LII3RAKV UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. OF" Mrs. SARAH P. WALS WORTH. Received October, 1894. Accessions No.G ~~. THE TEMPERANCE BIBLE-COMMENTARY, FIRST AMERICAN EDITION, WITH A NEW PREFACE BY TAYLER LEWIS, LL.D., ntoncssoR OF ORIENTAL LITERATURE, UNION COLLEGE, SCHBNECTADV. " It is unique in its kind as a collection and fair presentation of everything in Scripture that can possibly bear on the question. It sets before us the whole matter Hebrew, Greek, Latin, Syriac, Chaldee. " Regarded simply as a Biblical treatise, having no reference to a much dis- puted moral question, it would be pronounced by scholars a work of high philo- logical value." Professor TAYLER "LEWIS, Union College. "The more I look into this noble work, the more do I admire its breadth, depth, and exhaustiveness. It is a truly grand contribution." Professor GUTHRIE, Glasgow. "This work is exhaustive of the subject, and will have a permanent value. It is no inconsiderable service to have rescued the Bible from the false glosses of prejudice and ignorance." The Northern Express, Newcastle-on-Tyne. " No less than 638 passages of Holy Scripture are explained in the goodly vol- ume." The Methodist Recorder. " We commend all parties to read this book, and involving as it does the question of the frown or approbation of Holy Scripture on our social drinking usages, it cannot be too gravely read or too devoutly pondered." The Baptist Messenger, England. " I have now kept it on my table for several months. I found it of great use in interpreting certain passages in the Lessons, and other portions of Holy Scripture, which I had occasion to read privately and before my congregation. On the points it more especially examines, it is more thorough and exhaustive than any com- mentary I have ever met with. I don't wonder that our learned friend, Dr Tayler Lewis, speaks of it so warmly, as a valuable addition to our sacred literature." W. PAYNE, D. D., Sckeneclady. " THE BOOK OF BOOKS on this question. I trust steps will be taken by some friend of truth and humanity in each church in this Union, to supply his own pastor with a copy." Hon. E. C. DELAVAN, Schenectady. THE TEMPERANCE BIBLE-COMMENTARY: GIVING AT ONE VIEW VERSION, CRITICISM, AND EXPOSITION, IN REGARD TO ALL PASSAGES OF HOLY vf Rl BEARING ON < WINE ' AND 'STRONG DRINK,' OR ILLUSTRATING THE PRINCIPLES OF THE TEMPERANCE REFORMATION. BY DR FREDERIC RICHARD LEES, F.S.A. i\ AND REV. DAWSON BURNS, M.A. " Rightly dividing the Word of Truth." NEW YORK: SHELDON & Co., 500 BROADWAY. NATIONAL TEMPERANCE SOCIETY AND PUBLICATION HOUSE, J. N. STEARNS, 172 WILLIAM STREET. 1870. Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1870, by WEED, PARSONS & CO., in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the Northern District of New York. WEED, PARSONS AND COMPANY, PRINTERS AND STBRBOTYPBRS, ALBANY, NEW YORK. TABLE OF CONTENTS. PACK ix ix xi xiv xvi xvii 1 7 No of Passages 3 I. GENERAL PREFACES: I. By the Authors ii. By Professor Tayler Lewis Preface to the Notes Explanations of marks and abbreviations, etc. ... II. PRELIMINARY DISSERTATION III. NOTES ON THE BOOKS OF THE OLD TESTAMENT (493 PASSAGES), COMPRISING The Book of Genesis .... The Book of Exodus .... The Book of Leviticus .... The Book of Numbers .... The Book of Deuteronomy ... The Book of Joshua The Book of Judges .... The Book of Ruth The First Book of Samuel The Second Book of Samuel ... The First Book of Kings The Second Book of Kings ... The First Book of Chronicles The Second Book of Chronicles The Book of Ezra The Book of Nehemiah .... The Book of Esther .... The Book of Job The Book of Psalms .... The Book of Proverbs .... The Book of Ecclesiastes ... The Book of Canticles (or Song of Solomon) The Book of the Prophet Isaiah - The Book of the Prophet Jeremiah The Book of the Lamentations of Jeremiah The Book of the Prophet Ezekiel The Book of the Prophet Daniel The Book of the Prophet Ilosea The Book of the Prophet Joel The Book of the Prophet Amos - The Book of the Prophet Obadiah - The Book of the Prophet Jonah ... 16 20 21 35 5 '4 2 II 5 8 ii 6 ii 6 IS ii 10 26 26 7 18 65 32 5 13 6 17 H 10 i I 26 34 66 68 77 79 85 88 9i 96 98 101 103 108 "3 117 129 '47 150 156 184 202 205 211 217 22$ 229 233 234 VI TABLE OF CONTENTS. PAGB The Book of the Prophet Micah - - - 5 No of Passages 235 The Book of the Prophet Nahum - 2 " 238 The Book of the Prophet Habakkuk 4 " 239 The Book of the Prophet Zephaniah - 2 " 242 The Book of the Prophet Haggai ... 5 " 243 The Book of the Prophet Zechariah - 7 " 245 The Book of the Prophet Malachi I " 248 ADDITIONAL NOTES ON THE OLD TESTAMENT: The Book of Genesis, i Supplemental Note .... 249 The Book of Exodus, I Supplemental Note, I New Note I Passage 249 The Book of Numbers, i New Note - - I " 250 The Book of Deuteronomy, i Supplemental Note, ... %$& The Book of Esther, i Supplemental Note .... 250 The Book of Proverbs, I Supplemental Note - - 251 The Book of Canticles, i Supplemental Note .... 251 IV. CONNECTION OF THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS .... 253 V NOTES ON THE BOOKS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT (144 PASSAGES), COMPRISING The Gospel according to St Matthew - - 21 No of Passages 261 The Gospel according to St Mark - 6 " 289 The Gospel according to St Luke - - - 16 " 292 The Gospel according to St John 8 " 301 The Acts of the Apostles - - - - 9 " 312 The Epistle of St Paul to the Romans 12 " 320 The First Epistle of St Paul to the Corinthians 19 " 328 The Second Epistle of St Paul to the Corinthians 2 " 346 The Epistle of St Paul to the Galatians 6 " 348 The Epistle of St Paul to the Ephesians - i " 352 The Epistle of St Paul to the Philippians - 2 " 355 The Epistle of St Paul to the Colossians - 3 " 357 The First Epistle of St Paul to the Thessalonians 3 " 360 The First Epistle of St Paul to Timothy - 7 " 367 The Epistle of St Paul to Titus ... 4 " 377 The Epistle of St Paul to Philemon - i " 379 The General Epistle to the Hebrews - i " 380 The General Epistle of St James 3 " 381 The First General Epistle of St Peter 6 " 383 The Second General Epistle of St Peter i " 388 The Book of the Revelation of St John - 13 " 389 VI. APPENDIX A: A SELECTION OF SCRIPTURE TEXTS, EXHIBITING THE AUTHORIZED ENGLISH VERSION WITH SUGGESTED EMENDATIONS. 1. The Old Testament 397 2. The New Testament 408 TABLE OF CONTENTS. vii fAGB VII. APPENDIX B, CONTAINING CLASSIFIED AND TRANSLATED LISTS OP HEBREW AND GREEK WORDS IN THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS. OLD TESTAMENT: 1. Hebrew Words translated Wine and Strong Drink - 412 2. Hebrew Words translated Vineyard, Vine, etc. - - 419 3. Hebrew Words translated Leaven, Vinegar, Unfermented Bread, etc. ......... 421 4. Hebrew Words translated Drunken, Drunkenness and Drunkard ........ 422 5. Hebrew Words descriptive of the Nature and Effects of Intoxicating Drink 422 6. Other Hebrew Words explained in the Notes 423 NEW TESTAMENT : 1. Greek Words translated Wine, Strong Drink and Vinegar 425 2. Greek Words translated Vine, Vineyard, Fruit of the Vine, Grapes, Clusters 426 3. Greek Words translated Leaven, Unleavened Bread, Drunkenness, Drunkard, Drunk, Temperance, Sober - 427 4. Other New Testament Greek Words explained in the Notes 428 VIII. APPENDIX C : THE APPLICATION OF 'YAYIN* AND 'Omos' TO THE UNFERMENTED JUICE OF THE GRAPE - - 431 IX APPENDIX D: WINES, ANCIENT AND MODERN. 1. Original Authorities on Ancient Wines ... 434 2. Produce of Vineyards in the East ..... 441 3. Notice of Fallacies in the Bibliotheca Sacra - - 446 X INDEX 447 GENERAL PREFACES. i. CHRISTIANS everywhere unite in accepting the saying of St Paul that all God-inspired Scripture is " profitable for doctrine, for reproof, for cor- rection, for instruction in righteousness; that the man of God may be perfect, thoroughly furnished unto all good works" (2 Tim. iii. 16, 17). But the profit derived from Divine Truth will necessarily vary according to the degree of teachableness and soundness of judgment brought to its perusal. The Bible is not accountable for the multifarious errors and abuses it has been employed to support ; yet it is occasion for lamentation that on not a few great questions, both of Science and Morals, the Living Oracles have been strangely misapprehended and misapplied. Not the illiterate and vicious alone, but successive generations of scholars and divines, have enunciated mischievous fallacies professedly extracted from the Scriptures. In Physical Science, the fixity and recent creation of the earth ; in Political Philosophy, the right of arbitrary government and Negro slavery ; in Social Economy, the excellence of Polygamy ; in Ecclesiastical ethics, the duty of persecuting heretics, and the obligation of unlimited submission to the clergy : these and other baneful dogmas have been zealously propounded, not as speculative theories, but as the practical teachings of the Divine Word. That such conclusions are now commonly discarded is not due to any change in the Record, but to a marked improvement in the manner of reading it ; and to a perception that there can be no real contradiction between one portion of Holy Scrip- ture and another, or between the Revelation of God in Nature and in His Written Will. Not less obviously true is it, that social customs and personal habits of diet and indulgence, continued from childhood upwards, may induce a state of mind inconsistent with the unbiased interpretation of Holy Writ. For example, let a man be accustomed to regard intoxicating liquor as a necessity, or even a valuable auxiliary, of life, and as an innocent vehicle of enjoyment and social entertainment ; let him remain ignorant of all that can be said and has been proved to the contrary; let him consider the intemperance arising from strong drink to be one of the inevitable forms of natural depravity, and therefore to be classed in its origin as well as its results with other sins of the flesh ; let him persuade himself that the ordi- nary means of Christian evangelization are sufficient to eradicate this pro- lific vice with its dismal progeny of social curses: let all this be done, and it will no longer appear surprising that many of the allusions contained in both the Old and New Testaments are construed in favor of the use of such drink, and that other passages, clearly opposite in their tendency, should be ignored or explained away. This may be done in perfect good faith, and without any consciousness of the process by which the one-sided exegesis is wrought out. Accordingly, when the Temperance Reformation began, some of the earliest arguments brought against it were borrowed (as was supposed) from the armory of Scripture texts; and down to the present time many who hold aloof from that cause, defend their estrangement by a similar b AUTHORS' PREFACE. appeal to Scripture precedent and approval. Some even go the length of charging abstainers with a conduct at variance not only with the privileges, but with the duties of the Christian dispensation, and accuse them of seek- ing to impose a code of asceticism contrary to the genial and liberal spirit of the Gospel. In controverting what have been represented as the views of Temperance writers upon the wines named in Scripture, some critics have ignorantly attributed to them the most absurd positions such as that all those wines were unfermented and uninebriating while they themselves have neglected to distinguish between the various terms trans- lated 'wine,' and have confounded the use of intoxicating liquor by men of old, and the permission of such use, with the express sanction and blessing of God. To some friends of the Temperance movement a work of this character may appear superfluous. Certain of them may be disposed to deny that the question is one for Bible arbitration or reference at all ; while others may be prepared to concede that Scripture permits and approves the use of strong drink, though also permitting and approving of abstinence from it. It is in vain, however, to expect that the Bible will cease to be quoted as an authority on the subject of Temperance ; nor is it desirable that its store of facts should be overlooked, or its testimony left unexamined and disregarded. Those who contend that * liberty to abstain ' is all that is needed as an argumentative basis for abstinence, will find themselves un- deceived when they attempt to urge the practice upon others as a duty ; for how can that be a duty, it will be asked, the opposite of which is sanc- tioned by both the letter and the spirit of the Divine Word ? Besides, even the argument from Christian expediency, to which such friends attach a high (if not exclusive) importance, cannot be understood without an appeal to passages of Scripture whose true meaning and legitimate bearing have been warmly contested. In replv to the inquiry, which may not be discourteously proposed, whether tne authors of this Commentary can claim to be exempt from a bias in favor of abstinence which may have inspired and controlled their exposition? they can but say that they have been fully sensible of their liability to such an influence, and have therefore endeavored to counteract its operation by carefully weighing all adverse arguments, and by placing before the reader the materials by which he may form for himself an inde- pendent judgment as to the correctness of the inferences drawn. They have honestly sought, with trust in Divine aid, to discover the truth con- tained in the passages successively discussed ; and, in consigning the fruit of their labors to the press, they pray that the blessing of Heaven may attend it so far as it is adapted to promote the faithful, intelligent study of Scripture, and a more perfect sympathy with the spirit of the Psalmist, "Teach me, O Lord, the way of Thy statutes ; and I shall keep it unto the end. Give me understanding, and I shall keep Thy law; yea, I shall observe it with my whole heart." THE AUTHORS. AMERICAN SUPPLEMENTARY PREFACE. XI II. I have given to the book entitled The Temperance Bible Commen- tary as close an examination as my poor health will allow. The result has been a high opinion of its value. The preliminary dissertation is able, clear, comprehensive ; above all, exhibiting that sound common sense which, in the interpretation of the Scriptures, would avoid the perversions of pedantry on the one hand, and all forced attempts to make out a rigid conformity to modern science on the other. This is very happily illustrated by the remark that " the Bible is not a book of science, dictated in technical and scholastic language, but a book of ///, written in the language of daily life, of national history, of popu- lar apologue." There has been committed on this topic (as is well shown in the 'Introduction') the same error of interpretation that so long perverted and confused the Slavery question. It was the error of applying ancient words, and ancient ideas expressed by them, to modern things, modern relations, and modern practices, which, though covered by the same general language, had undergone a change so great, as to amount to almost a radical difference. What a wide dis- tance, for example, between the Abrahamic relation of chieftain and follower, or the domestic service of the simple Jewish agricultural life, to which the commercial ideas of sale and traffic were almost wholly unknown, and the vile, mercenary, man-degrading slavery of a Bra- zilian cotton and sugar plantation! The anti-temperance writers err in the same way when they apply the artless language of Scripture (as used of the comparatively harmless substances they often repre- sent) to the vile and noxious compounds which, in modern times, pass under similar names. The ordinary wine of Palestine, even if it did contain a little alcohol, unknown to any science of the day a ques- tion which is hardly worth discussing what a vast difference between this and the fiery potations now manufactured for our hotels, our drinking saloons, and alas! too often, it must be said, for our holy, Christian communion tables. And yet these modern compounds are also called ' wine,' and those who use them would shelter themselves under the old appellations which, in the days of Noah and David, were given to such widely different things. Anti-temperance critics are fond of charging the zealous temperance advocate with perver- sions of Scripture and strained interpretations. This is doubtless true in some cases, but the fault is far more apt to be on the other side. The whole scope and spirit of a precept is often overlooked by the Xll AMERICAN PREFACE. wine advocate, and some mere contrast or illustration (belonging, not to the inspired heart of the passage, but to the necessarily imperfect human language in which it is conveyed, and to the imperfect human knowledge which is an inseparable accompaniment of such t language) is elevated into all the dignity and authority of a precept^ commanding us directly to drink wine, as though it were good per se a duty, in fact, the neglect of which would be a slighting of the Divine benefi- cence. The much-talked-of sin per se of the other side, however strained and harsh it may sometimes appear, is far more sound and rational. Thus, for example, Proverbs xxxi: 6-7, is taken by some as not only a perfect justification of wine-drinking as a common practice, but even as a command to do so in certain cases. When we look, however, at the whole passage, and study its spirit, we find it to be one of the strongest abstinence texts in the whole Bible. " Not for kings, not for kings" it is twice repeated "not for princes," not for rulers, not for men who have charge of high interests, not for men in health (as is the fair implication) who have responsible duties to per- form it is not for these, not at all for these, to drink wine. They are not to touch it. This is the only meaning of language so repeated, so intense, so emphatic. The Bible writers may err in their manner of conceiving, and in their mode of stating physical facts (as, for example, in the statement that "the moon" may "smite by night"). Their true inspiration belongs to a higher plane. In the knowledge, however, of spiritual conditions, whether good or evil, our modern science gives us no advantage over them. There is one evil state of soul condemned throughout the Bible. It is that state to which we give the name intoxication, or inebriation, but which, having no term corresponding to it in the Hebrew, is described and most vividly set before us (see Prov. xxiii : 29, 35) in its phenomena and effects. It was, on the part of the Bible writers, simply the observation of a spiritual fact, requir- ing no chemical analysis, or any scientific knowledge in respect to the working or degree of alcohol. As a spiritual fact, it was as well known to Jeremiah, Hosea, and the author of the book of Proverbs, as it is to Faraday, Liebig, and Draper. It is the act of a person in health, voluntarily, and without any other motive or reason than the pleasurable stimulus, using any substance whatever, be it solid or liquid, to produce an unnatural change in his healthy mental and bodily state, either by way of exciting or quieting the nerves and brain, or quick- ening the pulse. This was wrong a spiritual wrong a sin/ J er - x ^- I0 > I2 > possibly in Isa. Iv. i ; probably in Deut. xiv. 26, it is applied to * the grape in the cluster.' The Rabbins have a similar use of the word. Baal Hatturim, in Deut. xvi. ii, says, "At Pentecost, when corn is reaped, and wine is now in the grapes." In wine countries, the common language applied to the growing grapes is, * the wine-blooms. 1 The grape-cure is called the ' wein cur.' In Spain they say, una buena cosccha de vino, 'a good gathering of wine.' (Father Connelly's Diccionario Nuevo, Madrid, 1798.) A traveler in the Pyrenees says, "Flocks of sheep and goats enliven the hills ; corn and wine, flax and oil, hang on the slopes." (Collin's Voyages, 1796, p. 82.) (b) Yayin as used very frequently for the ' foaming blood of the grape' was, as we have said, probably applied to the expressed juice because of its turbid appearance. Perhaps the claret-grape, which has red juice, suggested the metaphor, " He washed his garments in yayin, his clothes in the blood-of-grapes." (Compare Gen. xlix. 12 with Isa. Ixiii. i 3.) In Job xxxii. 19 the word is applied to the must-wine, translated by the Septuagint gleukos. Cant. v. i (compared with vii. 9) refers to a sweet, innocent yayin, which might be drunk ' abundantly ' by young women. A peculiar use of the corresponding Chaldee term, khamar, is occasionally found in the Targums. ' Wine reserved in its grapes ' (Targum on Cant, viii. 2). On Cant. i. 14 we fall back on the other sense: 'They took clusters of grapes and pressed wine out of them.' (c) In Prov. ix. 2, 5, yayin seems to point to a boiled-wine, or syrup, the thickness of which made it needful to mingle water with it before drinking: while, unmixed with fluid, it was probably con- sumed with milk (Isa. Iv. i; compare vii. 22; Ezek. xxvii. 17). " To the honey of raisins," says Baron Bode, " the Persians give the name of shire" According to D'Herbelot (1680), the words sirop, sherbet, etc., came from the Arabic shir-ab ['sweet water '], applied to any kind of drink in general. (Bibliothcque Orientale : Art. Sirop.) In the East, sherab to this day includes 'ail sorts of wine,' sherab-jee signifying * wine-seller' ; but the sense of sirop with us undeniably proves the existence of a syrup-wine formerly. The Mishna (Terumoth, xi.) shows that, anciently, wine so preserved was used in the offerings. " Wine (yayin) of the heave-offering must not be boiled, because it lessens it." Bartenora, in a note, says, " For people drink less of it," which is true, since boiling renders it richer and more cloying. The Mishna adds, " Rabbi Yehuda permits it, because it improves it." Such a wine Wisdom prepares, and, on the day of her feast, is aptly represented as mingling with water for her guests. (d ) There was also the yayin mixed with drugs, of various sorts : the ' mixed-wine ' of the sensualist, spiced and inebriating ; a cup of still stronger ingredients, used as the emblem of Divine judgments, the 'cup of malediction' (Psa. Ixxv. 8) ; the 'turbid-wine,' full of poison. As Dindorf (Lexicon et Comment., 1804) says, " Yayin khamar, vinum fermentescit calici vino turbido et venenato pleno, a cup full PRELIMINARY DISSERTATION. xxvii of wine, thick, foaming, and poisonous." Of Deut. xxxii. 33 he says, "Khamath taana'un yaynahm, this wine is the poison of dragons venenum draconum ; sermo quo delectantur est noxious, pessimus." (e) Yayin was also applied to every species of fermented grape- juice. The characters of fermentation are well marked in Prov. xxiii. 31, where it is described as 'red' and 'sparkling,' in which condition we are forbidden even to look upon it with desire. Not in one-half of the 141 texts, however, can it be shown that such wine is the kind to which the word is applied, by anything in the context. Yayin, then, being accepted as a general term, it would follow that we should expect, as time went on, that specific terms would be adopted to designate special kinds or states of wine, and this is exactly what we find to be the case in the later books. 2. Q^D?, a/isis, occurs in five texts, Cant. viii. 2; Isa. xlix. 26; Joel i. 5; iii. (Heb. iv.) 18; Amos ix. 13. The word is plainly con- nected with a/isas, * to tread,' and denotes ' something trodden out.' It is grape-juice purely; and never seems to have acquired the ambiguous meaning of the Greek gleukos and the Latin mustum, which were undoubtedly sometimes applied to the juice of grapes in an initial state of fermentation. Joel iii. 18, 'the mountains shall drop down new wine ' (a/isis), is not all a figure. Pallas says, in 1793, of the grapes in the Hungarian vintage, "In August they ripen, burst, and begin to evacuate their juice. The Shirnoi contains a rich juice, and bursts when ripe" (Travels, i. p. 314.) Professor Douglas rightly says that " the passage, ' they shall be drunken with their own blood as with sweet-wine,' is no proof that must, which is unintoxicating, cannot here be meant ; for neither is blood intoxi- cating: but all the meaning that the verb conveys is, to drink till one is satiated or cloyed. 'Ahris of the Pomegranate ' is an evidence that the word was sometimes used in that width of meaning which the etymology sanctioned." (Fairbairn's Imperial Bible Dictionary, p. 1097. Glasgow, 1866.) or sobhe, from sabha, ' to drink to satiation,' occurs but thrice. It is chiefly interesting as affording a link of connection between classical wines and those of Judea, through an obviously common name, being identical with the Greek hepsema, the Latin sapa, and the modern Italian and French sabe, ' boiled grape-juice.' The inspissated wines called defmtum and syrceum were, according to Pliny (xiv. 9), a species of it : the last name singularly suggests the instrument in which it was prepared the syr or caldron (Nahum i. 10). "The property of organic substances," says Liebig, " to pass into a state of decay, is annihilated in all cases by heating to the boiling-point." Columella tells us of the kind of degeneration to which such preparations were subject. " Defrutum, however carefully made, is liable to grow acid" (xii. 20). To this corre- sponds the statement of Hos. iv. 8 'Their sove is sour' Such xxviii PRELIMINARY DISSERTATION. preparations are made in great quantities in the East, in Calabria, and in the south of France, to this day. (See Works of Dr Lees, ii. p. 144.) 4. HDrj' khamar, is the Chaldee equivalent of the Hebrew yayin, and occurs only in Ezra and Daniel. Its derivation is from the Hebrew khemer (see Deut. xxxii. 14 ; Psa. Ixxv. 8), which may be translated foaming, or turbid, or as we say in English, * yesty,' barmy, scummy. It has, therefore, a very wide application, and its meaning comprehends ' all sorts of wine,' without shutting us up to any in par- ticular. 5. VDH' khometz, is simply ' sour-wine/ vinegar, ' sick-wine,' wine * gone ' sour. It was, no doubt, chiefly applied to the thin sour drink made from the last pressure of the grapes, with water added, and was, like the Roman posca, something halfway between ginger-beer and French vin-ordinaire. In the East, the term koumiss is applied to fer- mented, sour mare's or camel-milk. The word had a somewhat broad application to sour and fermented things. 6- n*l" i n> tirosh) is not 'wine' at all, but 'the fruit of the vine- yard ' in its natural condition. The vine says, ' Shall I leave my tirosh ? ' * They shall tread tirosh, but shall not drink yayin! Nothing but a foregone conclusion, fostered by the mistranslation of ancient and modern versions versions which traditionally sustain and deceive each other could have hindered scholars from perceiving the true sense of this word. Neither Versions nor Lexicons, however, have been consistent. The Septuagint, the Chaldee Targums, the Syriac, Arabic, Vulgate, etc., have, in one text or another, rendered the word as ' berry,' * vines,' ' vintage,' 'fruit,' 'grapes,' etc. On Micah vi. 15, Julius Bate, M. A., in his ' Critica Hebraea,' 1767, observes, "Hence it is plain that tirosh is what is pressed, the grapes." Gesenius, in three texts, renders it ' grapes,' and so others. Tirosh is perhaps correctly derived from yarash, ' to possess, to inherit,' just as Hierusalem is from yerash and salem = ' possession of peace.' Drusius, in 1617, commenting on Gen. xxvii. 28, observes that " the idea of ' possession ' is implied in tirosh, because amongst those things which a man possessed by inheritance, vintage-produce was the chief, and received this name by way of distinction."* * The note in Kitto's 'Pictorial Bible' (Ed. 1847), objecting to our derivation, alleges that "the grape could not be more important to the Jews than the goose- berry to us " ! and further, that it is "unlikely that the solid products of the vine should be so conspicuously placed beside corn " ! ! If the reader will peruse three texts, selected at intervals, he will perceive how very far vinous prejudice will lead critics to ignore the plainest facts. Numb. xvi. 14, " Given us inheritance of fields and vineyards." Lev. xxvi. 4, 5, " The land shall yield its produce [o?r], the trees give their /ru it. Your threshing [of corn] shall reach unto your vintage" Isa. xvi. 9, "Joy is taken out of the plentiful field; in the vineyards there shall be no shouting." In Micah vi. 15, sowing seed of corn, and treading olives and grapes, all occur together, side by side. What is the present condition of things in Bible lands ? The Rev. Smylie Robson, missionary at Damascus, thus writes, after noticing corn and olives : "The fruit of the vine is the only other kind which can PRELIMINARY DISSERTATION. XXIX Those who give to the word the meaning of mustum, grape-juice, and then add, by way of explanation, that it is " a strong wine which gets possession of a man's head, and drives him out of himself," not only invent a fiction and contradict demonstrable facts, but contra- vene the clear context of every passage wherein the word occurs, which in no instance whatever is connected with inebriety. Out of thirty-eight texts in which tirosh is found, in thirty it is associated with corn (not bread), in one (Micah vi. 15) with otives, in twenty-one with ortJtard-frMit, and in twenty with both corn and fruit. It is never once connected with shemen, ' oil,' though Smith's ' Bible Dictionary ' erroneously states the contrary ; it is only thrice found in the company of ' wine,' and then by way of distinction, as a different thing ; and it is constantly associated with * dew,' * rain,' ' dryness/ and other conditions affecting natural growth.' Within the compass of philology there is hardly any word which, by the conjoint evidence of etymology, context, and circumstance, is more clearly shown to be a collective term expressive of a class of natural produce. The notion that tirosh signifies the same as a/isis, or the alternative supposition, that this latter should have been invented when the former was in constant use for the same idea, is simply incredible. That p"|, dahgan, denotes growing corn ' in general, and not some species of grain, as * wheat ' or barley,' has never been ques- tioned. That it denotes an artificial preparation like 'bread' or 1 cake ' has never been imagined. Yet this term is found in per- petual association, under common natural conditions favoring or opposing growth and increase, with tirosh. "")!""i^> n > yitzhar, is a second term, twenty-one times used in connection with tirosh. It is derived, as Dindorf, Gesenius, and others admit, from a root signifying to ' shine,' ' glisten,' like the Spanish term azahar, ' orange-flower,' and the Latin aitrantium, for the shining orange class of fruits. The oliveyards also shine and glisten in the sun ; hence we have suggested 4 olive-and-orchard-h\i\\. ' as the English equivalent otyitzhar, completing a beautiful triad of natural blessings (i) Gvy/-fruit, (2) Vine-fr\i\t (3) Orchard-fain ; or, in other words, the produce of field, vineyard, and orchard. Agreeing with Professor Douglas, that " a common deriva- tion of tirosh from the verb to * take possession,' because it intoxicates, is too arbitrary to deserve serious refutation " (* Imperial Bible Dictionary,' p. 1097), we accept the sense of 'vine-fruit' as that demonstrated by induction, and giving a meaning which at once fits every context and honors the Divine word. (For further evidence, see Works of Dr Lees,' vol. ii.) be said to form a substantial part of the food of the people. . . . From August to December, bread and grapes are, substantially, the food of the people. . . . It is perfectly safe to eat grapes constantly to satiety. Grapes are dried in large quantities. There is another form in which the fruit of the vine is preserved for use. By pickling and beating, a substance called dibs \_debhash, artificial honey- cake] is made out of the grapes. . . . It is only ignorance which would pare away and attenuate scriptural expressions." Missionary Herald of the Presby- terian Church in Ireland, 1845. See this testimony more at length on page 93 of the Notes. XXX PRELIMINARY DISSERTATION. 7- *3T)\yeqev (Arab. 'UKEB, cavum esse), originally a ' cavity/ ' coop, or vat in which grapes or olives were put for the purpose of being trodden ; but perhaps, secondarily, by becoming generic for the whole apparatus (tota macJdna], the lacus or cavity into which the wine and oil flowed (in quern VINUM expressum deflui?}. So Dindorf, who cites Hesychius LEENOS hopou staphulee pateitai. Gesenius also accepts the double sense of yeqev. J. D. Paxton, the American, says of Bhadoom, " Several [fruit] houses seem to be common property, where they express the juice of the grape. They have a row of large vats, into which the grapes are thrown ; and beside these some stone troughs, into which the juice flows. Men get into the vats, and tread the grapes. . . . They take the juice from the troughs and put it into large boilers, reduce it to one-half" (Travels, p. 215). Capt. Colville Frankland says of Solima, "The grapes are trodden out upon a kind of stone platform ; the juice, running off through a little channel, is received in a basin cut in the rock, from whence it is carried in buckets to the boiler, where it is skimmed, and allowed to cool. It is boiled and cooled twice, and then put into great earthen jars, and becomes a rich syrup" (Travels, ii. p. 10, 1827). Prof. Murphy of Belfast, in order to prove the liquidity of tirosh, has narrowed the sense of yeqev to that of the ' must-lake,' or hypoleenos, but without any reason or even good authority. It occurs sixteen times, and in most of the texts is more appropriately referred to the upper than the under vat. In Numb, xviii. 27, 30; Deut. xv. 14; xvi. 13; 2 Kings vi. 27; Hos. ix. 2, it is associated with ' corn ' and the ' threshing-floor.' In Job xxiv. ii it is plainly the place of treading shriveled grapes that yield no wine to quench thirst. In Isa. v. 2 it is used for the whole of the apparatus, not for part of it much less for the last part to the exclusion of the first! In Isa. xvi. 10, to avoid giving to l yayin* its natural contextual sense of grape, the translators are compelled to insert 'out' and '// ashishah, perhaps from a root signifying 'fire,' denotes a cake of dried grapes. " By universal consent," says Prof. Douglas, " it is now understood to be some kind of cake, probably a cake of dried fruit." It occurs in 2 Sam. vi. 19; i Chron. xvi. 3; Cant. i. 5; Hos. iii. i ; and is unfortunately rendered ' flagons ' and ' flagons of wine.' 10. i[^"")C&' shcmanm, 'preserves,' from shamar, 'to preserve,' as sheminim, 'fat things,' from shemcn, 'fat' or oil. Our oldest trans- lators rendered it better than the modern. Coverdale renders ' sweet things'; the Bishop's Bible (1568), 'delicate things'; Forerius and Grotius, ' a feast of vine-fruit ' (yindemid}. Preserves form an essential part of Oriental feasts : ' They eat the fat (shemen) and drink the sweet* (Neh. viii. 10). 11. ""Q% shakar, 'saccharine drink,' is related to the word for sugar in all the Indo-Germanic and Semitic languages, and is still applied throughout the East, from India to Abyssinia, to the palm sap, the zhaggcry made from it, to the date-juice and syrup, as well as to sugar and ^o the fermented Palm wine. It has, by usage, grown into a genericTerm for ' drinks,' including fresh juices and inebriating liquors, other than those coming from the grape. [See ' Works ' of Dr Lees, ii. 1853, Art. 'Strong drink,' Art. 'Wine,' etc., for abundant illustrations, and for refutation of Fuerst's derivation.] Mr Palgrave,in his * Arabia,' says, having bought for three farthings a handkerchief full of ' delicious ' dates, " we hung it up from the roof-beam to pre- serve the luscious fruit from the ants, and it continued to drop molten sweetness into a sugary pool on the floor for three days together " (i. p. 253). Such a beverage was rightly called shakar, and naturally and necessarily produced that satisfaction and cloying fullness which is well expressed by the cognate verb, and which has its parallel in the history of the corresponding Greek words, mcthucin from methu, * sweet wine,' ' mead,' etc.* The force of the prophet's words may be understood from considering this, the etymological and primary sense of shakar : 'The sicftt dtink shall become bitter to them that drink it.' II. Our second proposition assumes a more positive form viz., that the Bible teaches, clearly and fully, by a series of continuous and consistent testimonies, that intoxicating drink is an evil article ; poisonous to the body, seductive to the soul, and corrupting to the * The views taken of these words were generally adopted in Dr Eadie's Bible Cyflo/xtdia, especially as to tirosh and yitzhar, and the generic sense of shakar and yayin. They were all incorporated in Kitto's Cvclopitdia of Biblical Litfratnre (1845), the first Edition, the only one truly called Kitto's; and they have been entirely adopted and admirably sustained in Bastow's Bible Dictionary, and in Dr Fairbairn's Imperial Bible Dictionary (1866). XXX11 PRELIMINARY DISSERTATION. circumstances of man : or, to put the idea in another shape, we hold that the Bible vindicates its claim to Inspiration by having anticipated on this point the fullest witness of Science, and having exhausted the teachings of human History. And here will naturally start up, in defense of palatable Error, all the hydra forms of prejudice and convention ; for it is very hard for the fleshly lusts and fashions of the world to bow before even Divine truth. Yet appealing to a World that at least ' professes ' to believe in the fact that God has spoken in His word why should our proposition startle and convulse it ? What other branch of practical morals is there on which it is more needful that God should have instructed mankind, by precept, by warning, and by example ? Why, then, are the people and the preachers so loth to receive the teach- ings, or so bitter in their condemnation of the proposition itself, so ingenious in the invention of objections, yet withal so illogical in their criticism and so intolerant of inquiry ? Dr Steudel, in his essay on 'Inspiration,' puts a serious question: "To appropriate the Spirit, I must renounce my own inclinations, and give a real consent to all the Word presents as true. Why refuse homage to just that part of the Divine wisdom to which our own depravity cares not to consent ? " It is not enough, then, that we have ' the Scriptures to search ' ; we must come to the search in a proper moral attitude. We must come> not for confirmation of opinion, which is pride, but for purity of life, which is true profit. Our aim must be both Truth and Good. It may be asked here, therefore, without offense, whether he who seeks to justify the use of alcoholic beverages by the Scripture, is not very liable to a sensuous bias in his interpretation ? If God's works and law manifested in experience and science cannot justify drinking, is it not very wrong to rush to His Word ? May not the wish be father to the thought? The objector is not merely defending his own practices, and pleading for his own appetites; he is, even more than the Abstainer, liable to the bias of Opinion. The difference is this, that the drinker's opinion is an old and inherited one, sanctioned by a life-time of custom ; ours, a newly acquired belief, the result of inquiry and experience. Let us, then, in coming to this investigation, strive honestly to desire to know the Divine will, and implore the aid and purifying influence of ' the Spirit of Truth.' Let us seek to place ourselves before the Word, so that its declarations may be photographed upon the soul. In the language of Bishop Ellicott, in ' Aids to Faith,' " Pray against that bias which, by importing its own foregone conclusions into the Word of Scripture, and by refusing to see, or to acknowledge, what makes against its own prejudices, has proved the greatest known hindrance to all fair interpretation; and has tended, more than anything else in the world, to check the free course of Divine truth" (p. 421). Nothing has surprised us more, on the part of professed Christians, than their reluctance to receive any principle which would harmonize Science and Scripture on this subject, and their extreme anxiety not to ascertain what appears to us the PRELIMINARY DISSERTATION. xxxiii plain meaning of Scripture, but to discover some critical process whereby it may be evaded. Passing, however, from general prejudices, moral and intellectual, let us enumerate and expose a few of the commonest, but most operative, false assumptions and delusive principles of interpretation. i. "The Church," says the Objector, "is against the Abstinence theory. It has known all about the Scriptures, and it has universally supposed that intoxicating wine is good, in moderation. That abstainers should have found a new light is incredible. We cannot suppose so many doctors of the Church, and such myriads of pious Christians, to have been in error or sin." In this series of assumptions, each particular is deceptive. There always have been abstainers in the Christian Church, and we profess to have found no new light, but to be illuminated by the old, old lamp. Two questions are involved in this objection: (i) Is the Bible an exhausted book? (2) Has the professmg Church ever erred in its dogmas and practices ? To put the questions is to answer them, but we will do more. On the first point, there is a consensus of opinion, whatever that may be worth. The Roman Catholic Church expressly claims the power to decide on controverted points of Biblical Theology, and has so decided recently on the Immaculate Conception. Amongst Theo- logians of the English and Genevan Churches, and the Dissenting bodies, take the following : ROBINSON, in Address to the Pilgrim Fathers, says "If God reveal anything to you by any other instrument of His, be as ready to receive it as ever you were to receive any truth by my ministry; for I am verily persuaded I am very confi- dent THE LORD HATH MORE TRUTH YET TO BREAK FORTH OUT OF 'iHtS HOLY WORD." The Hon. ROBERT BOYLE (1680) says: "As the Bible was not wri.ttc: any one particular time or people, ... so there are many passages very useful, which will not be found so these many ages; being possibly reserved by the phetic Spirit that indited them ... to quell some foreseen heresy, . . resolve some yet unformed doubts, or confound some error that hath mot yet a name." BISHOP BUTLER, in his Analogy (1737), says: "Nor is it at all .uicrcilihlc, that a Book which has been so lo-.ig in the possession of mankind, shttinu yeT con- tain many truths as yet undiscovered. For all the same phenomena 'and ! 'tJie> ' SAINC faculties of investigation from which such great discoveries in nctfarnl -kwPWtedge have been made in the present and last ace, were equally in the p>se.siou uf upap- kind several thousand years before. And possibly it might 'be ijn tended that EVENTS, as they come to pass, should open and ascertain the'MttanWJfw Several parts of Scripture." The Interpreter (1862) says: "A day is coming, when Scrtytuire, Ib by traditional teaching, too frequently treated as an exatuteMne^i^t ^g^h be recognized in its true character, as a field rich in H#/^w'weaTti). and conse- quently be searched afresh for its hidden treasures." VINET, in his Lectures, says: "Even now, after eighteen centuries of Chris- tianity, we may be involved in some tremendous error, .fcfriwbich 'the- Christianity of the future will make us ashamed." DEAN STANLEY says : " Each age of the Church has; ; recognized, yet from their justice and truth, of an influence and authority that cannot be gainsaid. There are, indeed, even a few cases, but confessedly unimportant, where the modern interpreter has to oppose himself to every early version and every patristic commentator, and where it is almost certain he is right in so doing" (p. 390). 2. "When the word is the same, the thing is the same; if, there- fore, 'wine' means intoxicating-wa& in the cases of Noah and Lot, it must mean the same when used by David in the Psalms, and by the Evangelist in the Gospel narrative of the changing of water into wine."* Certainly not, we answer. Any lexicon or dictionary in any language will refute the assumption in almost any page. See under such words as Creation, Spirit, House, Angel, Gun, etc. Not, as we have shown, that words have so many different meanings, but so many different applications. Take a familiar Bible word Ruakh, * Singular to say, in the first learned sermon ever preached and printed against abstinence, this was the argument ; and it is the staple of all others to this day. The Rev. W. H. Medhurst, on January 3Oth, 1838, said: "As Noah and others got drunk with _jvy/ (wine), yayin MUST, in every text, mean a fermented liquor." No advance has been made upon the logic and criticism of this position. PRELIMINARY DISSERTATION. XXXV 4 spirit,' in three texts: (i) "God made a ruakh to pass over the earth;" (2) "Pharaoh's ruakh was troubled in the morning;" (3) ** A ruakh came forth and stood before the king " Ahab. Here one word is suggestive of three distinct things and ideas; and the word has several other applications. As regards a general term, the context only can show to what it is applied, and so suggest the species intended. Wine, for example, is 'the juice of grapes' quite irrespective of the change that comes over it in fermentation; just as the word 'doctor' means, in common usage, *a learned man,' quite irrespective of his special diploma as physician, surgeon, apothecary, or divine. As with the words 'man,' 'doctor,' 'spirit,' 'wife,' so with wine; it is not the word itself, but the context that defines (if at all) what sort of man, doctor, spirit, wife, or wine it is good, bad, or indifferent. Theologians, writing against Colenso, at once become sensible on this point, though they go back to the false position as soon as the ' wine-bottle ' comes on to the board. Professor J. L. Porter, of Belfast, thus expounds the fact and law : " The Hebrew word baith does not necessarily signify a ' house ' [as in Beth-lekhem, the house of bread]. In Gen. xxvii. 15; Exod. xxiii. 19; i Kings xxiii. 7, etc., it means a 'tent.' At the present day the IJjdawy Arab uniformly calls his 'tent' belt i.e. a 'house,' though the proper Arabic word for ' tent ' is kheimeh [home] ; and he speaks of the 'door' of his 'house,'" which, with all due respect to Dr Porter, shows that beit is also as correct a term for tent as any other. This notion of 'proper use' is a crotchet of scholars, traditionally adopted and repeated. 'Prevent' was as proper when used for 4 helping ' as it is now when used for ' hindering.' It is not generally difficult to see the truth on questions when the purse and the passions are not concerned. For example, the English Church organ called the Record, for January Qth, 1861, had a long review of Dr Cheever's book on 'The Guilt of Slavery,' which, on that topic, argues on precisely the same principles that we have applied, for thirty years, to the drink question. The Record thus welcomes Dr Cheever's endeavor : " We have had occasion to observe the tendency among Biblical commentators to traditional interpretation of Scripture. In the present instance the result has been to obscure altogether, and, in fact, to reverse the teaching of the Book. We must look behind the word to see the nature of the thing. There is no word for ' slave ' to be found in the whole Bible, either Hebrew or Greek, paradoxical as this statement may appear to most of our readers; no word which means, distinctively and only, what we mean by ' slave.' The Hebrew word (obedh) includes service of every kind; and the condition of service cannot be learned from the word itself." In like manner, the Hebrew generic word for wine (yayin) includes grape-juice in many states, and the special quality cannot be learned from the word itself. There is no word for fermented wine in the Bible, no word meaning only that; much less is there such a word associated with God's approval, implicit or explicit. It is enough for XXXVI PRELIMINARY DISSERTATION. us that in no case where wine is named as a blessing does anything occur in the context indicating alcoholic, quality, but in very many cases the reverse; while, on the contrary, it is beyond denial that Divine displeasure is very frequently associated with intoxicating drink. 3. u ~B\it good men used intoxicating wine, for they got drunk; there- fore this is equivalent to God's sanctioning it" This dogma is refuted by the stating of it. It would equally justify polygamy and slavery, for both were permitted; nay even laws were made, not to abolish, but to regulate them. Not only does this criticism prove too much; we have the highest authority for rejecting its principle, since He who spake as never man spake has declared that the lust was suffered, not because it was good, but " because of the hardness of the heart." The Divine light comes to men by dis- creet degrees, as their mental vision is somewhat prepared for it a truth that refutes the next and kindred fallacy. 4. "What is not entirely prohibited is partially sanctioned" According to this, the harmony of slavery with Christianity is indis- putably proved from the Bible, inasmuch as St Paul, writing to- Onesimus, a slave, never told him to run away ! * This fallacy, however, appears in so many Protean forms, that it will be useful to give various illustrations of its supreme absurdity. (i) The law which declares that 'thou shalt not kill' does not mean or imply that half killing is right. 'Thou shalt not commit adultery,' interpreted by our Lord, does not mean that we shall indulge in ' Platonic love,' but rather that the remotest desire leading to the act shall be suppressed. He who says you shall not go to Z certainly does not either assert or mean that you shall go to K or L. (2) The universal usage of language, ancient and modern, sacred and secular, refutes this distorted principle of interpretation. Alexis, in his 'Fanatic' (in Athenseus), has this passage: "I think some of those I meet will blame me for being drunk so early in the day." Will any one hence conclude that to be drunk later in the day was not at all blameworthy in popular estimation? In Eccles. vii. 17, the command, 'Be not overmuch (rahvah} wicked,' cannot surely be equivalent to 'Be moderately wicked.' If the reprobation of 'excess of riot* and 'superfluity of naughtiness' does not involve eulogy on a ' little riot' and a 'little naughtiness,' why should a cau- tion against 'excess of wine' mean or imply a commendation of 'a little wine'Pf In 'The Last of the Barons,' by Bulwer (Lord Lytton), we read the following prayer, put into the mouth of a knight: " From 0zw-gluttony, from 0z//fermented wine is a myth ; the pure blood of the grape is but a transient product of the vine and, in the words of Dr Barclay, ' quite impossible ' to preserve " ! Now we have not only preserved such wine, imported from Florence, for sixteen years together, but we have induced an able chemist to prepare such wine extensively for both medical and sacramental uses ; hence, if Dr Barclay be right, so far from miracles having ceased, their product can be purchased at 245. per dozen.. The * impossible ' has been achieved ; and in the Exhibition Book of Prizes' this impossible wine actually received 'honorable mention.'* For many years past such wine has also been made at a vineyard in the neighborhood of Cincinnati. Inspissated wine has been spoken of in all ages, and is amongst the commonest products of wine countries, and is still called sabe. A respected minister amongst the Society of Friends, Mr Robert Alsop, in a letter to ourselves, under the date of 1 86 1, thus writes: " The syrup of grape-juice is an article of domestic manufacture in almost every house in the vine districts of the south of France. It is simply the juice of the grape boiled down to the consistence of treacle. This syrup is, in those parts, the common medium for making family preserves ; and a great variety of fruit and other vege- table products are so embalmed, such as fresh figs, almonds, peaches, plums, melons, pumpkins, tomatoes, etc. As to the use of [ordinary] wine, it is almost entirely confined to the men. It is proverbial that if a young woman is known to be in the habit of using it, she is unlikely to receive proposals of marriage." 2. It is frequently urged, "The old wine is better than the new, and therefore owes its superiority to the process of fermentation." * Dr Hassall's report in the Lancet contains the following passage: "Mr F. Wiight (of Kensington) exhibits what he calls Sacramental or Passover wine, which consists of the un fermented juice of the grape, and is made to meet the views of those ministers who believe that the wine used at the institution of the Sacra- ment was unfermented, and consisted simply of the expressed juice of the grape^ It forms a very palatable beverage." PRELIMINARY DISSERTATION. xxxix This is an inference from a solitary premiss, and therefore invalid. The objector probably assumes that nothing but alcohol can give superior flavor. This is a mistake, since ^//fermented wine also improves by age, for a reason well known to chemists. In the preparation of scents and other volatile principles, as well as in the bottling of grape-juice, the sapid particles get too intimately mingled with the bulk of the liquid to be detected so fully by the taste; but by being kept, and kept quiet, they are again liberated, and impinge more perceptibly upon the nerves of the palate. Mr Wright's old passover wine is, therefore, sensibly better than the new. Moreover, the flavors and aromas of wines, which determine their price, are not in any ratio to their fermentation or their alcohol. 3. It is said, "The new skin-bottles of the ancients allowed the clastic gases of the fermenting liquid to expand them, and therefore they did not burst and spill the wine." This is a delusion, for the strongest hide of hog or ox, formed into a bottle and filled with grape-juice that had begun to ferment, would, if closed up, be burst asunder as with imprisoned steam ; and if not closed, then the old bottle would run no risk of rending.* A cubic inch of sugar, transformed into carbonic acid gas, occupies a space of probably forty times as much. 4. "There is but one kind of wine, because 'wine' is denned in the dictionaries as the fermented juice of the grape." This is not true of the oldest dictionaries, and the modern ones cannot settle the usage of words in ancient times but only induction from the literature of antiquity, t A modern lexicon may define wine as * the fermented juice of the grape,' but what said the greatest of the logicians of the thirteenth century Thomas Aquinas? Discoursing (the original can be seen in Migne's Patrologice, 4th book, 74th sec. 5th art.) of the proper substance to be used in the eucharist, he says, "Grape-juice (mustum) has the specific quality of wine" speciem rini. 1'he objector falls into the fallacy of excluding the 'mare' from the genus 'horse'; for, though fermented-juice is 'wine,' it is so not to the exclusion of the first form' of wine namely, the unfermented juice. That the 'Angelical Doctor' was right, usage will show: Hippocrates (B.C. 400), in his work on diet, says, " Glukus is less fitted to make the head heavy . . than OTHER WINE (oinodeos)." Athenaeus, the Grammarian (A.D. 280), in his 'Banquet' (lib. i. s. 54), * "The force of fermenting wine is very great, being able, if closely stopped up, to burst through the strongest cask." (Chambers's Cyclopedia, art. * Wine/ 1750.) "The way to preserve NEW WINK in the state of must is to put it up in very strong but small casks, firmly closed on all sides, by which means it will be kept from fermenting. But if it should happen to fall into fermentation, the only way to stop it is by tke fume of sulphur " (Miller, Gardener's Dictionary, art. 'Wine,' 1748.) See further, Works of Dr Lees, ii. p. 158, and elsewhere. t See translations from the ancient and classic authors, Greek and Roman, p. 434. Also various portions of this COMMENTARY, showing the application ot words for 'wine' in Hebrew, Chaldee, Syriac, Greek, Latin, etc., to 'grapes,' grape-juice,' 'boiled grape-juice,' etc. Xl PRELIMINARY DISSERTATION. "The Mitylenaeans have a sweet wine (ghikun OINON), what they cv\\ prodromes, and others call it protropos." And again (ii. 24), he says to the dyspeptic tippler, " Let him take sweet wine, either mixed with water or warmed, especially that kind called protropos, the sweet Lesbian glukus, as being good for the stomach; for sweet WINE (oinos} does not make the head heavy." Dioscorides (A.D. 90), in his 'Materia Medica,' expressly ranks the Roman SAPA, ' boiled wine' Hebrew, sovai or sobai under the 'genus VINI.' Suidas, Lexiconist (950), defines sweet wine thus: " GLEUKOS to apostalagma tees staphulees prin pateesthee ' the droppings from the grapes before being trodden.' " Dr Avenarius, Hebrew Lexiconist (1588), defines "AHSis, mitstum, recently expressed and sweet. German sus : suss ur WEIN. " Lord Bacon, in his 'Natural History' (1597), says, "As wines which at first pressing run gently, yield a more pleasant taste, . . . so observations which flow from Scripture gently expressed and naturally expounded are most wholesome and sweet." Parkinson (1640), in the 'Theatrum Botanicum,' says, "The jnyce or liquor pressed out of the ripe grapes, is called VINUM, wine. Of it is made both SAPA and DEFRUTUM, in English Cute, that is to say BOILED WINE, and both made of mustum, NEW WINE; the latter boyled to the halfe, the former to the third part." Lyttleton, in his 'Latine Dictionary' (Lond. 1678), says, " MUSTUM, sc. Vinum. Hebrew, matz, expressit. Muston, vinum cadis recens inclusum. Gleukos, oinos neos, 'new wine.' Angl. 'Stum, i. e. NEW WINE close shut up, and not suffered to work." W. Robertson, M.A., Cambridge (1693), in ' Phraselogia Generalis,' "WiNE; Vinum, MERUM. New WINE, Mustum. New WINE that runs out without pressing ; Mustum lixivium. WiNE prest, VlNUM tortivum. WlNE yet on the tree ; VINUM pendens." The Glossarwm of Carolo du Fresne (Tomus sextus, Paris, 1736), " VINUM COCTUM. Gallic, vin cuit. VINUM DE PURA GUTTA. Gall., Demere- goutte [mother-drop]. VINUM protropum est vinum sponte defluens, ante-quam uva calcatur. Mustum, VINUM PEDE PkESSUM. Quod pede tantum calcatur, medium inter vinum sponte defluens," etc. J. M. Gesner, the critic, in index to ' Scriptores Rei Rusticae veteres Latini' (1730), says, "Once for all it must be observed, that the words vinum, vitis, uva, and vinea, as kindred terms, are sometimes used synonymously. The Juice of apples, pears, pomegranates [as in Cant. viii. 2], and sorbs, was called vinum." [Alfieri, in his Dizionario (Venice, 1751), shows that this use is still preserved in part in Italian, as it also is in German : " VINO, a liquor well known, extracted from the frtiit of the vine. ViNOSO, juicy, full of wine. Uva vinosa, grapes full of wine. MOSTO, vin nuovo, must."] E. Chambers, F.R.S., in his 'Cyclopaedia' (6th Ed. 1750), has the following, a mere translation from an older French Dictionary : "WiNE, in France, is distinguished into Mere-goutte, 'mother-drop'; which is 'the VIRGIN-WINE,' which runs of itself out of a tap in the vat. Must, stir- must, or stum ; which is the WINE or liquor in the vat, after the grapes have been / WINE, 'VIN de pressurage," 1 is that squeezed with a press out of the trod. Pressed WINE, PRELIMINARY DISSERTATION. xli grapes. Sweet WINE, ' VI N doiixj is that which has not yet fermented. Natural WINE is such as comes from the grape, without mixture. Burnt WINE is that boiled up with sugar. There is also a sort of Malmsey WINE, made by boiling of Muscadine." Dr Lueneman, in his ' Worterbuch ' (Leipzig, 1780), has " Mnstum i. n. der Most junge WEIN [new wine]. Vinea, fin WEINBERG, ^\i-.