 increased to a less extent than that of any other country 
 (except Ireland) for which definite data exist, and during 
 the last twenty years of that period it was little more than 
 stationary. The population in 1914 was about 40,000,000. 
 In 1906 it was 39,252,245. In 1870 it was 36,905,788.
 
 The Republic of France 17i> 
 
 About two-thirds of the French departments, comprising a 
 large proportion of those situated in mountainous districts 
 and in the basin of the Garonne, where the birth-rate is espe- 
 cially feeble, show a decrease in population. Those which 
 show an increase usually possess large centers of industry 
 and are already thickly populated, like the Seine and Pas- 
 de-Calais. In most departments the principal cause of de- 
 crease of population is the attraction of great centers. 
 
 WINE GROWING REGIONS MOST THICKLY POPULATED 
 
 The average density of population in France is about 190 
 to the square mile, the tendency being for the large towns to 
 increase at the expense of the small towns as well as the 
 rural communities. In 1901, 37 per cent of the population 
 lived in centers containing more than 2,000 inhabitants, 
 whereas in 1861 the proportion was 28 per cent. Besides the 
 industrial districts, the most thickly populated regions 
 include the coast of the department of Seine-Inferieure and 
 Brittany, the wine-growing region of the Bordelais and the 
 Riviera. 
 
 While a goodly proportion of the French are engaged 
 in agricultural pursuits the development of machinery in 
 France as in other countries, whether run by steam, water 
 power, or other motive forces, has played a great part in the 
 promotion of industry; the increase in the amount of steam 
 horse-power employed in industrial establishments is, to a 
 certain degree, an index to the activity of the country as 
 regards manufactures. 
 
 With the exception of Loire, B ouches-due-Rhone and 
 Rhone, the chief industrial departments of France are to be 
 found in the north and northeast of the country.
 
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 180 The Republic of France 
 
 The department of the Seine, eomprising Paris and its 
 suburbs, which has the largest manufacturing population, is 
 largely occupied with the manufacture of dress, millinery 
 and articles of luxury, but it plays the leading part in almost 
 every great branch of industry with the exception of spin- 
 ning and weaving. 
 
 The typically industrial region of France is the Depart- 
 ment of Nord, the seat of the woolen industry, but also promi- 
 nently concerned in other textile industries, in metal-work- 
 ing and in a variety of other manufactures, fuel for which 
 is supplied by its coal fields. 
 
 A THRIFTY AGRICULTURAL PEOPLE 
 
 Despite the great interest taken in manufacturing indus- 
 tries in the French Republic, agriculture can well be called 
 the leading pursuit of the nation. Approximately 17,000,- 
 000 inhabitants depend on the fields for their means of live- 
 lihood, although only about 0,500,000 actually work at agri- 
 cultural labors. Ninety-four per cent of the area of France 
 is cultivatable land and the French with their innate thrifti- 
 ness have not allowed much of this to remain uncultivated. 
 
 France's flag floats over other lands than its home in 
 Continental Europe. The French have dependencies in 
 Asia, Africa, America, the Indian Ocean and Oceania. For 
 administrative purposes the government is divided into 
 eighty-six departments. The executive power is vested in 
 the President of the Republic, while the legislative power 
 lies in the hands of two chambers — the Senate and the 
 Chamber of Deputies.
 
 CHAPTER XX 
 THE GERMAN EMPIRE 
 
 Second in Area and Third in Population Among the War- 
 ring Nations of Europe — The Extent and Diversity of 
 Its Commerce — An Empire Made up of Prussia and 
 the German Confederation — Its Form of Government — 
 The Kaiser Supreme in War. 
 
 GERMANY, or more properly, the German Empire, is 
 in central Europe. The territories occupied by peoples 
 of distinctively Teutonic race and language are commonly 
 designated as German and in this sense may be taken to 
 include, besides Germany proper, the German-speaking sec- 
 tions of Austria, Switzerland and Holland. 
 
 The German empire was formed in 1871 by virtue of 
 treaties between the North German Confederation and the 
 South German states and by acquisition, in the peace of 
 Frankfort (May 10, 1871) of Alsace-Lorraine and embraces 
 all the countries of the former German Confederation with 
 the exception of Austria, Luxemburg, Limburg and Liech- 
 tenstein. The sole addition to the empire proper since that 
 date is the island of Heligoland, ceded by Great Britain in 
 1890, but Germany has acquired extensive colonies in Africa 
 
 and the Pacific. 
 
 181
 
 182 The German Empire 
 
 THE GERMAN FRONTIERS 
 
 The empire is bounded on the southeast and south by 
 Austria and Switzerland for 1,059 miles; on the southwest 
 by France 242 miles; on the west by Luxemburg, Belgium 
 and Holland, a total of 558 miles. The length of German 
 coast on the Baltic is 027 miles and on the North Sea it is 
 293 miles, the intervening land boundary on the north of 
 Schleswig being only 47 miles. The eastern boundary of 
 843 miles is with Russia. The total length of the frontiers 
 is 4,569 miles. 
 
 The area of the German empire is 208,830 square miles. 
 The population is 64,925,993. In area, the German empire 
 occupied the third place among European nations, and in 
 point of population the second, coming in point of area 
 immediately after Russia and Austria-Hungary and in popu- 
 lation next to Russia. 
 
 Twenty-six states and divisions make up the empire. 
 These are as follows: The kingdoms of Prussia, Bavaria, 
 Saxony and Wurttemberg; the grand duchies of Baden, 
 Hesse, Mecklenburg - Schwerin, Mecklenburg - Strelitz, 
 Oldenburg, and Saxe- Weimar; the duchies of Anhalt, 
 Brunswick, Saxe-Altenburg, Saxe-Coburg-Gotha and Saxe- 
 Meiningen; the principalities of Lippe-Detmold, Reuss- 
 Greiz, Reuss-Schleiz, Schaumberge-Lippe, Schwarzburg- 
 Rudolstadt, Schwarzburg-Sonderhausen, and Waldeck-Pyr- 
 mont; the free towns of Bremen, Hamburg, and Lubeck and 
 the imperial territory of Alsace-Lorraine. 
 
 In 1900 the German speaking population of the empire 
 amounted to 51,883.131. Of the inhabitants speaking other 
 languages there were: Polish. 3,080,489; French (mostly in
 
 The German Empire 183 
 
 Lorraine), 211,670; Masurian, 142,049; Danish, 141,061; 
 Lithuanian, 106,305; Cassubian, 100,213; Wendish, 93,032; 
 Dutch, 80,361; Italian, 65,961; Moravian, 64,382; Czech, 
 43,061; Frisian, 20,677; English, 20,217; Walloon, 11,841. 
 
 In 1905 there were resident within the empire, 1,028,560 
 subjects of foreign states as compared with 778,698 in 1900. 
 Of these 17,293 were subjects of Great Britain and Ireland, 
 17,184 of the United States and 20,584 of France. 
 
 Despite the enormous development of industries and 
 commerce, agriculture and cattle-rearing still represent in 
 Germany a considerable portion of its economic wealth. 
 Almost two-thirds of the soil is occupied by arable land, 
 pastures and meadows, and of the whole area, 91 per cent 
 was classed as productive. 
 
 The largest estates are found in the Prussian provinces 
 of Pomerania, Posen and Saxony, and in East and West 
 Prussia, while in the Russian Rhine province, in Baden and 
 Wurttemberg, small farms are the rule. The same kinds of 
 cereal crops are cultivated in all parts of the empire, but 
 in the south and west wheat is predominant and in the north 
 and east rye, barlev and oats. 
 
 GERMAN MANUFACTURES 
 
 In no other country of the world has the manufacturing 
 industry made such strides as in Germany in recent years. 
 The chief manufactures may roughly be distributed geo- 
 graphically as follows: Prussia, Alsace-Lorraine, Bavaria 
 and Saxony are the chief seats of the iron manufacture. 
 Steel is produced in Rhenish Prussia. Saxony is predomi- 
 nant in the production of textiles, though Silesia and West- 
 phalia manufacture linen. Cotton goods are largely pro-
 
 184 The German Empire 
 
 duced in Baden, Bavaria, Alsace-Lorraine, and Wurttem- 
 berg, woolens and worsteds in Saxony and the Rhine 
 province, silk in Rhenish Prussia, Alsace and Baden. Glass 
 and porcelain are largely produced in Bavaria; lace in 
 Saxony; tobacco in Hamburg and Bremen; chemicals in the 
 Prussian province of Saxony; watches in Saxony and 
 Nuremberg; toys in Bavaria : gold and silver filigree in Berlin 
 and Aschaffenburg and beer in Prussia and Bavaria. Ger- 
 many has obtained a leading position in the markets of the 
 world more through its iron industry than its other manu- 
 factures. 
 
 The constitution of the German empire is, in all essen- 
 tials, that of the North German Confederation, which came 
 into force in 1867. Under this the presidency of the con- 
 federation was vested in the king of Prussia and his heirs. 
 In 1871 the king of Prussia was proclaimed German 
 emperor. His authority as territorial sovereign extends over 
 Prussia, not over Germany. The emperor exercises the 
 imperial power in the name of the confederated states. In 
 his office he is assisted by the Bundesrat which represents 
 the governments of the individual states of Germany. The 
 legislative functions are vested in the emperor, the Bundesrat 
 and the Reichstag, or imperial Diet. The members of the 
 latter are elected by universal suffrage. The executive power 
 is in the emperor's hands. He represents the empire inter- 
 nationally, and can declare war if defensive, and make peace 
 as well as enter into treaties with other nations; he also 
 appoints and receives ambassadors. The separate states have 
 the privilege of sending ambassadors to other courts, but all 
 consuls abroad are officials of the empire and are named by 
 the emperor.
 
 CHAPTER XXI 
 THE GREAT RUSSIAN EMPIRE 
 
 It Comprises One-Sixth of the Land Surface of the Globe 
 and the Greatest Diversity of Races — Its Government 
 and Characteristics of Its People — Land of Contrasting 
 Riches and Poverty — Nobility Spends Money Freely On 
 Entertainments. 
 
 THE Russian Empire stretches over a vast territory in 
 eastern Europe and northern Asia, with an area exceed- 
 ing- 8,660,000 square miles, or one-sixth of the land surface of 
 the globe. It is, however, but thinly populated, including 
 only one-twelfth of the inhabitants of the earth. Its popula- 
 tion is 166,250,000. In this population is the greatest divers- 
 ity of nationalities belonging to any old world nation, due 
 to the amalgamation or absorption by the Slav race of a 
 variety of Ural-Altaicstocks, of Turko-Tartars, Turko-Mon- 
 gols and various Caucasian races. 
 
 In Russia there are Aryans, Semies, Ural- Altaians and 
 Caucasians as well as Koryaks, Chukchis, Chinese, Japanese 
 and Koreans. 
 
 Under the Aryans come the Slavs, the Lithuanians, Latin 
 and Teutonic races, and Iranians. 
 
 Under the Ural- Altaians, the Turko-Tartars, Finns and 
 Mongols. 
 
 Under the Caucasians the Georgian races and Caucasians. 
 
 185
 
 180 The Great Russian Empire 
 
 The Slavs can be divided into the Greal Russians, Little 
 Russians, White Russians, Poles and other Slavs. Roman- 
 ians, Germans, Greeks and Swedes make up the Latin and 
 Teutonic faces and the Armenians. Persians, Tajiks, Taly- 
 shes, Talcs. Kurds, Ossetes and Gypsies the Iranians. 
 
 The Finns are the Esthonians, Finns, Lapps, Mordvin- 
 ians. Karelians, Cheremisses, Syryenians, Permiaks and 
 
 Votyaks. 
 
 I rnder the Turko-Tartars come the Tartars, Chuvashes, 
 Bashkirs, Turks, Turkomans, Kirghiz, Sarts, Uzbegs, Yakuts 
 and Kara-kalpaks. The Kalmucks and Buriats are the 
 
 Mongols. 
 
 Russia's government 
 
 Russia was described in the Almanach de Gotha for 1910 
 as "a constitutional monarchy under an autocratic tsar." At 
 the head of the government is the emperor, whose power is 
 limited only by the provisions of the fundamental laws of 
 the empire. The Council of the Empire consists of 196 
 members of whom 08 are nominated by the emperor and 08 
 are elected. As a legislative body the powers of the council 
 are coordinate with those of the Duma: in practice, however, 
 it has seldom initiated legislation. The Duma, which forms 
 the Lower House of the Russian Parliament, consists of 442 
 members elected by an exceedingly complicated process. 
 
 The chief occupation of seven-eighths of the population 
 of European Russia is agriculture, but its character varies 
 considerably according to the soil, climate and the geographi- 
 cal position of the different regions. Despite this agriculture 
 stands at a low level in Russia. The landowners are often 
 poor and suffer from want of capital and lack of enterprise.
 
 The Great Russian Empire 187 
 
 The peasantry are impoverished and in many parts live 
 on the verge of starvation for the greater part of the year. 
 
 Mining and its related industries are still at a very low 
 stage of development also. With regard to Russian industry 
 generally, the extravagant prices which have to be paid for 
 iron goods, owing to the prohibitive tariffs, combined with 
 the obstacles put in the way of education, hamper the de- 
 velopment of all industries. 
 
 The wealth of Russia, consisting mainly of raw produce, 
 the trade of the country turns chiefly on the purchase of this 
 for exj^ort, and on the sale of manufactured and imported 
 goods in exchange. 
 
 RUSSIAN CHARACTERISTICS 
 
 The lower classes in Russia can well be termed a down- 
 trodden people. In many respects they are little better than 
 serfs. This condition of life has been a subject for many 
 authors. But despite this condition the Russians get much 
 enjoyment out of their festival days. They are good dancers 
 and enjoy many simple pleasures. Russia has given to the 
 world many great thinkers and musicians. 
 
 Because of the autocratic form of the government upris- 
 ings against governmental authority, especially in the shape 
 of attempts to take the life of high officials, have been fre- 
 quent. These have been put down with an iron hand. Siberia, 
 the land of lost hopes is the lot of political offenders. Those 
 who have escaped the terrors of that bleak country tell thrill- 
 ing stories of their experiences. 
 
 The prodigality of many Russian nobles is a common 
 topic of gossip in European courts. Members of the Imperial
 
 188 
 
 The Great Russian Empire 
 
 family, with their huge incomes, go to great lengths in the 
 line of entertainment to spend the wealth which is often 
 wrested from a hard working people. 
 
 Russian peasants delight in singing the old songs of the 
 land and in telling and re-telling the folk-lore tales that have 
 been handed down from generation to generation. While 
 they have no great future to look forward to, most of them 
 are well contented with their lot. 
 
 Advanced thinkers in Russia have done much for the 
 peasants. Universities are becoming more and more popular 
 and the children of the poor are taking advantage of them. 
 
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 'REMEMBER 
 
 WHAT THEY USED 
 
 TO CALL ME ?"
 
 CHAPTER XXII 
 
 ALSACE-LORRAINE, THE FAIR PRIZES 
 
 OF WAR 
 
 Division of Charlemagne's Fast Empire Among His Grand- 
 sons — Lothair, the Weakest, Gets as His Heritage Al- 
 sace-Lorraine Among Other Lands — Provinces a Bone 
 of Contention Between France and Germany — France 
 Gets Alsace and All Lorraine But the City of Sirassburg 
 by Treaty of Westphalia — Louis XIV Takes Strassburg 
 for France — Provinces a Theatre of Operations in 
 Franco-Prussian War — Germany Gets Them as a Price 
 of Peace — German Government — The Zabern Affair — 
 Characteristics of Natives. 
 
 THE provinces of Alsace-Lorraine, in whose territory 
 there was much fighting in the early days of the war, 
 cover together an area of 5,601 square miles. The maximum 
 length from north to south is 145 miles ; the maximum hreadth 
 is 24 miles. They may be compared with the Hudson River 
 Valley from New York to Albany. It is not an extensive 
 territory but many of the wars in Europe since the passing 
 of Charlemagne have been concerned with it. 
 
 It was in 1843 that the three grandsons of Charlemagne, 
 fighting among themselves, decided to end it by dividing their 
 grandfather's possessions among them. They acted on that 
 ancient principle that the lands, and the peoples dwelling 
 
 189
 
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 190 Alsace-Lorraine ', the Fair Prizes of War 
 
 upon them, tilling the soil in time of peace and fighting the 
 hattles in time of war, Mere the private property of the 
 sovereign, ruling by the "divine right of kings." Charle- 
 magne had ruled the whole of Europe as one united govern- 
 ment from his capital at Aachen — the Aix la Chapelle of to- 
 day which belongs to Prussia. The private possessions of the 
 Pope of Italy alone were excepted. 
 
 Charlemagne's son, Louis le Debonnaire, was too weak to 
 hold together such a heterogeneous empire of peoples of dif- 
 ferent race and temperament and speaking different tongues, 
 their only bond being an official religion — that of the sov- 
 ereign — and a common government. lie was too weak even 
 to rule in his own family. Long before he was dead his 
 sons were quarrelling over their inheritance. 
 
 FIRST KING OF THE GERMANS AND FIRST KING OF THE FRANKS 
 
 The one who was the strongest, called Louis the German, 
 had the first choice in the division and he became the first 
 King of the Germans. The second strongest, Charles the 
 Bold, had second choice, a,nd he became the first King of 
 the Franks, the people of modern France. These two broth- 
 ers took land which formed a compact whole and which could 
 be easily defended. The subjects of Charles all spoke one 
 language, those of Louis all spoke another. 
 
 The third brother, Lothair, the weakest, had to take what 
 was left of his father's empire, and that included what is now 
 comprised in Holland, Belgium, Switzerland, Luxemburg, 
 Alsace, Lorraine, and a small strip of northern Italy. It was 
 made up of many different nationalities. It could not be 
 easih; defended because the Alps broke it into two parts, and
 
 Alsace-Lorraine, the Fair Prizes of War 191 
 
 the narrow strip along the Rhine from the Alps to the North 
 Sea which kept the possessions of Louis from touching those 
 of Charles was too great a prize not to be converted by both 
 of the two stronger brothers. They soon began to fight one 
 another about it, each to take it from Lothair. And the 
 troubles of the buffer states began. Alsace and Lorraine 
 have alone remained of Lothair's kingdom to be fought over 
 by the two great nations on either side, France and Ger- 
 many. 
 
 THE THIRTY YEARS' W r AR 
 
 France was the banker for Sweden and in the Thirty 
 Years' War of the seventeenth century, which Sweden fought 
 against Austria and Germany, Sweden won and the spoils 
 fell to the banker, France acquiring by the Treaty of West- 
 phalia which closed the war in 1648, all of Alsace with the 
 exception of the city of Strassburg. Germany had to give it 
 up, as well as confirm France in the possession of Metz, in 
 Lorraine, at this time a private appendage of the sovereign 
 of Austria. 
 
 In 1681, during a lull of peace in the tormented provinces, 
 Louis XIV of France, quietly surprised Strassburg and took 
 it, so that France had that province entire. It was not un- 
 til after the first French Revolution that the whole of Alsace 
 and Lorraine went to France. 
 
 As soon as war was declared between France and Prussia, 
 July 15, 187(7, Alsace-Lorraine became the theater of opera- 
 tions. The first decisive battle of the war was fought in Al- 
 sace at Woerth-sur-Sauer, August 6, 1870, the French under 
 Marshal MacMahon retreating before the Germans, led by
 
 192 Alsace-Lorraine, the Fair Prizes of War 
 
 the Crown Prince, afterward Kaiser Frederick, father of 
 Kaiser William II. 
 
 "When Thiers, coming as the Ambassador of France to 
 sue for peace from Germany, Bismarck laid down as the first 
 stipulation that Alsace-Lorraine should be a price of peace. 
 France had to let the provinces go. 
 
 GERMANS RULE ALSACE-LORRAINE 
 
 It was Bismarck's idea to treat the two provinces with 
 the utmost kindness and benevolence. The Kaiserin's cousin, 
 Prince von Ilohenlohe, became the Governor, and although 
 he was a dictator, his rule was kindly. Rights of citizenship 
 were showered upon the inhabitants and they were given their 
 own Parliament in 1874. The dictatorship was abolished in 
 1902. v Alsace-Lorraine was given representation in the Diet 
 at Berlin. 
 
 Between 1880 and 1885, 50,000 natives emigrated from 
 the two provinces into France and the emigration has kept 
 up more or less ever since. In the foreign legions of France 
 men from these German-held provinces are enrolled in large 
 numbers. They visit their relatives back in the old homes and 
 Germany has complained that they returned to France with 
 military information which Berlin did not intend for Paris 
 to have. 
 
 THE ZABERN AFFAIR 
 
 It was only in January, 1914, that the "Zabern affair," 
 brought a flood of light upon conditions in Alsace and Lor- 
 raine. A young German officer, stationed at Zabern, Lieut.
 
 Alsace-Lorraine, the Fair Prizes of IV ar 193 
 
 Baron von Foerstner, incensed at the mocking taunts of 
 the populace in Zabern, the little Alsatian town which has 
 been the scene of bloody battles for ten centuries, ordered 
 his men to charge upon the crowd. It was a grim story that 
 the only victim was a decrepit man, caught and sabred as he 
 was hobbling away on his crutches. 
 
 The young officer was reprimanded and a lightly punish- 
 ment. The Reichstag passed a vote of censure upon the 
 Imperial Chancellor that such things could happen in the 
 German Empire and there the affair ended. 
 
 In Lorraine one sees the slender physique and the viva- 
 cious temperament of the French, but the skull formation of 
 the Teuton. In Alsace, there is the giant frame and the 
 broad face of the Teuton, with the round skull of the French. 
 The two peoples are in reality a mixture of both. They could 
 love the Germans or the French with equal facility. They 
 speak the German language in large majority — that is cited 
 as the reason why they should certainly love the Germans 
 more than the French. But it has now been some time since 
 the teaching of French to the children was prohibited as well 
 as using French uniforms on the stage or using the French 
 language on the shop signs. The language of the children 
 soon becomes that of the parents, and the language forced by 
 law upon commerce will e'er long become the language of the 
 home.
 
 104. Alsace-Lorraine j the Fair Prizes of War 
 
 *~*^3'"j*">» . • ' \i*c 
 
 PROGRESS CROWDED OFF
 
 CHAPTER XXIII 
 
 FREDERICK THE GREAT AND THE SEVEN 
 
 YEARS' WAR 
 
 Battles in Which the Ancestor of Kaiser Wilhelm II Won 
 His Title — Fought Against Six Nations With Odds of 
 More Than Two to One Against Him and Won — The 
 Eleven Great Battles That Cost One Million Lives — 
 The Great Military Genius of Prussia After Fighting 
 Seven Years Died in Peace and Amidst Plenty. 
 
 A CENTURY and a half ago, Frederick the Great, King 
 of Prussia, the great ancestor of Kaiser Wilhelm II, 
 was involved in a war with practically all Europe. 
 
 Frederick the Great faced six nations with a combined 
 population of about 90,000,000. They put into the field 
 against him in 1757 armies numbering 425,000 men. 
 
 Against this force, Frederick was able to muster 200,- 
 000 men, the population of Prussia being at that time about 
 4,500,000. 
 
 Thus, the Great Frederick went into the fight at numer- 
 ical odds of more than 2 to 1 against him. In reality the odds 
 were greater because of his 200,000 men at least 50,000 
 were not available for the field, being sequestered as garri- 
 sons of his fortresses. 
 
 Opposed to Wilhelm II in the war of 1914 (also called 
 the War of Six Nations) were countries having an aggre- 
 
 195
 
 ar 
 
 196 Frederick the (treat and the Seven Years' W 
 
 gate population of 308,000,000, not counting colonies or 
 dependencies. Germany and .Austria combined had a pop- 
 ulation of 116,265,000 besides that of the German colonies. 
 Three to one therefore very nearly approximates the odds 
 in point of population faced by the Kaiser. 
 
 THE KAISER'S ARMY COMPARED WITH FREDERICK'S 
 
 The discrepancy in armed forces is not so great. The 
 strength of the German armies was 5,200,000 men; of the 
 Austrian, 2,000,000; a total of 7,200,000. Against these the 
 allies were able to muster 10,902,000, distributed thus: Rus- 
 sia, 5,500,000; France, 4,000,000; England, 720,000 (which 
 did not include the forces stationed in the English posses- 
 sions) ; Belgium, 222,000; Servia, 300,000, and Montenegro, 
 150,000. 
 
 Frederick the Great had no navy, so that there are no 
 data for comparison on that score. The Kaiser entered the 
 war with 439 fighting craft, as against 1,208 of the Allies, 
 and 194,233 sailors and officers, to 276,784 of the Allies. 
 Roughly speaking, the Kaiser's navy was about one to three 
 as compared with those of the Allies. 
 
 As for aeroplanes, which played a considerable part in 
 the Kaiser's war, Frederick the Great never saw one and 
 might have dropped dead on the spot if he ever had. As a 
 master of quick movement and skillful strategy with the 
 means at his hand in the eighteenth century he was the master 
 captain of his age and so a military genius like Napoleon T 
 regarded him. 
 
 Austria was not an ally of Prussia in the wars of Fred- 
 erick the Great. It was arrayed against him with France,
 
 Frederick the Great and the Seven Yearn' War 197 
 
 Russia, Sweden, Saxony and Poland, then a separate na- 
 tional entity. England, now chief of the Allies arrayed 
 against the Kaiser was his great ancestor's chief friend, hope 
 and dependence. There have been many shu tries and fresh 
 deals of the diplomatic cards of Europe in the past loO 
 years. 
 
 Frederick's crushing defeat at kollin 
 
 More than once during the Seven Years' War, Frederick 
 the Great found himself completely surrounded by his foes 
 and stricken almost to death. After his crushing defeat at 
 the battle of Kollin, in Bohemia, June 18, 1757, when he lost 
 14,000 killed, wounded and taken prisoners of an army of 
 32,000 Frederick retired to Prague which he had been be- 
 sieging with another corps. He was compelled to raise the 
 siege and retire from Bohemia. By the time he got back to 
 Saxony in July there remained under his banner only 
 70,000 of the 114,000 men whom he had led into Bohemia 
 three months before. Undaunted, he rushed into Thuringia 
 to face the French and their German speaking allies. 
 
 The position of the great Prussian seemed at this time 
 hopeless. He was menaced on every side. Besides the 
 Austrians who had just beaten him, the French, Russians 
 and Swedes converged upon his army to destroy him. They 
 formed a complete circle. 
 
 But Frederick was equal to the emergency. By move- 
 ments of the most astounding celerity he forced the famous 
 battle of Rossbach, the most renowned of his achievements, 
 at which he completely overcame an army twice as large as 
 his own, broke the cordon that surrounded him and emerged 
 from the period of his gloom.
 
 198 Frederick the Great and the Seven Years' War 
 
 Another period of despair fell upon him in August, 1759, 
 after the battle at Kunersdorf, a place in Brandenburg near 
 tin Oder River. The army of Frederick was completely 
 routed. In a contest with 78,000 Russians he lost more than 
 18,000 of his 48,000 men. He himself suffered severely. 
 Two horses were shot under him. His clothes were riddled 
 with bullet holes and a gold case which he wore over his heart 
 was crushed by a bullet. 
 
 "Is there no cursed bullet can reach me?" he exclaimed. 
 To his minister he wrote on the evening after the battle: "I 
 hold all for lost. I shall not survive the ruin of my country. 
 Farewell forever." 
 
 That night he resigned his command to one of his gen- 
 erals and directed that the army should swear allegiance to 
 his nephew. 
 
 But out of the despair and apparent ruin Frederick sur- 
 vived. His enemies neglected to push their advantage and 
 he again cut through the ring that surrounded him. After 
 varying fortunes in which more than once all seemed lost, 
 the Russians retreated across the Oder and he was once more 
 upon his feet. 
 
 Frederick the Great's reputation as a military genius 
 rests chiefly upon eleven battles fought during the Seven 
 Years' War. Some he won, some he lost. At times the 
 odds were three to one against him, but he never shrank from 
 a conflict on that account. The threatre of his operations 
 was confined to a topographical square measuring not more 
 than 300 miles on a side. Though there were of course no 
 railroads in his day to facilitate mobilization, it is not easy
 
 Frederick the Great and the Seven Years' War 199 
 
 to make comparison between his achievements and those of 
 the Kaiser which, after the intervention of Japan were 
 world-wide. 
 
 THE ELEVEN BATTLES OF FREDERICK THE GREAT 
 
 Here is a brief chronicle of Frederick the Great's battles : 
 
 At Lobositz on the Elbe in Bohemia, October 1, 1756, 
 with 30,000 men he defeated the Austrians with 42,000. 
 
 At Prague, May 6, 17-57, with 64,000 Prussians, he de- 
 feated 65,000 Austrians. 
 
 At Ivollin, Bohemia, June 18, 1757, 54,000 Austrians 
 under Marshal Daun defeated Frederick with 32,000. Fred- 
 erick had not hesitated to attack, though so far outnumbered. 
 
 At Rossbach, near the Saale, Frederick, with 22,000 men, 
 gained a complete victory over the combined Austrians, 
 French and Imperialists, November 5, 1757. The Allies 
 lost 8,000, Frederick only 165 killed and 376 wounded. This, 
 as has been said, is esteemed the great Prussian's most won- 
 derful victory- 
 
 At Leuthen, December 2, 1757, Frederick with 34,000 
 men defeated 80,000 Austrians. 
 
 At Zorndorf in Brandenburg, August 25, 1758, 32,000 
 Prussians defeated 50,000 Russians under Count Femor. 
 This was the most murderous battle of the war and Fred- 
 erick, to his surprise, found that the Russians at close quar- 
 ters, were fierce fighters. Men wounded to the death used 
 their last moments in butchering each other. It is related 
 that one Russian, mortally wounded, was found on the body 
 of a fallen Prussian choking his foe and gnawing him with 
 his teeth.
 
 200 Frederick the Great and the Seven Years' War 
 
 At Hochkirch, near Dresden, October 14, 1758, Fred- 
 crick was surprised by a force of 120, 000 Austrians, who 
 Pell upon his army of .51,000 and compelled him to retreat. 
 lie lost Marshal Keith, one of his best officers in this en- 
 s;affement and on the same day received the news of the death 
 of Wilhelmina, his favorite sister. 
 
 At Kunersdorf, in Brandenburg, August 12, 1759, Fred- 
 erick with 48,000 men was cut to pieces by an army of Aus- 
 trians and Russians numbering 78,000. The Prussians 
 lost 18,500 men and an immense number of guns. 
 
 At Liegnitz, in Silesia, August 15, 1700, Frederick's 
 army of .'JO, 000 men was surrounded by four armies of Rus- 
 sians and Austrians with a combined strength of 115,000. 
 Frederick defeated one Austrian army and broke through 
 the toils. 
 
 At Torgau, in Saxony, November 3, 1760, with a force 
 of 44,000 men, Frederick defeated an Austrian army of 
 
 Ml 
 
 05,000. 
 
 At Burkesdorf, July 21, 1762, Frederick, aided by a 
 Russian army (a new Russian emperor had reversed his 
 predecessor's policy and now fought with the Prussians) de- 
 feated the Austrians under Marshal Daun. 
 
 END OF THE SEVEN YEARS* WAR 
 
 This closed the celebrated Seven Years' War. At the 
 treaty of Hubertsburg, February 5, 176J3, Maria Theresa of 
 Austria bowed her head to fate. She acknowledged Fred- 
 erick's seizure of Silesia, previously denounced as a theft, 
 to have legalized by the war and restored to Prussia the 
 county of Glatz which her troops occupied. Prussia in turn 
 evacuated Saxony.
 
 Frederick the Great and the Seven Years' War 201 
 
 Though a victor in this war and the beneficiary of a treaty 
 on its own terms, Prussia had paid dearly for its triumph. 
 Its army was reduced to 60,000. The well disciplined 
 troops of the first years of the war, including the famous 
 Grenadiers of whom Frederick was especially proud, were all 
 gone and nondescripts or even deserters filled their places. 
 Discipline was relaxed, mutiny was always imminent and 
 graft was rampant. 
 
 The Seven Years' War cost a million lives, including the 
 losses of the Prussians and the Allies. It brought to Prussia 
 not a foot of territory, except that by the arbitrament of 
 arms it vindicated her title to Silesia which she had forcibly 
 taken from Austria. 
 
 For the sake of this title Frederick began the war. The 
 utmost that he gained was a reputation through all the ages 
 for dare-devil bravery and recklessness. He shrank from 
 no adverse odds and is quoted as having said once in reply to 
 a general who was trying to dissuade him from engaging the 
 enemy : 
 
 "I would attack them though they were all standing on 
 the town steeples." 
 
 Most of his victories were won because of this spirit. 
 
 FREDERICK A FATALIST 
 
 Frederick the Great was a fatalist. He always expected 
 to win, but it is related that he carried continually in his 
 pocket an ounce of a deadly poison and swore that he would 
 not survive a decisive defeat. After the rout at Kuners- 
 dorf he put this poison to his lips but decided at the last 
 second to have one more trial.
 
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 202 Frederick the Great and the Seven Years' War 
 
 What are the points of resemblance between the great 
 Frederick and the present Kaiser, his great-great-great- 
 grandnephew? It is said that the Kaiser believed himself a 
 reincarnation of his great ancestor. Physical resemblance 
 there was none for Frederick was very short and slight — a 
 much smaller man than the Kaiser. If one was brave 
 even to recklessness it is said of the Kaiser that be was no 
 less brave (though until the war of 1914 broke out he had 
 never been under fire). But it is related of Frederick that 
 he was scared within an inch of his life when he first faced 
 the enemy on the field and leaped into the saddle of a fleeter 
 horse that he might run away. 
 
 lie spent forty-six years in the saddle and devoted the 
 best of his years to stimulating the military spirit in the 
 Prussians. But when he died, in 1786, at the age of seventy- 
 four, it was in the midst of peace and plenty. There were 
 6,000,000 thalers in the treasury when he succeeded to the 
 throne; his successor, Frederick Wilhelm II, found 72,000,- 
 000 thalers in the strong box, and began to reign over 
 6,000,000 contented and industrious Prussians who blessed 
 the name of "Father Fritz," as the old king loved to be 
 called.
 
 CHAPTER XXIV 
 THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 
 
 Louis XVI a Poor Buler — His Personal Characteristics — 
 Marie Antoinette, His Queen — Conditions At the Court 
 of Louis — Huge Funds Wasted by the Courtiers — 
 Power of the King Over His Subjects — Protests of the 
 People Against Heavy Taxation — Opening of the 
 French Revolution — Taking of the Bastile — Formation 
 of the National Assembly — The King Is Defied — Chaotic 
 Conditions In France — Effects of the New Constitution 
 On Europe — France Embroiled In War — The King's 
 Death Warrant — The New Republic — Its Early Trou- 
 bles — The Rise of Napoleon — His Career — The Restora- 
 tion — The Second Republic — The Second Empire — The 
 Third Republic. 
 
 WHEN medieval history ended with the French Revolu- 
 tion, the latter event, which may well be said to have led 
 up to the present war between Germany and Austria and the 
 allies, began. It was in 1789 that the French Revolution, 
 which marked the beginning of European democracy, came 
 to a head. It was the cry of the people that the governed be 
 allowed to do some of the governing and it was a direct blow 
 to the old theory of the divine right of kings. 
 
 Louis XVI was the ruler of France at the time. He was 
 at best a most commonplace type of man and many historians 
 
 203
 
 204 The French Revolution 
 
 have held that he would have been better fitted for the posi- 
 tion of a baker than for that of the ruler of a nation. lie 
 was not a soldier, nor was he a statesman by any stretch of 
 imagination. lie was honest to be sure, but this did not make 
 up for other deficiencies in his character. He was the pawn 
 of wiser men largely for the reason that he did not under- 
 stand men. 
 
 Marie Antoinette, Louis's queen, was a great beauty. 
 She was an Austrian and she made no effort to conceal her 
 distaste for everything French. The court of Louis has 
 often been pointed to as an example of great immorality. 
 Whether or not this was so is a question. But certain it is 
 that Marie Antoinette often shocked the conventions and 
 that the members of the court were guilty of similar breaches 
 in a more marked sense. The atmosphere of the court was 
 unhealthy. Marie Antoinette was no better at reading men 
 than her husband and she was frequently imposed upon and 
 duped into having incompetent or dishonest government 
 officials appointed. 
 
 It was a lavish court that Louis held and money was 
 wasted with a wanton hand. Naturally it was necessary to 
 raise great funds for the maintenance of Louis and his 
 courtiers. The only means to do this was to raise the taxes 
 on the French people and to keep on raising them. As a 
 result France was groaning under a heavy financial burden. 
 Louis and his ministers resorted to method after method in 
 order to wrest money from the people. It was an era of ex- 
 travagance for the nobles; an era of abject poverty for the 
 common people.
 
 The French Revolution 205 
 
 KING HAD POWER OF LIFE OR DEATH 
 
 Nor was poverty the only burden the French peasants 
 had to bear. The nobles rode roughshod over them and their 
 feelings and the king could mete out life or death to anyone 
 without the person concerned having any redress. These 
 very things marked the coming end of the feudal system in 
 vogue in France. When a country is unable to get credit 
 things are in a bad state indeed. This was the position 
 France was in during the reign of Louis XVI. 
 
 The French Revolution began on July 14, 1789, when the 
 people stormed the Bastile and released the prisoners held 
 there. On January 21, 1793, Louis went to his death on the 
 guillotine. The release of the prisoners in the Bastile fol- 
 lowed a number of incidents that foretold the beginning of 
 the end for Louis. Demands were made on Louis which he 
 first refused to grant. Later the provinces showed something 
 of a united front and he was compelled to bow to their wishes. 
 The Three Estates finally managed to get together and in 
 June, 1789, they adopted the title of National Assembly. 
 
 They took the oath to give a new constitution to France 
 although the king ordered them to dissolve and the nobles 
 backed him up. The king's order was ignored and Louis 
 called out his soldiers to force the dissolution of the National 
 Assembly. The answer to this was the formation of the 
 National Guard and the storming of the Bastile by the peo- 
 ple. Louis sought to compromise and for a time it appeared 
 as if he would win the people over, but it was not long before 
 the obstinate side of his nature showed itself. 
 
 France at the time was in a state of great turmoil. Vio- 
 lent acts were the order of the day and the tension was great
 
 200 The French Revolution 
 
 when the "Declaration of the Rights of Man" was announced. 
 This Louis opposed and France was rocked to the core by the 
 storm that ensued. At this juncture, when the fortunes of 
 the king and queen were at a low ebb and it seemed that only 
 a miracle could save them, Mirabeau appeared on the scene 
 as an adviser to the king. Had his advice been followed he 
 would, in all probability, have been the miracle worker. But 
 Louis and Marie Antoinette had their minds poisoned against 
 the leader of the assembly and when they lost him they lost 
 the man who might w r ell have saved their lives and possibly 
 their fast tottering throne. 
 
 KING AND QUEEN ATTEMPT TO FLEE 
 
 Disregarding Mirabeau's advice that his only hope was to 
 gather the army and war on the revolutionists, Louis and his 
 queen attempted to flee. They were overtaken near the fron- 
 tier and that practically sealed their fate. Calm heads saved 
 them for the time being but the storm was only temporarily 
 checked and when it did break it did so with such great force 
 that it not only caused the deaths of the king and queen but 
 of many nobles as well. France seemed to go blood-mad. 
 
 In 1791 when the new French constitution was decreed 
 all Europe was shaken. Kings felt that if the revolutionary 
 ideas of the French leaders were to spread their thrones were 
 as good as gone. Even before this Marie Antoinette had 
 been in touch with the courts at Berlin and Vienna, declaring 
 that unless they threatened France with their armies the 
 revolution was sure to spread and carry with it the seal of 
 destruction of monarchs. Austria soon heeded the warning
 
 The French Revolution 207 
 
 and prepared to war on France. It did not take Prussia 
 long to follow a similar policy, Louis having added his en- 
 treaties to those of Marie Antoinette. 
 
 On the face of things it looked as if the revolution would 
 be crushed and that the combined armies of Austria and 
 Prussia would make short work of the tricolored forces. But 
 the plans of the king and queen acted as a boomerang. Their 
 palace Mas stormed and they were put under arrest as the 
 people prepared to make war on two foes. 
 
 Conditions were chaotic in France at the time and when 
 the allied foe swept all before him the life of the revolu- 
 tionary party seemed nearing its end. Beaten in the field, 
 the French people wreaked horrible vengeance on the nobility. 
 Outlying chateaus were stormed and their inmates put to 
 death, nobles were dragged from prison to be put to death. 
 The thirst for blood had to be allayed some way. 
 
 In September came the real birth of the republic. This 
 seemed to carry good luck with it for soon the allies were 
 seeking peace. With the allies backing down the king's fate 
 was as good as sealed and Louis's death was voted on Jan- 
 uary 15, 1703. He went under the knife six days later and 
 France was a republic in that royalty had come to an end. 
 The people had taken the life of their king. 
 
 A COUNTER REVOLUTION STARTS 
 
 Soon the revolution had a counter revolution with which 
 to deal. Those who had taken the life of Louis and many of 
 his courtiers were worried for fear that they in turn would 
 have to sacrifice their lives. England and Spain, too, took a 
 hand in the trouble. Agaii? things looked gloomy for the
 
 208 The French Revolution 
 
 republic but again they were saved. Carnot took the helm 
 and he steered the ship safely over its troubled course. Fol- 
 lowed then wholesale executions which well nigh amounted 
 to massacres. Carnot, aided by Robespierre and Marat in 
 directing things, decreed the death of hundreds. Paris was 
 a human slaughter house. This was the period of the Reign 
 of Terror and it was well named. 
 
 When the situation cleared up there was more trouble in 
 the government. Paris had had enough of blood for the time 
 being and a period that was marked by a more sane attitude 
 was the result despite the bickerings among the lawmakers. 
 But this period was short lived for there was an uprising 
 in many parts of France over the rights of the people. 
 Napoleon took a prominent part in quashing the trouble, 
 which was done without much bloodshed and from then on he 
 was a marked man. The new government was finally 
 launched and France began a campaign to force her ideas 
 on other countries. Armies were sent against Germany and 
 Napoleon led the force intrusted with the role of driving the 
 Austrians out of Italy. The Corsican made a whirlwind cam- 
 paign of great brilliance, crossing the Alps on his march to 
 victory. His other victories are familiar ones and as his 
 popularity increased the directory of the new government tot- 
 tered. Soon he overthrew the directory and the first republic 
 had gone the way of Louis XV T. 
 
 napoleon's rule 
 
 Followed then the rule of Napoleon. France was again 
 under the heel of a ruler who soon made himself emperor and 
 before long seemed to have all Europe under his thumb. But
 
 The French Revolution 209 
 
 his power finally waned and Waterloo saw the passing of his 
 star. His exile followed and later came his death on the 
 lonely little island of St. Helena, far from his beloved 
 France. The House of Bourbon succeeded to the throne 
 with the passing of Napoleon and the republican ideas of 
 France were for the time being forgotten. 
 
 After Napoleon ousted the Directory, France was gov- 
 erned by the Consulate. Bonaparte, Cambacers and Lebrun 
 were put in charge of the government in 1799. In 1802 
 Napoleon was made sole consul for ten years. A few months 
 later he was made consul for life. In 1804 came the period 
 of the Empire, with Napoleon decreed ruler of the French. 
 The period of the Restoration lasted ten years, from 1814 
 to 1824, during which time the Bourbons were again in power. 
 The House of Orleans ruled until 1848 when the Second 
 Republic was formed. Louis Napoleon was elected president 
 that same year. The Second Empire witnessed its rise in 
 1852, Napoleon III being elected to fill that office. He was 
 deposed in 1870 and the Third Republic, which still is alive, 
 came into being.
 
 210 
 
 The French Revolution 
 
 MAP OF WIRELESS STATIONS 
 
 . 

 
 CHAPTER XXV 
 THE WARS OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE 
 
 History of His Campaigns Against Austria, Italy, Prussia, 
 Russia and England — Cut Up Germany and Italy and 
 Distributed Them Among His Favorite Generals — His 
 Defeat in the "Battle of the Nations' and Final Defeat 
 at Waterloo, Belgium, Scene of the Great European 
 War of 1914. 
 
 THOUGH enrolled among the great warriors of history, 
 Napoleon Bonaparte's genius was scarcely less for 
 diplomacy, material development and state affairs. The 
 Code Napoleon remains as a model of law to a great part of 
 the civilized world. 
 
 He was born at Ajaccio in the Island of Corsica, August 
 15, 1769. His family on both sides belonged to the smaller 
 nobility of Italy, and until he was twenty-seven years old he 
 spelled his name in the Italian manner, Nabulione Buono- 
 parte. 
 
 As a boy he was destined for the army, and at the age 
 of ten he was sent to the military school in Brienne, France. 
 Here he by no means distinguished himself and his poverty, 
 pride, Corsican birth and imperfect knowledge of French 
 combined to make him anything but a favorite with his fellow 
 
 211
 
 212 The Wars of Napoleon Bonaparte 
 
 students. He excelled in mathematics and his favorite author 
 was Plutarch. 
 
 After five years at Brienne he went to the military school 
 at Paris to complete his preparation for the army. One year 
 later, at the age of sixteen, he received his commission as 
 second lieutenant in the artillery regiment of La Fere. 
 
 BONAPARTE AND THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 
 
 The French Revolution was at this time rapidly develop- 
 ing. .Many of Bonaparte's aristocratic fellow officers threw 
 in their lot with the royalists, but he chose the side of the 
 people, though in a quiet and undemonstrative way. 
 
 He became captain of artillery by seniority in February 
 1, 1792, and was a witness to the insurrections of June 20th 
 and August 10th. Bourrienne, his colleague and future biog- 
 rapher, relates that he stood by Napoleon's side when the 
 mob broke into the Tuilleries and forced the King to don 
 the red cap. 
 
 "It's all over with that poor man," Bourrienne records 
 his companion observed, "but a few charges of grape-shot 
 would set those wretches to lieeing." 
 
 In the beginning of 1795, after a furlough in Corsica, he 
 was again in Paris, out of employment, despondent and with 
 his ability still unrecognized. His first opportunity came 
 when he was named as commander of 5,000 troops raised 
 by the Convention of Paris to oppose the mobs in rebellion. 
 
 He took the command on short notice and had but a 
 single night to make his preparations. Yet in the morning, 
 when the National Guard, as the mob styled itself, marched 
 along the quays of the Seine toward the Tuilleries they
 
 The Wars of Napoleon Bonaparte 213 
 
 found every point severely guarded and in an hour of actual 
 fighting complete victory was secured for the Convention. 
 
 From this moment the young officer's fortunes began to 
 improve. The Convention appointed him forthwith to the 
 command of the Army of the Interior, and in March follow- 
 ing he set out for Italy at the head of an army of 4-0,000 men. 
 
 Meanwhile he had met and married Josephine Beau- 
 harnois, the beautiful woman who was destined to play so 
 important a part in his career. The wedding occurred on 
 March 9, 1796, and a week later he started on the campaign. 
 
 DEFEATS AUSTRIANS AND SARDINIANS 
 
 His opponents were the combined forces of the Austrians 
 and Sardinians and they were in force greatly superior to 
 his own, both in numbers and equipment. Proceeding with 
 great celerity he divided his enemies and then attacked them 
 in detail. He was so quickly successful that the Sardinians 
 were overtaken and beaten at Mondovi on March 22d and 
 the Austrians were defeated at the Bridge of Lodi May 10th. 
 Five days later Napoleon entered Milan and levied heavy 
 contributions on the state, besides despoiling the museums 
 of invaluable paintings and statuary, which he sent back to 
 Paris. Naples, Modena, Parma and the Papal States has- 
 tened to sue for peace and the whole of Northern Italy was 
 in the hands of the French. 
 
 The Italian campaign lasted until the following spring, 
 Austria sending successive armies to retrieve the losses of 
 the first and rallying various Italian states about her banners, 
 but by April 7, 1797, Napoleon had overcome them all by 
 generalship, audacity and celerity of movement, and an
 
 214 The Wars of Napoleon Bonaparte 
 
 armistice was concluded, Austria surrendering territory and 
 indemnity to France and receiving Venetia in return. 
 
 When Napoleon returned to Paris in December, 1707, he 
 had his first taste of popular applause. The enthusiasm his 
 appearance aroused was overwhelming and the Directory at 
 once placed him in command of an army which had been 
 raised with the avowed object of invading England. 
 Napoleon professed to favor that design, though he was 
 fully aware that it was impracticable. He was probably 
 aware that it was merely a feint to cover the invasion of 
 Egypt as a preliminary step to the conquest of British India. 
 
 NAPOLEON'S EGYPTIAN CAMPAIGN 
 
 At any rate, he collected an army of 36,000 men and 
 embarked at Toulon, May 10, 17DH. A month later the 
 French landed at Malta and took possession of that island. 
 Ten days later they resumed their voyage and, landing at 
 Alexandria July 1st, they took that city and began the march 
 to Cairo. Here they encountered and repulsed a large body 
 of Mamelukes at the desperate Battle of the Pyramids, and, 
 having received the submission of many other tribes, Na- 
 poleon appeared to be in possession of all Egypt. 
 
 late, however, had a terrible reverse in store for him in 
 the person of the English Admiral Nelson, who had long 
 been in pursuit of his fleet, overtook it as it lay moored in 
 the Bay of Abukir and utterly destroyed all but four of his 
 vessels, which contrived to escape. 
 
 All means cut off of retreat to France, Napoleon made 
 an expedition into Syria to meet the Turks. Various stories 
 are extant of the cruelties he perpetrated during this cam-
 
 The Wars of Napoleo?i Bonaparte 215 
 
 paign, but it is known that he returned to Cairo after sixty 
 days, having failed in the great objects of his expedition, lost 
 4,000 men and left a country in ruins behind him. In July, 
 1799, he attacked a force of 18,000 men whom the Sultan 
 had landed at Abukir, the scene of Nelson's victory, and most 
 annihilated them. 
 
 Getting bad news from Paris he embarked in a frigate 
 August 22 and landed at Frejus, after having escaped the 
 British cruisers in the Mediterranean. He found when he 
 reached Paris that he had come none too soon. The govern- 
 ment's credit was gone at home and abroad and the authority 
 of its generals was greatly impaired. The distracted fac- 
 tions rallied about Napoleon, a new constitution was drawn 
 up and Napoleon was made first consul, with power of 
 appointing all the public officers, making him virtually the 
 ruler of France. 
 
 From this time the policy of Napoleon developed more 
 distinctly. Its objects were the establishment of order in 
 France and the humiliation of the enemies of the nation 
 abroad. Personal aggrandizement was an end, also, and the 
 whole was backed up by sagacity, boldness and unquenchable 
 energy. He recruited the national treasury and repealed 
 the more violent laws passed during the Revolution, reopened 
 the churches and suppressed the Vendean insurrection by 
 decided though conciliatory measures. 
 
 DEFEATS AUSTRIANS AT MARENGO 
 
 Having offered terms of peace to England, Austria and 
 Turkey and seen his offers rejected, he resolved to strike a
 
 TORPEDO CAUGHT ON THE FLY
 
 FRENCH SUBMARINE ATTACKING GERMAN BATTLESHIP
 
 21G The Wars of Napoleon Bonaparte 
 
 blow first at Austria. Accordingly, having concentrated an 
 army of 3G,000 men with unparalleled rapidity on the banks 
 of Lake Geneva, he crossed the Alps and almost before the 
 enemv were aware, was in Milan. After several skirmishes 
 he met the Austrians at Marengo and won one of the most 
 brilliant victories of his career, June 14, 1800. 
 
 On the 2d of August, 1802, Napoleon was proclaimed 
 Consul for life by a decree of the Senate backed by a plebis- 
 cite of 3,000,000 votes. lie devoted himself forthwith to the 
 improvement of the internal affairs of the nation; established 
 the Legion of Honor, inaugurated education in mathematics 
 and physical science and assembled the first lawyers in the 
 land to draw up the Code Napoleon. 
 
 These activities were disturbed by rumblings of discon- 
 tent from neighboring countries. Europe was beginning to 
 look askance at the new giant and Napoleon, feeling that 
 he w^as on the eve of an important crisis in his career and 
 the career of France decided that the time had come for him 
 to assume imperial honors. 
 
 He summoned Pope Pius VII to Paris and was crowned 
 Emperor May 18, 1804, in Notre Dame, llather he crowned 
 himself, for Napoleon snatched the crown from the Pon- 
 tiff's hands and placed it on his own head. Then he per- 
 formed a like office for Josephine. On May 26, 1805, he was 
 crowned King of Italy in the cathedral at Milan, and 
 appointed his stepson, Eugene Beauharnois, viceroy. He 
 created a new nobility with high-sounding titles, surrounded 
 himself with a brilliant court and set up all the ostentatious 
 etiquette of royalty.
 
 The Wars of Napoleon Bonaparte 217 
 
 DEFEATS AUSTRIANS AND RUSSIANS AT AUSTERLITZ 
 
 England, Russia, Austria and Sweden united in a coali- 
 tion against the new Emperor. Napoleon concentrated his 
 forces at Mainz, marched across Bavaria at the head of 
 180,000 men and compelled the Austrian general, Mack, to 
 surrender Ulm. Proceeding to Vienna he entered that city 
 and made preparations to meet the combined armies of 
 Austria and Russia, then concentrating on the plains of 
 Olmuetz. On December 2 he met them at Austerlitz and 
 after a desperate struggle completely routed them. 
 
 The Austrian Emperor instantly sued for peace, giving 
 up all his Italian and Adriatic territories. The Russian 
 retired behind his own frontiers. Joseph Bonaparte, the 
 Emperor's brother, was made King of Naples and Louis, 
 another brother, King of Holland. Italy and Germany were 
 cut up into little kingdoms and dependencies and distributed 
 among the French commander's favorite generals. 
 
 The years 1810 and 1811 were the period of Napoleon's 
 greatest power. He had fought and won Friedland, a vic- 
 tory so decisive that Alexander of Russia was compelled to 
 sue for an armistice; had extended his sway over the Spanish 
 Peninsula and had issued the celebrated Berlin Decree. The 
 notion of founding an imperial dynasty had come in the train 
 of his repeated successes in the field and in December, 1809, 
 he divorced Josephine. She had never borne him a child and, 
 besides, Napoleon seems to have arrived at the conclusion 
 that the only way to put an end to the machinations against 
 him of the old legitimate dynasties was by intermarriage with 
 one of them. Accordingly he married, March 11, 1810, the
 
 218 The Wars of Napoleon Bonaparte 
 
 Archduchess Maria Louisa of Austria and a year later a son 
 was born to him, Napoleon Charles Francois Joseph, pro- 
 claimed in his cradle King of Koine. 
 
 His empire at this time extended from the frontiers of 
 Denmark to those of Naples, with Paris, Rome and Amster- 
 dam as capitals and a population of 42,000,000. In addi- 
 tion he had almost unlimited control in Spain, Switzerland, 
 the Italian kingdoms, and the confederation of the Rhine. 
 
 NAPOLEON'S RUSSIAN CAMPAIGN 
 
 But now the tide began to turn. In May, 1812, Napo- 
 leon declared war against Russia and, against the advice of 
 his wisest counsellors, determined to invade that country. 
 He organized at Dresden an army of 670,000, including 
 Prussian, Austrian, German, Polish and Swiss auxiliaries. 
 
 In June he crossed the Niemen, the Russians retiring 
 before him and wasting the country as they went. On 
 August 16 the Russians made a stand at Smolensk and when 
 the French entered that city, August 18, it was a smoking 
 ruin. The Russians gave battle at the Borodino, September 
 7, and in a long and obstinate struggle the French lost 30,000 
 men. When Napoleon reached Moscow he found that city 
 in flames and, realizing that it was in vain to pursue the 
 Russians further, reluctantly determined to retreat. 
 
 The line of retreat lay through the country that had just 
 heen devastated. The winter set in extraordinarily early 
 and proved to be one of great severity. The French army, 
 reduced to 120,000 when they turned back at Moscow and 
 further reduced by cold, famine and disease, not to mention
 
 The Wars of Napoleon Bonaparte 219 
 
 the Cossacks who continually harassed their flank, did not 
 number more than 25,000 righting men by the time they had 
 fought their way back to Smorgoni. The rest was scat- 
 tered in the snow drifts along this calamitous march. 
 
 At Smorgoni, December 5, Napoleon quitted the army, 
 leaving Murat in command. He reached Paris two weeks 
 later and issued a fresh conscription, still determined on 
 prosecuting the war. But the magic of his name had been 
 destroyed by his reverses. Kings, clergy and people arose 
 against the devastator of the continent. Another coalition 
 was formed of England, Russia, Prussia, Sweden and Spain 
 and in the spring of 1813 sent its forces toward the Elbe to 
 meet Napoleon. 
 
 The latter still had an army of 350,000 men in Germany 
 and for some months he was uniformly victorious. He de- 
 feated the allies at Luetzen and Bautzen and on June 1st 
 reached Breslau where he concluded a six weeks' armistice. 
 This gave the allies time to reorganize and, what was of at 
 least equal consequence, to gain over Austria. 
 
 DEFEATED IN THE "BATTLE OF THE NATIONS" 
 
 The campaign reopened in mid- August and reached its 
 climax at the Battle of Dresden, better known in history 
 as ihe "Volkerschlacht" or "Battle of the Nations," fought 
 October 16-19, 1813, in which the French were completely 
 defeated and driven across the Rhine in a retreat almost as 
 calamitous as that from Moscow. 
 
 On his arrival in Paris Napoleon was able, in spite of 
 the prevalent discontent, to obtain from the Senate a decree
 
 220 The Wars of Napoleon Bonaparte 
 
 for a new levy of 300,000 men and again he took the field. 
 This time the war was fought on French soil and never 
 before was the genius and fertility of resource displayed by 
 Napoleon. greater, lint in the end the number of the allies 
 prevailed and March 31, 1814, the allies, under the leader- 
 ship of Alexander of Russia and the Duke of Wellington, 
 entered Paris after reducing its forts. 
 
 Napoleon abdicated April 6 in favor of his son. He was 
 allowed to retire to the Island of Elba with the title of 
 Emperor and $1,200,000 of revenue and Louis XVI11 was 
 restored to the French throne. 
 
 After ten months on the island, mostly spent in intriguing 
 with the republicans of Paris and his own adherents, he 
 made his escape from Elba and landed in France at Frejus, 
 March 1, 181.5, with an escort of 1,000 of his old guard. As 
 soon as his arrival became known Marshal Ney at the head 
 of a great part of his army joined him and he made a 
 triumphal entry into Paris, March 20. Louis was driven 
 from the throne without a shot being fired. 
 
 As soon as they had recovered from the shock of their 
 surprise the allied armies started for the French frontier. 
 Napoleon went forth to meet them with an army of 130,000 
 men. 
 
 They came together on the same field in Belgium where 
 the first battles of the great Europeon war of 1914 were 
 fought. The English and Prussians were commanded by 
 Wellington and Blucher. June 10 Napoleon encountered 
 Blucher at Ligny and defeated him, while Ney was able 
 to keep the English in check at Quatre-Bras. The Prussians 
 made an orderly retreat, pursued by the French under 
 Grouchy.
 
 The Wars of Napoleon Bonaparte 221 
 
 THE 1815 BATTLE OF WATERLOO 
 
 Wellington, in order to keep his communication open 
 with the Prussians, fell hack on the plain of Waterloo and 
 here, June 18, 1815, he was attacked hy Napoleon. There 
 was a stubborn fight all day and when, in the evening, Blucher 
 came up, having outmaneuvered Grouchy, the French were 
 crushed and put to disorderly flight. 
 
 Napoleon's power was gone forever. The allies marched 
 without opposition to Paris and again took possession of the 
 city. Once more Napoleon abdicated in favor of his son, 
 and having been threatened by Fouche, who had assumed 
 control of the French government and seeing no hope of 
 safety in France, he made his way to Rochefort and sur- 
 rendered to Capt. Maitland of the British man-of-war 
 Bellerephon, claiming the hospitality and protection of the 
 English nation. 
 
 Capt. Maitland was ordered to detain Napoleon as a 
 prisoner and to transfer him to the Northumberland, in 
 which ship he was to be conveyed to the Island of St. Helena 
 and there confined for the rest of his life. These were the 
 terms of a convention signed at Paris, August 20, 1815, 
 between England, Russia, Austria and Prussia. 
 
 Napoleon's health began to fail in September, 1818. He 
 developed cancer of the stomach and May 8, 1821, he was 
 buried on the island. In 1840 his remains were disintered 
 and taken to Paris, where they were received with splendid 
 ceremonial and entombed under the dome of the Hotel des 
 Invalides, their final resting place.
 
 222 
 
 The Wars of Napoleon Bonaparte
 
 CHAPTER XXVI 
 THE FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR 
 
 Napoleon III Makes War on Prussia over the Selection of a 
 King to the Spanish Throne — Gen. Von Moltke, in Bed, 
 Tells Messenger Where to Find Plans for Mobilization 
 and Goes to Sleep — Historic Battles of the Short War 
 — Flight of the Emperor and the Empress Eugenie — 
 The Beginning of the German Empire. 
 
 NAPOLEON III of France, finding at the beginning of 
 1870 that neither his people nor his army was entirely 
 loyal, decided that they needed a war of conquest to put them 
 in good humor with themselves and with him and determined 
 to enter precipitately into a war with Germany. 
 
 This, he felt sure, was inevitable sooner or later and in 
 his failing health he did not choose to leave it to his suc- 
 cessor. Besides, he would give a frontier on the Rhine to 
 France, at least to the borders of Belgium, and thus bring 
 his reign to a glorious end. 
 
 Napoleon found a pretext in the condition of Spain 
 which at that time was in need of a king. Several princes 
 had been proposed and the most acceptable one would have 
 been the Duke of Montpensier. But Napoleon dreaded the 
 rivalry of the house of Orleans and gave Spain to under- 
 
 223
 
 224 The Franco-Prussian War 
 
 stand that Montpensier would not be acceptable to him. 
 Spain then selected Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern, a rela- 
 tive of the Prussian royal house. Napoleon thereupon in- 
 structed the French minister at Berlin to take a haughty 
 tone with the Prussian king and say that if Leopold was 
 permitted to accept the Spanish crown it would be a cause 
 of war between France and Prussia. 
 