\^^jr(en. yinolentus, zW/WEiN " [/// of wine. Bottger's Worterbuch has " junger WEIN, new wine. WEiN-AW/tvw, to press grapes. WEIN-BEERE, grape (wine-berry). WEiN-beer-saft (wine-berry juice). WEiN-^rw/t*, vine-har- vest. WEi.\-/ra^, grape-cluster."] The 'London Encyclopaedia,' published in 1829, says, " Rhenish must is of two kinds. That made without boiling is only put up so close that it cannot work; this is called stum ivine" stum being evidently a con- traction from mustum, like 'bus from omnibus. Dr Webster, the American, in his great 'Dictionary' (1828), has "Must, new wine wine pressed fiom the grape, but not fermented." [In this definition he is only following Johnson, and others still older. B. Blount, in his * Glossographia ' (1670), has "New wine, that first pressed out of the grape." E. Phillips, in his ' World of Words ' (1671), has "Wine newly pressed from the grape."] Dr Ure, F.R.S., the chemist, in ' Dictionary of Arts' (1836), says, " Juice, when newly expressed, and before it has begun to ferment, is called must, and in common language, SWEET WINE." F. E. J. Valpy, M.A., in 'Etymological Dictionary' (1838), has " Mustus, new, fresh, young. Hence Mustum, i. e. VINUM, fresh WINE as Mcrum for Merutn ViNUM." Baron Liebig, in ' Letters on Chemistry ' (2nd series, 1844), wrote, " If a flask be filled with grape-juice and made air-tight, and then kept for a few hours in boiling water, . . . THE WINE does not ferment " (p. 198). "The fermentation of WINE and of beer-wort are not isolated phenomena." " The WINE is left to ferment. One of the \\\XK-growers of the Duchy," etc. The Popular Cyclopaedia (1846), which is a translation from the German Conversation Lexicon,' has the following : " MUST, the juice of the grape. In wine countries this unfermented sweet must is distinguished from the sour must, or unripe wine of a year old. It can be kept in close vessels after the mucilage has been precipitated" [or settled on its lees]. "WiNE. There is only one species of wine \_protropos~\ made without beating, treading, or pressing; this is what they call in Spain lagrima [tears]. The grapes, melting with ripeness, are suspended in bunches, and the wine is the produce of the droppings. The juice of the grape, when newly expressed, and before it has begun to ferment, is called MUST, and, in common language, sussur wein [SWEET WINE]. It is turbid, has an agreeable and very saccharine taste." Dr W. Freund, in his ' Wurterbuch der Lateinischen Sprache ' (Leipzig, 1845), has "Vwdemia [vino-demo, 'to draw wine from']; I. Vintage; II. Transf. (a) Grapes, wine ; (b) pi. vintage-season; (c) harvest of similar things, as oil-olive, honey, etc. " VINUM, digammated from oinos, wine. Transf. (a) grapes ; (b) fruit-wine. " MUSTUM, new or unfermentcd wine." 5. " Some classical scholars whose scientific education, however, has been neglected have objected that " the juice of the grape con- xlii PRELIMINARY DISSERTATION. tains alcohol by nature, and even grapes have been known to intoxi- cate ; and so the whole theory of the abstainer gives way." It is altogether erroneous to suppose that grapes, or grape-juice freshly expressed, have any taint of alcohol. Many years ago a careful chemist, at our solicitation, went through a very elaborate examina- tion of the whole matter, and demonstrated that alcohol forms no part of grapes. The experiments were published in the public papers, and a reward of ^50 offered by the British Temperance League " to any person who will extract any appreciable quantity of alcohol from grapes, ripe or rotten, provided the fruit has not been in any way meddled with by art." The intervention of man is always necessary to the placing of fruit in a condition to permit of the vifious fermentation. In the cases where bears, hogs, or men are inebriated with grapes, it is the result of gorging, whereby they turn their stomachs into a brewing vat ; the fruit fermenting instead of digest- ing, and vapors, probably alcohol also, may be generated, which affect the head.* During 1867 some clergymen in Ulster were prematurely rejoicing over the reputed discovery of ' a trace of alcohol ' in the passover wine prepared by Mr Wright, using the supposed fact as a glad reason for returning to the adulterated port which contains a maxi- mum of spirit and only a trace of ' the fruit of the vine ' ! That chemist, however, at once proceeded to Belfast, and in the presence of the public experimentally demonstrated that his wine was not proved to contain even 'a trace.' Professor Hodges, and Dr H. Brown, who made the rash assertion, had deceived themselves. They had assumed that the chromic acid test would reveal the presence of no other substance besides alcohol in the wine, whereas the fruit aromas give the same reaction. Dr Hodges, who is a respectable chemist, admitted that an enormous quantity of the wine must be used in order to find an exhibitable quantity of alcohol! This passage in the history of controversy illustrates the justice of what Liebig observes, that " from the moment the imagination is allowed to solve questions left undecided by researches, investigation ceases truth remains unascertained; and there is not only this negative evil, but in error we create a monster, envious, malignant, and obstinate which, when at length truth endeavors to make its way, crosses its path, combats, and strives to annihilate it." In this case, happily, the friends of light were stronger than the devotees of darkness, and the appeal to common sense was more successful than that to authority. That alcohol is not a product of growth i. e. of those natural pro- cesses that perpetuate the forms of * created things ' is a fact that at once negatives the preceding objection. Even some imperfectly informed abstainers have been too easy in their acceptance of pseudo- scientific dogmas. Here is one specimen : * See Dr Lees' 'History of Alcohol,' 1846, and 'Text-Book of Temperance,' for detail of experiments. PRELIMINARY DISSERTATION. xliii 6. "The new products which result from fermentation are attributa- ble rather to the life than the death principle." Now grape-sugar and albumen are plainly products resulting from the life of the vine. But by decomposition, which only ensues when these substances are parted from the vital organism, the albumen becomes yeast, and thereafter the alimentary sugar is resolved into the poison alcohol and carbonic acid. What ///^-principle produces this? 'The poiuer of the living God!' True, but that power is as much present in death as in resurrection; in decay as in growth; in decomposing as in composing; in simple as in complex combinations; and what is common to 'creation' and 'destruction' cannot destroy the difference between them, which the objection attempts to do. Unfortunately, we have to deal with a school of complacent critics who have so much got the habit of teaching as to have forgotten that of learning, who will argue about sciences they do not understand; and it is almost impossible to excite in them a suspicion that they may be wrong. Otherwise, we might have hope in reproducing such language as the following from Professor Liebig: "It is contrary to all sober rules of research to regard the vital process of an animal or a plant as the cause of fermentali )n. The opinion that they take any share in the morbid process must be rejected a> an hypothesis destitute of all support. In all fungi, analysis has detected the preseiue of sugar, which, during their vital process, is Nor resolved into alcohol and carVmic acid; but after their death, from the moment a change in their color and consistence is perceived, the vinous fermentation sets in. It is the very reverse of the vital process to which this effect must be ascribed. " FERMENTATION, PUTREFACTION, AND DECAY. These are processes of i t "and he drank from the khamrah (wine), and was drunk" (or drenched). The Lxx. has kai epien ek tou oinou, kai emeihusthee, "and he drank from the wine, and was drunk" (or surcharged). The Vulgate, Bibensque I'inum inebriatus est y "and drinking the wine he was inebriated" (or saturated).* [On YAYIN, the generic term rendered 'Wine' in the A. V., see Prel. Dis.] It can hardly be doubted that a name was given by the ancient Hebrews to the expressed juice of grapes, and if that name was not yayin, what was it? But that they should have selected a name having reference to the occult fermenting process is an hypothesis highly improbable, for such a specific discrimination would have peremptorily interdicted the application of the name to the juice of grapes in an wfermented state, whereas that it was so applied is absolutely certain. Let the generic meaning be sought for in the juice yielded by manual or mechanical pressure, and there will be no difficulty in accounting for the continued application of the name to the grape-juice under any change to which it was spontaneously exposed, or artificially subjected. It has been gravely alleged that YAYIN must always be taken to signify inebriating grape-juice, because such is its signification. the first time it occurs, viz., in this verse a conclusion as ridiculous as would be the statement that the Hebrew words riiakh, elohim, shahmaim, and eretz, invaria- bly express, in all parts of Scripture, the meanings they respectively bear in the first verse of the first chapter of Genesis viz., 'spirit,' 'the True God,' 'the visible firmament,' and 'the terraqueous earth.' It is notorious, on the contrary, that other and very different uses of all these words are common in subsequent parts of the Old Testament. Generic terms, as is well known, are sometimes variously employed to convey opposite ideas; as from barak, 'to kneel,' come the derivative meanings of ' to bless ' and 'to curse.' If it be asked how we know that the yayin used by Noah was intoxicating, we reply, Not so much by the ambiguous " Ebrius, literally one who has drunk his fill ; drunk, intoxicated ; in general, abundantly filled. Etymology dubious, usually derived from e and 6, root of bibo, ' I drink.' Inebrio, to make drunk, inebriate ; to saturate, fill full." Dr Smith's Latin-Eng. Diet. Pliny, in treating of the vine, remarks (xiv. 3), Conduntur et miuto irvtr, if>saque vino suo intbriantur, " Grapes are preserved also in mutt, and are themselves inebriated (soaked) in their own wine." 10 GENESIS, IX. 20 27. word translated 'was drunken,' as by the condition into which the wine cast him. Where the context does not decide the special use of a generic term, the broad sense must be retained. Vay-yiskkar, 'and was drunken? answers to the old English sense of the word 'filled with drink' not necessarily with intoxicating drink. Shah-kar (whence comes yishkar) is rendered by Gesenius, 'to drink to the full,' with an implied reference to the saccharine quality of the liquid drunk. V. 24. AND NOAH AWOKE FROM HIS WINE] Hebrew, vay-yiqetz Noakh miy- yayno, ' And Noah awoke from his wine ' leaving it, as it were, behind him. [ Yah-qatz signifies to wake or rouse up. ] With this agree the Hebrew-Samaritan text, the Samaritan Version, and the Targum of Onkelos. The Lxx. is expressive exeneepse de Noe apo toil oincu, "And Noah became sober from the wine" [exeneepsc comes from ek in the sense of 'entirely,' and neephein 'not to drink' meaning he became perfectly sober] and figuratively 'recovered his senses,' 'came to himself a sense which the Arabic version preserves "But when Noah had recovered himself from his drunkenness." Noah drinking copiously of grape-juice which had become fermented and intoxi- cating (of which some have supposed he was not aware), himself became intoxicated, and, as it would seem, so suddenly as to fall down uncovered in his tent; in that condition he is found by his son Ham, perhaps also by his grandson Canaan, who show their want of decency and filial piety by at once informing Shem and Japheth; if, indeed, we may not understand that they related the fact with mockery or glee. The latter at once proceed, with delicate alacrity, to cover their father's shame, and when the patriarch recovers his consciousness he knows by a peculiar intuition what has transpired, and is supernaturally prompted to pronounce a curse on Canaan, and a blessing on Shem and Japheth. It has been supposed that the YAYIN may have been purposely drugged by Ham or Canaan, but the form of the narrative gives no countenance to such an aggravation of his son and grandson's guilt. It is not probable that such an incident, if real, would have been unknown to Moses, or left unrecorded if known. Whether this was Noah's first and only act of intoxication is a question that may be reasonably answered in the affirmative : how it should have been committed at all is a question to which a plausible answer is more difficult. Can we suppose that he had lived for 600 years ignorant of the vine? or that he had never before expressed its juice?* or that he had never pre- viously allowed it to ferment before drinking it? Can we suppose him ignorant to this time of the nature and use of fermented wine ? or was he induced by some passing circumstance (of heat or thirst) to take a draft unusually large? On the whole it may be inferred, from the absence of Divine reproof, that his intoxication was neither intentional, nor the result of gratifying a morbid love of intoxicating liquor. Observation I. It is noticeable that the first time intoxicating liquor is named in Holy Writ it is associated with intemperance a presage of the same connection from that period to the present. Caustically, but with saddest truth, does Butler, the author of 'Hudibras,' say of this 'pleasant poison,' * Dr Pye Smith conjectures that the Vine, after the deluge, may have been finer and fuller of juice than before, and that this circumstance suggested the idea of expressing its juice, which would become intoxicating without the knowledge of the fact at first. The narrative, indeed, gives no intimation of surprise at the effect produced, which would surely have been felt had it been a novel state : but, on the other hand, it may be said that the burden of the reproof seems to rest upon the fact of reveal- 'ng the nakedness of the Patriarch, which his son might attribute to another cause than the one issigned by the narrator. GENKSIS, XIV. 15, 18. II " Which since has overwhelmed and drowned Far greater numbers on dry groin d Of wretched mankind, one by one, Thau e'er the flood before had done." 2. A good man was the first victim of this alcoholic spell. If he was not cognizant of it, or was too confident of his ability to resist it, the warning is equally clear and strong. Whether the danger of using intoxicating drink is unsuspected or despised, it is imminent and real even to the pious. The only recorded sin of the Antediluvian preacher of righteousness was the sin of one act of intoxication ; but who shall reckon up the number of such sins, and of the sins to which this vice has led, which have befallen the noblest and purest natures by an addition to intoxicants ? Abstinence alone is safe, and good for all. 3. The tendency of intemperance to entail, directly or indirectly, family misery and misfortune, is illustrated by the curse brought upon Canaan. Those who take pleasure in the intemperance of others, or delight in deriding it, are fitting themselves for a wretched future. By its immediate effects, and reflex associations, strong drink is a source of immeasurable woe. Fabricius relates as a Jewish legend, that when Noah planted the vine he killed a sheep, a lion, an ape, and a sow, and having mingled their blood, poured it upon the roots of the plant, so that the use of wine (not, however, the fresh, but the fermented blood of the grape) has since been attended, in succession, by the placidity of the sheep, the boldness of the lion, the nonsensical noisiness of the ape, and the filthy brutishness of the sow. The legend carries its moral on its face, but is only half the truth, since the domestic and social influences of inebriating drink yet remain to be symbolized. CHAPTER XIV. VERSE 15. And he divided himself against them, he and his servants, by night, and smote them, and pursued them unto Hobah, which is on the left hand of Damascus. That Abraham, with a comparatively small array, should have defeated and scattered the hosts of the four confederate Assyrian kings, is not very surprising, even apart from the special aid of the Most High ; their imaginary security laid them open to a successful night assault ; and Josephus, who perhaps followed some local tradition, adds that while some were asleep in bed, others machesthai de apo methee ou duna tot, " were not able to fight on account of drunkenness." Amongst the spoils may have been some of the 'wine of Sodom,' by which the victors were themselves overcome. Secular history supplies parallel instances of similar indulgences and similar results. CHAPTER XIV. VERSE 18. And Melchizedek king of Salem brought forth bread and wine: and he was the priest of the most high God. The Hebrew reads Ickhtm vah-yayin ' bread and yayin ' / with which agree the Hebrew-Samaritan Text and Samaritan version. Onkelos has lekhcm va-khamer* 1 bread and khamcr' The Lxx., artons kai oinon, ' loaves and wine.' The Vulgate, pattern etvinnnt t 'bread and wine.' A question may arise, whether the yayin of this passage is not to be understood in the sense of grapes rather than their expressed juice [as in Jer. xl. IO "Gather ye yayin and summer fruits"] seeing that bread and grapes continue to be associated in the East as articles of daily food. If the 12 GENESIS, XIX. 3, 30 35. common acceptation of grape-juice is preferred, the juice may have been recently expressed. That it was fermented and intoxicating is a groundless conjecture. Even the knowledge that it was so would not demand or justify the common use of alcoholic liquors in the present day. Dr Kitto on this passage observes, that "in the language of Scripture, 'bread and wine,' as the chief articles of meat and drink, represent all kinds of food." Kalisch remarks, "He brought out to Abraham bread and wine, not to refresh him or his men for Abraham had, among the booty of his enemies, seized their large stores of provisions also, but to perform a symbolical ceremony in which bread and wine have a typical meaning." CHAPTER XIX. VERSE 3. And he made them a feast, and did bake unleavened bread, and they did eat. A FEAST] Hebrew, mishteh ; Lxx., poton ; Vulgate, convivium. Mishtehis derived from shah-thah, 'to drink.' In hot climates cool and acid fluids form a desirable and important element in all social entertainments. The name would thence be naturally applied to all the provision on such occasions. The English Version properly renders it by 'feast' aud 'banquet.' UNLEAVENED BREAD] Hebrew Matzolh, the plural of matzah, which is generally derived from matzatz, ' to suck,' * to be sweet ' hence matzoth, ' sweet things ' /. e. loaves or cakes not fermented; similar, no doubt, to the ' cakes ' (itgoth circles of kneaded dough) made ready by Abraham for the angels (Gen. xviii. 6). Dr A. Clarke assigns to matzatz the secondary meaning of ' to compress ' matzoth being the name given to cakes made of dough compressed heavy, or ' sad.' Matzoth is contrasted with fermented matter (khahmatz} in Exod. xii. 15, 19, 20, 34, 39, etc. In the fermentation of dough, its saccharine property is reduced, because partially changed into alcohol, which is afterward expelled by the heat of baking. The notion that there is ' spirit in bread ' is, therefore, a vulgar error. The Lxx. gives azumous, and the Vulgate azuma, 'unleavened things.' CHAPTER XIX. VERSES 30 35. 30 And Lot went up out of Zoar, and dwelt in the mountain, and his two daughters with him; for he feared to dwell in Zoar; and he dwelt in a cave, he and his two daughters. 31 And the firstborn said unto the younger, Our father is old, and there is not a man in the earth to come in unto us after the manner of all the earth : 32 Come, let us make our father drink wine, and we will lie with him, that we may preserve seed of our father. 33 And they made their father drink wine that night : and the firstborn went in, and lay with her father ; and he perceived not when she lay down, nor when she arose. 34 And it came to pass on the morrow, that the firstborn said unto the younger, Behold, I lay yesternight with my father: let us make him drink wine this night also ; and go thou in, and lie with him, that we may v preserve seed of our father. 35 And they made their father drink wine that night also : and the younger arose, and lay with him ; and he perceived not when she lay down, nor when she arose. Nashqeh (twice), rendered 'let us make drink,' does not imply any compulsion, but simply 'let us give to drink.' Yayin occurs four times in this passage, GENESIS, XIX. 30 35. 13 and in each case is translated 'wine.' Onkelos puts khamrah as the equivalent. The Lxx. reads -potisumcn ton patera hettnon oinon, "Let us cause our father to drink wine." The Vulgate is stronger inebriemus eum vino, "Let us inebriate him with wine." That this yayin was suffered to become intoxicating by fermentation is exceed- ingly probable, though some explain its potency by the supposition that, whether fermented or not, it had been mixed with powerful drugs. In the fourth book of the 'Odyssey,' Helen is described as casting into the wine (oinon) prepared for Telemachus, a drug {pharmakon) said to be "grief-assuaging, anger-allaying, and causing oblivion of all ills " (nceptnthes facholon U kakon epileethon apanton). In the tenth book, Homer tells of the use made by Circe of 'direful drugs ' (pharmaka lugra). Milton turns this legend to a noble allegorical account in his 'Comus,' where the son of Bacchus and Circe is depicted, and his " Baneful cup With many murmurs mixed, whose pleasing poison The visage quite transforms of him that drinks." That Circean arts were known and practised in Sodom is highly probable, and that Lot's daughters became acquainted with the method of preparing the 'en- chanted' potion is very likely. It is certainly hard to understand how, under such solemn circumstances as those from which the righteous patriarch had just fled, he should so suddenly, and, as it were, with his eyes open, have sunk into such debasement. The Orientals, at the present day, have a knowledge of drugs, which they use for similarly profligate purposes. The objection that Lot's daughters could not have procured the drugs in their seclusion is of no force, for the wine may have been brought from Sodom; and if not, the ingenuity which obtained the yayin would be equal to its adulteration for their impure purpose. The words of Moses (Deut. xxxii. 32, 33) "Their vine is of the vine of Sodom, . . . their wine is the poison of dragons," naturally construed, implies that the wine of Sodom had a traditional reputation for the qualities which drugs are known to impart. The silence of Scripture is not a strong objection; for the narratives of the Bible generally leave much to be inferred. What is positively affirmed is, that the juice of the grape was used ; and that it had became corrupted and corrupting in some way, whether by fermentation or drugging, or both, is made certain by the effects. Observation I. It may be inferred that Lot was not accustomed to drink wine, or his daughters would not have plotted to entrap him into the partaking of it. These deviations from his habitual abstinence were the cause of grievous sin to the patriarch, who had kept himself pure in Sodom. Where an article inherently dangerous is concerned, separation from it is the only security even for the best of men ; and when perfect safety can be found, why should good men reject it? 2. The tendency of intoxicants to inflame sensual propensities is graphically pointed out in this transaction. Lot's daughters knew the quality of the instrument they employed. The insensibility induced did not deprive the alcoholic wine of its lustful influence (Prov. xxiii. 33). The excitement of the animal passions is the first effect of all alcoholic liquors; hence they may be said to carry within them the germs of all the excess to which they give rise. If the daughters of Lot drank of the wine they pressed upon their father, they would do so from their acquaintance with its libidinous influence. Female chastity is never more imperiled than when plied with strong drink. For this and other reasons the ancient Romans enjoined strict abstinence upon their women. Can indulgence, however moderately, in such liquors, be an illustration of Christian temperance? 14 GENESIS, XXVII. 22, 25, 28, 37. 3. The evils of drunkenness cannot be too seriously pondered in order to warn against any connection with the drink by which it is caused. Excellent Matthew Henry says on this passage, "Drunkenness is not only a great sin itself, but the inlet of many sins; it may prove the inlet of the worst and most unnatural sins, which may be a perpetual wound and dishonor. A man may do that without reluctance, when drunken, which, when sober, he could not think of without horror. . . . From the silence of Scripture concerning Lot, henceforward we may learn that drunkenness, as it makes men forgetful, so it makes them forgotten, and many a name, which otherwise might have been remembered with respect, is buried by it in contempt and oblivion." CHAPTER XIX. VERSES 14, 15, 19. 14 And Abraham rose up early in the morning, and took bread, and a bottle of water, and gave // unto Hagar, putting // on her shoulder, and the child, and sent her away : and she departed and wandered in the wilderness of Beer-sheba. i 5 And the water was spent in the bottle, and she cast the child under one of the shrubs. . . . . 19 And God opened her eyes, and she saw a well of water; and she went, and filled the bottle with water, and gave the lad drink. It is clear that Abraham was attached to Hagar, and did not consent to dismiss her except under a conviction that her safety and the boy's would be secured, He provided for their principal and more urgent wants by furnishing them with "bread and a bottle of water" in the Hebrew, lekhem vekhtimath maim. Bread was to be their solid, water their liquid, sustenance. In most Western countries water is so abundant that the value placed upon it in the East seems exaggerated; but a visit to Eastern lands would show that no estimate of this value can be too great, and that in water is to be found the true elixir vita after which there has been so much ingenious and useless search. The Oriental mind is scarcely capable of the shameless ingratitude too common among us, and from which many pro- fessing Christians are not free of despising the only fluid which is ESSENTIAL to animal existence and comfort. CHAPTER XXI. VERSE 25. And Abraham reproved Abimelech because of a well of water, which Abimelech's servants had violently taken away. To a sheik or pastoral chief like Abraham, the possession of a 'well' was exceedingly precious ; and both the value of this property, and his natural resent- ment at the injustice committed, would dispose Abraham to remonstrate with a prince even so powerful as Abimelech, against the violent usurpation of which his servants were guilty. CHAPTER XXVII. VERSES 22, 25, 28, 37. 22 And Jacob went near unto Isaac his father; and he felt him, and said, The voice is Jacob's voice, but the hands are the hands of GENESIS, XXVII. 22, 25, 28, 37. 15 Esau 25 And he said, Bring // near to me, and I will eat of my son's venison, that my soul may bless thee. And he brought // near to him, and he did eat : and he brought him wine, and he drank 2 s Therefore God give thee of the dew of heaven, and the fatness of the earth, and plenty of corn and wine. . . . . 37 And Isaac answered and said unto Esau, Behold, . with corn and wine have I sustained him. V. 25. PIE BROUGHT HIM WINE, AND HE DRANK] The Hebrew is yayin, the Targumists give khamrah, the Lxx. oinott, and the V. -uinnm. Whether the yayin was fermented or not is not said ; nor, however prepared, would the inci- dent form a rule of conduct to us. The Targum of Jonathan introduces into this part of the narrative a legend which shows that the Chaldee khamar was appli- cable to ' grape-juice ' in the unfermented state. The passage runs thus : " Neither had he (Jacob) wine with him, but an angel had prepared and brought to him some of the wine which had been in its grapes from the beginning of the world ; and he gave it into Jacob's hand, and Jacob carried it to his father, who drank it." Of such wine (yayin or khamar) none need scruple to partake, even if some other than an angel were the purveyor. V. 28. CORN AND WINE] The 'dew of heaven' included all kinds of moisture necessary to the ' fatness of the earth ' ; and this ' fatness ' is partially defined by the concluding clause, " and (or even) plenty of corn and wine." The Hebrew is dahgan vZ-tirosh not corn made up into bread nor vine-fruit made into wine but the actual growth of the field. [On TIROSH, see Prel. Dis.] It is sufficient to remark that the association here, and in many other passages, of tirosh with corn, as a pro- duct of the soil, proves it to have been a solid substance, and not a liquid. Nor is this conclusion invalidated in the least by the fact that the Targumists translate it by khamar ; that the Lxx. version \s pleethos si ton kai oinon, * fullness of corn and wine ' ; that the V. has alnndantiani fnitnenti et vitii, * abundance of corn and wine ' ; and that other versions treat it as the liquid produce of the vine. After pas- sages will show, however, that the Lxx., Vulgate, and other versions give render- ings of tirosh that favor our argument, while the case of the Targumists simply proves that, for some reason unknown, they ignored a distinction very clearly drawn in the only authority, the Hebrew original. It is to be remarked, indeed, that in almost every case where tirosh occurs in the Hebrew and Hebrew-Samaritan texts, and where the Targumists render it by khamar, the learned compilers of Bishop Walton's Polyglot give mnslitm (new, unfermented wine) as the equivalent ; as likewise do all the Continental versions of the Bible German, Italian, Spanish, French, etc. V. 37- WITH CORN AND WINE HAVE I SUSTAINED HIM] The Hebrew is dahgan ve-tirosh semaktiv "Corn and Tirosh have I sustained him with." The Lxx. has "with corn and wine I have supported him" situ kai oino cstecrisa ait ton. The V. gives, " with corn and wine I have established him "fnimento et vino stabilivi enm. Ols. It is God who bestows the 'fatness of the earth,' that man's heart may be filled 'with food and gladness ' ; but enlightened piety will ever draw a distinction between the Divine gifts and the misuses to which they are put. To conclude that the two are identical, or that the first sanctifies the second, is an absurdity too gross 1 6 GENESIS, XL. 913, 21. to deceive any, when plainly stated; yet the most ordinary form of objection to the Temperance Reform is based on this very absurdity ; as, for example, the inference generally advanced, that alcoholic wine and beer are God's good gifts, because the fruit and grain employed (and extensively destroyed) in making strong drink are Divine gifts ! To honor and rightly use ' the fatness of the earth ' is to consume it with as little alteration for the worse as possible. On the other hand, to convert TIROSH into an intoxicating liquid is not to appropriate the fatness of the vine as conferred by God, but is to abuse it in a manner that cannot be too soon repented of and abandoned. CHAPTER XXXV. VERSE 14. And Jacob set up a pillar in the place where he talked with him, even a pillar of stone; and he poured a drink-offering thereon, and he poured oil thereon. AND HE POURED A DRINK-OFFERING THEREON] Hebrew, vay-yassak aleihah nesck, 'And he poured upon it a pouring '=that which was poured. What liquid it was that was thus poured out is not stated. See Note on Exod. xxix. 40. CHAPTER XL. VERSES 9 13, 21. 9 And the chief butler told his dream to Joseph, and said to him, In my dream, behold, a vine was before me; ioAnd in the vine were three branches; and it was as though it budded, and her blossoms shot forth; and the clusters thereof brought forth ripe grapes : n And Pharaoh's cup was in my hand : and I took the grapes, and pressed them into Pharaoh's cup, and I gave the cup into Pharaoh's hand. 12 And Joseph said unto him, This is the interpretation of it: The three branches are three days. 13 Yet within three days shall Pharaoh lift up thine head, and restore thee unto thy place; and thou shalt deliver Pharaoh's cup into his hand, after the former manner when thou wast his butler. ... 21 And he [Pharaoh] restored the chief butler unto his butlership again ; and he gave the cup into Pharaoh's hand. V. 9. THE CHIEF BUTLER] The Hebrew is sar ham-mashqim t * chief of the cup-bearers.' Mashqim is the plural of mashqeh, from shah-qah 'to drink,' the Hiphil conjugation of which takes the sense of giving-to-drink, as in the case of Lot's daughters ; so that the mashqeh was one who gave drink to another. A VINE WAS BEFORE ME] This is the first place in which the term ' vine ' occurs. The Hebrew is gephen, and denotes ' that which is bent a twig ' ; hence ' a plant that has twigs,' and hence 'a vine,' which is its usual signification in the Old Testament. The Lxx. has ampdos, the Vulgate vitent. V. 10. AND IT WAS AS THOUGH IT BUDDED] Bishop Horsley proposes to read, "And it was upon the point of putting forth its blossoms." AND THE CLUSTERS THEREOF BROUGHT FORTH RIPE GRAPES] 'Clusters' is the translation of eshkeloth, which originally signified the ' stalks ' of the vine. ' Ripe grapes ' is the A. V. rendering of anahvim, the plural of anahv, ' a cluster, ' and \ GENESIS, XL. 9 13, 21. I/ usually 'a cluster of grapes.' The connection between eshkol (a stalk) and anahv (a cluster) was thus very close, and not always distinguished; for the eshkol would easily come to signify the stalk with the grape-clusters attached. ' Ripe ' is an addition of our translators, but is partially supported by Kalisch, who takes eskeloth to signify 'unripe clusters'; and viewing bah-shal, not as 'to bring forth,' but 'to cook' or 'ripen,' he reads the clause thus: "Its unripe cluster matured into ripe grapes." The description is concise and vivid. As the chief cup-bearer slept he saw first the bare form of a vine, then the vine with its buds just sprouting, next the vine in full flower, and finally the stalks with their berries ripened into purpled clusters. V. ii. PHARAOH'S CUP] The Hebrew of 'cup' is kos, supposed to be a contrac- tion of kones, 'a receptacle,' from kah-nas y 'to collect' This narrative suggests several interesting questions : I. Was the -vine cultivated in Egypt? The text undoubtedly implies that it was> and this is explicitly affirmed of the period of the Exodus. On the other hand, a passage in Herodotus (book ii., ch. 77) states that the Egyptians "use wine pre- pared from barley, because there are no vines in their country" oino d'ek kritheon pepoieemenv diachreeontai, ou gar sphi fist en tee chvree ampeloi. Sir G. Wilkinson conjectures that Herodotus may refer only to the corn-growing districts, which were not well adapted to the growth of the vine. Whatever may be the explanation, and however credible the testimony of Herodotus as to the state of things in his own age, his words cannot apply to Egyptian agriculture ten centuries preceding his visit. The evidence of Scripture as to the cultivation of the vine in Egypt has been corroborated by the paintings on the tombs of Thebes, some of which, copied by Sir G. Wilkinson ('Ancient Egyptians,' vol. ii., pp. 141 151), strikingly show that the vine was extensively and scientifically cultivated by the ancient Egyptians. Hellanicus even mentions a report that the first culti- vators of the vine were the settlers round about Plinthina, an Egyptian city on the Mediterranean. The time of vintage in Egypt was toward the end of June or commencement of July. In one painting boys are represented guarding the ripened clusters from the depredations of birds, and men are depicted plucking the grapes and carrying them away in wicker baskets. For wine-making the Egyptians sometimes used bags filled with grapes, which were squeezed by the turning of two poles in opposite directions. They also built raised platforms where men trod the clusters, whose juice flowed into a lower receptacle, and thence into vessels ready to receive it. Athenoeus, who died A.D. 198, describes, in his 'Deipnoso- phistai,' various kinds of Egyptian wine, one of which the Mareotic he says, 'does not affect the head' kephalees ouk kathiknonmenos. Of the Taeniotic, he states that "it has such a degree of richness [liparon ; literally, 'fatness'], that when mixed with water it seems gradually to be diluted, much in the same way as Attic honey well mixed." Of another species he remarks, that it is so thin and digestible that "it can be given without harm to those suffering from fever" bs tots puretmousi didomenos mee bleptein. The sober would select such wines as these, while the dissolute would seek after strongly fermented or drugged wines, and failing them, would drink to satiety of the less intoxicating sorts. The wall pictures prove that both men and women drank at feasts to intoxication, and some of the artists seem to have taken a sarcastic pleasure in holding up the intem- perance of their contemporaries to ridicule. At a later period, and possibly in the earlier ages also, palm wine and beer were extensively drunk, the native name of 18 GENESIS, XL. 9 13, 21. the beer appearing in the Greek writers as zythus, but known also as 'barley wine ' oinos krithinos. Caution, however, is called for in pronouncing upon the nature of ancient liquors and the manners of the people. The pictured excesses may have been occasional, with long intervals of abstinence; and concerning the articles used, the words of Sir G. Wilkinson are entitled to much weight: "Con- sidering how persistent the custom was among the ancients of altering the qualities of wines by drugs and diverse processes, we may readily conceive the possibility of the effects ascribed to them, and thus it happened that opposite properties were frequently attributed to the same kinds." (' Anc. Egypt.' ii. pp. 162-3.) 2. Plow far is the chief butler's dream to be understood as illustrative of actual usage ? Josephus's version of the butler's speech is as follows : " He said . . . that by the king's permission he pressed the grapes into a goblet, and having strained the sweet-wine, he gave it to the king to drink, and that he received it graciously" elege . . . toutotis autos apothlibein eis phialeen hupechontos ton basileos, diatheesas te to GLEUKOS dounai to basileipiein, kakainon dexasthai kecharis- menOs. Josephus here uses gleukos to designate the expressed juice of grapes before fermentation could possibly commence. Whether the dream of the chief cup-bearer represented his practice at court is doubted. The writer of the article < Joseph,' in Smith's 'Dictionary of the Bible' (Yen. Arch. Lord Harvey, M.A.), denies that any inference can be drawn from the dream as to the kind of wine supplied to the kings of Egypt at this period, and he points out that all the events (the growth of the vine, etc.) are described as transpiring with unnatural rapidity; but it may be rejoined, that as the events were in themselves natural, the proper conclusion is, that it was the custom of the chief cup-bearer to prepare the king's wine by pressing the juice of grapes into a receiver, and offering it not perhaps instantly, but after straining it, while it was yet fresh and free from fermentation to the royal hands. That the style of the narration is calculated to convey this impression can hardly be denied by any candid mind. Matthew Henry, the prince of practical commentators, observes, "Probably it had been usual with them to press the full ripe grapes immediately into Pharaoh's cup, the simplicity of that age not being acquainted with the modern art of making the wine fine." Bishop Lowth (on Isa. v. 2) observes, "See Gen. xl. II, by which it should seem that they (the Egyptians) drank only the fresh juice pressed from the grape, which was called oinos ampelinos, Herodotus, ii. 37." But in the opinion of some critics the phrase oinos ampelinos, 'wine of the vineyard,' is used simply to distinguish, not one kind of grape-juice from another, but grape wine from palm wine, barley wine (beer), etc. Sir G. Wilkinson, however, has obviously an eye to vineyard wine freshly made, when he speaks of it as one of the offerings to the gods of Egypt, and as "one of the most delicious beverages of a hot climate, and one which is commonly used in Spain and other countries at the present day." ('Anc. Egypt,' v. p. 366.) As to palm wine, he remarks, "The modern name of it in Egypt is lowbgeh. In flavor it resembles a very new light wine, and may be drunk in great quantity when taken from the tree,* but as soon as fermentation has commenced its intoxicating qualities have a powerful and speedy effect." (Ibid., iii. p. 375-) Dr Adam Clarke, in his note, is very decided: "From this we find that wine .anciently was the mere expressed juice of the grape, without fermentation. The *This recalls the lines in Thomson's ' Seasons ' (Summer), " Or stretched amid these orchards of the sun, Give me to drain the coco's milky bowl, And from the palm to draw \\sjreshening -wine, More bounteous far than all the frantic juice That Bacchus pours." GENESIS, XL. 9 13, 21. 19 saky, or cup-bearer, took the bunch, pressed the juice into the cup, and instantly delivered it into the hands of his master. This was anciently the yayin of the Hebrews, the oinos of the Greeks, and the nmstiim of the ancient Latins." In his tract on the Sacrament he says vinttm in place of mustum. 3. Were the ancient kings of Egypt permitted to drink wine? and if 'so, of what sort? Herodotus (B.C. 480), who traveled in Egypt, states that the kings, like the priestly class of which they were members, had a portion of wine allotted to them a portion not large enough, indeed, to satisfy them all. To the same effect, Hecatceus (B.C. 549) and Diodorus Siculus (B.C. 50) whose history is in the main a compilation from more ancient works state that king Bocchoris, who reigned B.C. 766, enacted "that the kings should take as much wine as would refresh but not inebriate." On the contrary, Eudoxus, a learned Greek who had visited Egypt, and who died B.C. 340, is cited by Plutarch as affirming, on the authority of the priests, that until the reign of Psammetichus (B.C. 640) the kings drank no wine. The priests may have meant that the ancient kings were forbidden to use wine of an intoxicating quality. Sir Gardner Wilkinson, who enters into this question in his 'Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians,' and in his Notes to ' Rawlinson's Herodotus,' refers to this narrative in Genesis as evidence that "as early as the time of Joseph the Egyptian kings drank wine; " but a per- mission to use wine prepared according to the dream might well have co-existed with a prohibition to use such sorts as, according to Rosenmiiller, contained aliquid pestiferum ' something pestiferous.' Dr Kalisch, in his ' Historical and Critical Commentary on the Old Testament,' after referring to the conjecture that the chief butler assumes the wine to have passed through the fermenting process, significantly adds, " But it is as probable that some temperate persons (as it was later ordained in the Koran)* abstained from fer- mented wine on account of its more intoxicating power, and that at some period the priests, who regulated the king's table as they controlled all his public and private affairs, prohibited to him the fermented juice of the grape." The suggestion is not without force that the injunction in Prov. xxxi. 4, 5, " It is not for kings to drink wine, nor for princes strong drink," was a recognition of 'the wisdom of Egypt,' and of the Egyptian kings. The king was the head of the priesthood ; and as regards the priests and their temple rites, it seems, from Herodotus, that in his day they were allowed " portions of wine, and that wine was offered in the temples, and poured upon the altars." The sepulchral paintings confirm the latter statement ; but Plutarch, in his ' Treatise on Osiris and Isis ' (sec. 6), furnishes an interesting statement, which we quote entire: "As to wine, they who wait upon the gods in the City of the Sun [the 'On' of Genesis, where Joseph's father-in-law was a priest, and the ' Heliopolis' of the Greeks] carry absolutely none into the temple, as something not seemly to drink in daytime, the lord and king looking on ; but the other priests use wine a little, indeed and they have many sacred solemnities free from wine (aoinous hagneias\ when they spend the time in philosophizing, and in acquiring and imparting instruction on divine things. Even the kings themselves, being of the order of priests, have their wine given to them according to a certain measure as prescribed in the sacred books, as Hecataeus informs us. They began to drink (wine) from the time of Psammetichus, previous to which they drank no * The law of the Koran was undoubtedly borrowed by Mohammed from a pre-existing and tradi- tional morale and regimen. This idea of the possibility of the priests having been more strict at one period than another is illustrated by the fact that many of the ancient monastic institutions of Britain were founded (as their charters evince) on abstinence principles, from which, age by age, they departed, first through the hospital and medicinal use of wine, untij ' good cheer ' and inebri- ation became the rule. Hence an argument founded on the assumed uniformity of practice in dif- ferent ages must be viewed with suspicion. 20 GENESIS, XLIII. II. wine at all (proteron d'ouk epinon oinon}; and if they made use of it in their liba- tions to the gods, it was not because they looked upon it as in its own nature acceptable, but as the blood of those enemies who formerly fought against them, which, being mixed with the earth, produced the vine ; and hence they think that drinking wine in quantities (to methueiri) makes men silly and mad (ekphronas kai parapleegous}, being filled with the blood of their own ancestors. These things are related by Eudoxus in the second book of the Tour, as he had them from the priests themselves." The acknowledged fact that the use of wine was strictly forbidden to priests during their more solemn purifications, is of no small significance when compared with the similar interdict laid on the Jewish priests (Lev. x. 9). In the Cambridge Essays (1858) there is a curious paper by Mr C. W. Good- win, the Egyptologist, who furnishes translations of some writings of a supposed very high antiquity. Several are believed to be as old as the time of Moses, and in one of them, Amen-em-an, a steward of the royal house, writes to Pentaour, a poet, in the language of reproof. Among other things he says, " If beer (kek which may signify palm wine, Mr Goodwin remarks) gets into a man it overcomes the mind. Thou art like an oar started from its place, which is unmanageable every way. Thou art like a shrine without its god ; like a house without its pro- visions, whose walls are found shaky. If thou wieldest the rod of office (?), men run away from thee. Thou knowest that wine is an abomination. Thou hast taken an oath (pledge?) concerning strong drink, that thou wouldst not put it into thee. Hast thou forgotten thy resolution? " CHAPTER XLIII. VERSE u. And their father Israel said unto them, If it must be so now, do this; take of the best fruits in the land in your vessels, and carry down the man a present, a little balm, and a little honey, spices, and myrrh, nuts, and almonds. AND A LITTLE HONEY] Hebrew, u-meat devash, 'and a little of honey.' The Lxx. reads (v. 10), kai tou melitos, 'and (a gift) of honey.' The V. has et mellis, 'and (a little) of honey.' It is the opinion of not a few scholars that the Hebrew dtvash or dZbash was commonly if not exclusively used to represent the luscious substance formed by boiling down grape-juice to a jelly-like state. The note of Dr Adam Clarke upon this text is as follows : " Most translate ' honey,' others ' date-juice '; but neither of these can be meant, as Egypt abounds in the best honey, and is rich in palm dates. The opinion of Shaw [Dr T. Shaw, F.R.S., the eminent traveler] is most proba- ble, that the Hebrew debash means a juice of the consistency of honey, prepared from dried grapes, and called by the Arabs dibs, the same name. This, in our day, is produced only in a tract of land about Hebron, and yearly sent to Egypt to the amount of three hundred camel-loads. Kaempfer describes a similar juice. A great part of the grapes is reduced by boiling to a syrup, which upon the tables of the poor supplies the place of butter, and, with abstemious persons, of wine, being mixed with water." Gesenius, in his lexicon, derives debash from a supposed verb dabash Greek depso, 'to work up a mass'; hence debash, "so called as being soft like a kneaded mass ; " and having referred to several passages where he con- siders 'the honey of bees' is intended, he observes, "(2) Honey of grapes, *'. e. must or new wine boiled down to a third or half (Greek hepseema ; Latin, sapa t GENESIS, XLIX. II, 12. 21 defrutum ; Italian, musto cottd), which is now commonty carried into Egypt out of Palestine, especially out of the district of Hebron (compare Russel's 'Natural His- tory of Aleppo,' p. 20) Gen. xliii. ii; Ezek. xxvii. 17." CHAPTER XLIII. VERSE 34. And they [the brethren] drank and were merry with him [Joseph]. The Hebrew runs, vay-yishtu vay-yishkeru immo, "And they drank and were well-filled with him." Yishkeru is from shah-kar, 'to drink to the fill,' of sAa6ar, 'sweet drink,' extracted from the palm, etc. ; though shakarwas sometimes used of any sweet or pleasant drink, such as the juice of ripe grapes. Where the 'sweet drink' had been allowed to stand for a time and become fermented, copious draughts would intoxicate ; but intoxication cannot logically be inferred unless the circumstances (as in the case of Noah) indicate such a condition. The Hebrew term rah-vah also signifies 'to drink largely,' 'to be filled with drink,' but it has no allusion to the ' sweetness ' of the draught. The Samaritan version gives, ' And they were heavy.' The Targums have v'rawi, which, like shah-kar, might include repletion or inebriation; and Jonathan, in his Targum, adds by way of excuse or explanation, the curious declaration, "Because, from the day in which they were separated, they had not drunk wine (khamrah), neither he nor they, until that day." The Lxx. reads, "Now they drank and were well-filled with him" epion de, kai tmethustheesan me? autou ; though methuo, like shah-kar, may be applied to both an innocent and an evil drinking. The Vulgate seems to adopt the more damaging alternative, 'And they drank and were inebriated with him' biberuntque et ine- bnati sunt cum eo, unless inebriari is employed to express simple 'repletion.' The English version, 'were merry,' is evidently designed to prevent the shock that would be given to the devout reader by a statement implicating Joseph in an act of excess and intemperance. Professor Stuart, of Andover, considers that what the patriarchs drank was "not a fermented liquor, but the simple juice of the grape (such as is described Gen. xl. n)"; and he adds, "That Joseph and his brethren 'were merry,' then, was not because they were intoxicated; and even if this were the case, as their example is not spoken of with any approbation, we could not deduce from it the conclusion that it is commended to our imitation." In truth, however, there is no good reason for concluding that such a sin was committed by them, or that it was approved and promoted by the pious Joseph. CHAPTER XLIX. VERSES n, 12. ii Binding his foal unto the vine, and his ass's colt unto the choice vine; he washed his garments in wine, and his clothes in the blood of grapes, i* His eyes shall be red with wine, and his teeth white with milk. The Hebrew-Samaritan text reads as follows: "His citizens being bound to a vine, and the sons of his strength to a vine-branch, he washed his vestment in wine, and his garment in the blood of grapes. He made him glad as to his eyes from wine, and white as to his teeth from milk." With this the Samaritan version coincides. The Lxx. Vatican Codex runs, "Binding to a vine his foal, and to the helix [or vine-shoot] the foal of his ass, he shall wash in wine his robe, and in the 22 GENESIS, XLIX. II, 12. blood of grapes his garment. Cheering are his eyes above wine, and white are his teeth [more] than milk" Desmeuonpros ampelon tonpolon autou, kai tee heliki ton polon tees onou autou, plunei en oino teen stoleen autou, kai en haimati staphulces teen pcriboleen autou. Charopoioi oi ophthalmoi autou huper oinon, kai leukoi oi odontes autou ee gala. The Vulgate renders, "Binding to a vine his foal, and to a vine-branch, oh! my son, his ass, he shall wash in wine his robe, and in the blood of grapes his cloak. More beautiful are his eyes than wine, and whiter are his teeth than milk" Ligans ad vineam pullum suum, et ad vitem, 6 fili mi, asinam suam, lavabit in vino stolam suam et in sanguine uva pallium suum. Pulchriores sunt oculi ejus vino, et denies ejiis lacte candidiores. The Syriac gives, "He will bind his colt to a vine, and the foal of his ass to a vine-branch. He will cleanse his vestment in wine, and his garment in the blood of grapes. His eyes are of a darker red than wine, and whiter are his teeth than milk." So in substance read the Arabic and Persian versions. The Targums, subsequently quoted, are too periphrastic to be cited here as translations. V. ii. THE CHOICE VINE] The Hebrew is la-soraqah the feminine form of sorfy, 'a shoot* or 'tendril,' or 'a collection of branches,' from soraq, 'to interweave.' Bishop Patrick understands a reference to the vine of the valley of Sorek, adjoining Eshcol; and Bishop Lowth (Isa. v. 2), regarding 'Sorek' as a proper name, proposes to read 'to his own Sorek.' The Sorek vine might pos- sibly retain that name when transplanted. One conjecture identifies it with a species known in Morocco as the serki, which yields a small but very sweet grape, highly prized. In Fuerst's Hebrew and Chaldee Concordance, SORAQ is defined to be a vine laden with grapes ' filled with a red and superior wine ' vino, rubro ac prastanti impletis. As to Sorek, comp. Judg. xvi. 4; Isa. v. 2; xvi. 8; Jer. ii. 21. HE WASHED HIS GARMENTS IN WINE, AND HIS CLOTHES IN THE BLOOD OF GRAPES] This is a striking example of the parallelism which formed one of the features and beauties of Hebrew poetry the two clauses differing in language but corresponding in sense 'garments' answering to 'clothes,' and 'wine' (yayin) to 'the blood of grapes' (dam anahvim). 'Blood' is a poetical name for 'juice,' and is evidence of the ancient signification of yayin as 'the juice of the grape,' prior to fermentation. This juice, squeezed out, is yayin, and hence the juice in the grape, and even the grape itself, might, by a natural figure, bear the same name. [Compare Anacreon's poetical reference to oinos as 'confined in fruit upon the branches ' -pepedeemenon oporais epi kleematon (Ode 49), and the description of the vintage-treaders 'letting loose the vine' luontes oinon.~\ Whether dam anahvim (blood of grapes) involves a reference to the color of blood is uncertain. If it does, and if soraq yielded a red juice, the allusion to that kind of vine heightens the poetical force of the passage. Grapes, purple as well as white, generally yield a colorless juice; but the skins of the purple sort dye the juice when trodden in the vat; and in this way, if in no other, the similitude would be sustained. [But as to 'blood of grapes,' see note on Isa. Ixiii. 2, 3.] V. 12. His EYES SHALL BE RED WITH WINE] This short clause has given rise to much diversity of interpretation ; and it will be necessary, for proper considera- tion, to divide it into parts : I. 'His eyes shall be red.' The Hebrew is khaklili ainaim, 'red (as to his) eyes.' But what is the meaning of khaklili? The Targums use it descriptively of the appearance of wine. The Lxx. (Codices A and B) has charopoioi, ' cheering or 'gladdening'; but Origen, in his 'Hexapla,' notices that copies of that version were extant in his day (third century) with other meanings, viz., katharoi, 'pure'; GENESIS, XLIX. II, 12. 23 thermal, 'glowing'; diapuroi, 'flaming'; and phoberoi, 'terrible.' Aquila's version gives katakoroi, 'satiated,' i. e. with color = 'deep-colored.' In the parallel pas- sage (Prov. xxiii. 29) the Lxx. rendering of khakliloth is pelidnoi, 'dark blue.' Symmachus there reads charopoi, 'gladsome'; and Aquila, katharoi, 'pure'; unless (which is not impossible) the transcriber substituted for an unusual word, such as katakori, one which he thought analogous and better understood. The Vulgate has pulchriares, 'more beautiful.' Gesenius has an elaborate but undecided note upon the word, which he inclines to render 'being dim,' without, however, rejecting the idea of something bright and flashing. One scholar finds in it the origin of al-cahal, the powder used by Eastern women to darken their eyebrows and deepen their beauty, this name of alcana!' being supposed to be the same which the Arabian alchemists gave to the spirit they distilled from wine, the 'alcohol' of modern science. To the same root are traced the Greek achluo, 'to darken,' and achlus, 'darkness.' Professor Lee prefers 'refreshed.' Unless some color is indicated no parallelism with the 'white' of the next clause is presented; it is also clear that the color has some relation to 'wine'; but to determine this relation requires an examination of the last two words. 2. 