 The King of Prussia retorted that he would not be in- 
 timidated and that Leopold might do as he chose. Napoleon, 
 anxious for a casus belli, chose to object that the tone of this 
 reply was offensive and, spurred by the Empress (Eugenie) , 
 a bitter enemy of Germany, declared war. 
 
 VOX MOLTKE IX BED MOBILIZES AEMY BY MESSEXGER 
 
 This was July 19, 1870. For months before, Prussia 
 had been making extraordinary preparations for a conflict 
 with France. It is said that when a messenger went to the 
 house of Gen. von Moltke to announce that war was at last 
 declared he found the general in bed. The general took the 
 news with perfect calmness. Sitting up in bed, he said to 
 the messenger: 
 
 "In the second drawer from the top of that bureau you 
 will find the plans for mobilization. Large package wrapped 
 in gray paper and tied with red twine. Yes; that's it. Good 
 night." 
 
 Then the general lay down and went to sleep. 
 
 His plans were found to be perfect in every detail. For 
 weeks Alsace-Lorraine, the provinces of France adjoining 
 the German frontier (and the scene of much of the activity 
 of both armies in the war of 1914) had been pervaded by
 
 The Franco-Prussian War 225 
 
 Prussians in the disguise of peddlers and vagrant mechanics. 
 These were all recalled when the alarm was sounded and they 
 brought back to Berlin data whose value was soon to be 
 proved. 
 
 The Prussians invaded Alsace at once and marched 
 steadily toward the Moselle, the French retreating as they 
 came. The country was systematically requisitioned for 
 supplies by the Prussian officers. Word was sent in advance 
 to the maire or other official of each village how many men 
 he would be expected to provide rations for and for how 
 many daj r s. Thus, for each man daily, 11-2 lb. bread, 1 lb. 
 meat, 1-4 lb. coffee, 5 cigars or their equivalent in tobacco 
 and a pint of wine or a quart of beer. If the villagers pro- 
 tested against these demands their houses were set afire, but 
 after a few examples of this severity there were no more 
 protests. 
 
 Erckmann-Chatrain, the novelists, have left a record 
 gathered from the Alsatian peasants who were eye witnesses 
 of the methods of the Prussians on march. 
 
 "The first thing the Prussian commander did on entering 
 the cottage assigned for his headquarters," they say, "was to 
 make three or four soldiers turn out every article of furni- 
 ture. Then he spread out an enormous map of the surround- 
 ing country, took off his boots and lay down on his stomach. 
 Then he called in all his captains or lieutenants. Each man 
 pulled out a small map and the general called to them one by 
 one and asked each in turn: 
 
 " 'Have you got the road from here to Metting?' 
 
 " 'Yes, General.' 
 
 " 'Name all the places between here and there.' 
 
 "Then the officer without hesitation told the names of
 
 226 The Franco-Prussian War 
 
 all the villages, farms, streams, bridges and woods, the bends 
 in the roads, even the cow paths. The general followed him 
 in his large map with his finger. 
 
 " 'That's right,' he said to each. 'Take twenty men and 
 go as far as St. Jean by such and such a road and reconnoitre. 
 If von want any assistance send me word.' And so on, one 
 by one, to all the others." 
 
 Such was the system and order of the Prussians. Con- 
 trasted with this was the confusion and lack of organization 
 that prevailed in the French army from the moment that 
 war was declared. The Emperor had been lightly assured 
 that his army would be found in a state of perfect prepared- 
 ness. 
 
 k 'Xot so much as a button on a gaiter will be found want- 
 ing," his Minister of War assured him. 
 
 The people fully shared this confidence and cheered the 
 troops as they left Paris for what they were sure would be a 
 triumphant march "to Berlin." 
 
 FRENCH PREPARED ON PAPER ONLY 
 
 Very soon, however, it appeared that the preparation and 
 perfect organization were all on paper. The old guns 
 mounted on the frontier fortresses were worthless and the 
 army was in such condition that barely 200,000 men could 
 be sent to defend the frontier from Luxembourg to Switzer- 
 land, whereas Prussia was able by August 1 to pour half a 
 million perfectly armed and drilled men across the Rhine. 
 
 The thin red line of the French, extending from Belgium 
 to the Dauphine, was in a state of frightful disorder. Sol- 
 diers, recruits, horses, cannon, ammunition and wagons con-
 
 The Franco-Prussian War 227 
 
 taining supplies and all manner of munitions of war were 
 hurried toward the Rhine without any regard for order. 
 The roads from Strasburg to Belfort were blocked and no- 
 body seemed to be in authority. Quartermasters roamed 
 about in search of their depots, colonels were looking for 
 their regiments and generals for their brigades and divisions. 
 
 In other parts of France, remote from the frontier, such 
 as Brest and other seaports, the streets were crowded with 
 half drunken recruits tipsily bawling patriotic songs. Now 
 for the first time might be heard the strains of the "Mar- 
 seillaise," long suppressed in France but permitted now for 
 the purpose of exciting military ardor. 
 
 By July 27 all Paris Mas gathered in the streets to wit- 
 ness the departure for the front of the Imperial Guard, a 
 select corps of 20,000 infantry and 3,000 cavalry organized 
 by Napoleon III at the outset of the Crimean War. The 
 corps was very popular and the war was popular, so their 
 progress to the railway station Avas one of triumph. At 
 every halt the Parisians pressed into the ranks with gifts of 
 wine, cigars and money. "Hurrah for the army!" the crowds 
 shouted. "On to Berlin!" 
 
 THE PRIXCE IMPERIAL'S "BAPTISM OF FIRE" 
 
 Skirmishing had been going on between the Prussian and 
 French outposts since July 21. The campaign began in 
 earnest August 2. After luncheon on that day the Emperor 
 accompanied by his son, the fourteen-year-old Prince Im- 
 perial, set out by rail from Metz and returned to Metz for 
 dinner, having invaded German territory. They had alighted 
 at Forbach and proceeded to make a reconnaissance near
 
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 228 The Franco-Prussian War 
 
 SaarLueck. Here the little prince saw his "baptism of fire, : 
 firing the first gun of the campaign. His father telegraphed 
 an account of the event that night to the Empress in St, 
 Cloud. 
 
 The day after the attack on Saarbneck compact masses 
 of Germans were moving across the frontier into France 
 and on the day following a division of the army of Marshal 
 MacMahon, next to the Emperor the leader of the French 
 army, was surprised at Wissembourg, cut to pieces and 
 scattered over the country. Wissembourg, a small town in 
 Alsace, was set on fire. 
 
 After that, one defeat followed another of the French 
 arms. The French army was divided into seven corps, the 
 German into twelve. Each German corps was numerically 
 stronger than the French and better equipped and officered. 
 The Germans began the war with nearly a million men, the 
 French with little more than 200,000 on the frontier, though 
 they had .500,000 men on their records. 
 
 Two days following the defeat as Wissembourg the bat- 
 tle of Woerth or Reichshofen was fought between a corps 
 of the Prussian Crown Prince, father of Kaiser Wilhelm II, 
 and the corps of MacMahon. The French artillery fought 
 brilliantly but it was able only to cover the retreat of the 
 corps and prevent it from becoming a rout. 
 
 August 0, the populace of Paris, which had been fed on 
 false news of victories all along the line, awakened to the 
 horror of the situation which confronted it when a telegram 
 was received from Napoleon at the front: "Hasten prepa- 
 rations for a defense at Paris." 
 
 Already the war was virtually over, although it had 
 scarcely begun. The battles of Gravelotte, Metz and Sedan
 
 The Franco-Prussian War 229 
 
 remained to be fought but each of these, though adding to 
 the French reputation for bravery, was a fresh contribution 
 of disaster. Sedan occurred on August 30. It was a 
 veritable slaughter in the "sink of Gavonne." 
 
 napoleon's surrender 
 
 Two days later an aide de camp of Napoleon III carried 
 a note from his chief to the King of Prussia surrendering his 
 sword. "Not having been able to die in the midst of my 
 troops," wrote the Emperor, "it only remains for me to place 
 my sword in the hands of your majesty." 
 
 Eighty thousand men surrendered at Sedan and were 
 marched into Germany as prisoners. One hundred and 
 seventy-five thousand French soldiers remained shut up in 
 Metz, besides a few thousand others in Strasburg, Phals- 
 bourg and Belfort. The road was open to Paris and thither 
 the various German armies marched, leaving the Landwehr, 
 which could not by law be ordered to serve outside of Ger- 
 many, to hold Alsace. The Germans already considered that 
 province a part of Germany, though it was not formally an- 
 nexed until later. 
 
 AMERICAN DENTIST SAVES EMPRESS EUGENIE 
 
 The Emperor and Empress meanwhile had fled to Eng- 
 land, she having been smuggled out of the Tuilleries and to 
 Boulogne by the aid of Dr. Evans, an American dentist. 
 She was taken aboard the yacht of an Englishman and found 
 refuge at Chiselhurst, near London. The Emperor died 
 soon afterward. The Prince Imperial joined the British
 
 230 The Franco-Prussian War 
 
 army when he grew up and perished miserably in South 
 Africa by the assegais of the Zulus. The Empress was 
 destined to many years of sorrow. Her home was still at 
 Chiselhurst in 1014. She received the news of the invasion 
 of Alsace-Lorraine by her countrymen at a temporary re- 
 sort on the Riviera. 
 
 The siege of Paris which lasted until March 1, 1871, 
 when the German army entered the city but at once with- 
 drew, made the last chapter of a brief and calamitous war. 
 It was attended by great suffering from cold and hunger 
 which the Parisians endured with fortitude and was fol- 
 lowed by the turbulent scenes of the Commune, written in 
 fire and blood. 
 
 The Germans completed their triumph by assembling at 
 Versailles and proclaiming the Xew Germany — United 
 Germany — with the King of Prussia as Wilhelm I, the first 
 Kaiser. The present Kaiser is his grandson. In addition 
 they levied tribute on Paris of $40,000,000 and occupied two 
 of the forts surrounding the city until this was paid, as it 
 was in an incredibly short time. The last of the Germans re- 
 tired to their own soil in September, 1872. 
 
 The recovery of Alsace and Lorraine, lost to France in 
 this war, and the overthrow of the great German Empire 
 built, in the opinion of France, on the ruins of their own em- 
 pire, Mas the dream of the French people for the forty-four 
 years that ensued between the Franco-Prussian war and the 
 Great European war of 1914. This was the chief inspira- 
 tion of their attack on the German frontier when the war of 
 1014 was declared. They entered Alsace as a man returning 
 to his own land and were received by the Alsatians as long 
 lost brothers.
 
 CHAPTER XXVII 
 DECISIVE BATTLES AT SEA 
 
 The Building of Modern Navies Began in the United Slates 
 With the Monitor and Merrimac — China and Japan in 
 Next Battle of Ironclads at the Mouth of the Yalu- 
 Naval Fights in the Spanish- American War and the 
 Busso- Japanese War — The Decisive Naval Battles of the 
 World. 
 
 THE history of modern naval warfare began in the civil 
 war between the Northern and the Southern States. 
 
 Before the duel of the Monitor and Merrimac in 18G2 
 battles at sea were fought entirely in wooden ships, great 
 hulking, square-rigged "bull dogs" as they were called, car- 
 rying guns which would now be regarded as a joke and firing 
 great, round solid shot. 
 
 It was with such equipment that Nelson, the British naval 
 hero, won the victory of Trafalgar on the coast of. Spain in 
 1805, and so headed off Napoleon's ambition to invade Eng- 
 land. Nelson outmaneuvered his French and Spanish oppo- 
 nents, hired them out to sea and then charged them in two 
 columns and battered their ships to pieces. He died within 
 a few minutes after receiving word that he was a victor, leav- 
 ing to history the celebrated legend : 
 
 "England expects every man to do his duty." 
 
 231
 
 232 Decisive Battles at Sea 
 
 When the Merrimac appeared in Hampton Roads on 
 the morning of March 8, 1802, the utter helplessness of the 
 old-fashioned frigate in the face of the modern iron clad 
 became at once fearfully apparent. 
 
 There were several wooden men of war in the harbor, the 
 best, it was considered, in the na\ y of the United States and 
 on the approach of the Merrimac they poured volleys of shot 
 upon her iron roof. The effect of this rain of iron was de- 
 scribed by one of the United States Navy officers as that 
 "of peas from a pea shooter." They made no impression 
 whatever. 
 
 Meanwhile the iron roofed Merrimac continued calmly 
 in her work of destruction. Crossing the Roads, she moved 
 up to the United States sloop-of-war Cumberland with thirty 
 guns, crushed in her wooden hull as if it had been pasteboard 
 and sank her. 
 
 Then, turning to the frigate Congress, fifty guns, the 
 Merrimac drove her aground, disabled her, forced her to sur- 
 render and burned her. It must not be supposed that the 
 Congress was idle all this time. For an hour she poured 
 broadside after broadside upon the Merrimac but her solid 
 shot rebounded from the iron sides like baseballs. 
 
 Having destroyed two of the best ships in the Federal 
 Navy the Merrimac withdrew from the battle and rested 
 for the night. The surprise of the next day was furnished 
 by the appearance of the Monitor in the Roads. She had 
 had an awful iournev down the Atlantic coast and presented 
 an aspect as strange and novel as had the Merrimac the day 
 before.
 
 Decisive Battles at Sea 233 
 
 FIRST IRONCLADS DESCRIBED 
 
 The Merrimac or Virginia, as the Confederates called 
 her, was originally a wooden frigate in the United States 
 Navy. She was burned to the water's edge by the Federals 
 when they destroyed the Norfolk Navy Yard. The Con- 
 federates raised her hulk, rusty engines and all built a wooden 
 shed on her deck, but an overcoat of cast iron an inch thick 
 on her, fastened at her prow a huge piece of iron with which 
 to ram and fitted her with guns. Formidable as she proved 
 in battle with the old line wooden frigates, she was the clum- 
 siest, most ungainly craft imaginable. Under the most fa- 
 vorable circumstances she was not capable of more than four 
 knots an hour and her rusty engines were almost continually 
 out of order. 
 
 The Monitor was compared when she first presented her- 
 self to "a cheese box on a raft." She was built new by the 
 Federal government from designs by John Ericson, a 
 naturalized Swede. She lay low in the water and had a long 
 overhang at bow and stern like a ferryboat. The "cheese 
 box" was a turret in which were mounted her guns. Like 
 the Merrimac, she was designed to ram her opponent and 
 her own hull and engines were mostly under water and out 
 of the enemy's fire. 
 
 These two strange craft came together in battle in the 
 Hampton Roads, March 9, 1862, and what a battle it was! 
 In after years every detail of it was to be studied and ana- 
 lyzed for data from which the modern fleets of steel dread- 
 naughts were to be evolved. 
 
 It was armor against armor. Forward and backward, 
 on straight lines and then on curves the unwieldly craft
 
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 234 Decisive Battles at Sea 
 
 were maneuvered, each seeking the other's weak point. Solid 
 shot struck the sloping sides of the Merrimac, raking her 
 from stem to stern. Solid shot made dents in the sides of the 
 Monitor's turret and bounded harmless into the Mater. Thus 
 they pounded each other for hours and then shaken and dam- 
 aged, they parted with mutual respect. 
 
 The North drew a long breath. The much derided Moni- 
 tor was at least a match for the Merrimac. But the lesson 
 of the day at Hampton Koads was for all the future, for 
 all the world built "ironclads." The day of the old wooden 
 navies was past. 
 
 Thirty-two years elapsed before the next chapter in naval 
 warfare was written. In September, 1894, the fleets of 
 China and Japan came together at the mouth of the Yalu 
 River and, at heavy cost to China, the next important lesson 
 was given in naval warfare. 
 
 THE BATTLE OF THE YALU 
 
 The Japanese squadron, comprising eleven war ships and 
 the packet, Saikio-Maru passed Ilaiyun Tao, sighted the 
 mouth of the Yalu in the forenoon of September 17. There 
 they found fourteen Chinese warships and six torpedo boats. 
 The Chinese fleet steamed out of the mouth of the river in bat- 
 tle formation and opened fire at about two and a half miles. 
 The Japanese waited until the enemy had come about a mile 
 closer and then brought their guns into play. The Japanese 
 maintained their line of battle but the Chinese after a short 
 time broke their formation. 
 
 It was hot work at times. The Japanese fire took effect 
 first. First one, then another, then another of Chinese ships
 
 Decisive Battles at Sea 235 
 
 were sunk, all stern first. On board the packet Saikio-Maru 
 was Admiral Kabayama, head of the Japanese naval com- 
 mand bureau. His presence was purely accidental for he 
 was making a tour of inspection and had not foreseen the 
 meeting of the two fleets. The Admiral was frequently in 
 imminent danger. The packet's steering gear was disabled 
 by a Japanese shell. She was pursued by the Chinese and 
 forced to pass between two of their ships within a distance 
 of 100 yards. The commanders of these ships, thinking it 
 was the intention of the Saikio-Maru to ram them, sheered 
 off* and permitted the packet to escape. The Chinese dis- 
 charged two fish torpedoes after her but they were aimed too 
 low and passed under her. 
 
 Several of the Japanese ships had narrow escapes from 
 destruction and a number were damaged. But, besides sink- 
 ins- three they set fire to three others of the Chinese fleet and 
 at sundown had the others in full retreat. The Japanese fol- 
 lowed them but the night was very dark and the Chinese es- 
 caped to a safe shelter. 
 
 From this engagement naval commanders learned an al- 
 together new lesson in fighting, not only with steel clad ships 
 but at long range. 
 
 Four years later, Captain Mahan, the great naval strate- 
 gist of the United States Navy, wrote : 
 
 "This, then, is the forecast of the battle of tomorrow. 
 Two great lines of monster ships steaming side by side, but 
 far apart, whilst the uproar of the cannonade, the wail of 
 shells, fills the air. As the minutes pass, funnels and super- 
 structures fly in splinters, the draught sinks, the speed de- 
 creases, ships drop to the rear. The moment for close action
 
 '2'.H\ Decisive Baltics at Sea 
 
 has come and the victor steams in on the vanquished. The 
 ram and the torpedo, amid an inferno of sinking ships and 
 exploding shells, claim their victims. The torpedo boats of 
 the weaker side in vain essay to cover the beaten battle ships. 
 Beneath a pall of smoke, upon a sea of blood the mastery 
 of the waters is decided for a generation. Such an encounter 
 will not lack sensation. To live through it will he a life's ex- 
 perience: to fail in it, a glorious end." 
 
 The interval of ninety years between 1815 and 1904 was 
 marked by no great naval war. There were blockades and 
 there was fighting at sea hut there were no encounters be- 
 tween large and well appointed navies. In the latter year 
 began the war between Russia and Japan in which the Japa- 
 nese for the first time found themselves arrayed on the sea 
 against a western power. They proved their superiority by 
 virtually destroying the Russian fleet and took a high place 
 among the naval powers of the world. 
 
 The United States, in somewhat similar manner, sur- 
 prised the world in the war with Spain in 1898, by proving 
 its navy to be in a state of complete preparedness. Hear Ad- 
 miral Dewey, a veteran of the civil war, destroyed the East- 
 ern fleet of the Spaniards in the harbor of Manila, after 
 which the Oregon, racing across the Pacific and round the 
 Horn, joined the Atlantic squadron at Santiago to destroy 
 about all that remained of the Spanish fleet in an engagement 
 of unexampled celerity and thoroughness off Santiago, Cuba. 
 
 Despite these and a number of other minor sea fights the 
 Six Powers of Europe entered upon the war of 1914- with 
 little knowledge of the actual efficiency of their own or their 
 opponents' navies,
 
 Decisive Battles at Sea 237 
 
 THE NAVIES IN THE WAR OF 1914 
 
 On paper, England was not only the traditional "ruler 
 of the sea;" for many years she had undertaken to keep her 
 navy on a par with the combined navies of any two of the 
 continental powers. This traditional policy, she asserted, 
 was demanded by her insular position, by her far flung mer- 
 chant fleets and by the world-wide extent of her colonies. 
 Her food supply was almost all at sea ; it could be protected 
 only at sea. 
 
 This mastery of the seas was in a measure contested by 
 Germany. From the beginning of his reign, Kaiser Wil- 
 helm II devoted no small part of his tremendous energies 
 to the development of the German merchant marine and the 
 German navy to protect it. 
 
 France was passed in the race by Germany and fell to 
 third place during this period of the Kaiser's activity, with 
 Italy a bad fourth. 
 
 Austria was considered to have a small navy but "excel- 
 lent in quality." The Russians had not yet had time to re- 
 build the ravages of the Japanese. The navies of the other 
 powers involved in the war were negligible. 
 
 DECISIVE SExl BATTLES OF HISTORY 
 
 A glance over the pages of history shows that about a 
 dozen battles at sea have been fought which may be said to 
 have been "decisive." In chronological order they follow: 
 
 Salamis, 480 B. C. — Greeks defeated the Persians and 
 saved their own country from invasion and conquest. 
 
 Actium, 31 B. C. — Octavius became master of the w r orld 
 by defeating Anthony and Cleopatra in Rome's great civil 
 war.
 
 238 Decisive Battles at Sea 
 
 Lepanto, 1571--First naval battle with guns. Don Juan 
 of Austria, commanding the united forces of Spain, Venice 
 and the Papal States, defeated the Turks and checked the 
 Moslem invasion of Christendom. 
 
 Defeat of the Spanish Armada, 1588 — English Admiral 
 Howard, assisted by Sir Francis Drake and Sir John 
 Hawkins, destroyed the Spanish licet in the English chan- 
 nel and saved England from invasion. This was the begin- 
 ning of England's mastery of the seas. 
 
 Battle of the Nile, 1780— English Admiral Nelson de- 
 feated the French fleet, blockaded Napoleon's army in Egypt 
 and gained control of the Mediterranean sea for England. 
 
 Trafalgar, 180.5 — Nelson again defeated the French un- 
 der Admiral Villeneuve, destroyed Napoleon's sea power and 
 prevented his threatened invasion of England. 
 
 Fake Erie, 181.3 — Commodore Perry defeated the Brit- 
 ish squadron under Captain Barclay and saved the northwest- 
 ern United States from invasion. 
 
 .Monitor and Merrimac, 18(52 — First fight of ironclads. 
 Monitor's victory revolutionized naval warfare and estab- 
 lished control of the sea for the North. 
 
 Mobile Bay, 1864 — Admiral Farragut, commanding the 
 Union fleet, struck one of the death blows to the Confederacy. 
 
 Yalu, 1894 — Japan destroyed the Chinese fleet and laid 
 the foundation for her present power at sea. 
 
 Manila Bay, 1898 — Admiral Dewey destroyed the Span- 
 ish fleet and won the Philippine Islands for the United States. 
 
 Santiago, 1898 — Admiral Sampson, with the loss of only 
 one man, destroyed Admiral Cervera's fleet and brought the 
 American- Spanish war to an end. 
 
 Port Arthur, 1904 — Admiral Togo's first decisive victory 
 over the Russian fleet trying to escape from Port Arthur.
 
 CHAPTER XXVIII 
 THE WORLD'S DECISIVE BATTLES 
 
 (Marathon to Orleans) 
 
 The Battle of Marathon— The Peloponnesian War— The 
 Battle of Arbela—The Battle of the Metaurus — Defeat 
 of Varus, the Roman, by Arminius — The Battle of Cha- 
 lons—The Battle of Tours— The Battle of Hastings- 
 Joan of Arc at Orleans. 
 
 THE BATTLE OF MARATHON 
 
 THE great Eastern Monarchy founded by Cyrus, King 
 of Persia, and extended by Cambyses, his son, was con- 
 solidated by Darius, who became king of Persia in 521 B. C. 
 Among the conquests of Cyrus was the kingdom of Lydia, 
 in Asia Minor. Now, just before the Persian conquest of 
 Lydia, the king of that country, Croesus, had succeeded in 
 reducing under his own dominion the Greek cities on the 
 coast of Asia Minor; so that now they, too, became subjects 
 to Persia. 
 
 The Ionian cities did not submit without a struggle, and 
 after a certain time there ensued a general revolt of these 
 cities, in 500 B. C. The Athenians, to help their kinsfolk in 
 Ionia, sent twenty ships with a small force. A landing was 
 
 239
 
 •_>4() The World's Decisive Battles 
 
 made on the coast of Asia Minor, and Sardis, the capital of 
 Lydia, was captured and accidentally burned, 499 B. C. 
 
 This sally had only the effect of drawing down the wrath 
 of Darius on the Ionian cities, and the revolt was soon quelled 
 (49-1 B. C.) . The Persian monarch then resolved to chastise 
 the Athenians. When the news of the burning of Sardis was 
 brought to Darius, he called for his how, and shot an arrow 
 toward the sky, with a prayer to Auramazda for help to 
 revenge himself on the Athenians. Then he hade one of his 
 servants repeat to him thrice daily, as he sat down to dinner, 
 the words, "Master, remember the Athenians." 
 
 In execution of his purpose, Darius instructed his son-in- 
 law, Mardonius, to march an army against the Athenians. 
 The force advanced through Thrace into Macedonia, which 
 was speedily subjugated, but it was able to go no farther; 
 and a fleet which had been sent to cooperate was shattered 
 by a great storm off the peninsula of Mount Athos, so that 
 Mardonius returned to Asia Minor in disgrace, 492 B. C. 
 
 This failure only added fury to the resolution of Darius. 
 While pushing forward his preparations for the invasion of 
 Greece, he sent heralds to the chief Grecian cities to demand 
 the tribute of earth and water as signs of his being their right- 
 ful lord. The island states generally made their submission, 
 as did also many of the continental states, and it seemed that 
 the young" civilization of the West was to be overwhelmed 
 by Eastern despotism. But the genius of Hellas found noble 
 champions in two of the states; for Athens and Sparta in- 
 dignantly rejected the demand, and their conjunction drew 
 after them most of the lesser states in a defensive league. 
 
 It was time for Greece to be united, for in the spring of 
 490 B.C. the preparations of Darius were complete. A vast
 
 The World's Decisive Battles 241 
 
 force, under a commander named Datis, sailed in six hun- 
 dred triremes (war vessels having three banks of oars, com- 
 manded by a trierarch, and often manned by over 200 men) 
 from Samos across the Aegean, reducing the Cyclades islands 
 on the way, and after capturing Eretria in the island of 
 Euboea, made a landing in the bay of Marathon, on the east 
 coast of Attica. The Persians now prepared to advance on 
 Athens. 
 
 But this was not to be without a struggle, and the plain 
 of Marathon was the scene of the conflict, one of the most 
 important and momentous in history. Here the invaders 
 were met by a small army of Athenian soldiers under Mil- 
 tiades and completely routed (490 B. C). There between 
 the mountains and the sea, the little Athenian force of 10,000 
 men, unaided save by 600 men from Plataea, but led by the 
 genius of Miltiades and inspired by high patriotic daring, 
 met a Persian army of ten times its number and defeated it 
 (September, 490 B. C). 
 
 The Persians, then famed as the greatest soldiers in the 
 world, previous to that battle had scarcely known a check in 
 their conquests. Had they succeeded at Marathon, Euro- 
 pean civilization would probably have assumed a new phase ; 
 but, through the genius of Miltiades and the patriotic daring 
 of the Athenians, the invaders were driven back, and Greece 
 was saved. 
 
 THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR 
 
 The Peloponnesian War was a conflict between Athens 
 and her allies on the one hand, and Sparta and her allies on 
 the other. It began in 431 B. C, lasted twenty-seven years,
 
 242 The World's Decisive Battles 
 
 and ended in weakening Greece generally, and in completely 
 destroying the Athenian ascendency. 
 
 This was occasioned by ihe jealousy which the great 
 power of Athens stirred up among many other of the Greek 
 cities; hut it had in reality a deeper cause, namely, the out- 
 break of an "irrepressible conflict" between Ionians and 
 Dorians, between democracy and oligarchy — Athens being 
 the chief of the Ionian and democratic states, and Sparta the 
 chief of the Dorian and aristocratic states. 
 
 The immediate occasion of the war was a conflict between 
 Corinth and one of her colonies, Corcyra. Siding with the 
 latter, Athens excited the wrath of the Dorian Confederacy, 
 and a Spartan army invaded Attica, 431 B. C. During the 
 first ten years of the war, down to 421, the two parties con- 
 tended with nearly equal success, the Athenians being much 
 the stronger by sea, and the Spartans and their allies by 
 land. A peace "was then concluded, called the "Peace of 
 Xicias" (421 B. C), which was to last for fifty years; but 
 as many of the confederates were dissatisfied with its terms, 
 it was not likely to be of such long duration, and indeed hos- 
 tilities were renewed almost immediately. 
 
 The renewal of the war was precipitated through the 
 political influence of Alcibiades, a handsome, dissolute young 
 disciple of Socrates. He possessed brilliant talent, but he 
 was ambitious, and he was eager to renew the war, as afford- 
 ing him an opportunity of personal distinction. 
 
 Alcibiades brought f orward a scheme of conquering Syra- 
 cuse, a city in Sicily. It was a bold undertaking, and its suc- 
 cessful execution would have given a great preponderance to 
 Athens over Sparta. The Athenians adopted the plan, and 
 in 415 B. C. sent a fleet and force against the Syracusans.
 
 The World's Decisive Battles 243 
 
 Sparta sent aid to the latter, and thus the Peloponnesian War 
 was renewed. In the midst of the enterprise Alcibiades was 
 recalled to Athens on a charge of impiety, but he managed 
 to escape and went over to Sparta. The Syracusan expedi- 
 tion proved a total failure (413 B. C.) , and greatly damaged 
 the power of Athens. 
 
 During the last eight years the Peloponnesian War was 
 carried on mainly at sea, off the coast of Asia. Sparta allied 
 herself with Persia, and it was Persian gold that afforded 
 Sparta the means to continue the contest against Athens. 
 Athens, however, made a bold front, and under the lead of 
 Alcibiades (who had meanwhile been recalled to the com- 
 mand) kept up the contest with wonderful vigor. But a 
 fatal blow fell when the Spartan admiral, Lysander, sur- 
 prised the beached galleys of the Athenians at Aegos Pota- 
 mos in the Hellespont, in 405 B. C. The siege and surrender 
 of Athens in the following year brought the great Pelopon- 
 nesian contest to an end. 
 
 The result of the Peloponnesian War left Sparta the 
 greatest power of Greece. Athens sank into the background 
 as a second-rate state. But, while she lost her political su- 
 premacy, she became more and more the leader in literature, 
 art and philosophy. 
 
 BATTLE OF ARBELA 
 
 A long struggle following the great Peloponnesian War 
 involved nearly all the Hellenic states and resulted in the 
 general exhaustion of Greece. What strength remained was 
 expended in mere intestine broils, and soon after this Greece 
 fell an easy prey to Philip of Macedon, son of Amyntas II. 
 This was in 359 B. C.
 
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 24 I The World's Decisive Battles 
 
 Philip developed a grand scheme of conquest, and for 
 twenty years following .'}.>s \\. C. lie continued a mixed 
 policy of war and intrigue, which at length made him master 
 of Greece. In the midst of his preparations for still further 
 conquest Philip was assassinated by one of his own subjects 
 (336 \\. C.) , at the age of forty-six, alter a reign of twenty- 
 three vcars. 
 