'With wine' Hebrew, miy-yayin. The Hebrew min is a preposition, with * very comprehensive range of use. Radically it implies separation, as in the text before explained, ' Noah drank of the wine ' min hay-yayin ; i. e. he drank some of the yayin, which, by the act of drinking, was separated from the rest. Thus arises the sense of 'out of,' 'from,' and causatively, 'by means of.' This is the sense assigned to min in this passage by the English translators, who consider that the "eyes of Judah were to be red with wine," i.e. by means of wine. In the Targums on this passage, as will be seen below, min is several times employed with this signification. On the other hand, min may be used as a term of com- parison, in the sense of 'out of,' 'beyond,' 'more than'; and so construed the clause would read, "His eyes are red (or bright) above wine," *. e. are of deeper color and glow. It is curious to mark that Codex A, Lxx., reads, apo oinoit, * from wine,' which partakes of the ambiguity of the Hebrew min ; while Codex B (quoted above) has huper oinon, 'above wine,' and versions generally exhibit this reading. The renderings of Aquila, Theodotion, and Symmachus are lost. The external evidence, so far as it has come down to us in ancient translations, is rather in favor of giving a comparative power to min, "red [or dark] above wine, white above milk;" but the internal evidence preponderates in favor of the causative sense, "red [dark] with wine, white with milk." The nth verse predicts an abundance of grape-juice, in which (speaking figuratively) the children of Judah should wash their clothes, and we are naturally prepared for an allusion in the I2th verse to some effect of that abundance, such as is indicated by the words, " His eyes shall be red with wine." The other rendering introduces a contrast not in harmony with the context, and which raises the question, Why should his eyes be described as redder (or darker) than wine, and his teeth as whiter than milk? It may be answered, indeed, that joy from the profusion of Divine mercies would cause the eyes to sparkle; but this answer eliminates from khaklili the idea of color (for the eye is neither red nor dark because it sparkles), and it fails to explain why the teeth are said to be whiter than milk. Accepting, then, the English version as correctly rendering ;;///* by 'with,' we have to inquire, What is intended by this redness or darkness of eyes from an abundance of yayin? Some critics have sanctioned the interpretation which connects this prophecy with the inflammatory redness or darkness of eye produced by excessive drinking; 'red,' as indicating the fierce flashing glances excited by alcoholic wine, or 'dark,' as denoting the dull, 24 GENESIS, XLIX. II, 12. lack-lustre expression of the inebriate's eye. It is true that 'redness of eyes' is one feature in Solomon's portraiture of the drunkard; but this fact illustrates the proposition that ' the letter, ' even of Scripture, may kill, if the spirit be overlooked. Piety revolts at the suggestion that Jacob promised as a blessing that which Solomon portrays as a curse. Professor Lee justly denounces this immoral exegesis ; but when he substitutes for it the brightness of the eye ' refreshed ' by moderate draughts of wine, he lays himself open to a triad of objections: First, that he excludes from khaklili the idea of color ; secondly, that he makes this khaklili to depend on a limitation of wine, and not, as the passage itself implies, on its profusion; and thirdly, that the ' refreshing ' effect he associates with the moderate use of wine is, physiologically, different in degree only from that which he condemns. When the eyes are lighted up with wine, can the brain be said to be perfectly sober? Has not the drinker then reached a stage of vinosity when he may regard himself as * elevated,' but when calmer observers must look upon him as perceptibly lowered in his rational and moral standing? These expositions may all be considered faulty, as based on the assumption that the phrase ' red as to his eyes ' has regard to an appearance of the organ of vision itself; whereas nothing more may be intended than a dark red or deep-colored appearance round about the eyes, such as would be produced by contact with ' the blood of the grape.' Those who washed their very clothes in the flowing juice might be appropriately described as carrying the marks of it on their faces ; or if allusion is made to the crowded wine-press and the 'crushing swains,' what is more natural than to suppose the juice dashing and coloring with its spray the eyes of the gleeful treaders? The same usus loquendi is seen in 2 Kings ix. 30, 'And she [Jezebel] painted her face' vattasem bap-puk aini/ia; literally, 'And she put into painting [or pigment] her eyes.' So Ezek. xxiii. 40, 'Thou paintedst thy eyes' kakhalt ainaik. Pliny says of the Roman ladies, that they were given to self- decoration, 'that their eyes must be painted' (or dyed) ut tinguantur oculi quoque. In these and other instances the reference is not to the organ of sight itself, but to the eyelid, eyebrow, or other parts of the face. The English idiom furnishes parallel examples. In the familiar phrase, 'eyes red with weeping,' it is the border of the eyes, the cheek contiguous, which is meant; and in the 'blackened eye' some adjacent part. We conclude that khaklili indicates the color of the expressed juice of the grape, which (unless the juice were itself red) would take a purple hue from the coloring matter of the skin ; and this purple, being a rich deep color, forms the best possible contrast to the whiteness of milk. The I2th verse may, therefore, be rendered, "Empurpled are his eyes with grape-juice, and white are his teeth with milk." Schumann explains the last clause, "as if milk distilled from his teeth." The description is redolent of the field and the fold, at once poetical and prefigurative, but yielding no approval, direct or indirect, to the use of intoxicating drinks. In these verses what is said of Judah is, in reality, predicted of his descendants, whose future territory in the Promised Land was to be so prolific in vines, strong and of the finest quality, that young animals could be everywhere tied to them; while the vines should be so fruitful that, besides the quantities of grapes consumed as solid fruit, the clusters should yield enough juice to form streams like water, in which, if needful, the garments of the people could be bathed. The grape-treaders would be stained with wine up to their eyes ; and being blessed with pastoral as well as agricultural wealth, their teeth would seem as if made white by the milk they should consume. This promised abundance of vine-fruit and milk may be under- GENESIS, XLIX. II, 12. 25 stood as indicating the fertility of Judah's soil, and the fecundity of his flocks and herds. Whether a typical allusion to Messianic times is included under this description the reader must judge for himself. 'Judah 'has been regarded as representative of the Redeemer, and also as collectively symbolizing the Christian church. The Targumists connect these verses with the i8th verse, and construe them exclusively of the Messiah and His warlike achievements. Even Onkelos, who is generally concise, and keeps close to the Hebrew, here becomes diffuse, though he is outdone both by Jonathan and the Jerusalem interpreter. Their three paraphrases are translated in a foot-note, and prove how little the cultivated Jewish mind could, of itself, and even with the aid of the prophets, have developed that ideal of suffering yet triumphant Goodness, which the Gospels supply in the life of our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ.* * The Targum of ONKELOS reads "Israel shall dwell in his city; the people shall build his temple, and they shall be righteous in his city, and doers of the law according to his doctrine. The finest crimson shall be his clothing, and his apparel shall be of silk dyed with scarlet and diverse colors. His mountains shall be red with vineyards, and his hills shall flow with wine (ba-khamar) ; his fields shall be white with com and flocks of sheep." The Targum of JONATHAN runs: "How beautiful is king Messiah, about to spring forth from the house of Judah ! He shall gird His loins and descend to make ready the battle array against His enemies, slaying kings with their nobles ; nor is there a king or noble who shall stand before Him who reddens the mountains with the blood of the slain, and whose blood-stained clothes resemble the skin of gjapes. Beautiful as wine (k'kha.mrah) are the eyes of king Messiah, nor is He able to look upon impure connections and the effusion of innocent blood ; His teeth are pure from milk, so that they shall not eat the spoil of rapine and violence ; and therefore His mountains and winepresses shall be red with wine (min khamrah\ and His hills shall be white with (min) corn and the wool of sheep." The Jerusalem Tar-gum is pitched in the same allegorical strain : " How beautiful is king Messiah, about to spring forth from the house of Judah! He binds up his loins, and goes fortn in battle array against those who hate Him, slaughtering kings with their nobles ; He dyes the vines red with the blood of their slain, and turns the hills white with the fat of their mighty men. His gar- ments are stained with blood, and He resembles one employed in treading grapes. How beautiful in their appearance are the eyes of king Messiah from wine ! (min khamrah\ so that He cannot behold impure connections and the shedding of innocent blood. His teeth are rather employed in sacred rites than in eating the prey of robbery and violence ; His mountains are red with (min) vines, and His winepresses with His wine (khamraJi} ; His hills are white with the abundance of corn and flocks of sheep." THE BOOK OF EXODUS. CHAPTER III. VERSE 8. And I am come down to deliver them out of the hand of the- Egyptians, and to bring them up out of that land unto a good land and a large, unto a land flowing with milk and honey. FLOWING WITH MILK AND HONEY] Hebrew, zahvath khahlav u-d'vash. ' Milk and honey ' are used for the general produce of the land, and * flowing with ' is a striking figure of abundance. Concerning debash, see note on Gen. xliii. II. The phrase ' flowing with milk and honey ' has a proverbial iteration in the Pentateuch. Besides the above passage, it occurs in Exod. iii. 1 7 ; xiii. 5 ; xxxiii. 3 ; Lev. xx. 24; Numb. xiii. 27; xiv. 8; xvi. 13, 14; Deut. vi. 3; xi. 9; xxvi. 9, 15; xxvii. 3; xxxi. 20. Also in Josh. v. 6; Jer. xi. 5; xxxii. 22; Ezek. xx. 6, 15. CHAPTER VII. VERSE 24. And all the Egyptians digged round about the river for water to drink ; for they could not drink of the water of the river. The Nile was emphatically the river of Egypt its only river, and, as rain seldom fell, the main source of its water supply for irrigation and potable use. The deliciousness of the Nile water passed into a proverb, and it was considered so fattening that (according to a tradition preserved by Plutarch) the sacred bull Apis was not allowed to drink of it. The modern Turks are said to excite their thirst for it by the use of salt. That the water of their beloved river, to which they paid divine honors, should have been made loathsome to them, was one of the severest trials possible to the Egyptians, and one of the most forcible evidences which the God of Israel could exhibit of His supremacy over the deities in which they trusted. CHAPTER XII. VERSES 8, 15, 17 20, 34, 39. 8 And they shall eat the flesh in that night, roasted with fire, and un- leavened bread ; and with bitter herbs they shall eat it. ... 15 Seven days shall ye eat unleavened bread ; even the first day ye shall put away leaven out of your houses : for whosoever eateth leavened bread from the first day until the seventh day, that soul shall be cut off from Israel. . . . 17 And ye shall observe the feast of unleavened bread. . . . is In the first month t on the fourteenth day of the month at EXODUS, XII. 8, 15, 17 20, 34, 39. 27 even, ye shall eat unleavened bread, until the one and twentieth day of the month at even. 19 Seven days shall there be no leaven found in your houses: for whosoever eateth that which is leavened, even that soul shall be cut oft' from the congregation of Israel, whether he be a stranger, or born in the land. 20 Ye shall eat nothing leavened; in all your habitations shall ye eat unleavened bread. . . . 34 And the people took their dough before it was leavened, their kneading-troughs being bound up in their clothes upon their shoulders. ... 39 And they baked unleavened cakes of the ' dough which they brought forth out of Egypt, for it was not leavened ; because they were thrust out of Egypt, and could not tarry, neither had they prepared for themselves any victual. V. 8, 15, 17, 18, 20, 39. UNLEAVENED BREAD] The Hebrew is matzoth, 'sweet things,' in all these passages. [On Matzoth, see Note on Gen. xix. 3.] In ver. 8 the Lxx. reads azuma, 'unleavened things,' and the Vulgate azymos panes, 'unleavened loaves.' In ver. 15 the Lxx. has azuma, the Vulgate azyma. In ver. 17 a singular variation occurs. The Hebrew-Samaritan text, which is followed by the Samaritan version, has matz-cah, 'precept,' instead of matzoth ; so that instead of " And ye shall observe [or attend to] the unleavened things," it represents as the true reading, "And ye shall observe the precept." This reading is followed by the Lxx., which has teen entoleen tauteen, 'this command.' But the Vulgate follows our present Hebrew text, and reads azyma, ' unleavened things ' ; and the same reading was evidently in the MSS. used by the Targumists. Several Jewish rabbis regard the words as a command to watch the unleavened cakes, lest they became accidentally leavened ; and one rabbi draws the spiritual inference that care should be takan to keep the true doctrine from becoming corrupted by error.* In ver. 18, 20, the Lxx. has azuma, the Vulgate azyma. In v. 39, ugoth matzoth, rendered in the A. V. 'unleavened cakes,' is literally ' cakes unfermented ones '; in the Lxx. it is aznmous, 'unleavened ' \_artous, loaves, being understood]; and in the Vulgate panes azymos, 'loaves unleavened.' V. 15, 19. LEAVEN] The Hebrew is seor, Lxx. zumee, Vulgate fermentum. Seor is supposed to be a derivative of soar, an unused root, related to shoar and sir, 'to boil up,' 'bubble up.' Zed, from which comes the Greek zumee, and ferveo, the root of the Latin fermentum, have similar significations. Seor may be regarded as any substance capable of producing fermentation, all yeasty or decaying albuminous matter. Such a substance tenaciously adheres to vessels containing fermented fluids, however carefully racked; and among a people possessed of imperfect refining contrivances, the command to put away all seor out of their houses and accustomed quarters during the passover feast, could never have been rigidly carried out if fermented liquors had been retained upon their premises. Seor occurs only in three other places Exod. xiii. 7; Lev. ii. n; and Deut. xvi. 4, where it is rendered 'leavened bread.' Seor is supposed by some critics to enter into the composition of mishereth [j being changed into sh~\, rendered in the plural ' kneading-troughs ' (ver. 34). The word also occurs Exod. viii. 3, and Deut. xxviii. 5, 17. Others prefer to derive it from shah-ar, 'to be left' or 'remain,' and understand by misheretk the remains of the dough left over from a * This recalls Paul's comparison in i Cor. v. 68. 28 EXODUS, XII. 8, 15, I/ 20, 34, 39. previous baking; and to this construction the Lxx., Vulgate, and Targums incline : but that the reference is to some portable vessels used in the preparation of dough seems certain from the context in each of the places where the word occurs. Sear is related to the word sour being, in fact, the 'sourer,' and hence contrasts with matzah, 'the sweet' or 'fresh,' unspoilt. V. 15. LEAVENED BREAD] Hebrew, khahmatz ; Lxx. zumeen ; Vulgate fer- mentatum. Khahmatz is generically any fermented substance anything which has been subject to the action of seor. It might seem superfluous to raise the question whether khahmatz includes liquids as well as solids, since it is equivalent to asking whether fermentation is itself or something different. The modern Jews differ in their view of this question ; for though they generally include under khahmatz fermented fluids made from corn, the majority of them do not include under it fermented wine. This inconsistency is defended by a theory of the mediaeval Rabbins, " that the juices of fruits, including grape-juice, do not ferment." Now it must have been patent to all careful observers, first, that the juice of crushed grapes did ferment ' boil up ' or ' bubble ' when left exposed to the air for some hours, and without the adoption of preventive measures ; and secondly, that the cause of this fermentation was the prior fermentation of something (gluten) in the grape, which had thus become a powerful ferment, t. e. a seor. This seor decomposes the sugar of the grape-juice (glucose), the elements of which, entering into a new chemical relation, are changed into alcohol and carbonic acid gas. [See Note on Gen. 29.] V. 19. THAT WHICH is LEAVENED] In ver. 19 the Hebrew kal okal makhmetzeth is literally " every one eating [or consuming] a fermented thing," from khahmatz as above. In ver. 19 and 20 the Lxx. has zumoton, the Vulgate fermentatum. In ver. 20, "Ye shall eat nothing leavened," the Hebrew stands kal makhmetzeth lo tokalu, "everything fermented ye shall not eat." V. 34. BEFORE IT WAS LEAVENED] The Hebjew is terem yekhmatz ; the Lxx., pro tou zumotheenai ; the Vulgate, antequam fermentaretur. V. 39. FOR IT WAS NOT LEAVENED] The Hebrew, ki lo khamatz ; Lxx., ougar tzumothee / Vulgate, neque enim poterant fermentari. The substance of this decree may be succinctly stated. From the I4th day of the month Nisan, nothing that could cause fermentation, or that had undergone fermentation, was to be found in the houses, or to be used as articles of food by the Jewish people. The decree was strict, absolute, and universal, admitting of no exception as to place or person during the period named. To guard against a possible violation, the Rabbins afterward included the I4th day in the prohibited term so far, at least, as to make a diligent search that every particle of the pro- scribed substance might be put away. The loss of civil and religious privileges was to follow disobedience to this statute that is, as we may suppose, where the violation arose from willful carelessness or contempt, and not from involuntary oversight. The rigor of the law was, doubtless, mitigated in its administration by a regard to extenuating circumstances. Observation I. The prohibition against the presence of ferment and the use of all fermented articles is very explicit and emphatic, and the penalty for disobedience reads exceedingly severe. That a capital penalty was intended is, however, too probable, though some sentence resembling outlawry is involved. 2. That a prohibition so strongly declared and supported was not arbitrary in its origin is unquestionable, unless the divine legation of Moses is wholly rejected. EXODUS, XVII. 3, 5, 6. 29 A perpetuated remembrance of the embittered condition of their forefathers was one object to be secured. But the principal reason must be sought in that asso- ciation of ideas by which ferment and fermented things were regarded as symbolical of moral corruption and disorder. [See Notes on Matt. xvi. 6, u, 12; I Cor. v. 7, 8.] Plutarch, in his 'Roman Questions' (109), and Gellius, in his 'Attic Nights,' remark that the priests of Jupiter were not permitted to touch leaven, because it was the product and producer of corruption. 3. No plea that would exempt fermented liquors from the sweep of this pro- hibition can be sustained, without ignorantly assuming a difference that does not exist, and ascribing the same ignorance to the lawgiver of Israel. The practice of the modern Jews is not uniform, some using fermented wine during the passover, and others an unfermented wine prepared from the maceration of raisins. But were their practice uniformly in favor of fermented wine, it would but furnish another and quite superfluous evidence of the Jewish tendency to "make void the law of God by their traditions." CHAPTER XIII. VERSES 6, 7. 6 Seven days thou shalt eat unleavened bread, and in the seventh shall be a feast to the LORD. 7 Unleavened bread shall be eaten seven days ; and there shall no leavened bread be seen with thee, neither shall there be leaven seen with thee in all thy quarters. V. 6. UNLEAVENED BREAD] Hebrew, matzoth ; Lxx., azuma; Vulgate, azymis and azyma. V. 7. LEAVENED BREAD] Hebrew, khahmatz, 'what is fermented'; Lxx., xumoton ; Vulgate, aliquid fcrmentatum. LEAVEN] Hebrew, sear; Lxx., zumee. The Vulgate is without a word, 'fer- mentatum ' or ' fermentum ' having to be supplied by the reader. THY QUARTERS] That is, all their accustomed places, such as dwelling-rooms, cellars, etc. The ferment was doubtless carried out from these to outhouses or caves. CHAPTER XVII. VERSES 3, 5, 6. 3 And the people thirsted there for water; and the people mur- mured against Moses, and said, Wherefore is this that thou hast brought us up out of Egypt, to kill us and our children, and our cattle, with thirst ? . . . 5 And the LORD said unto Moses, Go on before the people, and take with thee of the elders of Israel; and thy rod, wherewith thou smotest the river, take in thine hand, and go. 6 Behold, I will stand before thee there upon the rock in Horeb; and thou shalt smite the rock, and there shall come water out of it, that the people may drink. And Moses did so in the sight of the elders of Israel. The murmuring of the Israelites for water, and for no other beverage, while it was a sad evidence of their unbelief, showed that while in Egypt they had little, if any, acquaintance with other drinks. Had they formed an attachment to other liquids, discontent at their absence would certainly have been expressed, as it was at the absence of the familiar fish, fowl, onions, and leeks. To satisfy their reason* 3O EXODUS, xxii. 5, 29. able desirfe for water (though unreasonably and irreverently manifested) the rock in Horeb gave forth the stream which followed them in their subsequent desert wanderings. No stronger draughts, for health and strength, were required by them, their wives, and little ones, contrary to the opinion still prevalent which associates intoxicating liquor with necessary diet and refreshment. On this point ancient facts upset modern theory. CHAPTER XXL VERSES 28, 29. 28 If an ox gore a man or a woman, that they die ; then the ox shall be surely stoned, and his flesh shall not be eaten; but the owner of the ox shall be quit. 29 But if the ox were wont to push with his horn in time past, and it hath been testified to his owner, and he hath not kept him in, but that he hath killed a man or a woman; the ox shall be stoned, and his owner also shall be put to death. This Mosaic regulation was designed to impress the Jewish mind with the value of human life, and the duty of preventing whatever might endanger it. The pas- sage plainly teaches the lesson is world-wide and for all time that in the Divine sight men are responsible for consequences which they may prevent, but do not; and it is no justification to plead that the consequences were not inevitable, nor designed, nor foreseen. Who can plead ignorance that the tendency of strong drink is to create a diseased craving for itself, or that the common sale of it actu- ally and extensively produces habits of intemperance ? And when these tendencies and results are clearly declared and well understood, the personal duty of abstinence from intoxicating liquor, and the national duty of legislative prohibition of traffic in it, become abundantly plain. Such a duty may be described as 'expediency,' but it is at any rate an expediency the neglect of which places the neglecters in no enviable position. Ignorance and error may be innocent, but not when they result from a voluntary rejection of knowledge. The existence of Temperance Societies thus increases the responsibility of all classes. CHAPTER XXII. VERSE 5. If a man shall cause a field or vineyard to be eaten, and shall put in his beast, and shall feed in another man's field; of the best of his own field, and of the best of his own vineyard, shall he make restitution. VINEYARD] Hebrew, kerem. To 'cause a field or vineyard to be eaten,' is an elliptical mode of expression. Bah-ar signifies to eat or consume, and is here used in the Piel conjugation to express the devastation which loose cattle would make in a field or vineyard. That the owner of the cattle should compensate in kind for the injury done was an equitable regulation. The Samaritan and Lxx. versions extend the verse by inserting after 'man's field' the following : "he shall make restitution according to his produce; but if he has destroyed the whole field [of another], of the best," etc. CHAPTER XXII. VERSE 29. Thou shalt not delay to offer the first of thy ripe fruits, and of thy liquors. EXODUS, XXIII. II, 15, 1 8. 31 THE FIRST OF THY RIPE FRUITS] The Hebrew is a single word, melaathkah, literally 'thy fullness,' or 'abundance,' here used to signify the first fruits due to the Giver of all good, and serving to remind the people that they were called upon to render to His service out of the abundance of His beneficence to them. "Freely ye have received, freely give." AND OF THY LIQUORS] Hebrew, ve-dimakah, 'and of thy tear'; from dema, ' a tear,' an expressive metaphor of the gums and rich juices of trees and fruits that spontaneously drop from them. The same idiom is presented in the Greek daknion ton dendrun, and the Latin arborum lacrima, ' tears of trees. ' In Spain a wine called lagrima is made from the droppings of muscatel grapes, which, " melting with ripeness, are suspended in bunches" (Redding on Wines, p. 58); and the famous Tokay wine, or Tokay Ausbruch, /. e. flowing forth, derives its name from the juice which drops form the unpressed grapes grown in a single Hungarian vineyard. These droppings form the ' essence of Tokay,' which, when mixed with the juice of the vat in the proportion of 61 parts to 84 of the latter, compose the 'Tokay Ausbruch.' Quite different from these droppings are 'the tears of the vine,' a limpid distillation of the sap at the time the plant is budding (Redding, P- 50)- The Lxx. renders the passage aparchas halonos kai leenoti seu, ' the fruits of the threshing-floor and thy wine-press.' The Vulgate reads, decimas tuas et primitias tuas, 'thy tenths and thy firstfruits.' Rosenmiiller states, "Some understand by dZma the best and choicest part of anything, since the liquor or sweetness which flows spontaneously from trees, vines, and shrubs, is their choicest produce." Kalisch renders " from the abundance of thy corn and the choicest of thy wine." CHAPTER XXIII. VERSE n. In like manner thou shalt deal with thy vineyard, and with thy oliveyard. WITH THY VINEYARD] Ll-karmlkah. The soil was to be tilled and sown for six years in succession ; on the seventh it was to lie fallow, and what it spontane- ously produced was to be for the use, first of the poor, and then of the ' beasts of the field.' This humane law was applicable both to vineyards and oliveyards. CHAPTER XXIII. VERSES 15, 18. is Thou shalt keep the feast of unleavened bread : (thou shalt eat unleavened bread seven days, as I commanded thee, in the time appointed of the month Abib ; for in it thou earnest out from Egypt ; and none shall appear before me empty.) . . . 18 Thou shalt not offer the blood of my sacrifices with leavened bread. V. 15. THE FEAST OF UNLEAVENED BREAD] Hebrew, eth khag ham-matzoth, 'the festival of unfermcnted things.' [See Note on Exod. xii J Lxx., azuma ; Vulgate, azymonttn. THE MONTH ABIB] Abib\s the same as Nizan, the first month of the ecclesi- astical year, a.nd seventh of the civil year, the commencement of the Syrian spring- time, corresponding to part of our March and April. 32 EXODUS, XXX. 9. V. 18. WITH LEAVENED BREAD] Hebrew, al-khahmatz, 'with what is fer- mented ' ; Lxx., epi zumee, ' with leaven ' ; Vulgate, super fermento, ' upon leaven.' CHAPTER XXIX. VERSE 2. And unleavened bread, and cakes unleavened tempered with oil, and wafers unleavened anointed with oil; ^wheaten flour shalt thou make them. UNLEAVENED BREAD] Hebrew, lekhem matzoth, 'bread of unfermented mate- rials,' i. f. a loaf made of unfermented dough. AND CAKES UNLEAVENED] Hebrew, ve-khallath matzoth, 'and perforated cakes of unfermented materials.' AND WAFERS UNLEAVENED] Hebrew, u-rqiqai matzoth, 'and thin-cakes of unfermented materials.' CHAPTER XXIX. VERSE 23. And one loaf of bread, and one cake of oiled bread, and one wafer out of the basket of unleavened bread that is before the LORD. UNLEAVENED BREAD] Hebrew, ham-matzotk, 'the unfermented articles,' ;. e. those enumerated in ver. 2. CHAPTER XXIX. VERSE 40. And the fourth part of an hin of winej^r a drink-offering. A HIN OF WINE] Hebrew, ha-hin yayin, 'the hin of YAYIN.' According to Josephus, it was equal to two Attic choes, each choes equal to six English pints ; so that the hin was twelve pints, and the fourth part was three pints, English. FOR A DRINK-OFFERING] Hebrew, ve-nasek, 'and (as) a libation,' from nahsak, 'to pour out.' The A. V. tends to convey the mistaken idea of nasek as an offer- ing to be drunk. The Lxx. reads, kai spondeen to tetraton tou em oinou, ' and for a libation the fourth part of a hin of wine.' The Vulgate has et vinunt ad libandum ejusdem mensura, ' and wine of the same measure for pouring out.' It may be asked, How could this command be carried out in the wilderness ? Of course, obedience to all or any of the Levitical ordinances was dependent on the possession of adequate resources. Many of the prescriptions could not be completely complied with till after the arrival of Israel in the promised land. Some wine, however, was procurable during the desert sojourn, as appears from Lev. x. 9. For one explanation, see the legend of the Targum, quoted in the Note on Cant. i. 14. CHAPTER XXX. VERSE 9. Ye shall offer no strange incense thereon, nor burnt sacrifice, nor meat-offering; neither shall ye pour drink-offering thereon. DRINK-OFFERING] See Note above on chap. xxix. 40. EXODUS, xxxiv. 1 8, 25. 33 CHAPTER XXXIV. VERSE 18. The feast of unleavened bread shalt thou keep. Seven days thou shalt eat unleavened bread, as I commanded thee, in the time of the month Abib : for in the month Abib thou earnest out from Egypt. UNLEAVENED BREAD] Hebrew, matzoth, ' unfermented cakes.' CHAPTER XXXIV. VERSE 25. Thou shalt not offer the blood of my sacrifice with leaven. WITH LEAVEN] Hebrew, al-khahmatz, 'with what is fermented'; Lxx., tpt tumee, 'with leaven'; Vulgate, super fermento, 'upon leaven.' THE BOOK OF LEVITICUS. CHAPTER II. VERSE 4. And if thou bring an oblation of a meat offering Laken in the oven, it shall be unleavened cakes of fine flour mingled with oil, or unleavened wafers anointed with oil. UNLEAVENED CAKES] Hebrew, kholloth matzoth, 'perforated cakes, unfer- mented.' [See Note on Exod. xxix. 2.] AND UNLEAVENED WAFERS] Hebrew, n-rqlqai matzoth, 'and thin cakes unfer- mented.' CHAPTER II. VERSE 5. And if thy oblation be a meat offering baken in a pan, it shall be of fine flour unleavened, mingled with oil. UNLEAVENED] Hebrew, matzah, 'sweet' or 'fresh.' Observe that the con- ventional word ' unleavened ' does not express the wide meaning of unfermented. CHAPTER II. VERSE n. No meat offering, which ye shall bring unto the LORD, shall be made with leaven: for ye shall burn no leaven, nor any honey, in any offering of the LORD made by fire. SHALL BE MADE WITH LEAVEN] Hebrew, ta-ahseh khahmcLtz, 'shall be made with a fermented-substance.' FOR YE SHALL BURN NO LEAVEN, NOR ANY HONEY] Hebrew, ki kahl-seorvtkahl- devash lo taqtini, "for every [ = any] ferment and every [ = any] honey ye shall not burn." No seor (yeast, or fermenting substance) was to be present. The extension of this prohibition to honey (debash) has been referred to the readiness with which honey ferments in contact with ferment. Others suppose that honey was excluded because commonly used in heathen worship. Some find allegorical reasons for the prohibition, as Baal Hatturim: "Honey is forbidden because the evil concupiscence is as sweet unto a man as honey." The question whether by debash was here intended the honey of bees or of dates, or grape-juice reduced to a honeyed consistence by boiling, or whether it included all kinds, cannot be satisfac- torily settled. As in the next verse 'honey' is associated with the oblation of LEVITICUS, VIII. 2, 26. 35 firstfruits, there may he reason for the note of Rabbi Solomon Jarchi, who under- stands by it 'the firstfruits of figs and dates.' CHAPTER VI. VERSE 16. And the remainder thereof shall Aaron and his sons eat : with unleavened bread shall it be eaten in the holy place ; in the court of the tabernacle of the congregation they shall eat it. UNLEAVENED BREAD] Hebrew, matzoth t 'unfermented-cakes.' CHAPTER VI. VERSE 17. It shall not be baken with leaven. I have given it unto them for their portion of my offerings made by fire ; it is most holy, as is the sin-offering, and as the trespass-offering. LEAVEN] Hebrew, khahm&k, 'fermented-matter.' CHAPTER VII. VERSE 12. If he offer it for a thanksgiving, then he shall offer with the sacrifice of thanksgiving unleavened cakes mingled with oil, and unleavened wafers anointed with oil, and cakes mingled with oil, of fine flour, fried. UNLEAVENED CAKES] Hebrew, kholloth matzoth, 'perforated unfermented- cakes.' AND UNLEAVENED WAFERS] Hebrew, u-riqiqai matzct/t, 'and thin unfermented. cakes.' CHAPTER VII. VERSE 13. Besides the cakes, he shall offer for his offering leavened bread with the sacrifice of thanksgiving of his peace offerings. LEAVENED BREAD] Hebrew, lekhem Ma/unatz, 'bread fermented.' CHAPTER VIII. VERSE 2. Take Aaron and his sons with him, and the garments, and the anointing oil, and a bullock for the sin offering, and two rams, and a basket of unleavened bread. UNLEAVENED BREAD] Hebrew, matzoth t 'unfermented-cakes. 1 CHAPTER VIII. VKRSE 26. And out of the basket of unleavened bread, that was before the LORD, he took one unleavened cake, and a cake of oiled bread, and one wafer, and put them on the fat, and upon the right shoulder. 36 LEVITICUS, x. 8 ii. UNLEAVENED BREAD] Hebrew, matzoth, 'unfermented-cakes.' UNLEAVENED CAKE] Hebrew, kallath matzah, 'perforated unfermented-cake.' CHAPTER X. VERSES 8 n. s And the Lord spake unto Aaron, saying, 9 Do not drink wine nor strong drink, thou, nor thy sons with thee, when ye go into the tabernacle of the congregation, lest ye die : it shall be a statute for ever throughout your generations : 10 And that ye may put difference between holy and unholy, and between unclean and clean ; n And that ye may teach the children of Israel all the statutes which the LORD hath spoken unto them by the hand of Moses. Do NOT DRINK WINE NOR STRONG DRINK] Hebrew, yayin ve-shakar al-tasht, 'yayin and shakar thou shalt not drink. 1 The Lxx. gives oinon kai sikera ou piesthe, 'wine and sikera ye shall not drink.' The V. has vinum et omne quod inebriare potest non bibetis, ' wine and whatever is able to inebriate ye shall not drink.' On Shakar, which here occurs for the first time as a noun, see Pre- liminary Dissertation. Whether the noun was derived from the verb which signifies 'to drink freely of the sweet,' or whether the verb was formed from the noun (the name of the thing 'sweet juice' being borrowed to describe its copious consumption, /. e. to shakarize, to drink largely of shakar), there is nothing that necessarily connects the word, as verb or noun, with intoxicating qualities. Shakar may have originally denoted sweet juice of all kinds ; but when distin- guished from yayin (as here), may be regarded as generically referable to any sweet juice except the juice of the grape; just as yayin generically included the juice of the grape, however expressed or prepared. When shakar in its fresh state was mixed, either by accident or design, with a ferment, or time was allowed for its own albumen to decay, it would itself become fermented, and if then freely drunk, would intoxicate the drinker. But it is contrary to evidence and probability to suppose that shakar was drunk in that state only, and that 'to shakarize 1 was always tantamount to excessive indulgence in a fermented liquor. The Lxx. in this place merely gives shakar a Greek garb sikera; yet sikera was never a word current among classical Greek writers, or even in Hellenistic Greek, /. e. the language as modified by the idioms of the Jews who wrote and spoke it. When, therefore, the lexicographers say that sikera signified ' all intoxi- cating liquors except wine,' they mean that s/takarl\a.d that signification; but such a definition is intrinsically defective. Judea was celebrated for its palms; and palm-juice got by tapping the tree, or squeezing the date-fruit, may have first given occasion to the name, which would extend its reference as the sweet juices of other plants came into frequent use. Probably related to shakar was the Greek sakcharon, applied to the juice of the sugar-cane; from this sprang the Latin sacchamm, from which the English household word ' sugar ' is circuitously derived. The rendering of the Vulgate is periphrastic, and at the same time incorrect, if designed (as it doubtless was by St Jerome) to cover the whole meaning of the Hebrew shakar. The Targumists Onkelos and Jonathan in this place (and in this alone) render shakar by the Chaldee marvai and rn'ravai, derived from ravah, 'to drink largely,' 'to drench,' and 'to make drunk' where the drink consumed was intoxicating, LEVITICUS, X. 8 II. 37 thus taking a similar extension of meaning to skakar, except that in m'ravai the idea of sweetness in the article used was not distinctly conveyed. Observe I. The matters of the prohibition yayin and shakar. If it be asked why all kinds of yayin (grape-juice) and of shakar (sweet juice in general) were prohibited, when the spirit of the interdict was limited to intoxicating species of both, it may be replied either (i) that the avoidance of all juices of the grape and other fruit when expressed was desirable in order to guard against mistake, where mistake would be so baneful ; or (2) that the command was left to be interpreted by its spirit, just as a prohibition in the present day against ' drink ' or ' liquor ' would be universally understood as not extending to all drink and all liquor, but as applicable only to that of an intoxicating quality. The former view is confirmed by the extension of the Naznrites' vow of abstinence even to vine-fruit. The Rev. John Wesley, in his New Testament Notes, observes on the prohibition, " Nor eat grapes forbidden him for greater caution, to keep him at the further distance from wine." 2. The occasion of the prohibition. The Jewish rabbis, and most Christian com- mentators, connect it with the sin of Nadab and Abihu, described in ver. I ; and the ground of this connection they find in the supposed commission of their sacrilege while under the influence of intoxicating drink. The Targum of Jonathan contains the clause, " As did thy sons, who died by the burning of fire." Keil and Delitzsch think that the only connection lay in the rashness of Aaron's sons, and the tendency of strong drink to induce a smilar disposition; but this will not account for the issue of such a prohibition immediately after such a sin. More to the purpose is the language of Rev. J. J. Blunt, B.D. (in his 'Undesigned Coincidences of Scripture'): "Thus far, at least, it is clear that a grievous and thoughtless insult is offered to God by two of His priests, for which they are cut off; that without any direct allusion to their case, but still very shortly after it had happened, a law is issued forbidding the priests the use of wine when about to minister. I conclude, therefore, that there was a relation (though it is not asserted) between the specific offense and the general law; the more so because the sin against which that law is directed is just of a kind to have produced the rash and inconsiderate act of which Aaron's sons were guilty." Sad thought! that while the people generally, at that time, neither used nor craved for any intoxicating drink, two of Aaron's sons and assistants should have indulged in it till they fell into heinous guilt, and 'brought upon themselves swift destruction.' Thus early had the priests begun to err through wine, and through strong drink to wander from the way of obedience and safety. 3. The extent of the prohibition. It had respect to all priests, through all generations, during all the period of their sacred ministrations. It is a remarkable proof of the tendency of the Rabbinical mind to make void the law of God, that some of the Jewish doctors of the post-Christian period (such as Maimonides) held that this statute was not broken if a small quantity was drunk, with a pause of time between, or if mixed with water, etc. Ainsworth rejects these equivoca- tions. To infer that the use of intoxicating liquor was sanctioned at other times, or among other classes, is to overlook, 4. The object of the prohibition. This was to secure the sober, serious, and effectual performance of the priestly offices, those that related to God (the discrimination of clean from unclean), and those which regarded the people (their instruction in the divine law). "This is a strong reason," observes Dr A. Clarke, "why they should drink no inebriating liquor." 38 LEVITICUS, x. 8 ii. 5. The solemnity of the prohibition 'lest ye die.' The meaning is either "Do not drink, lest ye die as the result of disobedience ; " or, " Do not drink, lest ye die by imitating Nadab and Abihu's sin, and so incurring their capital penalty." This proscription proclaims the concern of the Most High for His own glory, for the purity of His worship, the integrity of His ministers, and the welfare of His people. As legitimate inferences from the whole passage, we may conclude (i) that God regards the use of intoxicating liquor as pregnant with danger to His servants, whatever their rank and attainments ; (2) that the avoidance of this danger, by means of abstinence from such drink, having been a rule of His appointment, is itill a course worthy of general imitation ; (3) that the adoption of this abstinence as a habit of life is specially approved by Him in the case of those who are required AS 'a holy priesthood' to offer up without ceasing "spiritual sacrifices, acceptable to him by Jesus Christ." [See Note on Ezek. xliv. 21, where the continuance of Ihis rule is affirmed, and its application to Christian times demanded, unless a revival of the Aaronic priesthood and the Levitical service is to be expected.] Philo Judoeus, the celebrated Alexandrian Jew and Platonist, who was contem- porary with Christ, says in his treatise On Drunkenness (sect. 32) in reference to this text, "It is almost the only occupation of the priests and ministers of God to offer abstemious sacrifices, abstaining in the firmness of their minds from wine and from every other cause of folly. But Aaron is the priest, and the interpretation of his name is * mountainous ' ; reasoning occupying itself with sublime and lofty objects. And no one who is so disposed will ever voluntarily touch unmixed wine or any other drug (phannakon) of folly." [See also a quotation from Philo in the Note on Ezek. xliv. 21.] Some such impression St Jerome appears desirous of conveying in a passage in his letter to Nepotian concerning the life to be led by the clergy and monks (de vita clericonim et monachonuti). In the section on 'feasts to be avoided' (convivia fugienda) he writes: "The apostle condemns, and the old law forbids, vvinebibbing priests (Lev. x.). Those who serve at the altar may not drink wine and sicera Whatever inebriates and throws the mind off its balance, fly, in like manner as if it were wine. Nor do I say this in order that a creature of God should be condemned by us [Jerome, like many later theologians, confounds the cor- iitption of the creature with the creature as formed by God], since, indeed, the Lord is called a wine-drinker (Matt. xiv. ), and a small portion of wine was al- lowed to Timothy when suffering as to his stomach (i Tim. v.); but in drinking we strictly require that there should be a measure according to the age, and the state of the health, and of the bodily members. So that if without wine I possess the glow of youth, and my blood affords sufficient warmth, and my system is vigorous and well strung, cheerfully will I abstain from the cup which is suspected to contain a poison."* If St Jerome, who flourished at the close of the fourth century, reflects in this passage the fallacy which attributes salutary, or at least marked medicinal prop- erties, to intoxicating liquor ; he no less clearly reflects the profound conviction of the purest minds, that the influence of such drink is dangerous to the moral and * Vinolentos sncerdotes Apostulu* ttimnat et vets lex prohibit. Qiti altnrio deserviunt vinum et siceram non bibnnt. . . . Quidqnid inebriat et stntnm mentis evertit, fuge similiter ut :;. .Wee hoc dico q>nd D'ia n>'>.'s cre-itiiri di'itiiiur. Sufttutem et Djm ; .nos vina botator est cibpellatus, et Tintotlieo dolenti stomnchnm modicn vini sorbitio relnxata est, sed modtttn f>ro atitis et valetndinis et corfiornm qualitate exlghnus in potnndo. Quod si absqne^ vino ardeo adjfescentui, et injlammor calore sanguinis, et succuLnto valufoque sum corpore hbenter carebo foculo in quo suspicio vcneni est. LEVITICUS, xxin. 6, 13, 17. 39 religious well-being even of those who fill the most sacred offices in the church. (4) Finally, if God in His wisdom enforced abstinence and prohibition as His pro- phylactic against intemperance within the circle of the priesthood, who can regard those measures as needless or extreme remedies for the same evil in general society at the present day ? CHAPTER X. VERSE 12. And Moses spake unto Aaron, and unto Eleazar and unto Ithamar, his sons that were left, Take the meat offering that remaineth of the offerings of the LORD made by fire, and eat it without leaven beside the altar : for it is most holy. WITHOUT LEAVEN] Hebrew, matzoth, 'unfermented cakes.' 'Eat it with sweet [fresh] cakes ' is therefore the proper translation of this clause; 'unleavened,' by inference, as opposed to that which had fermented or corrupted. CHAPTER XIX. VERSE 10. And thou shalt not glean thy vineyard, neither shalt thou gather every grape of thy vineyard ; thou shalt leave them for the poor and stranger : I am the LORD your God. The literal translation of the first two clauses is ' And thy vineyard \vl-1tar- mlkah] thou shalt not glean, and the scattering of [ii-phere(\ thy vineyard [kar- mlkah~\ thou shalt not gather.' The grapes left after the first plucking or cutting, whether left on the vine or scattered on the ground, should be for the gleaning of the poor. [See Note on Deut. xxiv. 21.] CHAPTER XXIII. VERSE 6. And on the fifteenth day of the same month is the feast of un- leavened bread unto the LORD : seven days ye must eat unleavened bread. UNLEAVENED BREAD, twice'] Hebrew, matzot/t, 'unfermented-cakes.' CHAPTER XXIII. VERSE 13. And the meat offering thereof shall be two tenth deals of fine flour mingled with oil, an offering made by fire unto the LORD for a sweet savor: and the drink offering thereof shall be of wine, the fourth part of an hin. See NOTE on Exod. xxix. 40. CHAPTER XXIII. VERSE 17. Ye shall bring out of your habitations two wave loaves of two tenth deals : they shall be of fine flour ; they shall be baken with leaven ; they are the firstfruits unto the LORD. LEAVEN] Hebrew, khahmatz, 'fermented matter. 1 40 LEVITICUS, XXVI. 5. CHAPTER XXV. VERSE 3. Six years thou shalt sow thy field, and six years thou shalt prune thy vineyard, and gather in the fruit thereof. THY VINEYARD] Hebrew, karmekah, 'thy vineyard.' CHAPTER XXV. VERSE 4. But in the seventh year shall be a sabbath of rest unto the land, a sabbath for the LORD : thou shalt neither sow thy field, nor prune thy vineyard. THY VINEYARD] Hebrew, karmekah, 'thy vineyard.' CHAPTER XXV. VERSE 5. That which groweth of its own accord of thy harvest thou shalt not reap, neither gather the grapes of thy vine undressed : for it is a year of rest unto the land. THE GRAPES OF THY VINE UNDRESSED] Hebrew, ve-eth-invai nezirekah lo thivlzor, 'and the grapes of thy separated thou shalt not gather.' The vine is here called nazir (separated or consecrated) because during the seventh year it was not to be pruned or plucked. CHAPTER XXV. VERSE 11. A jubilee shall that fiftieth year be unto you : ye shall not sow, neither reap that which groweth of itself in it, nor gather the grapes in it of thy vine undressed. NOR GATHER THE GRAPES IN IT OF THY VINE UNDRESSED] Neither ' grapes ' nor * vine ' is in the original Hebrew, which reads, v%-lo thivtzeitt eth~nezirah t 'and thou shalt not gather (or cut off) thy separated.' Each fiftieth year was to be like every seventh a year separated from the ordinary cultivation of the soil, and this idea of separation from toil, and consecration to rest, was naturally assigned to the whole produce of the land on these septennial and jubilee festivals. CHAPTER XXVI. VERSE 5. And your threshing shall reach unto the vintage, and the vintage shall reach unto the sowing time : and ye shall eat your bread to the full, and dwell in your land safely. THE VINTAGE, tivice~\ Hebrew, batzir, 'the cutting off,' from bahtzar, 'to cut off,' a name transferred to the season when the grapes were gathered, which was generally done by cutting them away with a sharp instrument [mazmara, pruning- hook], in order to avoid injury to the vine. THE BOOK OF NUMBERS. CHAPTER VI. VERSES i 4. i And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying, x Speak unto the children of Israel, and say unto them, When either man or woman shall separate themselves to vow a vow of a Nazarite, to separate them- selves unto the LORD : 3 He shall separate himself from wine and strong drink, and shall drink no vinegar of wine, or vinegar of strong drink, neither shall he drink any liquor of grapes, nor eat moist grapes, or dried. 4 All the days of his separation shall he eat nothing that is made of the vine tree, from the kernels even to the husk. V. 2. A XAZARITE] The Hebrew nakzir (from nahzar, 'to separate one's self 1 ) has been retained in the English A. V. The Lxx. reads, " Man or woman, who- eve- shall specially vow a vow to separate or purify himself with purity to the Lord {ftnttr t gttttft hos ean megalvs enxeetai eucheen apkagnisaslhai hagneian Auriu)." V. 3. HE SHALL SEPARATE HIMSELF FROM WINE AND STRONG DRINK] The Hebrew is miy-yayin vZ-shakar yatzir, ' from yayin and shakar he shall separate himself.' The Lxx. has apo oinon kai sikera hagnistheesetai, 'from wine and sicera he shall purify himself (or purely abstain).' The V. is d vino et omni quod intbriare potest abstinebunt, ' from wine and whatever is inebriating they shall abstain.' The T. of Onkelos has makkamar khadatk vl-aliq yivour, ' from wine, new and old, he shall be separated.' Onkelos thus gives yayin the sense of 'new- wine,' and shakar that of 'old wine,' which makes their difference to consist, not in a difference of the juice, but in a difference of age between portions of the same kind of juice, that of the grape. A rabbinical tradition is mentioned by Maimonides, that strong drink made of dates, or such like, was lawful for the Nazarite, the kind forbidden here being strong drink made with mixture of wine! Another of these traditions went so far as to state that "if a little wine be mingled with honey, or the like, so that there be no taste of the wine, it is lawful for the Nazarite to drink it." What law could survive such unprincipled glosses and elastic interpretations? AND SHALL DRINK NO VINEGAR OF WINE, OR VINEGAR OF STRONG DRINK] The Hebrew is khontetz yayin vl-khometz shakar lo yishteh, ' fermcnted-liquor of winr and fermented-liquor of shakar he shall not drink.' The Lxx. reads, kai oxos ex oinoit kai oxos ex sicera 'with a basket of the unfermented-cakes.' AND HIS DRINK-OFFERING] Hebrew, v%-eth nisko, 'and his libation.' V. 19. ONE UNLEAVENED CAKE] Hebrew, vl-halklath matzah akhath, 'and one perforated unfermented-cake.' AND ONE UNLEAVENED WAFER] Hebrew, n-rqiq matzah tkhad, 'and one thin unfermented-cake.' V. 20. AM) AFTER THAT THE NAZARITE MAY DRINK WINE] Hebrew, v^-akhar yisteh han-Nahzir yayin, 'and afterward the Nazarite may drink yayin.' The ceremony of terminating the vow having been fulfilled, the principal condition of Nazaritism would also cease, and with it all the other conditions. Ceasing to be a Nazarite, the evidences of a Nazarite would no longer be binding; but no obligation was imposed to Anvkyayin of any kind, much less was a sanction given to the use of inebriating drinks. 44 NUMBERS, VI. 13 20. Observation I. The rules of Nazaritism as explained in this chapter comprise the three negatives I, not to consume any produce of the vine; 2, not to cut the hair ; 3, not to touch any dead body. Many speculations have been put forth as to the reasons for these prohibitions. That each and all were suitably associ- ated with their vow cannot be questioned, for to impute an irrational arbitrariness to these regulations would be to impeach the divine wisdom. A Nazarite was, by his voluntary vow, so consecrated to the divine service as to be separated from the ordinary pursuits of men. This separation was according to the nature of the vow ; and if the vow was for life, so was the separation not otherwise. It is a Jewish tradition that the vow could not be taken for less than thirty days. The Nazarite was not to touch any dead body, which was typical of his separation from things corruptible. He was not to cut his hair, the length of which signified his subjection (i Cor. xi. 5) and visibly testified to his fidelity, and presented the symbol of strength and abundant vitality. He was not to take the produce of the vine, either liquid or solid, for this was an effectual safeguard not only against danger from the use of intoxicating drinks, but also against temptation or mistake should the inebriating article be substituted for the innocuous. "They were to eat nothing that came of the vine, to teach us with the utmost care and caution to avoid sin and everything that borders on it and leads to it, or may be a tempta- tion to us." Matthew Henry. " Everything which might have even a tend- ency," says Professor Moses Stuart, "to inspire them with a taste for inebriating liquor was to be most carefully avoided." That this abstinence was prescribed as a means of moral protection is also clear from the conduct of those who gave them wine to drink, 'and so,' says Matthew Henry, 'did the tempter's work.' (Amos ii. 12.) Ainsworth remarks, "By this prohibition God taught the Nazarites sanctification in mortifying the lusts of the flesh, for the drinking of these endangereth men to 'forget the love of God,' to mock and to rage." No value can be attached to the rabbinical notion, adopted by Lightfoot, that the vine was forbidden to the Nazarites because it had been the forbidden tree in Paradise. The leper, according to Lightfoot, was an emblem of the wretched state of man since the fall, and the Nazarite the emblem of man in his state of innocence. Some Jewish writers, with whom Dr Gill coincides, think that there is a meaning in the law of the Nazarite following the law of ordeal concerning women suspected of conjugal infidelity, "and as wine leads to adultery, as Jarchi observes, abstinence from it, which the Nazarites were obliged to, and forbearance of trimming and dressing the hair, and a being more strictly and closely dovoted to the service of God, were very likely means of preserving from unchastity and any suspicion of it." 2. Ancient Nazaritism was more comprehensive than teetotalism, so that no argument against the latter can be founded upon the contrast between Jesus and the Baptist [see Note on Matt. xi. 18, 19] ; whereas the remarkable health and vigor of the Nazarites (Lam. iv. 7) was a standing refutation of the still prevalent superstition which connects those physical blessings with some use of intoxicating liquor. 3. The essential spirit of Nazaritism self-consecration to God, religious willing- hood is incorporated with Christianity and identified with its highest develop- ments of liberty and excellence. Abstinence from intoxicating liquors is, there- fore, not less needful than in ancient times as a moral safeguard, unless it can be shown that those liquors have ceased to exert the fourfold influence of stimulating the animal propensities, weakening the reason, dulling the moral sensibilities, and diminishing the will-power. In moderate drinking these influences may be only NUMBERS, XIII. I/, 20, 23. 45 slightly felt, but the tendency cannot he mistaken ; and as the capacity of correctly estimating the danger and warding it off is lowered in proportion to the effect of the liquor consumed, the drinker is commonly the victim of self-deception until some palpable transgression covers him with shame, or until habit has fostered an appetite that eats into the soul as a canker. Both as a sanitary regimen and a spiritual auxiliary, abstinence is commended to universal Christian adoption by the conjoint statute and experience of the Nazarites. [Concerning Nazarites and Nazaritism, see Notes on Judg. xiii. 5, 7; Lam. iv. 7; Amos ii. II, 12; Luke i. 'SO CHAPTER IX. VERSE n. The fourteenth day of the second month at even they shall keep it, and eat it with unleavened bread and bitter herbs. WITH UNLEAVENED BREAD AND BITTER HERBS] Hebrew, al-matzoth vm'rorim, with unfermented-cakes and bitter-herbs.' CHAPTER XIII. VERSES 17, 20. 17 And Moses sent them to spy out the land of Canaan. (Now the time was the time of the first-ripe grapes.) V. 20. FIRST-RIPE GRAPES] Hebrew, bikurai anahvim, 'the firstfruits of grape-clusters.' The Lxx. has prodromal staphulecs, 'the forerunners of the grape.' The V. gives quando jam pracoqua uva vesci possunt, 'when now the premature (= earliest) grapes may be eaten.' This season was early in August. CHAPTER XIII. VERSE 23. And they came unto the brook of Eshcol, and cut down from tnence a branch with one cluster of grapes, and they bare it between two upon a staff; and they brought of the pomegranates, and of the figs. THE BROOK OF ESHCOL] Hebrew, nakhal eshkol. The marginal rendering in the A. V. is 'valley,' and the exact meaning of nakhal in this passage is doubtful, since nakhal, though undoubtedly signifying a stream or torrent, was applied to a watercourse which in summer would be perfectly dry. The Lxx. has heos pharangos botruos, ' to the ravine of a grape-cluster ' ; but the V. (with which most of the ancient versions agree) gives ad torrentem botri, 'to the torrent of a grape-cluster.' It will be observed that the A. V. differs from the Lxx. and V. in treating the Hebrew eshkol as a proper name ; and as the district was the same as that where Abraham dwelt with Mamre, Eshcol, and Ancr (Gen. xiv. 13), it is not improbable that the Israelites were accidentally reviving the name it had formerly borne. A BRANCH WITH ONE CLUSTER OF GRAPES] Hebrew, zlmorah v%-eshkol anahv- im akhad, 'a branch (= vine-branch), even a stalk of grape-clusters.' [As to Eshkol, see Note on Gen. xl. 10.] On this branch grew one immense bunch of 46 NUMBERS, XVIII. 12. grapes, so heavy that it required to be suspended on a staff and carried by two men. Clusters weighing from twenty to forty pounds and upwards are still seen in various parts of Syria.* The Lxx. has kleenia kai botnm staphnUes hena epautou t 'a branch, and one bunch of grapes with it.' The V. reads, palmitem cum uvo- sua, 4 a young branch with its own grape.' CHAPTER XIII. VERSE 24. The place was called the brook Eshcol, because of the cluster of grapes which the children of Israel cut down from thence. So famous a grape-producing district might well receive an appropriate descrip- tion. [See Note on xiii. 23.] The T. of Jonathan adds that wine (khamraJi) ran from the branch as a torrent! Jonathan, however, does not go so far as some modern rabbins, and affirm that the wine was fermented ! CHAPTER XV. VERSES 5, 7, 10. s And the fourth part of an hin of wine for a drink-offering shalt thou prepare with the burnt-offering or sacrifice, for one lamb. . . . 7 And for a drink-offering thou shalt offer the third part of an hin of wine, for a sweet savor unto the LORD. . . . ioAnd thou shalt bring for a drink-offering half an hin of wine, for an offering made by fire, of a sweet savor unto the LORD. See Note on Exod. xxix. 40. In each verse the Hebrew for ' wine ' is yayin ; the Lxx. has oinos, and the V. vinum. CHAPTER XVI. VERSE 14. Moreover thou hast not brought us into a land that floweth with milk and honey, or given us inheritance of fields and vineyards : wilt thou put out the eyes of these men ? we will not come up. AND VINEYARDS] Hebrew, vah-kahrem, 'and a vineyard.' CHAPTER XVIII. VERSE 12. All the best of the oil, and all the best of the wine, and of the wheat, the firstfruits of them which they shall offer unto the LORD, them have I given thee. *"The grapes themselves must have been very large, if any inference can be drawn from the size of those which modern travelers have observed in the country. Nau affirms (p. 458) that he saw, in the neighborhood of Hebron, grapes as large as one's thumb. Dandini, although an Italian, was astonished at the large size to which grapes attained in Lebanon, being, he says (p. 79), as large as prunes. Mariti (3, 134) affirms that in different parts of Syria he had seen grapes of such extraordinary size that a bunch of them would be a sufficient burden for one man. Nei.chutz states he cou:d say with truth that in the mountains of Israel he saw, and had eaten from, bunches of grapes that were half an ell long, and the grapes two joints of a finger in length. Even in our own country a bunch of Svrian grapes was, some years ago, produced at Welbeck, and sent as a present from the Duke of Portland to the Marquis of Kockingham, which weighed nineteen pound';. It was conveyed to its destination more than twenty miles distant on a staff by four laborers, two of whom bore it in rotation: thus affording a striking illustration of the proceeding of the Israelites. The greatest diameter of this cluster was nineteen inches and a half, its circum- fe-ence four feet and a half, and its length nearly twenty-three inches." Tirosh Lo Yayin (1841). NUMBERS, XVIII. 