 Philip was succeeded by his son Alexander, known as 
 Alexander the Great. At the age of twenty lie became heir 
 to his father's power, and of far more than his father's mili- 
 tary genius. lie was immediately acknowledged generalis- 
 simo of Greece against the Persians, as his father had been. 
 In the year .'J.'U 15. C. he crossed the Hellespont with a small 
 army of 3.5,000 men, and advanced to the Granicus, in Asia 
 Minor. Here a Persian army somewhat larger than his own 
 was met and defeated, .'W-1 B. C. He then passed victoriously 
 through the Persian provinces of Asia Minor, and entered 
 Syria. At Essus, near the borders of Cilicia and Syria, a vast 
 Persian army under Darius Codomannus was met. The 
 nature of the ground was such that the Persian superiority 
 in numbers did not tell; Alexander here won a signal victory 
 (333 E. C.) , and Darius fled, leaving his mother and his wife 
 captives. 
 
 Alexander did not immediately follow up the Persians, 
 but proceeded from Issus against Tyre, Gaza and Egypt, at 
 this time under the dominion of Persia. Twenty months 
 sufficed for the reduction of these places. The foundation of 
 the great seaport Alexandria — an act of far-sighted policy 
 on the part of Alexander — was a result of his sojourn in 
 Egypt. 
 
 Having possessed himself of all the maritime provinces
 
 The World's Decisive Battles 24j 
 
 of Persia, Alexander, in 331 B. C, proceeded to seek his 
 enemy in the heart of his empire. The final conflict was 
 known as the battle of Arbela (in Assyria) ; but though the 
 action bears the name of Arbela, it was in reality fought at 
 Gaugamela, a village twenty miles distant. Here Darius 
 had chosen his ground and arrayed the full force of his em- 
 pire. But the Asiatic soldier was inferior to the European, 
 and the invading force was led by a consummate military 
 genius. The result was the complete overthrow of a Persian 
 force of a million men by less than fifty thousand Greeks 
 (331 B. C.) . So decisive was the victory that the three capi- 
 tals of the empire, Babylon, Susa and Persepolis, surrendered 
 almost without resistance. The Persian monarch became a 
 fugitive, and was ere long assassinated. 
 
 THE BATTLE OF THE METAURUS 
 
 Following the triumph over Carthage by the Romans, 
 the citizens of that city felt that they had been deeply 
 wronged, and long studied how the injury done them might 
 be revenged. Under the leadership of Hamilcar they directed 
 their attention to Spain, where they already had a strong 
 foothold, as a fit "base of operations" against the Romans. 
 Hamilcar's great object in subjugating Spain was to obtain 
 the means of attacking the hated rival of his country. His 
 implacable animosity against Rome is shown by the well- 
 known tale, that when he crossed over to Spain, in 235 B. C, 
 taking with him his son Hannibal, then only nine years old, 
 he made him swear at the altar eternal hostility to Rome. 
 Hamilcar fell in battle, and was succeeded by his son-in-law, 
 Hasdrubal, and when the latter was assassinated the com- 
 mand of the army devolved upon Hannibal.
 
 246 The World's Decisive Baltics 
 
 When, at the age of twenty-six, Hannibal was appointed 
 to the command of the Carthaginian army in Spain, he car- 
 ried the Carthaginian line up to the Ebro and besieged Sagun- 
 
 tuni, an ally of Rome. The city fell, and Rome immediately 
 declared hostilities. The result was the second Punic War, 
 which began in the year 218 B. C. Before the Roman army 
 was ready to take the iield, Hannibal, who was one of the 
 greatest military geniuses that ever lived, had crossed the 
 Pyrenees on his way to Italy. lie then proceeded to perform 
 one of the most famous exploits on record. With his army 
 he climhed over the Alps (218 B. C), losing more than 30,- 
 000 men, hurst into the plain of Italy and defeated the 
 Romans in four battles, the greatest of which was Cannae, 
 fought in 21G B. C. 
 
 In Italy the career of Hannibal was most extraordinary. 
 For fifteen years (217-202 15. C.) he maitna^ined himself in 
 the peninsula, moving hither and thither, keeping seven or 
 eight Roman generals, among them the wary Fabius and the 
 bold Marcellus, continually employed, scattering the Romans 
 like chaff wherever he appeared, exhausting the finances of 
 the state, and detaching the Italian nationalities from their 
 allegiance; The cautious Fabius, unwilling to risk another 
 enffaffcment with Hannibal's army, now flushed with vie- 
 tory, adopted the tactics of harassing the invaders as much as 
 possible, havering around them, like "a cloud on the moun- 
 tains," thus wearing out their resources by delay. The 
 Romans were thus enabled to recover somewhat from their 
 disasters; but the next year (210 B. C), Hannibal, having 
 advanced into southern Italy, was opposed by a large army 
 under the consuls Aemilius and Varro; and at Cannae a 
 terrific battle took place, which for the fourth time resulted
 
 The World's Decisive Battles 247 
 
 in a complete victory for the Carthaginians (216 B. C.) . It 
 is said that more than fifty thousand Romans fell on the 
 field, and that Hannibal sent to Carthage over a bushel of 
 gold rings, taken from the fingers of the senators and knights 
 who were found among the slain. 
 
 It is probable that Hannibal might have maintained him- 
 self in Italy for an indefinite time, and finally have shattered 
 the commonwealth in pieces had it not been that the Romans 
 assumed the offensive against Carthage. A vigorous young 
 soldier, Publius Scipio, was sent into Spain, which he reduced 
 to the condition of a Roman province, thus closing the main 
 avenue by which the Carthaginians could send reinforce- 
 ments to Hannibal (216-205 B. C). Hannibal, despairing 
 of succor from Carthage, now eagerly awaited the arrival of 
 a force under his brother Hasdrubal from Spain, which had 
 been expected for some time. Hasdrubal managed to march 
 from Spain across the Alps into Italy (207 B. C), and was 
 proceeding on his route to j oin Hannibal in Umbria when he 
 was intercepted by a Roman army, at the Metaurus River, 
 and was defeated and slain. Hannibal received notice of 
 this disaster by the sight of his brother's gory head, which the 
 consuls caused to be thrown into his camp. At the sight of 
 tliis dreadful omen Hannibal exclaimed, "I foresee the doom 
 of Carthage!" 
 
 In spite of the cutting of his communications, Hannibal 
 could readily have maintained himself in Italy; but now 
 Scipio, landing in Africa in 204 B. C, defeated the Numid- 
 ians in a great battle, and vanquished the Carthaginians with 
 immense slaughter at Utica. Scipio marched almost to the 
 gates of Carthage, when the Carthaginian senate, driven to 
 despair, recalled Hannibal to the defense of his own country.
 
 248 The World's Decisive Hal lies 
 
 Landing in Africa, Hannibal drew up his forces on the 
 plain of Zama, a town in Numidia. Seeing that his army 
 was far inferior to that of the Romans, he obtained an inter- 
 view with Scipio, and proposed a treat}" of peace; but Seipio, 
 true to Roman policy, declined the proposal. The battle fol- 
 lowed, and Hannibal was defeated with great loss (202 B. 
 C). The Carthaginians in consequence were obliged to 
 agree to peace on very severe terms. Although the Cartha- 
 ginians were not utterly exhausted, yet, by the prudent coun- 
 sel of Hannibal, who saw that it would be useless to protract 
 the struggle, they consented to accept the terms of peace 
 dictated by Scipio and approved by the Roman Senate. 
 
 VICTORY OF AIOITNirs OVER THE ROMAN LEGIONS UNDER 
 
 VARUS, A. D. 9. 
 
 The reign of Augustus virtually though not formally be- 
 gan with the victory at Actium. It lasted forty-five years 
 from that event (to 14 A. D.), for Augustus lived to be 
 seventy-seven years of age. Although he ruled with abso- 
 lute power, he was careful to retain the forms of the republi- 
 can government, and to avoid every offensive title, such as 
 king or dictator; but he caused all the important oflices to 
 be conferred upon himself. Thus, as Imperator (com- 
 mander-in-chief), he had the command of the armies, and as 
 president of the Senate and consul, he administered the 
 civil government. The Senate still held its sessions, but its 
 decrees had no real weight. The long civil wars had made the 
 Romans greatly desire tranquillity, and as Augustus ruled 
 with equity and moderation, they acquiesced in his authority. 
 He kept large armies stationed at various parts of the em-
 
 The World's Decisive Battles 249 
 
 pire to repress all opposition, and he instituted the Praetorian 
 Guards to protect his person. He also appointed a special 
 council of state with whom he advised in regard to his 
 measures. 
 
 Under his direction, campaigns were carried on against 
 the tribes in northern Spain and among the eastern Alps — 
 the Rhaetians and Vindelicians, as well as in the territories 
 bordering on the Rhine and Danube. The provinces of 
 Rhaetia, Noricum, Pannonia and Moesia were annexed to 
 the empire during his reign ; but his forces met with a severe 
 defeat in the attempt to conquer the Germans living to the 
 east of the Rhine. Led by the brave and patriotic Arminius, 
 or Hermann, some of the tribes that had submitted to the 
 Romans revolted, and the proconsul Varus was surprised and 
 his army cut to pieces. 
 
 Varus, after being severely wounded in a charge of the 
 Germans against his part of the column, committed suicide 
 to avoid falling into the hands of the enemy. Mercy to a 
 fallen foe had never been a Roman virtue ; and the infuriated 
 Germans, giving like for like, slaughtered their oppressors 
 with deliberate ferocity. Those prisoners who were not hewn 
 to pieces on the spot were only preserved to perish by a more 
 cruel death in cold blood. 
 
 No victory was ever more decisive, nor the liberation of 
 an oppressed people more instantaneous and complete. 
 Roman garrisons in all parts of Germany were assailed and 
 cut off, and shortly after Varus had fallen the German soil 
 was freed from the foot of an invader.
 
 250 The World's Decisive Battles 
 
 BATTLE OF CHALONS, A. D. 451 
 
 The great Western empire was fast dissolving. In the 
 early part of the fifth century three fragments broke off 
 from the decaying trunk. The province of Britain was evac- 
 uated by the Kin nans and was soon overrun by the German 
 tribes called Angles and Saxons. The various Teutonic 
 tribes were pressing into Gaul, and from Gaul into Spain. 
 Spain was conquered by Vandals, Sueves and other German 
 races, while Gaul was filled with Franks and Burgundians 
 and Goths, all of whom belonged to the great Teutonic fam- 
 ily. The province of Africa, too, was lost ; for a band of Van- 
 dals under Genseric passed over from Spain to Carthage, 
 which was conquered in A. D. 439. 
 
 Meanwhile Attila the Hun had gone forth from his log 
 house on the plain of Hungary, at the head of half a million 
 savages, to conquer the world. Crossing the Rhine, he 
 pierced to the center of Gaul ; but at Chalons he was defeated 
 by the united power of the Romans, Goths and Franks, A. 
 1). 451. Tn this memorable battle Aryan civilization and 
 Tartar despotism met in a life-and-death struggle, and the 
 nobler triumphed. Being defeated in Gaul, Attila climbed 
 the Alps and overran Italy, pillaging and destroying through 
 all the northern provinces; but his attacks were never fraught 
 with such peril to the civilized world as had menaced it be- 
 fore his defeat at Chalons. It is a strange fact that it was 
 through the persuasion of the Pope, Leo I, that Attila was 
 induced to return to Hungary. Here, in A. D. 453, he broke 
 a blood vessel. So died one whose savage boast it was that 
 grass never grew on a spot where his horse had trodden. His 
 great empire immediately fell to pieces.
 
 The World's Decisive Battles 251 
 
 BATTLE OF TOURS, A. D. 732 
 
 A Visigothic kingdom had been established in Spain; but 
 Roderick, the "last of the Goths," was defeated on the field 
 of Xeres, and the Saracens established themselves firmly in 
 Spain. In the course of a few years they had possession of 
 the whole peninsula, with the exception of the mountainous 
 districts in the north, where the little Christian kingdom of 
 the Asturias maintained itself. 
 
 The ambition of the Saracens now overleaped the Pyre- 
 nees. They obtained a lodgment in southern Gaul, and after 
 a time an able Saracenic commander, Abdelrahman, led a 
 powerful Mohammedan army northward to subdue the land 
 of the Franks. As far as the Loire everything fell before 
 him, and it seemed that all Europe would come under Moslem 
 sway. 
 
 It was in the hour of need that Charles Martel appeared 
 as a champion for Christendom. Gathering a powerful army, 
 he met the Saracens between Tours and Poitiers. A des- 
 perate battle, which lasted for seven days, ensued ; but on the 
 seventh day the Saracens were defeated with great slaughter, 
 A. D. 732. This victory arrested forever the progress of the 
 Mohammedan arms in Europe, and procured for Charles the 
 expressive surname of "the Hammer" (Martel), by which 
 he is known in history. 
 
 BATTLE OF HASTINGS, A. D. 1066 
 
 In the Saxon period of the history of England, which 
 includes that of the Heptarchy, about three and a half cen- 
 turies preceding the consolidation of the Saxon kingdoms by
 
 252 The World's Decisive Battles 
 
 Egbert, the Danes commenced their invasions. These people 
 were Norsemen who had come from Norway to Denmark, 
 and occupied the lands left uninhabited by the emigration of 
 the Angles and Jutes to Britain. The Danes for a long- 
 time continued to harass the kingdom of England, in the 
 reigns of both Egbert and his successors, the Saxon kings of 
 England. The most eminent of these Saxon kings was 
 Alfred the Great, who, though at one time entirely over- 
 whelmed by the Danes, afterward defeated his enemies and 
 regained his throne. 
 
 Dining the next century the Danes continued their in- 
 cursions, until the English monarch was compelled to sur- 
 render one-half of his dominions to the Danish conqueror 
 Canute, and soon afterward the latter obtained full posses- 
 sion of the throne (A. D. 1017), which he and his two suc- 
 cessors held, until the Saxon line was again restored in the 
 person of Edward, called the Confessor. Edward dying 
 without heirs, the crown was conferred by the clergy and 
 nobles upon Harold, son of Earl Godwin, the most powerful 
 nobleman of the time, whose daughter Edward had married. 
 Harold was also, through his grandmother, a descendant of 
 Sweyn, the Danish king. His right to the throne was, how- 
 ever, disputed by his brother Tostig, who, having entered into 
 an alliance with the King of Norway, was enabled to raise 
 a large army; but he was defeated by the English forces 
 under Harold, after a severe battle fought near the Derwent 
 River, in the northern part of England (September 25, 
 1066). 
 
 Three days after this battle, a more powerful competitor 
 for the throne landed on the southeastern shore of England, 
 with a large and finely equipped army. This was William,
 
 The World's Decisive Battles 253 
 
 Duke of Normandy, to whom Edward had bequeathed the 
 throne, and whose claim was sanctioned by the Pope ; while 
 Harold, who, it was said, had sacredly promised not to dis- 
 pute William's claim, was viewed by many as guilty of 
 usurpation and perjury. Harold, notwithstanding his re- 
 cent conflict with the Norwegians, marched with all the forces 
 he could collect to oppose the Normans. The battle, which 
 was long and bloody, was fought near Hastings, on the site 
 of the town now called Battle, in the southeastern part of 
 England, and resulted in the entire defeat of the Saxons, 
 Harold himself being slain (October 14, 1066) by being 
 struck with an arrow through the left eye. The old Anglo- 
 Saxon heroism, worthy of a better fate, set in that dark 
 eclipse ; the battle-ax no longer availed against the Norman 
 spear. There was neither rout nor flight, so great was the 
 despairing energy with which the English fought. King 
 Harold's army was exterminated but not vanquished, and 
 England lay paralyzed at the foot of the conqueror. 
 
 JOAN OF ARC'S VICTORY OVER THE ENGLISH AT ORLEANS, A. D. 
 
 1429 
 
 Charles the Seventh, surnamed the Victorious, was 
 crowned, A. D. 1422, at Poitiers; but Henry the Seventh of 
 England, had already been proclaimed king of France, in 
 accordance with the treaty of Troves. The Duke of Bed- 
 ford, the English regent, gained a great victory over the 
 army of Charles, consisting partly of Scotch and other 
 auxiliaries (A. D. 1424) . This dreadful disaster to Charles 
 was followed (A. D. 1428) by the siege of Orleans, the last 
 stronghold of his party, while no hope was entertained by 
 the French of being able to repel its assailants.
 
 254 The World'* Decisive Bat lies 
 
 The deliverance of Charles was, however, effected by one 
 of the most extraordinary occurrences recorded in history. 
 Joan of Arc, a simple peasant girl, had been told of a proph- 
 ecy, to the effect that France could he delivered from its 
 enemies only by a \ irgin; and she became impressed with the 
 idea that to her had been divinely committed the task of 
 effecting this great object. She also said she heard voices 
 that told her this. She soon induced others to believe in the 
 truth of her mission, among them the king and his chief ofli- 
 cers, and was admitted into Orleans, arrayed in armor, and 
 provided with a train of attendants (A. D. 1-129). 
 
 Under her leadership, the French attacked the English 
 with renewed courage, and soon compelled them to raise the 
 siege. She next urged the king to inarch to Kheims, in order 
 to assume the crown of his ancestors according to the accus- 
 tomed rites; and, partly under her leadership, the French, 
 after several victorious battles, reached the city, which the 
 English were compelled to surrender, and the king was 
 crowned in the great cathedral. Joan then declared her mis- 
 sion ended, and wished to be dismissed; but her services be- 
 ing still demanded, she remained in the army, and a short 
 time afterward fell into the power of the English, and was 
 burnt to death at Rouen on a charge of sorcery. Nothing, 
 however, was gained by the English from this cruel execu- 
 tion of the "Maid of Orleans," for they continued to suffer 
 defeat until they finally lost all their French possessions ex- 
 cept Calais.
 
 CHAPTER XXIX 
 
 THE WORLDS DECISIVE BATTLES— Continued 
 
 (Defeat of Spanish Armada to Waterloo) 
 
 The Spanish Armada — Battle of Blenheim — Battle of Pul- 
 totva — Burgoyne's Defeat at Saratoga — Battle of Valmy 
 —Battle of Waterloo. 
 
 DEFEAT OF THE SPANISH ARMADA 
 
 WHEN Mary Queen of Scots fled across the border and 
 came to implore the pity of Elizabeth, the English 
 queen cast her into prison, where she remained for eighteen 
 years. During this time Elizabeth was constantly harassed 
 by plots formed by her Catholic subjects in behalf of the 
 prisoner. When one Babington formed a conspiracy for as- 
 sassinating Elizabeth and placing Mary on the throne, the 
 latter became liable to the punishment for treason. She was 
 subjected to a formal trial in her prison and found guilty. 
 
 The warrant for her execution was delayed by the re- 
 luctance — real or pretended — of Elizabeth. At last the 
 queen signed the warrant and sent her secretary with it to 
 the chancellor, that it might receive the great seal. Recalling 
 this order next day, she found that she was too late ; the seal 
 was affixed, and the warrant was on the way to Fotheringay 
 
 255
 
 256 The World's Decisive Hollies Continued 
 
 prison. There, in one of the castle halls, in the gray lighl 
 of a February Diorning (A. 1). L587), Mary Stuart, aged 
 forty-five, was beheaded. 
 
 The Catholic- powers of the Continent formed many 
 schemes for annoying or dethroning Elizabeth, and these 
 finally culminated in a great invasion by Spain. The In- 
 vincible Armada, the most formidable fleet ever seen up to 
 that time, was fitted out against England. This armament 
 consisted of V- >( .> ships, :j.0<>() cannon and 20,000 men, while 
 34,000 additional land forces prepared to join from the 
 Netherlands. 
 
 In July, 1588, the Armada entered the English Channel. 
 Thirty vessels prepared to meet the Spanish fleet. The com- 
 mand was taken by Lord Howard, of Effingham. The Eng- 
 lish fleet attacked the Armada in the channel, and was 
 found to have a considerable advantage in the lightness and 
 manage ahleness of the vessels. After seven days, only three 
 of which passed without warm actions, though there was no 
 decisive engagement, the Spanish licet was so harassed and 
 damaged that it was forced to take shelter in the roads of 
 Calais. The English during the night sent in fire-ships, 
 which destroyed several vessels and threw the others into 
 such confusion that the Spaniards no longer thought of vic- 
 tory, hut of escape. At daybreak they were attacked by 
 Howard. Drake and Lord Henry Seymour, and though the 
 Spaniards fought gallantly, they were completely at disad- 
 vantage. In seamanship and gun practice they were inferior 
 to their adversaries, and their great floating castles were no 
 match for the active little English vessels. Had not the 
 queen's ill-timed parsimony kept her fleet insufficiently sup- 
 plied with powder, the Armada would have been destroyed.
 
 The World's Decisive Battles — Continued 257 
 
 As it was, the Spanish leader, the Duke of Medina Sidonia, 
 attempted to return home by sailing round the north of Scot- 
 land; but dreadful storms arose, scattering the fleet about 
 in the seas of Scotland and Ireland ; and of the triumphant 
 navy that sailed from Lisbon but a third part returned in a 
 wretched state to tell of the calamity. 
 
 This success was regarded as a triumph, not so much of 
 England as of the Protestant cause throughout Europe. It 
 virtually established the independence of the Dutch, raised 
 the courage of the Huguenots in France and completely de- 
 stroyed the decisive influence that Spain had acquired in the 
 affairs of Europe. 
 
 BATTLE OF BLENHEIM, A. D. 1704 
 
 This conflict, which took place during the War of the 
 Spanish Succession, between England and France, was pre- 
 cipitated by the same considerations which played such an 
 important part in the European war of 1914, namely, the 
 balance of power. 
 
 The king of Spain, Charles II, died in the year 1700, 
 leaving no children, but leaving a will by which he bequeathed 
 the succession of his house to a grandson of Louis XIV, 
 named Philip of Anjou. This at once alarmed the nations 
 of Europe as a menace to the balance of power, for Philip 
 of Anjou was a mere boy. The astute and ambitious Louis 
 XIV would himself be the real ruler, and the close union of 
 two such kingdoms as France and Spain was greatly to be 
 feared. 
 
 Accordingly the German Emperor and William III of 
 England united with Holland and Prussia to prevent Philip's
 
 
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 258 The World's Derisive Battles Continued 
 
 wearing the crown of Spain. They supported the claims of 
 the Archduke Charles, second son of the German Emperor, 
 as King of Spain. William 111, who was the head of the 
 coalition, died in the midst of his hopes and preparations; 
 but two men rose in his place. One of these was the great est 
 general except one in the annals of England, John Churchill, 
 Duke of Marlborough; the other. Prince Eugene of Savoy, 
 who headed the armies of the Emperor. 
 
 This War of the Spanish Succession lasted for thirteen 
 years (1701-1714), and resulted in the humiliation of Louis 
 XIV, who was defeated in all his plans. This war was 
 marked by the memorable battle of Blenheim (a small vil- 
 lage in Bavaria, on the Danube, near Augsburg), Ramillies, 
 Oudenarde and Malplaquet, where Marlborough sent the 
 marshals of the French king in headlong flight. Gibraltar 
 was wrested forever from Spain and attached to Kngland. 
 The French fleets were 'burned at Vigo, and Toulon was be- 
 sieged by sea and land. Prince Eugene in the meantime 
 crushed the French power in Italy and approached the 
 boundaries of France. Domestic sorrow, too, came to Louis. 
 His only son died, then two of bis grandsons: and nobody 
 remained in the direct line of succession to the old man of 
 seventy-four but a great-grandson, then a child in arms. 
 
 BATTLE OF PULTOW A, A. D. 1700 
 
 When Charles XII, sometimes called the "Madman of 
 the North," succeeded to the throne of Sweden, in 1697, his 
 passion for conquest and military glory at once plunged his 
 country into war, which led to many miseries and misfor- 
 tunes. A coalition formed against him by Denmark, Poland
 
 The World's Decisive Battles — Continued 2.59 
 
 and Russia led to the Northern War, in which Charles gained 
 several brilliant victories over the Danes and Russians; and 
 having succeeded in dethroning the king of Poland, placed 
 in his stead Stanislas (1704). Quite intoxicated by success, 
 he prepared to invade Russia. Peter the Great, Czar of 
 Russia, oif ered terms of peace, but Charles declared that he 
 could negotiate only at Moscow. When the czar was in- 
 formed of this haughty answer, he coolly replied, "My 
 brother Charles affects to play the part of Alexander, but I 
 hope he will not find in me a Darius." 
 
 The strategy adopted by Peter for the purpose of meet- 
 ing this invasion was simple and sensible. The advance of 
 the Swedes on the direct line to Moscow was prevented by 
 the destruction of the roads and the desolation of the coun- 
 try. Notwithstanding privations and misfortunes, Charles 
 continued the campaign even in the depth of winter, though 
 the season was so severe that 2,000 men were at once frozen 
 to death, almost in his presence. 
 
 At length Charles laid siege to Pultowa, which contained 
 one of the czar's principal magazines. The town was ob- 
 stinately defended, and Charles was wounded in the heel 
 while viewing the works. Before he recovered he learned 
 that Peter was advancing to raise the siege. Leaving 7,000 
 men to guard the works, the Swedes advanced to intercept 
 the Russians, accompanied by their king borne in a litter. 
 The battle was decided by the Russian artillery, for Charles 
 in his rapid march had abandoned his cannon. In less than 
 two hours the Swedish army was ruined, and Charles, with 
 only 300 followers, sought shelter within the frontiers of 
 Turkey. He succeeded in persuading the Turkish emperor 
 to declare war against Russia; but he afterward quarreled
 
 260 The World's Decisive Battles -Continued 
 
 with the emperor, and was compelled, after remaining more 
 than five y^ars in Turkey, to flee. 
 
 To pursue the subsequent career of Charles XII would 
 be aside from our purpose here. Suffice it to say that this 
 astonishing man ran a course of nine years longer — a course 
 of strange ups and downs — and was finally killed by a can- 
 non ball while besieging the castle of Fredericshall in Nor- 
 way, 1718. 
 
 BUEGOYNE'S DEFEAT BY THE AMERICANS AT SARATOGA, 1777 
 
 George III of England in 1760 ascended a glorious 
 throne. Through the energy and foresight of William Pitt, 
 known as the Great Commoner, Britain had become the first 
 nation in the world. 
 
 The reign of George III was fruitful in Colonial history. 
 Indeed, ere it Mas five years old, symptoms of the great, and 
 to Britain disastrous, American War began to appear. The 
 trouble arose during the administration of Mr. Grenville, 
 showing itself decisively on the passage of the Stamp Act, in 
 170.>, for the purpose of raising a revenue in America. The 
 measure was greatly opposed in Parliament by the Earl of 
 Chatham and others, as impolitic and unjust. The govern- 
 ment insisted on its right to tax the colonies, and the latter, 
 after a resistance of ten years, Mere finally driven into the 
 War of the Revolution, which commenced at Lexington, in 
 Massachusetts, April 10, 1773. The next year, the thirteen 
 colonies, through their representatives in Congress, declared 
 their independence (July 4, 1776) , which, after a determined 
 struggle of nearly seven years, they successfully achieved, 
 the British general Cornwallis, being compelled to surrender
 
 The World's Decisive Battles — Continued 261 
 
 his army to George Washington at Yorktown (October 19, 
 1781). 
 
 Previous to this event, the Americans under General 
 Gates had compelled the surrender of a British army under 
 Burgoyne, at Saratoga (1777), and the French king, Louis 
 XVI, taking advantage of this success, had acknowledged 
 the independence of the colonies. A war, therefore, ensued 
 between England and France, which continued until 1783, 
 when a treaty of peace was concluded at Paris, one of the 
 conditions of which was that the independence of the Ameri- 
 can colonies should be acknowledged by England. 
 
 General Gates, after the victory at Saratoga, immediately 
 despatched Colonel Wilkinson to carry the happy tidings to 
 Congress. On being introduced into the hall, he said: "The 
 whole British army has laid down its arms at Saratoga; our 
 own, full of vigor and courage, expect your order. It is for 
 your wisdom to decide where the country may still have need 
 for their service." 
 
 Of the ultimate result, Botta, the Italian historian, says : 
 
 "No one any longer felt any doubt about their achieving 
 their independence. All hoped, and with good reason, that 
 a success of this importance would at length determine 
 France, and the other European powers that waited for her 
 example, to declare themselves in favor of America. There 
 could no longer be any question respecting the future, since 
 there was no longer the risk of espousing the cause of a peo- 
 ple too feeble to defend themselves." 
 
 BATTLE OF VALMY, 1792 
 
 The spirit of revolution which had set France in a blaze 
 menaced every throne, and it behooved the kings of Erurdpe
 
 262 The World's Decisive Hal lies Continued 
 
 to see to their own safety. Armies were raised by Austria 
 and Prussia to defend the royal cause, hostilities were threat- 
 ened, and the Legislative Assembly declared for war. April 
 20, \7 { ^. Soon afterward a force of ?().()<)(> Prussians and 
 68,000 Austrians and emigrant French royalists crossed the 
 frontier. Perhaps no effort on the part of his most eager 
 enemy could have so injured the cause and periled the safety 
 of Louis XVI. The Assembly replied by fitting out an 
 army of 20,000 national volunteers, and giving the command 
 to Genera] Dumouriez, who in several actions repelled the 
 
 invaders. 
 
 During the battle, the King of Prussia, indignant at the 
 repulse by Kellerman (father of the distinguished officer 
 of that name whose cavalry charge decided the battle of 
 Marengo), formed the flower of his men in person, re- 
 proached them for their lack of support, and led them on 
 again to the attack. But Dumouriez had arrived with rein- 
 forcements for Kellerman. Again the Prussians retreated, 
 leaving 800 dead behind, and the French were the victors on 
 the heights of Valmy. 
 
 BATTLE or WATERLOO, L815 
 
 So unpopular did Louis XVIII make himself that soon 
 all hearts began to turn once more to the exile of Elba- 
 Napoleon. And he was now to startle Europe with a new 
 appearance on the stage. 
 
 In the early part of 1815, after ten months in Elba, Napo- 
 leon escaped. Landing near Cannes, he pushed on to Paris 
 with Marshal Ney, who had been sent to oppose his progress, 
 but who had deserted to him, and, joined by a small body
 
 The World's Decisive Battles— Continued 263 
 
 of troops, reached Paris without firing a shot. He was 
 greeted with acclamations of joy by all classes (March 20, 
 1815). Louis XVIII fled to Ghent. At this time a con- 
 gress was sitting at Vienna, and the task of reconstructing the 
 map of Europe, so roughly disturbed by Napoleon, was go- 
 ing: on when the news came. The news is said to have been 
 greeted by the assembled diplomatists first with a silent 
 stare of incredulity and then with a roar of laughter. 
 
 But Napoleon was in Paris, levying troops, and in less 
 than two months an army was organized of over 200,000 
 men, exclusive of the National Guards. 
 
 Meantime, the allies, realizing that action must be prompt 
 and decisive, immediately declared Bonaparte an outlaw, and 
 poured their armies toward France, for the impending con- 
 flict. Three vast armies were collected; the first consisting 
 of Austrians, under Prince Schwarzenberg; the second, of 
 British, Germans and Prussians, under Wellington and 
 Blucher, and the third, of Russians, under the Emperor 
 Alexander. 
 
 Resolving to deal first with the enemies nearest to him, 
 Napoleon invaded Belgium, where lay the English and 
 Prussians under Wellington and Blucher. Operations com- 
 menced on the 1.3th of June; and, on the 18th, was fought 
 the memorable battle of Waterloo, in which the allies under 
 Wellington repulsed the French and drove them into irre- 
 trievable retreat and ruin. 
 
 Hastening to Paris to announce that all was lost, Napo- 
 leon found that his star had set. On June 22, 1815, he signed 
 his second abdication, and the allies, entering Paris fifteen 
 days later, reinstated Louis XVIII as King of France. 
 Napoleon, balked in his effort to escape to the United States,
 
 204 The World's Decisive Battles — Continued 
 
 surrendered himself to the commander of a British vessel of 
 war. But the British government regarded him as a tiger 
 who was better chained than free, and lie lived on the lonely 
 rock of St. Helena until his death, May 5, 1821. 
 
 His last words, as he lay dying amid the crash and glare 
 of a tropical thunder storm were, "Tete d'armee!'' ("Head 
 of the army!") 
 
 CKKMAX WAR UASI-; I \ CHINA
 
 CHAPTER XXX 
 THE WORLD'S DECISIVE BATTLES— Cont'd. 
 
 QUEBEC TO TSU-SHIMA 
 
 The Fall of Quebec — Surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown 
 — Battle of Vicksburg — Battle of Gettysburg — Battle 
 of Sedan — Battle of Manila Bay — Battles of Santiago 
 — Battle of Tsu-Shima. 
 
 THE FALL OF QUEBEC, A. D. 1759 
 
 NOTWITHSTANDING a treaty of peace was made 
 with France at Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1748, by which 
 Maria Theresa's claim to the throne was, confirmed, the war 
 was soon after renewed in consequence of disputes respect- 
 ing the boundary of the French and English territories in 
 America. 
 
 The decisive battle of this series was fought in 1759. 
 Before daylight on the morning of September 13, Wolfe, 
 with 1,700 picked men in thirty boats, floated down the St. 
 Lawrence in the shadow of the almost unsurmountable cliffs 
 reaching to the Plains of Abraham above, passed the shore 
 sentinels by the pretense that they were provision convoys ; 
 and, landing two miles above Quebec, climbed a small, wind- 
 ing path, sighted by Wolfe two days before, and reached 
 the plains above. Nothing daunted by the abattis and 
 trenches which obstructed the path, the climbing party of 
 
 265
 
 266 The World's Decisive Battles Con tinned 
 
 twenty-four men reached the top; and, overcoming the weak 
 guard of a hundred men, made way for their comrades. An 
 hour later, l-,~>oo men of the British army were in battle array 
 before the walls of Quebec. 
 
 Montcalm, on the oilier side of the St. Charles, though 
 amazed at the daring feat, massed his troops and gave battle. 
 The conflict lasted seven hours, and both generals fell on 
 the field of battle; the British lost fifty-eight killed and 597 
 wounded, while the French losses were .'500 killed and 000 
 wounded and taken prisoners of war. Tn extreme disorder, 
 the helpless garrison of Quebec surrendered, September 17, 
 1759, and England was virtually given possession of Canada. 
 
 SURRENDER OF CORNWALLIS AT VOKKTOWX 
 
 The year preceding this momentous event gave small 
 promise at the outset that the American struggle for inde- 
 pendence would end within the near future. The English 
 held Xew York, and Cornwallis was confident of victory in 
 the South. The army of the latter, however, was soon worn 
 out by the brilliant campaigning of Greene and the strategy 
 of Lafayette, and lie settled himself at Yorktown. 
 
 Washington, who from Xew York was watching the 
 Southern campaigns closely, learned that the French fleet 
 under Count de Grasse was leaving the West Indies for 
 the purpose of taking a hand in the operations in Virginia, 
 and at once planned a new and brilliant campaign. Assem- 
 hling with his own army the French troops of Rochambeau, 
 from Newport, Washington tricked Clinton, the British 
 commander in Xew York, into the belief that that city was 
 to be besieged; and, having thrown the enemy off their
 
 The World's Decisive Battles — Continued 267 
 
 guard, hurried the American and French armies to Chesa- 
 peake Bay. Here he was joined by the West Indian fleet of 
 de Grasse, and another fleet which had been sent from New- 
 port. De Grasse held Chesapeake Bay against the attack 
 of Admiral Graves and the British fleet. If Rodney, instead 
 of Graves, had commanded the British fleet, the victory 
 would have been with the English, who, retaining control of 
 the water, would have given support to Cornwallis in the 
 South, and saved his army, and brought to naught Washing- 
 ton's carefully laid plans. 
 
 The news that Cornwallis had surrendered caused much 
 joy throughout the American colonies; and at Philadelphia, 
 the seat of the national government, the enthusiasm of the 
 people knew no bounds. Congress, assembling at an early 
 hour, heard Washington's dispatch read, then went in a body 
 to the Lutheran church to "return thanks to the Almighty 
 God for crowning the allied arms of the United States and 
 France with success." 
 
 The effect on England of the struggle which ended at 
 Yorktown is described by Buckle, in his "History of Civili- 
 zation," as follows: 
 
 "In order to enforce the monstrous claim of taking a 
 whole people without their consent, there was waged against 
 America a war ill-conducted, unsuccessful, and, what is far 
 worse, accompanied by cruelties disgraceful to a civilized 
 nation. To this may be added, that an immense trade was 
 'nearly annihilated; every branch of commerce was thrown 
 into confusion; we were disgraced in the eyes of Europe; 
 we incurred an expense of 140,000,000 pounds; and we lost 
 by far the most valuable colonies any nation has ever pos- 
 sessed."
 
 268 The World's Decisive Battles — Continued 
 
 BATTLE OF VICKSBURG, JANUARY- JULY, 1803 
 
 After Farragut had cleared the lower Mississippi River, 
 Vicksburg was the sole remaining link uniting the eastern 
 and western territory of the Confederacy; and the capture 
 of that city by Grant cut the Confederacy in two, and, like 
 Gettysburg, turned the tide of fortune toward the North. 
 
 It was the purpose of Grant, who commanded 50,000 
 men, to push southward through Mississippi and flank Vicks- 
 burg, thus ensuring its fall; but he was overruled by his 
 superiors, and his troops divided, almost two-thirds of them 
 being given to Sherman with orders to proceed down the 
 river from Memphis. Grant hoped for cooperation between 
 himself and Sherman, but this was impossible; there was 
 not even a means of communication between them. 
 
 John A. McOlernand, who at the outbreak of the war 
 was a member of Congress from Illinois, and later com- 
 manded a division at Donelson and Shiloh, overcame the 
 reluctance of Lincoln and Stanton and prevailed upon them 
 to permit him to raise and command a large force in the 
 West, for the purpose of taking Vicksburg. The result was 
 thirty regiments, with which McClernand joined Sherman; 
 the latter was given a subordinate place, and McClernand 
 assumed command of the combined forces. Though the 
 victory was due to Sherman and the navy, the credit went to 
 McClernand, who was nominally the commander. 
 
 After four weary months of hardship, accompanied by 
 innumerable efforts to gain access to the city, which had 
 been proved impregnable, Grant resolved to try the river 
 bank to the west. Below the town he was met by an abun- 
 dance of supplies and ample means for placing it on the
 
 The World's Decisive Battles— Continued 269 
 
 other bank. Failing in his assault on the bluff to the south 
 of the city, Grant drew the Confederate forces away from 
 the upland by the ruse of running a few hundred cavalry 
 through Mississippi from north to south, thus creating the 
 impression of large numbers, and, unopposed, soon stood 
 fairly on the left bank. A few more easy victories to the 
 east and south gave him the desired advantage; and with 
 the long delayed supplies and reinforcements now coming in 
 unhindered, he was certain of success. 
 
 A six weeks' siege of the city followed. Grant's army, 
 nearly doubled in size, and possessing an abundance of food 
 and munitions, encircled the starving defenders ; and on July 
 4, 1863, the city surrendered unconditionally. 
 
 BATTLE OF GETTYSBURG, JULY 1-3, 1863 
 
 The Battle of Gettysburg, one of the crucial events of 
 militarv history, was the event which turned the tide of sue- 
 cess from the South to the North, and marked the beginning 
 of the end of the most momentous conflict in the history of 
 America. 
 
 The organization by McClellan of the Army of the Poto- 
 mac gave him a well disciplined force, with which he faced 
 General Joseph Johnston in the early part of 1862; but the 
 withdrawal of the Northern forces following the bloody 
 fighting at Fair Oaks and the Seven Days' Battles crippled 
 the Northern cause to a marked degree. Pope's defeat near 
 Bull Run, the failure of the forward movement, the fact 
 that the Northern forces had progressed only 100 miles — 
 from Richmond to Washington — in the three months from 
 June to September, the desperate battle of Antietam, fol-
 
 270 The World's Decisive Battles Continued 
 
 lowed by the costly defeat oi' Burnside at Fredericksburg, 
 closed a gloomy year in the East, and demonstrated the 
 fighting qualities of the South. Fresh disaster to the North- 
 ern anus was so n in Hooker's defeat at Chancellorsville at 
 the beginning of the new year. 
 
 Then the tide turned, and the result is spelled in one word 
 -Gettysburg. The Confederates charged; the Federals 
 converged, and the tide rolled slowly and heavily rearward. 
 The South's hope of ultimate victory was crushed. 
 
 BATTLE OF SEDAN, SEPTEMBER 1, 1870 
 
 The occasion of the German war with France was the 
 fact that Leopold, of Hohenzollern, a kinsman of the king 
 of Prussia, allowed himself to be a candidate for the Span- 
 ish throne; but the underlying cause was the intense jealousy 
 of Napoleon III. at the success of Prussia in gathering so 
 great a part of Germany around herself. 
 
 The French armies, under Marshals McMahon and 
 Bazaine, inarched to the Rhine. But the German states, 
 with perfect unanimity, joined all their forces under King 
 William of Prussia, to repel the invaders; and immense 
 armies, splendid in discipline and equipment, were promptly 
 concentrated near the east bank of the Rhine, under the 
 Prussian monarch, aided by Von Moltke and other generals. 
 In the first conflicts, McMahon was defeated and driven into 
 retreat; but he took up a strong position at Sedan. Here 
 was fought a great and decisive battle, on September 1, 
 1870; and the French, driven from their position and com- 
 pletely surrounded, were compelled to surrender. More 
 than 80,000 men laid down their arms; the Emperor Napo-
 
 The World's Decisive Battles — Continued 271 
 
 leon III., who was present with this army, yielded his sword 
 to King William, and received as his residence the Castle of 
 Wilhelmshohe, near Cassel. While a part of the German 
 army marched on Paris and invested that city, Bazaine was 
 shut up in Metz, where, on the 21st of October, he surren- 
 dered his army prisoners of war. 
 
 BATTLE OF MANILA BAY, MAY 1, 1898 
 
 Few possessions have been the subject of more discus- 
 sion in state departments than the Island of Cuba. During 
 the whole of the nineteenth century, it was said, officially and 
 unofficially, that the "Union can never enjoy repose nor 
 possess reliable security as long as Cuba is not embraced 
 within its boundaries." The incident of the American 
 schooner Virginius, in 1873, gave added impetus to the move- 
 ment for the control of Cuba by the United States, despite 
 the apologies of Spain in the matter. The same may be 
 said of the Cuban "Ten Years' War," from 1868 to 1878, 
 which was characterized by great cruelty and destructive 
 losses of life and property involving American interests. 
 Spain's repeated promises to better conditions on the island 
 amounted to nothing; and when the conditions of rioting 
 extended to Havana itself, the United States sent the cruiser 
 Maine on a friendly visit to that port. 
 
 Three weeks after her arrival, the Maine, while lying at 
 her harbor moorings, was blown up, with a loss of 266 lives. 
 The verdict of the American Court of Inquiry was that she 
 was destroyed from the outside; the Spanish inquiry resulted 
 in a verdict that internal causes destroyed the vessel. 
 
 President McKinley was powerless against the popular
 
 272 The World's Decisive Buttles — Continued 
 
 sentiment in favor of war with Spain; Congress was carried 
 away by the wave of intense feeling, and, on April 25, 1898, 
 war with Spain was formally declared. For the first time 
 since 1812 America was at war with a European nation. 
 
 The principal scene of conflict was not the island of 
 Cuba, as many people had assumed; but, with the exception 
 of the one battle of Santiago, was in the Pacific. A for- 
 midable Spanish squadron lay in Manila Bay; and imme- 
 diately upon the declaration of war, Commodore Dewey, 
 who, with his fleet, had been in the harbor of Hong Kong for 
 a month, awaiting developments, sailed for Manila, follow- 
 ing the receipt of a cable from President McKinley directing 
 him to capture or destroy the Spanish fleet. 
 
 On Saturday night, April 30, the Spanish fort, discov- 
 ering the presence of the American vessels, opened fire, and 
 was silenced with a six-inch shell from the Concord. The 
 next morning, the famous Battle of Manila Bay took place; 
 and no war ever furnished a more decisive victory. Xo lives 
 were lost on the American side; and, with the exception of 
 four men who were wounded through the explosion of a 
 Spanish shell on the Baltimore, none was injured. The 
 damage to the American ships was slight; the Spanish fleet 
 was annihilated, and the casualties amounted to about 400 
 men. The guns of Commodore Dewey had demolished the 
 water batteries of Cavite and made the city of Manila de- 
 fenseless. The entire Spanish arsenal was captured. 
 
 On this May day, Spain was expelled from the Pacific, 
 and her heritage of Asiatic power passed to the United 
 States.
 
 The World's Decisive Battles — Continued 273 
 
 THE BATTLES OF SANTIAGO, 1898 
 
 The first step taken by the American government was 
 the blockade of Cuba, in order to quickly bring things to an 
 issue; and, early in 1898, a large portion of the American 
 navy was assembled in Florida waters. At the same time, 
 men whose terms of enlistment were about to expire were 
 retained in the service, and every effort was made, in various 
 ways, to bring the navy up to the highest standard of ef- 
 ficiency. 
 
 In April, 1898, Admiral Cervera's division of the Span- 
 ish fleet sailed from the Cape Verde Islands; its destination 
 was unknown, and for two weeks it disappeared from the 
 map, so to speak. Speculation was rife as to its where- 
 abouts, and the American navy continually patrolled West 
 Indian waters in search of the phantom fleet, which, on May 
 12th, appeared off Martinique. The navy department, hav- 
 ing heard that Cervera was rushing munitions of war to 
 Cuba, and that he intended to ship them to Havana by rail 
 from the southern coast of the island, distributed the Ameri- 
 can fleet from Cienfuegos to Santiago de Cuba, to intercept 
 him. The Spanish squadron, unobserved by the scouting 
 cruisers, slipped into Santiago on May 19; and on the same 
 day, spies in Havana notified the department to that effect. 
 This was two days before Schley's arrival at Cienfuegos, 
 and Cervera could easily have made that port had he known 
 the conditions. 
 
 On May 28, Schley, returning to Santiago, after the 
 much discussed retrograde movement to the west, blockaded 
 that port. Admiral Sampson arrived four days later and 
 assumed command of the squadron. The blockade lasted
 
 NEW GERMAN TORPEDO BOAT G. 8 
 
 CATCHING A SPENT TORPEDO
 
 27 i The World's Decisive Battles Continued 
 
 almost five weeks, and was eagerly watched by people every- 
 where-. This period was marked by the daring but unsuc- 
 cessful attempt made by Lieutenant Hobson to sink the 
 collier Merrimac across the harbor entrance. The plan mis- 
 carried; and Hobson and his men, escaping death as by a 
 miracle, were captured by the Spaniards. 
 
 Immediately upon the bottling up in Santiago of Cer- 
 vera and his fleet, it was decided to send an army to cooperate 
 with the navy; and the 200,000 volunteers who had enlisted 
 in May were sent to the front. After several desperate bat- 
 tles had been f ought in the rear of Santiago, the Spaniards, 
 on July 3, ceased firing. The losses in the three days' fight 
 were eighteen officers and 127 men killed, 65 officers and 849 
 men wounded, and 72 men missing. 
 
 Because of the advance made by the American troops on 
 Santiago, the Spanish Captain-General, Blanco, ordered 
 Cervera out of the harbor, where he had been "bottled up" 
 for two weeks. Cervera, knowing that he was leading a for- 
 lorn hope, obeyed. Sampson, long under the impression 
 that the Spanish fleet would attempt to escape under cover 
 of darkness, kept his ships close to shore, with dazzling 
 search-lights constantly playing on the harbor entrance. 
 
 The following morning, July 3, the Spanish ships were 
 discovered steaming out of the harbor; and the American 
 vessels at once closed in on them. In a little over three 
 hours the battle was over; on the American side, only one 
 man was killed and one wounded, while the Spaniards lost 
 about six hundred in killed and wounded. The entire Span- 
 ish fleet was wiped out, with the exception of the Colon, 
 which returned to shore and surrendered. The American
 
 The World's Decisive Battles — Continued 275 
 
 sailors effected gallant rescues of the officers and crews of 
 the burning vessels, and extended every humanity to the 
 prisoners. 
 
 On July 3, the surrender of the Spanish forces at San- 
 tiago being refused by Toral, Shafter, after giving the 
 women and children two days in which to evacuate, bom- 
 barded the city. At this juncture, Miles arrived with addi- 
 tional troops intended for Porto Rico; and, with Shafter, 
 met Toral under a flag of truce and arranged terms for the 
 surrender, which took place a week later. Following this, 
 Miles invaded Porto Rico, and had gained control of all the 
 southern and western portions of the island, when hostilities 
 were suspended by the peace protocol. The American losses 
 here were nominal. 
 
 Manila was assaulted and captured on August 13, the 
 day after the signing of the protocol. The news of the sign- 
 ing had not, of course, reached the Philippines at this time. 
 
 BATTLE OF TSU-SHIMA (SEA OF JAPAN) 
 
 Since time out of mind Russia has looked longingly upon 
 the territory to the south and east of her, as affording her 
 seaports free from ice. Following her steady progress across 
 Asia, she founded Vladivostock, in the Sea of Japan, in 
 1861, thereby obtaining a Pacific seaport. 
 
 Japan was deprived by the great powers of her prizes 
 following the war between herself and China; among these 
 was Port Arthur, which was occupied in 1898 by the Rus- 
 sians, under a secret treaty with China. The latter country 
 afterward gave Russia permission to extend her railroad 
 lines to Port Arthur ; and the czar at once began to multiply
 
 27«i The World's Decisive Battles — Continued 
 
 supplies and fortifications at that point. Japan protested, 
 and Russia promised to evacuate Manchuria; but she did 
 not do so. 
 
 Japan decided to strike; and, on February 6, 1904, she 
 recalled her minister from St. Petersburg, and sent the Rus- 
 sian minister home. Two days afterward, Admiral Togo 
 attacked the Russian fleet at Port Arthur; and the result 
 gave Japan naval supremacy in the Pacific. By May, she 
 had sent three armies Russiaward. Then came the defeat 
 by Kuroki of Zassulitch at the Yalu, the defeat of Stoessel 
 and the investment of Port Arthur, the defeat of Stakelberg, 
 when he attempted to bring relief, and the long and bloody 
 siege of Port Arthur, which terminated in its surrender, 
 January 2, 1905. 
 
 Meantime, the great Battle of Liao-Yang, fought in 
 August and September, by Oyama, had caused the Russian 
 army of Manchuria to retreat to Mukden. In March, 1905, 
 Kuropatkin was driven from there; and the Japanese, hav- 
 ing a free hand since the fall of Port Arthur, pressed on, 
 and occupied Tie-Ling a few days afterward. 
 
 Russia, realizing the ineffectiveness of her army, deter- 
 mined to send her Baltic fleet to the rescue; and, on October 
 15, 1904, Admiral Rojestvensky sailed from Cronstadt. 
 The general inefficiency of the Russian navy, which had long 
 been a matter of common report, was established when the 
 Russian vessels, off the Dogger Bank in the German Ocean, 
 fired upon some defenseless English fishing craft, killing 
 several men, then steamed onward, without investigation. 
 The Russian admiral afterward reported that it was his 
 impression that the craft in question were Japanese torpedo 
 boats; but this explanation did not satisfy, and an apology
 
 The World's Decisive Battles — Continued 277 
 
 and payment of a money indemnity to England were neces- 
 sary to close the incident. 
 
 At Tangier, the Russian fleet was divided, part of it tak- 
 ing the Suez Canal route, while the remainder went around 
 the Cape of Good Hope. In May, 190o — seven months 
 later — the fleet left Annam, and, like Cervera's, in the Span- 
 ish-American War, dropped out of sight for two weeks, 
 despite the active efforts of the Japanese authorities to locate 
 it. It then became apparent that Rojestvensky intended to 
 try to make Vladivostock, that he might obtain a base of 
 supplies, and refit. The Japanese were determined to pre- 
 vent this, and to force the Russian commander to give battle 
 while he was in a condition of unpreparedness. 
 
 The Japanese parcelled out the Sea of Japan like a 
 checker-board, knowing that Rojestvensky would attempt 
 one of the passages there. On May 27, the Russians were 
 sighted in Square 203, in the eastern channel, east of the 
 Island of Tsu-Shima. Togo, to prevent the escape of the 
 Russians to the north, toward Vladivostock, threw his fleet 
 across the Russian column, thus bringing a crushing and 
 concentrated fire on the leading Russian ships, and at the 
 same time masking the guns of the Russian vessels in the 
 rear. 
 
 The unequal battle continued, with one catastrophe after 
 another befalling the ships of the czar, until sunset, when 
 Admiral Togo ordered into action the torpedo fleet; and 
 throughout the night these harried the wearied and disorgan- 
 ized foe. The following morning, May 28, Admiral Nebog- 
 atoff, in charge of the remaining five vessels — all that was 
 left of the powerful Russian fleet — hauled down his flag and 
 surrendered.
 
 278 The World's Decisive Bat lies Continued 
 
 In its materia] results, and as an epoch-making event, 
 the Battle of Tsii-Shima ranks with the decisive battles of 
 the world. Japan, checking the aggressions of* Russia in the 
 Orient, had changed the map of the world once more, and 
 had taken a place in the council of the nations. 
 
 THIS is WHAT WAE MEANS
 
 CHAPTER XXXI 
 
 NEUTRALITY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 President Wilson's Proclamation of Neutrality — United 
 States Declared to Be Absolutely Neutral in Great Con- 
 flict — Recognizes the State of War — Acts Forbidden to 
 Americans — Acts Forbidden to Belligerents — Presi- 
 dent's Warning to Americans to Keep Calm — Wilsons 
 Offer of Mediation to Warring Powers — Powers Cour- 
 teously Decline Proffer. 
 
 WHILE the European nations were leaping at each 
 other's throats it was only natural that the gigantic 
 conflict that was getting under way would shake the United 
 States. But here only the tremors were felt for President 
 Wilson proclaimed the neutrality of the United States on 
 August 4. 
 
 The proclamation was drawn by Counsellor Lansing of 
 the State Department and Secretary of State Bryan took it 
 with him to the regular meeting of the Cabinet. There the 
 President submitted the document to the members of the 
 Cabinet and it was approved. It was formally issued within 
 thirty minutes of the beginning of the Cabinet meeting. 
 
 In form the proclamation followed closely the document 
 
 279
 
 280 Neutrality of the I'uitcd States 
 
 of the same character issued by President Roosevelt at the 
 time of the Russo-Japanese war. It provided for the abso- 
 lute neutrality of the United States and informed the peoples 
 of the world that this country would live up to its declara- 
 tions. 
 
 In the preamble the existence of a state of war between 
 Austria and Servia, between Germanv and Russia and 
 between Germanv and France was formally recognized. It 
 was stated that the laws and treaties of the United States 
 imposed on all persons residing therein the duty of strict 
 neutrality, and that it was the duty of a neutral government 
 not to permit the making of its waters subservient to the pur- 
 poses of war. 
 
 The President, therefore, made known the acts which 
 were forbidden to be done within the United States, in order 
 that the neutrality of the nation and of its citizens and other 
 residents might be preserved. Eleven restrictions were 
 placed on the people and these acts are prohibited: 
 
 Accepting or exercising a commission to serve with one 
 belligerent against another. 
 
 Enlisting or entering the service of any belligerent as a 
 soldier, sailor, marine or otherwise. 
 
 Hiring or obtaining another person to enlist. 
 
 Hiring another to go beyond the limits of the United 
 States for the purpose of enlisting. 
 
 Hiring another to leave the country with the intent to be 
 enlisted. 
 
 Retaining another to leave the United States with intent 
 to be enlisted. 
 
 Fitting out, or procuring the fitting out, or being con-
 
 Neutrality of the United States 281 
 
 cerned in the fitting out or arming, of any ship with intent 
 that such ship shall be employed in the service of any 
 belligerent. 
 
 Issuing or delivering a commission for any ship, to the 
 intent that she may be employed by any belligerent. 
 
 In any way taking part in the increasing or augmentation 
 of the force or armament of any ship of war belonging to a 
 belligerent. 
 
 Setting on foot or aiding in the preparation of any mili- 
 tary expedition from the United States against the territories 
 of the belligerents. 
 
 FORBIDS USE OF UNITED STATES WATERS 
 
 The proclamation set forth that the use of the waters of 
 the United States by any armed vessel of a belligerent, for 
 preparation for hostilities, or for spying, must be regarded 
 as unfriendly and offensive. Consequently after August 5 
 no such vessel was permitted to use any port from which 
 a vessel from an opposing belligerent previously departed 
 within twenty-four hours. 
 
 Vessels of the belligerents were required to depart from 
 any port they enter within twenty-four hours, except in case 
 of stress of weather, requiring provisions for the subsistence 
 of her crew or for repairs. 
 
 If several ships of opposing belligerents shall enter a 
 harbor they are to be required to depart, alternately, at inter- 
 vals of twenty-four hours, the proclamation ordered. 
 
 Only such supplies as are necessary for the crew shall be 
 carried from a port by any armed vessel of a belligerent, and 
 only so much coal as will enable her to get to her nearest
 
 •JK2 Neutrality of the United States 
 
 home port; it continued adding that vessels using both steam 
 and sail power are to be allowed only half as much coal, and 
 no such vessel, without special permission, is to be allowed 
 to coal twice within the waters of the United States within 
 three months, unless she has in the meanwhile entered a port 
 of the Government to which she belongs. 
 
 All citizens and residents were warned that they must not 
 take any part in the war, but should remain at peace with all 
 the belligerents; that they should not commit any act con- 
 trary to the treaties and laws of the United States, and that, 
 although having the right to full and free expression of their 
 sympathies, they must in no way aid any of the belligerents. 
 
 While all persons may manufacture and sell within the 
 United States arms and munitions of war and other articles 
 known as contraband of war, the carriage of such on the seas 
 \\as prohibited, as w r as the transportation of the soldiers of 
 belligerents and all attempts to break a blockade lawfully 
 established. Such acts, the proclamation warned, will incur 
 "the risk of hostile capture and the penalties denounced by 
 the law of nations in that behalf." 
 
 The President's proclamation closed: , 
 
 "And I do hereby give notice that all citizens of the 
 United States and others, who may claim the protection of 
 this Government, who may misconduct themselves in the 
 premises, will do so at their peril; and that they can in no 
 wise obtain any protection from the Government of the 
 United States against the consequences of their misconduct." 
 
 PKESIDENT WAENS AMERICANS 
 
 Pefore this proclamation and while conditions in Conti- 
 nental Europe were getting worse day by day, President
 
 Neutrality of the United States 283 
 
 Wilson took occasion to sound another warning to Ameri- 
 cans. He told them to be calm in the face of the European 
 crisis. He said: 
 
 "It is extremely necessary, it is manifestly necessary, in 
 the present state of affairs on the other side of the water 
 that you should be extremely careful not to add in any way 
 to the excitement. Of course, the European world is in a 
 highly excited state of mind, but the excitement ought not to 
 spread to the United States. 
 
 "So far as we are concerned, there is no cause for excite- 
 ment. There is great inconvenience, for the time being, in 
 the money market and in our exchanges, and, temporarily, 
 in the handling of our crops, but America is absolutely pre- 
 pared to meet the financial situation and to straighten every- 
 thing out without any material difficulty. The only thing 
 that can possibly prevent it is unreasonable apprehension 
 and excitement. 
 
 "If I might make a suggestion to you gentlemen, there- 
 fore, I would urge you not to give currency to any unverified 
 rumor, to anything that would tend to create or add to excite- 
 ment. I think that you will agree that we must all at the 
 present moment act together as Americans in seeing that 
 America does not suffer any unnecessary distress from what 
 is going on in the world at large. The situation in Europe is 
 perhaps the gravest in its possibilities that has arisen in 
 modern times, but it need not affect the United States 
 unfavorably in the long run. 
 
 "Not that the United States has anything to take advan- 
 tage of, but her own position is sound and she owes it to 
 mankind to remain in such a condition and in such a state of 
 mind that she can help the rest of the world.
 
 284 Neutrality of the United Slates 
 
 "I want to have the pride of feeling that America, if 
 nobody else, lias her self-possession and stands ready with 
 calmness of thought and steadiness of purpose to help the 
 rest of the world. And we can do it and reap a great perma- 
 nent glory out of doing it, provided we all co-operate to see 
 that nobody loses his head. 
 
 I know from my conferences with the Secretary of the 
 Treasury, who is in very close touch with the financial situa- 
 tion throughout the country, that there is no cause for alarm. 
 There is cause for getting busy and doing the thing in the 
 right way, but there is no element of unsoundness and there 
 is no cause for alarm. The bankers and business men of 
 the country are co-operating with the Government with a 
 zeal, intelligence and spirit which make the outcome secure." 
 
 The day following the issuing of his neutrality proclama- 
 tion President Wilson tended his good ollices to the warring 
 nations. 
 
 OFFER OF MEDIATION 
 
 In his cablegram to the German Emperor, the Czar of 
 Russia, the Emperor of Austria-Hungary, the President of 
 France and the King of England, he said: 
 
 "As official head of one of the powers signatory to The 
 Hague Convention I feel it to be my privilege and my 
 duty, under article three of that convention, to say to you 
 in a spirit of most earnest friendship that I should welcome 
 an opportunity to act in the interest of European peace, 
 cither now or at any other time that might he thought more 
 suitable, as an occasion to serve you and all concerned in 
 a way that would afford me lasting cause for gratitude and 
 happiness."
 
 Neutrality of the United States 285 
 
 Representatives of the German, Russian, Austrian, 
 French and English Embassies were notified of the Execu- 
 tive's action by Secretary of State Bryan. 
 
 The President acted on his own initiative. He did not 
 get suggestion from any neutral or belligerent country on 
 the subject. He did what he considered his duty under The 
 Hague Convention, which provides that "in case of serious 
 disagreement or dispute, before an appeal to arms, the con- 
 tracting powers agree to have recourse, as far as circum- 
 stances allow, to the good offices or mediation of one or more 
 friendly powers. 
 