2/, 30. 47 AND ALL THE BEST OF THE WINE] Hebrew, vt-kakl khalev tirosh, 'and all the best (or choice part) of the vine-fruit.' Tiros/i is here again grouped with yitzhar (olive and orchard fruit), and with dahgan (corn of all kinds), the tio forming an ascending scale yitzhar, tirosh, dahgan of the most valuable natural products of the 'goodly land.' If any uncertainty existed as to these terms denoting the fruits of the soil in their solid state, it would be removed by the expression ' the first- fruits ' (rashithini), and by the language of verse 13, "Whatsoever is first ripe in the land, which they shall bring unto the Lord, shall be thine: every one that is clean in thine house shall eat of it." The Lxx. has kai pasa aparchee elaiou, kai pasa aparchee oinou, sitoii, 'and all the firsts of oil, and all the firsts of wine, of corn.' The V. gives omneni meditllam olei, et vini, ac frumcnti, 'and all the choice part of oil, of wine, and of corn.' The Samaritan Version, instead of 'all the best of wine and corn,' has the strange reading of 'every liquor of dry or old. 1 The T. of Onkelos for tirosh has khamar. Jonathan gives ' every good of the wine of the grape ' khamar inbah. In Walton's Polyglot translation tirosh is rendered by mustt, 'of unfermented wine.' With this also agrees the Arabic Version, which commonly translates tirosh by ttzer. This is a case, as a reference to the original will evince, in which the Jews of the Captivity seem to have lost the true and certain sense of the words tirosh and yitzhar (vine and orchard fruit), and to have narrowed their meaning down to that of a liquid prepared by man, and at the same time to have confused lirosh with a species of yayin (as ahsis or khemer), and yitzhar with shemen, the conventional and specific word for oil. [See Prel. Dis.] The modern versions all follow in the traditional rut. CHAPTER XVIII. VERSE 27. And this your heave-offering shall be reckoned unto you as though it were the corn of the threshing-floor, and as the fullness of the wine- press. AND AS THE FULLNESS OF THE WINEPRESS] Hebrew, vt-kamlaah min-hay- yaJujm, 'and like the abundance of the vine-vat.' Yahqcv, as the vat or reservoir into which the juice (lowed, is distinguished by some critics from gath, the recep- tacle of the grapes, where they were trodden, = the wine-press ; but the soundness of this distinction is doubtful. The Lxx. has aphairema apo leenoit, ' and produce from the wine-press.' In the V. the whole sentence runs Ut reputetur vobis in oblationem prim itivontm tarn de areis qttam tie torcularibus, ' that it may be reckoned to you as an oblation of firstfruits, as well from the threshing-floors as from the wine- presses.' Ts. Onkelos and Jonathan have 'wine of fullness from the wine-press.' The Arabic Version has 'the expressed juice (elzer) from the wine-press.' CHAPTER XVIII. VERSE 30. Therefore thou shalt say unto them, When ye have heaved the best thereof from it, then it shall be counted unto the Levites as the in- crease of the threshing-floor, and as the increase of the wine-press. :> AS THE INCREASE OF THE WINK-PRESS] Hebrew, vt-klt/ivaut/t yahqcv, 'and as the produce of the wine- vat.' The Lxx. reads, hus geneema apo Uenoit, 48 NUMBERS, XXI. 1 6 1 8, 22. 'and as produce from the wine-press.' The Aldine edition of the Lxx. has a Phairema apo lecnou, ' produce of the press.' The V. rendering is quasi de area et torculari dcderitis primitias, ' as if yielding the firsts of the floor and the wine-press/ Onkelos gives 'as fruit of the wine-press.' CHAPTER XX. VERSE 5. And wherefore have ye made us to come up out of Egypt, to bring us in unto this evil place ? it is no place of seed, or of figsj or of vines, or of pomegranates; neither is there any water to drink. OR VINES] Hebrew, -ue-gephen, 'and vine.' This makes it clear that the Israel- ites were accustomed to see, and probably to eat, the fruit of the vine, in Egypt. In regard to liquids, it is not the absence of wine of which they complain, but the want of water, and to supply this real necessity the miracle of the smitten rock is performed (verse n). CHAPTER XX. VERSE 17. Let us pass, I pray thee, through thy country; we will not pass through the fields, or through the vineyards, neither will we drink of the water of the wells : we will go by the king's high way, we will not turn to the right hand, nor to the left, until we have passed thy borders. OR THROUGH THE VINEYARDS] Hebrew, uv-kerem t 'and through (or into) a vineyard,' = land set with vines and fruit-trees. CHAPTER XXL VERSES 16 18. 16 And from thence they went to Beer: that is the well whereof the LORD spake unto Moses, Gather the people together, and I will give them water. 17 Then Israel sang this song, Spring up, O well ; sing ye unto it : 18 The princes digged the well, the nobles of the people digged it, by the direction of the lawgiver, with their staves. To BEER] Beer (or Baar) signifies 'well,' an etymology which throws light upon this passage. The Song of the Tribes is a beautiful tribute to the priceless value of water, an element most appreciated in 'a dry and thirsty land,' where running streams are absent. How strange that 'a good creature of God' like this should be despised by those who bestow the title emphatically on the products of misapplied ingenuity ! and, stranger still, that they should regard this preference and characterization as a mark of superior wisdom ! CHAPTER XXI. VERSE 22. Let me pass through thy land : we will not turn into the fields, or into the vineyards ; we will not drink of the waters of the well : but we will go along by the king's high way, until we be past thy borders. OR INTO THE VINEYARDS] Hebrew, uv-kerem, * and into (or through) a vine- yard/ NUMBERS, XXVIII. /, 14. 49 CHAPTER XXI. VERSE 29. Woe to thee, Moab! thou art undone, O people of Chemosh: he hath given his sons that escaped, and his daughters, into captivity unto Sihon king of the Amorites. CHEMOSH] Hebrew, A'SmosA. "Some," says Rosenmiiller, "think this the same with the Greek Comus, the god of feasting (or guzzling), drinking, and all lasciviousness and wantonness. Others think the word the same with kemus, the Arabic for 'lice,' and that it was the image of one made with astrologic art to extirpate lice. So the Acaronites worshipped Baal-zebul, 'the fly god.'" Gesenius considers it to signify 'subduer,' 'conqueror.' CHAPTER XXII. VERSE 24. But the angel of the LORD stood in a path of the vineyards, a wall being on this side, and a wall on that side. IN A PATH OF THE VINEYARDS] Hebrew, bt-mishol hak'ramim, 'in a narrow- path of the vineyards,' a road running through a district set with vines. These paths were exceedingly narrow, and sometimes flanked, as in this case, with walls made of the stones taken from the land. CHAPTER XXVIII. VERSE 7. And the drink-offering thereof shall be the fourth part of an hin for the one lamb : in the holy place shalt thou cause the strong wine to be poured unto the LORD for a drink-offering. DRINK-OFFERING] Hebrew, nesek, 'a libation,' = that which is poured out. AN HIN] Hebrew, hin. See Note on Exod. xxix. 40. THE STRONG WINE] Hebrew, shakar, 'sweet drink.' The Lxx. has sikera ; the V. vini, 'of wine.' The T. of Onkelos has 'a libation of old wine' (dakha- mar attiq}. The Jerusalem T. renders khamar bekhir, 'a choice wine.' Jonathan agrees with Onkelos, but adds, " If old wine cannot be found, let wine of forty days be poured out before the Lord." This is the only place where the A. V. gives to shakar the rendering of ' strong -wine'/ probably to make the passage agree with verse 14, and with Exod. xxix. 40, where wine (yayin) alone is mentioned. Shakar may here be taken in its most comprehensive sense, as including all sweet drinks, even yayin in its sweet condition; or the injunction may be read as a per- mission to use either shakar or yayin, as might be most convenient. [See Note on Cant. viii. 2.] It is not necessary to quote at length the other passages in this chapter where the word nesek, 'drink-offering,' or better, 'libation,' occurs. A reference will suffice to verses 9, 10, 14, 15, 24, 31. CHAPTER XXVIII. VERSE 14. And their drink-offerings shall be half an hin of wine unto a bul- lock, and the third part of an hin unto a ram, and a fourth part of an 7 50 NUMBERS, XXXII. 9. hin unto a lamb : this is the burnt-offering of every month through- out the months of the year. OF WINE] Hebrew, yayin, 'wine'; the Lxx. oinou, and V. vini y 'of wine.' CHAPTER XXVIII. VERSE 17. And in the fifteenth day of this month is the feast : seven days shall unleavened bread be eaten. UNLEAVENED BREAD] Hebrew, matzoth, * unfermented-cakes ' ; the Lxx., azuma, ' unfermented-things ' ; the V., azymis, 'with unfermented things.' CHAPTER XXXII. VERSE 9. For when they went up unto the valley of Eschol, and saw the land, they discouraged the heart of the children of Israel, that they should not go into the land which the LORD had given them. UNTO THE VALLEY OF EsHCOL] Hebrew, ad nahkal Eshkol, ' to the valley of Eshcol.' [See Note on Numb. xiii. 23.] THE BOOK OF DEUTERONOMY. CHAPTER I. VERSE 24. And they turned and went up into the mountain, and came unto the valley of Eshcol, and searched it out. THE VALLEY OF ESHCOL] See Notes on Numb. xiii. 23, 24. CHAPTER II. VERSE 6. Ye shall buy meat of them for money, that ye may eat ; and ye shall also buy water of them for money, that ye may drink. The value attached to water in the East is here brought strikingly before us ; also the justice which characterized the policy of the Jewish lawgiver. The Edorn- ites were in possession of the wells, and the fluid of life must be paid for, if money would be accepted. CHAPTER VI. VERSE n. And houses full of all good things, which thou filledst not, and wells digged, which thou diggedst not, vineyards and olive trees, which thou plantedst not ; when thou shalt have eaten and be full. VINEYARDS] Hebrew, kerahmim, 'vineyards.' CHAPTER VII. VERSE 13. And he will love thee, and bless thee, and multiply thee : he will also bless the fruit of thy womb, and the fruit of thy land, thy corn, and thy wine, and thine oil, the increase of thy kine, and the flocks of thy sheep, in the land which he sware unto thy fathers to give thee. :> THE FRUIT OF THY LAND] Hebrew, u-phri admahthekah, 'and the fruit of thy >"H.' /W/, 'fruit,' is derived from pahrah, 'to bear,' and is here used com- prehensively of the three principal productions of the Holy Land, dahgan, tirosh, yitzhar corn, vine-fruit, and orchard-fruit. THY \VINF] The Hebrew is vl-tiro$hkah , 'and thy vine-fruit.' Onkelos has ;-<:/-, y methusma, * strong drink.' The T. of Onkelos reads, ' wine, new and old, ye did not drink ' ; but Jonathan's gives ' wine and neat (undiluted wine), khamar u-marath, ye drank not. ' From this verse we learn that during their desert journeyings of forty years the people of Israel abstained from all kinds of yayin and skakar, unfermented and fer- mented, innocent and inebriating. Hence those ' do greatly err, not knowing the Scriptures,' who either deride abstinence as a novelty, or condemn it as an imprac- ticable or dangerous habit of life. CHAPTER XXIX. VERSE 19. And it come to pass, when he heareth the words of this curse, that he bless himself in his heart, saying, I shall have peace, though I walk in the imagination of mine heart, to add drunkenness to thirst. To ADD] Hebrew, lemahn sepheth, 'with the intention to add,' denoting the reckless purpose of the sensualist. DEUTERONOMY, XXXII. 14. 6l DRUNKENNESS TO THIRST] Hebrew, hah-rahvah eth-hatz 'maah, ' the drunken (or satiated) one with the thirsty.' So the margin of A. V. Bishop Patrick and others prefer 'the thirsty with the drunken.' The V. reads, absumat ebria saticn- km, ' the drunken may consume the thirsty ' ; but absumat is a correction of assumat, 'add to,' of the earlier editions. The Lxx. makes God to interfere, hina met sunapolesee ho hamartolos ton anamarteeton, "in order that the sinner may not destroy the non-transgressor with him." Taking these renderings in their order, (i) the meaning of the A. V. would be that the profligate designs to indulge in drink in spite of, or perhaps in order to allay, the thirst which previous debauches have induced, according to the proverb, 'Ever drunk, ever dry,' and then drink afresh because of the dryness 'I will seek it yet again.' (2) Cf the two literal translations the first implies that the sinner, though drenched with liquor, would join himself to any one who was thirst- ing after it; the second translation, ' The thirsty with the drunken,' expresses an intention to connect the thirsty with the intemperate to lead the sober astray. 3) The Vulgate version implies that the tippler vaunts that he shall consume all thirst; "or it may be referred to the root of bitterness spoken of before, which, being drunken with sin, may attract, and by that means consume such as thirst after the like evils ; " or it may refer to the seduction successfully practised by the evil on the good. [See the Douay Version, with Notes by Drs Haydock and Husenbeth. ] (4) The Lxx. differs widely from all these renderings, and, without any allusion to intemperance, intimates that the impious boaster should be the subject of Divine punishment in order to prevent him involving the innocent in his own destruction. The Jewish expositors give the passage a spiritual application. CHAPTER XXXII. VERSE 14. Butter of kine, and milk of sheep, with fat of lambs, and rams of the breed of Bashan, and goats, with the fat of kidneys of wheat ; and thou didst drink the pure blood of the grape. AND THOU DIDST DRINK THE PURE BLOOD OF THE GRAPE] The Hebrew is ut-dam anahv tishteh khamer, "and the blood of the grape-cluster thou shalt drink khamer (foaming)." [See Prel. Dis.] As the verb khamar signifies 'to foam' or 'boil,' khamer, in this passage, describes the foaming appearance of the juice as it rushes, before fermentation, from the trodden clusters ; so the cognate Chaldee, khamar and hhamrah a sense perfectly consistent with the application of the same word to the turbid and foaming liquor during fermentation. Names do not change with the deterioration of things. The Lxx. rendering is kai aima staphulees epien oinon t 'and blood of grape he drank wine.' The Com- plutensian Edition gives epinon, ' they drank.' The V. is et sanguinem uvtz biberet meracissimum, 'and he might drink the purest blood of the grape.' Aquila trans- lates khamer by austecron, 'rough.' The T. of Onkelos is metaphorical 'The blood of their mightiest was poured out like water ' ; that of Jonathan is hyperbolical "They shall draw out one kor [seventy-five gallons] of red wine (khamar swnaq) from one grape-cluster " ! The Jerusalem T. is more moderate " They shall drink a cup (kos) of wine from one grape-cluster." Among the blessings of the good land that the Israelites were ' to go up and possess ' was the blood of the grape, which in its unfermented, uncorrupted state 62 DEUTERONOMY, XXXII. 32, 33. is proved, by chemical analysis, to constitute one of the most perfect of alimentary substances to be really food and drink in one, and therefore well worthy to rank with the "butter of kine, milk of sheep, fat of lambs, and the fat of kidneys of wheat." CHAPTER XXXII. VERSES 32, 33. 32 For their vine is of the vine of Sodom, and of the fields of Gomorrah : their grapes are grapes of gall, their clusters are bitter : 33 Their wine is the poison of dragons, and the cruel venom of asps. The Hebrew reads, ki mig-gephen Sedom gaphnahm, umish-shadmoth 'Amorah; anahvaimo invai rosh ; ashkeloth meroroth lahmo ; khamalh tanninim yaynahm. v'rosh pethahnim akzar: " for of the vine of Sodom (is) their vine, and of the fields of Gomorrah ; their grape-bunches (are) grape-bunches of gall ; (their) clustered- branches (are) bitter to them ; the inflaming-heat of serpents (is) their wine, and the virulent gall of vipers." The Lxx. is as follows: ek gar ampelou Sodomon hee ampelos auton, kai hee kleemaits auton ek Gomotrhas. [Hee (Codex A)~\ staphulee auton staphulee cholees, botrus pikrias autois. Thumos drakonton ho oinos auton t kai thumos aspidon anialos : "for from the vine of Sodom (is) their vine, and their vine-branch from Gomorrah. Their grape (is) a grape of gall, a cluster of bitterness theirs. Their wine (is) fierceness of dragons, and the incurable fierce- ness of asps." The versions of Symmachus and Theodotion have been lost, and all that remains of Aquila's are the concluding words, kai kephalee basiliskon asplanchnos 'and the unpitying head of basilisks ' [a venomous species of reptile]. The V. runs thus : De vinea Sodomorum vinea eorum et de suburbanis Gomorrha ; uva eorum uva fellis, et botri amarissimi. Fel draconum vinum eorum et venenum aspidum insanabile " Of the vineyard of Sodom is their vineyard, and of the district of Gomorrah ; their grape (is) the grape of gall, and (their) clusters (are) most bitter. The gall of dragons (is) their wine, and the incurable poison of asps." All the Targumists give to the passage a figurative coloring. Onkelos has "even as the punishments of the people of Sodom will be their punishments, and their overthrow as (that) of the people of Gomorrah. Their torments (shall be) most grievous as the heads of adders, and the retribution of their works as poison. As the gall of dragons (shall be) the end of their revenge, and as the head of cruel asps." Jona- than reads, " Because the works of this people are like the works of the people of Sodom, and their counsels like the counsels of the people of Gomorrah their thoughts are as evil as the heads of basilisks, therefore their retribution shall be desolating, and with bitterness afflicting them. Behold, as the venom of serpents when they go forth from their wine ; such shall be the bitter cup of malediction which they shall drink in the day of their vengeance, and as the heads of cruel basilisks." The Jerusalem T. reads, " Since the works of that people are like to the works of the people of Sodom, and their thoughts like to the thoughts of the people of Gomorrah, their works shall be made desolate, and with bitterness shall they afflict them. Since the poison of that people is like to the poison of serpents in the time when they drink wine, and their wrath is like the heads of cruel asps." To understand the Targumists' versions we must recollect that according to an ancient belief serpents were very fond of wine, the drinking of which rendered their poison more intense. DEUTERONOMY, XXXII. 32, 33. 63 V. 32. THEIR VINE is OF THE VINE OF SODOM] The margin of the A. V. reads, ' or worse than the vine of Sodom ' ; and the Hebrew min readily takes either the conjunctive sense 'of 'their vine is of [derived from] the wine of Sodom,' or the disjunctive sense 'away from ' ' their vine is away from [/'. e. worse than] the vine of Sodom.' The former rendering seems more accordant with the succeeding clause, AND OF THE FIELDS OF GOMORRAH] The Hebrew shedamah (plural shadmoth) signifies land sown or planted. The rendering of the Lxx. kleema, ' offshoot ' or ' vine-branch,' does not well agree with the context in most other passages 2 Kings xix. 16; xxiii. 4; Isa. xvi. 8; xxxvii. 27; Jer. xxxi. 40; Hab. iii. 17. GRAPES OF GALL] The Hebrew rosh is translated in the Lxx. and V. by words denoting, specifically, 'gall,' and generically, 'poison.' Gesenius thinks it meant the poppy, but the connection implies some poisonous berry of a bitter taste. V. 33. THEIR WINE is THE POISON OF DRAGONS] The Hebrew khamah, 'heat,' obtains the force of ' poison, or that which burns the bowels ' (Gesenius). See Notes on Psa. Iviii. 5, and Hos. vii. 5. Figuratively, khamah designates ardent passion, such as 'rage,' 'fury,' 'wrath,' and is so applied in Gen. xxvii. 44; Job xxi. 20; Isa. li. 17; Jer. vi. n, and xxv. 15. Tanninim, rendered 'dragons ' in the A. V., signifies any very lengthy animals = monsters, and here refers to huge venomous reptiles common in arid countries. THE CRUEL VENOM OF ASPS] Hebrew, rosh pethahnim akzar. It is hard to say why rosh, in verse 32, should have been translated 'gall,' and in verse 33 ' venom ' ; perhaps it was in deference to the same inconsistency in the Lxx., which gives both choice (gall) and thumos (fierceness or rage); and in the V., which has bothy 1 ?/ (gall) and venenum (venom). What is more curious in authorities is (as the reader may see by looking back), that Aquila and the Targumists understood by rosh, in this place, not ' poison ' at all, but ' head ' a translation which by no means imparts clearness to their versions. Probably the poisonous substance here called rosh received its name from the head (rosh) of the berry containing it; or (as some think) because the poison of the serpent is secreted in its head. By ' asps ' are meant some species of deadly adder or viper, whose poison, because quickly fatal, is described as akzar, 'fierce,' or 'virulent.' The Lxx. aniatos, and V. insanabile, 'incurable,' represent the effect rather than the quality of the poison. The A. V. ' cruel ' is emphatic, but too expressively moral to be applied to a physical poison. On the phrases 'vine of Sodom,' 'their vine,' and 'their wine,' it may be re- marked, I. There is no historical record concerning the kind of vine cultivated around Sodom and Gomorrah, but growing in such a bituminous soil it would probably possess peculiar qualities, the memory of which was handed down by tradition for ages. The vine of Sodom may even have survived the overthrow of the cities of the plain. ic commentators suppose a designed reference to the plant which bore the fruit known as 'apples of Sodom,' and described by Josephus as of a beautiful appearance, but crumbling to dust when plucked. Fruit of this sort, the inside of which an insect (tenthrado) reduces to dust, leaving the outside skin fair and attrac- tive, has been found by modern travelers near the Dead Sea. 64 DEUTERONOMY, XXXII. 37, 38, 42. 2. It is obvious that Moses, under the similitude of a Sodom-like vine, grapes of gall, bitter clusters, wine like serpent-poison and deadly adder's gall, furnishes a moral portraiture of Israel's rebellious state. The vine of Sodom marks their degenerate character, its bitter and poisonous fruit their vicious tempers, and its venomous wine their injurious conduct toward the saints and prophets of God; but it is extremely unlikely that such images would have been borrowed from merely traditional or fictitious objects. The entire passage appears to glance retrospect- ively at the manufacture and use of powerfully intoxicating compounds familiar to the people of Sodom, the knowledge of which may have been transmitted to much later times. The figures themselves are a tacit but striking warning against inflaming drinks ; no innocent substances, no good (dietetic) creatures, could have furnished such symbols to the poet-prophet of Israel. As the passage is part of a Hebrew poem, we may be permitted to convert it into English verse : Their vine from Sodom draws its birth, Reared in Gomorrah's putrid earth ; Their clustered-grapes are nought but gall, Their stalks are bitterness to all ; Their wine huge-reptiles' poison makes, And fiery gall of hooded snakes. CHAPTER XXXII. VERSES 37, 38. 37 And he shall say, Where are their gods, their rock in whom they trusted; 38 Which did eat the fat of their sacrifices, and drank the wine of their drink-offerings ? let them rise up and help you, and be your protection. AND DRANK THE WINE OF THEIR DRINK-OFFERINGS] Hebrew, yishtu yayn nesikahm, 'and drank the wine of their libations.' So Lxx. and V. The wine poured out before the heathen idols was figuratively supposed to be drunk by them ; and Jehovah is represented as asking His faithless people what had become of those gods who had eaten and drunk (/. e. accepted) their offerings, and then deserted them in the hour of their need. CHAPTER XXXII. VERSE 42. I will make mine arrows drunk with blood, and my sword shall devour flesh ; and that with the blood of the slain and of the captives from the beginning of revenges upon the enemy. The Hebrew reads, ashkir khitzai mid-dahm, ' I will satiate (drench) my arrows from blood ' ; the Lxx. methuso ta belee mou aptfhaimatos traumation, * I will drench my darts from the blood of the wounded'; the V., inebriabo sagittas meas sanguine, ' I will inebriate my arrows with blood.' The T. of Jonathan gives ' I will drench my arrows in the blood of their slain.' The Hebrew ashkir comes from shakar, 'to drink freely' of any sweet drink, and hence to be in- toxicated if the drink is fermented. In this passage the figure is confined to the idea of repletion, the Divine arrows being described as made to drink till they are soaked with the blood of those who fell under them, so great should be the slaughter of the guilty. DEUTERONOMY, XXXIII. 28. 65 CHAPTER XXXIII. VERSE 28. Israel then shall dwell in safety alone : the fountain of Jacob shall be upon a land of corn and wine; also his heavens shall drop down dew. THE FOUNTAIN OF JACOB] Hebrew, ain Yaaqov, 'the fountain (or eye) of Jacob.' As the same Hebrew word signifies 'eye' and 'fountain,' the versions differ. The Targumists take it in the sense of overflowing 'benediction.' UPON A LAND OF CORN AND WINE] Hebrew, el-eretz dahgan va-tirosh. This and the previous clause are rendered by the Lxx. epi gees lakob, epi sito kai oino t 'upon the land of Jacob, upon corn and wine.' The V. has oculus Jacob in terra frumenti et vini, 'the eye Jacob in a land of corn and wine.' The Syriac gives the usual triad 'the fountain Jacob in a land of corn, and wine, and oil.' The Arabic reads, 'of expressed juice* (etzcr). By 'fountain' many commentators understand ' offspring ' his posterity spread like the waters of a fountain. If we read 'eye,' then it io a figure of the patriarch gazing with delight on the fruitful land prophetically stretched out before him. THE BOOK OF JOSHUA. CHAPTER V. VERSE n. And they did eat of the old corn of the land on the morrow- after the passover, unleavened cakes, and parched corn in the self- same day. UNLEAVENED CAKES] Hebrew, matzoth, 'unfermented cakes.' The phrase * selfsame day ' seems to indicate the eagerness with which the people, sick of the manna, desired to eat the fruits of this long-promised land. It is added, ' And the manna ceased ' ; teaching us that miracles of feeding are not works of supererogation, but disappear when the ordinary supplies of Providence are available. For the right use of these natural supplies men are as responsible as for the miraculous gifts, and for their abuse (by changing them) as sinful as the discontented Jews who loathed 'the bread from heaven.' CHAPTER IX. VERSE 4. They did work wilily, and went and made as if they had been ambassadors, and took old sacks upon their asses ; and wine bottles, old, and rent, and bound up. AND WINE BOTTLES] Hebrew, va-nodoth yayin, 'and bottles pf wine'; Lxx., askous oinou, 'skin bottles of wine ' ; V., utres vinarios, ' wine-bags.' CHAPTER IX. VERSE 13. And these bottles of wine, which we filled, were new; and, behold, they be rent : and these our garments and our shoes are become old by reason of the very long journey. AND THESE BOTTLES OF WINE] Hebrew, v^-alleh nodoth hay-yayin, and these bottles of the wine ' ; the Lxx., kai outoi oi askoi tou oinou t ' and these skin bottle* of the wine ' ; the V., utres vint, 'bags of wine.' JOSHUA, XXIV. 13. 67 CHAPTER XV. VERSE n. And the border went out unto the side of Ekron northward : and the border was drawn to Shicron, and passed along to mount Baalah, and went out unto Jabneel and the goings out of the border were at the sea. SHICRON] Hebrew, Shikron, 'drinking' or 'drunkenness.' Shicron was a town on the northern border of Judah. The reason of its name can only be conjectured. It may have had some relation to the abundance of shakar, 'sweet drink,' obtained from neighboring palm trees, or from the indulgence of the people in shakar, when not always safe to be drunk [see Note on John iv. 5], or, possibly, some famous drinker may have founded the city, whose name became a memorial of his intemperance. CHAPTER XXIV. VERSE 13. And I have given you a land for which ye did not labor, and cities which ye built not, and ye dwell in them ; of the vineyards and olive- yards which ye planted not do ye eat. The Hebrew, kcrahmin vl-zaithim, signifies 'vineyards and olive trees.' The Lxx. has ampelonai kai tlaidnas ; the V., vinetu et olivetas. THE BOOK OF JUDGES. CHAPTER IV. VERSE 19. And he said unto her, Give me, I pray thee, a little water to drink ; for I am thirsty. And she opened a bottle of milk, and gave him drink, and covered him. CHAPTER V. VERSE 25. He asked water, and she gave him milk; she brought forth butter in a lordly dish. MILK] Hebrew, khahlahv, 'milk'; the Lxx. ,/<*/ the V., lac. BUTTER] Hebrew, khemah, 'butter-milk'; the Lxx., bouturon ; the V., butyrum. It was the kind of milk best suited to assuage the warrior's thirst. Some critics read 'cream,' or milk from which the cream was not separated. Some think that both a fluid and a more solid form of milk were given to Sisera. Butter was not used by the ancients, nor is it used by the Orientals of the present day except medi- cinally. Utterly unsupported is the notion that Jael gave Sisera camel's milk which had fermented, in order that he might be thrown into an intoxicated stupor. J. D. Michaelis, who had referred to Niebuhr as a witness for the intoxicating property of camel's milk, is contradicted by RosenmUller, who observes, " Dicit potius Nie- buhrius lac camelinum Arabibus, salubre et refrigerans haberi " (Niebuhr rather says that the milk of the Arabs' camel is healthy and refreshing). It is not always that an erring Michaelis has a critical Rosenmuller on his track. It is not certain, or even probable, that Jael resolved upon Sisera's death till he had fallen asleep. His re- quest for no beverage but water, ' for I am thirsty,' is an example by which modern soldiers might profit. "Some think," says Dr Gill, "he did not ask for wine because he knew the Kenites did not drink any, and so of course kept none in their tents ; but though this was the custom of the Rechabites, who were the same with the Kenites (Jer. xxxv. 8), yet it is very probable the custom had not obtained among them, since it was enjoined by Jonadab their father, who lived in the time of Jehu (2 Kings x. 15) : ' She opened a bottle of milk, and gave him to drink,' which she did rather out of courtesy, being a better liquor, or with design to throw him into a sleep, which milk inclines to, making heavy, as all the Jewish commentators observe ; though Josephus has no authority to say, as he does, that the milk she gave him was bad and corrupt." Dr Gill is too hard on Josephus, who states that the milk (gala) was diephthoros eedec, which Rosenmuller considers to mean 'acid already,' but not therefore bad to drink. JUDGES, IX. 12, 13. 69 CHAPTER VI. VERSE 19. And Gideon went in, and made ready a kid, and unleavened cakes of an ephah of flour : the flesh he put in a basket, and he put the broth in a pot, and brought // out unto him under the oak, and presented /'/. UNLEAVENED CAKES] Hebrew, matzoih, ' unfermented cakes.' [The same word occurs in verse 20, and twice in verse 21, and is correctly translated in each case 'unleavened cakes,' and not 'unleavened bread,' as in most other places of the A. V.] CHAPTER VII. VERSE 25. And they took two princes of the Midianites, Oreb and Zeeb; and they slew Oreb upon the rock Oreb, and Zeeb they slew at the wine- press of Zeeb, and pursued Midian, and brought the heads of Oreb and Zeeb to Gideon on the other side Jordan. ' AT THE WINEPRESS OF ZEEB] Hebrew, vl-yeqev Zlab, 'in (or at) the wine- press of Zeeb.' He may have taken refuge inside the press, hoping to be concealed till the pursuit was relinquished. CHAPTER VIII. VERSE 2. And he said unto them, What have I done now in comparison of you ? Is not the gleaning of the grapes of Ephraim better than the vintage of Abi-ezer ? THE GLEANING OF THE GRAPES OF EPHRAIM] Hebrew, olloth Ephraim, the gleanings of Ephraim.' The words 'of the grapes' in the A. V. are not in the Hebrew, but the sense is the same. THE VINTAGE OF ABI-EZER] Hebrew, batzir Abiezer. Batzir, 'vintage,' from bahtzar, ' to cut away ' ; hence the cutting off of grapes when ripe = the vintage. The country of Ephraim was so prolific in grapes, that gleaning them after the regular grape-gathering was more profitable than to pluck the vineyards possessed by the descendants of Abi-ezer. This fact passed into a proverb to illustrate the superiority of some men's small actions over the greatest actions of others. CHAPTER IX. VERSES 12, 13. uThen said the trees unto the vine, Come thou, and reign over us. 13 And the vine said unto them, Should I leave my wine, which cheereth God and man, and go to be promoted over the trees ? V. 12. UNTO THE VINE] Hebrew, bag-gaphen, 'to the vine.' V. 13. AND THE VINE SAID UNTO THEM] Hebrew, vat-tomtr lahhem hag-gephen, ' said to them the vine.' SHOULD I LEAVE MY WINE, WHICH CHEERETH GOD AND MAN] Hebrew, hekhadalti tth-tiroshi hamsammcuikh elohim va-anahshim, 'should I leave my 70 JUDGES, IX. 27. tiros h (fruit), which gladdens gods and men ?' The Lxx. has mee apoleipsasa Ion oinon mou ton euphrainonta theon kai anthropous, ' should I not be forsaking my wine, which rejoices God and men ? ' The Aldine and Complutensian editions of the Lxx. read, ton oinon [the Compl. ed., by a singular clerical error, has oikon, 'house'] mou teen euphrosuneen, ton theou kai ton anthropon, 'my wine the joy of God and of men.' Codex A has apheisa ton oinon mou teen euphrosuneen ton para tou theou kai ton anthropon, ' leaving my wine the joy of those with God and men.' The V. has numquid possum desereri vinum meum quod Icztificat Dfum et homines, ' how can I forsake my wine, which delights God and men ? ' The Syriac and Arabic versions translate tiroshi, 'my fruit.' Jonathan has 'How should I forsake my wine (khamri), from which the princes make their libations before the Lord, and in which they take delight?" GOD AND MAN] The Hebrew elohim and anahshim are both in the plural, and it has been thought that as Jotham related the parable to idolaters he intended by elohim the gods they worshiped. Others have suggested that by elohim and anahshim a contrast is designed between men of rank and the common people, so that the clause would then read, ' which cheers the high and low.' In this parable, the most ancient on record, the vine is represented as refusing to become king over the other trees; and, as in the case of the olive and the fig tree, the refusal is based on the impropriety of renouncing its own natural produce and function for the sake of mere supremacy and honor. Better be useful than ambitious, is the moral of this apologue. The vine speaks of what appertains to itself its tirosh, just as the olive had spoken of its ' fatness,' and the fig tree of its 'sweetness.' From a Temperance point of view it is im- material whether by tiros h be understood the solid fruit of the vine, or the delicious juice contained in the ripening clusters, the 'imprisoned wine ' {ho oinos pepedee- menos), as Anacreon styles it. For reasons already assigned, ' vine-fruit ' is the best English equivalent. The vulgar opinion that an intoxicating liquor is spoken of because it is said to 'cheer God and man,' does violence to the passage. God can only be pleased by the fruit of the vine as the work of His power and the gift of His goodness ; and man is cheered, first by the sight, and afterwards by the use of it as a part of his daily food. The supposition that nothing can ' cheer ' except it be of an intoxicating quality is not more sensual than it is absurd. The very word employed in this passage, samaakh, translated ' to cheer,' occurs as a noun in Psa. iv. 7 "Thou hast put gladness (simkhah) into my heart more than in the time when their corn (deghanam) and their wine (tiros ham) increased." This verse at once refutes the alcoholic gloss, and throws light upon the parable itself. The increase of corn and tiros h cheers the husbandman, but the favor of God gives greater cheer to the humble "and trustful soul. CHAPTER IX. VERSE 27. And they went out into the fields, and gathered their vineyards, and trode the grapes, and made merry, and went into the house of their god, and did eat and drink, and 'cursed Abimelech. AND GATHERED THEIR VINEYARDS] Hebrew, vay-yivtzeru eth-karmaihem, ' and cut off (stripped) their vineyards,' /. e. cut off the fruit from the vines. JUDGES, XIII. 27, 13, 14, 24, 25. 71 AND TRODE THE GRAPES] Hebrew, vay-yiJrfku, 'and they trode' the A. V. properly printing the words ' the grapes ' in italics to denote that they are added to complete the sense. AND MADE MERRY] Hebrew, va-yadsu hillnlim, 'and they made songs' (so the margin of the A. V. ), ;'. e. sang vintage songs. Gesenius suggests ' offered public thanksgivings.' The Lxx. transfers the Hebrew word, kai epoieesan Elloulim, ' and they made Elloulim.'* The V. has etfactis cantantium choris, ' and companies of singers having been formed.' AND DID EAT AND DRINK, AND CURSED ABIMELECH] Hebrew, vay-yokelu vay-yishtu vayqallu eth-Abimelek, 'and they ate and drank, and cursed Abimelech.' It is not distinctly intimated that this feasting was conducive to the cursing in which the Shechemitas indulged, but the rendering of the V. is peculiar, ft inter epulos ft ponila mahdicebant Abimelech^ 'and between their feastings and cups they cursed Abimelech. ' Probably excited by inebriating liquor, they rioted and boasted with a foolish freedom that cost them dear. CHAPTER XIII. VERSES 2 7, 13, 14, 24, 25. And there was a certain man of Zorah, of the family of the Danites, whose name was Manoah; and his wife was barren, and bare not. 3 And the angel of the LORD appeared unto the woman, and said unto her, Behold now, thou art barren, and bearest not : but thou shalt conceive, and bear a son. 4 Now therefore beware, I pray thee, and drink not wine nor strong drink, and eat not any unclean thing : 5 For, lo, thou shalt conceive, and bear a son : and no razor shall come on his head : for the child shall be a Nazarite unto God from the womb : and he shall begin to deliver Israel out of the hand of the Philistines. 6 Then the woman came and told her husband, saying, A man of God came unto me, and his countenance was like the countenance of an angel of God, very terrible: but I asked him not whence he was, neither told he me his name : 7 But he said unto me, Behold, thou shalt conceive, and bear a son ; and now drink no wine nor strong drink, neither eat any unclean thing: for the child shall be a Nazarite to God from the womb to the day of his death. . . . 13 And the angel of the LORD said unto Manoah, Of all that I said unto the woman let her beware. 14 She may not eat of any thing that cometh of the vine, neither let her drink wine or strong drink, nor eat any unclean thing: all that I com- manded her let her observe 24 And the woman bare a son, and called his name Samson : and the child grew, and the LORD blessed him. 25 And the Spirit of the LORD began to move him at times in the camp of Dan between Zorah and Eshtaol. V. 4. DRINK NOT WINE NOR STRONG DRINK] Hebrew, vl-al-tishti yayin vl-shakar, 'and thou shalt not drink wine and sweet drink.' So also in verses 7 and 14. The Lxx., Codex A, has oinon kai sikera in each place, but Codex B has oinon kai niethusma, 'wine and strong drink.' The Complutensian edition has sihrran. In each place the V. has vinttm ft siceram. The Targumists, as before, render yayin by 'new wine,' and shakar\>y 'old wine.' JUDGES, XIII. 27, 13, 14, 24, 25. V. 14. OF ANY THING THAT COMETH OF THE VINE] Hebrew, mik-kol asher yatza mig-gephen hay-yayin, * from all (anything) that comes forth from the vine of the wine,' i. e. the wine-tree. The Lxx. has ex ampelou tou oinou> 'from the vine of the wine.' The V. has simply ex vinea, ' from the vineyard.' SAMSON] Hebrew, Shimshon, 'sun-like." Josephus incorrectly interprets this name by ischuros, 'strong.' The Lxx. gives Sampson as the spelling, which has been extensively followed. I. The partial Nazaritism enjoined by the celestial messenger, with so much emphasis and solemnity, upon the mother of Samson, 'Now therefore beware, I pray thee ' (ver. 4) ; 'Of all that I said unto the woman let her beware ' (ver. 13), is exceedingly noteworthy; for, passing by the other peculiarities of the Nazarite code, the prohibitive injunction was limited to yayin, shakar, and the produce of the vine, and to things unclean. Rejecting the idea of an elaborate whim, can it be doubted that reasons of z. physiological Takwcz. dictated this command? Unless on the hypothesis of some benefit to her babe, it is inexplicable that she should have been subjected to the dietetic rule of the Nazarites. Modern medical inquiries have made clear the fact, surmised by some ancient philosophers, of the powerful influence of maternal regimen on the uterine condition and future health of children. It seems, therefore, legitimate to conclude that the mother of Samson was stringently guarded against all possible use of intoxicating liquors in order that her heroic son might gain the full benefit, not of his own abstinence only, but of hers, from the period of his conception to his birth. That indulgence in the use of strong drink by expectant mothers would be injurious to their offspring, was known to the learned and wise among the ancients. Plato, Aristotle, Plutarch, etc., have noticed the hereditary transmission of intemperate propensities, and the legislation that imposed abstinence upon women had unquestionably in view the greater vigor of offspring the mens sana in corpore sano (healthy mind in a healthy body), one of the choicest inheritances of the human race. Matthew Henry aptly remarks, "Women with child ought conscientiously to avoid whatever they have reason to think will be in any way prejudicial to the health or good constitution of the fruit of their body. And perhaps Samson's mother was to refrain from wine and strong drink, not only because he was designed for a Nazarite, but because he was designed for a man of strength, which his mother's temperance would con- tribute to." 2. The Nazaritism of Samson was to be complete and lifelong. Nor is there reason to doubt his fidelity to this part of his vow. In chapter xv. 18, 19, we have an account of one great triumph at the close of which "he was sore athirst, and called on the Lord," who "clave a hollow place that was in the jaw [or, in Lehi], and there came water thereout ; and when he had drunk, his spirit came again and he revived." [See Note upon this verse.] Would that lesser heroes had been content to ' revive their spirits ' as innocently as did this scourge of the Philistines ! It is not pretended by any advocate of Temperance that Samson's abstinence was the cause of his stupendous strength : that was supernatural ; yet it may be legiti- mately inferred that this abstinence would not have been enjoined had intoxicating liquors possessed that invigorating property which has been ascribed to them. The Note in Bagster's 'Treasury Bible' (partially quoted under Numb. vi. 3) has this reference: "It maybe here observed that when God intended to raise up Samson by his strength of body to scourge the enemies of Israel, He ordered that from his infancy he should drink no wine, but live by the rule of the Nazarites, JUDGES, XIII. 2 7, 13, 14, 24, 25. 73 because that would greatly contribute to make him strong and healthy, intending, after Nature had done her utmost to form this extraordinary instrument of His pro- vidence, to supply her defects by His own supernatural power." It is incredible that the Most High should have deprived His ' chosen vessel ' of the class of articles necessary, or peculiarly conducive, to the highest development of his constitution ; and an intelligent perusal of this passage would have sufficed to nip in the bud that most pestiferous of physical superstitions, which has associated human energy, vitality, and longevity, with some use of alcoholic liquors. Classical literature is not deficient in passages that may compare with the one under consideration. The reader of the 'Iliad' will remember that Homer represents Hecuba as saying to her son Hector, ' to a weary man wine imparts great strength ' andri de kekmeeoti menos mega oinos aexei ; but the hero, wiser on this point than the anxious mother, answers, "Bring me not, honored mother, the wine, sweet as honey to the soul, lest thou shouldst weaken my limbs, and I should be forgetful of both strength and courage," Jlfee tttffi oinon, aeire meliphrona, f>otnia tneeter, Mee mcatoguwsees, metios d'alkees te lathomai. Iliad, Book VI., v. 265-6. Pope's note on these lines is striking: "This maxim of Hector's concerning wine has a great deal of truth in it. It is a vulgar mistake to imagine the use of wine either rouses the spirits or increases strength. The best physicians agree with Homer on this point, whatever modern soldiers may object to this old heroic regimen. We may take notice that Samson as well as Hector was a water- drinker, for he was a Nazarite by vow, and as such was forbid the use of wine, to which Milton alludes in his ' Samson Agonistes.' " Pope proceeds to quote the reply of Samson to the chorus ; but it is better to cite the whole of the lines relating to Samson's abstinence, as they appear in Milton's noble drama. Speaking to himself, the hero says, " Abstemious I grew up, and thrived amain." The chorus speaks : " Desire of wine, and all delicious drinks, Which many a famous warrior overturns, Thou couldst repress: nor did the dancing ruby Sparkling, outpoured, the flavor, or the smell, Or taste that cheers the hearts of gods and men, Allure thee from the cool crystalline stream." To which Samson replies, '' Wherever fountain or fresh current flowed Against the Kastern ray, translucent, pure, With touch ethereal of heaven's fiery red, I drank, from the clear milky juice allaying Thirst, and refreshed ; nor envied them the grape Whose heads that turbulent liquor fills with fumes." The chorus then responds, " O madness ! to think use of strongest wines And strongest drinks our chief support of health, When God, with these forbidden, made choice to real His mighty champion strong above compare. Whose drink was only from the liquid brook." * 3. On verses 24 and 25 Matthew Henry remarks : " Strong men think them- selves greatly animated by wine (Psa. Ixxviii. 65), but Samson drank no wine, and yet excelled in strength and courage, and everything bold and brave, for he had Milton used ' liquid ' in the Latin sense of liquidiu. clear, limpid. 10 74 JUDGES, xv. 5, 1 8, 19. the Spirit of God moving him ; therefore, ' be not drunk with wine, but be filled with the Spirit,' who will come to those that are sober and temperate." That Samson's life was not perfect in a moral and spiritual sense is apparent from the historic notices preserved to us. This fact, however, gives no support to the popular plea that abstinence is no benefit, since Sepoys, Mohammedans, and other abstainers, are both cruel and impure ; for man being so prone to evil from nature (the inference is inevitably suggested), the greater is the reason why he should sedulously guard against further perversion, by renouncing that which, in disturb- ing his brain, augments his depravity. In spite of his abstinence from ' turbulent liquors,' not because of it, Samson was beguiled; and while the value of abstinence is not, on that account, lessened, we have clearly impressed upon us the necessity of divine guidance and personal watchfulness in all things, to the well ordering of the Christian life and the growth of the ' inner man ' in all the graces and virtues of the Spirit. CHAPTER XIV. VERSE 5. Then went Samson down, and his father and his mother, to Tim- nath, and came to the vineyards of Timnath : and, behold, a young lion roared against him. To THE VINEYARDS OF TiMNATH] Hebrew, ad karniai Thimnathah, ' to the cultivated grounds of Timnath.' CHAPTER XV. VERSE 5. And when he had set the brands on fire, he let them go into the standing corn of the Philistines, and burnt up both the shocks, and also the standing corn, with the vineyards and olives. WITH THE VINEYARDS AND OLIVES] Hebrew, vl-ad kerem zattA, 'and to the kerem of the olive tree.' Here kerem is applied, not to a vineyard merely, but generically to ' cultivated land ' ; and the meaning is that the fire kindled by the foxes or jackals sent by Samson into the fields of standing corn, spread beyond the limits of the corn district, and seized upon the plot devoted to the cultivation of the olive. CHAPTER XV. VERSES 18, 19. is And he was sore athirst, and called on the LORD, and said, Thou hast given this great deliverance into the hand of thy servant : and now shall I die for thirst, and fall into the hand of the uncircum- cised ? 19 But God clave an hollow place that was in the jaw, and there came water thereout ; and when he had drunk, his spirit came again, and he revived : wherefore he called the name thereof Enhak- kore, which is in Lehi unto this day. It is not necessary to believe that water came from a hollow place made in the vss's jaw. The marginal reading is ' in Lehi ' ; and as the place where the victory was gained was called Lehi [Lekhi, jaw-bone], the historian intimates that out of a JUDGES, XIX. 19. 75 small rocky hollow God caused a spring to burst forth, by whose pure water the spirit of Israel's 'mighty champion* was revived. CHAPTER XVI. VERSE 4. And it came to pass afterward, that he loved a woman in the valley of Sorek, whose name was Delilah. IN THE VALLEY OF SOREK] Hebrew, blnahkal Sorak, 'in the ravine of Sotek.* The margin of A. V. has ' by the brook of Sorek ' ; and, as before noticed, many of the ravines of Palestine, which are dry in summer, become the beds of deep torrents in the rainy season. The ravine of Sorek was situated near the ravine of Eshcol, both famous for the size and luscious quality of their grapes. The fame of this Yalley is thought to have given a name to some particular kind of wine, or to a wine of special excellence, as early as the days of Jacob. [See Notes on Gen. xlix. II; Isa. v. 2; Jer. ii. 21.] CHAPTER XVI. VERSE 25. And it came to pass, when their hearts were merry, that they said, Call for Samson, that he may make us sport. And they called for Samson out of the prison house ; and he made them sport : and they set him between the pillars. WHEN THEIR HEARTS WERE MERRY] Hebrew, k'yetov libahm, 'when it was good to their hearts '==when their hearts felt light or cheerful. This is an idiomatic expression, quite different from the phrase used of Joseph and his brethren (Gen. xliii. 34), and from the other used of the Shechemites (Judg. ix. 27), and rendered 'merry.' That the mirth of the Philistines, however, on the occasion was stimu- lated by indulgence in strong drink is highly probable. They had come ' to offer a great sacrifice to Dagon,' and revelry was the general concomitant of idolatrous rites. The expression here employed is in other places distinctly associated with strong drink and drinking excesses. (See Notes on I Sam. xxv. 36; 2 Sam. xiii. 28; Est. i. 10.) Hence Milton may be acquitted of injustice to this Philistian gathering when he puts into the mouth of the messenger the words, " The feast and noon grew high, and sacrifice Had filled their hearts with mirth, high cheer, and wine, When to their sports they turned." To which the semichorus adds that they were " Drunk with idolatry, drunk with wine." CHAPTER XIX. VERSE 19. Yet there is both straw and provender for our asses ; and there is bread and wine also for me, and for thy handmaid, and for the young man which is with thy servants : there is no want of any thing. 76 JUDGES, XXI. 19 21. BREAD AND WINE] Hebrew, lekhem vZ-yayin. The Lxx. has artoi kai oinos, * loaves and wine'; the V., panem ac vinum, 'bread and wine.' CHAPTER XXI. VERSES 19 21. 19 Then they said, Behold, there is a feast of the LORD in Shiloh yearly in a place which is on the north side of Beth-el, on the east side of the highway that goeth up from Beth-el to Shechem, and on the south of Lebonah. 20 Therefore they commanded the children of Benjamin, saying, Go and lie in wait in the vineyards; 21 And see, and, behold, if the daughters of Shiloh come out to dance in dances, then come ye out of the vineyards, and catch you every man his wife of the daughters of Shiloh, and go to the land of Benjamin. V. 19. A FEAST OF THE LORD] Hebrew, khag- Yehovah, ' a festival of Jehovah,' = a festival in honor of Jehovah. This word feast, as distinguished from mishteh t is derived from khahgag y 'to move in a circle,' and signifies the sacred dance per- formed at appointed times. [For the use of khahgag'va. reference to excess, see Note on Psa. cvii. 27.] V. 20. IN THE VINEYARDS] Hebrew, batfrahmim, 'in vineyards.' V. 21. OUT OF THE VINEYARDS] Hebrew, min-kak''rahmim, 'from the vine- yards.' Note the use ofmtn as 'out' or 'from.' THE BOOK OF RUTH. CHAPTER II. VERSES 8, 9. 14. s Then said Boaz unto Ruth, Hearest thou not, my daughter ? Go not to glean in another field, neither go from hence, but abide here fast by my maidens : 9 Lt thine eyes be on the field that they do reap, and go thou after them: have I not charged the young men that they shall not touch thee? and when thou art athirst, go unto the vessels, and drink of that which the young men have drawn. . . . 14 And Boaz said unto her, At meal-time come thou hither, and eat of the bread, and dip thy morsel in the vinegar. And she sat beside the reapers : and he reached her parched com, and she did eat, and was sufficed, and left. V. 9. DRINK OF THAT WHICH THE YOUNG MEN HAVE DRAWN] The Hebrew for 'have drawn ' is yishabun from shahav, ' to draw water.' The Lxx. has kai piesai othen ean hudreuontai ta paidaria, 'and drink of that which the youths shall have drawn of water.' The V. is et bibe aquas de quibus el pueri bibunt, ' and drink the waters from which also the youths drink.' This wealthy Bethlehemite supplied his reapers with water, and probably found his harvest work despatched more quickly, and certainly more soberly, than the farmers of England get theirs executed on cider and beer. V. 14. IN THE VINEGAR] Hebrew, ba-khometz, 'in the fermented drink' pro- bably sour wine (vin-aigre = vinegar), similar to the posca served out to the Roman legionaries. The Syriac adds she 'dipped the bread in milk,' and the Arabic has 'she poured milk upon it' (the bread). Dr Gill remarks, "Vinegar was used because of the heat of the season, as Jarchi and Aben Ezra remark, for cooling and refreshment ; and such virtues Pliny ascribes to vinegar as being refreshing to the spirits, binding and bracing the nerves, and very corroborating and strengthen- ing ; and it is at this day used in Italy, it is said, in harvest-time, when it is hot, where they also used wine mixed with vinegar and water, as Lavater says ; and who from a learned physician observes, that reapers instead of wine use vinegar mixed with a great deal of water, which they call 'household wine,' allayed with water ; to which if oil and bread be put it makes a cooling meal, good for work- men and travelers in the heat of the sun ; and the Targum calls it pottage boiled in vinegar. The Romans had an embamma or sauce made of vinegar, in which they dipped their food, and Theocritus makes mention of vinegar as used by reapers." 78 RUTH, III. 7. CHAPTER III. VERSE 7. And when Boaz had eaten and drunk, and his heart was merry, he went to lie down at the end of the heap of corn : and she came softly, and uncovered his feet, and laid her down. AND HIS HEART WAS MERRY] Hebrew, 'and he was good as to his heart 1 [See Note on Judg. xvi. 25.] It is not said what Boaz ate and drank, hut that he might be merry without partaking of intoxicants is well known to those who hare made the experiment THE FIRST BOOK OF SAMUEL. CHAPTER I. VERSES 9 17. 9 So Hannah rose up after they had eaten in Shiloh, and after they had drunk : (now Eli the priest sat upon a seat by a post of the temple of the Lord :) 10 And she was in bitterness of soul, and prayed unto the LORD, and wept sore. And she vowed a vow, and said, O LORD of hosts, if thou wilt indeed look on the affliction of thine handmaid, and remember me, and not forget thine handmaid, but wilt give unto thine handmaid a man child, then I will give him unto the LORD all the days of his life, and there shall no razor come upon his head. And it came to pass, as she continued praying before the LORD, that Eli marked her mouth. 13 Now Hannah, she spake in her heart; only her lips moved, but her voice was not heard: therefore Eli thought she had been drunken. 14 And Eli said unto her, How long wilt thou be drunken : put away thy wine from thee. 15 And Hannah answered and said, No, my lord, I am a woman of a sorrowful spirit : I have drunk neither wine nor strong drink, but have poured out my soul before the LORD. 16 Count not thine handmaid for a daughter of Belial : for out of the abundance of my complaint and grief have I spoken hitherto. 17 Then Eli answered and said, Go in peace : and the God of Israel grant thee thy petition that thou hast asked of him. V. 9. AFTER THEY HAD DRUNK] The Lxx. has meta to phagcin autous, ' after they had eaten,' adding the words, not in our Hebrew text, 'and she stood before the Lord.' Codex A and the Complutensian edition give also, 'and after they had drunk,' and the Complut. ed. omits 'and she stood before the Lord.' The V. has postquam comederat et biberat, 'after she had eaten and drunk.' So reads the Targum of Jonathan Ben Uzziel. V. II. I WILL GIVE HIM UNTO THE LORD ALL THE DAYS OF HIS LIFE] This was in effect a dedication of her wished-for son to a life-long Nazaritism. The Lxx. has a clause not found in the Hebrew text or V. version kai oinon kai methiisma ou pietai, 'and of wine and strong drink he shall not drink.' Philo quotes this clause, and pointedly refers to Samuel as ' chief of kings and prophets,' and as a Nazarite for life. V. 13. THEREFORE ELI THOUGHT SHE HAD BEEN DRUNKEN] Hebrew, fcshikorah, 'for a drunken woman.' So the Lxx., eis methuousan ; and the V., temuUntiam (from tcmctitm, the old Latin word for intoxicating wine). 80 I SAMUEL, I. 24. V. 14. How LONG WILT THOU BE DRUNKEN?] Hebrew, ad-mathi tishtakkahrin; Lxx., heds pote methtistheesee ; V., usquequb ebria eris? PUT AWAY THY WINE FROM THEE] Hebrew, hahsiri eth-yaynak maahlaik ; the Lxx., perielou ton oinon sou [Codex A adds aj>o sou~\ kaiporeuou ek prosopou kuriou, * put away thy wine and depart from the presence of the Lord ' ; the V. has digere paulisper vini quo mades, 'get rid quickly of the wine in which thou art steeped/ V. 15. I HAVE DRUNK NEITHER WINE NOR STRONG DRINK] Hebrew, VC-ydyin ve-shakar lo shathithi, 'wine and strong drink I have not drunk'; the Lxx., kai oinon kai methusma ou pepoka, ' and wine and strong drink I have not drunk ' ; the V., vinumque et omne quod inebriare potest non bibi t 'and wine and whatever is able to inebriate I have not drunk.' The Ts. read, 'new wine and old I have not drunk.' A devout Hebrew matron, sorrowful from want of offspring and the exultation of a rival wife, goes up to the tabernacle to pour out her soul before God. Eli, the high priest, observing that her lips moved, and that she was under deep excite- ment, suspects her of intoxication, a suspicion which he bluntly expresses, jealous no doubt for the honor of the holy place. She respectfully repudiates the charge, and with so much evident sincerity that Eli not only credits her statement, but bestows on her his pontifical benediction. It may be noted, 1. That the readiness with which Eli concludes as to Hannah's inebriation in- dicates a prevailing corruption of morals, which had taken this peculiar form, and had deeply infected even the female population. 