 "Independently of this recourse, the contracting powers 
 deem it expedient and desirable that one or more powers, 
 strangers to the dispute, should, on their own initiative, and 
 as far as circumstances may allow, offer their good offices 
 or mediation to the states as variance. 
 
 "Powers strangers to the dispute have the right to offer 
 good offices or mediation even during the course of hostilities. 
 
 "The exercise of this right can never be regarded by either 
 of the parties in dispute as an unfriendly act." 
 
 Servia and Montenegro were not included in the offer 
 because they were not parties of The Hague Convention. 
 Servia took part in the conferences but never ratified the 
 
 document. 
 
 The Hague Convention, signed October 18, 1907, and 
 ratified by the United States Senate April 2, 1908, and by 
 the President of the United States February 23, 1909, and 
 proclaimed a year later, provides that : 
 
 "The part of the mediator consists in reconciling the 
 opposing claims and appeasing the feelings of resentment 
 which may have arisen between the states at variance.
 
 286 Neutrality of the United Slates 
 
 'The functions of the mediator are at an end when once 
 it is declared, either by one of the parties to the dispute or 
 by the mediator himself, that the means of reconciliation pro- 
 posed by him are not accepted. 
 
 "Good officers and mediation undertaken either at the 
 request of the parties in dispute or on the initiative of powers 
 strangers to the dispute have exclusively the character of 
 advice, and never have binding force. 
 
 'The acceptance of mediation cannot, unless there be an 
 agreement to the contrary, have the effect of interrupting, 
 delaying, or hindering mobilization or other measures of 
 preparation for war. 
 
 "If it takes place after the commencement of hostilities, 
 the military operations in progress are not interrupted in the 
 absence of an agreement to the contrary." 
 
 The responses to this offer of mediation were all of a 
 friendly nature and written in a courteous tone hut all the 
 nations involved declared that they could not accept at this 
 time.
 
 CHAPTER XXXII 
 
 AMERICANS ABROAD AT OUTBREAK OF WAR 
 
 Americans Caught in War Zone — Service Rendered by 
 American Diplomats — President Wilsons Call on Con- 
 gress for Funds— $250 ,000 Immediately Voted for Re- 
 lief of Stranded Americans- — $2,500,000 More Voted for 
 Same Purpose — Battleship Tennessee Sails With Gold 
 Cargo on Mission of Relief — Refugees Arrive on the 
 Philadelphia — The France and New York Return 
 Crowded With Refugees — Stories of Thrilling Expe- 
 riences. 
 
 OVER 250,000 Americans who had gone to Europe to 
 tour the Continent or were temporary residents there 
 were caught in the vortex of the war zone early in August. 
 Many of the Americans abroad at the time of the outbreak 
 of war had thrilling experiences. Many were stranded in 
 strange countries, unable to get their travelers' checks cashed. 
 They suffered great hardship. Nor was the lot of wealthy 
 tourists a bit lighter than that of the thousands of school 
 teachers who were traveling "in suit cases," so to speak. 
 
 The United States government took prompt steps to aid 
 the stranded Americans. The State Department kept the 
 cable wires hot between this country and Europe. Diplo- 
 
 287
 
 CHASED BY A WARSHIP
 
 w< / 
 
 S^i-i-vssa- 
 
 PUTTING ON THE WAR PAINT
 
 288 Americans Abroad at Outbreak of War 
 
 matic and consular officials to the warring countries received 
 orders to relieve the suffering of Americans. In such a 
 crisis the often scoffed at diplomatic service of the United 
 States rose to heights of efficiency. 
 
 PRESIDENT APPEALS FOB FUNDS 
 
 President Wilson asked Congress to appropriate $250,- 
 000, on August .'J, with which to relieve immediately Ameri- 
 cans abroad. Congress promptly rushed through a hill 
 granting that amount. The following day he asked for 
 $2,500,000 in an additional appropriation. 
 
 The President's message read: 
 
 "After further consideration of the existing condition in 
 Europe in so far as it is affecting citizens of the United 
 States who are there without means, financial or otherwise, 
 to return to their homes in this country, it seems incumbent 
 upon the government to take steps at once to provide ade- 
 quate means by the chartering of vessels or otherwise of 
 I (ringing Americans out of the disturbed region and con- 
 veying them to their homes in the United States. Moreover, 
 in view of the difficulty of obtaining money upon letters of 
 credit with which most Americans abroad are supplied, it 
 will be necessary to send agents abroad with funds which can 
 be advanced on such evidences of credit or used for the assist- 
 ance of destitute citizens of the United States. 
 
 "In these circumstances I recommend the immediate pas- 
 sage by the Congress of an act appropriating two million five 
 hundred thousand dollars, or so much thereof as may be 
 necessary, to he placed at the disposal of the President for 
 the relief, protection and transportation of American citizens
 
 Americans Abroad at Outbreak of War 289 
 
 and for personal services, rent and other expenses which may 
 be incurred in the District of Columbia or elsewhere con- 
 nected with or growing out of the existing disturbance in 
 Europe." 
 
 Congress promptly backed up President Wilson again, 
 and on August 6 the money was on its way to Europe, stowed 
 in the after magazines of the United States cruiser Ten- 
 nessee. Assistant Secretary Breckinridge went in command 
 of the work of relief. Officials of the United States Govern- 
 ment who were abroad at the time were ordered to co-operate 
 with Mr. Breckinridge in ascertaining the whereabouts of 
 stranded Americans so that they might be able to obtain 
 speedy relief. 
 
 The first of the American refugees from the real war 
 zone reached this country on August 12 when, with 1,012 pas- 
 sengers, a crew of 300 men, and six mail clerks on board, 
 the American Line steamship Philadelphia warped into her 
 pier in New York. Never had the Philadelphia accommo- 
 dated such a crowd. There were 703 second cabin passengers 
 and 309 in the steerage. Three of the men in the steerage 
 could have purchased the Philadelphia several times over, but 
 their wealth was not great enough to buy a bed in a second 
 cabin. There are no first cabins on the vessel. In one second 
 cabin slept fifteen women. Some were compelled to sleep on 
 deck, some in the dining saloon and others in the companion- 
 way. Many steerage passengers had the run of the deck and 
 they were treated with the same consideration, as far as 
 possible, as those occupying the cabins. 
 
 The Philadelphia, in charge of Captain Mills, sailed from 
 Southampton August 5 and touched Queenstown next day. 
 It was found on leaving Queenstown that there was hardly
 
 290 Americans Abroad at Outbreak- of War 
 
 standing room on deck for all the passengers. Men gave up 
 their steamer chairs to women and had to remain on their 
 feet. So crowded was the deck during the day that pas- 
 sengers stumbled over each other. The nights were cold and 
 the men who were compelled to sleep in the open almost froze. 
 
 WARSHIPS COVER LINER 
 
 On leaving Queenstown the Philadelphia was followed 
 by a British warship. Later another British vessel took the 
 place of the first and kept close to the ship until she was well 
 on her way. Soon after the last war vessel turned about after 
 signalling "All right," the Philadelphia came upon several 
 French torpedo boats. 
 
 One of the boats ran close to the liner and signalled 
 "Stop!" Captain Mills did not obey, thinking that his flying 
 the United States flag was sufficient for him to continue. 
 Then came this signal from the French boat: 
 
 "Stop and stop quickly!" 
 
 The Philadelphia obeyed and the torpedo boat came so 
 close that the wash from the liner almost swamped it. 
 
 Although the passengers suffered much discomfort 
 throughout the trip because of the crowded condition of the 
 ship, the weather was favoring them, except those who slept 
 on deck. The passengers were mighty glad, however, to see 
 Liberty, and when the Philadelphia was drawing into quaran- 
 tine and a mail boat came alongside the passengers gave 
 rousing cheers. 
 
 "We have a kaiser on board. What shall we do with 
 him?" yelled one man, and the passengers laughed. 
 
 "Who played the Giants today?" asked another.
 
 Americans Abroad at Outbreak of War 291 
 
 And so the ship rang with laughter and questions all the 
 way up the bay to the pier. 
 
 GERMAN TROOPS STOP TRAIN 
 
 "I was in Dresden the day war was declared," said A. 
 Assman, "and took the first train I could catch for Rotter- 
 dam. When we reached the border line the train was stopped 
 by troops and every car belonging to a German company 
 was detached from the train. 
 
 "At the time we had eight coaches, and all of them were 
 crowded to the platforms. The taking off of three coaches 
 was a serious matter. All the passengers from these coaches 
 had to squeeze into the other already suffocatingly crowded 
 coaches. 
 
 "But the greatest hardships were in getting to London. 
 There is hardly a passenger on the Philadelphia who has not 
 lost his or her baggage. One woman on board who lost all 
 her trunks and jewels landed in London with just one 
 shilling." 
 
 Milton Blumenthal, who boarded the Philadelphia at 
 Southampton, was in Paris when war was declared against 
 France by Germany. 
 
 "I left Paris at 5 o'clock next morning," he said. "At 
 that time the excitement was intense. The walls of the city 
 were placarded with signs which read: 
 
 " 'All men not over thirty-three go to the front.' 
 
 "Even at that hour the streets were crowded with excited 
 throngs. I got to London as quickly as possible, but that 
 wasn't very quick. This trip to London was disagreeable 
 enough to be remembered a lifetime."
 
 2 ( .)"2 Americans Abroad at Outbreak of War 
 
 John A. Wilson, the President's cousin, appeared to he 
 the happiest person in the list of bedraggled passengers, 
 while Martin Vogel, Assistant Treasurer of the United 
 Stat, sat New STork, appeared to be the most unhappy. Mr. 
 Vogel finished up his honeymoon aboard the Philadelphia. 
 I [e said: 
 
 "Americans generally are in an extremely bad way in 
 I'aiis and Berlin. The hotels are all elosed in Paris and 
 the waiters have all gone to the war. Many Americans are 
 actually destitute. There was the case of young Mr. Wide- 
 ner of Philadelphia, whose automobile was taken from him 
 by the French soldiers while he Mas touring through the 
 country and his chauffeur was hustled off to carry a gun. 
 Mr. Bonner, manager of the Ritz-Carlton of Philadelphia, 
 also was relieved of his machine while about three miles from 
 the Belgian frontier. He was left to hustle for himself. 
 
 "The plight of American women is peculiarly bad. Those 
 who have no gold are being subjected to all sorts of indig- 
 
 nities. 
 
 .Max Annenburg, circulation manager of the Chicago 
 Tribune, was one of the passeng;ers on the Philadelphia. 
 With his wife and two children lie was in Hamburg at the 
 outbreak of the trouble. He thus described his experiences: 
 
 NO GERMAN UOATS SAIL 
 
 "Those who were to sail by the Imperator, of which I 
 was one, got into Hamburg on July 30 and had their bag- 
 gage transferred to Cuxhaven, their tickets changed and 
 
 fyrrvthiiiLr '" r^idincss in sail the next day, The next morn-
 
 Americans Abroad at Outbreak of War 293 
 
 ing I woke up at my hotel and the elevator hoy told me that 
 there were no boats sailing from the German ports. 
 
 "Inside of an hour there was a mob of angry Americans 
 storming the offices of the Hamburg- American Line. 
 
 "At last they told us that the ship would not sail and the 
 passengers cashed in their tickets. Every one of them got 
 their money in German coin and then made a rush for the 
 first train for London. 
 
 "About two thousand were able to get aboard the train 
 which left for Holland and the rest were left behind. 
 
 "The conditions on the train on which we left were hor- 
 rible. The German troops jammed and pushed men, women 
 and children aboard until we were fairly piled up in the 
 aisles. 
 
 "Literally packed in like sardines, we rode to the Hol- 
 land line with many stops. There the soldiers again came 
 aboard the train and dumped everybody out. They said that 
 the train had to go back to act as a troop train and that now 
 we were on Dutch soil the Dutch would have to look after 
 us. That was at 3 o'clock in the morning. 
 
 "We waited in the dark for about two hours and a half, 
 when a Dutch train backed up and we boarded this for 
 Flushing, where we were to ship for England. The trip 
 ordinarily takes ten hours. It took us exactly eighteen hours 
 and on the way we had neither food nor water." 
 
 "When I left Hamburg there were at least 15,000 trunks 
 of Americans piled up on the Hamburg- American Line pier. 
 No one will be able to get them until after the war. 
 
 "The boat from Flushing to London usually carries 
 about 500 persons ; there were 2,000 on the one on which I 
 went over. In London we were in more difficulty because
 
 294 Americans Abroad at Outbreak of War 
 
 German money was not accepted. From Saturday night 
 until the Philadelphia sailed not a hank opened its doors. 
 
 "People coming from Berlin told me they were stopped 
 in the streets and made to alight from automobiles. An 
 officer would hand them receipts for their automobiles, and 
 tell them they might have them after the war." 
 
 Lerov Vanderburgh of New York City was in Amster- 
 dam July .31st when the mobilization order was given. 
 
 "The next day we tried to get out," he said, "but could 
 not because the train service had been taken over by the 
 government. There was tremendous excitement among the 
 Dutch. A train was finally made up which took us to the 
 Hook of Holland, where we were held for eighteen hours 
 waiting for the last train from Berlin. 
 
 "One woman who came on that train from Strasburg told 
 that the German soldiers bad forced her to change cars 
 eighteen times. Others had been put out of a train at 3 
 o'clock in the morning by German troops and forced to walk 
 across the Holland line." 
 
 The France of the French Line arrived in Xew York on 
 August 20th carrying 1.374 Americans from the war zone. 
 In the steerage were forty-two Americans, some prominent; 
 for example, a member of the Spanish Embassy at Wash- 
 ington and Charles Leddy, the artist, who painted portraits 
 all the way over for the benefit of the Red Cross. 
 
 THE FRANCE MADE A FAST TRIP 
 
 Captain Mourand said he passed four cruisers, all in mid- 
 Atlantic. He thought they were British and one the Tigress. 
 The entrance to the English Channel was guarded by French
 
 Americans Abroad at Outbreak of War 295 
 
 torpedo boats. He had two days of fog, and the France 
 made more than twenty-two knots an hour part of the way. 
 He came across with his lights burning, was challenged by 
 an English cruiser and hoisted his colors. 
 
 On the day the France left her home port the eyes of 
 Havre citizens were gladdened by the sight of 35,000 British 
 troops landing from twenty transports. Bands played, the 
 disembarkation was carried on with precision and Frenchmen 
 danced with joy, literally embracing their righting allies from 
 across the channel. 
 
 Mrs. Wilson Howe, sister of President Wilson, and her 
 daughter and granddaughter, all garbed in mourning, were 
 aboard. Mrs. Howe said she had been in Dieppe, whence 
 she caught the last train for Paris. She had only two pieces 
 of baggage, but lost both. Ambassador Herrick sent the 
 party from Paris to Havre in his automobile. 
 
 "Nobody can know the awful experience of Americans in 
 a foreign land during mobilization," said Mrs. Totten, the 
 wife of John R. Totten of New York. "The little details 
 of official inspection, registration and a thousand annoyances 
 are a small part of the indescribable situation. I was faint 
 for lack of food. There were intervals of fourteen hours 
 without anything to eat. I have only the dress I am wearing. 
 
 "We had motored through France, Germany and Swit- 
 zerland, but had to give up our tour in Austria and leave 
 our car and French chauffeur at Interlaken for the govern- 
 ment. The proprietor of the Hotel du Rhein, where we 
 stopped in Paris, was a German. Twice mobs threatened 
 to blow up the hotel. They gave us half an hour to get out. 
 We told the rioters Americans were in the hotel. They said
 
 296 Americans Abroad at Outbreak of War 
 
 they would blow it up. We shifted to the Hotel Lotti, 
 dragging our trunks." 
 
 DANCERS FORCED TO SI.KKl" IN AUTO 
 
 Mr. and Mrs. M. Maurice, the dancers, of Wilmington, 
 
 Del., and Mi-. Maurice's brother, whose professional name 
 is Oscar Suzette, and his wife left Vichy August 10th. They 
 engaged an auto for $1,000 and stopped en route, at St. 
 Pierre, Chartiers, Dreux and Rouen. In Chartiers the police 
 told them to get off the street or they would be locked up. 
 They slept that night in their auto. 
 
 In another town they slept on straw in a hotel. At still 
 another place they slept on the floor of the hotel office. Once 
 they changed their machine, the first having been com- 
 mandeered. Between Vichy and Havre their passports were 
 vised fifty-seven times. They gave a dance there, raising 
 3,000 francs for the Red Cross. 
 
 At Havre Mr. Maurice's father had been searching for 
 them. 
 
 They paid 4,875 francs for passage and only got aboard 
 because so many passengers had left the ship at Havre. 
 
 Robert Morris of New York said he had rather a good 
 time waiting in Havre. 
 
 Mrs. J. IT. Potts of Chicago, with thirty-nine others, 
 went from Paris to Havre on a cattle train. Thev were 
 twelve hours on the road. 
 
 Jules Glaenzer of the Chartiers Company, jewelers, 
 brought the five-year-old daughter of his partner, M. Char- 
 tier, who had gone to the war. while the little girl's mother 
 had left Paris and was unable to return, Mr. Glaenzer said
 
 Americans Abroad at Outbreak of War 297 
 
 his firm had hustled $40,000,000 of diamonds into the Bank 
 of France in two hours August 2d, and 300 members of the 
 firm and employes had left for the front. He, being an 
 American citizen, was the only one who did not go to the war. 
 
 'steanded" was the password 
 
 Mr. and Mrs. Charles K. Baum were in the Morgan- 
 Harjos Bank, Paris, awaiting a chance to have a draft hon- 
 ored. A stranger passed them. 
 
 "Stranded?" inquired the stranger. 
 
 "Stranded," said Mr. Baum. 
 
 "Here, take these 700 francs," said the unknown 
 American. 
 
 "But I don't know you and you don't know me," replied 
 Mr. Baum. 
 
 "Give me your I. O. U.," said the man. "I'll take your 
 face." 
 
 The good angel was Charles Rowen. 
 
 In a bazaar Mr. Baum saw a hard-up fellow-countryman 
 trying to buy two tickets from Paris to Havre. He did not 
 know the man, but Mr. Baum paid for the tickets. The man 
 met him on the France and paid him back the sum. 
 
 Francis Campbell of Morgan, Harjes & Co., Paris, said 
 he had never seen mobilization so orderly. There was no 
 brawling, he said, and the crowds had sung only national 
 anthems. 
 
 ''There was in Paris for a while a shortage of change, but 
 the government issue of 5, 10 and 20 franc notes helped 
 us out." 
 
 Little Miss Lucy Churchill McDannel, the daughter of
 
 298 Americans Abroad at Outbreak of War 
 
 T. IT. McDannel, landing agent of the Savannah line, with 
 her mother, was studying in Paris before the hegira. They 
 were on board the France seventeen days in all. Mrs. Mc- 
 Dannel carried her clothes in a pillow case. She lost her 
 trunks. 
 
 STATEROOM LAUNDRY ON SHIP 
 
 "Everybody who had lost his baggage," said Miss Lucy, 
 who is thirteen years old, "washed his own clothes at night 
 and dried them before morning. A Chicago doctor left his 
 shoes outside his stateroom door, but by morning they had 
 been mobilized." 
 
 .Miss Florence Hatzfeld and Miss Lucy Collins of Phila- 
 delphia went two days without Food because Paris shop 
 keepers would not sell it. Miss Hatzfeld, on her way to 
 Havre, was jolted off the cattle train on which everybody 
 was standing. A pile of trunks fell on top of her. She 
 was bruised, but not seriously injured. For ten days the 
 young woman had no change of clothing. Miss Hatzfeld 
 said all went to bed early and extinguished lights for fear 
 of airships dropping bombs. 
 
 Mrs. Florence W. Lawrence and her fifteen-year-old 
 daughter, Dorothy, lost all their trunks and money. They 
 landed witli two hand hags. Mrs. Lawrence is the wife of 
 the editor of the Chicago Examiner. 
 
 Jules S. F. Bache, the banker, said: 
 
 "America doesn't realize the troubled conditions in 
 Europe. The suddenness of the whole thing was not real- 
 ized. The main trouble was io get money, but the only thing 
 worth while in Europe was gold."
 
 Americans Abroad at Outbreak of War 299 
 
 Mrs. Walter Haynes, wife of a lawyer, waited eleven 
 hours in Paris for food and fainted away during the interval. 
 
 Miss Edna Aug said that when the first regiments 
 marched through the Rue de la Paix the hundreds of models 
 appeared on the balconies of Paquin's and strewed roses 
 and geraniums on the soldiers. 
 
 Similar stories were told when the American liner New 
 York arrived. Here are some of them: 
 
 Miss Margaret G. Konkle, a very pretty girl, landed 
 without her trunk. She had paid $155 for passage on the 
 Imperator. She managed to get away from Paris, but her 
 trunk didn't follow her to Cherbourg. She came aboard with 
 only a little handbag. The stewardesses made up for her 
 lack of wardrobe. Miss Konkle didn't have to pay any duty 
 yesterday, which was some consolation. 
 
 Francis De Vere, a stock broker, said many Americans 
 still were in Paris by their own fault. They had been warned 
 in time. 
 
 "Some Americans who do not read or speak French," 
 said Mr. De Vere, "did not wake up to what was going on 
 for two or three days. They were making plans to go fur- 
 ther into Europe while the embroiling was growing worse. 
 Friday night, July 31st, was an anxious night. We didn't 
 know whether the New York would come in at Cherbourg 
 or not." 
 
 Three weeks ago the broker was in Budapest. 
 
 "There is a Greek church on the outskirts ot Budapest, 
 which had always borne a good reputation," said he. 'The 
 police arrested the priest on some evidence and his church 
 was found packed full of bombs. The priest was in league 
 with the Servians.
 
 PRESIDENT WooDlinW WILSON. 
 
 Copyright. 11)13. by Harris & EJwing
 
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 300 Americans Abroad at Outbreak of War 
 
 CALLED CROWN PRINCE BOMB TUTOB 
 
 "Government detectives of Austria-Hungary say they 
 
 learned that the Crown Prince of Servia conducted a regular 
 school in which the curriculum was bomb making and bomb 
 throwing. 
 
 "A conversation with a cabman shows the earnestness and 
 tenseness in Budapest. I asked if he would take me pleasure 
 riding. 'Xo, sir,' he replied, 'but if you wish to go to a 
 railway station or a hotel I will take vou.' " 
 
 Col. H. J. Gross, formerly in command of the First 
 Light Infantry of Providence, R. I., and his wife left Paris 
 Friday night, July 31st. 
 
 "I beat the war announcement by five hours," said Colo- 
 nel Gross. "On Saturday morning, August 1st, I learned 
 that Paris had closed all its banks. You could not buy a 
 meal. I had only fifty-franc notes, but nobody would change 
 them." 
 
 Colonel and Mrs. Gross tried successively to get home on 
 the Imperator, La Provence and the Potsdam, finally man- 
 aging to get on the New York. lie had an upper berth in a 
 four-bunk stateroom and a similar berth was found for Mrs. 
 Gross in a stateroom with three other women. 
 
 July 14th — the anniversary of the fall of the Bastile — 
 Colonel Gross witnessed a review of 50. 000 French troops. 
 "They were the finest disciplined body of men I ever saw," 
 said he. "If they can fight as well as thev can manoeuver, 
 they are all right." 
 
 The Rev. Harvey T\. TTeigner of Philadelphia, who 
 arrived on the New York, had gone through Germany
 
 Americans Abroad at Outbreak of War 301 
 
 after visiting Egypt and the Orient. He was two days in 
 Berlin, leaving a few days before the trains stopped running 
 and commercial traffic was paralyzed. 
 
 saw Berlin's war fire kindled 
 
 "Berlin was very enthusiastic," said the clergyman. "On 
 the Sunday night before the declaration of war twenty bands 
 of music, at the head of many processions, paraded through 
 the streets until 2 o'clock in the morning. In the processions 
 were university professors, students, business men and even 
 women. As they marched they sang 'Germany Over Every- 
 thing.' 
 
 "Unter den Linden was strewn with handbills and bulle- 
 tins, struck off by the newspapers. Placards were every- 
 where. Crowds marched and countermarched past the Rus- 
 sian Embassy, singing jeeringly. A squad of cavalry was 
 sent from the palace to guard the embassy, and the police 
 quelled the rioting. 
 
 "German soldiers in civilian life knew just where to go, 
 at just what division to report. All they had to do was to 
 get into their uniforms. 
 
 "Harvests were ripe all through Germany. Women 
 predominated in the fields. The greatest surprise to me is 
 the suddenness with which it all clapped down. 
 
 "In Dresden you could not get a meal until you showed 
 money." 
 
 Dr. J. D. McGowan of Chicago, accompanied by his 
 wife, had attended the Surgeons' Congress. He found con- 
 ditions getting hot in London and decided to get out. He 
 said he saw the Coldstream Guards march into the Tower of
 
 302 Americans Abroad al Outbreak of War 
 
 London, drop their bearskins on the floor and get into their 
 khaki. Every soldier he saw was in his lighting uniform. 
 
 "We could not cash our American Express Company 
 checks," said the doctor, "and 1 understand Londoners 
 charged 33 1-3 per cent for cashing American drafts. We 
 didn't hear anything but war talk." 
 
 Dr. John R. Pennington of Chicago, a passenger on the 
 New York, said 900 American surgeons were delayed in 
 London. All have patients to whom they promised to return 
 immediately. 
 
 Mrs. H. P. Martin of Red Bank, N. J., with her six- 
 months-old babe, arrived at the American Relief Committee 
 headquarters in London on August 20th after a trying trip. 
 They started from Magdeburg, Germany, August 2d, with 
 Mr. Martin, but he became separated from them as a crowd 
 of foreigners was forced into a train. Mrs. Martin protested 
 that she could not go alone, but the officers told her her 
 husband was in another car. 
 
 Mrs. Martin, who was only nineteen years old and unused 
 to traveling, reached Berlin August 4th, where she found 
 her husband was not on the train. By degrees she made her 
 way to Holland and reached London almost penniless.
 
 CHAPTER XXXIII 
 
 FIRST SEA BATTLE OF THE WAR 
 
 English, Under Screen of Heavy Fog, Enter the Bight of 
 Heligoland and Lure German Ships from Their Base — 
 Two of the Kaiser s Cruisers Sunk, One Set Afire and 
 Two Torpedo Boats Are Destroyed — Sir David Beatty, 
 Who Married a Daughter of America's Merchant Prince, 
 Marshall Field, in Command of the Victorious British 
 Squadron — English Rescue German Sailors — German 
 Official Report. 
 
 THE first important naval battle of the war was fought on 
 a foggy morning, August 28, before daybreak, in the 
 bight, or bay, of Heligoland, a large German island in the 
 North Sea. 
 
 All the details of the battle were suppressed by the censor 
 but a bulletin flashed on the screen at the London theatres, 
 "The British fleet has assumed the aggressive," was enough 
 to set the audience wild. This excitement soon spread to the 
 streets and London, which had remained taciturn and stern 
 under reports of repeated German and Austrian successes 
 on land, indulged in an orgy of self-glorification over the 
 long expected news of a victory of the fleet. 
 
 The Prussian tradition of the invincibility of its arms 
 had its counterpart in the belief in England that the Eng- 
 lish fleet could not be conquered. 
 
 303
 
 30i First Sea Baltic of the War 
 
 A censorship which had kept secret the movements of 
 every vessel in the British navy had whetted the anxiety 
 which it was intended to allay until the people were in a state 
 of mind when the smallest glimmering of good news was 
 magnified into the news of a "glorious victory." London 
 was quite prepared therefore to read in the morning papers 
 of August 29 such announcements as this: 
 
 "A glorious victory has fallen to the British fleet. With 
 all the courage and fearless enterprise that distinguished our 
 old officers, who many a time went into the very jaws of the 
 enemy, Rear Admirals David Beatty, A. N. Christian, and 
 Sir Arthur G. W. Moore have conducted a combined opera-. 
 tion in the Bight of Heligoland, where the enemy had all 
 his strength at his command. The triumph was complete." 
 
 It was announced officially that the British fleet had 
 "sunk two German cruisers and two German torpedo boats 
 off Heligoland." And it Mas added that a third German 
 cruiser had been set afire and left sinking. 
 
 The newspaper version Mas that the German light cruisers 
 Mainz and another of the Koeln class "and a third whose 
 name was unknown had been destroyed, as well as two 
 destroyers." 
 
 It appeared that a concerted attack had been planned — 
 "just as our old seamen would have planned it," the exultant 
 press continued, "to begin in dark and reach its decisive 
 point at dawn. The attacking force Mas organic." 
 
 A less technical but more intelligible account was brought 
 in by a wounded English sailor, landed at Harwich a day or 
 so later. According to this sailor, the British fleet had bot- 
 tled up the German fleet in the bight of Heligoland and the 
 estuary of the Elbe and was standing by prepared to give 
 the Germans battle when they should venture out.
 
 First Sea Battle of the War 305 
 
 "fishing with live bait" 
 
 The British took advantage of the fog on the night of 
 August 27-28 to send one of the smaller craft in close to the 
 Germans with the object of luring the latter out. The sailor 
 described this maneuver as "fishing with live bait," the 
 smaller craft being the bait. The sailorman said that he 
 didn't find the experience agreeable, as he was under fire of 
 the enemv all the time at short range and without the oppor- 
 tunity to "talk back." 
 
 However, the ruse was successful. The Germans fol- 
 lowed the "bait" out of their hiding quarters until they came 
 within range of the main British fleet, concealed by the fog. 
 When it was too late to escape they found themselves under 
 the fire of a superior force and, by all accounts, suffered 
 severely. 
 
 The British fleet engaged consisted of the first battle 
 cruiser squadron, the light cruiser squadrons and the de- 
 stroyer and submarine flotillas. 
 
 The British fighting was distinguished by great accuracy 
 of fire and the chief praise was awarded to Rear Admiral Sir 
 David Beatty, the youngest flag officer afloat, a sailor in 
 whom Americans felt a peculiar interest because of his Amer- 
 ican wife. He married in 1901 the daughter of the late 
 Marshall Field of Chicago. 
 
 Rear Admiral Beatty commanded the first battle cruiser 
 squadron, comprising the Lion (flagship), the Queen Mary, 
 the Princess Royal and the New Zealand. He conducted 
 the operation already described under the direction of Sir 
 John Jellicoe, Commander-in-Chief. Jellicoe was a great 
 favorite of the navy and of the English people. He was
 
 306 First Sea Battle of the War 
 
 one of the smallest men wearing the uniform and in his 
 younger days was the champion Lightweight of Ihe navy, 
 having "put it all over" all contenders in the ileet, without 
 regard to rank. 
 
 Complete as was their victory the British appear to have 
 suffered little loss of life or damage to their ships. All the 
 latter emerged from the engagement afloat and "in good 
 order." "Not a German cruiser excaped," said the English 
 accounts, "and the destroyers fled wildly for shelter, having 
 had two of their number sunk." 
 
 "It was a bold thing to do," continued the English stories, 
 "to go into the Heligoland bight, but our officers had meas- 
 ured the risk and their enterprise was justified. Many times 
 did our young officers in the old wars go close to the enemy's 
 forts and cut off his coastwise shipping. The new race is 
 evidently the equal of the old." 
 