2. That Hannah's disclaimer was associated with a conclusive proof of her inno- cence 'I have drunk neither wine nor strong drink.' Where this statement can be truly made, drunkenness, in all its degrees, is impossible. The importance of being able to declare this is not small, for the speaker is then sure (as otherwise he may not be) that he is entirely free from alcoholic excitement, which, if short of intoxication, is injurious to body and soul. 'I am not excited by drink,' is a conviction only attainable by abstinence, and not a little consoling under reproach. Hannah, be it noted, did not resort to intoxicating liquor to drive out or drown her sorrows a striking contrast to the supposed permission in Prov. xxxi. 6, 7. (See Note on that passage.) She sought comfort not in potations, but in prayer, 'I have poured out my soul unto the Lord,' and she received her reward. Would that all our women were like her ! 3. When Hannah desired not to be counted ' a daughter of Belial ' /. e. a daughter of wickedness or destruction she presented a vivid description of every female drunkard, who is so corrupted by drink as to lose all womanly virtue, and to be prepared for every shameful deed. Drunkenness in women is peculiarly odious and horrible, and when it becomes confirmed is well-nigh incurable, except by forcible deprivation of the raging liquor. In order to arrest the spread of this corrosive vice among the women of Christendom, should Christians esteem absti- nence from its physical cause too great a sacrifice to be volunteered ? CHAPTER I. VERSE 24. And when she had weaned him, she took him up with her, with three bullocks, and one ephah of flour, and a bottle of wine, and brought him unto the house of the LORD in Shiloh : and the child was young. I SAMUEL, XIV. 2. 8 1 AND A BOTTLE OF WINE] Hebrew, v%-nabel yayin, 'and a bottle of wine.' This was as an offering, together with the flour and the three bullocks (or as the Lxx. reads, ' one bullock of three years old '). The Lxx. retains the Hebrew word in kai nebel oinou, ' and a nebel of wine.' The V. has et amphora vini, ' and an amphora of wine.' The Roman amphora was a two-handled jar commonly holding seven English gallons, but the word is here used without any intention of defining the size of the Hebrew nebel. CHAPTER VIII. VERSE 14, 15. i 4 And he will take your fields, and your vineyards, and your olive- yards, even the best of them, and give them to his servants. 15 And he will take the tenth of your seed, and of your vineyards, and give to his officers, and to his servants. YOUR VINEYARDS] Hebrew, karmaikem, 'your vineyards.' CHAPTER X. VERSE 3. Then shalt thou go on forward from thence, and thou shalt come to the plain of Tabor, and there shall meet thee three men going up to God to Beth-el, one carrying three kids, and another carrying three loaves of bread, and another carrying a bottle of wine. A BOTTLE OF WINE] Hebrew, nabel yayin. The Lxx. gives askon oinou, ' skin- bag of wine ' ; the V., lagenam vini, ' flagon of wine.' CHAPTER XIV. VERSE 2. And Saul tarried in the uttermost part of Gibeah under a pome- granate tree which is in Migron : and the people that were with him were about six hundred men. A POMEGRANATE TREE] Hebrew, Rimmon. The Lxx. has hupo teen rhoan t 'under the pomegranate'; the V., sub malogranato, 'under the malegranate.* But by Rimmon in this passage is probably meant a fortified place which had de- rived its name from the growth of the pomegranate. Concerning this tree the 'Treasury Bible' observes, "It is, according to the Linnaean system, a genus of the Icosandria Monogynia class of plants, and is a low tree growing very commonly in Palestine and other parts of the East. It has several small angular boughs, very thick and bushy, covered with a reddish bark, and some of them armed with sharp thorns. Its blossoms are large, of an elegant red color inclining to purple, com- posed of several stalks resembling a rose, in the hollow of the cup ; this cup is oblong, hard, purple, having a figure somewhat like that of a bell. It is chiefly valued for its fruit, which is exceedingly beautiful, of the form and size of a large apple, with a reddish rind, and red within ; being full of small kernels, with red grains, replenished with a generous liquor, of which, Sir John Chardin informs us they still make considerable quantities of wine in the East, particularly in Persia." [See Note on Song of Sol. viii. 2.] 11 82 I SAMUEL, XXV. II, 1 8, 36 38. CHAPTER XVI. VERSE 20. And Jesse took an ass laden with bread, and a bottle of wine, and a kid, and sent them by David his son unto Saul. AND A BOTTLE OF WINE] Hebrew, ve-nod yayin, 'and a bottle of wine.' CHAPTER XXII. VERSE 7. Then Saul said unto his servants that stood about him, Hear now, ye Benjamites ; will the son of Jesse give every one of you fields and vineyards, and make you all captains of thousands, and captains of hundreds ? AND VINEYARDS] Hebrew, u-krahmin, 'and vineyards.' CHAPTER XXV. VERSES n, 18, 36 38. ii Shall I then take my bread, and my water, und my flesh that I have killed for my shearers, and give it unto men, whom I know not whence they be? . . . 18 Then Abigail made haste, and took two hundred loaves, and two bottles of wine, and five sheep ready dressed, and five measures of parched corn, and an hundred clusters of raisins, and two hundred cakes of figs, and laid them on asses. . . . 3 6 And Abi- gail came to Nabal ; and, behold, he held a feast in his house, like the feast of a king ; and Nabal's heart was merry within him, for he was very drunken : wherefore she told him nothing, less or more, until the morning light. 37 But it came to pass in the morning, when the wine was gone out of Nabal, and his wife had told him these things, that his heart died within him, and he became as a stone. 3 sAnd it came to pass about ten days after, that the LORD smote Nabal, so that he died. V. ii. AND MY WATER] Hebrew, ve-eth-mamai, 'and my waters' a Hebrew idiom which the V. preserves, et aquas meas. The Lxx. singularly reads, kai ton oinon mou, 'and my wine.' Did the Lxx. translators think that Nabal, being a sot, ironically or figuratively spoke of wine as ' my water ' ? Aquila gives amphoreis, 'jars.' The T. of Jonathan and the Arabic have ' my drink.' V. 1 8. Two BOTTLES OF WINE] Hebrew, ushnaim nivlai yayin. The Lxx. has duo angeia oinou, 'two vases (or vessels) of wine'; the V., duos utres vim, * two leathern bags of wine.' A HUNDRED CLUSTERS OF' RAISINS] Hebrew, umaah tzimmuqim, ' and a hun- dred raisin-clusters' from tzahmaq, 'to dry up.' The Lxx. reads, kai gomor hen staphidon, ' and one homer of raisins ' ; but other copies have kai hekaton endes- mous, ' and a hundred bunches. ' The V. gives et centum ligaturas uvce passes, * and a hundred bunches of dried grapes.' V. 36. A FEAST] Hebrew, mishteh; the Lxx. potos ; the V., convivium. His HEART WAS MERRY] The Hebrew has the idiomatic ' his heart was good to him.' The Lxx. is literal, agathee, 'good'; the V., jocundum, 'jocund' 'or gay.' I SAMUEL, XXX. II, 12. 83 FDR HI: WAS VERY DRUNKEN] The Hebrew is shikkor ad rntod, 'drunken (or drenched) with force ' /. e. excessively ; the Lxx., kai autos met/man heos sphodra, 'and he was being drunk, even exceedingly'; the V., erat enim ebrius nimis, 'for he \v.i> drunk very much.' V. 37. WHEN THE WINE WAS GONE OUT OF NABAL] Hebrew, tftzath hay- yayin min Nabal, 'in the going out of the wine from Nabal ' ; Lxx., hos txeneepsen apo ton oinon Nabal, ' when Nabal had become sober from the wine.' The phrase here employed for 'becoming sober' is remarkable; it lite- rally signifies ' becoming as an abstainer' as those are who drink not. The word was often used by the Apostles in after times. [See Notes on the New Testa- ment. ] The V. has here cum digessisset i-inum Nabal, ' when Najaal had digested the wine.' The phrase ' going out ' is singularly accurate, for though perhaps merely intended to describe the subsidence of the intoxication produced by the wine, it exactly accords with the most recent discoveries of science, that intoxication passes off because the alcoholic spirit does go out of the body being expelled from it by all the excretory organs as an intruder into and disturber of the living house which God has ' fearfully and wonderfully made.' Nabal may have been prone to folly by his natural temperament and disposition, but his habits of life made the folly chronic and incurable. Free drinking had not disposed him to generosity or justice, and in the morning, after a debauch, having learnt the danger he had incurred, his nervous system was too enfeebled to recover from the shock it received, and so in ten days he died. CHAPTER XXVI. VERSE n. The LORD forbid that I should stretch forth mine hand against the LORD'S anointed : but, I pray thee, take thou now the spear that is at his bolster, and the cruse of water, and let us go. AND THE CRUSE OF WATER] Hebrew, vt-eth-tzappakhath ham-maim, 'and the cruse of the waters ' =- the water-skin. The Lxx. has ton phakon tou hudatos, ' the lentil-shaped vase of water.' Aquila has angos, 'a vase'; Symmachus, nuk- iopotion, ' a night-drinking vessel' ; the V., scypJnim aqua, 'a goblet of water.' The king of Israel did not disdain to carry with him a water-vessel on this expedition, and the statement (ver. 12) that David took it from Saul's bolster, proves the value attached to it by the royal traveler. CHAPTER XXX. VERSES n, 12. \nd they found an Egyptian in the field, and brought him to David, and gave him bread, and he did eat; and they made him drink water; 12 And they gave him a piece of a cake of figs, and two clusters of raisins : and when he had eaten, his spirit came again to him : for he had eaten no bread, nor drunk any water, three days and three nights. V. 12. AND TWO CLUSTERS OF RAISINS] Hebrew, ushnai tzimmnqim, 'and two raisin clusters.' Codex B of the Lxx. omits this clause, but Codex A has kai 84 I SAMUEL, XXX. 16. diakosious s-taphidas, ' and two hundred raisins.' Aquila gives kai duo staphidas, and two raisins'; Symmachus, endesmous staphidon, 'bunches of raisins'; the V., et duas ligaturas uva passes, 'and two bunches of dried grapes.' As David's men gave the fainting Egyptian water only, most probably they were themselves provided with no other drink ; and upon it, with bread and fruit, he was soon 'refreshed,' though for a period of almost seventy hours he had been deprived of every kind of sustenance. If inebriating liquors were unknown, many emergencies in which they are deemed essential for safety would be surmounted successfully, nay, more easily without them. CHAPTER XXX. VERSE 16. And when he had brought him down, behold, they were spread abroad upon all the earth, eating, and drinking, and dancing, because of all the great spoil that they had taken out of the land of the Phi- listines, and out of the land of Judah. EATING, AND DRINKING, AND DANCING] Hebrew, oklint, veshothim, vlkhoggim. The Lxx. has eslhiontes, kai pinontes, kai heortazontes, ' eating, drinking, and fes- tival-keeping '; the V.; comedentes, et bibentes, el quasi festum celebrantus diem, * eating and drinking, and celebrating as it were a feast day. ' These Amalekites were caught much in the same predicament as the troops of the confederate kings when overtaken by Abraham. History has often repeated itself in the surprise and rout of intemperate marauders. THE SECOND BOOK OF SAMUEL. CHAPTER VI. VERSE 19. And he dealt among all the people, even among the whole multi- tude of Israel, as well to the women as men, to every one a cake of bread, and a good piece of flesh, and a flagon of wine. So all the people departed every one to his house. A FLAGON- OF WINE] Hebrew, ashishah, 'a raisin-cake.' The Lxx. has laga- non apo teeganou, ' a cake-cooked-with-oil from the frying-pan ' = a pancake or fricassee. The rendering of the V. is similam frixam oleo, ' and fine flour fried in oil,' this similam being, perhaps, related to simnellus whence the English ' sinnel,' a sweet cake. The T. of Jonathan gives ' one portion ' (manthah khadah). The Syriac has a 'cake.' The English translators, seemingly puzzled with this word, rendered it 'flagon,' a vessel for liquids, but thinking that a dry flagon would be of little use, added in italics, 'of wine.' [On ASHISHAH see Prel. Dis.] Gesenius, who derives ashish from an unused root signifying 'to press together,' describes ashishim (the plural) as "//&z, cakes, specially suph as were made of grapes, and dried and pressed into a certain form. They are mentioned as dainties, with which those who were wearied with a journey and languid were refreshed. This word differs from tzimmuq, i. e. dried grapes, but not pressed to- gether into a cake. " Elsewhere he speaks of ashish as ' a cake of driedyf^V though in distinguishing it in another place from debatim, cakes of dried figs, he refers to the Mishna as explaining it to be 'cakes made of boiled len tiles.' [See Notes on the parallel passage, I Chron. xvi. 3; and on Song of Sol. ii. 5, and Hos. iii. i.] CHAPTER XI. VERSE 13. And when David had called him, he did eat and drink before him ; and he made him drunk : and at even he went out to lie on his bed with the servants of his lord, but went not down to his house. AND HE MADE HIM DRUNK] Hebrew, vayshakr&hu, 'and he made him drunk' (or satiated with shakar). The Lxx. reads, kai emcthusen an ton ; the V., ft inebriavit turn, 'and he inebriated him.' No transaction of David's life reflects upon him so much disgrace as the one portrayed in this narrative. When he sent for Uriah, in order to conceal the 86 2 SAMUEL, XVI. I, 2. effect of his sinful intercourse with Bathsheba, he employed the drink that was a, mocker to overcome the scruples of his valiant servant. Uriah yielded to the liquor with which he was plied, but failing to do as the king desired, his death was resolved upon, and brought about with great baseness. It is instructive to notice what instrument was employed by the guilty monarch to excite merely animal con- cupiscence in the hardy soldier ; nor is it irrelevant to suggest that ' the lust which conceived and brought forth sin ' in the sweet singer of Israel may have been stimulated by the same distempering draught. CHAPTER XIII. VERSE 28. Now Absalom had commanded his servants, saying, Mark ye now when Amnon's heart is merry with wine, and when I say unto you, Smite Amnon ; then kill him, fear not : have not I commanded you ? be courageous, and be valiant. WHEN AMNON'S HEART is MERRY WITH WINE] Hebrew, k&ov la,v Amnon bay-yayin, 'when good (is) the heart of Amnon with (or by) wine.' The Lxx. gives idete hos an agathitnthee hee kardia Amnon en to oino, ' see when the heart of Amnon shall become good with wine.' The V. has observate cum temulcntus fuerit Amnon vino, 'mark when Amnon shall be intoxicated with wine.' Absalom chose for the exaction of his revenge the period when his brother, by means of the wine, was both thrown off his .guard and least able to defend himself. That Amnon should have been ' given to wine ' is a trait in his character con- sistent with the unbridled licentiousness that was bringing upon him his brother's vengeance. We can hardly suppose the connection of the vices to have been one of simple co-existence, though the silence of the history does not warrant a verj positive opinion on the point. CHAPTER XVI. VERSES i, 2. i And when David was a little past the top of the hill, behold, Zit>* the servant of Mephibosheth met him, with a couple of asses saddled, and upon them two hundred loaves of bread, and an hundred buncnes of raisins, and an hundred of summer fruits, and a bottle of wine. 2 And the king said unto Ziba, What meanest thou by these ? Ana Ziba said, The asses be for the king's household to ride on j an<: the bread and summer fruit for the young men to eat ; and the wine, that such as be faint in the wilderness may drink. V. I. AND A HUNDRED BUNCHES OF RAISINS] Hebrew, u-mdah tzimmuqim, 'and a hundred raisin-bunches.' The Lxx. has kai hekaton staphides, -and a hundred raisins'; the V., et centum alllgaturis uvtz passes, 'and with a nundred bunches of dried grapes.' The T. of Jonathan has 'a hundred stalks of grapes ' (with the grapes on). AND A BOTTLE OF WINE] Hebrew, vZ-nav%l yayin. The Lxx. gives kat ncbel oinou, ' and a nebel of wine ' ; the V., et utre vini, ' and (laden) with a skin-oag of wine.' V. 2. AND THE WINE] Hebrew, ve-hay-yayin, 'and the wine'; Lxx., oinos ; the V., vinum. 2 SAMUEL, XXIII. 15 I/. 87 The solid substances here enumerated were for food, the single bottle of yayin for any who might faint. The wine might or might not be alcoholic. Were intoxi- cating liquors now restricted to contingencies like the one described in this passage, their use, whether necessary or not, would be strictly medicinal, and society would be saved from the ravages of an endemic and ceaseless pest. CHAPTER XXIII. VERSES 15 17. 15 And David longed, and said, Oh that one would give me drink of the water of the well of Beth-lehem, which is by the gate ! 16 And the three mighty men brake through the host of the Philistines, and drew water out of the well of Beth-lehem, that was by the gate, and took .*/, and brought it to David : nevertheless he would not drink thereof, but poured it out unto the LORD. 17 And he said, Be it far from me, O LORD, that I should do this : is not this the blood of the men that went in jeopardy of their lives? therefore he would not drink it. These things did these three mighty men. It was natural that David should long for a draught of water from the well of Bethlehem a well dear to him, no doubt, from many early associations. Often when a shepherd youth had it slaked his thirst and that of the flock he tended, and now he sighs for a beaker of the cool clear beverage. Three of his noblest captains watch the woods, and hasten to realize their monarch's wish. They pierce through the Philistian lines, draw the water, and return. David's eye bespeaks his pleasure and his gratitude, but before the liquid treasure is at his lips he pours it out as a libation to the Lord, with words of dedication that must have solemnly impressed all who stood around him. The bright water, as he looked upon it, seemed to take a scarlet tinge when he thought of the lives that had been risked to fetch it, 'therefore he would not drink it.' It had been obtained by courage and affection inspired of God, and to Him it should be offered. David never was more magnanimous than at this moment. Truly was he now the * man after God's own heart,' and never dearer than at that time to his mighty men and faithful soldiers. This deed was a psalm, sublime in its significance, and for ever sweet to all loving hearts in its pure simplicity. Is the Christian world prepared to imitate as well as to admire this act of David ? He had before him that which was endeared to him by memory, useful in itself, and very desirable to him under the circumstances ; but he 'would not drink of it,' because life had been risked, not lost, in its pro- curement. Christians have before them drinks which can boast no such innocent reminiscences which are not necessary of little or no use nay, certainly of some injury habitually consumed which are not procurable without an enormous waste of food and much needless labor on the Lord's day drinks, the common sale and use of which floods the kingdom with every species of vice, misery, want, sickness, sin, and shame, slaying hecatombs year by year, till the number of victims baffles computation. Shall Christians drink such liquors? If they will, can they claim moral equality with the king of Israel ? and how do they vindicate their spiritual relationship with David's Son and Lord, who poured out His own blood for the ungodly ? To say the least, how must inferiority and inconsistency be confessed when, in spite of reiterated teaching and appeal, intoxicating beverages are per- sistently used by those who glory that they live under a dispensation greater, be- cause more spiritual, than that which branched forth in the laws of Moses and blossomed in the lyrics of the son of Jesse ! THE FIRST BOOK OF KINGS. CHAPTER IV. VERSE 20. Judah and Israel were many, as the sand which is by the sea in multitude, eating and drinking, and making merry. EATING AND DRINKING, AND MAKING MERRY] Hebrew, oklim vt-shothim usmakhim, 'eating and drinking, and rejoicing.' The confidence and peace inspired by Solomon's government allowed the agricultural wealth of the people to multiply, and with it their means of legitimate enjoyment. CHAPTER IV. VERSE 25. And Judah and Israel dwelt safely, every man under his vine and under his fig tree, from Dan even to Beer-sheba, all the days of Solomon. EVERY MAN UNDER HIS OWN VINE] Hebrew, isk takhath gaphno, 'a man under his vine.' This proverbial phrase, 'under his vine and fig tree,' though it cannot be understood to imply that every man, or even every head of a family, had a vine or fig tree as his own, is indicative of the extent to which both the vine and fig tree were cultivated in the Holy Land for purposes of food. These were to the Jewish peasant what his kitchen-garden or ' allotment ' is to the English laborer. CHAPTER XIII. VERSE 7, 8. 7 And the king said unto the man of God, Come home with me, and refresh thyself, and I will give thee a reward. 8 And the man of God said unto the king, If thou wilt give me half thine house, I will not go in with thee, neither will I eat bread nor drink water in this place. "To EAT BREAD AND DRINK WATER" appears to have been a colloquial phrase, doubtless originating in the universal conviction of their value as the prime necessaries of life. The worth of water is best known, because truly felt, in sultry climes. " Till taught by pain, Men know not what good water's worth." I KINGS, XX. 1 6. 89 CHAPTER XVI. VERSES 8, 9. 8 In the twenty and sixth year of Asa king of Judah began Elah the son of Baasha to reign over Israel in Tirzah, two years. 9 And his servant Zimri, captain of half his chariots, conspired against him, as he was in Tirzah, drinking himself drunk in the house of Arza, steward of his house in Tirzah. V. 9. DRINKING HIMSELF DRUNK] Hebrew, shotheh shikhor, 'drinking (and) being surcharged,' or shakarized. The Lxx. reads, peinon methuon, 'drinking, being drunk ' ; the V., bibens et temulentus, ' drinking and drunk.' CHAPTER XVII. VERSE 6. And the ravens brought him bread and flesh in the morning, and bread and flesh in the evening ; and he drank of the brook. The great prophet of Israel was supplied with food in his seclusion by the special providence of Israel's God, but for his daily drink he was indebted to the running stream, of which he partook gratefully, without envying ' the drunkards of Ephraim.' Bread and flesh were more than hermit's fare ; u-min han~nahkal yishteh, 'and from the brook he drank,' that which truly was to him what brandy has been falsely designated, 'the water of life.' Some eminent commentators believe that Elijah was a Nazarite, and it is exceedingly probable that this point of resemblance between him and the forerunner of Christ was not absent. > CHAPTER XIX. VERSE 6. And he looked, and, behold, there was a cake baken on the coals, and a cruse of water at his head. And he did eat and drink, and laid him down again. The prophet's ' bread and water ' were insured. Twice was the cake and the cruse ready to his hand when needed, and in the strength of what he had eaten and drunk (verse 8) ' he went forty days unto Horeb the mount of God.' CHAPTER XX. VERSE 16. And they went out at noon. But Ben-hadad was drinking himself drunk in the pavilions, he and the kings, the thirty and two kings that helped him. DRINKING HIMSELF DRUNK] Hebrew, shotheh shikkor. The Lxx. has pdnd methuon ; the V. bibebat temulentus. [See Note on xvi. 8, 9.] The Syriac has 'drank old wine.' It is said (ver. 12) that Benhadad was 'drinking' with his thirty-two confederate petty kings or chiefs, and the drinking bout continued till the whole of them were filled to the full. The liquor probably being in some degree intoxicating, he not only neglects the duties of a general, but gives a boastful and ridiculous command to take all the Israelites alive, whether they had sallied out for peace or war ; and hence the besieged and lately despairing soldiers of Ahab obtained an easy victory. 12 QO I KINGS, XXI. I. CHAPTER XXI. VERSE i. And it came to pass after these things, that Naboth the Jezreelite had a vineyard, which was in Jezreel, hard by the palace of Ahab king of Samaria. A VINEYARD] Hebrew, kerem, an enclosure of land cultivated and set with vines and other plants. Roberts says, " People in England will scarcely be able to appreciate the value which the Orientals place on a garden. The food of most of them consists of vegetables, roots, and fruits ; their medicines, also, being indigenous, are mostly produced in their gardens. Here they have their fine fruit- trees, and their constant shade; and here they have their wells and places for bathing." Kerem also occurs, and is translated 'vineyard,' in verses 2, 3, 6, 7, 15, 16, 18. THE SECOND BOOK OF KINGS. CHAPTER IV. VERSE 39. And one went out into the field to gather herbs, and found a wild vine, and gathered thereof wild gourds his lap full, and came and shred them into the pot of pottage : for they knew them not. A WILD VINE] Hebrew, gephen sahdeh, 'a vine of the field.' The Lxx. has ampelon en to agro, 'a vine in the field.' The V. reads, vitem sylvestrem, 'a vine growing-in-the- woods.' Probably this was a plant resembling a vine, but entirely different in nature. WILD GOURDS] Hebrew, paqquoth sahdch, 'wild cucumbers, citcumeres asi- /'/,' says Gesenius. The Lxx. has tolttfcen agrian, 'wild gourds'; the V., coloc vn th ides. The fruit of the colocynth is of an attractive appearance, but the taste is nauseous, and the effect very hurtful. Others suggest ' fox-grapes.' 1. The paqquoth^ plucked from the 'wild vine,' were put into the pot in ignorance of their nature. Many foolish things are done through ignorance, but as believing ignorance does not alter the quality, neither will it avert the physical consequences, of noxious things. 2. The bitter taste of this pottage excited suspicion, and induced those who had tasted to cry, ' Death is in the pot.' The taste of many poisons, but not of all, is unpleasant. Anhydrous alcohol (alcohol so highly rectified as to be almost free from water) is so acrid and pungent as not to be drinkable ; and articles of any perceptible alcoholic strength are disagreeable to the unvitiated palate. Intoxicating liquors, however, are often so elaborated as to be suggestive of no danger even while exceedingly injurious. An eminent writer says of some highly prized French wines, 'They fall like snow on the palate, but burn like fire in the veins.' When the sentinels of nature are deceived the danger is all the greater. Happy would it be if, warned by the voice of science and the facts of every-day life, our country- men would exclaim, ' There is death in the pot of strong drink ' ; and happier still will be the day when it can be added, ' And they would not drink thereof.' CHAPTER V. VERSE 26. And he said unto him, Went not mine heart with thee, when the man turned again from his chariot to meet thee ? Is it a time to receive money, and to receive garments, and oliveyards, and vine- yards, and sheep, and oxen, and menservants, and maidservants ? AND VINEYARDS] Hebrew, utfrahmim, 'vineyards.' 92 2 KINGS, XVIII. 4, 31. CHAPTER XVI. VERSE 13. And he burnt his burnt offering and his meat offering, and poured his drink offering, and sprinkled the blood of his peace offerings, upon the altar. AND POURED HIS DRINK OFFERING] Hebrew, vay-yasak eth-nisko, 'and he poured his pouring' (libation). So verse 15, ' their drink offerings ' is in the Hebrew niskaihim, ' their libations.' CHAPTER XVIII. VERSE 4. He removed the high places, and brake the images, and cut down the groves, and brake in pieces the brazen serpent that Moses had made : for unto those days the children of Israel did burn incense to it : and he called it Nehushtan. Hezekiah removed the external associations and incentives to idolatry, leaving the spirit of idolatry to be acted upon by the force of tuition and example. He broke in pieces even the brazen serpent, so memorable in the history of the Jews, because it had been made an object of worship. Hence we perceive, I, that even things intrinsically harmless should be abandoned when this is necessary to a work of moral reformation ; 2, that such an abandonment will always be attended with the blessing of God ; 3, that the common objection to abstinence from intoxicating liquors that the abuse of a thing is no reason against its use can only be sustained when it is shown (i) that their use is more useful than their abuse is hurtful ; and (2) that the use can be disconnected from the abuse. If not if the abuse be a thousandfold more hurtful than the use is beneficial, and if no means of separating the social use from the social abuse have been discovered, if, indeed (as is the case with alcohol), use is physiological abuse in itself, and tends to engender abuses of the gravest character, then wisdom has but one counsel to give, and prudence and philanthropy have but one practice to pursue. CHAPTER XVIII. VERSE 31. Hearken not to Hezekiah : for thus saith the king of Assyria, Make an agreement with me by a present, and come out to me, and then eat ye every man of his own vine, and every one of his fig tree, and drink ye every one the waters of his cistern. AND EAT YE EVERY MAN OF His OWN VINE] Hebrew, ve-iklu ishgaphno, 'and cat ye (each) man his vine,'=z. e. the produce of the vine. The Lxx. has pietai aneer teen ampelon autou, '(each) man shall drink his vine' ; the V., et comedet unusquisque de vinea sua, 'and every one shall consume of his own vineyard.' THE WATER OF HIS OWN CISTERN] Hebrew, mai voro, 'waters of his cistern* or 'pit.' Cisterns are sometimes cut out of stone. The speaker, Rabshakeh (whose name signifies 'chief cup-bearer,' perhaps given to him on account of his office), appeals to the apparent and materialistic interests of the people ; and when he represents his master, the king of Assyria, as 2 KINGS, XVIII. 32. 93 permitting the Jews, if they paid him tribute, to eat of their vines, we may be sure that he adapted his appeal to their recognized mode of life. It is, in truth, a fact now, as it was in the time of Hezekiah (B.C. 712), that the fruit of the vine is much more used and valued as an article of diet than for the manufacture of wine of any sort. The Rev. Smylie Robson, a missionary to the Jews in Syria, says in a letter from Damascus, February, 1845 (published in the Irish Presbyterian Missionary Herald of April and May, 1845), "It is well known that many parts of the mountains of Lebanon are among the most thickly peopled and best cultivated districts of the land. This is the part of the country in which I have traveled most. The food of the inhabitants consists principally of fruit, milk, vegetables, bread made of the flour of wheat and Indian corn. Wheat is everywhere cultivated, and the bread made of it constitutes a large portion of the food of all classes. The most important kinds of fruit are olives and grapes. Olives are eaten either raw or dressed in various ways ; but they are chiefly valuable for the oil extracted from them. At some seasons of the year a great part of the food of the people consists of vegetables cooked in this oil, eaten sometimes with and sometimes without bread. This oil is almost the only substance burnt for light. Olive trees are abundantly cultivated throughout the whole country. The fruit of the vine is the only other kind which can be said to form 'a substantial part of the food of the people.' Grapes come into season in August, and continue in season about four months. During this period they are used constantly, not as an agreeable dessert to stimulate and gratify the appetite after it has been satisfied by a substantial meal, but as a substantial part of the meal itself; so much so, that from August to December, bread and grapes are substantially the food of the people. Very thin cakes of bread made of flour, or of barley meal and flour mixed, and eaten with plenty of grapes, form the meals of the inhabitants of Lebanon morning, noon, and night. 1 may add that it is perfectly safe to eat grapes constantly to satiety. Here, too, as in Europe, grapes are dried in large quantities, to preserve them as raisins ; and in this form they supply an article of food to be used after the grape season. By pickling and beating a substance called dibs is made out of the grapes. It is puri- fied by means of lime, and is about the consistence of honey, and resembles it in appearance. Bread and dibs is a very common meal in winter and spring. There are two kinds, one made from grapes, and the other from raisins. During the greater part of the grape season the regular price of the most plentiful kind, purple grapes, was about one farthing per pound, or fourpence per stone of fourteen pounds. This is the kind that I liked best to eat. Another very plentiful kind, the green grape, cost about sixpence per stone. A kind of very large red grapes sold still higher, but they were not common. To a dense population, in a dry and warm climate, the fruit of the vine must have been invaluable." CHAPTER XVIII. VERSE 32. Until I come and take you away to a land like your own land, a land of corn and wine, a land of bread and vineyards, a land of oil olive and of honey, that ye may live, and not die : and hearken not unto Hezekiah, when he persuaded you, saying, The LORD will deliver us. A LAND OF CORN AND WINE] Hebrew, eretz dahgan v2-tirosh t ' a land of corn and vine-fruit.' The Lxx. reads, gee sitou kai oinou, 'aland of corn and wine'; the V., terram fructiftram et ftrtilem vini, 'a fruitful land and prolific of wine.' 94 2 KINGS, XIX. 23, 24. The Arabic reads vineyards. The preceding extract from Mr Robson shows how literally accurate is the classification of 'corn, vine-fruit, and orchard-fruit,' for the triad of natural productions. A LAND OF BREAD AND VINEYARDS] Hebrew, trctz lekhem ukrahmim, a land of bread (or bread-corn = wheat) and of vineyards.' For this use of lekhem see Isa. xxviii. 28. A LAND OF OIL OLIVE AND OF HONEY] Hebrew, eretz zaith yitzhar ucfvash, 'a land of the olive tree (or olive fruit), of orchard fruit, and of honey.' Had Rab- shakeh meant to allude to olive oil he would not have used this construction, but shemen zaith, 'the oil of the olive.' [See Exod. xxvii. 20; Lev. xxiv. 2.] Zaith yitzhar seems designed to indicate that the olive was of or belonging to the class of orchard fruits which formed so large a portion of the agricultural wealth, and it may have been specially named as the most distinguished member of the class and proper representative of it. Another admissible interpretation would be to take yitzkar'm the sense of brightness or splendor (from tzahar, to shine), and read * the olive of brightness (or splendor) '= the splendid or superlative olive. [As to devash, see Note on Gen. xliii. n.] CHAPTER XIX. VERSE 23. By thy messengers thou hast reproached the Lord, and hast said, With the multitude of my chariots I am come up to the height of the mountains, to the sides of Lebanon, and will cut down the tall cedar trees thereof, and the choice fir trees thereof: and I will enter into the lodgings of his borders, and into the forest of his Carmel. THE FOREST OF HIS CARMEL] Hebrew, ydar Karmillo, 'the forest of his garden, ' = its forest like a garden. So Gesenius, 'the nursery of trees in the recesses of Lebanon.' Karmel v?, from kerem, with the addition of el, which gives it a diminutive force, as Gesenius thinks ; but certainly also an intensive force, as in English ' darling '= little dear = very dear. Hence, as kerem signified generic- ally a cultivated or fruitful place, and specifically a vineyard, karmel came to denote also a spot peculiarly fruitful. Geres karmel ( grits of the garden) is used in Lev. ii. 14 to signify grits made from the early grain grown in the gardens. In Lev. xxiii. 14, and 2 Kings iv. 42 karmel occurs elliptically for the complete phrase. As a proper name, Karmel is given to the fruitful mountainous promontory overlooking the Mediterranean Sea, and also to a mountain and town in the south of Judea, referred to I Sam. xv. 12; xxv. 5. CHAPTER XIX. VERSE 24. I have digged and drunk strange waters, and with the sole of my feet have I dried up all the rivers of beseiged places. I HAVE DIGGED AND DRUNK STRANGE WATERS] Hebrew, ani qarti ve-shah thithi maim zahrim, 'I have digged and drunk foreign waters,' a boast of Sen- nacherib that his incursions and conquests were far extended ; but some think that he alludes to the plan, often adopted, of diverting waters intended for the protec- 2 KINGS, XXV. 12. 95 tion of towns into channels dug for their reception. Others explain the words of deep (artesian) wells, dug by his army, whence he took water never found before. The only beverage which his troops required was water. It was on such a drink that the Saracens, in later ages, swept over the East and penetrated Spain ; and so well known was this habit of theirs, that when one body of imperial troops com- plained that they were beaten because they were not allowed wine, their commander caustically asked, " How comes it, then, that your conquerors drink nothing but water?" CHAPTER XIX. VERSE 29. And this shall be a sign unto thee, Ye shall eat this year such things as grow of themselves, and in the second year that which springeth of the same ; and in the third year sow ye, and reap, and plant vineyards, and eat the fruits thereof. AND PLANT VINEYARDS, AND EAT THE FRUITS THEREOF] Hebrew, vl-nitu Vrahmim vZ-iklu pkiram, 'and plant vineyards and eat their fruit.' [See Note on xviii. 31.] CHAPTER XXIII. VERSE 9. Nevertheless the priests of the high places came not up to the altar of the LORD in Jerusalem, but they did eat of the unleavened bread among their brethren. UNLEAVENED BREAD] Hebrew, matzoth, ' unfermented cakes. CHAPTER XXV. VERSE 12. But the captain of the guard left of the poor of the land to be vine- dressers and husbandmen. VINEDRESSERS] Hebrew, ft-kormim t * as vinedressers,' from koram t 'a vineyard- man.' THE FIRST BOOK OF CHRONICLES. CHAPTER IX. VERSE 29. Some of them also were appointed to oversee the vessels, and all the instruments of the sanctuary, and the fine flour, and the wine, and the oil, and the frankincense, and the spices. AND THE WINE] Hebrew, ve-hay-yayin, 'and the wine.' The Lxx. has kai tou oinou, ' and of the wine ' ; the V., et vino, ' and with the wine.* AND THE OIL] Hebrew, v%-hash-sh%m%n. Here yayin and shemen are conjoined as liquids, as tirosh and yitzhar, in numerous passages, are conjoined as solids. CHAPTER XII. VERSE 40. Moreover they that were nigh them, even unto Issachar and Zebu- lun and Naphtali, brought bread on asses, and on camels, and on mules, and on oxen, and meat, meal, cakes of figs, and bunches of raisins, and wine, and oil, and oxen, and sheep abundantly : for there was joy in Israel. AND BUNCHES OF RAISINS] Hebrew, vZ-tzimmuqim, ' and raisin-clusters. ' The Lxx. has staphidas, * raisins'; the V., uvam passam, 'dried grapes.' AND WINE AND OIL] Hebrew, ve-yayin ve-sh$men. The Lxx. has oinon elaion, 'wine, olive-oil'; the V., vinum, oleum, 'wine, oil.' [See Note on ix. 29.] CHAPTER XVI. VERSE 3. And he dealt to every one of Israel, both man and woman, to every one a loaf of bread, and a good piece of flesh, and a flagon of wine. AND A FLAGON OF WINE] Hebrew, va-ashishah, 'and a raisin-cake.' The Lxx. reads, kai amoriteen, 'and a cake ' ; the V., etfrixam oleo similam, 'and fine flour fried in oil.' [See Note on parallel passage, 2 Sam. vi. 19.] CHAPTER XXIII. VERSE 29. Both for the shewbread, and for the fine flour for meat-offering, and for the unleavened cakes, and for that which is baked in the pan, and for that which is fried, and for all manner of measure and size. I CHRONICLES, XXIX. 21. 97 AND FOR THE UNLEAVENED CAKES] Hebrew, ham-matzoth, ' the unfermented cakes.' CHAPTER XXVII. VERSE 27. And over the vineyards was Shimei the Ramathite: over the increase of the vineyards for the wine cellars was Zabdi the Shiphmite. AND OVER THE VINEYARDS] Hebrew, vt al-hak-k'rahmim, 'and over the vine- yards.' The Lxx. has kai epi ton choridn, 'and over the fields.' Another reading is kai epi ton ampelonon, and over the vineyards.' The V. is vincarumque nilloribus, 'and over the cultivators of the vines.' OVER THE INCREASE OF THE VINEYARDS FOR THE WINE CELLARS] Hebrew, t/2 al sheba.]? rahmim It-otzroth hay-yayin, 'and over the increase of the vineyards for the stores of the wine.' The Lxx. has epi ton theesauron ton en tois choriois tou oinou, 'over the treasures of wine in the fields'; the V., cellis vinariis, 'over the wine-cellars.' CHAPTER XXIX. VERSE 21. And they sacrificed sacrifices unto the LORD, and offered burrit- offerings unto the LORD, on the morrow after that day, even a thou- sand bullocks, a thousand rams, and a thousand lambs, with their drink-offerings, and sacrifices in abundance for all Israel. WITH THEIR DRINK-OFFERINGS] Hebrew, vt-naiskihtn^ 'and their libations.' So both Lxx. and V. 19 THE SECOND BOOK OF CHRONICLES. CHAPTER II. VERSE 10. And, behold, I will give to thy servants, the hewers that cut timber, twenty Jhousand measures of beaten wheat, and twenty thousand measures of barley, and twenty thousand baths of wine, and twenty thousand baths of oil. AND TWENTY THOUSAND BATHS OF WINE] Hebrew, ve-yayin batim Isrim 'and wine, baths, thousands twenty.' The bath* as a fluid measure, corresponded with the ephah as a dry measure, and was equal to seven gallons four pints Eng- lish. The Lxx. has oinott, the V. vini, * of wine.' CHAPTER II. VERSE 15. Now therefore the wheat and the barley, the oil, and the wine, which my lord hath spoken of, let him send unto his servants. AND THE WINE] Hebrew, hay-yayin, 'the wine.' The LAA. reads ton oinon ; the V., vinum. CHAPTER VIII. VERSE 13. Even after a certain rate every day, offering according to the com- mandment of Moses, on the sabbaths, and on the new moons, and on the solemn feasts, three times in the year, even in the feast of unleavened bread, and in the feast of weeks, and in the feast of tabernacles. IN THE FEAST OF UNLEAVENED BREAD] Hebrew, bl-khag hant-matzoth, 'in the festival of unleavened cakes.' CHAPTER XI. VERSE n. And he fortified the strongholds, and put captains in them, and store of victual, and of oil and wine. AND OF OIL AND WINE] Hebrew, vt-shlntin vt-yayin, 'and of oil and wine.' The Lxx. has kai elaioit kai oinou ; the V., et olei et vini. 2 CHRONICLES, XXX. 13. 99 CHAPTER XIX. VERSES 2, 3. a And Jehu the son of Hanani the seer went out to meet him, and said to king Jehoshaphat, Shouldst thou help the ungodly, and love them that hate the LORD ? therefore is wrath upon thee from before the LORD. 3 Nevertheless there are good things found in thee. A principle of the broadest kind is here enunciated, which should be applied to the practical life of professed Christians. The vice of Jehoshaphat was that of moral weakness, his virtue that of ready repentance under the perception of truth. A great brewer has truly said that the contest between church and school on the one hand, and that of the beer-shop and gin-palace on the other, is bat one development of the war continually waged between heaven and hell. It surely would be wise in all persons of influence especially ministers, magistrates, and members of Parliament to put to themselves this question of Jehu the seer, "Shouldest thou help the ungodly, and love them that hate the Lord?" Were they honestly to do this, should we ever behold the moral anomaly of men in authority presiding over the feasts of publicans, and giving toasts in honor of a deadly and demoralizing trade ? CHAPTER XXVI. VERSE 10. Also he built towers in the desert, and digged many wells : for he had much cattle, both in the low country, and in the plains : husband- men a/se, and vinedressers in the mountains, and in Carmel : for he loved husbandry. AND VINEDRESSERS IN THE MOUNTAINS, AND IN CARMEL] Hebrew, vt-kormim behahrim nvak-karmel, 'and vinedressers in the mountains and in the fruitful place.' Margin of A. V., 'fruitful field.' [See Note on 2 Kings xix. 23.] CHAPTER XXIX. VERSE 35. And also the burnt offerings were in abundance, with the fat of the peace-offerings, and of the drink-offerings for every burnt-offering. So the service of the house of the LORD was set in order. AND OF THE DRINK-OFFERINGS] Hebrew, uvan-nesakim, 'and with the liba- tions.' The Lxx. has tdn sptindon, 'of the outpourings'; the V., ttbamina, 'libations.' CHAPTER XXX. VERSE 13. And there assembled at Jerusalem much people to keep the feast of unleavened bread in the second month, a very great congregation. THE FEAST OF UNLEAVENED BREAD] Hebrew, eth-khag ham-matzoth, 'the festival of unfermented cakes.' IOO 2 CHRONICLES, XXXII. 28. CHAPTER XXX. VERSE 21. And the children of Israel that were present at Jerusalem kept the feast of unleavened bread seven days with great gladness : and the Levites and the priests praised the LORD day by day, singing with loud instruments unto the LORD. THE FEAST OF UNLEAVENED BREAD] Hebrew, eth-khag ham-matzoth, 'the festival of unfermented cakes/ CHAPTER XXXI. VERSE 5. And as soon as the commandment came abroad, the children of Israel brought in abundance the firstfruits of corn, wine, and oil, and honey, and of all the increase of the field ; and the tithe of all things brought they in abundantly. THE FIRSTFRUITS OF CORN, WINE, AND OIL, AND HONEY] Hebrew, rashith, dahgan, tirosh, ve-yitzhar, u-d'vash, ' the firsts of corn, vine-fruit, olive-and-orchard fruit, and honey.' The margin of the A. V. gives ' dates ' as the alternative reading for 'honey,' as it is not probable that the fruit of the palm tree was exempt from this tithing. The Lxx. has aparcheen sitou, kai oinou, kai elaiou, kai mellitos, 'the first of corn, and wine, and oil, and honey.' The V. has primitias frumenti, etvini, et olei, et mellis, 'the firsts of corn, and of wine, and of oil, and of honey.' CHAPTER XXXII. VERSE 28. Storehouses also for the increase of corn, and wine, and oil ; and stalls for all manner of beasts, and cotes for flocks. OF CORN, AND WINE, AND OIL] Hebrew, dahgan, ve-tirosh, ve-yitzhar, ' (the increase of) corn, and vine-fruit, and olive-and-orchard fruik' The Lxx. has sitou, oinou, kai elaiou; the V., frumenti, vini, et olei, 'of corn, of wine, and of oil.' THE BOOK OF EZRA. CHAPTER III. VERSE 7. They gave money also unto the masons, and to the carpenters; and meat, and drink, and oil, unto them of Zidon, and to them of Tyre, to bring cedar trees from Lebanon to the sea of Joppa, accord- ing to the grant that they had of Cyrus king of Persia. AND MEAT, AND DRINK, AND OIL] Hebrew, u-maakal, u-mishtek t 'and food, and drink, and oil.' The kind of mishteh is not stated. The Lxx., kai brvmalai kai pota, kai elaion, ' and meats, and drinks, and oil ' ; the V., cibum, ttpotum, et oleum, ' victuals, and drink, and oil. ' CHAPTER VI. VERSE 9. And that which they have need of, both young bullocks, and rams, and lambs, for the burnt offerings of the God of heaven, wheat, salt, wine, and oil, according to the appointment of the priests which are at Jerusalem, let it be given them day by day without fail. WINE AND OIL] This verse being part of a decree written in Chaldee, the original is khamar ' foaming juice,' corresponding to the Hebrew kh%m%r in Deut. xxxii. 14 u-ntfshakh t 'oil.' The Lxx. has oinon kai elaion ; the V., vinum et oleum. CHAPTER VI. VERSE 22. And kept the feast of unleavened bread seven days with joy : for the LORD had made them joyful, and turned the heart of the king of Assyria unto them, to strengthen their hands in the work of the house of God, the God of Israel. THE FEAST OF UNLEAVENED BREAD] Hebrew, khag matzoth, 'festival of unfer- mented-cakes.' CHAPTER VII. VERSE 17. That thou mayest buy speedily with this money bullocks, rams, lambs, with their meat-offerings and their drink-offerings, and offer them upon the altar of the house of your God which is in Jerusalem. AND THEIR DRINK-OFFERINGS] Hebrew, v2-niskaihon, 'and their libations.' 102 EZRA, X. 6. CHAPTER VII. VERSE 22. Unto an hundred talents of silver, and to an hundred measures of wheat, and to an hundred baths of wine, and to an hundred baths of oil, and salt without prescribing how much. AND TO AN HUNDRED BATHS OF WINE] Chaldee, vl-ad khamar batin mtah t 'and to wine, baths a hundred.' The Lxx. gives kai heds oinou baton hekaton t 'and even to a hundred measures of wine'; the V., et usque ad vini batos centum, 'and even to a hundred baths of wine.' [See Note on 2 Chron. ii. 10.] WITHOUT PRESCRIBING HOW MUCH] Properly, without measure or stint according to pleasure or convenience. CHAPTER X. VERSE 6. Then Ezra rose up from before the house of God, and went into the chamber of Johanan the son of Eliashib : and when he came thither, he did eat no bread, nor drink water : for he mourned because of the transgression of them that had been carried away. NOR DRINK WATER] Hebrew, it-maim lo shahthah, 'and water he drank not.' To abstain willingly from bread and water was Ezra's manner of expressing grief; to be confined to bread and water would be to many persons one of the greatest miseries of life. To control the appetite, not to pamper it, is the surest means of promoting both health and rational enjoyment. Temperance, in fact, is never reached until self-denial begins. THE BOOK OF NEHEMIAH. CHAPTER I. VERSE n. O Lord, I beseech thee, let now thine ear be attentive to the prayer of thy servant, and to the prayer of thy servants, who desire to fear thy name : and prosper, I pray thee, thy servant this day, and grant him mercy in the sight of this man. For I was the king's cup- bearer. FOR I WAS THE KING'S CUPBEARER] Hebrew, va-ani hah-yithi mashqZh lam- mWi, 'and I was cup-bearer to the king.' Mashqeh, the participle of shah-qah to drink,' signifies, beinj in the Hiphil conjugation, 'one who gives drink to another '= a cup-bearer. The Lxx. has oinochoos, 'wine pourer'; the V., pinccrna, ' a cup-bearer.' Mashqeh is also translated 'butler' by the A. V. [Sec Note on Gen. xl. 9. ] CHAPTER II. VERSE i. And it came to pass in the month Nisan, in the twentieth year of Artaxerxes the king, that wine was before him : and I took up the wine, and gave it unto the king. Now I had not been beforetimc sad in his presence. WINE WAS BEFORE HIM] Hebrew, yayin te-phaknahv, 'wine (was) before his face.' The Lxx. gives kai ten ho oinos enopion emott, 'and the wine was before me ' ; the V., ft vinum erat ante fttm, ' and wine was before him.' AND I TOOK UP THE WINE] Hebrew, vah esah eth hay-yayin, 'and I lifted up the wine.' The Lxx. has kai rlabon ton oinon, 'and I took the wine'; the V., levavi vinum, ' I raised the wine.' The office of cup-bearer to an Eastern monarch was one of much importance, from the frequent access it gave to his presence at a time when he would be most inclined to unbend and grant favors ; but the constant dread of treason in which such a despot perpetually lived, rendered him acutely observant of the slightest change of demeanor in this attendant. Artaxerxes would, therefore, notice Nehemiah's sadness, and be anxious as to its cause (chap. ii. 2). It has been sup- posed that in his self-absorption Nehemiah had omitted the indispensable form of pouring a little wine into his own hand and drinking it before presenting the cup to the king; and this omission of the usual protection against poisoning would naturally arouse the monarch's suspicion, and help us to understand why Nehemiah was made ' very sore afraid ' by the king's interrogation. 104 NEHEMIAH, V. 3, II, 15, 1 8. CHAPTER III. VERSE 14. But the dung gate repaired Malchiah the son of Rechab, the ruler of part of Beth-haccerem ; he built it, and set up the doors thereof, the locks thereof, and the bars thereof. BETH-HACCEREM] Hebrew, baith-hak-kakrem, ( the house of the vineyard '; also a town referred to in Jer. vi. I, and situated, according to Jerome, on a mountain between Jerusalem and Tekoa. CHAPTER V. VERSE 3. Some also there were that said, We have mortgaged our lands, vine- yards, and houses, that we might buy corn, because of the dearth. AND VINEYARDS] Hebrew, u-k'rakmainu, 'and our vineyards.' See also in verses 4, 5. CHAPTER V. VERSE n. Restore, I pray you, to them, even this day, their lands, their vine- yards, their oliveyards, and their houses, also the hundredth part of the money, and of the corn, the wine, and the oil, that ye exact of them. THEIR VINEYARDS] Hebrew, karmaihem, 'their vineyards.' AND OF THE CORN, THE WINE, AND THE OIL] Hebrew, ve-kad-dakgan, hat- tirosh, ve-hay-yitzhar, ' and the corn, the vine-fruit, and the olive-and-orchard fruit,' obviously enumerated as the solid produce of the 'lands,' 'vineyards,' and 'oliveyards' just mentioned. The Lxx. has ton siton kal ton oinon kai to elaion, * the corn, and the wine, and the oil ' ; the V., frumenti, vini, et old, ' of corn, of wine, and of oil.' The Arabic for tirosh has the usual Stzer, 'expressed juice.' CHAPTER V. VERSE 15. But the former governors that had been before me were chargeable unto the people, and had taken of them bread and wine, beside forty shekels of silver; yea, even their servants bare rule over the people; but so did not I, because of the fear of God. BREAD AND WINE] Hebrew, K-lekhetn vah-yayin, 'from bread and wine.' The Lxx. has en artois kai en oino, * with loaves and with wine ' ; the V., in pane et vino, 'with bread and wine.' CHAPTER V. VERSE 18. Now that which was prepared for me daily was one ox and six choice sheep ; also fowls were prepared for me, and once in ten days store of all sorts of wine : yet for all this required not I the bread of the governor, because the bondage was heavy upon this people. STORE OF ALT. SORTS OF WINE] Hebrew, bt-kahl yayln le-harba, ' with everj (sort of) wine abundantly ' = a copious supply of all kinds of wine. The Lxx. NEHEMIAH, VIII. IO, 12. IO5 has fn pasin oinos to pleethci, 'wine in all (kinds) in plenty ' ; the V., vina diversa, 'different wines. 1 No fact is better established in regard to ancient times than the great diversity of their vinous preparations, a diversity extending not only to the modes of their manufacture, but to their qualities and effects. Though Pliny cannot be quoted as an illustrator of Oriental customs prevailing five hundred years before, yet when he affirmed that a hundred and ninety-five varieties of wine existed in his time,* and that these would be doubled if lesser differences were included, we may safely conclude that the kahl yayin of Nehemiah is to be liberally construed. Some might be new, some old; some pure, some mixed; some fresh from the vat, some boiled; some watery, some thick ; some sweet as honey, others thin and tart. The modes of manufacture would also differ in almost every district, and probably among neighboring vine-growers. [See Virgil's poetic hyperbole in 'Georgics,' lib. iii. 103-8; and observation of Sir G. Wilkinson quoted in Note on Gen. xl. 911.] CHAPTER VIII. VERSE 10. Then he said unto them, Go your way, eat the fat, and drink the sweet, and send portions unto them for whom nothing is prepared : for this day is holy unto our Lord : neither be ye sorry ; for the joy of the LORD is your strength. AND DRINK THE SWEET] Hebrew, ushthu mamtaqqim, 'and drink the sweet- nesses ' = sweet drinks. The Lxx. has kai piete glukasmata, ' and drink ye sweet things ' ; the V., ct bibite mulsurn, 'and drink ye the honey-sweet (article).' * Some of the ancient wines were thick and luscious like jellies, and had to be largely diluted before they could be drunk ; others, of the ordinary fluidity, were mixed in the proportion of several measures of water to one of grape-juice, so that even if fermented they were but slightly intoxicating unless consumed in large quantities. The verbal root of mamtiqqim \smathaq, 'to suck,' 'to be sweet'; and, says the Rev. B. Parsons, "it is worthy of remark that the ancient Britons had a sweet wine which the Welsh called meddyglyn, and the English metheglin. The word metheglin comes from metteg or mettek, 'sweet,' and glyn, 'glutinous,' and thus signifies what it really was, a sweet syrupy drink. Every one must here see that metheg in Saxon, meddyg in Welsh, and mettek in Hebrew are the same words. This term among the ancient Britons was applied to a drink made from honey." To the same root may be referred methuo and methusko, ' to fill or drink to the full' of (or with) any sweet thing; but meth in Egyptian also signified 1 full,' as in methfris, the mother God. CHAPTER VIII. VERSE 12. And all the people went their way to eat, and to drink, and to send portions, and to make great mirth, because they had understood the words that were declared unto them. * See Appendix ' D ' for his exact words ; and also for description of mulsum. 14 106 NEHEMIAH, X. 37, 39. AND TO DRINK] Hebrew, vl-leshtolh, 'and to drink.' The Lxx. has kai piein, 'and to drink'; the V., et biberet, 'and that (the people) Should drink.' CHAPTER IX. VERSE 25. And they took strong cities, and a fat land, and possessed houses full of all goods, wells digged, vineyards, and oliveyards, and fruit trees in abundance; so they did eat, and were filled, and became fat, and delighted themselves in thy great goodness. VINEYARDS] Hebrew, kerahmim, 'vineyards.' CHAPTER X. VERSE 37. And that we should bring the firstfruits of our dough, and our offerings, and the fruit of all manner of trees, of wine and of oil, unto the priests, to the chambers of the house of our God ; and the tithes of our ground unto the Levites, that the same Levites might have the tithes in all the cities of our tillage. AND THE FRUIT OF ALL MANNER OF TREES] Hebrew, u-phri kahl atz, 'and the fruit of every (kind of) tree.' The Lxx. reads, kai ton karpon pantos xulou, * and the fruit of every tree ' ; the V., et poma omnis ligni, * and fruits of every tree.' OF WINE AND OF OIL] Hebrew, tirosh v%-yitzhar, 'vine-fruit and olive and orchard fruit.' The Lxx. has oinou kai elaiou, ' of wine and of oil'; the V., vindentia quoque et olei, 'of vintage fruit also and of oil.' This is the second instance in which the Vulgate does justice to tirosh. [See Note on Deut. vii. 13.] Walton's Polyglot gives musti. Tirosh and yitzhar are plainly mentioned by Nehemiah as representatives of the ' fruit of all manner of trees ' brought to the priests ; and this verse alone is sufficient to establish the meaning of these collective terms, as designating the solid produce of the vineyard and the orchard. CHAPTER X. VERSE 39. For the children of Israel and the children of Levi shall bring the offering of the corn, of the new wine, and the oil, unto the chambers, where are the vessels of the sanctuary, and the priests that minister, and the porters, and the singers : and we will not forsake the house of our God. OF THE CORN, OF THE NEW WINE, AND THE OIL] Hebrew, ha-dahgan, hat- tirosh, vt-hay-yitzhar, ' the corn, the vine-fruit, and the olive and orchard fruit.' The Lxx. reads, tou sitou, kai ton oinou, kai tou elaiou, ' of the corn, and of the wine, and of the oil.' The V. IMS frttmenti, vini, et olei, 'of corn, of wine, and of oil,' so soon had St Jerome unlearnt what he had practised in verse 37, where he translates tirosh as vindemitz. The English translators add ' new ' to their usual rendering of tirosh as 'wine.' NEHEMIAII, XIII. 5, 12, 15. CHAPTER XIII. VERSE 5. And he had prepared for him a great chamber, where aforetime they laid the meat offerings, the frankincense, and the vessels, and the tithes of the corn, the new wine, and the oil, which was com- manded to be given to the Levites, and the singers, and the porters ; and the offerings of the priests. AND THE TITHES OF THE CORN, THE NEW WINE, AND THE OIL] Hebrew, v-rndasar had-dahgan hat-tirosh vl-hay-yitzhar t 'and the tithe of the corn, the vine-fruit, and the orchard fruit.' The Lxx. reads, kai teen dekateen tou sitou % kai ton oinou, kai tou elaiou, ' and the tenth of the corn, and of the wine, and of the oil'; the V., et decimatn frutnenti, vtn: t ft olei t 'and the tenth of corn, of wine, and of oil.' The English translators again render tiros h by 'new wine,' following, no doubt, the mustum of most Continental versions. CHAPTER XIII. VERSE 12. Then brought all Judah the tithe of the corn and the new wine and the oil unto the treasuries. THE TITHE OF THE CORN AND THE NEW WINE AND THE OIL] Hebrew, mdasar had-dahgan, hat-tirosh, v' hay-yitzhar, ' the tithe of the corn, the vine-fruit, and the orchard-fruit.' The Lxx. gives tou purou, kai tou oinou t kai tou f/aiou, 'of the wheat, and the wine, and the oil ' ; the V.,frumenti t vini, et olei. CHAPTER XIII. VERSE 15. In those days saw I in Judah some treading wine-presses on the sabbath, and bringing in sheaves, and lading asses; as also wine, grapes, and figs, and all manner of burdens, which they brought into Jerusalem on the sabbath day : and 1 testified against them in the day wherein they sold victuals. TREADING WINE PRESSES] Hebrew, dorkim gitoth, 'treading the wine-presses.' The Lxx. \w-> patountas leenous ; the V., calcantes torcularia. As ALSO WINE, GRAPES] Hebrew, vt-aph yayin anahvim, 'and also wine, grapes.' The Lxx. has kai oinon kai staphuleen, 'and wine and grapes'; the V., vinum et uvas, 'wine and grapes.' THE BOOK OF ESTHER. CHAPTER I. VERSE 7. ^ they gave them drink in vessels of gold (the vessels being diverse one from another), and royal wine in abundance, according to the state of the king. The Hebrew is v^-hashqoth biklai zahahv, vt-kalim mikkalitn shonim, v$-yayn malkuth rahv k^-yad ham-m%l$k, ' and they were providing drink in vessels of gold, and the vessels (were) diverse from vessels, and wine of royalty (was) abundant, according to the hand of the king.' The Syriac follows the Hebrew almost word for word. The Lxx. reads, poteeria chrusa kai argura, kai anthrakinon kulikion prokeimenon apo talanton trismurion ; oinos polus kai heedus hon autos ho basileus fpinen, ' gold and silver drinking-cups (there were), and a small carbuncle goblet was on view, valued at thirty thousand talents ; the wine (was) plentiful and sweet, such as was drunk by the king himself.' The V. gives bibebant autem qui invitati grant aureis poculis, et aliis vasis cibis inferebantur; vinum quoque ut niagni- ficentia regid dignum erat, abundans, et pracipuum ponebatur, 'but they that were invited drank in golden cups, and the meats were brought in different sets of vessels ; wine also worthy of the royal magnificence was furnished in abundance, and of the highest quality.' The Targumist tells a strange story, how the vessels brought from Jerusalem turned the king's vessels into the likeness of lead! and adds, "And they drank fresh wine (khamar-ahsis), fit for the drinking of a king, of a superior scent and the most delicious flavor; and it was not used sparingly, but with the liberality of a royal hand." This was a splendid entertainment. The drinking-vessels were of gold, and of different patterns, or perhaps variously chased ; the wine was 'wine of royalty,' /. f. such as was usually drunk by the royal family ; and it was plentifully served ' according to the king's hand ' with a profusion suitable to the hand of one whose resources were so vast. The statement of the Lxx. that it was 'sweet,' throws light upon the kind of wine preferred, if not in the Persian palace, yet in courtly circles in the time when that translation was made the third century before Christ. Sweetness, not alcoholic potency, was the quality most relished, as it would appear, in the wines then selected for the royal tables. ESTHER, I. 8. 109 CHAPTER I. VERSE 8. And the drinking was according to the law ; none did compel : for so the king had appointed to all the officers of his house, that they should do according to every man's pleasure. The Hebrew reads, ve-hashthiah kad-dath, ain on&s, ki-kan yissad ham-melek al kahl-rahv baitho ladshoth kirtzon ishvah-ish, 'and the drinking (was) according to a decree none compelling, for so the king commanded to every officer of his house to fulfill the pleasures of man ' (= every man). The Lxx. rendering is ho de potos outos ou kata prokeimenon nomon egeneto, onfos de eetheleesen ho basileus, kai epetaxe tots oikonomois poieesai to theleema autoit kai ton anthrdpun, ' now the drinking was not according to the established law, for so the king wished ; and he instructed those of his household to do the will of himself and of the men ' (his guests). The V. has nee erat qui nolentes cogeret ad bibendum ; sed sicut rex statuerat, prffponens mensis singulos de principibus suis ut sumeret unusquisque quod vellit, 4 nor did any one force the unwilling to drink, but as the king had arranged, who set over each table one of his lords, that every one might partake of what he pleased.' The Targum has ' and the drinking wa.= regulated according to the bodily habit, and there was no one who compelled (another to drink) ; for the king had so issued an order binding upon every one connected with the royal house, that the drinking shouM be according to the will of each, whether Israelites or of any other nation and language.' Josephus gives the following account : ' And he enjoined upon his servants not to compel them to drink by constantly presenting the drink to them, as was a custom among the Persians, but to defer to them, and kindly attend to whatever each of the guests should desire ' (kai pros ho boitletai ton katakeimenon hekaslos philophrenesthai). The apparent contradiction between the Hebrew text and the Lxx. version, will disappear if we observe that the king, in fact, superseded pro tempore the common convivial law by a special arrangement for the occasion ; but whether for the sake of increasing or diminishing the drinking is not clear. Josephus implies the latter; but while the abstemious would be protected by the freedom afforded, those of a different disposition might make it the means of unbounded license. Among the Greeks and Romans each banqueting party had its president (Greek, sumposi- archees chief of the feast ; Roman, arbiter sive rex bibendi master or king of the drinking), and all the persons present were bound to follow his directions in the quaffing of cups in honor of gods and mortals. The rule was precise and per- emptory pithi ee apithi, 'drink or depart.' The Persians may have had a more familiar custom of toasting one another. Herodotus, who lived not long after Nehemiah, says of them, "They are very fond of wine, and drink it in large quan- tities. It is also their general practice to deliberate upon affairs of weight when they are drunk ; and then on the morrow, when they are sober, the decision to- which they came the night previous is put before them by the master of the house in which it was made : and if it is then approved of they act upon it; if not, they set IIO ESTHER, II. 1 8. it aside. Sometimes, however, they are sober at their first deliberations, but in this case they always reconsider the matter under the influence of wine." (Hook i., c. 133.) The Germans, according to Tacitus, adopted the first and better half of this curious method. They took counsel first when drunk, and then when sober. And the historian adds, " They deliberate when unable to devise anything, they decide when not able to go wrong." CHAPTER I. VERSE 9. Also Vashti the queen made a feast for the women in the royal house which belonged to king Ahasuerus. A FEAST] Hebrew, mishteh, 'a drinking '=a banquet. It is not to be sup- posed that a mishteh comprised drinking only; it certainly included the more sub- stantial delicacies of the season. Queen Vashti's mishtek would be composed of refreshments adapted to I lie taste of her ladies, and let us hope that the drinks, whatever else they were, were of a more innocent nature than those with which her royal consort and his nobles were regaled. CHAPTER I. VERSE 10, n. 10 On the seventh day, when the heart of the king was merry with wine, he commanded Mehuman, Biztha, Harbona, Bigtha, and Abagtha, Zethar, and Carcas, the seven chamberlains that served in the presence of Ahasuerus the king, To bring Vashti the queen before the king with the crown royal, to show the people and the princes her beauty : for she was fair to look on. WHEN THE HEART OF THE KING WAS MERRY WITH WINE] Hebrew, kl-tw lav ham-melek hay-yayin> 'when good (was) the heart of the king with wine.' The Lxx. reads, heedeos genomenos ho basUetis, ' the king having got into a sweet con- dition ' = a mellow humor. The V. amplifies, cum rex esset hilarior et post nimiam potationem incaluisset meto, ' when the king had become more jovial, and after an excessive indulgence had become heated with unmixed (wine).' The T. reads, ' when the king's heart was gladdened with wine, the Lord sent to him the angel of confusion to confound their feast.' Subsequent events make apparent I, how little of good judgment is joined with drinking-jollity ; 2, how soon the blandness of temper that seems associated with the bottle turns to sourness when crossed by opposition. The free and easy spirits that spring from drink resemble the paws of the tiger, which conceal under a smooth and velvety fur the talons of violence and rapine. Where Bacchus rules, mirth may turn at any moment into murderous strife. CHAPTER II. VERSE 18. Then the king made a great feast unto all his princes and his servants, even Esther's feast ; and he made a release to the provinces, and gave gifts, according to the state of the king. ESTHER, VII. I, 2. m A GREAT FEAST] Hebrew, mishteh gahdol, 'a great feast.' EVEN ESTHER'S FEAST] Hebrew, eth-mishta, Estar, 'the feast of Esther* called Esther's because given in her honor, to signalize her elevation to the queenly state and dignity. CHAPTER III. VERSE 15. The posts went out, being hastened by the king's commandment, and the decree was given in Shushan the palace. And the king and Hainan sat down to drink ; but the city Shushan was perplexed. SAT DOWN TO DRINK] Hebrew, yahshvu lishtosh, ' sat down to drink.' The Lxx. has ekuthunizonto. ' were drinking deep ' [from kot/wn, a Spartan drinking-cup ; hence to kitni k^-yayin lo yip-pahthaakh ; kZ-ovoth khadahshim yibbahqaa, 'behold, my belly like wine has no vent; like new bottles it is rent.' Prof. Renan translates, " Us expriment 1'huile dans les celliers de leur spoliateur, En foulant le pressoir, ils out soif." t Prof. Renan translates, " 11s sont comme un corps leper sur la surface de 1'eau, Leur heritage est maudit sur la terre ; Ils ne prennent jamais le chemin des vignes ;" adding this note, " That is to say, it always brings unhappiness to the life of populations that art passing from the condition of Bedouin plunder to the state of agricultural and sedentary tribes." u6 JOB, xxxii. 19. The Lxx. has hee de gasteer mou husper askos gleukous zeon [Codex A, genwri] dedemenos ; hee hosper phuseeteer chalkcos errheegos [Codex A, chalkeos dedemenos kai katerrheegas~\, "but my belly (is) glowing [Codex A, loaded] as a fastened-up skin-bottle of sweet wine; as the bellows of the brazier when it has burst [Codex A, as the bellows of the brazier when it has been fastened up has burst]." Sym- machus's version of the last clause is preserved hus oinos neos adiapnettstos, ' as new wine without ventilation.' The V. gives en venter metis quasi nntsttim absque spiraculo quod lagunculas novas disnitnpit, 'behold, my belly is as new wine without a vent, which bursts asunder new vessels.' The T. has 'behold, my belly is as new wine \_khamar khadath] which has not a vent, and it is burst [as] new vessels.' The Hebrew yayin, here used for grape-juice while passing into fermentation, is explained by the Lxx. as gleukos, by Symmachus as oinos neos, by the Targum as khamar khadath, and by the V. as mustum. The passage illustrates the explosive power of this juice when set fermenting.* This potency is due to the carbonic acid gas generated by the act of fermentation, which will burst the strongest vessels (whether skin, or wood iron-bound) in which it happens to be foolishly confined. The analogy drawn is between agitation of mind and the fermentation of yayin ; unless ' a vent ' is allowed, the safety of the body in the one case and of the bottle in the other is endangered. ' He was bursting to speak,' is a phrase not un- common to our vernacular. This text is often most erroneously compared with Matt. ix. 17. Elihu refers to wine that had been put, after it had been partially fermented, into new bottles made air-tight, through carelessness or from ignorance of the state of the wine ; whereas Christ refers contrastively to wine put into new bottles before fermentation, in order to prevent the wine from fermenting and the bottle from being burst. The traditional interpretation makes the Saviour con- tradict Elihu by affirming that wine could ferment in new bottles, closed up, without endangering the bottles ! [See Note on Matt. ix. 17.] * There is no commendation expressed, but the contrary. It is an abnormal-state compared with an abnormal-process. THE BOOK OF PSALMS. PSALM IV. VERSE 7. Thou hast put gladness in my heart, more than in the time that their corn and their wine increased. The Hebrew stands, nahthatah simkhah b^-libi madth d^gahnam v^-tirosham rahbtt, "them has put gladness (or cheer) in my heart from [or, more than when] their corn and their vine-fruit abounded." The Lxx. has edijkas cuphrosuneen. eis teen kardian ; apo karpon sitou kai oinon kai elaiou autun eplcethuntheesan, "thou hast put gladness into the heart ; by the fruit of their corn and wine and oil they have been satisfied." So Aquila, Symmachus, and Theodotion. The V., which in the Book of Psalms follows the old Italic version, reads, dedisti latitiam in corde meo ; a fmctu fntnienti, vini, ft olei sui multiplicati sitnf, "thou has given glad- ness into my heart; by the fruit of their corn, wine, and oil they have been multi- plied." The Lxx. and V. agree in adding 'oil' to the list of earthly blessings which cheer the heart of man, and in separating the verse into two distinct clauses, Origen puts a circle round ' oil ' in his Hexapla to indicate that it was not extant in the Hebrew MSS. of his day. The compound particle madth (mtn, * from/ and ath, 'with') is somewhat ambiguous, but the fact that all the Greek versions and the Vulgate have 'by the fruit of,' makes it likely that their MSS. may have read ma-abbai P3^) instead of ma-ath (H^O)' Tne words as written in the Hebrew characters bear, as will be seen, a close resemblance. In the Song of Solomon, vi. u, ^^^ is translated in the A. V. 'the fruit of,' though Gesenius suggests 'greenness of.' It is, however, conjectured (Migne's Cursus Patrologitz) that apo Jkairou, ' from the time of,' became changed by the transcribers in mistake into apo karpon t ' from the fruit of.' St Jerome has ' in the time their corn and their wine were multiplied.' St Augustine has a tempore, 'from the time.' The sense afforded by the A. V. is in harmony with the spirit of the context, which seeks to enforce the supreme excellency of the Divine favor. The increase of corn and vine- fruit is a subject of lawful congratulation with all men ; but while the ungodly derive their chief enjoyment from these fruits of the earth, mellowed and multiplied by the light of the sun, a richer treasure of felicity is the portion of the man, however hose heart is the recipient of the light of God's countenance. PSALM X. VERSES 9, 10. 9 He lieth in wait secretly as a lion in his den : he lieth in wait to catch the poor : he doth catch the poor, when he draweth him into Il8 PSALMS, XVI. 4, 5. his net. 10 He croucheth, and humbleth himself, that the poor may fall by his strong ones. Language could scarcely be conceived more graphically descriptive of the course pursued by those who carry on the traffic in intoxicating liquors, regardless of the miseries produced. They may be acquitted of any malicious intention to murder and rob ; but the knowledge of what is produced by their daily business, and the artifices (including venal testimonies and advertisements) employed to extend it by drawing the poor and thoughtless into its meshes, must leave them without excuse, according to any standard of moral responsibility that can be applied to human conduct. Very grievous is it that a sense of this responsibility should be deadened through the license granted by the law to deal ' in the strong ones ' ; and the Chris- tian patriot is bound to free himself from all complicity with such legislation, by means of earnest protests against it, and by no less earnest efforts to confer power upon the people to protect themselves against this system of wholesale destruction. All men who take upon themselves the Christian name should see that their daily practice and business will not bring them under Job's description ' Those that rebel against the light ' (xxiv. 13). PSALM XVI. VERSE 4. Their sorrows shall be multiplied that hasten after another god : their drink offerings of blood will I not offer, nor take up their names into my lips. THEIR DRINK OFFERINGS OF BLOOD WILL I NOT OFFER] Hebrew, bal assik niskaihem niid-dahnt, * I will not pour out their libations (outpourings) from blood.' The Lxx. has mee stinagoga fas sunagogas autun ex kaitnaton, 'I will by no means assemble their assemblies of blood (///. bloods).' The V. gives pre- cisely the same sense, non congregabo conventicula eorutn de sanguinibus. The Syriac is identical with the A. V. The T. represents God as the speaker ' I will not receive with satisfaction their libations, nor their offering of blood.' One of the forms of that cruelty which filled ' the dark places of the earth ' con- sisted in pouring out the blood of human victims to the gods who were adored ; and such libations were sometimes converted into vows in times of personal or public exigency. Similar customs characterize modern paganism. Dupuis men- tions, in his 'Journey in Ashantee,' that he saw the king gather the blood of a human victim into a vessel, drink one half, and offer the other to his idol. PSALM XVI. VERSE 5. The LORD is the portion of mine inheritance and of my cup : thou maintainest my lot. AND OF MY CUP] Hebrew, v%-kosi y ' and my cup.' [See Note on Gen. xl. II. J PSALMS, LVIII. 4. 119 PSALM XXIII. VERSE 5. Thou preparest a table before me in the presence of mine enemies : thou anointest my head with oil ; my cup runneth over. MY CUP RUNNETH OVER] Hebrew, kosi r&vahyah, 'my cup has fulness-of- drink.' Revahyah is from rahvah. [See Note below on Psa. xxxvi. 8. ] The Lxx. has to poteerion sou methuskon hus kratiston, 'thy cup satisfies as the best (wine).' Methusko cannot here mean ' to intoxicate.' The V. reads, et calix meus inebrians quam praclarus est, ' and my inebriating cup, how excellent it is '! St Jerome gives ft calix meus inebrians. Sed et benignitas, 'and my cup (is) inebriating. But also kindness. ' Here the first two words of ver. 6 ak tov, * truly good,' in A. V. ' surely goodness ' are joined to ver. 5. This likewise seems to have been Origen's arrangement of the Hebrew. Symmachus has ' and thy good cup fills me full with everything,' methuskon me diolou. Aquilaand Theodotion have 4 my cup fills (me) full,' poteerion mou methuskon. PSALM XXXVI. VERSE 8. They shall be abundantly satisfied with the fatness of thy house; and thou shalt make them drink of the river of thy pleasures. THEY SHALL BE ABUNDANTLY SATISFIED] Hebrew, yirveyun t 'they shall be satiated.' The margin of A. V. has 'watered.' Rah-vah, 'to drink largely, to be satisfied with drink,' corresponds with sah-va, as applied to food. Here it is used of fatness, ' which is drunk and sucked in, rather than eaten ' (Gesenius). The Chaldee uses the cognate word to describe any kind of repletion from wine to the Hebrew shakar. The Lxx. has methustheesontai apo pioteetos tou oikou sou, ' they shall be satiated with the fatness of thy house.' Here methito is clearly used, not in the sense of ' to intoxicate,' but ' to fully satisfy. PSALM XLVI. VERSE 3. TJwugh the waters thereof roar and be troubled, though the moun- tains shake with the swelling thereof. Selah. BE TROUBLED] Hebrew, ylkhmlru, 'foam' from khamar, 'to foam' or ' boil up ' ; hence kh$m$r designates the juice of the grape, either when foaming under the treader's feet (Deut. xxxii. 14), or when bubbling up in a state of fermentation (Psa. Ixxv. 8). The same word, we may observe, is applied to the foam of the sea, and to boiling bitumen, etc., and has no exclusive connection with the foam of the fermenting- vat, as Dr Laurie and others absurdly argue. PSALM LVIII. VERSE 4. Their poison is like the poison of a serpent : they are like the deaf adder that stoppeth her ear.* Wine is also compared in like manner, Prov. xxiii. 32. See Prel. Diss. I2O PSALMS, LXV. IO. THEIR POISON is LIKE THE POISON OF A SERPENT] Hebrew, khamath lahmo kidmuth khamath nahkash, 'the poison (that is) to them (is) after the likeness of the poison of a serpent.' The Lxx. reads, thumos autois kata teen homoiosin ton opheos, ' their rage ( = venom) is after the likeness of (the poison of) the serpent.' The V. has furor illis secundiim similitudinem serpentis, ' their fury is according to the likeness of (the fury of ) a serpent.' [See Notes on Deut. xxxii. 33, Psa. cxl. 3, and Hos. vii. 5. ] PSALM LX. VERSE 3. Thou hast shewed thy people hard things: thou hast made us to drink the wine of astonishment. THOU HAST MADE US TO DRINK THE WINE OF ASTONISHMENT] Hebrew, hishqithahnu yayin taralah, 'thou hast made us drink the wine of reeling,' or trembling = that causes reeling or trembling. Taralah is from rahal^ 'to reel or tremble.' The Lxx. has epotisas heemas oinon katanuxeos, 4 thou hast made us drink wine of astonishment.' Aquila has oinon karuseos y 'wine of stupefaction '; Symmachus, oinon salou, ' wine of agitation.' The V. reads, potasti nos vino com- punctionis, ' thou hast made us drink from the wine of suffering ' ; St Jerome, vino consopiente, 'from stupefying wine.' The Ethiopic has 'wine of stupor.' The Syriac has 'feculent wine'; the Arabic, 'turbid wine.' The T. gives 'the wine of malediction.' By a striking metaphor the ' trembling ' caused by intoxicating yayin is viewed as a property of the wine itself; and when the Almighty is described as administering such wine, we are referred to the terrible visitations which He brings upon men, or suffers to befall them. [For similar figurative language see Notes on Psa. Ixxv. 8; Isa. li. 17, 22; Jer. xxv. 15; xlix. 12; li. 7; Lam. iv. 21 ; Ezek. xxiii. 31 34; Hab. ii. 16; Zech. xii. 2; Rev. xvii. 24.] On this text Calvin observes of rahal, "They were drunk with the wine of drowsiness or giddiness. Not even the Hebrew interpreters agree about the word. For many translate it venom or poison. But it is easy to gather that the prophet speaks specially of a poisoned potion that bereaves men's minds of sense and understanding; for his purpose was to set before their eyes the curse of God that had reigned." PSALM LXV. VERSE 10. Thou waterest the ridges thereof abundantly : thou settlest the furrows thereof: thou makest it soft with showers : thou blessest the springing thereof. THOU WATEREST THE RIDGES THEREOF ABUNDANTLY] Hebrew, teiamiyah rawa, 'its furrows thou givest to drink deeply, ' = plentifully dost irrigate. Rawa is in the Piel conjugation, from rahvah. The Lxx. reads, tons anlakas autees methuson, ' saturate her furrows ' ; the V., rivos ejus inebria ' to fill up her channels.' PSALMS, LXXI. 4. 121 PSALM LXVI. VERSE 12. Thou hast caused men to ride over our heads; we went through fire and through water: but thou broughtest us out into a wealthy place. INTO A WEALTHY PLACE] Hebrew, larvahiah (from rahvah), 'to a well-watered place ' = to a place of great plenty. The Lxx. has eis anupsuc/uen, ' into [a place of] refreshment ' ; the V., in refrigerium, ' to a cool place ' = a place of consolation. PSALM LXIX. VERSE 12. They that sit in the gate speak against me ; and I was the song of the drunkards. I WAS THE SONG OF THE DRUNKARDS] Hebrew, u-nlginoth shothai shakar, ' and songs the drinkers of shakar '= songs are made about me by the drinkers of shakar. The Lxx. reads, kai eis enie epsnllon oi pinontes tou oinott, ' and they sang about me who were drinking wine ' ; Aquila, and the songs of those drinking strong drink' methiisma ; Symmachus, 'and those drinking strong drink (nuthitsma) sang of me.' The V. has et in me psallebant qui bibebantvinum, ' and those who drank wine sang about me'; St Jerome, 'and those drinking wine were singing.' The Lxx. regards shakar here as equivalent to yayin. The T. paraphrases thus : " And I shall be the song of those who go to drink strong drink (niaivath) in the public-house (Wvaith qarqasvari)" so that shakar is here rendered, not by khamar attiq, 'old wine,' as in every place except one, but by marvath, as in Lev. x. 8. See Note there. The Psalmist intimates that he was the subject of satirical and ribald songs by the votaries of shakar. It was no new thing, even in his day, for those who imbibed freely the spirit of wine, to revile those who were filled with the 'spirit divine.' PSALM LXIX. VERSE 21. They gave me also gall for my meat ; and in my thirst they gave me vinegar to drink. THEY GAVE ME ALSO GALL FOR MY MEAT] Hebrew, vay-yitu vl-baruthi rosh, 'and they gave (as) my food, gall.' The Lxx. reads choleen, 'gall.' So Symma- chus. The V. hasy^/. Rosh did not designate poison in general, but some special bitter product. AND IN MY THIRST THEY GAVE ME VINEGAR TO DRINK] Hebrew, vl-lizmai yashquni khometz* ' and to me thirsting, they-gave-to-drink fermented liquor ' = vinegar, the result of the acetous fermentation. The Lxx. has oxos, ' vinegar ' ; the V., accto, 'with vinegar.' PSALM LXXI. VERSE 4. Deliver me, O my God, out of the hand of the wicked : out of the hand of the unrighteous and cruel man. 16 122 PSALMS, LXXV. 8. AND CRUEL MAN] Hebrew, v&-k/wmatz, 'and soured (one) '= the man whose disposition resembles vinegar. The Lxx. has adikountos, 'of the unjust one.' So the V., iniqiti. It may, however, carry the sense of ' corrupt,' as the idea of ferment did with Paul (i Cor. v. 6 8). So Greenfield. PSALM LXXIII. VERSE 21. Thus my heart was grieved, and I was pricked in my reins. THUS MY HEART WAS GRIEVED] Hebrew, ki yithkhahmm&tz tt-va/ivi, ' for fermented was my heart,' /. e. it lost its sweetness, as if under the action of a ferment, and became embittered = the phrase of Isaiah, 'The sweet-drink shall become bitter.' The Lxx. has strangely eeuphranthee, 'has rejoiced'; but the Aldine and Com- plut. editions read exekauthee, ' inflamed ' ; Symmachus, sunestelleto, ' was drawn together '; the V., quia inflammatum est cor meum, 'wherefore my heart was in- flamed.' St Jerome has contractum y 'drawn together.' PSALM LXXV. VERSE 8. For in the hand of the LORD there is a cup, and the wine is red ; it is full of mixture ; and he poureth out of the same : but the dregs thereof, all the wicked of the earth shall wring them out, and drink them. A CUP] Hebrew, kos, ' a vessel ' = a goblet. The T. has ' a cup of malediction. ' AND THE WINE is RED] Hebrew, vtyayin khamar, 'and the wine foams,' from the presence of some fermenting agent and potent drugs. The Lxx. reads, oinou akratou, 'of wine unmixed.' Symmachus has kai oinos akratos, 'and the wine is unmixed ' ; St Jerome, vino meraco, the V. vim' meri, ' of neat wine ' ; and the T., khamar ashin, 'strong wine.' The fermented wine which was drunk undi- luted with water was called by the Greeks akratos, by the Romans merum, and to drink such wine was deemed the act of drunkards only. What would those pagans have said of Christians who drink brandied wines unmixed wine mingled with fiery spirit ? IT is FULL OF MIXTURE] Hebrew, mala meslk, 'full of mixture.' Mesek comes from mahsak, to mix or mingle. The noun occurs in this place only ; the verb is applied to a pleasant compound in Prov. ix. 2, 5, and to an injurious preparation in Isa. v. 22. The analogous verb mezeg is used in Cant. vii. 3. The Lxx. reads pleeres kerasmatos, and the V. plenus misto, ' full of mixture ' ; Symmachus has pleeron ekchutheis, 'full, poured out.' The wine is unmixed, yet full of mixture ; unmixed in the sense of undiluted, full of mixture because combined with drugs. The characteristic of nearly all the various forms of intoxicating liquor now retailed, is that they are both diluted and adulterated, with the sole object of increasing the profits of the vender, whatever may happen to the buyer and consumer. Large quantities of potent drugs, for which there is no other human use, are annually imported into Britain and America. AND HE POURETH OUT OF THE SAME] Hebrew, vay-yaggar mizzeh, 'and he poureth out from this.' The Lxx. reads, kai eklinen ek toutou (is touto y 'and he turns (it) from this to this '= turns it from side to side, that the mingling may PSALMS, LXXVIII. 47, 65. 123 be more complete. Symmachus has oste elkein ap'autoti, 'so as to take from it ' ; the V., ft inciinavit tx hoc in hoc, ' and he has inclined (it) from this to this ' ; St Jerome, ct propinabit exeo t 'and he will give to drink from it.' The Hebrew' implies that the mixed wine is poured out into the cups, giving a portion to each godless people and person. HUT nn-; DRKCS THKRKOF] Hebrew, ak shemariha, 'surely the dregs of it.' Ak, abbreviated from akan, is clearly not used here as an adverb of limitation, but of confirmation, as t\\ ice in Psa. Iviii. 12, where it is rendered in A. V. 'verily/ " Verily there is a reward of the righteous ; verily there is a God that judgeth in the earth." Shcmariha, ' its dregs,' here signifies the thicker (hence sedimentary) part of the mixture, which had not been perfectly combined with the rest. Not only was the fluid portion of the inesek to be poured out for the profane to drink, but the still more stupefying part of it reserved at the bottom of the cup should be served out to them. The Lxx. reads, pleen hotrugias autou, ' even the dregs of it ' ; the V., vemmtamenfiex ejits, 'even thus its feculence.' ALL THE WICKED OF THE EARTH SHALL WRING THEM OUT, AND DRINK THEM] Hebrew, yimtzu yisktu kol rishai aretz, 'all the wicked of the earth shall suck out (yinitzn) drink up (j'is/itu).' The Lxx. has ouk txekenothee piontai pantees oi hamartoloi tees gets, ' have not been wholly poured out ; all the sinners of the earth shall drink (them).' So also the V., non fst exinanita, bibent omnet peccatores term, ' is not emptied out; all sinners of the earth shall drink (it).' St Jerome has ' nevertheless, all the impious of the earth, drinking, will drain up its dre^s.' The retributive vengeance of the Supreme Judge is depicted under the image of a cup which He holds in His hand, the wine whereof foams with the fermenting mixtures with which it is filled ; from this cup He pours out to all the guilty their just proportion, and assuredly the wicked of the earth shall receive it, till the last contents of the cup have been drained and sucked up. This terrible and impressive representation is surely calculated to inspire not only a fear of all sin, but of all fermenting and inflaming mixtures which so vividly symbolize the consequences of unpardoned guilt. PSALM LXXVIII. VERSE 47. He destroyed their vines with hail, and their sycamore trees with frost. HE DESTROYED THEIR VINES WITH HAIL] Hebrew, yakarog bab-baratl gaphnam, ' he killed with hail their vines,' i. f. not every identical tree, but trees throughout the land. This statement is evidence, not only that vines existed in Egypt in the time of Moses, but that the plague of hail extended 'throughout all the land of Egypt* (Exod. ix. 25) as far as the vineyard districts. If gapknam be taken' in its general sense of 'their trees with twigs,' the Psalmist's words coincide with those of the historian, that the storm of hail 'brake every tree of the field.' PSALM LXXVIII. VERSE 65. Then the LORD awaked as one out of sleep, and like a mighty man that shouteth by reason of wine. 124 PSALMS, LXXX.- 8 1 6. LIKE A MIGHTY MAN THAT SHOUTETH BY REASON OF WINE] Hebrew, k&. gibor methronan miy-yayin, ' as a mighty one recovering himself from wine.' The Lxx. and Aquila have Ads dunatos kekraipaleekos ex oinou, ' as a mighty man who has been debauched (or overcome) by wine.' Symmachus gives hus dunatos dialulon ex oinou, 'as a mighty man speaking out from wine.' The V. has tanquam potens crapulatus a vino, 'as a mighty (one) surfeited by wine.' The A. V. derives methronan from ra/inan, f to utter a tremulous sound ' =*= ' to shout ' or 'to wail.' Gesenius, who derives it from run, 'to conquer, to overcome,' agrees with the Lxx. and V. The Syriac gives 'as a man whom his wine sends forth.' But since methronan is in the Hithpael conjugation, frequently used as reflective of Piel, and, similarly to the Middle Voice in Greek, to describe the action of a person upon himself, the passage may be translated, 'like a mighty one (=hero) over- coming (or delivering) himself from wine.' The Ethiopic reads, 'as a mighty one who has cast aside wine.' The T. is emphatic, d'miWpeqath min k/iamar, ' as a man having recovered himself from wine.' The allusion to 'sleep' in the first clause is strongly confirmatory of this reading. By a bold and powerful figure, the God of Israel is conceived as having been insensible to the murderous triumph of His foes. Like a hero who has fallen asleep from the effects of wine sunk into the profoundest of all slumber, but who, having awoke, shakes himself free from the influences of his wine, and is ready to reassert his natural prowess ; so He, the Almighty, casting aside His apparent indifference, has smitten his enemies with resistless majesty. The A. V. brings God before us as acting like a hero when under the maddening power of wine ; but the interpretation now proposed restricts the likeness to the period when the hero, becoming disengaged from his vinous thraldom, goes forth 'conquering, and to conquer.' PSALM LXXX. VERSES 8 16. s Thou hast brought a vine out of Egypt : thou hast cast out the heathen, and planted it. 9 Thou preparedst room before it, and didst cause it to take deep root, and it filled the land. 10 The hills were covered with the shadow of it, and the boughs thereof were like the goodly cedars, n She sent out her boughs unto the sea, and her branches unto the river. 12 Why hast thou then broken down her hedges, so that all they which pass by the way do pluck her ? 13 The boar out of the wood doth waste it, and the wild beast of the field doth devour it. 14 Return, we beseech thee, O God of hosts : look down from heaven, and behold, and visit this vine ; is And the vineyard which thy right hand hath planted, and the branch that thou madest strong for thyself. 16 // is burned with fire, it is cut down : they perish at the rebuke of thy countenance. V. 8. THOU HAST BROUGHT A VINE OUT OF EGYPT] Hebrew, gephen mini- Mitzraim tasstah, 'a vine out of Mizraim (Egypt) thou broughtest.' This sustained personification of Israel as a vine has been greatly admired on ac- count of its elegance and poetical beauty. Doubtless, the image of a vine was chosen by the Psalmist chiefly on account of its appropriateness to the ideas he desired to express ; but the felicitousness of the figure is enhanced from the evidence supplied by scriptural references and monumental pictures, showing that the vine was very PSALMS, CIV. 14, IS- 12$ elaborately and scientifically cultivated in Egypt. To affirm that 'it filled the land ' (ver. 9), and that ' the hills were covered with the shadow of it' (ver. 10), was an allusion to the ancient custom of planting the vine on hill-sides, and carrying it by festoons, stretching from tree to tree, almost to incredible distances. In the language of Greek poetry, " the vine was 'the mistress of trees,' because supporting herself on them as on the shoulders of domestics." V. ii. HER BOUGHS HER BRANCHES] Hebrew, qetziriha yonqothiha, 'he bpughs her suckers.' V. 14. THIS VINE] Hebrew, gephen zoth, 'this vine.' V. 15. AND THE VINEYARD] Hebrew, vl-kannah, 'and the plant.' AND THE BRANCH] Hebrew, vt-al-ban, 'and upon the son,' poetically used fo 'offshoot.' The Lxx. has 'upon the son of man.' PSALM XCIV. VERSE 20. Shall the throne of iniquity have fellowship witji thee, which frameth mischief by a law ? Albert Barnes, in his discourse on this text, observes: "A 'throne of iniquity* is a government founded on iniquity, or that sustains iniquity: such a throne frames mischief by a law, when it protects and patronizes that which is evil, or when those who practice evil may plead that what they do is legal, and may take refuge under the laws of the land. Such a government can have no fellowship with God. His throne is a throne of righteousness : he makes no law to protect or regulate evil. His laws, in relation to all that is wrong, only prohibit and condemn" If the licensed liquor-traffic be judged by its fearful fruits, the laws which create and sanction it are palpably condemned by this passage. No Christian or Jewish citizen should have part in voting into being, laws which are the most prolific fountain of mischief, sin, and misrule, that the world has ever known. PSALM CIV. VERSES 14, 15. i 4 He causeth the grass to grow for the cattle, and herb for the service of man: that he may bring forth food out of the earth; is And wine that maketh glad the heart of man, and oil to make his face to shine, and bread which strengthened man's heart. A more literal translation of the fourteenth verse would be, "Causing grass to grow for the cattle, and grain for the cultivation of man, (so as) to bring forth bread ( =food) from the earth." V. 15. AND WINE THAT MAKETH GLAD THE HEART OF MAN] Hebrew, vf-yayin y^-sammakh te-vav enosh, 'even wine (that) cheers the heart of man.' The Lxx. reads, kai oinos enphrainei kardian anthrof>ott t ' and wine delights the heart of man ' ; the V., ft vinum l&tificet cor hominis, 'and wine may cheer the heart of man.' St Jerome has lak-kois aino, 'when it gives in the vessel its eye.' By 'its eye' is meant the bubble or spark- ling point which modern science has traced to the passing off of the carbonic acid gas generated by fermentation. The V. has cum splenduerit in vitro color ejus, 'when its color glitters in the glass.' WHEN IT MOVETH ITSELF ARIGHT] Hebrew,jft6tfo/fai fcmaishakrim t '(when) it moves in straight lines.' The gas ascending is another indication of fermenta- tion.*" The V. has ingreditur blonde, 'it goes in pleasantly.' V. 32. AT THE LAST] Hebrew, akharitho, ' at its latter end ' = in its issue, when its action is carried on to the end. The V. has sed in novissimo, ' but in its extreme.' IT BITETH LIKE A SERPENT] Hebrew, k^-nakhash yish-shak, 'like a serpent it will bite.' The same word is used of the biting of the fiery serpents in the wilderness (Numb. xxi. 6). The V. has mordebit ut coluber, 'it will bite like a snake.' In Deut. xxxii. 33, intoxicating wine is expressly called 'venom' and ' poison ' ; here the same idea is asserted by a comparison.! AND STINGETH LIKE AN ADDER] Hebrew, uk-tziphoni yaphrash, ' and like a viper it pierces.' The V. has et sicut regulus venena diffundet, 'and like a basilisk it will pour forth poisons. ' V. 33. THINE EYES SHALL BEHOLD STRANGE WOMEN] Hebrew, aineikah yiru zahroth, 'thine eyes shall behold ( = desire) strange women ( = harlots).' The Lxx. has oi ophthalmoi sou hotan idosin allotrian, ' thy eyes when they shall behold a strange woman ' ; the V., oculi tui videbunt extraneas, ' thy eyes shall see strange women.' AND THINE HEART SHALL UTTER PERVERSE THINGS] Hebrew, v$ libkdh yedab&r tapukoth, ' and thy heart shall set forth (or declare) deceits ' ; the Lxx. to stoma sou tote lalecsei skolia, : thy mouth then shall speak perverse things.' Symmachus has strebla, 'twisted things.' The V. reads, et cor tuum loquetitr perversa, 'and thy heart shall utter perverse things.' V. 34. YEA, THOU SHALT BE AS HE THAT LIETH DOWN, etc.] Hebrew, v%- hayitha kl-shokav bllev-yam uk-shokab bt-rosh khobal, ' and thou shall be like one lying down in the heart ( = midst) of the sea, and like one lying down on the top of a mast.' The Lxx. reads, kal katakaisee hosper en kardia thalassees kai * Baron von Liebig, in his ' Chemical Letters,' unconsciously gives a striking testimony to the descriptive accuracy of this text : " The fermentation of grape-juice begins with a chemical action. Oxygen is absorbed from the air ; the juice then becomes colored and turbid (by the falling of the albumen, and the rising of the gas), and the fermentation commences only with the appearance of this precipitate." t We give a single example of the almost incredible carelessness with which one entire aspect of divine truth is sometimes ignored by its professional interpreters : " What does ' wine ' stand for ? Everywhere it is associated with ideas of cheerfulness and joy. It niaketh glad the heart of man. If bread stands for everything which sustains strength, wine stands for everything which is genial, and generous, and animating. It gives fresh life to the faint and the weary: it gives health and vigor to the sick; and the light-hearted drink it in their brightest and happiest hours." Article on UK Lords Supper in* Evangelical Magazine,' July 1867. The sentence begins with the fallacy of using a general term 'wine,' as if it were a single thing, of one quality alone, and then proceeds to explicitly contradict everything asserted of 'wine, the mocker, 1 by the inspired preacher! For sorrow we have joy, for babbling we have 'cheerful' hours, for wounds and discolored countenance we have gladness of heart, for the serpent's poison we have fresh life, for polluted and polluting sensuality we have genial and happy moments. lor perverse utterances and insensibility to shame and pain, we have at last health, vigor, and light- heartedness I 18 138 PROVERBS, XXIII. 29 35. ktiberneetees en polio kludoni, ' and thou shalt lie down as in the heart of the sea, and as a pilot in a heavy storm.' The V. has et eris sicut dormiens in media mari et quasi sopitus gubemator amisso clavo, * and thou shalt be as one asleep in the midst of the sea, and as a steersman fast asleep when the helm is let slip.' V. 35. THEY HAVE STRICKEN ME, SHALT THOU SAY, AND I WAS NOT SICK] Hebrew, hekkuni val-khahlithi, ' they have stricken me, nothing have I cared ' = been affected or pained by it. The Lxx. reads, ereis de tuptousin me kai ouk eponesa, 'and thou shalt say, They smote me, and I was not pained '; the V., et dices, ver- beravcnmt me, sed non dolui, 'and thou shalt say, They have beaten me, but I have not ached.' THEY HAVE ME BEATEN, AND I FELT IT NOT] Hebrew, halamuni, bal-yadahti, 'they have beaten me, nothing have I known (of it).' The Lxx. reads, kai ene- paixan mot, ego de ouk eedein, ' and they mocked me, but I knew it not ' ; the V., traxerunt me et ego non sensi, ' they drew me, and I felt not. ' WHEN SHALL I AWAKE? I WILL SEEK IT YET AGAIN] Hebrew, mahthai ahquitz osiph avaqshennu od, ' when I am roused I will gather myself up, I will seek it again'; the Lxx., pote orthros estai, hina elthon zeeteeso meth'on suneleusomai, ' when will it be morning, that going out I may seek those with whom I may keep company ?' The V. has quando evigilabo, et rursus vina reperiam ? ' when shall I wake, and again find out wines ? ' The whole of this important passage may be thus translated (following the Hebrew text) : " Who has lamentation ? who has sorrow ? who has strifes ? who has brawling ? who has unnecessary wounds ? who has dark discolored eyes ? Those who tarry long at the wine, those who go to seek out mixed wine. Gaze not on wine when it is red, when it gives its bubble in the cup, when it moves, itself straightly ; for the end of it is that it bites like a serpent and pierces like an adder. [If thou dost give thyself to it] thine eyes shall gaze upon abandoned women, and thine heart shall devise deceits. And thou shalt be like one lying in the midst of the sea, and like one lying on the top of a mast ; [and thou wilt say ] They have stricken me, but I have not cared; they have beaten me, but I was not aware. When I am roused, I will gather myself up and seek it yet again." I. The form of this passage is finely and forcibly dramatic. We are to imagine the Wise man musing on the varied characters and classes of mankind, till the vision of an object in whom is concentrated every species of misery rises before him, and he asks, in tones of pity and surprise (ver. 29), "To whom, to what men to what class of men belong this cry of lament, this load of sorrow, this train of strife, this brawling din, these needless wounds, these eyes encircled with livid marks?" And the answer is at hand (ver. 30), "Those are the men those who are sitting long and late over the wine ; those who are hurrying to and fro to seek wine mixed with drugs, to make it more pungent to the palate, and more burning to the brain." To such slaves of drink the royal Preacher points his hearers, and then, turning round, he emphatically exhorts (ver. 31) that each of them would avoid the cause of such shame and suffering, not so much as looking with a longing eye upon the wine when it has become corrupted and corrupting red in color, bubbling on its surface, and moving up and down in straight lines. There, he declares (ver. 31), dwell the serpent's fascination and the serpent's flings. Neglecting this wise counsel, he tells the listener (ver. 33 35) that he will be in danger of looking with a wistful eye on the common prostitute, of making PROVERBS, XXIII. 29 35. 139 his heart a store-room of deceit, and of resembling the man who lies in the bed of the sea or on the topmost mast, rolling hither and thither without any self-control, and confessing that he is insensible to every correction, and that he will only raise himself from his lethargy in order to seek again the cause of all his woes. 2. The passage is divisible into four parts, (i) the internal and external effects of drinking habits; (2) the signs and nature of intoxicating liquor; (3) its demoral- izing influences ; (4) the lessons to be drawn and practised. In the first place, tipplers and lovers of strong drink are miserable contentious in deed and word subject to marks of violence betraying their habits by their disfigured faces. In the second place, the signs of fermented wine are described, so that \heyayin of this passage is clearly distinguished from all yayin of a different kind. To make this point better understood a figure is introduced ; and this yayin is personified as a serpent and adder, bright as the reddest wine, with an eye sparkling as the wine- bubble, and with a power of biting and piercing those who are betrayed into a near approach. In the third place, the demoralizing influences of intoxicating liquor are enume- rated, lust, deceitfulness, want of self-control, incorrigibility, and the insatiate thirst that madly hankers after and pursues the drinker's own worst foe. In the fourth place, the one great lesson to be drawn is condensed into the words, ' Look not upon such wine ' : a precept which is to be observed as literally as can be : for to cast eyes often on what is seductive is to run a risk of seduction: but principally it is to be obeyed in the sense of not looking for and desiring intoxicat- ing liquors, but desiring rather their absence and exclusion. 3. The plea that Solomon here warns against drunkenness only, or the excessive use of intoxicating drink, is contrary to the terms and spirit of the passage. Drinking, in the sense of intoxication, is not necessarily implied at all ; and it is not intoxication, but wins, that is described in ver. 31 ; nor can intoxication be said to bite at the last. It is manifestly the design of the Wise man to point out the PHYSICAL CAUSE cf all the misery and mischief he portrays, and this he finds in the nature of intoxicating liquor, and hence both reason and inspiration constrain him to counsel abstinence even from the desire of an article in which a capacity and tendency of such hurtfulness essentially inhere. When men learn that alco- holic drink abuses them they will cease to talk of the virtue of not abusing //. This fundamental difference, residing in the nature of things, was discerned by Solomon, and it involves that practical distinction which he makes, and which the Temper- ance reformation embodies and proclaims. It is the nature of strong drink to deceive and injure man, therefore it ought not to be desired or drunk. Man may abuse the good, the bad abuses him ; therefore he should disuse it. If there is a flaw in this philosophy it is to be found in the writings of Solomon ; and those who object to the premiss, ' Intoxicating drink is not good,' or to the inference, Therefore it should not be consumed,' ought first to settle their difference with the wisest of men, whose teaching is identical with that of the Temperance system. All, indeed, that can be claimed for that system is a revival of Solomon's doctrine concerning intoxicating drink, and an organized attempt to bring the habits of society into conformity with the wisdom of the Jewish sage. 140 PROVERBS, XXV. 1 6, 2O 22. CHAPTER XXIV. VERSE 30. I went by the field of the slothful, and by the vineyard of the man void of understanding. BY THE FIELD . . . AND BY THE VINEYARD] Hebrew, al-sedd . . kerem, 'by the field . . . and by the plantation.' Here sedeh, an open field, is distinguished from the inclosure, kerem, devoted to the cultivation of the vine and other fruits. It is of the latter that the picture of desolation is drawn in ver. 31 overgrown with thorns and nettles, and the stone wall broken down. CHAPTER XXV. VERSE 16. Hast thou found honey ? eat so much as is sufficient for thee, lest thou be filled therewith, and vomit it. HAST THOU FOUND HONEY?] Hebrew, devash matzahthak, 'honey hast thou found?' [As to devash, see Note on Gen. xliii. II.] LEST THOU BE FILLED THEREWITH] Hebrew, pen-tishbahennu, 'lest thou be satiated therewith.' Sah-bah or sah-bdah, signifies ' to be satisfied to the full ' ; and is generally connected with food in the same relation as rahvah and shahkar with drink and sweet liquors. Luscious things are to be taken in moderation, with strict adaptation to natural wants. Excess is to be avoided, and a caution against this excess is here con- veyed. This evinces that it is a mistake to suppose that a warning against excess implies intoxicating quality in the object. The use of sweet wines in a dis- gusting excess by the Roman ladies is satirized by Juvenal, though it was not attended by inebriation, but by such vomiting as the free use of honey is calculated to excite. CHAPTER XXV. VERSE 20. As he that taketh away a garment in cold weather, and as vinegar upon nitre, so is he that singeth songs to an heavy heart. VINEGAR UPON NITRE] Hebrew, khometz al nattier, 'fermented drink (= vinegar) upon nitre.' This nitre is not the saltpetre of commerce, but a species of potash, which, when compounded with oil, is used in the East as a soap. It is found mixed with the soil in some parts of Syria. Vinegar poured upon this substance makes it effervesce (in the Eastern sense ' ferment '), and this fact is an apt representation of the incongruity involved in singing jovial songs to a heavy keart, the only result of which can be to excite a disagreeable fermentation and irritation of the spirits. The Lxx. reads, ' as vinegar draws a sore, so trouble befalling the body afflicts the heart.' CHAPTR XXV. VERSE 21, 22. 21 If thine enemy be hungry, give him bread to eat ; and if he be thirsty, give him water to drink : 22 For thou shalt heap coals of fire upon his head, and the LORD shall reward thee. PROVERBS, XXV. 25, 2/. \\ <1 14! V. 22. GIVE HIM WATER TO DRINK] Hebrew, hashqahu maim, 'give him to drink water. ' No drink equals water for the assuaging of thirst, and generally all . liquids relieve thirst by virtue of the water they contain. Alcohol, as an irritant and thickener of the blood, creates thirst in proportion to its potency and quantity. On account of their pre-eminent value, bread and water are the fittest representa- tives of all the materials of physical subsistence. CHAPTER XXV. VERSE 25. As cold waters to a thirsty soul, so is good news from a far country. As COLD WATERS TO A THIRSTY SOUL] Hebrew, maim qakrim al-nephesh aiphah, ' cold water to a soul (which is) wearily athirst ' = languishing from thirst. The comparative structure of the proverb is, perhaps, more striking in the Hebrew than as presented in the A. V. ' cold water to a soul wearily athirst, and good news from a far country.' In the heat of a Syrian summer, inexpressibly refreshing, even like good news from a friend in a distant land, is cool water to the parched and fainting frame. CHAPTER XXV. VERSE 27. // is not good to eat much honey : so for men to search their own glory is not glory. IT IS NOT GOOD TO EAT MUCH HONEY] Hebrew, ahkol devash harboth lo tw, ' to eat much honey is not good. ' The Lxx. reads, ' to eat much honey is not good, but to honor venerable sayings is right.' The V. has 'as it is not good to a man to eat much honey, so he who is a searcher of majesty shall be oppressed by glory.' That which is goodflerse is not good to the user if used in excess ; but any use of that which is not good is an act of excess. Honey is good for food, but taken in large quantities is not assimilated as food, and is then not good. The chronicler says that many English under Prince Edward, in Palestine, died from a neglect of this caution. [See Note on xxv. 16. ] The whole proverb reads thus: 'To eat much honey is not good, and to search out their glory, glory.' The comparison is obscure to the modern mind. The A. V. supplies ' not ' before the second ' glory ' to agree with ' not good ' in the first clause. Others propose to read interrogatively ' is it glory ? ' Possibly there is a designed play upon the word kabod, which signifies both ' glory ' and ' heaviness ' ; so that the sense would be, "as eating honey in excess is not good, but oppressive to the stomach, so when men make their own glory an object of search, they are apt to get heaviness for their pains." The vain-glorious are subject to mortifications that weigh like burdens upon their hearts. 142 PROVERBS, XXXI. 4, 5. CHAPTER XXVI. VERSE 9. As a thorn goeth up into the hand of a drunkard, so is a parable in the mouth of fools. AS A THORN GOETH UP INTO THE HAND OF A DRUNKARD] Hebrew, kllOdkh ahlah v^-yad shikkor, ' a thorn goeth into the hand of a drunkard. ' The Lxx. has akanthai phuontai en cheiri methusou, douleia de en cheiri ton aphrondn, ' thorns grow in the hand of a drunkard, but servitude in the hand of the fools.' The V. has quonwdo si spina nascatur in manu temulenti, sic parabola in ore stultorum, 'as if a thorn should grow in the hand of a drunkard, so is a parable in the mouth of fools.' A drunkard not knowing how to grasp a thorn, or mistaking it for something else, it runs into his hand and injures him ; so a fool not knowing how to use a proverb can only abuse it so as to bring ridicule on himself or affront others. Some commentators understand a reference to the insensibility of the drunkard when injuring himself, as illustrative cf the ignorance of the fool who uncon- sciously misapplies the wisest sayings. CHAPTER XXVI. VERSE 21. As coals are to burning coals, and wood to fire ; so is a -conten- tious man to kindle strife. The Arabic reads, ' scurrility is of wine, wood is for the fire, and a litigious man for the raising up of strife ' = wine acts as fuel to scurrility, as wood to a fire, and a quarrelsome man to strife. CHAPTER XXVII. VERSE 9. Ointment and perfume rejoice the heart ; so doth the sweetness of a man's friend by hearty counsel. OINTMENT AND PERFUME REJOICE THE HEART] The Lxx., which is followed by the Arabic, reads, ' the heart delights in ointments, and in wines (kai oinois) and perfumes.' CHAPTER XXXI. VERSES 4, 5. 4 // is not for kings, O Lemuel, if is not for kings to drink wine ; nor for princes strong drink : 5 Lest they drink, and forget the law, and pervert the judgment of any of the afflicted. The Hebrew of the received text is as follows : al lam-melakim Lemoal, al lam-melakim shethoyayin til-rozenim av shakar ; pen-yishteh ve-yishkakh mekhuqqaq vishanneh din kahl benai oni : 'not for kings, Lemuel, not for kings (is it) to drink wine, and (not) for princes desire of strong drink; lest they should drink and forget what is decreed ( = the law), and change ( = subvert) the judgment of" any of the children of affliction.' Instead of av, ' desire,' some MSS. have at, 'where ' ; which, if adopted, would make the passage read, ' and for princes (it is not to ask) where (is) strong drink, lest,' etc. The T. reads, ' hold thyself aloof from kings, * That is, the judgment due to such. PROVERBS, XXXI. 6, 7. 143 Lemuel, from kings who drink wine, and mighty ones who drink strong drink; lest perchance thou shouldst drink and pervert thy cause, and change the judgments of any of the children of the poor.' The Syriac runs, 'of kings, Lemuel, beware, of kings, I say, who drink wine, and of princes who drink strong drink ; lest per- chance thou shouldst forget to declare the law, and by forgetfulness shouldst sur- render the cause of any children of the poor.' In the ' Jewish' School and Family Bible ' Dr Benisch, a learned rabbi of Great Britain, gives the following translation : 'it is not for kings, O Lemuel, it is not for kings to drink wine, nor for princes to covet strong drink ; lest they drink and forget what is established, and alter the verdict of any of the afflicted.' Differing in some respects from these renderings are those of the Lxx. and the V., and most notably the Lxx. : meta boulees panta poiei, mela boulces oinopotei. Oi dunastai thumodeis eisin ; oinon de mee peinetosan, hina met piontt's epilathontai tees sophias kai ortha kreinai ou mee dunontai tons astheneis : ' with counsel do all things, with counsel drink wine. The princes are prone to anger, let them then not drink wine, in order that they may not forget wisdom when drinking, and may not be able rightly to judge the weak.' Aquila and Theodotion give 'and shall change the judgment of the sons of the poor man.' The V. is noli regibus, O Lemuel, noli regibus dare vinum ; quia nullum secretum est ubi regnat cbrietas ; ft ne forte bibant et obliviscantur judiciorum, et mutent causam filiorum panperis ; 'be thou unwilling, O Lemuel, be unwilling to give wine to kings ; because nothing is secret where ebriety reigns and lest perchance they should drink and be forgetful of judicial rules, and should change the cause of the children of the poor. Obs. It is now impossible to explain the introduction of the curious prefix contained in the Lxx., 'do all things with counsel, with counsel drink wine.' Possibly it may have once formed a marginal note, and have been incorporated with the text by some subsequent but very early transcriber. It is observable that no such unwise limitation is to be found in the Hebrew of this or any other inspired text. All the versions agree in the injunction against the use of wine by kings and prkices, and in the reason assigned for the injunction namely, the danger that by using wine they should be unfitted for their judicial duties, which, in ancient times, kings frequently discharged in person. Probably we have in this passage of Holy Writ a fragment of the ' wisdom of Egypt ' which is said to have incul- cated abstinence from intoxicating drink upon the Pharaohs. [See Note on Gen. xl. II.] Nothing is known of Lemuel or of his mother, the ostensible speaker. Some critics think that the first ten verses of this chapter form a short ethical lesson, originally addressed to an Arabian king. Whatever force is contained in the reason assigned for abstinence in rulers and judges under the old dispensation, is applicable (& fortiori) to every position in Christian life where the possession of a clear, sound judgment is needed ; and what are the circumstances where such a blessing can be wisely rejected or imperilled ? CHAPTER XXXI. VERSES 6, 7. 6 Give strong drink unto him that is ready to perish, and wine unto those that be of heavy hearts. 