 ENGLISH RESCUED GERMANS FROM SINKING SHIPS 
 
 The loss of life must remain a matter of conjecture un- 
 til the seas shall give up its dead. The three German cruis- 
 ers and two destroyers which were sunk would have had or- 
 dinarily complements amounting to 1,500 officers and men. 
 The Liverpool brought into Harwich as prisoners nine Ger- 
 man officers and eighty-one men who had been rescued by 
 their conquerors from the sea. Many of these were wounded. 
 
 Herein is seen one of the few humane elements of war- 
 fare. The German official account of the battle, published 
 four days later, paid this tribute to the English: "It must 
 be admitted that the British without stopping to consider 
 their own danger sent out lifeboats to save our men."
 
 First Sea Battle of the War 307 
 
 Here is the carefully guarded official report of the Ger- 
 man imperial government on the same engagement. It 
 should be read if only to show how differently the same set 
 of facts may be made to appear from different angles : 
 
 GERMAN OFFICIAL REPORT 
 
 "During a fog a German torpedo boat was unexpectedly 
 attacked on all sides by British torpedo boat destroyers and 
 submarines. She defended herself with all her might, but 
 sharp firing at close range reduced her moving capacity so 
 that there was no possibility of her escaping from the enemy's 
 fire. 
 
 "The vessel turned on her enemies determined to fight 
 her passage out or engage them in battle to the end. When 
 she was no longer able to move she was blown up to prevent 
 her falling into the hands of the enemy. She sank quickly. 
 
 "The Chief of the Flotilla Captain Gorvette Wallis and 
 Captain-Lieutenant Techier, died like heroes. 
 
 "It must be admitted that the British, without stopping 
 to consider their own danger, sent out lifeboats to save our 
 men. 
 
 "Summoned by the thunder of the guns the small cruiser 
 Ariadne rushed to the assistance of the V 187. The guns 
 meanwhile were silenced, but retreat was not in accordance 
 with the fighting spirit of the German navy, and the Ariadne 
 began to pursue the enemy, whose vessels, however, were 
 hidden in the fog. 
 
 "Suddenly new gun firing was heard, and two English 
 armored cruisers of the Lion class were bombarding the 
 German vessel, to whose assistance the Ariadne was hurry-
 
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 ,*308 First Sea Battle of the War 
 
 ing. A shell struck the Ariadne's boiler room and put half 
 of her boilers out of action and reduced her speed to sixteen 
 miles. 
 
 The unequal battle raged for another half an hour. 
 The ship's stern was ablaze, but her other guns continued 
 to fire. The enemy meantime turned toward the west, but 
 the brave Ariadne was doomed to destruction, and with three 
 hurrahs for the Kaiser and singing 'Germany above all 
 Above xVH' the ship w r as abandoned in perfect order and 
 sank. 
 
 'The chief officer, the doctor, the officer of the watch, and 
 about seventy members of the crew were among the fallen. 
 Many were injured." 
 
 KAISER WLLHELM DER GROSSE SUNK BY BRITISH CRUISER 
 
 HIGHFLYER 
 
 Winston Spencer Churchill, First Lord of the Admiralty, 
 announced in the British House of Commons on August 27 
 that the North German Lloyd steamship Kaiser Wilhelm 
 der Grosse, recently converted into a cruiser, had been sunk 
 by a British cruiser. Mr. Churchill said: 
 
 'The Admiralty has just received intelligence that the 
 German armed merchant cruiser Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse, 
 of 14,000 tons, and armed with ten 4-inch guns, has been 
 sunk by II. M. S. Highflyer off the west coast of Africa. 
 
 'This is the vessel which has been interfering with traffic 
 between this country and the cape and is one of the very few 
 German armed auxiliary cruisers that succeeded in getting 
 to sea. The survivors were landed before the vessel sank. 
 The Highflyer had one killed and five wounded."
 
 First Sea Battle of the War 309 
 
 The Admiralty sent this despatch to the commander of 
 the cruiser Highflyer this afternoon : 
 
 "Bravo! You have rendered a service not only to Great 
 Britain but to the peaceful commerce of the world. The 
 German officers and men appear to have carried out their 
 duties with humanity and restraint and therefore are worthy 
 of seamanlike consideration." 
 
 The destruction of the Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse caused 
 an immediate drop of 25 per cent in Lloyds premiums on 
 vessels for South Africa and South America. 
 
 At the time of her launching in 1897 the Kaiser Wilhelm 
 der Grosse was the largest ship in the world, and for a time 
 also was the fastest, holding the north Atlantic records until 
 the Hamburg-American's Deutschland and then the fleet 
 Cunarders took them from her. She cost $4,000,000 to build. 
 The Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse was 648 feet long, with a 
 displacement of 20,000 tons. She was built under the re- 
 quirements of the imperial navy for use as a cruiser in time 
 of war and had eighteen watertight compartments. 
 
 It was on the deck of the Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse 
 that Mayor Gaynor of New York was shot by James J. 
 Gallagher as he was about to sail for Europe. 
 
 The Highflyer is a light cruiser of 5,600 tons displace- 
 ment, lightly armored and carrying eleven 6-inch guns as 
 her primary battery. She was completed in 1898. 
 
 THE BRITISH ACCOUNT 
 
 The British losses in the naval battle off Heligoland were 
 two officers and twenty-seven men killed and forty wounded. 
 The official statement said that of the 1,200 men composing
 
 310 First Sea Baltic of the War 
 
 the crews of the German warships sunk in the action only 
 :M0 survived, and that five German vessels were known to 
 have been sunk. 
 
 THE LAUREL'S BRAVE EIGHT 
 
 The most striking experience in the battle was that of 
 the destroyer Laurel, which led the division of four destroyers 
 sent ahead by the British fleet to lure the Germans out. 
 
 When the destroyer division, led by the Laurel, turned 
 about to face the oncoming German destroyers it not only 
 found itself unsupported by the cruisers, but saw coming 
 out of the haze the light cruisers of the enemy. 
 
 Nothing daunted, the division opened fire. The Laurel, 
 which was in an inside berth, had for some time to face the 
 fire of one cruiser and two destroyers. The men engaged 
 made light of the German marksmanship, declaring that 
 they ought to have been sent speedily to the bottom. The 
 first shell which hit the Laurel found its way to the engine 
 room, killing four men. The second struck the forward gun, 
 jamming the charge which was just about to be fired and 
 killing three men. 
 
 laurel's commander wounded 
 
 The third shell to strike her wounded Commander Frank 
 Rose seriously in the left leg, but though urged by his men 
 to go below, he shifted his weight onto the other leg and 
 continued to issue his orders as though nothing had happened. 
 
 All this time the Laurel was making it uncomfortable for 
 the two destroyers with which she was engaged, one of which
 
 First Sea Battle of the War 311 
 
 shortly afterward went to the bottom, and giving as good as 
 she was getting from the cruiser as well. 
 
 A piece of the fourth shell struck the commander on the 
 sound leg and brought him down on the bridge, but he still 
 declined to give way, though his signal man insisted on tear- 
 ing off his trousers to prevent his wounds from being 
 poisoned. He continued to fight his ship until he lost con- 
 sciousness, just after he had learned that they had managed 
 to extract the charge from the damaged gun. 
 
 As he lay unconscious on the bridge one of the petty 
 officers fastened tenderly a lifebelt round him, for by this 
 time only three rounds of ammunition remained, and though 
 the British cruisers had appeared on the scene it appeared 
 impossible that the Laurel could live much longer in the fire 
 to which she was exposed. 
 
 A final shell struck her amidships, enveloping her in a 
 dense cloud of dust and smoke, and all on board were certain 
 that she was going to the bottom. That last shell, however, 
 was to prove her salvation, for a dense cloud hung to her as 
 she lay helpless on the water, and though it was split in all 
 directions by the enemy's projectiles, not one succeeded in 
 finding her. In the heart of it there was not the slightest 
 flurry, though even the satisfaction of fighting had been 
 taken from them. 
 
 "Good-bye, old man," said a bluejacket, bleeding to death 
 on the forecastle, to his mate, stretched on the deck beside 
 him. 
 
 "My time is up, too," replied the other, calmly, reaching 
 out a hand to him, and with that handclasp they died. 
 
 The British destroyers exposed themselves to consider- 
 able risk in endeavoring to save as many as possible of the
 
 ;jil> First Sea Battle of the War 
 
 drowning German sailors. British officers present vouch 
 for the fact that German officers were observed iiring with 
 pistols at their own men in the water and that several were 
 shot be lore their eyes. 
 
 Under these peculiar circumstances one destroyer was 
 actually picking up the wounded with her boats when she 
 was driven off by the approach of another German cruiser 
 and had to leave two of her boats containing one officer and 
 nine men behind. It was feared that these had been made 
 prisoners, but a submarine arrived and brought the British 
 party home. 
 
 As it was not possible to accommodate the thirty Ger- 
 mans in the submarine they were allowed to return to Ger- 
 many in a boat under the charge of a German lieutenant who 
 was not wounded. The complements of the five German 
 vessels known to have been sunk aggregated about 1,200 
 officers and men, all of whom, with the exception of these 
 thirty and about 300 wounded and unwounded prisoners, per- 
 ished. Besides, there was a loss which must have been severe 
 on board the German torpedo boats and the other cruisers 
 which did not sink during action. 
 
 The total British casualties amounted to sixty-nine killed 
 and wounded, among whom, however, must be included in 
 the killed two officers of exceptional merit, Lieut. Com- 
 mander Nigel K. W. Barttelot and Lieut. Eric W. P. 
 Westacott. 
 
 GRAND FIGHT OF DESTROYERS 
 
 The destroyers Liberty and Laertes fought a grand fight. 
 A shell brought down the mast of the Liberty. The Laertes
 
 First Sea Battle of the War 
 
 313 
 
 was hit amidships, a hole was shot through her funnel, her 
 forward guns were damaged, and she also received a shell in 
 the dynamo room and a shot aft, which wrecked her cabin. 
 
 It was hot work, but at that moment the British light 
 cruisers and battle cruisers appeared. It was the moment 
 for which they had been waiting, and their execution was 
 deadly. The first shot from one of the British battle cruisers 
 sank a German cruiser which had been battering a destroyer. 
 
 The German fleet then turned and fled in the direction 
 of Cuxhaven. 
 
 DOUBLE LINE OF FORTS FOR THE DEFENCE OF ANTWERP
 
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 CHAPTER XXXIV 
 
 BOMB ATTACK BY A ZEPPELIN 
 
 Night of Horror In Belgian Capital When a Monster Air- 
 ship Dropped Bombs On a Sleeping City — Story of An 
 Eyewitness Who Heard and Sato the Great German Air- 
 ship — How An Aeroplane Directed Artillery Where To 
 Place Shells — Other Thrilling Experiences. 
 
 NIGHT OF HORBOR AT ANTWERP 
 
 A CORRESPONDENT who was in Antwerp, Belgium, 
 the night that a German dirigible passed over the city 
 dropping explosive bombs as it went, sent the following 
 thrilling description of an incident unique in war : 
 
 "At 1 o'clock this morning death came to Antwerp out 
 of the air. In my room in the Hotel St. Antoine, on an up- 
 per floor overlooking the General Staff headquarters, I had 
 just extinguished the light when a curious humming in the 
 air, like the sound of a million bumblebees, drew me to the 
 window. A thousand feet above me hovered an indistinct 
 mass, which slowly resolved itself into the appearance of a 
 gigantic black cigar, silhouetted against the purple sky. It 
 was a German dirigible Zeppelin, and sounded, when closer, 
 like an automobile with the muffler open. 
 
 "As I looked, something resembling a falling star curved 
 across the sky, and, an instant later, there came a rending, 
 
 315
 
 316 Bomb Attack by a Zeppelin 
 
 shattering crash that shook the hotel to its foundations. 
 
 "Only then did I realize that death was being rained upon 
 the sleeping city from the sky. The first projectile com- 
 pletely demolished a building two hundred yards from my 
 window. Thirty seconds later there came another crash, and 
 another and yet another, until ten in all had happened. Ac- 
 companied by four Cabinet Ministers and five heads of lega- 
 tions, all in our pajamas, I ascended to the hotel roof. 
 
 "Belgian high angle and machine guns now were stabbing 
 the darkness with spurts of flame, and the rattle of musketry 
 was deafening, but they were unable to hit the Zeppelin, 
 which disappeared in the upper darkness. The destruction 
 caused by the projectiles was incredible, in both extent and 
 horror. 
 
 Capt. Williams of the United States Coast Artillery, who 
 was here with money supplies from the cruiser Tennessee, re- 
 ported that the projectiles used were some form of shrapnel, 
 with a terrible new explosive and fired from a gun. One 
 shell struck in the middle of the public weighing square. 
 A policeman in the square was blown to pieces and six per- 
 sons sleeping in adjacent houses were killed in their beds. 
 Every building facing the square was partially or completely 
 demolished and every house within a radius of a block in 
 every direction was riddled like a sieve. 
 
 "Another shell burst on the roof of a physician's house, 
 in the Hue Escrimes, killing two maids who were asleep up- 
 stairs. One shell fell in a garden in the Hue Dubarry, wound- 
 ing terribly a man and his wife. Another shell fell in the 
 barracks in the Hue Falcon, killing one and wounding two in- 
 mates. Fortunately the regiment stationed there had just 
 left.
 
 Bomb Attack by a Zeppelin 317 
 
 "A child was mangled in a fashionable residence in the 
 Rue de la Justice. A policeman in the public square had both 
 his legs blown off. The quarter-inch thick steel gates of the 
 Rue Lausanne were perforated like cardboard. 
 
 "The authorities believed that a deliberate attempt was 
 made to kill the royal family, the General Staff and the Cab- 
 inet, and to destroy the hospitals, banks and barracks. 
 
 "The accuracy with which the bombs were dropped sug- 
 gested that the Germans had confederates displaying signals 
 throughout the city. In all, ten were killed, including six 
 women, and probably thirty were wounded. 
 
 "The authorities mounted searchlights and high angle 
 guns everywhere." 
 
 GOOD-BY! MR. FLYING MAN 
 
 Many stories were told of the uncomplaining heroism of 
 the troops engaged about Mons. A number of the British 
 wounded were brought across the border to Rouen. They 
 belonged to divisions that had borne the brunt of the Ger- 
 man attack. They had had to take the field immediately 
 after they arrived at Mons. In fact, they only arrived just 
 in time to stem the German onrush. For days they had been 
 travelling and marching and they needed repose. In spite 
 of this they behaved like fresh troops and held their ground 
 magnificently, winning warm praise from the French com- 
 mander. 
 
 "On the whole it seemed they suffered far less than the 
 French. A good many of them were merely broken down 
 with the hard marching.
 
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 "One man said: 
 
 " 'We marched into Mons on Sunday at 10 o'clock and 
 were just going to be billeted when we were ordered to fall 
 in again and get a move on. We wanted to rest. We had 
 been marching since 4 o'clock and hadn't had our boots off 
 since we left home. I haven't had mine off yet. 
 
 " 'It had been blazing hot and the ninety-six pound loads 
 on our backs made us wish for cloudy old England. 
 
 " 'Still we were wanted. We knew that or they wouldn't 
 have sent for us, so we jumped off again to these trenches. 
 The German artillery over a range two or three miles off soon 
 opened on us. Fortunately most of the shells burst behind 
 us and did no harm. Some burst backward and got among 
 us. They kept it up as hard as ever when it was dark. 
 
 " 'In the daytime they had aeroplanes to tell them where 
 to drop the shells. They were flying about all the time. One 
 came a bit too near. Our gunners a long way behind waited 
 and let him come. Two thousand feet up, he was, I dare say. 
 All of a sudden the gunners let fly. We could see the thing 
 stagger and then good-by, Mr. Flying Man! He dropped 
 like a stone, all crumpled up.' " 
 
 AEROPLANE GUIDED FIGHTERS 
 
 The London Times of August 27 printed a despatch 
 from Paris describing the part an aeroplane played in the 
 artillery battle about Mons. This machine, a biplane, the 
 correspondent said, capable of cutting down its speed to a 
 low rate, hovered at a safe height over the Franco-British 
 artillery position, and actually directed the fire of the Ger- 
 man gunners.
 
 Bomb Attack by a Zeppelin 319 
 
 Its observer watched the effect of the shells fired by the 
 Germans. Then, by means of a large disk which was swung 
 at the end of a line and could be raised and lowered at will, 
 he signalled as need be in code: "Higher — lower — right — 
 left" and thus guided the gunners (who naturally could not 
 see their mark or the effect of their fire) until they were mak- 
 ing hits at almost every shot and creating great havoc. 
 
 The second story described the manner in which bombs are 
 fired from the Zeppelin dirigibles by an ingenious arrange- 
 ment which makes the airship itself comparatively safe from 
 harm and at the same time renders the aim of its bombman 
 much more accurate. 
 
 The refugee said that the immense airship came to a stop 
 — or as near a stop as possible — above the city or fortification 
 it wished to attack, at a height out of range of either artillery 
 or rifle fire. 
 
 Then, by means of a steel wire rope 2,000 or 3,000 feet 
 long it lowered from one end a small wire cage, just large 
 enough to contain one man and a supply of bombs. This 
 cage was so fortified with steel netting that rifle fire against 
 it was ineffective. At the same time it was so tiny a mark 
 that artillery could not be pointed with sufficient accuracy 
 to hit it. 
 
 And if it should happen to be struck, of course, the air- 
 ship proper would be safe, only one man would be lost, and 
 besides, when he fell, his supply of bombs (unless they were 
 exploded in midair by the shot) would fall with him. 
 
 The Zeppelin, presumably equipped with at least two 
 cages and cables, might at once lower another bombfirer.
 
 ;3*J0 Bomb Attack by a Zeppelin 
 
 PKEFEERED TO FIGHT BAREFOOT 
 
 A trainload of wounded Senegalese riflemen returned 
 from the front to Paris, August 27, and the following story 
 was told by out' of the wounded Africans of the capture of 
 a machine gun by eighteen. 
 
 The Senegalese did not appear to mind their wounds 
 and many of them were contentedly smoking long porcelain 
 German pipes on their arrival. They had taken the pipes 
 from the Germans. The one thing the Senegalese com- 
 plained of was being compelled to wear shoes while fight- 
 ing. Before going into action at Charleroi they are said 
 to have thrown away their shoes. They came back wearing 
 German shoes, so that they would not be punished for los- 
 ing a part of their equipment. 
 
 A HERO UP A TELEGRAPH POLE 
 
 Here is a story of a heroic Belgian up a telegraph pole 
 told by the correspondent of the London Chronicle: 
 
 At .5 o'clock the town of Ostend was aroused by the 
 sound of heavy firing, coming from the direction of Leflinnhe, 
 about four miles to the southwest, where there was a sharp 
 fight when a body of Belgian gendarmerie, numbering 150, 
 bravely attacked a superior Uhlan force which had ap- 
 proached on the Bruges Road. 
 
 The two opposing forces came into contact at daybreak. 
 The Uhlans, who had passed the night in a wood, had come 
 out to resume their march. Some minutes later they came 
 under a sharp fire, directed upon them from the concealed 
 force. The Uhlan cavalry Mas preceded by a body of cyclist
 
 Bomb Attack by a Zeppelin 321 
 
 scouts, and the latter were the first victims of the Belgian 
 
 rifle fire. 
 
 Thrown temporarily into confusion by well-directed vol- 
 leys, the Uhlans took to the shelter of the woods and re- 
 turned the fire of the Belgians. The latter, believing the 
 Uhlan retirement heralded a rout, left their concealment 
 and started in pursuit. They at once came under the fire of 
 the dismounted Uhlans, who were assisted by machine guns, 
 which thej T had mounted on automobiles. 
 
 In this second phase of the fight the Belgians had several 
 of their number killed and wounded. They, however, fell 
 back in tolerably good order, and for about an hour shots 
 were exchanged from behind cover. Four machine guns were 
 dispatched to the aid of the defenders of Ostend, and their 
 firing could be distinctlv heard in the freshlv awakened 
 city. 
 
 Some difficulty was experienced by the Belgians in dis- 
 covering the exact whereabouts of the enemy, but a gendarme 
 who climbed a telegraph post was able to obtain a clear view 
 of the enemy, and with a flag directed his comrades' fire. He 
 was however, speedily discovered by the Germans, who fired 
 several volleys at him. Nevertheless, he remained in his dan- 
 gerous position until German bullets in his leg and arm 
 brought him down. 
 
 DEATH RATHER THAN SURRENDER 
 
 An official statement issued by the French government 
 contained this story of desperate bravery of the siege of 
 Liege : 
 
 Fort Chaudefontaine has been the scene of an act of
 
 322 Bomb Attack by a Zeppelin 
 
 heroism which affirms once more the brilliant valor of the 
 Belgian Army. The fort, which commands the railroad to 
 Aix-la-Chapelle, by Verviers and the tunnel to Chaudefon- 
 taine, was subjected to a continual and extremely violent 
 bombardment. 
 
 When it was reduced to a mere heap of ruins and Major 
 Xameche, the commanding officer, judged that further re- 
 sistance was impossible, he blocked up the tunnel by running 
 several locomotives into each other, and set fire to the fuses 
 leading to the mines surrounding the forts. 
 
 His mission then accomplished, Major Nameche, deter- 
 mined that the German flag should not fly even over the ruins 
 of his fort, blew up the powder magazine and perished. 
 
 HOTEL MAN SHOT AS SPY 
 
 A New York hotel man had an experience in Paris show- 
 ing how closely the French kept watch for spies. A bellboy 
 in the hotel where the New York man was staying reported 
 to the gendarmes that he had seen the manager of the hotel 
 sitting in a little house, on the roof, with telephone receivers 
 to his ears. The gendarmes invaded the hotel and seized the 
 manager. 
 
 On the roof they found a complete wireless receiving ap- 
 paratus and more than 250 sheets of German script record- 
 ing messages sent out from the Eiffel Tower station. The 
 manager was shot as a spy.
 
 CHAPTER XXXV 
 
 THE DEFENCE OF LIEGE 
 
 The Defence of Belgium — The Liege Forts — The Siege of 
 Liege — Heavy Losses on Both Sides — The Belgian Com- 
 mander — Honor to the Brave — Reprisals for the Delay. 
 
 WHEN Kaiser Wilhelm decided to invade France he 
 chose the route through Belgium, up the valley of the 
 River Meuse, as the shortest road to Paris. 
 
 True, Belgium was neutral territory and no party to the 
 Kaiser's quarrel with France or England. But, as the Im- 
 perial Chancellor, Bethmann-Hollweg, pointed out, Ger- 
 many was willing to reimburse Belgium for any incon- 
 venience and loss she might sustain. If she would open her 
 gates and stand aside while the Germans rushed through on 
 their way to the French frontier she would have ample in- 
 demnity, in cash or otherwise. Else; if she opposed the 
 march of the Kaiser's armies, it was intimated that she must 
 expect the harsh treatment of an enemy. 
 
 There is no reason to doubt that the Kaiser counted on 
 the speedy acquiescence of Belgium in his demands. In the 
 German chancellery it does not seem to have been considered 
 possible that the temerity of little Belgium would rise to the 
 height of opposing the will of mighty Germany. The war- 
 lords of Berlin evidently counted on a swift and easy passage 
 through a friendly or at least not hostile territory and there- 
 
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 :*-24 The Defence of Liege 
 
 alter a swift descent upon Paris, on the one hand and the 
 coast of the English channel on the other, within easy strik- 
 ing distance of England, on the other. 
 
 This should be accomplished, it was reckoned, in time for 
 the Germans to turn and meet the tide of Russian invaders 
 on their Eastern frontier, slow of mobilization and tardily 
 transported by the single tracked railroads of the Czar's 
 domain. 
 
 The key to this plan was, of course, the acquiescence of 
 Belgium. 
 
 But Belgium did not acquiesce in the Kaiser's demands. 
 On the contrary the smaller country put up a defence which 
 stayed the Kaiser's progress, cost him thousands of men, 
 millions of treasure and undoubtedly resulted in a revision of 
 the campaign plans so confidently made in Berlin. 
 
 THE DEFENCE OF BELGIUM 
 
 The defence of Belgium by the Belgians, before the 
 French or English allies had time to come to their rescue is a 
 story of desperate heroism which stands out in all the annals 
 of war. It begins virtually with the siege of the town of 
 Liege. The Germans crossed the border at Stavelot, Franco- 
 champs and Verviers and in the first week of the war concen- 
 trated before Liege, at the junction of the Meuse and the 
 Ourthe. 
 
 Both are navigable rivers and at this point railroads cen- 
 ter which lead to all parts of the kingdom and to the coast 
 city of Antwerp. The town itself (it had 171,000 popula- 
 tion in 1910) Mas built on level ground in the valleys of the 
 river, surrounded by mountains, or considerable hills, and on
 
 The Defence of Liege 325 
 
 the summits of these were built the fortifications which com- 
 manded all the approaches by land or water. 
 
 Underneath the mountain tops are rich mines of coal and 
 iron and this natural wealth, together with the facilities for 
 transportation made Liege a center of manufacturing, par- 
 ticularly of the iron and steel industries. It has been called 
 the "Pittsburgh of Belgium" and undoubtedly deserved that 
 appellation, in addition to being the seat of many manufac- 
 tures such as Pittsburgh does not possess. There were made 
 most of the firearms for which Belgium is famous and there 
 were textile industries as in all the Belgian cities. 
 
 Readers of Sir Walter Scott's novels will recall the de- 
 scription in "Quentin Durward" of the industrious and 
 thrifty Ligeois and their stubborn devotion to their rights. 
 More than once during the last four hundred years the city 
 had been under siege and its walls invaded by the enemy. 
 
 THE LIEGE FORTS 
 
 But the modern fortifications, those which confronted the 
 German forces when they poured down the valley of the 
 Meuse, were of very recent construction. General Brial- 
 mont, called by some the foremost military engineer of mod- 
 ern times, was placed in charge of the work, when in 1888 
 the Beligans decided to fortify Liege and Namur so as to 
 make them as far as might be impregnable. At Liege, Gen- 
 eral Brialmont built twelve forts, six on either bank of the 
 Meuse river and situated at a distance of from four to six 
 miles apart. 
 
 The forts are Barchon, Evegnee, Fleron, Chaudfontaine, 
 Embourg and Boncelles, on the right bank of the Meuse, be-
 
 32(J The Defence of Liege 
 
 ginning at the north and following an eastern curve, and 
 Pontisse, Liers, Lantin, Loncin, Hollogne and Flemaille on 
 the left hank and following a western curve. These forts 
 thus virtually surrounded the city and hore a close re- 
 seinhlance to the formidable defences of Bucharest. 
 
 As the Germans advanced toward Liege from the east, 
 the people were urged by the burgomaster to move to the 
 western side of the river. When this had been done the Bel- 
 gians blew up the bridges. 
 
 The Germans continued to come on, in spite of the vigor- 
 ous opposition from the forts on the east side of the river. 
 The population were panic stricken and as many as could, 
 rushed to the railway station and entrained for Brussels and 
 Ostend. The burgomaster beseeched General Leman, who 
 was in command of the defences, to surrender. The General 
 refused to do so and gave fresh orders to the forts to redouble 
 their vigilance. 
 
 THE SIEGE OF LIEGE 
 
 Then a messenger came from the German camp bearing 
 a white flag of truce. He demanded that the city surrender 
 under threat of a still heavier bombardment. 
 
 Receiving an instant refusal, the messenger returned to 
 his principal and within a short time the siege was renewed, 
 as threatened, upon a heavier scale than before. 
 
 The Germans fought with a bravery which even their 
 enemies do not hesitate to praise. They approached the forts 
 and came within range of the terribly effective guns of the 
 Ligeois drawn up in solid formation. In consequence they 
 were mowed down, in companies — in battalions — in regi- 
 ments. Such recklessness on the part of a sane commander
 
 The Defence of Liege 327 
 
 is to be explained only on the theory that he had endless re- 
 serves at his disposal and was bent to win at whatever cost. 
 On both counts, this appears to have been the truth. How 
 many men were brought to bear in the siege of Liege and 
 how many men were lost are questions which may never be 
 answered. The accounts of opposing sides conflict. The 
 French official report was that the Germans had lost 5,000 
 men in one day. It was said also that the German force 
 numbered, from first to last, fully 800,000 men. Both of 
 these figures were denied in Berlin but no others were offered 
 in their place. 
 
 HEAVY LOSSES ON BOTH SIDES 
 
 On the Belgian side the force was greatly smaller and the 
 number killed correspondingly less. Fighting under cover 
 of forts scientifically constructed they enjoyed an immunity 
 which offset the superior numbers of the Germans. Their 
 guns were mounted in concrete pits and covered by domes 
 coated with nickel steel, from which the missiles of the Ger- 
 man guns rebounded harmless. Most of the Belgian losses 
 were incurred in sallies made by their cavalry. 
 
 According to the official report made by the War Office 
 at Paris, twenty-four German guns were captured and one 
 general was made prisoner. The Belgian defenders num- 
 bered 40,000. 
 
 The Belgian fire was accurate and well placed, it was said 
 and in proof it was cited that two heavy siege guns belonging 
 to the Germans were destroyed. 
 
 The three German army corps engaged in the siege were 
 commanded by Generals von Pritzelwitz, von Einem and von
 
 :*-j8 The Defence of Liege 
 
 Emmich, who was also in command of the Army of the 
 Meuse. lie was reported killed during the engagement and 
 the report gained circulation that he had committed suicide 
 
 out of chagrin at his failure to enter Liege without opposi- 
 tion. This report was denied at Berlin. 
 
 THE BELGIAN COMMANDER 
 
 The commandant of the Belgian forces was General 
 Leman. His defence of Liege was noble but tragic. Dur- 
 ing the early attack his legs were crushed by the fall of a 
 piece of concrete. Undaunted, he continued to direct his 
 campaign, visiting the forts in an automobile ambulance. 
 
 The commander of one of the forts, at the moment when 
 the bombardment was heaviest, went mad and began shoot- 
 ing his own men. lie was disarmed and bound. The cupola 
 of one of the forts was destroyed by a bomb from a Zeppelin. 
 Fort Chaudfontaine was blown into oblivion by a German 
 shell which dropped into the magazine. 
 
 Finally General Leman decided to make his last stand 
 in Fort Loncin. When the end became inevitable he de- 
 stroyed the last gun and burned up the plans, maps, papers 
 and food supplies. He was about to order all the men to the 
 trenches when a shell buried him beneath a pile of debris. 
 lie was unconscious when the fort surrendered. 
 
 The following incident was told to the reporter of a 
 Dutch newspaper by a German officer : 
 
 "When the first dust and fumes passed away we stormed 
 the fort across ground liberally strewn with the bodies of the 
 Belgian defenders. All the men in the forts were wounded. 
 Most were unconscious. A corporal with one arm shattered 
 valiantly tried to drive us back by firing his rifle.
 
 The Defence of Liege 329 
 
 HONORS TO THE BRAVE 
 
 "Buried beneath the debris and pinned down by a massive 
 beam was General Leman. 'Le General, il est mort,' (the 
 General is dead) said an aide-de-camp gently. With the 
 utmost care, to show our respect for the man who had re- 
 sisted us so valiantly and stubbornly, our infantry released 
 the General's wounded form and carried him away. He 
 recovered consciousness and said : 
 
 " 'It is as it is. The men fought valiantly. Put it in your 
 despatches that I was unconscious.' 
 