7 Let him drink, and forget his poverty, and remember his misery no more. The Hebrew is as follows : lenu shakar K-ovad vZ-yayin ftmahrai naphesh, yishteh vt-yishkakh risho, vaamahlo lo yizkar od : ' give strong drink to the 144 PROVERBS, XXXI. 6, 7. perishing one, and wine to those bitter of spirit; let him drink and forget his poverty, and his sorrow not remember again.' The T. reads, 'give strong drink to the mournful, and wine to those who are bitter in soul; that they may drink and forget their indigence, and not longer remember their mean attire.' The Syriac has ' let strong drink be granted to the mournful, and wine to those of bitter soul ; that they may drink and forget their sorrows, and may not further recall their calamities.' The Lxx. has didote metheen tois en lupais, kai oinon peinein tois en odunais, hina epilatJwntai tees penias kai ton ponon me mneesthosin eti: 'give ye strong drink to those in griefs, and wine to drink to those in pains, in order that they may be forgetful of the poverty, and of their troubles have no remembrance any more.' The V. reads, date siceram mxrentibzis et vinum his qui amaro sunt animo. Bibant et ebliviscantur egestatis sua, et doloris sid non recordentur amplius : ' give ye strong drink to the mournful, and wine to those who are of bitter soul. Let them drink and forget their indigence, and of their grief have not a remembrance any longer.' So far as the words go, we have here a plain prescription to ' drown sorrow in drink ' ; but we may well question whether such could have ever been the intention of an inspired writer. To deter- mine the true meaning of these verses, therefore, is of considerable importance, both as a point of morals and of Temperance doctrine. 1. Some regard the passage as an allusion to the exceptional practice of giving intoxicating and stupefying potions to criminals before execution : but the allusion, if such, is a sanction and even command ; and the pious mind must revolt from the thought of a Scripture exhortation to make men drunk and unconscious at the approach of death. The great Exemplar, when about to die, was offered 'wine mingled with myrrh,' but it is recorded that He refused it. Could the 'Spirit that was in Christ' ever have testified adversely to this ? 2. The theory that what is recommended is a moderate use of intoxicating liquor as a cordial in time of trouble, is contrary to the natural sense of the words and to the result described complete oblivion of earthly care. Besides, can intoxicating drink be properly recommended in any quantity as an antidote to trouble ? Han- nah did not think so (see Note on I Sam. i. 15). St James writes, ' Is any afflicted ? let him pray ' not fly to the bottle. All experience shows that to use alcoholic fluid for mitigating grief is to subject one's self to a special danger, amounting to moral certainty, of contracting habits of intemperance. Under such conditions the system is doubly susceptible of the delusive influence of alcoholics. 3. If the passage is to be construed as a serious recommendation, it is nothing short of a direct injunction to get intoxicated; advice which could not fail to be stigmatised (i) as most irrational, because certain to multiply care and trouble; (2) as radically opposed to the tenor of Scripture teaching; and (3) as utterly immoral, by giving encouragement to the mother and mistress of all the lowest vices of mankind. 4. An attempt has been made to cut the knot by translating the principal terms so as to exclude all reference to wine and strong drink. It is true that by falling back upon mere etymology, and rendering yayin 'pressure,' and shakar 'reward,' 'bribe,' or 'gift,' an entirely new turn is given to the passage, which is thus paraphrased: " It is not for kings and princes to receive gifts or bribes, lest (so accepting) they forget the law, pervert the claim of any of the afflicted. Give gifts (rather) to him that is ready to perish, and to those that be of heavy heart; PROVERBS, XXXI, 6, 7. 145 let him accept [orig. drink] them, and forget his poverty, and remember his misery no more." It cannot, however, be supposed that gifts to kings and princes are indiscriminately to be condemned, or that indiscriminate almsgiving to the poor is to be commended. Besides, the critical objections to this new translation are insuperable, (i) Yayin is never elsewhere used in the sense imparted to it; and what can be meant by giving ' pressure ' to the poor ? (2) The connection of yayin with shakar determines the meaning of shaken beyond all fair question.* (3) The allusion to drinking as a cause of loss of judgment and memory is too clear to be mistaken. 5. Any interpretation of verses 6 and 7 which is to preserve their harmony with morality and religion, must exclude from the initial word tenu, 'give thou,' the force of a recommendation or command, (i) It may be regarded as logical, and not mandatory; not as 'do give,' but 'should you give,' then such and such will be the result. The sense would then be tantamount to this : 'It is not becoming in kings and princes to drink wine and strong drink, lest they forget the law and pervert the rights of others ; though, should such drink be given to the afflicted, they will simply drink and forget their own cares and become unconscious of their own misfortunes.' The grammatical concord supports this view; for it is not ' Give wine and strong drink to the afflicted, and make them forget their troubles,' but ' Give them wine and strong drink, and the afflicted one will drink (yishteK), and he will forget (yishkekh) his distress.' This usus loquendi is to be found in the proverbs of all languages. In our own we say, ' Set a beggar on horseback, [not meaning ' do set him,' but * if you set him,' theri\ he will ride to perdition/ ' Give some people an inch, and they will take an ell. ' This may be defined as the logical imperative, in distinction from the ethical. (2) The imperative tenu, 'give thou,' maybe regarded as a term of conditional comparison. Kings and princes (verses 4 and 5) are not to use wine and strong drink because inimical to mental clearness and judicial integrity ; but if not fit for those who owe important duties towards others, what are they fit for ? The answer is supplied (verses 6 and 7): 'Give them if at all to the perishing and careworn, who will find in them oblivion from the very memory of their sorrows.' This, observe, is not a contradiction, but an amplification, of the thought developed in verses 4 and 5, The alternative advice of the text may be thus modernly expressed: "Better drink so that you forget your own cares, than, occupying a position of influence and trust, you should drink and do injury to others." The whole passage may be viewed as a declarative medal; on whose obverse side is inscribed, "Intoxicating liquors are not fit for those who have to think and act for others " ; on the reverse, "Intoxicating liquors are only fit for those who wish to lose the power of think- ing and acting for themselves." Can any stronger condemnation be passed upon inebriating compounds of every name? To whom has the Creator given per- *The Masoritesy-so called because about the seventh century of the Christian era they accen- tuated and otherwise edited the Hebrew Scriptures according to masora (tradition) discriminate between s h-k-r as 'strong drink' and sh-k-r as 'reward' or 'wages,' by so marking the latter 'sh' that it maybe pronounced ' s,' sak-kar. Whether they are right or not in so doing, any reader, however ignorant of Hebrew, might see that the words do express very different tilings, and that the context in every case supports the distinction made by the English translators. Possibly the use of sh-k-r in the sense of ' reward ' or ' wages ' was derived from the generic sense of 'sweetness ' : but the distinction must have been made at a very remote period, and when made, a difference of pronunciation (which the Masorites may have preserved) would naturally be adopted to indicate the difference of object present to the mind. 19 146 PROVERBS, XXXI. 1 6. mission to drown affliction in the wine-cup ? With a voice of infinite pity, the Son of God, addressing the afflicted and perishing, exclaims, "Come unto Me, all ye that labor and are heavy laden, and I WILL GIVE YOU REST." * CHAPTER XXXI. VERSE 16. She considereth a field, and buyeth it : with the fruit of her hands she planteth a vineyard. SHE PLANTETH A VINEYARD] Hebrew, nahtah karem, ' she planteth a culti- vated enclosure,' or 'sets out a plantation.' Kerent here is distinguished from sadeh (in the first clause), *an open field.' The Lxx. has katepheusen kteema t * she planted a possession ' ; the V., plantavit vineam, ' she planted a vineyard.' The late Sir W. a' Beckett, ex-Chief Justice of Victoria, has beautifully expressed the unwisdom of seeking consolation in the cup which mocks: IN VINO FALSITAS. Grief banished by wine will come again, And come with a deeper shade, Leaving, perchance on the soul a stain, Which sorrow had never made. Then fill not the tempting glass for me ; If mournful, I will not be mad ; Better sad, because we are sinful, be, Than sinful because we are sad. THE BOOK OF ECCLESIASTES. CHAPTER II. VERSE 3. I sought in mine heart to give myself unto wine, yet acquainting mine heart with wisdom ; and to lay hold on folly, till I might see what was that good for the sons of men, which they should do under the heaven all the days of their life. I SOUGHT IN MINE HEART TO GIVE MYSELF UNTO WINE] Hebrew, tarti vl-libe limshok bay-yayin tth-blsari, * I sought in my heart to draw out my body (or flesh) with wine. ' The Lxx. has kateskepsameen ei hee kardia mou helkusen hos oinos ten sarka mou, ' and I examined whether my heart would draw, as wine, my flesh ' ; the V., cogitavi in corde meo abstrahere d vino carnent meam> 'I thought in my heart to withdraw my flesh from wine.' The T. has 'to draw my flesh into the house of the banquet of wine.' The Hebrew mahshak signifies 'to draw, 1 'to continue,' ' to spread ' ; hence Gesenius and others construe the passage ' I sought in my heart to make my body strong with wine.' It would be interesting to know how St Jerome came to write d vino, ' from wine.' The bay-yayiu of the Received Text can bear this rendering only by taking ' ' in the infrequent sense of ' against,' which could hardly be assigned to it here. YET ACQUAINTING MINE HEART WITH WISDOM] Hebrew, v l-libe nokag bakkak- mah, 'and my heart acting (or urging) with wisdom,' or 'cleaving to wisdom.' The Lxx. has kai kardia mou hodeegeesen en sophia, ' and my heart guided (me) with wisdom'; the V., ut animum meum transferrem ad sapientiam, devitarem- que stultitiam, ' that I might carry over my mind to wisdom, and avoid folly. 1 CHAPTER II. VERSE 4. I made me great works; I builded me houses; I planted me vineyards. I PLANTED ME VINEYARDS] Hebrew, nahtati li kerahmim, 'I planted for my- self vineyards,' or 'set out plantations.' Ver. 5 has a reference to gannoth u-phardasim, translated in A. V. ' gardens ' and ' orchards. ' Gannoth, from ganan, * to cover,' seems to denote conservatories ; and pardanm, 'paradises,' pleasure- grounds laid out around the royal dwelling. 148 ECCLESIASTES, IX. /. CHAPTER II. VERSE 24. There is nothing better for a man, than that he should eat and drink, and that he should make his soul enjoy good in his labor. This also I saw, that it was from the hand of God. AND DRINK] Hebrew, ve-shahthath, 'and he has drunk.' The same phrase recurs, chap. iii. 13; and one similar, chap. v. 18; viii. 15. CHAPTER VII. VERSE 29. Lo, this only have I found, that God hath made man upright ; but they have sought out many inventions. UPRIGHT] Hebrew, yahshar, 'straight '= upright or just. MANY INVENTIONS] Hebrew, khishvonoth rabim, 'many devices.' Revelation as well as reason explodes the fallacy of confounding nature with art ; the work done by means of Divine power lent us, with the work which, being 'upright' and 'fit,' expresses the Divine will and wisdom. The distinction is a cardinal one in ethics, the denial of which would destroy all moral distinctions and responsibility, by identifying the moral quality of all actions as equally divine, since there is no power that is not of God. [See Note on Acts xvii. 29.] The simple existence of an act cannot vindicate its 'uprightness,' which is a relation of adaptedness. Not everything that man, ' the reasoning animal,' has contrived, is entitled to the distinction of ' reasonable,' much less of a Divine origin. The ' inventions ' of man, the offspring of his understanding, must be compared with the standard of that natural uprightness according to which he was himself created. The true and final test of their uprightness is their fitness to make mankind happier and better. If they cannot endure this test they stand condemned in their own nature. It is in vain to point to the actual manufacture of intoxicating liquor in almost incomputable quantities, and at enormous cost, as a proof that they are designed for use; since, if their influence on man's material and moral condition is evil rather than good, the application of human intelligence to their preparation is but another evidence that though God made man upright, he has abused his faculties by contriving inventions that are at once the monuments and the instruments of his shame. CHAPTER IX. VERSE 7. Go thy way, eat thy bread with joy, and drink thy wine with a merry heart; for God now accepteth thy works. EAT THY BREAD WITH JOY] Hebrew, ekol besimkhah lakhmekah, 'eat with gladness thy bread'; the Lxx., phage en euphrozunee ton arton sou, 'eat with joyfulness thy bread'; the V., comede in la;titia panem tuum, 'eat with gladness thy bread.' AND DRINK THY WINE WITH A MERRY HEART] Hebrew, u-shtha ve-lev-tov yaynekah, 'and drink with a good heart thy wine.' The Lxx. reads, kai pie en kardia agathee oinou sou, ' and drink with a good heart thy wine ' ; the V., et bibe cum gaudia vinum tuum, 'and drink with joy thy wine.' The T. represents this language as prophetic of what God shall say to the good in the world to come, ECCLESIASTES, X. I/, 19. 149 " Drink with a joyous heart the wine stored up for thee in the garden of Eden, on account of the wine which thou hast mingled for the poor and lonely when athirst." Where God accepteth man's works, he is justified in partaking of the Divine bounties with a joyful and merry heart, whether the produce of the field or the vineyard. The condition that this fruit is good in itself is presupposed, and corn which has been mildewed, or yayin which has passed into the state of a 'mocker,' is excluded from the nature of the case. Those who conclude that the wine approved in Scripture must have been intoxicating because said to give pleasure, are refuted by this very passage, in which the eating of 'bread' is associated with ' gladness ' simkhah, a term descriptive of the highest delight. CHAPTER X. VERSE 17. Blessed art thou, O land, when thy king is the son of nobles, and thy princes eat in due season, for strength, and not for drunkenness. AND NOT FOR DRUNKENNESS] Hebrew, vt-lo vashti, 'and not for drinking '= carousing, or gluttony. The Lxx. has kai ouk aischuntheesontai, ' and shall not be ashamed,' having evidently read boshu, the third person plural preterite of bush y 'to be ashamed.' The V. has et non ad luxuriam, 'and not for luxury.' As 'eating 1 includes 'eating and drinking,' so 'drinking' here includes all table excess. The rule of eating for strength, to recruit and benefit the body, and not for animal indulgence is an admirable definition of physical temperance ; and happy would be our land, if not its princes only, but its people, would make that rule the law of their lives. The ' pleasures of the table ' are not to be discarded in so far as they are subservient to the principal purpose of all eating the health and sup- port of the body. Whatever in degree, or kind, is inconsistent with this purpose ought to be faithfully and conscientiously rejected. CHAPTER X. VERSE 19. A feast is made for laughter, and wine maketh merry : but money answereth all things. A FEAST is MADE FOR LAUGHTER] Hebrew, liskhoq osim lekhem, ' for laughter they make bread.' So the Lxx., eis gelota poiousin arton, 'for laughter they make bread ' ; and the V., in risum fadunt pattern. AND WINE MAKETH MERRY] Hebrew, vt-yayin yesammakh khayim, 'and wine will rejoice the living.' The Lxx., Codex B, has kaioinon kai elainon tou euphran- theenai zdntas, ' and (they make) wine and oil that the living may rejoice.' The V. reads, et vinum ut epulentur viv en/ts, 'and wine that the living may feast.' The T. reads, ' and the wine which they mingle for the thirsty shall be to them for & joy in the age to come.' Nothing here said renders it needful to associate the idea of ' wine ' with an intoxicating quality ; and in taking the juice of the grape as God has created it, enjoyment and thankfulness may most completely and fitly blend. THE BOOK OF CANTICLES, OR SONG OF SOLOMON. CHAPTER I. VERSE 2. For thy love is better than wine. Hebrew, tovim dodikah miy-yayin, 'good (are) thy loves above wine.' So the Lxx., huperoinon, 'above wine'; and V., vino, 'than wine.' CHAPTER I. VERSE 4. We will remember thy love more than wine. MORE THAN WINE] Hebrew, miy-yayin; Lxx., huper oinon ; V., super CHAPTER I. VERSE 6. They made me the keeper of the vineyards ; but mine own vine- yard have I not kept. KEEPER OF THE VINEYARDS] Hebrew, notarah eth-hak-k%ramim t 'keeper of the vineyards.' MINE OWN VINEYARD] Hebrew, karmi shelli, 'my vineyard, that which is mine '= even mine. CHAPTER I. VERSE 14. My beloved is unto me as a cluster of camphire in the vineyards of En-gedi. A CLUSTER OF CAMPHIRE] Hebrew, eshkol hak-kopher, ' a bunch of cypress ' ; the Lxx., kupros, "a shrub or small tree, with whitish odoriferous flowers growing in clusters ; the Lawsonia inermis of Linnaeus, called kopher in Hebrew [from kaphar, 'to cover'], as has been well suggested by Job Simonis, from a powder being made of its leaves, with which, when mixed with water, women in the East smear over their nails so as to make them of a red color for the sake of orna- ment." (Gesenius.) CANTICLES, II. 4, 5, 13. 151 IN THE VINEYARDS OF EN-GEDi] Hebrew, bt-karniai Ain gtdi, 'in the vine- yards (or plantations) of Engedi.' Ain-gedi (signifying ' the fountain of the kid') was the name of a town (probably also of a district) situated near the Dead Sea, and abounding in palm trees. Some versions read, 'to those in Gaddi.' The Targum of the Canticles is an attempt to convert the imagery of this glowing idyl into a relation by Solomon, half historical, half prophetical, concerning the Jewish State. One illustrative extract is selected, bearing upon the use of wine in the Levitical rites : " Moses commanded the sons of Aaron, who were priests, that they should offer oblations upon the altar, and that they should pour out wine upon the oblations. Whence, however, could they procure the wine thus to pour out ? How could they get it in that desert place which was not fit to be sowed, and where no fig trees, or vines, or pomegranate trees grew ? But they went to the vineyard of Engedi, and they brought thence clusters of grapes, and they expressed from them wine tyatzrin min'hon khamar}, and they poured out from it upon the altar the fourth part of a hin upon each ram." Later on, the T. refers to 'red wine and white wine ' (khamar summaq v'khamar khiwar) as having been poured out upon the altar. CHAPTER II. VERSES 4, 5. 4 He brought me to the banqueting house, and his banner over me was love. 5 Stay me with flagons, comfort me with apples : for I am sick of love. V. 4- To THE BANQUETING HOUSE] Hebrew, el baith hay~yayin> 'to the house of wine ' a cool recess or cave in the royal gardens. The Lxx. , eis oikon tou oinou, ' into a house of the wine. ' Symmachus, eis ton oindna ' into the wine- cellar.' So the V. V. 5. STAY ME WITH FLAGONS] Hebrew, samkani ba-ashishoth, 'sustain me with cakes-of-grapes. ' The Lxx., steeiisate me en murois, ' support me with per- fumes.' V.,fulcite mefioribi4s, ' stay me with flowers.' Symmachus, epanaklinete me in anthei t 'make me recline on a flower.' Aquila, steeresate me oinanthon t 'support me with vine-flowers.' [As to ASHISHOTH, see Prel. Dis., and Notes on 2 Sam. vi. 19; I Chron. COMFORT ME WITH APPLES] Hebrew, rapduni bat-tapukhim> ' refresh me with apples.' The Hebrew tapuakh had a width of meaning like the Latin pomum, in- cluding all round apple-like fruit, such as the peach, melon, citron. Lxx., stoi- basate me en meelois, ' stay me with quinces.' V., stipate me ma/is, ' fill me with apples.' CHAPTER II. VERSE 13. The fig tree putteth forth her green figs, and the vines with the tender grape give a good smell. Arise, my love, my fair one, and come away. AND THE VINES WITH THE TENDER GRAPE GIVE A GOOD SMELL] Hebrew, vl-hag-gcphanim slmahdar, nathntt raiakh, 'and the vines (are in) blossom, they give forth sweet-odor.' The A. V. agrees with the Mishna in taking slmahdar 152 CANTICLES, V. I. to signify 'the tender grape' the grape first out in bloom. Lxx., ai ampdoi kuprizoiisin edkoan osmeen, ' the vines are in flower, they have given a scent.' Symmachus, ton ampelon hee oinanthee, 'the flower of the vines.' V., vinece florentes, dederunt odorem suum, ' the vineyards are flowering ; they have given their odor.' Pliny (chap. xiv. 2) states that no odor excels in pleasantness that of the flowering vine, ubicumquc pubescentium odori nulla suavitas prefertur. CHAPTER II. VERSE 15. Take us the foxes, the little foxes, that spoil the vines : for our vines have tender grapes. THE FOXES] Hebrew, shuahlim, 'jackals,' which abounded in Palestine. Lxx. alopekasy V. vutpes, 'foxes.' Aristophanes compares soldiers who despoil countries to foxes who spoil vineyards; and Galen says that hunters eat foxes fattened on autumnal grapes. The Syrian jackal is as great a spoiler of vineyards as the common fox elsewhere. THE VINES] Hebrew, kerahmim, 'vineyards.' The shtiahlim 'spoil' lay waste not only particular vines, but whole vineyards. FOR OUR VINES HAVE TENDER GRAPES] Hebrew, u-keramainu stmahdar, * and our vineyards (are in) blossom.' Lxx., kuprizousai, 'are flowering.' V.,jfl0ruif t is flowering.' CHAPTER IV. VERSE 10. How much better is thy love than wine! THAN WINE] Hebrew, miy-yayin t 'above wine' (as in chap. i. 2). CHAPTER V. VERSE i. I am come into my garden, my sister, my spouse : I have gathered my myrrh with my spice; I have eaten my honeycomb with my honey; I have drunk my wine with my milk: eat, O friends; drink, yea, drink abundantly, O beloved. I HAVE DRUNK MY WINE WITH MY MILK] Hebrew, shahthithi yayni im kha- lahvi, 'I have drunk my wine with my milk.' Lxx., 'I have drunk my wine (oinon moil) with my milk.' V., vinum meum, 'my wine.' The pure juice of the grape would form a suitable companion beverage with the fresh flowing milk, and both might be drunk freely, even by tender women, without injury either to body or mind. DRINK, YEA, DRINK ABUNDANTLY, O BELOVED] Hebrew, sh&hu v2-shikru dodim, 'drink, and drink to fulness, O loved ones.' Lxx.,/*>& kai methustheete adelphoi, 'drink, and be satiated, O brothers.' V., bibite el inebriamini charts- simi, ' drink and be filled to the full, ye dearest. ' Here, beyond all cavil, the Hebrew shakar, the Greek methuo, and the Latin inebrio, have reference to ' plentiful drinking ' ; none at all to an intoxicating effect of what is drunk. CANTICLES, VII. 2, 7, 8, 9. 153 CHAPTER VI. VERSE n. I went down into the garden of nuts to see the fruits of the valley, and to see whether the vine flourished, and the pomegranates budded. To SEE WHETHER THE VINE FLOURISHED] Hebrew, liroth hapharkhah hag- gephfn, 'to see the budding of the vine.' Lxx. idein ei centheesen hee ampelos, 'to see if the vine is in flower.' V., inspicerem si floruisset vinea, 'that I might observe if the vineyard had flowered.' CHAPTER VII. VERSE 2. Thy navel is like a round goblet, which wanteth not liquor. LIQUOR] Hebrew, ham-mazeg, 'the mixture.' Mczeg is equivalent to mesek, and alludes here not to a ' mixture ' composed of intoxicating and inflaming drugs, but to such a sweet and healthful potion as Wisdom is said to mingle for her friends. [See Note on Prov. ix. 2, 5.] Lxx., krama, 'mixed -liquor.' V., iS) 'in cups.' CHAPTER VII. VERSE 7. This thy stature is like to a palm tree, and thy breasts to clusters of grapes. A PALM TREE] Hebrew, tahmar. Lxx., phoiniki, to a palm tree.' V., Palmes^ 'to a palm tree.' THE CLUSTERS OF GRAPES] Hebrew, tt-cshkeloth, 'to clusters.' Lxx., tois botrusin, 'to the grape-clusters.' V., botris, 'to grape-bunches.' Gesenius thinks ' clusters of dates ' are meant, which would carry out the figure of the palm tree ; but analogy supports the A. V. in supplying 'of grapes.' CHAPTER VII. VERSE 8. I said, I will go up to the palm tree, I will take hold of the boughs thereof: now also thy breasts shall be as clusters of the vine, and the smell of thy nose like apples. As CLUSTERS OF THE VINE] Hebrew, kt-eshkeloth hag-gephen, 'as clustered branches of the vine.' So the Lxx., hos botrues tees ampelou, and the V., sicut botri vinece. CHAPTER VII. VERSE 9. And the roof of thy mouth like the best wine for my beloved, that goeth d(nvn sweetly, causing the lips of those that are asleep to speak. AND THE ROOF OF THY MOUTH] Hebrew, vt-khikhak t ' and thy palate.' "The palate seems (here) to be delicately put for the moisture of the mouth perceived in kisses." (Gesenius.) 154 CANTICLES, VIII. 2. LIKE THE BEST WINE] Hebrew, ke-yayn hat-tw, 'like the wine of the good'= like very good wine. Lxx., hos oinos ho agathos, 'as wine, the good (kind") ' ho (the) being emphatic; but Codex A is without the ho. V., sicut vinum optimum, 'as the best wine.' THAT GOETH DOWN SWEETLY] Hebrew, holak IZ-dodi ll-maisharim, 'going to my beloved according to straightnesses '= rightly. Lxx., poreuomenos to adelphido mou eis euthuteeta, ' going to my kinsman in a straight way.' V., dignum dilecto meo ad potandum, ' fit for my beloved to drink. ' Symmachus, harmozon t<> agapeeto mou eis eidhuteeta, ' fitted to my beloved in a straight line.' CAUSING THE LIPS OF THOSE WHO ARE ASLEEP TO SPEAK] Hebrew, dwav siphthai yishanim, ' flowing over the lips of the sleeping.' Lxx., hikanoumenos cheilesi mou kai odousin, ' satisfying to my lips and teeth.' V., labiisque et denti- bus illius ad ruminandum, 'and (fit for him) to ruminate with his lips and teeth.' Symmachus, prostithemenos cheilesi, ' applied to the lips.' CHAPTER VII. VERSE 12. Let us get up early to the vineyards ; let us see if the vine flourish, whether the tender grape appear, and the pomegranates bud forth : there will I give thee my loves. To THE VINEYARDS] Hebrew, lak-keramim, 'to the vineyards.' IF THE VINE FLOURISH] Hebrew, im parkhah hag-gephen, ' whether buds the vine'; the Lxx., ei eentheesen hee ampelos, 'if the vine flowers'; V., si florunt vineas y 'if the vineyards are in flower.' WHETHER THE TENDER GRAPE APPEARS] Hebrew, pittakh has-s^mahdar, '(whether) opens out the blossom (or young grape)'; Lxx., eentheesen ho kuprismosy '(if) the blossom has flowered'; V., si flores fructus parturiunt, 'if the flowers of the fruit put forth.' AND THE POMEGRANATES BUD FORTH] Hebrew, kanatzu harimmonim, ' (whether) are bright (or flourish) the pomegranates.' [As to Rimmonim t see Note on I Sam. xiv. 2. ] CHAPTER VIII. VERSE 2. I would cause thee to drink of spiced wine of the juice of my pomegranate. OF SPICED WINE OF THE JUICE OF MY POMEGRANATE] Hebrew, miy-yayin hareqakh) ma-asis rimmoni, ' from the wine of the spice, from the fresh juice of my pomegranate.' Yayin hareqakh, ' wine of the spice, ' is equivalent to ' spiced (or seasoned) wine.' A sis is used of the newly expressed juice of the grape [see Prel. Dis., and Notes on Joel i. 5 ; iv. 18; Amos ix. 10], but is here applied to the fresh juice of the pomegranate. It is doubtful whether 'the juice of my pome- granate ' is identical with ' the spiced-wine' ; or whether the yayin was mixed with the 'juice of the pomegranate,' and so was rendered ' spiced'; or whether the yayin was otherwise spiced and drunk along with the pomegranate juice. The Lxx. has apo oinou tou murepsikou, apo namatos rhoon mou, ' from the myrrhed-wine, from my juice [spring] of the pomegranates'; Symmachus, 'from prepared wine'; V., CANTICLES, VIII. II, 12. 155 ex vino condito ft mustum malorum granatorum meorum, ' from prepared wine and must of my apples.' Instead of 'spiced,' the Syriac and the Arabic have 'sweetest.' CHAPTER VIII. VERSE n. Solomon had a vineyard at Baal-hamon; he let out the vineyard unto keepers ; every one for the fruit thereof was to bring a thousand pUccs of silver. A VINEYARD] Hebrew, ktrtm, 'vineyard.' THE VINEYARD] Hebrew, eth-hak-kertm, 'the vineyard.' CHAPTER VIII. VERSE 12. My vineyard, which is mine, is before me: thou, O Solomon, must have a thousand, and those that keep the fruit thereof two hundred. MY VINEYARD] Hebrew, karmi, 'my vineyard.' THE BOOK OF THE PROPHET ISAIAH. [ISAIAH PROPHESIED ABOUT THE YEAR 7$0 B. C.] CHAPTER I. VERSE 8. And the daughter of Zion is left as a cottage in a vineyard, as a lodge in a garden of cucumbers, as a besieged city. As A COTTAGE IN A VINEYARD] Hebrew, k&ukkah b^karem, ' as a booth (made of leaves and branches) in a vineyard.' CHAPTER I. VERSES 16, 17. 16 Wash you, make you clean ; put away the evil of your doings from before mine eyes; cease to do evil; 17 Learn to do well; seek judgment, relieve the oppressed, judge the fatherless, plead for the widow. The real evidence of all repentance, and the essential condition of all acceptance with God, is the desire of amendment a desire which, wherever it exists, neces- sarily prompts to the avoidance of known evil and its causes. If the people of this nation should sincerely repent of the national sin of intemperance, their abhorrence of it would lead them to shun all degrees of it and all participation in its sources ; and until this repentance is experienced, all professions of regret, and all efforts to palliate the effects or materially to modify the symptoms of the disease, will neither satisfy God nor accomplish an abiding cure. CHAPTER I. VERSE 22. Thy silver is become dross, thy wine mixed with water. THY WINE MIXED WITH WATER] Hebrew, sahvak mahhul barn-maim, 'thy soveh is cut with water.' Lxx., oi kapeeloi sou misgousi ton oinon hudati, 'thy hucksters (low taverners or vintners) mix the wine with water.' Aquila has sumposion sou, 'thy banquet' (drinking-feast) ; Symmachus, ho oinos sou, 'thy wine.' The T. has khamraik, ' thy wine ' ; V., vinum tuum mistum est aqua, ' thy wine has been mixed with water.' Soveh, = 'that which is eagerly sucked up* ISAIAH, III. I. 157 [see Prel. Dis.], here manifestly denotes some luscious preparation, probably of boiled grape-juice, fifah-al, 'to cut,' ' prune,' or ' circumcise,' is a figure for the dilution commonly practised by the lower class of liquor venders, who tried to pass off a thin watery article for the superior and genuine soveh. The idiom is common in the East, and is to be found in the poet Martial (Ep. i. 18), jugulare vetat Falernum, ' he forbids the Falernian (wine) to have its throat cut ' = to have its strength diminished. Dr Gill quotes Gussetius as suggesting that mahal is con- tracted from meholal, which signifies 'infatuated,' so that the meaning would be 'thy wine is infatuated into water.' The erudite author of ' Tirosh lo Yayin ' traces to soveh the Latin sapa, which was must boiled down to one-third its original bulk, and by an apt quotation from Varro (lib. i., cap. 54) shows how the figure of circumcision might come to be applied to wine unduly diluted with water. Varro, speaking of grapes that had been trodden and then put under the press, adds, " When the must has ceased to flow from the press some persons circumcise the extremities (of the grape-mass) and press again, and what results from the second pressure they call circumcisitum " cum desiit sub prelo fiuere, quidem circumcidunt extrema, et rursus premunt, et rttrsus cum expressum circumcisitum appellant. He also cites Cato (xxiii. 76) as applying to the wine made from a similar pressure of grape husks, etc., the name of vinum circumcidaneum, and Columella (xii. 36) the name of vinum circumcisiviim. CHAPTER II. VERSE 8. Their land also is full of idols ; they worship the work of their own hands, that which their own fingers have made. This may be truly said of the monster idols of Great Britain fermented and distilled liquors of every quality, color, and denomination, and of the temples of Bacchus and Tobaccos. The land is 'full of them.' Evil drinks occupy tens of thousands of breweries, distilleries, warehouses, cellars, and shops, and in the more than religious homage which millions pay to them, we have an example, the most painful and shameful, of the worship that men render to * the work of their own hands.' CHAPTER III. VERSE i. For, behold, the Lord, the LORD of hosts, doth take away from Jerusalem and from Judah the stay and the staff, the whole stay of bread, and the whole stay of water. Bread and water are here described as the two stays or supports of physical existence bread, the one typical food; water, the one essential liquid. Unlike such imaginary and fictitious supports as alcoholic beverages, these have no ten- dency to excite a morbid appetite, and if taken even to excess they can never generate moral and social evils of a malignant and destructive kind. The wisdom and goodness of God are displayed in withholding from the materials constituting our daily sustenance any property prompting to their abuse, and any power, if abused, to pervert reason and deprave the soul. He provideth no 'deceitful meat,' no drink that 'mocks' and 'deceives.' Articles possessing such characteristics must, in reason, be set aside as neither essential nor useful to health and vigor. 158 ISAIAH, V. I, 2, 3. CHAPTER V. VERSE i. Now will I sing to my well-beloved a song of my beloved touching his vineyard. My well-beloved hath a vineyard in a very fruitful hill. TOUCHING HIS VINEYARD] Hebrew, le-karmo, 'concerning his vineyard. 1 The Lxx. has ' to my vineyard. ' A VINEYARD] Hebrew, kerem. So in ver. 6 also. IN A VERY FRUITFUL HILL] Literally, 'in the horn of the son of fatness.' Vines were planted on hill-sides. So Virgil, ' Bacchus loves the open hills.' CHAPTER V. VERSE 2. Aiid he fenced it, and gathered out the stones thereof, and planted it with the choicest vine, and built a tower in the midst of it, and also made a winepress therein : and he looked that it should bring forth grapes, and it brought forth wild grapes. THE CHOICEST VINE] Hebrew, sorag, 'a noble vine'; Lxx., ampelon soreek [Codex A has soreek}, 'a vine sorek.' Aquila and Theodotion have soreek; but Symmachus has eklekteen, which appears in the V. electam 'choice,' vitem^ 'vine,' being understood. In a note on this passage St Jerome, while observing that the only Greek translator who had rendered soreek by ' choice ' was Symmachus, says that it seemed to him he was expressing the sense though breaking the letter of the original word, "for the Jews say that sorek is a species of the best vine, which yields the juciest and most constant fruit. Whence sorek by some is interpreted kallikarpos, which we may translate vcAa pulcherrimos fructus '(' the most beautiful fruits ')." [See Note on Gen. xlix. u.] A WINEPRESS] Hebrew, yeqeb, 'a wine-press ' ; Lxx., proleenion ; V., torcular. A TOWER] Hebrew, tnigdol 'a watch-tower.' These towers are common in all Eastern countries in the midst of vineyards and orchards. GRAPES] Hebrew, anabim, 'grape-bunches'; Lxx., staphuleen, V. uvas, 'grapes.' WILD GRAPES] Hebrew, beushim, 'bad' or 'vile.' Beushim is from bah-ash, 'to have a bad smell.' If btushim refer to a bad species of grapes, we have here an example of our idiom when we contrast the 'real* substance with 'rubbish,' though both may be the same in nature, and differ only in their quality. " He looked that it should bring forth grapes grapes deserving to be called so ; and it brought forth grapes indeed, but of a smell so sickly as to make them unworthy of the name." Anabim t grapes, may, however, be contrasted with some spurious berries resembling grapes, if at all, in nothing but their outward and clustered form. The Lxx. and Theodotion read akanthos, 'thorns 'or 'brambles.' The V. has labruscas, ' wild grapes ' = produce of the wild vine. The same terms are used in ver. 4. CHAPTER V. VERSE 3. And now, O inhabitants of Jerusalem, and men of Judah, judge, I pray you betwixt me and my vineyard. MY VINEYARD] Hebrew, karnii y 'my vineyard.' So verses 4 and 5, %l-karmi t 'to my vineyard.' ISAIAH, V. 10, II. 159 The declaration following the text "What more can I do than I have done? saith the Lord" ought to suggest to modern theorists that educational and religious remedies mere 'moral suasion,' as it is called are inadequate to the cure of intemperance, so long as the drink itself is provided and consumed. This passage clearly teaches that the remedy must be special. CHAPTER V. VERSE 10. Yea, ten acres of vineyard shall yield one bath, and the seed of an homer shall yield an ephah. TEN ACRES OF VINEYARD] Hebrew, azereth tzimdai kerem, ' ten yokes of a vineyard.' A yoke (teemed) denotes as much land as a yoke of oxen can plough in one day. ONE BATH] Hebrew, bath ekhath, 'bath one,' = 7^ English gallons. The Lxx., Codices A and B, keramion Aen, 'one earthenware jar'; other MSS. have baton, 'bath'; V., lagunculam unam, 'one small flagon.' What a proof of a failure in the vintage, when the grapes upon ten acres of vines should not yield eight gallons of yayin ! CHAPTER V. VERSE n. Woe unto them that rise up early in the morning, that they may follow strong drink; that continue until night, till wine inflame them ! WOE UNTO THEM THAT RISE UP EARLY IN THE MORNING] Literally, ' WOC ' or 'lamentation (shall be to) those rising early in the morning,' or 'by day- light.' THAT THEY MAY FOLLOW STRONG DRINK] Hebrew, shakar yirdophu, 'strong drink they follow after earnestly, ' = pursue. Yirdophu is the future of radaph, but the action is plainly described as concurrent in time with the early rising, a sense which supports the theory that the so-called future form of the Hebrew verb is really expressive of an indefinite present. The Lxx., kai to sikera diokontes, ' and are pursuing si c era ' / V., ad ebrietatem sectandam, ' to pursue inebriation.' The T. has ' old wine ' (khamar attiq) ; Aquila and Symmachus have methusma. THAT CONTINUE UNTIL NIGHT, TILL WINE INFLAME THEM] (Woe shall be to) 'those tarrying into night.' Hebrew, yayin yadliqam, 'wine inflames them.' Dahlaq signifies ' to burn,' or ' to inflame. 1 Lxx., ho gar oinos autous sunkausei, 'for wine will consume them' ; V., ut vino czstuetis, 'that ye may be heated with wine.' The T. has 'wine of rapine inflames them.' " 'Till wine inflame them,' their bodies with heat and their souls with lust." (Dr Gill.) Compare with this the lines of ' the Cyrensean ' (Callimachus) quoted by Athenacus : ho oinos To fvri kison tcfui menos eufan es andras elthet : "A force like fire wine uses when It enters into strongest men." And Bacchylides (Ath. ii. 10) : Tkalpct si Outmon Kupridos : " It warms the heart with love's desire." It is noticeable that many of the eulogies passed upon wine by the ancient poets assume, in the light of divine truth, the form of warnings and reproaches. I6O ISAIAH, V. 12, 22. CHAPTER V. VERSE 12. And the harp, and the viol, the tabret, and pipe, and wine, are in their feasts : but they regard not the work of the LORD, neither con- sider the operation of his hands. AND WINE ARE IN THEIR FEASTS] Hebrew, va-yayin mishtaikem, ' and wine (is) in their drinkings ' = feastings. The Lxx., ton oinon pinousi, 'they drink wine'j Syriac, 'they drink wine'; the Arabic, 'they draw in wine'; the V., et vinum in conviviis vesfris, 'and the wine (is) in your feasts.' CHAPTER V. VERSE 22. Woe unto them that are mighty to drink wine, and men of strength to mingle strong drink ! WOE UNTO THEM THAT ARE MIGHTY TO DRINK WINE] Hebrew, hoi gibborim lishtoth yayin, 'lamentation (shall be) to those mighty to drink wine'; Lxx., ouai oi ischuontes human oi peinontes ton oinon, ' woe (is to) the mighty ones of you, those drinking the wine ' ; V., va quipotentes estis ad bibendum vinum, 'woe to you who are mighty to drink wine.' AND MEN OF STRENGTH TO MINGLE STRONG DRINK] Hebrew, u ' anshai-khail limsok shakar, 'and men of strength (= men who are strong) to mingle strong drink'; Lxx., kai oi dunastai oi kerannuntes to sikera, 'and the mighty, those mingling the sicera ' / some MSS. have methusma ; V., et viri fortes ad miscendam ebrietatem, 'and men strong to mix inebriation'; the T., 'and men of wealth to drench themselves with old (wine).' The Zabian 'Book of Adam,' translated by Prof. Norberg in 1815, contains a striking parallelism to, perhaps imitation of, verses 20 24. The last verse reads, "Woe to them who early drink new wine, and in the evening drink that which is old, and are captivated with the song, the lyre, and the pipe! " Obs. I. Isaiah, who flourished about 750 years before the birth of Christ, and commenced to prophesy in the reign of Uzziah, bears in the above (as in subse- quent passages) a powerful testimony concerning the licentiousness and degeneracy of his age. Contrary to modern and superficial notions, which confine intem- perance to northern climes and exclude it from vine-growing countries, the people of Israel, following the example of their chief men, were addicted to the grossest indulgence in intoxicating liquors. The juice of the grape (yayin} and the juice of other fruits (shakar) were drunk in their fermented state ; and probably both, cer- tainly the latter, were mixed with pungent and heady drugs in order to gratify a base and insatiable appetite. Men rose up early and sat up late to prosecute these vicious indulgences, and they boasted of themselves as ' mighty ' and ' valiant ' in proportion as they were able to gulp down large quantities of these compounds, and to ' carry their drink well.' 2. The attendant, and in no small measure the consequential, evils were of the most aggravated kind. The divine works were disregarded (ver. 12), ignorance reigned (ver. 13), sin abounded (ver. 18), men's moral conceptions were the oppo- site of the truth (ver. 20), self-conceit grew luxuriantly (ver. 21), bribery and injustice were rampant (ver. 23). The vengeance of God was awakening against , ISAIAH, XVI. 8 10. l6l them, and would take the triple form of famine, pestilence, and invasion, so that their supplies of drink would be cut off (ver. 6, 7, 10), the pest-stricken would lie in the streets (ver. 25), and hostile nations would ravage the land (ver. 2630). CHAPTER VII. VERSE 23. And it shall come to pass in that day, that every place shall be, where there were a thousand vines at a thousand silverlings, it shall even be for briers and thorns. A THOUSAND VINES AT A THOUSAND SILVERLINGS] Hebrew, eleph gepken Veleph keseph, 'a thousand (specimens) of the vine for a thousand (shekels) of silver.' The shekel was worth about 2s. 6d. English, and taking this as the cur- rent price of a single vine in the time of Isaiah, we gain a glimpse of the plentiful- ness and consequent cheapness of vineyard produce. It is so yet in the East. For a few pence a person may feast for a day upon the most delicious grapes, and other fruits in their season. CHAPTER XVI. VERSE 8. For the fields of Heshbon languish, and the vine of Sibmah : the lords of the heathen have broken down the principal plants thereof, they are come even unto Jazer, they wandered through the wilder- ness : her branches are stretched out, they are gone over* the sea. THE VINE OF SIBMAH] Hebrew, gephen Sivmah. Gephen, 'vine,' is used collectively for gephanim, 'vines.' Sivmah was a town of the Reubenites, deriv- ing its name from sivam, 'coolness,' or 'sweet smell.' It was celebrated for its vines. Lxx., ampelos Sebama, 'the vine of Sebama' ; V., vineam Sebama. THE PRINCIPAL PLANTS THEREOF] Hebrew, seriiqqeiha, 'her tendrils,' or 'noble vines.' Seriiqqhim is closely related to soraq, as to which see Note on chap. v. I, and Gen. xlix. II. Lxx., fas ampelous, 'the vines'; N. y fiagella fjus t 'its branches.' CHAPTER XVI. VERSE 9. Therefore I will bewail with the weeping of Jazer the vine of Sibmah : I will water thee with my tears, O Heshbon, and Elealeh : for the shouting for thy summer fruits and for thy harvest is fallen. I WILL WATER THEE WITH MY TEARS] Hebrew, arayyahvek dima/tti, 'I will saturate thee with my tears.' The verb is rahvah. Lxx., 'thy trees he has cut down ' ; V., inebriabo te lacryma mea 'with my tear I will inebriate ( = saturate) thee.' CHAPTER XVI. VERSE 10. And gladness is taken away, and joy out of the plentiful field; and in the vineyards there shall be no singing, neither shall there 21 1 62 ISAIAH, XVII. 6, 10. be shouting : the treaders shall tread out no wine in their presses I have made their vintage shouting to cease. OUT OF THE PLENTIFUL FIELD] Hebrew, min hak-karmel, 'from the choice field' = garden. [As to karmel, see Note on 2 Kings, xix. 23.] The Lxx., ek ton ampelonou, 'from the vineyards ' ; V., de Carmelo, 'from Carmel.' AND IN THE VINEYARDS] Hebrew, uvak-keramim ; Lxx., en tois ampelosi ; V., en vineis. THE TREADERS SHALL TREAD OUT NO WINE IN THEIR PRESSES] Hebrew, yayin ba-yeqahvim lo-yidrok had-dorak, ' the treader (doraK) shall not tread wine in the presses ' ; Lxx., kai ou mee pateesousin oinon eis ta hupoleenia, 'and they shall by no means tread wine into the wine-vats ' ; V., vinum in torculari non calcabit qui calcare consueverat, ' he who was accustomed to tread shall not tread wine in the wine-press.' Yayin is here applied either to the grapes yielding yayin, or to the expressed juice as it flows from under the treader's feet. The treading is also said to take place in the yeqeb, showing that the yeqeb included the place of treading as well as the reservoir into which the liquor ran. I HAVE MADE THEIR VINTAGE SHOUTING TO CEASE] Hebrew, hdidahd hish- bati, 'exultation I make to cease.' The words 'their vintage' are supplied by the English translators, but the reference is undoubtedly to the sounds of joy with which the vintage was gathered. Lxx., pepautai gar, ' for it has ceased ' ; the V., vocem calcantium abstuli, ' I have taken away the voice of the treaders.' CHAPTER XVII. VERSE 6. Yet gleaning grapes shall be left in it, as the shaking of an olive tree, two or three berries in the top of the uppermost bough, four or five in the outmost fruitful branches thereof, saith the LORD God of Israel. GLEANING GRAPES] Hebrew, ollalotk, 'gleanings.' Lxx. kalamce, and V. racemus, point to a reading different from that of the received Hebrew text. Two OR THREE BERRIES] Hebrew, shenaim sheloshah gargerim, 'two, three berries.' Gargar denoted a single grape or berry ; anab, a small bunch of grapes ; tshkol, a longer stalk containing a collection of bunches, = a cluster. CHAPTER XVII. VERSE 10. Because thou hast forgotten the God of thy salvation, and hast not been mindful of the rock of thy strength, therefore shalt thou plant pleasant plants, and shalt set it with strange slips. AND SHALT SET IT WITH STRANGE SLIPS] Hebrew, u-z^morath zar tezrahennu, 'with strange vine-shoots thou shalt set it.' Zemorah, from zah-mar, ' to prune,' signifies that which is pruned, = a vine-branch, a shoot. It also occurs Numb, xiii. 23; and Ezek. xv. 2. Lxx., 'wherefore thou shalt plant an unfruitful ISAIAH, XIX. 10, 14. 163 plantation and an unfruitful seed'; V., 'wherefore thou shalt plant a fruitful plantation and shalt sow a strange seed ' ; the Syriac, ' wherefore thou shalt plant a goodly plant and set it with foreign shoots.' CHAPTER XVIII. VERSE 5. For afore the harvest, when the bud is perfect, and the sour grape is ripening in the flower, he shall both cut off the sprigs with pruning hooks, and take away and cut down the branches. THE HARVEST] Hebrew, qahtzir, 'harvest,' or 'vintage,' from qah-tzar, 'to cut off.' In this verse the reference is clearly to the vintage season, when the grapes were usually separated from the vines by some sharp instrument. Lxx., pro tou therismou, 'before the harvest'; V., ante mcssem eum, 'before such harvest.' AND THE SOUR GRAPE] Hebrew, u-voscr, 'the unripe grape.' Boscr\s a col- lective noun, denoting grapes fully formed, but still unripe and sour. The word occurs also in Jer. xxxi. 29, 30; and Ezek. xviii. 2. Lxx., kai omphax ; V., im- matura (tcva understood). WITH PRUNING HOOKS] Hebrew, bam-mazmaroth, 'with pruning hooks.' Mazmara, ' a pruning hook,' is derived from zaAmar, 'to prune.' It also occurs Isa. ii. 4; and Joel iii. 10. CHAPTER XIX. VERSE 10. And they shall be broken in the purposes thereof, all that make sluices and ponds for fish. ALL THAT MAKE SLUICES] Hebrew, kahl osai seker, 'all those making wages ' hired servants. (So Gesenius.) The whole passage is difficult, and the versions are exceedingly diversified. The most curious fact is that the Lxx. takes seker (as pointed by the Masorites) to be shakar, ' sweet (or strong) drink,' and renders it by znthos (barley-wine or beer). As the whole paragraph refers to Egypt the Lxx. gives shakar this meaning here, and in no other place, because a sort of beer was anciently drunk in that country. The clause is thus rendered, kai pantes oi poi- oiintes ton zuthon lupeetheesontai kai fas psuchas ponesousin, ' and all that make beer shall be grieved and be pained in their souls.' The Syriac has 'and all who make sicera for man's drink.' More allied to the A. V. is the V., omnes qui faciebant lacunas ad capiendos pisces, ' all who were mak- ing pits (or ponds) for catching fish.' The Targum of Jonathan reads, ' and a place where they were making ponds and gathering the waters, everyone to his own mind.' Henderson, after Gesenius, translates the whole verse thus : ' Her pillars (/. e. chief men) are broken down, and all the hired laborers are grieved in mind.' CHAPTER XIX. VERSE 14. The LORD hath mingled a perverse spirit in the midst thereof: and they have caused Egy )t to err in every work thereof, as a drunken man staggereth in his vomit. 1 64 ISAIAH XXII. 13, 24. HATH MINGLED] Hebrew, mahsak 'has mingled.' God is here represented as mixing a powerfully intoxicating potion for the Egyptian princes. Lxx. ekerasen, V., misaiit, 'has mixed.' AND THEY HAVE CAUSED EGYPT TO ERR] Hebrew, ve-hithu eth Mitzraim, 'and they have caused Egypt to wander' or 'go astray'; the Lxx., eplaneesan ; V., errare fecerunt. [Consult chap, xxviii. 7; Job xii. 25; and Jer. 1. 6.] As A DRUNKEN MAN STAGGERETH IN His VOMIT] Hebrew, ke-hitahoth shikkor leqio, 'as the wandering of a drunkard with his vomit'; Lxx., hos planatai ho methuon kai ho emon hama, ' as wanders he who is drunk and he who vomits to- gether ' ; V., sicut errat ebrius et v omens, ' as one strays who is drunk and vomiting.' CHAPTER XXI. VERSE 5. Prepare the table, watch in the watchtower, eat, drink; arise, ye princes, and anoint the shield. This and the preceding are part of the ' burden ' of Babylon, in which the cap- ture of that great city is foreseen and predicted. The intemperate feasting which preceded that event and rendered it possible is well known, and will be more par- ticularly noticed hereafter. [See Note on Dan. v. 30.] CHAPTER XXI. VERSE 14. The inhabitants of the land of Tema brought water to him that was thirsty, they prevented with their bread him that fled. To the thirsty water was supplied; the one that fled was 'prevented,' i. e. anticipated, with bread. Bread and water are here again conjoined as the essen- tials of human sustenance. CHAPTER XXII. VERSE 13. And behold joy and gladness, slaying oxen, and killing sheep, eat- ing flesh, and drinking wirfe : let us eat and drink ; for to-morrow we shall die. AND DRINKING WINE] Hebrew, vt-shathoth yayin, ' and drinking wine ' ; Lxx. kai piein oinon, V. et bibere vimtrn, ' and to drink wine.' The concluding clause, 'Let us eat and drink,' etc., expresses a sentiment of riotous animalism which had at that early period passed into a proverb, and along with the sentiment the proverb descended to later ages. [See Note on I Cor. xv. 32.] CHAPTER XXII. VERSE 24. And they shall hang upon him all the glory of his father's house, the offspring and the issue, all vessels of small quantity, from the vessels of cups, even to all the vessels of flagons. ISAIAH, XXIV. 7, 9. 165 VESSELS OF curs, . . . VESSELS OF FLAGONS] Hebrew, kUai hah- aggahnoth . . . ktlai han-n&balim, * vessels of bowls (or basins), . . . vessels of pitchers.' The V. has 'from vessels of bowls (craterarum} to every vessel of musical instruments (musicontm^).' The margin of the A. V. has 'or instruments of viols. 1 [The Hebrew nabel (or nlbW) denoted articles as widely separated in structure and use as the skin-bottle, the pitcher, and the ten-stringed harp or lyre (Psa. xxxiii. 2).] TheT. applies all these expressions to the employ- ment of very young children in the offices of the temple. CHAPTER XXIV. VERSE 7. The new wine mourneth, the vine languisheth, all the merry- hearted do sigh. THE NEW WINE MOURNETH] Hebrew, ahi-al tirosh, 'hung down ( = mourned) has the vine-fruit.' The primary senses of ah-val are 'to be languid,' 'to walk with the head cast down,' which easily acquire the secondary sense of 'to mourn.' Gesenius thus cites the passage, 'the new wine mourneth,' /'. e. 'the clusters mourn.' Lxx., pentheesei oinon, 'the wine will mourn'; Aquila, epentheesen ho parorismos, ' the fruit out of season has mourned ' ; V., luxit vindemia, ' the vint- age has mourned.' The Syriac reads, 'the corn will be turned into grief; the Arabic, ' the vine will grieve. ' THE VINE LANGUISHETH] Hebrew, umlellah gahphen, 'languished has the vine'; Lxx., pentheesei ampelos, 'the vine will mourn'; V., infirmata est vitis, 'the vine has languished away ' ; the T., 'because the vines are worn away.' The prophet introduces us into the vineyard, and speaking of future events as having actually transpired a form frequently adopted in Scripture to give em- phasis to prophesy he points to the tirosh, now approaching maturity, and cries out, "The fruit upon the vine has hung down its head, as if mourning for its fate; the vine has languished, as if for very sadness ; all the merry-hearted who have been wont to pluck the vintage with delight have sighed over the scene of desola- tion before them." The prediction is one of drought. This description fixes the meaning of tirosh as definitely as the context could do it. CHAPTER XXIV. VERSE 9. They shall not drink wine with a song ; strong drink shall be bitter to them that drink it. THEY SHALL NOT DRINK WINE WITH A SONG] Hebrew, bash-shir lo yishtu yayin, ' with a song they shall not drink wine; ' Lxx., eeschuntheesan, ouk epion oinon, ' they have been ashamed, they have not drunk wine ' ; V., cum cantico non bibent vinum, 'with a song they shall not drink wine.' The tirosh having been shrivelled up for lack of water, the supply of grape-wine would be cut off. STRONG DRINK SHALL be BITTER TO THEM THAT DRINK IT] Hebrew, yamar shakar it-shotha/w, ' bitter shall be the sweet-drink to those who drink it ' ; Lxx., pikron egcneto to sikera tois pinousin, 'bitter has become sicera to those who drink (it) ' ; V., amara erit potio bibentibus illam, ' bitter will be drink to those imbibing it.' For shakar the T. has attiqah, ' the old ' (wine). 166 ISAIAH, XXIV. II, 13, 20. It admits of question whether the prophet is .predicting that the sweet-drink should be bitter to the taste, or bitter figuratively on account of the .smallness of the supply. The severe drought which would cause the grapes to yield no yayin would operate so as to make the juices of other fruits lose their sweetness, and to be greatly lessened in amount. It is obvious from the contrast of 'sweet' and 4 bitter ' a contrast wholly obscured in the A. V. translation of shakar as ' strong- drink ' that shakar was valued on account of its sweetness, a quality which disap- pears in proportion as the sugar of the juice is decomposed and converted into alcohol and carbonic acid gas. [See Note on Gen. i. 29.] Sweet shakar, like some sweet wines, might be intoxicating, yet who has not read of the sweet and innocent wine of Lesbos, which could be drunk almost in any quantity without harm ? And the price put upon shakar for its sweetness, shows that it was not mere alcoholic strength which caused its consumption by ancient topers, as ia the case of the preference shown for ports and sherries by modern wine-drinkers. CHAPTER XXIV. VERSE n. There is a crying for wine in the streets; all joy is darkened, the mirth of the land is gone. THERE is A CRYING FOR WINE IN THE STREETS] Hebrew, tz&vahkhah al hay- yayin bakhutzoth, 'an outcry (is) for wine in the outside places ' ; Lxx., olohizete peri tou oinou pantachee, 'howl ye for wine everywhere'; V., clamor erit super vino in plateis, 'a cry shall be on account of wine in the town-streets.' Yayin may here be representative of the whole produce of the vineyard, the fruit of which entered so largely into the diet of the people. But if the outcry was for intoxicating drink, what a picture of sensuality and demoralization is pre- sented ! CHAPTER XXIV. VERSE 13. When thus it shall be in the midst of the land among the people, there shall be as the shaking of an olive tree, and as the gleaning grapes when the vintage is done. AS THE GLEANING GRAPES WHEN THE VINTAGE IS DONE] Hebrew, itn kahlah vatzir, 'as the gleaning when the cutting is completed.' This 'cutting* (vatzir) is equivalent to 'gathering,' which was usually effected, as before ex- plained, by the use of a sharp instrument a pruning-hook. Symmachus has has epiphullides ean stmtelesthee trugeetos, ' as the small grapes after the harvest is concluded'; the V., et racemi cum fuerit fimta vindemia, 'and the grape-stalks when the vintage shall have been ended.' St Jerome must have read -v^-eshkeloth instead of kt-olaloth. CHAPTER XXIV. VERSE 20. The earth shall reel to and fro like a drunkard, and shall be removed like a cottage; and the transgression thereof shall be heavy upon it ; and it shall fall, and not rise again. ISAIAH, XXV. 6. 167 THE EARTH SHALL REEL TO AND FRO LIKE A DRUNKARD] Hebrew, noij, tahnua eretz kish-shikkor, 'reeling shall the earth reel like a drunkard.' Nuah signifies 'to vacillate,' 'to swing to and fro.' Lxx., fk linen hvs ho mcthuvn kai kraipalun, ' it swerves as he who is drunk and sick from a debauch ' ; Theodo- tion, said saleutheesetai he gee hos methuun, 'with a shaking the earth shall be shaken as one drunk ' ; V., agitatione agitabitur terra sicut ebrius, ' with a shaking the earth is shaken as a drunken man.' CHAPTER XXV. VERSE 6. And in this mountain shall the LORD of hosts make unto all people a feast of fat things, a feast of wines on the lees, of fat things full of marrow, of wines on the lees well refined. A FEAST OF FAT THINGS] Hebrew, mishta shemahnim, ' a feast of fatnesses ' = fat things. We are not to understand fat meat as distinguished from lean, but well-fed, prime flesh, with the best quality of food, including the oily ingredients, which were highly prized. A FEAST OF WINE ON THE LEES] Hebrew, mishta shemahrim, 'a feast of preserves.' From shah-mar, 'to keep,' 'to guard,' 'to take care of,' comes shemerim, 'things specially cared for,' or, as we say, PRESERVES = dainties, con- fections. That it means something preserved is not disputed, for Gesenius, who approves the rendering of the A. V. in his definition of shemahrim, explains how 'wine,' which is not named in the Hebrew, is supposed to be referred to: " Shcmarim, dregs (of wine), so called because when wine is kept on the lees its strength and color are preserved. " But there is no need to conceive an allusion either to wines or their refuse. The feast is said to be as much one of shemahrim (confections) as of shemahnim (fat things). If any allusion to wine had been intended and if shemahrim had been used in the sense of dregs or refuse, what would have hindered the use of the words mishta yayin al shemaraiv 'a feast of wine upon his dregs'? Is it credible that the prophet wrote so obscurely for the sake of the allite- ration involved in mishta shemahnim and mishta shemahrim? It is true that the phrase shemareiha, ' the dregs thereof,' occurs in Psa. Ixxv. 8, but the reference is to the insoluble parts of the mixture in the cup of the Divine wrath the drugs mingled with the wine, and not to the dregs of the wine before drawn off from the vat. In Isa. li. 17, 22, where 'dregs' appears in the A. V., a different Hebrew word is employed. OF FAT THINGS FULL or MARROW] Hebrew, shcmahnim mcmukhaim, 'of fat- ness marrowed out '== taken from the marrow-bone, provision exceedingly rich and abundant. OF WINES ON THE Li:i:s WELL REFINED] Hebrew, shemahrim meznqqaqim, 'of preserves well clarified.' The Lxx. indicates a different reading of the Hebrew text: 'In this mountain they shall drink joyfulness (enphrosuneen') ; they shall drink wine (piontai oin^n) ; they shall anoint themselves with ointment in this mountain ; Aquila, poton lipasmaton diulismenon, ' a feast of fatnesses, (a feast) well clarified ' ; Symmachus, poton trugion diulismcnon, 'a feast of lees, of things well clarified.' The Syriac has 'a fat feast, a feast, I say, preserved and fat'; V., 'in this mountain a feast of fat things (conz-iriumpingnittm}, a feast of vintage-produce (con-'iriiim vindemia\ 168 ISAIAH, XXVII. 