 "We brought him to our commander, General von 
 Emmich, and the two generals saluted. We tried to speak 
 words of comfort but he was silent. He is known as the 
 'Silent General.' Extending his hand, our General said: 
 
 " 'General, you have gallantly and nobly held your forts.' 
 General Leman replied: 
 
 " 'I thank you; our troops have lived up to their reputa- 
 tions.' With a smile he added: 'War is not like maneuvers.' 
 
 "This was a reference to the fact that General von 
 Emmich was recently with General Leman at the Belgian 
 maneuvers. 
 
 "Then, unbuckling his sword, General Leman tendered 
 it to General von Emmich. 
 
 " 'No,' replied the German commander with a bow, 'keep 
 your sword. To have crossed swords with you is an honor.' 
 
 "And the fire in General Leman's eye was dimmed by a 
 tear." 
 
 The fiercest fighting was done in the day time. The Ger- 
 man infantry would advance under cover of a heavy artillery 
 fire. The Belgian defenders would wait until the enemy was
 
 330 The Defence of Liege 
 
 within close range when they would send in a hail of bullets 
 from rifles and machine guns. After a short resistance the 
 Germans would retire leaving their dead in heaps. This 
 maneuver was repeated day alter day. 
 
 REPRISALS FOB THE DELAY 
 
 Failing to reduce the forts around Liege, though they 
 affected an entrance to the city, where, according to French 
 and Belgian report, they committed horrible atrocities, the 
 Germans "sidestepped" that locality and continued on their 
 way toward the French territory by another route. Their 
 disappointment was manifested by the imposition of a war 
 levy of $10,000,000 on the city. 
 
 By the time the Germans had passed Liege and, by slow 
 degrees gained the French frontier, the French forces were 
 mobilized and the British, having landed on the French coast, 
 went to the rescue of the Belgians. Their united efforts were 
 sufficient materially to delay the German advance ; insomuch 
 that, as compared with the War of 1870, in which the Prus- 
 sians were at the gates of Paris within a month after they 
 passed the Alsatian frontier, the last day, first month of the 
 War of 1914 found them still pounding at the doors of 
 France, barely within a hundred miles of Paris. 
 
 This delay, which disconcerted all the plans of the Kaiser, 
 was largely due to the heroic defence of Liege.
 
 CHAPTER XXXVI 
 
 THRILLING WAR EXPERIENCES IN THE 
 
 FIELD, IN THE CLOUDS AND ON 
 
 THE SEA 
 
 Belgian Officer Creates Havoc Among German Troops with 
 His Armored Automobile — His Narrow Escape from 
 Capture — Routing the Enemy — Sinking of the Koenigin 
 Luise — British Cruiser Amphion Sunk by a Mine in the 
 North Sea — German Submarine Destroyed by British — 
 Austrians Walk Into Russian Trap — Gallantry of 
 French Turcos — The Chase of the Goeben and Breslau 
 — How Leaders Went To Their Deaths — Fights In the 
 Clouds — Experiences of Antwerp As Bombs Fall On 
 City — Escape of the Kronprinzessin Cecilie — Mauretania 
 Dodges German Battleship. 
 
 THE war of the nations was hardly under way when the 
 reports of thrilling experiences on the battlefield, in the 
 clouds and on the sea reached this country. Belgium was the 
 theatre in which many of these dramatic incidents were 
 staged but they were not confined to King Albert's domains. 
 Nor were these experiences the lot of only the members of 
 one nation. Even Americans had them. 
 
 An automobile played a leading role in the experiences 
 of Lieutenant Henkart of the Belgian army. He developed 
 the art of hunting for German uhlans with an armorplated 
 
 331
 
 332 Thrilling War Experiences 
 
 » 
 
 motor car, carrying a mitrailleuse, or machine gun, to a line 
 point. Lieutenant Henkart brought down scores of uhlans 
 and other German soldiers who have crossed his path. His 
 principal work was reconnoitering the enemy's position. He 
 had several narrow escapes from capture, and the body of 
 his car showed hundreds of bullet marks which the armor 
 plating had stopped. 
 
 Lieutenant Henkart formerly was an officer in the Bel- 
 gian Grenadiers, but had retired and was living the quiet 
 existence of a country gentleman when the war broke out. 
 He at once volunteered and was detailed to the General Staff. 
 
 This is the report made of his exploits : 
 
 On August 15 he started from the Belgian headquarters 
 at Lou vain in the direction of Durbuy. He discovered sev- 
 eral defensive positions of the Germans on the rivers Am- 
 bleve and Ourthe and succeeded in rescuing two French 
 horsemen and killing five uhlans. He visited the battlefield 
 of Haelen on August 16, the scene of the one hot and severe 
 fight of the campaign till then and found defensive positions 
 at Curange-Kermpt and Ilerck-la-ville. 
 
 On August 17 Lieutenant Henkart went to Jauche, near 
 Jodoigne, where he heard of the presence of twelve German 
 cavalrymen. He followed up the scent but was caught in a 
 trap and had considerable difficulty extricating himself. 
 
 Eventually he killed seven uhlans and reconnoitered the 
 German entrenchments. On August 1 8 he reconnoitered the 
 German position at Perwez in Brabant. He met a party of 
 German military cyclists and cavalry and killed twelve of 
 them. 
 
 On the following day he returned to Jodoigne, where the 
 presence of two German officers was signalled. The lieu-
 
 Thrilling War Experiences 333 
 
 tenant went in search of them but was again caught in a trap 
 and had to run the gauntlet of a shower of bullets fired from 
 houses at Jodoigne. His motorcar was scarred with bullets. 
 
 The next day he went to Westerloo. This was the red 
 letter day of his expedition. It almost ended in a fatality 
 for the reconnoitering party, who found themselves suddenly 
 confronted by two companies of cyclists and one squadron 
 of cavalry. 
 
 They numbered altogether about 450 men. It was too 
 late to retreat, but fortunately the Germans did not realize 
 the position and thought they faced an important Belgian 
 force. The little mitrailleuse kept up its fire for an hour 
 and a half, and as a result the Germans left twenty-five killed 
 and a large number of wounded on the field before retiring. 
 
 The next day Lieutenant Henkart went out to recon- 
 noiter the German forces, which were moving toward Ant- 
 werp. At Hofstade, near Malines, he met a party of thirty- 
 four uhlans and killed twenty-one. Three other Germans 
 were drowned and seven wounded, and of the latter five 
 were brought back to Antwerp, where Lieutenant Henkart 
 was warmly received. 
 
 KOENIGIN LTJISE GOES TO THE BOTTOM 
 
 The destroyer Lance of the British navy, was the hero 
 of the first naval engagement of the war. Firing only four 
 shots, she sank the Hamburg- American liner Koenigin Luise, 
 which had been fitted out as a mine ship and which was caught 
 in the act of laying mines sixty miles from Harwich. The 
 first shot destroyed the bridge of the Luise, and the others 
 tore away her stern. The Luise sank in six minutes. The
 
 334 Thrilling War Experiences 
 
 Lance rescued twenty-eight of the German crew, several of 
 whom had been wounded. This was early in August, just 
 before the British cruiser Amphion was sunk by a mine in 
 the North Sea. The official report of the sinking of the 
 Amphion follows: 
 
 "A trawler informed the vessel's officers that she had seen 
 a suspicious ship throwing things overboard. Shortly after- 
 ward the German minelayer Koenigin Luise was sighted 
 steering east. Four destroyers gave chase and in about an 
 hour's time she was rounded up and sunk. 
 
 "After picking up the survivors of the German «hip, the 
 plan of search was carried out without incident until 3.30 in 
 the morning. At that hour, as the Amphion on her return 
 course was near the scene of the operations of the Koenigin 
 Luise, her course was altered to avoid the danger zone. This 
 was successful until 6.30 a. M., at which hour the Amphion 
 struck a mine. 
 
 "A sheet of flame instantly engulfed the bridge. The 
 Captain was rendered insensible, and he fell to the fore and 
 aft bridge. As soon as the Captain recovered consciousness, 
 he rang the engineroom to stop the engines, which were still 
 going at revolutions for 20 knots. As all the forward part 
 of the Amphion was on fire, it was found impossible to reach 
 the bridge or flood the fore magazine. 
 
 'The ship's back appeared to be broken and she was 
 already settling down by the bows. All efforts, therefore, 
 were directed to placing the wounded in places of safety in 
 case of an explosion, and in getting the cruiser in tow by the 
 stern. 
 
 "By the time the destroyers had closed in, it was clearly 
 time to abandon the ship. The men fell in for this purpose
 
 Thrilling War Experiences 335 
 
 with the same composure that had marked their behavior 
 throughout. All was done without hurry or confusion, and 
 twenty minutes after the cruiser struck the mine, the men, 
 the officers and lastly the Captain, had left the ship. 
 
 "Three minutes after the Captain had left another ex- 
 plosion occurred. This enveloped and blew up the entire 
 fore part of the vessel. The effect of this showed the Am- 
 phion must have struck a second mine, which exploded the 
 fore magazine. Debris falling from a great height struck 
 the rescue boats and the destroyers, and one of the Amphion's 
 shells burst on the deck of one of the destroyers, killing two 
 Englishmen and one German prisoner. 
 
 "Fifteen minutes later the Amphion sunk." 
 
 GERMAN SUBMARINE DESTROYED 
 
 The North Sea was the scene of another thrilling incident 
 not many days later, when the German submarine U-15 was 
 lost. The British cruiser squadron became aware of the 
 approach of the submarine flotilla which was submerged, 
 only the periscopes showing above the surface of the water. 
 
 The British cruiser Birmingham, steaming at full speed, 
 fired the first shot. This shot was carefully aimed, not at 
 the submerged body of a submarine, but at the thin line of 
 the periscope. 
 
 The gunnery was accurate and shattered the periscope. 
 Thereupon the submarine, now a blinded thing, rushed along 
 under water in imminent danger of self-destruction from 
 collision with the cruisers above. 
 
 The sightless submarine was then forced to come to the 
 surface, whereupon the Birmingham's gunner fired the sec-
 
 :i:u\ Thrilling War Experiences 
 
 ond shot of the fight. This shot struck at the base of the 
 conning tower, ripping the whole of the upper structure 
 ekan and the CJ-15 sank like a stone. 
 
 RUSSIANS TRAP AUSTRIANS 
 
 Russian Cossacks trapped two picked Austrian cavalry 
 regiments about this time near Lemberg, an important city 
 in Galicia. The Governor of Lublin prepared the trap that 
 sent the Austrians to their deaths. 
 
 Skirting the dense forest which lies between this section 
 of Lublin and the Galician border, the Governor prepared 
 a fiendish ambuscade for the Austrians. Heavy rains had 
 caused an overflow of the river Wieprz, on which Bilgoray 
 stands, and in consequence the whole countryside on the other 
 side of the highway that marks the edge of the forest had 
 been converted into a dense swamp. 
 
 Toward evening the Austrians, returning from their 
 predatory expedition, had to pass this spot, where the Lublin 
 Governor had secreted his battery and Cossacks in the forest. 
 The Austrian advance guard trotted past the scene of the 
 ambush. Only a few peasants were to be seen, toiling late 
 in the fields, by order of the Governor. 
 
 As the main body of the Austrians reached the place 
 where the Cossacks were waiting they suddenly found them- 
 selves beset by a ferocious onslaught. The Cossacks dashed 
 among them, and the Austrian men and horses dashed off 
 into what seemed the open way — the fields facing the forest, 
 where they had seen the peasants at work. 
 
 By hundreds they leaped into the fatal marshes, and there, 
 while their horses struggled as the soft ground engulfed
 
 Thrilling War Experiences 337 
 
 them, the hidden battery, the Cossacks having withdrawn, 
 opened fire upon them. Not an Austrian horse or man 
 survived. 
 
 CHARGE OF THE FRENCH TURCOS 
 
 The experiences of the French Turcos, the native Afri- 
 can troops, early in the war are worthy of note. They made 
 many gallant charges. While the Germans were bombard- 
 ing Charleroi the French made a sortie and were driven back 
 by superior numbers. The bombardment continued until the 
 Turcos, fretting under further inaction, debouched from the 
 town and charged up to the German guns, ba} r onetting the 
 gunners. Their loss in this wild charge under terrific artillery 
 fire is said to have exceeded that of the Light Brigade at 
 Balaclava. 
 
 A RUNNING SEA FIGHT 
 
 Wireless Operator Marsden, of the British cruiser Glou- 
 cester, which pursued the German cruisers Goeben and Bres- 
 lau among the Ionian Islands, in writing an account of the 
 chase to his mother said : 
 
 "The chase lasted four days and nights, during which our 
 gunner indulged in some long range shots at the Breslau. 
 After missing* the first shot at 11,000 yards, he spat on the 
 second shell for luck and it went true, carrying away half of 
 the Breslau's funnel. The gunner repeated the operation on 
 the third shot, which cleared the Breslau's quarterdeck and 
 put her after gun out of action. The cruiser fired thirty shots
 
 338 Thrilling War Experiences 
 
 in return. Two of them smashed boats on the davits on the 
 Gloucester's upper deck. The British ship narrowly escaped 
 destruction from a torpedo fired by the Goeben." 
 
 HOW LEADERS WENT TO THEIR DEATHS 
 
 The common soldiers, who showed great bravery, had a 
 fine example in their leaders. Gen. Otto von Emmich, in 
 command of the German troops which assaulted Liege, laid 
 down his life early in the struggle. He fell mortally wounded 
 while leading a charge on one of the forts. He was sixty-six 
 years old. He joined the army as a volunteer in 1806 and 
 was promoted two years later to a lieutenancy. He took part 
 in the Franco-Prussian war in 1870-71. Afterward he was 
 promoted through all the grades until he became Major 
 General in 1901. When he was appointed to the command 
 of the Tenth Army Corps he was made a general. 
 
 Lieutenant General Prince Frederick of Saxe-Meinin- 
 gen, one of the most important officers in the German army, 
 was killed by a shell before Xamur late in August. Prince 
 Frederick of Saxe-Meningen was born in 1801. He was the 
 third son of George, the late reigning Duke of Saxe- Meinin- 
 gen. He married in 1889 Adelaide, Princess of Lippe, and 
 had six children. 
 
 Prince Ernest of Saxe-Meiningen was seriously wounded 
 a few days later. Prince Ernest was the second son of Prince 
 Frederick of Saxe-Meiningen, who was killed at Xamur. 
 He was in his nineteenth year and a lieutenant in the Sixth 
 Thuringian Infantry Regiment. An elder brother. Prince 
 George, was a lieutenant in the same regiment. They were 
 cousins of the reigning Duke of Saxe-Meiningen.
 
 Thrilling War Experiences 339 
 
 Prince Frederick William of Lippe died in the fighting 
 before Liege in a dramatic manner. The Prince's infantry 
 regiment was surrounded by the Belgians under the walls of 
 Liege, and he was struck by two bullets while standing among 
 his men. The bullets took effect in his neck and chest, and 
 he died immediately. 
 
 EXPERIENCES IN THE CLOUDS 
 
 The activities of aeroplanes were productive of many 
 thrilling incidents. Early in the war Roland Garros, a 
 French aviator, sacrificed his own life when he dashed his 
 airship against a German military dirigible that had crossed 
 the border near Nancy. The dirigible contained twenty-five 
 men, and all were said to have been dashed to death. Ger- 
 man and French aviators met in the air during the engage- 
 ment at Longwy and the Frenchman shot the German, 
 who fell 300 feet and was killed. 
 
 An eyewitness of an exciting aeroplane chase near Namur 
 told the following : 
 
 "A German monoplane which for three days has per- 
 sistently reconnoitered the positions of the Belgians was ob- 
 served just before sunset hovering over an important forti- 
 fied place on the banks of the River Meuse. 
 
 "Two Belgian biplanes put upward immediately and gave 
 chase to the enemy's aerial scout. It was some time before 
 the Kaiser's aviator discovered that he was being pursued. 
 When he did he turned about and flew at full speed toward 
 Huy and Liege. 
 
 "One of the Belgian airmen, by strategic manoeuvring 
 managed to get high above the German. He was still above
 
 340 Thrilling War Experiences 
 
 him and close upon him when darkness fell, leaving llie result 
 of the pursuit, so far as I could tell, undecided." 
 
 Belgian military aviators who were active in the fighting 
 around Liege had this to say of an experience on August G: 
 
 "On Thursday morning we rose at 7 o'clock to a height 
 from which we could see the German artillery, hacked by 
 constantly increasing forces of infantry, firing at the Belgian 
 forts. Because of the high wind we could not get up above 
 the clouds and our machine made an attractive target for the 
 invaders, who immediately opened fire upon us as we ap- 
 proached their position. 
 
 "We wheeled about and started back for our own terri- 
 tory, when to our dismay the outer forts of Liege — not 
 knowing who we were — also let go their shots at us. 
 
 "We went through a terrible ordeal. Shrapnel burst to 
 the right and left of us and under us. The wings were 
 pierced slightly several times. The concussion of the shells, 
 bursting in the air, caused the plane to rock like a lifeboat in 
 a heavy sea. We managed to alight safely in Waremme, in 
 our own country." 
 
 BOMBS TERRORIZE ANTWERP 
 
 Near the end of August, while the Germans w r ere on their 
 onward march in Belgium, they terrorized Antwerp by rain- 
 ing bombs on the city from a dirigible Zeppelin. On the 
 night of August 2.5 the great ship of the air appeared over 
 the city and the sleeping inhabitants were aroused in the dead 
 of night by rending, shattering crashes. Several buildings 
 were demolished and ten persons were killed. Belgian high 
 angle and machine guns spit their wrath at the Zeppelin but
 
 Thrilling War Experiences 341 
 
 it sailed away unscathed leaving death and destruction in 
 its wake. 
 
 Some new form of explosive was used in the bombs 
 dropped from the Zeppelin. To show the destructive powers 
 of the bombs the following examples may be used. One shell 
 burst in the center of a small park killing a policeman and 
 several persons sleeping on nearby benches. Several chil- 
 dren were seriously injured in other bomb explosions and 
 one was killed. Each bomb carried death with it. 
 
 TREASURE SHIP ESCAPES CAPTURE 
 
 Passengers on several of the big ocean liners also had 
 thrilling experiences. The most dramatic of the escapes on 
 the sea was that of the Kronprinzessin Cecilie. Carrying 
 $13,000,000 in gold the North German Lloyd liner dashed 
 into Bar Harbor, Maine, on August 4, after a four-day run 
 across the Atlantic, saving the treasure and a big crowd of 
 passengers from the clutches of British and French warships. 
 The liner left New York with the treasure consigned to for- 
 eign bankers in her hold and had several narrow escapes from 
 capture. The boat ran at top speed in making the dash back 
 to a neutral port and her captain drove her engines at full 
 speed through a dense fog in order to evade the watching 
 cruisers of Great Britain and France.
 
 AFTER THE WAR
 
 CHAPTER XXXVII 
 
 BEST STORIES OF THE WAR 
 
 Narratives of Heroism, Disaster, Humor and Pathos — 
 Alsatian Who Went to War to Kill His Son — Ger- 
 man Sailors Sink Cheering the Kaiser — English Poacher 
 Who Became Killer of Uhlans — Heroism of Women 
 Victims of War and Tales of Human Interest in Scenes 
 of Carnage. 
 
 THE great European war of 1914 was crowded with 
 events of heroism, of disaster, of humor and pathos, all 
 fraught with intense human interest. Stories of some of 
 these incidents appear elsewhere in this volume under the 
 title of "Thrilling Experiences." Herewith are given others 
 that may be classified as "The Best Stories of the War." 
 
 "i'm going to fight to kill my son!" 
 
 This story is told of the bravery of French women and 
 men. 
 
 General de Castelnau and his three sons went to the front 
 at the outbreak of the war and Mme. de Castelnau retired to 
 the south. One of the sons was killed in the early fighting. 
 
 When the news of his son's death was conveyed to Gen- 
 eral de Castelnau on the battlefield he read the statement and 
 
 343
 
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 :{ i i Best Stories of the War 
 
 then said quietly: "Gentlemen, lei us continue," and the 
 battle was renewed. 
 
 When the news reached the country house of the family 
 in the south the parish priest undertook the delicate task of 
 conveying the news of the death of her son to Mme. de 
 Castelnau. The priest tried to break the news to her but was 
 so overcome with emotion that she guessed something serious 
 had happened. 
 
 Mine, de Castelnau simply asked, "Which one!"' mean- 
 in"' whether it was her husband or one of her three sons who 
 had been killed. 
 
 When the Thirty-fifth Regiment of General Joffre's 
 army entered Muelhausen an aged Alsatian offered the sol- 
 diers everything he possessed, pressing them to accept wine 
 and l'ood. After they had finished their meal he bade them 
 farewell, saying: 
 
 "I am now going to fight to kill my son. who is in the 
 Fortieth Regiment of German Infantry." 
 
 DIED CHEERING THE KAISER 
 
 An eye witness of the loss of the German cruiser Ariadne 
 and the German torpedo boat destroyer V-157 in the fight- 
 ing between British and German warships off Heligoland 
 relates the following story of the fight: 
 
 "The destroyer was surprised in a fog by a large number 
 of British destroyers and submarines. When the speed of 
 the German destroyer became affected by the English shells 
 it tinned and confronted the enemy with the intention of 
 fighting to the end. Her engines, however, soon completely 
 failed her. and she was blown up to prevent capture. Her
 
 Best Stories of the War 345 
 
 crew continued firing until the boat disappeared beneath the 
 
 waves. 
 
 "The Ariadne attacked gamely, but a shell plumped her 
 boilers, putting half of them out of commission. Despite 
 this the fight continued. The quarterdeck of the Ariadne 
 took fire, but those of her guns that were still capable of be- 
 ing worked continued shooting. 
 
 "The forecastle of the Ariadne was soon ablaze. Her 
 magazine was flooded, but the gallant vessel was doomed. 
 Her crew was mustered and gave three cheers for the Kaiser 
 and sang the hymn, 'The Flag and Germany Above All.' 
 
 A BELGIAN DEAD SHOT 
 
 As an evidence of the indomitable spirit of the Belgians 
 is this letter from a daring young man with a young wife and 
 child who formerly was notorious as a poacher on game pre- 
 serves. It was written in the siege of Namur while he was 
 resting a moment : 
 
 "A few weeks ago," the letter says in part, "I was in 
 France working in the beet fields. But because the proud 
 Prussians attacked our country I had to leave and could not 
 bring home a few gold coins for my family. I am feeling as 
 well as possible, am whole and sound, and hope, with God's 
 help, to see my home once more. 
 
 "The Prussians are poor shots. They don't know by a 
 yard where they shoot, and when they see a bayonet they are 
 so scared they just run. I have lost but very few bullets. 
 When I aim for their noses, you can bet that they don't hear 
 the bullets whiz by their ears. They get it right in the mouth. 
 I never missed a bird on the wing, so how could I miss those
 
 346 Best Stories of the War 
 
 square head I 'lilans? I settled more than fifty of them, and 
 if God lets me live I'll cool oil' a few more. When they come 
 we kill 'em like rats, meanwhile singing 'The Lion of 
 Flanders.' 
 
 "Reverend Dear Father, while we send the Fhlans to 
 the other country, please take care of my family and see that 
 they may not suffer from hunger. Now 1 finish my letter 
 to grab mv ffun and shoot I'hlans. X. 
 
 "Formerly poacher, now Uhlan killer." 
 
 Will: OF CAPTOB GETS KAISER'S NEPHEW'S SWORD 
 
 During the hot fighting before Charleroi in the early part 
 of the Belgian campaign, this incident occurred: 
 
 "A hand of I'hlans was captured Sunday at the gates 
 of Court rai by a detachment of French chasseurs. Their 
 chief officer was found to he Lieut. Count von Schwerin, a 
 nephew of the Kaiser. The young commander was only 
 twenty- five years old and had been married only seven 
 months. The officer commanding the French detachment 
 found that the Count's sword was a present from the Kaiser 
 himself and bore an inscription to that effect on the blade. 
 
 "The Count's saber, belt and helmet were taken to St. 
 Ouen and presented to the wife of the officer who made the 
 capture." 
 
 GRITTY BRITISH AND GERMAN SAILORS 
 
 Many German shells which made hits in the naval engage- 
 ment off Heligoland did not explode, according to British 
 seamen, and at one time there were five in the boiler room of
 
 Best Stoiies of the War 347 
 
 one of the destroyers, any one of which would have destroyed 
 the ship had it hurst. A sailor, asked what they did with 
 them, replied: 
 
 "Oh, just shied them overboard. There was no room for 
 such rubbish aboard our yacht." 
 
 The German sailors showed equal grit. As one of the 
 cruisers, decks aflame and mast and flag shot away, was sink- 
 ing, the only man left in the forecastle hoisted the flag and 
 then went down with the ship. 
 
 BODE INTO THE JAWS OF DEATH 
 
 A correspondent describing the fighting before Malines 
 said : 
 
 "I could see dark blue masses of Belgian infantry falling- 
 back, cool as on a winter's morning. Through a mistake, two 
 battalions of carbineers did not receive the order to retire and 
 were in imminent danger of destruction. To reach them a 
 messenger would have had to traverse a mile of open road 
 swept by shrieking shrapnel. A colonel summoned a gen- 
 darme and gave him the orders and he set spurs to his horse 
 and tore down the road, an archaic figure in towering bear- 
 skin. It was a ride into the jaws of death. 
 
 "He saved his troops, but as they fell back the German 
 gunners got the range and dropped shell upon shell into the 
 running column. Road and fields were dotted with corpses 
 in Belgian blue. 
 
 "At noon the Belgians and Germans were in places only 
 fifty yards apart, and the rattle of musketry sounded like a 
 boy drawing a stick along the palings of a picket fence. The 
 railway embankment from which I viewed the battle was
 
 348 Best Stories of the War 
 
 fairly carpeted with corpses of infantrymen killed yesterday. 
 I saw peasants throw twelve into one grave." 
 
 SPIRIT OF HUMANITY OF NAVAL LORD 
 
 A spirit of humanity to man is reflected in a message 
 from the head of the British Navy to the head of the German 
 Navy, which was transmitted through the Department of 
 State at Washington, informing the latter of the safety of 
 his son after a naval hattle, in which the son had been reported 
 among the slain. 
 
 The message, which was from Winston Churchill, First 
 Lord of the British Admiralty, to Admiral von Tirpitz, Ger- 
 man Minister of Marine, was as follows: 
 
 "Your son has been saved and has not been wounded." 
 
 Secretary Bryan made public the dispatch with the com- 
 ment: "There is something noble in the spirit." The mes- 
 sage was sent to Ambassador Gerard at Berlin, who conveyed 
 it to Admiral von Tirpitz. 
 
 HEROISM OF WOMEN VICTIMS OF WAR 
 
 A correspondent writing of scenes along the French fron- 
 tier in the early days of the war said: 
 
 "In the past two days I have watched many cases of 
 women's heroism — not the self-denial of the Red Cross 
 nurses, for to that one is accustomed — but a long procession 
 of wearv women cheerfullv encouraging the children, bun- 
 gry, tired and footsore, or with their bones aching from the 
 jolting of the farm carts, was a picture of splendid courage, 
 which made you understand how a nation becomes resolute 
 in the face of war.
 
 Best Stories of the War 349 
 
 "One woman I met at an evacuated town was proceeding 
 with her splendid son, aged ten, and a delightfully talkative 
 little girl of eight, to a place where her children would be 
 safe. This cultured lady was the wife of a captain of cavalry. 
 "As she looked back at her home at Longwy, she saw a 
 lifetime's treasures burnt, but sadness of her heart was not 
 betrayed to her children. This family had not tasted food 
 for three davs; the children did not want to eat, while the 
 mother starved. 
 
 "The bright eves of the boy were not dimmed by exhaus- 
 tion; instead of hearing complaints of hardships, you were 
 questioned as to the latest news from the battle line. 
 
 "This small family, which I watched for eight hours in 
 the sternly fought area, was but a type of thousands of others. 
 Truly war brings out the best as well as the worst of 
 humanity." 
 
 LIFE IN THE TRENCHES 
 
 A Brussels correspondent gave the following picture of 
 life in the Belgian trenches: 
 
 "Sometimes the trenches are only just ditches cut like 
 deep furrows among potatoes or along the edge of a field 
 of corn. Others are banked on the attacking side and 
 branches are placed over them to screen the men from the 
 eyes of airmen. 
 
 "Along the quiet banks of the Meuse between Namur 
 and Dinant are three score of these (trenches). There I 
 saw men lying in readiness with rifles by their sides. Some 
 were asleep on the earth, with a little straw under them, but 
 ready at a word to seize their weapons. Others were 
 gossiping.
 
 ;3.30 Best Stories of I he \\ at 
 
 " 'What do you think of to talk about in the trenches?' 
 1 asked a man who was off duty for a moment. His answer 
 was: 
 
 'Oh, anything — the heat, the flies, our experiences. 
 Don't think we confide much in each other. When one is in 
 a situation such as that one catches at anything interesting. 
 We do not talk philosophy hut some of us practise it. Most 
 are only waiting for orders to kill, perhaps just as one waits 
 for a tram and lets one's interest be taken by anything.' 
 
 airman's thrilling trip 
 
 The following letter from a German military aviator to 
 his parents was printed in the Brandenburger Zeitung: 
 
 "Last Saturday night, while our company still lay in 
 garrison, I received orders to start on a (light into the enemy's 
 country at daybreak the following morning. The assign- 
 ment was as follows: Over a French fortress, thence west- 
 ward to Maas and back the entire distance of 300 kilometers 
 (about 18G miles) . 
 
 "By way of preparation maps of the whole region were 
 minutely studied till midnight. Next morning at cock-crow 
 our Gotha-Taube rolled across the city square, then rose and 
 headed westerly. In half an hour we had reached an altitude 
 of 1,200 meters above the town. Then we headed for the 
 French border, and immediately my observer, First Lieu- 
 tenant A., called my attention to little black puffs of smoke, 
 and I knew at once we were being fired at by hostile artillery, 
 so climbed to 2,000 meters. 
 
 "Next we noticed that three of the enemy's aeroplanes 
 were pursuing us, but we soon outdistanced and lost sight of
 
 Best Stories of the War 351 
 
 them. Later we heard that two of the enemy's aeroplanes 
 had been brought down by our artillery. Both hands of one 
 of the pilots were said to have been blown away by a shot. 
 
 "With a threefold 'Hurrah!' we now flew over the border 
 toward a battlefield of the war of 1870-71, which we reached 
 without any further untoward incidents. Here we noticed 
 long columns of troops marching from the south toward the 
 northeast. We circled around the place and then started 
 toward Maas. 
 
 "We were now continuously fired upon. I saw, among 
 other things, how a battalion of infantry stopped in the 
 street and aimed at us. Silently and quietly we sat in our 
 Taube and wondered what would happen next. Suddenly I 
 noticed a faint quivering throughout the whole aeroplane; 
 that was all. As I saw later, one of the planes had four holes 
 made by rifle bullets."
 
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