2, 3. a feast of marrowy things (convivium medullatonuri) ; of vintage-produce well- cleansed (yindemitz de/tzcatcz).' Dr Gill quotes a rendering by Fortunatus Seacchus : "The Lord of hosts will make to all people a feast of ointments, a feast of those (animals) that are kept; of ointments full of marrow; of those that are kept, pure " ; *'. for the press is full, the fats overflow ; for their wickedness is great. This verse tersely describes the vintage harvest. " Put forth the knife [maggal that which cuts], for the vintage \_qahtzir cutting = that which is cut] is ripe: come, descend (or tread), for the press \gath~\ is full ; the presses (hayyeqahvim) abound (kashiqu} ; for their wickedness is great." The prophet is here describing, not the result of the treading, but the preparations for it; and he invites the avengers (the foreign foe) to come and tread, because the wickedness (= vintage) of the idolatrous nations was ripe, and its fruits (the grapes collectively, tirosh) were brought together in a 'great' heap, ready to be trodden (punished) by the instruments of the Divine justice. This text tends to illustrate the sense of the one other passage where (in A. V.) the presses are said to 'overflow' with tirosh, the real idea being, that the vintage has been so fruitful that the grapes have to be piled up in the presses. CHAPTER III. VERSE 18. And it shall come to pass in that day, that the mountains shall drop down new wine, and the hills shall flow with milk, and all the rivers of Judah shall flow with waters, and a fountain shall come forth of the house of the LORD, and shall water the valley of Shittim. THE MOUNTAINS SHALL DROP DOWN NEW WINE] Hebrew, yitphu ha-hahrim aksis, 'the mountains shall drop down fresh juice.' Lxx., apostalaxri ta oree glukasmon, 'the mountains shall drop sweetness'; V., stillabunt monies dulcedi- nem, ' the mountains shall drop sweetness ' ; T., ' pure wine.' As vines were often cultivated on the hill-sides, the prophet represents the fer- tility of the vines and the richness of their produce by a very expressive image that of the hills sending forth streams of the luscious juice contained within the purple clusters. It is, however, a fact that, in a fertile season, the ripe luscious grapes burst with 'their juice,' which literally distills upon the rocks. THE BOOK OF THE PROPHET AMOS. [AMOS PROHESIED ABOUT THE YEAR 790 B. C.] CHAPTER II. VERSE 8. And they lay themselves down upon clothes laid to pledge by every altar, and they drink the wine of the condemned in the house of their god. AND THEY DRINK THE WINE OF THE CONDEMNED] Hebrew, vl-yayn anushim yishtu, 'and the wine of the condemned ( = fined) they will drink.' The A. V. treats the future form of the verb as an indefinite present. Lxx., kai oinon ek sukophantiun cpeinon, ' and wine from calumniators they drank.' [The sukophan- tees was at first an informer against persons who broke the Athenian law by exporting figs from Attica ; and then the term became applied to any informer or accuser; next, as these men were often perjurers, to a calumniator or false accuser; until it finally acquired the meaning of 'sycophant,' as with us, one who, from motives of self-interest, seeks to ingratiate himself with another by any means, such as slandering his betters.] V., et vinuni damnatorum bibcbant, 'and the wine of the condemned they have drunk.' Anush signifies to 'amerce ' or ' fine ' ; so that we have here the picture of men of violence, who, having inflicted on the weak, fines which were paid in wine or expended in that liquor, drank the wine in their pagan temples, thus adding revelry and idolatry to injustice, if, indeed, the desire for this revelry was not the predisposing cause of the injustice, as it often is of robbery in our own day. CHAPTER II. VERSES n, 12. it And I raised up of your sons for prophets, and of your young men for Nazarites. Is if not even thus, O ye children of Israel? saith the LORD. iaBut ye gave the Nazarites wine to drink; and commanded the prophets, saying, Prophesy not. V. 12. BUT YE GAVE THE NAZARITES WINE TO DRINK] Hebrew, vattashqu eth han-Nlzarim yayin, 'and ye gave wine to drink to the Nazarites.' Lxx., kai epotizete tons hetgiasmenous oinon, ' and ye caused the consecrated ones to drink wine'; V., ft propinabitis A'azar&is rinitm, 'and you will present wine to the 230 AMOS, IV. Q. Nazarites.' The T. of Jonathan reads, ' ye have driven the teachers into error by your wine.' It has been inferred by able expositors, from this passage, that the * sons raised up for prophets ' were also the ' young men ' raised up for Nazarites, although the Nazarites may have included others who were not trained to the prophetical office ; so that the description (as given by Isaiah and Jeremiah) of intemperance among priests and prophets, marked the violation of special obligations to absti- nence, as well as a violation of general moral principle. Be this as it may, we learn from these verses the importance attached by God to the Nazarite class, and also that their pre-eminent characteristic was abstinence from wine. Jehovah claims to have raised up a succession of prophets and Nazarites, and the attempt to subvert the fidelity of the Nazarites is coupled as a sin with the impious effort to silence the teachers of the nation and the organs of the Almighty. That there was a connection between the love of drink, and the rejection of the true prophets who would not countenance the causes of the national declension, Micah (ii. 1 1 ) makes as plain as does Amos the contrary and better association, between abstinence and a pious fidelity to the will of God in his ' holy ones ' ; and we may be assured that whatever advantages sprang from this abstinence among the Jews, may be enjoyed in a yet higher measure in our day ; while those who pride themselves in leading others to abandon so safe and beneficent a rule, may take what comfort they can extract from the spirit of the text before us. CHAPTER IV. VERSE i. Hear this word, ye kine of Bashan, that are in the mountain of Samaria, which oppress the poor, which crush the needy, which say to their masters, Bring, and let us drink. Cruelty and sensuality are well matched. Inflamed passions crave for inflaming drink, and this again 'sets on fire the whole course of nature,' and disposes to deeds of violence and shame. Nor must it be forgotten that men and women naturally mild and kind, commit the most ferocious (otherwise unaccountable) acts when under the influence of alcoholic drink, which exerts all the force and tyranny of diabolical possession. CHAPTER IV. VERSE 5. And offer a sacrifice of thanksgiving with leaven, and proclaim and publish the free offerings : for this liketh you, O ye children of Israel, saith the Lord GOD. WITH LEAVEN] Hebrew, makhahmatz, 'with leavened matter.' The V. has de fermentato ; but the Lxx. reads, exo nomon, 'without law.' God reproves the conduct of the idolaters by ironically urging them to do that which they had already done, and contrary to the solemn injunctions of His law. CHAPTER IV. VERSE 9. I have smitten you with blasting and mildew : when your gardens and your vineyards and your fig trees and your olive trees increased, AMOS, VI. 6. 231 the palmerworm devoured them : yet have ye not returned unto me, saith the LORD. AND YOUR VINEYARDS] Hebrew, vl-kannaikem, 'and your vineyards.' CHAPTER V. VERSE 11. Forasmuch therefore as your treading is upon the poor, and ye take from him burdens of wheat : ye have built houses of hewn stone, but ye shall not dwell in them ; ye have planted pleasant vineyards, but ye shall not drink wine of them. PLEASANT VINEYARDS] Hebrew, kanitai khlmM, 'vineyards of delight'; Lxx., ampeloras tpithumeethoits, ' desirable vineyards '; V., vineas amantissimas, ' most beloved vineyards.' BUT YE SHALL NOT DRINK WINE OF THEM] Hebrew, vl-h thhhtu cth- yaynahtn, 'and ye shall not drink their wine.' So the V. The Lxx., ou met pieete ton oinon ex autvn, ' and ye shall not drink wine from them.' The inference would naturally be, that the wine was really contained in the vineyards ; not needing the process of fermentation to proititce it, but only pressure to educe it. CHAPTER V. VERSE 17. And in all vineyards shall be wailing ; for I will pass through thee, saith the LORD. AND IN ALL VINEYARDS] Hebrew, wv-kahl-kcrahmim. So the V. ; but the Lxx. has 'in all ways.' CHAPTER VI. VERSE 6. That drink wine in bowls, and anoint themselves with the chief ointments : but they are not grieved for the affliction of Joseph. THAT DRINK WINE IN BOWLS] Hebrew, hashothim bl-miztltj&i yayin, 'that drink in bowls of wine.' The mizrcnj properly denoted a vessel out of which anything was scattered or sprinkled (from zahraq, 'to scatter'), and thence was applied to any large cup, bowl, or goblet. The Lxx., oi frinontes ton diulismenon oinon, 'those who drink strained (= refined) wine.' This rendering points to some MS. reading of nifznqahq^ ' strained ' or ' refined,' instead of the reading of the present Hebrew text. V., bibentcs vinttw in phialis, 'those drinking wine in vials.' The T. has 'in silver vials.' The Arabic has ' clear wine,' and the Syriac, ' clearest wine.' To drink large quantities of wine was customary among eminent topers. In the Di'if>nosof>hislte of Athenrcus various particulars are given of great drinkers. To swallow gallons of liquor at one sitting was a feat held in great esteem, without reference to the intoxicating quality of what was consumed. 232 AMOS, IX. 13, 14. CHAPTER IX. VERSE 13. Behold, the days come, saith the LORD, that the plowman shall overtake the reaper, and the treader of grapes him that soweth seed ; and the mountains shall drop sweet wine, and all the hills shall melt. AND THE TREADERS OF GRAPES] Hebrew, ve-dor&k anahvim, ' and the treader of grape-clusters.' So the V. ; but the Lxx. has 'and the grape shall ripen in the time of sowing.' THE MOUNTAINS SHALL DROP SWEET WINE] The marginal reading of A. V. is 'new wine,' but the phrase is the same as in Joel iii. 18, ahsis, the juice of the newly trodden grapes. Lxx., 'the mountains shall drop sweetness ' (glukasmon)\ the V., ' the mountains shall distill sweetness ' (dulcedineni). The promise is one of continual fertility and abundance, one agricultural operation following rapidly upon another, all carried on without exhausting the soil, and all resulting in the enrichment of the people. Christian commentators give to the prophecy a spiritual application. CHAPTER IX. VERSE 14. And I will bring again the captivity of my people of Israel, and they shall build the waste cities, and inhabit them / and they shall plant vineyards, and drink the wine thereof; they shall also make gardens, and eat the fruit of them. AND THEY SHALL PLANT VINEYARDS, AND DRINK THE WINE THEREOF] Hebrew, v^-nahtu kerahmim ve-shahthu eth-yaynahm, 'and they plant vineyards and drink their wine.' Lxx., oinon ; V.,vinum. The threatening pronounced (v. 1 1) is to be cancelled on the repentance of the people. Compare with this the language of the Erythrseen Sibylline Oracle, as quoted by Lactantius, Div. Inst., b. vii. c. 24: Kai Me dee charmeen megaleen theos andrasi dosei, Kai gar gee, kai dendra, kai aspeta thremmata gaiees Dosousin karpon ton aleethinon antkropoisi, Oinou, kai melitos gleukeos> leukou te galaktas, Kai sitou, hoper esti brotois kattiston apanton. And truly then great joy shall God to men impart, For from earth, trees, and earth's dumb offspring countless sight ! Shall fruit, best fit for man, luxuriantly start : Wine, luscious honey too, and milk of purest white, And corn, and all that gives to mortals most delight. If oinos here does not directly signify vintage-fruit fruit on the vine, it must be accepted as the liquid fruit of the vine in its fresh and sweetest state. Honey has been happily called the 'fruit of bees.' THE BOOK OF THE PROPHET OBADIAH. [THIS PROPHET IS SUPPOSED TO HAVE BEEN A CONTEMPORARY OF JEREMIAH AND EZEKIEL ; AND TO HAVE DELIVERED HIS PROPHESY AFTER THE DE- STRUCTION OF JERUSALEM, OVER WHICH THE EDOMITES WERE REJOICING, ABOUT 580 B. C.] VERSES 15, 16. 15 For the day of the LORD is near upon all the heathen : as thou hast done, it shall be done unto thee : thy reward shall return upon thine own head. 16 For as ye have drunk upon my holy mountain, so shall all the heathen drink continually, yea, they shall drink, and they shall swallow down, and they shall be as though they had not been. V. 16. AND THEY SHALL SWALLOW DOWN] Hebrew, vl-lahu, 'and they shall suck up.' The margin of A. V. has 'sup up.' The Hebrew term is one expressive of greediness. Lxx., ' all the nations (ethnee) shall drink wine (oinon).' So the Arabic. Here the generic term is applied to a bad wine, as the context makes evident. The Lxx. translators must have read khamer, 'foaming juices,' instead of tahmed, 'continually.' The initial and final letters of the two words (/, kh, and d, r), are easily mistaken by a copyist.* The word wine gives the best sense. It is the ' cup of astonishment ' (not of blessing) that shall be given to the Edomites, and they shall drink it till it destroys them from the earth. 30 THE BOOK OF THE PROPHET JONAH. [JONAH LIVED ABOUT 860 B. c.] CHAPTER III. VERSES 6, 7. 6 For word came unto the king of Nineveh, and he arose from his throne, and he laid his robe from him, and covered him with sack- cloth, and sat in ashes. ^ And he caused it to be proclaimed and published through Nineveh by the decree of the king and his nobles, saying, Let neither man nor beast, herd nor flock, taste any thing : let them not feed, nor drink water. The king's prohibition against the use of water by man, beast, herd, and flock, was, in such a climate, the strongest proof of sincere self-denial which the king and the nobles of Nineveh could exhibit. Is not this example a standing rebuke to many Christian communities, who, for the sake of a great and needed reforma- tion of manners, morals, and religion, cannot deny themselves the use of an arti- ficial, needless, and even noxious beverage ? THE BOOK OF THE PROPHET MICAH. [MlCAH WAS CONTEMPORARY WITH ISAIAH, ABOUT 7 B. C.] CHAPTER I. VERSE 6. Therefore I will make Samaria as an heap of the field, and as plantings of a vineyard : and I will pour down the stones thereof into the valley, and I will discover the foundations thereof. As PLANTINGS OF A VINEYARD] Hebrew, l-mattahaj kahrem, ' the plantations of a vineyard.' CHAPTER II. VERSE n. If a man, walking in the spirit and falsehood, do lie, saying, I will prophesy unto thee of wine and of strong drink; he shall even be the prophet of this people. I WILL PROPHESY UNTO THEE OF WINE AND OF STRONG DRINK] Hebrew, attiph te-kah lay-yayin vt~lash-shakar, f I will prophesy to thee concerning wine and concerning strong drink.' Lxx., ' ye have fled, no one pursuing; thy spirit has framed falsehood ; it has dropped down (descended) on thee in regard to wine and strong drink (eis oinon kai methiisma) ' ; V., stillabo tibi in vinum et in ebrieta- tem, ' I will distil to thee as to wine and drunkenness ' = a ' lying spirit ' that stoops down to the calls of the sensual nature, and is accepted as true by those whose 'god is their belly.' As the Westminster divines' 'Annotations' quaintly expresses it, "They love and like those prophets that will speak pleasing things, and sew pillows under their elbows: they would be fostered and bolstered up in their sins; else the prophets are no prophets for them " (1651). How strange is it that, in the face of such texts as these perpetually recurring in the history of the Jews, men of professed piety and of undoubted intelligence should labor under the extraordinary delusion that wine and especially Eastern countries, must necessarily be sober countries ! So far from this being the fact, this Hebrew text implies that the people were so anxious to indulge their craving for inebriating liquors, that any one (though destitute of the marks of a true Teacher) who should promise them an abundant supply, would be eagerly received by them as a true prophet, however false and sensuous might be his prophesy. 236 MICAH, VI. 15, The same spirit is displayed in our own time, when a ready ear is turned to those who defend, no matter how falsely, the drinking customs of society, and eulogize artificial and inflaming liquors as ' the good creatures of God.' Let believers in the light-wine delusion read the following testimony from France : " The abundance of the harvest in 1858 diminished the poverty, and by consequence the crimes and offences which misery inspires ; but the abundance of the vintage, on the contrary, multiplied blows and wounds, the quarrels of cabarets, the rebellions, the outrages and violences toward the police. These facts are again found in all analogous circumstances." Revue Economic Chretienne t Parts-. 1862, p. 171-2. CHAPTER IV. VERSES 3, 4. 3 And he shall judge among many people, and rebuke strong nations afar off; and they shall beat their swords into plowshares, and their spears into pruning-hooks : nation shall not lift up a sword against nation, neither shall they learn war any more. 4 But they shall sit every man under his vine and under his fig tree ; and none shall make them afraid: for the mouth of the LORD of hosts hath spoken it. V. 3. INTO PRUNING-HOOKS] Hebrew, le-mazmaroth, 'into pruning-blades.' The reading of the A. V. text is preferable to the marginal 'scythes.' The Lxx. has drepana, 'sickles ' ; the V., ligones, 'curved knives.' V. 4. His VINE] Hebrew, gaphno, 'his vine.' [See Note on I Kings iv. 25: Zech. iii. 10.] The T. has 'under the fruit of his vine.' CHAPTER VI. VERSE 15. Thou shalt sow, but thou shalt not reap; thou shalt tread the olives, but thou shalt not anoint thee with oil; and sweet wine, but shalt not drink wine. AND SWEET WINE, BUT SHALT NOT DRINK WINE] Hebrew, vo-tirosh vt-lo thishteh yayin, 'and vine-fruit, and thou shalt not drink wine.' To realize the full sense we must take the whole verse: "Thou shalt tread the olive (zaith) and shalt not anoint thyself with oil (shemen}, and (tread) the tirosh (or vine-fruit) and shalt not drink the yayin (or expressed juice)." Here tirosh is as clearly placed in apposition to yayin as zaith (olive) to shemen (oil) ; and it is strange how the translators of any country could have failed to see that poetical consistency and common sense alike required tirosh to be taken as the solid substance whose pressure yielded yayin. It was to be a punishment to the nation, that though the zaith and tirosh had been plucked, the liquids (oil and wine) flowing from their pressure should either be so deficient in quantity, owing to the withered condition of the fruit, that there should be no sufficient supply ; or that what there was should be diverted to the use of the spoiler, and not be used by those who had plucked the fruit. Lxx., 'thou shalt PRESS the olive, but shalt not anoint with oil, and wine (oinon), and ye shall not surely drink (any)' kaiou mee pieete, thus omitting one member of the parallelism by using oinon. in the double sense of ' growing wine ' and '^pressed wine.' The V. has et mustum et non bibes vinunt, 'and (thou shalt tread) must, new unfermented wine, and shalt not drink wine.' The Arabic MICAH, VII. I. 237 has ' must.' T., ' and thou shalt tread the grapes, whose wine thou shalt not drink.' Archbishop Newcome inserts words in italics, and paraphrases, ' And the grape of the choice wine' ! Henderson has 'the grape of the new wine,' but has no note on this periphrastic rendering of tirosh, though in a note on Joel i. 5 he had con- fined it to juice of the grape which, 'however new, had already obtained an in- ebriating quality ' ! Tirosh clearly denoted a thing which bore the same relation to yayin, that ' olives ' did to ' oil.' The one was the fruit trodden, the other the liquid pressed out of it. CHAPTER VII. VERSE i. Woe is me! for I am as when they have gathered the summer fruits, as the grape-gleanings of the vintage : there is no cluster to eat : my soul desired the first ripe fruit. As THE GRAPE-GLEANINGS OF THE VINTAGE] Hebrew, kZ-olcloth bahtzir, 'as the gleanings of the cutting '= the time of cutting or vintage. THERE is NO CLUSTER TO EAT] Hebrew, ain eshkol R-%kol t ' no cluster (i* there) to eat.' THE BOOK OF THE PROPHET NAHUM. [NAHUM FLOURISHED ABOUT 7148. c.] CHAPTER I. VERSE 10. For while they be folden together as thorns, and while they are drunken as drunkards, they shall be devoured as stubble fully dry. AND WHILE THEY ARE DRUNKEN AS DRUNKARDS] Hebrew, uk-sahvahm t sevuim, 'and as (with) their sovh [rich wine] (they are) soaked.' The Lxx., gives the whole verse as follows : ' For even to his foundation shall he be laid bare, and shall be devoured as twisted yew, and as stubble fully dry.' The V. has sic convivium eorunt pariter potantium, * so is their feast as (that) of the topers ' ; the T., 'even as they have wandered by wine, so their enemies have borne them away and devoured them ' ; the Syriac, ' they are drunken in their own drunkenness.' Henderson reads, 'thoroughly soaked with their wine.' CHAPTER III. VERSE n. Thou also shalt be drunken : thou shalt be hid, thou also shalt seek strength because of the enemy. THOU ALSO SHALT BE DRUNKEN] Gam-at tishkeri, ' also thou shalt be drunken * (surcharged). Lxx., ' and thou shalt be made drunk (methustheesee) and despised.' V., 'and thou shalt be inebriated (inebriaberis) and shalt be despised.' Newcome has 'shalt become a hireling,' altering the pointing from tishkeri to tiskeri. Diodorus Siculus, who describes the capture of Nineveh by Arbaces the Mede and Belesis the Babylonian, states that, after the besiegers had been conquered in the field, the Assyrians gave themselves up to feasting and drunkenness ; when the enemy, being informed of their condition, fell upon them, and, after a great rout, drove into the city those who had escaped slaughter or capture. THE BOOK OF THE PROPHET HABAKKUK. [HABAKKUK'S PROPHESY is REFERRED TO ABOUT 600 B. c.] CHAPTER II. VERSE 5. Yea also, because he transgresseth by wine, he is a proud man, neither keepeth at home, who enlargeth his desire as hell, and is as death, and cannot be satisfied, but gathereth unto him all nations, and heapeth unto him all people. YEA ALSO, BECAUSE HE TRANSGRESSETH BY WINE] Hebrew, vl-aph ki hay- yayin bogad, ' now, in truth, the wine is defrauding '= is a defrauder, a deceiver. The Lxx. reads, ' but the arrogant man and the scorner, the boastful man, shall not finish any thing'; the V., ft quomodo vinum potantem decipit, 'and in like manner as wine deceives the drinker.' The T. has 'behold, as one wanders by wine.' Henderson's translation, ' moreover, wine is treacherous' (so Benisch) ; and in a note he remarks "that the prophet has his eye upon the intemperance to which the Babylonians were greatly addicted, there can be no doubt. How strikingly was the deceptive character of wine exemplified in the case of Belshaz- zar !" Newcome reads, ' moreover, as a mighty man transgresseth through wine.' Wine (that is, the wine that intoxicates) is here distinctly described as a secret spoiler = one that secretly plunders ; and this characteristic of wine is made the ground of a comparison between it and a ' strong man ' (geber) who is 'proud, and does not rest, who enlargeth his desire (or soul) as j//0/(the under- world).' The verdict of Solomon, latz hay-yayin, 'a mocker is the wine,' and the confirm- atory verdict of Habakkuk, hay-yayin bog&l, 'the wine is a defrauder,' affix for ever upon the wine that intoxicates, a stigma which no colors of social flattery can conceal, and no force of sophistry expunge. CHAPTER II. VERSE 15. Woe unto him that giveth his neighbor drink, that puttest thy bottle to him, and makest him drunken also, that thou mayest look on their nakedness ! 240 HABAKKUK, II. 15. It is worthy of note that the I4th verse, which speaks of the millennial glory when the earth shall be 'full of the knowlege of the Lord,' should be followed by this woe, as if indicating the love of strong liquor to be the great and primary obstacle to that spiritual jubilee. WOE UNTO HIM THAT GIVETH HIS NEIGHBOR DRINK] Hebrew, hoi mashqa ruahu, 'woe to him-giving-drink-to his neighbor.' THAT PUTTEST THY BOTTLE TO HIM] Hebrew, mtsap&akh khamathkah, 'pouring out thy inflaming drink.' [On KHAMAH, see Prel. Dis., and Notes upon Deut. xxxii. 35; Psa. Iviii. 4; Isa. li. 17; Jer. xxv. 15; li. 39; Hos. vii. 5.] Grotius renders khamath ' hot wine ' ; Parkhurst, ' hot inflammatory liquor ' ; Arch- bishop Newcome, 'gall, poison.' AND MAKETH HIM DRUNKEN ALSO] Hebrew, vt-aph shahkar, 'and even making him drunk.' It is a beginning of badness to give bad drink for sensual purposes bad to give at all the brain-disturbing khamah, the emblem of God's anger and the consummation of wickedness is reached when dead-drunkenness ensues.* The Lxx. renders the whole verse, O ho potizon ton pleesion autou, anatropee tholera kai methuskon, hopos epiblepee epi ta apeelaia auton, ' woe (to him) who gives his neighbor to drink from the turbid subversion [or, thick dregs], and makes him drunk, so that he may look upon their secret parts. ' The Barberine codex has cholou sou, ' of thy fury ' ; Symmachus, ton thumon heautou, 'his own rage ' ; the V., vce quipotum datamico suo mittens f el suum et inebrians et aspiciat nuditatem ejus, 'woe (is) to him who gives drink to his own friend, presenting his own gall, inebriating (him), that he may gaze upon his nakedness ' ; the Syriac, ' Woe to him who gives his companion to drink the dregs of fiery (wine), and inebriates him, that he may gaze on their nakedness.' The T. has, 'Woe to him who gives his companion to drink, and covers him with heat, that he may drink and be intoxicated and expose his shame.' Dr Henderson's version is as follows : " Woe to him that giveth drink to his neighbor, \ Pouring out thy wrath, and making him drunk ; In order to look upon their nakedness." Dr Benisch has, "Woe unto him that giveth his fellow drink, pouring forth thy fury to make also drunk, that thou mayest look on their nakedness." An able version of Habakkuk's prophesy appeared in the Christian Spectator of 1865 (p. 94), from which we give this passage : (15) " Woe to him giving his neighbor drink, Pouring out his poison, and even making drunk, In order to gaze upon his nakedness. (16) " Thou shalt be satiated with shame rather than glory ; Drink thou also, and be soon uncircumcised ; t There shall be passed to thee the cup of Jehovah's right hand, t And infamy shall be on thy glory." * That is an extraordinary kind of argument which infers, from the mention or prohibition of an extreme sin, the rightfulness of the intervening and causative steps. Here, however, all the stages and agencies are denounced and condemned the poisoned potion, the giving of it, and the final t The Lxx., V., Syriac, and Arabic, followed by Rabbi Kimchi and others, read this clause as if by a slight transposition of the Hebrew, the verb haahral, ' be thou uncircumcised,' should be converted into harahal, ' reel or stagger/ in keeping with the phrases employed in Isa. li. 17, and Zech. xii. 2. (Vide Notes.) $ This cup is also khamath, though the word is not here repeated the hay-yayin hay-kkemah which Professor Nordheimer, in his Critical Grammar, rightly translates, 'the maddening wine.' HABAKKUK, III. I/. 241 CHAPTER II. VERSE 16. Thou art filled with shame for glory : drink thou also, and let thy foreskin be uncovered : the cup of the LORD'S right hand shall be turned unto thee, and shameful spewing shall be on thy glory. The cup of riot shall be followed by the cup of retribution. Sensuality entails shame ; and those who assist in the degradation of others are adopting the most effectual means of their own ignominious exposure. The woe pronounced in ver. 15 is thought by some, not to attach to those who hold out the cup of inflaming drink for gain, yet not purposely to make others drunken ; but that a portion of their condemnation is associated with every part of the procedure, no intelligent Christian can doubt. It is no excuse for the fool who casts lighted brands about, to cry, 'I am in sport'; and to deal out (whether by the barrel or the bottle) inflaming and polluting draughts, for the sake of 'filthy lucre,' does not render the act innocuous, nor the agent blameless. Even when the motives are not mercenary, and the intentions even kind, there must be a heavy responsibility for the sanction given to the circulation of dangerous drinks, and the persuasions used in pressing their use on others. CHAPTER III. VERSE 17. Although the fig tree shall not blossom, neither shall fruit be in the vines ; the labor of the olive shall fail, and the fields shall yield no meat ; the flock shall be cut off from the fold, and there shall be no herd in the stalls. NEITHER SHALL FRUIT BE IN THE VINES] Hebrew, v2-ain yevul bag-gphah- nim, 'and no produce in the vines.' 31 THE BOOK OF THE PROPHET ZEPHANIAH [THE DATE OF THIS PROPHESY IS REFERRED TO 630 B.C.] CHAPTER I. VERSE 12. And it shall come to pass at that time that I will search Jerusalem with candles, and punish the men that are settled on their lees : that say in their heart, The LORD will not do good, neither will he do evil. SETTLED ON THEIR LEES] Hebrew, haq-qophim al shimraihem, 'drawn up (coagulated) upon their lees.' Lxx., 'and I will bring judgment upon the men who despise their defences ' (phalagmata). Liddell and Scott give to phalagmata here the sense of 'commandments.' The V., et insitabo super viros defixos in f/zcibus suis, 'and I will look down the men settled upon their own lees.' CHAPTER I. VERSE 13. Therefore their goods shall become a booty, and their houses a desolation : they shall also build houses, but not inhabit them ; and they shall plant vineyards, but not drink the wine thereof. AND THEY SHALL PLANT VINEYARDS, BUT NOT DRINK THE WINE THEREOF] Hebrew, vti-nahtu kerahmim v$-lo yishtu eth yaynahm, ' and they have planted vineyards, and shall not drink their wine.' Lxx., for 'wine,' has oinon ; V., vinum. THE BOOK OF THE PROPHET HAGGAI. [THIS PROPHET PROPHESIED IN OR NEAR THE YEAR $2O B.C.] CHAPTER I. VERSE 6. Ye have sown much, and bring in little ; ye eat, but ye have not enough; ye drink, but ye are not filled with drink; ye clothe you, but there is none warm ; and he that earneth wages earneth wages to put it into a bag with holes. YE DRINK, BUT YE ARE NOT FILLED WITH DRINK] Hebrew, shahthu v$~ain lishahkrah, ye have drunk, but not to-be-full ' = fulness. So Henderson. The previous clause reads, ' ye eat, but not to-be-satisfied ' (esahvah = to fulness of food). This comparison, and the obvious reference of the prophet to a state that was to be deplored, show that shahkar is here used in its primary and innocent sense of ' to be filled.' The same sense must, therefore, be attached to the Lxx., eis mctheen, i to repletion ' ; and to the V., non estis inebriati, 'ye are not filled.' The concluding clause, "and he that earneth wages earneth wages to put it into a bag with holes " (or pierced), has been fitly applied in illustration of the folly which expends on intoxicating liquors ninety millions of pounds in the United Kingdom, upwards of one-third of which comes out of the pockets of the working classes. Wages so wasted may well be said to be put into bags with holes, with the melancholy difference, that not only does the money run out, but miseries innumerable spring up from the misappropriation. The money loss, enormous as it is, is but the first loss, and the precursor of other losses in regard to personal and domestic comfort, mental improvement, and religious growth, that keep the nation out of its noblest rights and loftiest enjoyments, by wasting its splendid opportunities of progress. CHAPTER I. VERSE u. And I called for a drought upon the land, and upon the mountains, and upon the corn, and upon the new wine, and upon the oil, and upon that which the ground bringeth forth, and upon men, and upon cattle, and upon all the labor of the hands. 244 HAGGAI, II. 12, 1 6, 19. AND UPON THE CORN, AND UPON THE NEW WINE, AND UPON THE OIL] Hebrew, v%-al had-dahgan, ve-al hat-tirosh, v%-al hay-yitzhar, 'and upon the corn, and upon the vine-fruit, and upon the olive-and-orchard-fruit ' ; Lxx., siton, oinon, elaion / V., triticum, vinum, oleum. The entire structure of the verse shows that the prophet has in his mind, not an artificial preparation, but the growing produce of the soil. CHAPTER II. VERSE 12. If one bear holy flesh in the skirt of his garment, and with his skirt do touch bread, or pottage, or wine, or oil, or any meat, shall it be holy ? And the priests answered and said, No. Three out of the four articles named here lekhem (bread), yayin (wine), and shemen (oil) are preparations from the substances named in chap. i. ii; while * anything made ready for eating ' = any meat, answers to ' upon that which the ground bringeth forth,' over and above the class of productions separately named. The word for 'pottage,' nakzid, signifies anything boiled or cooked, probably including roots and herbs of any kind. Lxx., oinon ; V., vinum. CHAPTER II. VERSE 16. Since those days were, when one came to an heap of twenty measures, there were but ten : when one came to the pressfat for to draw out fifty vessels out of the press, there were but twenty. THE PRESSFAT] Hebrew, hay-yeqlv, 'the wine-press'; Lxx., to hupohenion, 'the wine-vat'; V., torcular, 'press.' Henderson notes, "The word purah, which is used for the wine-press itself (Isa. Ixiii. 3), is here employed to denote a liquid measure in which the wine was drawn out." But another reading is open to us. [See Prel. Dis. p. xxvi.] The 'heap' maybe referred to the corn, and the ' fifty ' to the expected clusters in the grape- vat, when there were but ' twenty ' in the whole building {purah, or 'fruit-house '). The disappointment of the proprietor is graphically depicted. Expecting to realize twenty measures of wheat from the threshed corn, and the yield was but ten ; looking for fifty measures of wine or clusters of grapes in the press, and twenty only could be found ! CHAPTER II. VERSE 19. Is the seed yet in the barn ? yea, as yet the vine, and the fig tree, and the pomegranate, and the olive tree, hath not brought forth : from this day will I bless you. THE VINE] Hebrew, hag-geph%n, 'the vine.' THE BOOK OF THE PROPHET ZECHARIAH. [ZECKARIAH is BELIEVED TO HAVE PROPHESIED 520 518 B. c.] CHAPTER III. VERSE 10. In that day, saith the LORD of hosts, shall ye call every man his neighbor under the vine and under the fig tree. THE VINE] Hebrew, gephen, 'a vine.' CHAPTER VIII. VERSE 12. For the seed shall be prosperous ; the vine shall give her fruit, and the ground shall give her increase, and the heavens shall give their dew ; and I will cause the remnant of this people to possess all these things. THE VINE SHALL GIVE HER FRUIT] Hebrew, hag-glphln titan piryah, 'the vine shall give her fruit.' So Lxx. and V. CHAPTER IX. VERSE 15. The LORD of hosts shall defend them ; and they shall devour, and subdue with sling stones ; and they shall drink, and make a noise as through wine ; and they shall be filled like bowls, and as the corners of the altar. AND THEY SHALL DRINK, AND MAKE A NOISE AS THROUGH WINE] Hebrew, vl-shahthii hahmu kt-mo yahyin, 'and they drink, (and) make-a-noise ( = rage) as wine (does).' Hahmah is rendered 'raging' in A. V. of Prov. xx. I, where it is applied to shakar, 'strong-drink.' AND THEY SHALL BE FILLED LIKE BOWLS, AND AS THE CORNERS OF THE ALTAR] Lxx., Codex B, renders, 'and they shall swallow them as wine, and fill the bowls as the altar'; but Codex A reads, 'and they shall swallow tlieir blood as wine, and fill the altar as bowls.' The V., 'and drinking they shall be inebriated as by wine, and they shall be filled as vials and as the horns of the 246 ZECHARIAH, IX. I/. altar.' The Syriac, 'and they shall drink confusion as wine, and they shall be fired as mixed (wine), and as the horns of the altar.' The T. of Jonathan reads, 'and they shall be satiated by them, like those who drink wine, and their soul shall be filled with delicacies as a vial when it is filled with oil.' CHAPTER IX. VERSE 17. For how great is his goodness, and how great is his beauty ! corn shall, make the young men cheerful, and new wine the maids. CORN SHALL MAKE THE YOUNG MEN CHEERFUL, AND NEW WINE THE MAIDS] Hebrew, dahgan bakhurim v^-tirosh yenovav bethuloth, 'corn shall make the youths to grow (to thrive), and vine-fruit the maidens.' Lxx., 'for if he has anything good, and if he has anything fair, to the young men (is) corn, and fragrant wine (oinos euodiazon) to the virgins.' The V., 'for what is his goodness, and what is his beauty, unless the corn of the elect ones (frumentum electoruni), and growing- wine (to) the virgins ? ' vinum germinans virgines. The Syriac, ' how good and how useful is corn to the young men ! and wine renders the virgins joyful.' The Arabic, 'for if anything is from him, and if any beauty is from him, (appropriate) corn to the young men, and wine brings a sweet odor to the virgins.' The Targum spiritualizes the text. In referring to the nutritious qualities of corn and vine-fruit, the prophet assigns the 'corn ' to the youth of one sex, and the ' vine-fruit ' to the youth of the other sex, not because their food was respectively confined to corn or grapes, but be- cause, in making a difference, the bloom and lusciousness of the vine-clusters better harmonized with the beauty and sweetness of the Jewish virgin than with the mas- culine attributes of the rougher sex. Archbishop Newcome renders, ' the harvest gladdeneth the young men, and the vintage the maidens ' ; but in a note he takes yenovav in the sense of abounding, and proposes to read, ' the corn aboundeth for the young men [to gather it], and the choice wine for the maidens [to prepare it].' Dr Henderson's note is a remarkable instance of the dangerous conclusions to which false premises will conduct good and learned men. It is as follows : " The drinking of must by young females is peculiar to this passage ; but its being here expressly sanctioned by Divine authority provides an unanswerable argument against those who would interdict all use of the fruit of the vine. Tirosh, new wine or must, so called from yahrash, 'to take possession of,' because, when taken to excess, it gains the mastery over the person who indulges in it." But (i) " those who would interdict all use of the fruit of the vine " are nowhere to be found ; they are phantoms of the imagination ; (2) the derivation of tirosh from yahrash does not in the least involve the idea of any intoxicating quality in tirosh [see Prel. Dis. ] ; (3) the good Doctor is evidently not quite at ease with the free use of an intoxicating drink by 'young females' being 'expressly sanctioned by Divine authority,' since in all ages, and even in British society where alcoholic liquor is used, its employ- ment to make young females ' thrive ' would not be ventured upon. Did Dr H. recommend a free use of wine to his daughters or other young Christian females ? The apposition of ' corn ' with ' tirosh ' might have suggested to him a revision of his exegesis, especially when, in Micah vi. 15, he had been compelled to translate tirosh, not by 'new intoxicating wine,' but by 'the grape of the new wine.' ZECHARIAH, XIV. IO. 247 CHAPTER X. VERSE 7. And they of Ephraim shall be like a mighty man, and their heart shall rejoice as through wine : yea, their children shall see iV, and be glad; their heart shall rejoice in the LORD. AND THEIR HEART SHALL REJOICE AS THROUGH WINE] Hebrew, vl-sahmakh libahm k$-mo yahyin, 'and their heart shall be glad like (those who drink) wine.' The word 'through' is not justified by the Hebrew, kemo expressing not causation but comparison. The rejoicing may, of course, refer either to the gladness and cheerfulness arising from an abundance of innocent wine, or to the effect of the inebriating cup. In any case, there is no more a sanction of the agent wine, or the act of drinking it, than a sanction of war is involved when the Spirit of Truth is likened to a two-edged sword. Lxx., 'and they shall be as the warriors of Ephraim, and their hearts shall rejoice as with wine ' ; ' and Ephraim shall be as a mighty (one), and their heart shall be delighted as with wine.' CHAPTER XII. VERSE 2. Behold, I will make Jerusalem a cup of trembling unto all the people round about, when they shall be in the siege both against Judah and against Jerusalem. A CUP OF TREMBLING] Hebrew, saph rdal, 'a bowl of reeling* -rthat makes to reel or stagger. A. V. gives in the margin, 'or, slumber, or poison.' Lxx., frothura saleuomena, ' trembling door-posts '; V., superliminarc crapula, 'an upper lintel (of a door) of intoxication.' T., 'a bowl filled with strong drink* (marvai), or 'drunkenness.' CHAPTER XIV. VERSE 10. All the land shall be turned as a plain from Geba to Rimmon south of Jerusalem : and it shall be lifted up, and inhabited in her place, from Benjamin's gate unto the place of the first gate, unto the corner gate, and from the tower of Hananeel unto the king's winepresses. UNTO THE KING'S WINEPRESSES] Hebrew, ad yiqvai ham-mlfck, ' to the wine-presses of the king.' THE BOOK OF THE PROPHET MALACHI. [MALACHI FLOURISHED ABOUT THE YEAR 400 B. c.] CHAPTER III. VERSE n. And I will rebuke the devourer for your sakes, and he shall not destroy the fruits of your ground: neither shall your vine cast her fruit before the time in the field, saith the LORD of hosts. NEITHER SHALL YOUR VINE, ETC.] Hebrew, vt-lo tlshakkal lahkeni hag-gephtn bas-sahdeh, 'and the vine in the field shall not be abortive ( = sterile) to you.' Lxx., ' and the vine which is in the field shall surely not be weakly (or sick) ' - ou met astheneesee. V., 'nor shall the vine (or vineyard = vinea) in the field be sterile (sterilis).' The gephen sahdeh, 'vine of the field,' was a species of vine suffered to run un- trained in the open country (see Note on 2 Kings iv. 29) ; hence the promise that even the wild vine should cease to be barren, and should bear fruit worthy of the name, was a striking assurance of the Divine blessing upon the land of Judea. ADDITIONAL NOTES. GENESIS XL. VERSES 9 13, 21. Philo, in his Treatise on Joseph, gives an account of the imprisonment of the young Hebrew and the dreams of the chief butler and baker. Of the former he states: "Then first the chief-wine-pourer (arc hioinoc hods} declares, It seemed, to me that a great vine of three roots brought forth one very vigorous and fruitful stock, bearing clusters as if in the height of summer; and as the grapes had a high, ripe color, I gathered the clusters and gently squeezed them into the royal cup, and when it contained sufficient of the pure wine (akratou\ I presented it to the king." Joseph predicts his restoration to his office at court, and adds, " In order to the confirmation of thy dignity, thou shalt pour out wine (oinochoccsris), and present the cup to thy sovereign." EXODUS XII. VERSES 17 20. In his treatise concerning the Sacred Festivals, Philo observes that some inter- preters of Holy Scripture accounted for the prohibition of leaven at the passover from the fact that ' unfermented food is a gift of nature, while that which is fer- mented is a work of art ' (holt hee azuma trophte doreema phuseos, de tumomenon technees ergon) ; and, further, that as the primitive inhabitants of the world must have used the productions of the earth in their natural state, so it was suitable for the Creator to kindle afresh every year the primitive spirit by a course of plain and simple dietary. EXODUS XXXII. VERSE 6. And they rose up early on the morrow, and offered burnt offerings, and brought peace offerings ; and the people sat down to eat and to drink, and rose up to play. To this circumstance St Paul refers, I Cor. x. ^. Whether the words 'sat down to eat and to drink' imply gluttony and drunkenness cannot be absolutely determined. Though the people were not furnished by God with strong drink, occasional supplies might have been procured, with the certain effect of stimulating every tendency to impurity and idolatrous rites. 25O ADDITIONAL NOTES. NUMBERS XXV. VERSES i, 2. i And Israel abode in Shittim, and the people began to commit whoredom with the daughters of Moab. 2 And they called the people unto the sacrifices of their gods : and the people did eat, and bowed down to their gods. This shameful tergiversation is made a subject of apostolic warning, I Cor. x. 8. Prevented from cursing the people of Israel, Balaam basely gave such advice to Balak, the king of Moab, as led to the temptation before which the children of Israel fell. So far did the corruption extend, that the Israelites ate of the Moabitish sacrifices, and did reverence to the idols. As these sacrificial feasts were always occasions of revelry and intemperance, it may be presumed that the one described in the text was no exception to the rule. DEUTERONOMY XXXIII. VERSE 28. The expression shahmahiv, 'THY heavens,' seems to indicate that the am Yaakov, 'the eye (or fountain) of Jacob,' is nothing less than a poetical and intensive form of speech personifying Jehovah, who describes Himself in ver. 26 as ' the God of Jeshurun.' The promise that God's eye, the sign of complacency and blessing, should be upon the land, would exactly agree with the words of Deut. xi. 12, "A land which the Lord thy God careth for: the eyes of the Lord thy God are always upon it." In Psa. xxiv. 6 the appellative 'Jacob' is distinctly ascribed to Jehovah in a similar outburst of ecstatic devotion, God being identified with Jacob the patriarch, as the Father of the chosen race. ESTHER I. VERSE 8. Concerning the change of manners and morals among the ancient Persians as to the use of strong drink, Professor Rawlinson, in his 'Ancient Monarchies,' vol. iv., offers the following remarks: "In respect of eating and drinking, the Persians, even of the better sort, were in the earlier times noted for their temper- ance and sobriety. Their ordinary food was wheaten bread, barley cakes, and meat simply roasted or boiled, which they seasoned with salt and with bruised cress- seed, a substitute for mustard. The sole drink in which they indulged was water. Moreover, it was their habit to take one meal only each day. The poorer kind of people were contented with even a simpler diet, supporting themselves, to a great extent, on the natural products of the soil, as dates, figs, wild pears, acorns, and the fruit of the terebinth tree. But these abstemious habits were soon laid aside, and replaced by luxury and self-indulgence, when the success of their arms had put it in their power to have the full and free gratification of all their desires and propensities. Then, although the custom of having but one meal in the clay was kept up, the character of the custom was entirely altered by beginning the meal early and making it last till night. Not many sorts of meat were placed on the board, unless the occasion was a grand one ; but course after course of the lighter kinds of food flowed on in an almost endless succession, intervals of some length being allowed between the courses to enable the guests to recover their appetites. ADDITIONAL NOTES. 251 Instead of water, wine became the usual beverage ; each man prided himself on the quantity he could drink; and the natural result followed, that most banquets ter- minated in general intoxication. Drunkenness even came to be a sort of institution. Once a year, at the feast of Mithras, the king of Persia, according to Duris, was bound to be drunk. A general practice arose of deliberating on all important affairs under the influence of wine, so that in every household, when a family crisis impended, intoxication was a duty." PROVERBS XXXI. VERSES 4, 5. Plato, in his * Laws/ b. ii. 674, puts into the mouth of the Athenian guest certain concluding remarks which the others pronounce to be very good. " In preference (he says) to the custom of the Cretans and Lacedaemonians I would favor the Carthaginian law ; viz., that no one when in camp is to taste of that drink (wine), but is to exist upon water during all that period; and that in the city, neither a male nor female slave should ever taste it ; and that not magistrates during their year of office, nor pilots (of the State ? kuberncetas), nor judges engaged in business, should taste it at all; nor any one who goes to any council to deliberate upon any matter of moment ; neither anyone in the daytime at all, unless on account of bodily exercise or disease (somaskias ee noson) ; nor at night, when either man or woman is intent upon begetting offspring. Many other cases a person might mention in which wine ought not to be drunk by those who possess under- Standing and a correct rule of action (nomon orthon}" CANTICLES VIII. VERSE 2. The Targum on this passage is periphrastic and allegorical, but contains the fol- lowing expressive sentence : "We shall drink old wine (khamar attiq) which has been stored up in its own grapes since the commencement of the creation, and from pomegranates which have been made ready for the righteous in the Eden of delight." CANON OF CRITICISM. " The usage of the time and place of the writer determines the meaning. If a word or phrase had several meanings, the context determines which it bears in ' a given ' passage. The more common meaning of the toriter's day is to be preferred, provided it suits the passage, not that more common to our day." Professor MURPHY, D. D., Self as t t Commentary. CONNECTION OF THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS. No thoughtful person can peruse the Sacred History (constituting the Jewish Bible) on which we have been commenting in relation to a great practical duty lying at the foundation of the spiritual life of the Individual, and of the religious progress of the Jewish people, without perceiving that it is a history of development. The simple religion of the Patriarchs prepares for the more complicated legislation of Moses, and for the adumbrations and symbolism of the Levitical system shadowing forth the ' better things to come.' In process of ages, however, human corruption and tradition are seen obscuring and perverting the spirit of the whole dispensation, and the people are in danger of the eclipse of formalism and super- stition. To recall them to the true meaning of Ordinances and Sacrifices, and to re-infuse a spirit of reality into their life, various bold and outspoken Prophets and Exemplars are consecrated and sent forth : " I raised up your sons for Prophtts, And of your young men for Nazarites ; Is it not even thus? saith the Lord." While the one was commissioned to announce neglected Truth, the other exhibited the willinghood of a piety founded upon a regard for the Divine Will, evincing the superior value of the spontaneous sacrifice of our appetites upon the living altar of Duty. The last of the prophets had spoken, and the roll of prophesy had become sealed till ' the fulness of time ' should arrive for the advent of its living Illustrator. Meanwhile the example of the Nazarites had called up imitators, and, while the class bearing that peculiar name may have diminished, the chief practice and principle by which they were distinguished, assumed a solidarity, and exerted a power, of a very remarkable kind. The association of the Jews with the Persian Magi, the influx of Greek philosophy along with the Grecian conquests specially the semi -moral and religious philosophies of Epicurus and Pythagoras, id later still, intimate relations with the Egyptian Wisdom, all brought the pious and reflecting Jews into constant contact with some form of abstinence from intoxicating liquors a doctrine closely interwoven with the religion and morals of antiquity. Such is the nature of the human mind, that many persons will readily embrace an opinion or a practice of foreign growth, sanctioned by strange author- ities or fashions, which they would persistently reject when recommended by the faithful servants of God and truth at home. Thus, while the Jews perversely 'gave their Nazarites wine to drink,' subsequently the very same class of people might look with favor upon the abstinence which came to them from the teachers of India and Persia on the one hand, or from those of Egypt and Greece on the other. The Apocrypha and Secular History make certain the fa ct of the prevalence of such opinions and practices amongst the pre-Christian Jews, and the early Chri*- tians so much so, that unless we proceed to read the New Testament in the light of this fact, many of its allusions and even its words will fail to yield up the truth to us, which was patent to the minds of those to whom the original was addressed. 254 CONNECTION OF OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS. Imagine, for example, that portions of our religious and temperance literature were to be perused by a people or a generation to whom our inner doctrine was unknown how great and manifold would be the misunderstandings ! Mr. Jowett, M. A., the Professor of Greek at Oxford, may be cited as an impartial authority on this head : " Such examples (as Daniel and Tobit) show what the Jews had learned to practice or admire in the centuries immediately preceding the Christian era. So John the Baptist 'fed on locusts and wild honey.' A later age delighted to attribute a similar abstinence to James, the brother of our Lord (Hegesippus apud Euseb. H. E. ii. 23); and to Matthew (Clemens Alexandrinus, Peed. ii. 2, p. 174); heretical writers added Peter to the list of these enkratites (Epiph. Her. xxx. 2 ; Clemens, Horn. xii. 6). The Apostolic Canons (xliii.) admit an ascetic-abstinence, but denounce those who abstain [like the Persian Magi and Manichees] from any sense of the impurity of matter. (See passages quoted in Fritshe, iii. p. 151.) Jewish as well as Alexandrian and Oriental influences combined to maintain the practice in the first centuries. Long after it had ceased to be a Jewish scruple, it remained as a counsel of perfection." (Epistles of St Paul, vol. ii. Lond. 1855.) Speaking (p. 313) of the sects prevalent in Judea just prior to the advent of the Redeemer, Professor Jowett observes : " In their first commencement, the zealots were animated by noble thoughts. Many of these ' Galileans ' must have been among the first converts. Like the Essenes, they probably stood in some relation that we are unable to trace to the followers of John the Baptist and of Christ." In regard to the opinions of heretical writers of the first four or five centuries it must be remembered that we have often to depend on the testimonies of their enemies, who destroyed their books ; and it is demonstrable that, in many respects, they were grossly misunderstood, and therefore misrepresented. St Augustine, for example, charges some of the abstaining ' heretics ' with folly, because, said he, while they refuse wine, even at the Sacrament, they actually suck the juice of the grape! Augustine has a numerous posterity up to the present day, who fancy that there is an inconsistency here, when in fact there is merely a confusion in the minds of the objectors. The simple solution is, that wwfermented ' wine ' is as different from the fermented, in its nature and effects, as a good will is different from a vicious will, or a prudent ' wife ' from an /wprudent. The generic words are the same, but the concrete things extremely diverse. Still, the testimony is valuable as a proof of the continuity of the practice of abstinence in the Church. Theodoret remarks of Tatian (A. D. 172), that "he abhors the use of wine." Augustine reproaches " the Manichees with being so perverse that while they refuse wine (yinuni), and call it the gall of the Prince of Darkness (fel principiis tenebrarum\ they nevertheless eat of grapes." De Morib. Manichaor. lib. ii. $ 44. Epiphanius, bishop of Salamis, says of the Enkratites (or Temperates), " They did not use wine at all, saying, it was of the Devil ; and that drinking and using it was sinful." This was evidently said of intoxicating wine, not of the natural juice of the grape, which they are charged with inconsistently sucking. Photius observes of the Severians, "They were averse to wine as the cause of drunkenness." From this doctrine, propagated to the Eremites of the desert, and the later monks of the Arabian border, there can be little doubt that Mohammed borrowed his famous dictum: "Of the fruit of the grape ye obtain an inebriating liquor, and also good nourishment." He issued an interdict against the one, but never against the other. [See note on Rev. vi. 6.] The hostile spirit of controversy, in the early ages, however, led to the doctrine being repudiated in toto by the triumphant party, and thus the association of a CONNECTION OF OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS. 255 practical trutli with real or supposed errors, was, for want of logical discrimination, the unhappy cause of great subsequent corruption of life in the Christian Church. The dark ages set in, followed by the skeptical, and it is only in our day that men are rising above the mists, and looking once more at the original and abiding fads. The most remarkable of all the religious communities of antiquity, were the ESSENES and THERAPEUTVE, with their kindred associates. We" are indebted for our knowledge of them to two writers namely, Josephus, the Jewish historian, and Philo, anothef Jew, of the Alexandrian school. Their tenets and practices, in many curious particulars, bore so great a resemblance to those of the early Chris- tians, that some learned writers have contended that they were Christians, protect- ing themselves from persecution, and probable extinction, under the veil of a secret Jewish sect. The Rev. John Jones, the ingenious author of ' Ecclesiastical Researches' (1812), and De Quincy, the critic and philosopher, have put forth elaborate essays in support of that view. This certainly would account for the singular fact that no special mention of the Essenes occurs in the New Testament, but Dean Prideaux has advanced another theory : "Although our Saviour very often censured all the other sects then among the Jews, yet He never spake of the Essenes, neither is there any mention of them through the whole Scriptures of the New Testament. This proceeded, some think, from their retired way of living; for, their abode being mostly in the country, they seldom came into cities ; nor were they in our Saviour's, time ever seen at the temple, or in any public assembly ; and therefore, not falling in the way of our Saviour's observation, for this reason, say they, He took no notice of them. But much more likely it was, that being a very honest and sincere sort of people, with- out guile or hypocrisy, they gave no reason for that reproof and censure which the others very justly deserved." Josephus thus writes of them in his 'Jewish Antiquities' (book xv. c. n) " These men live the same kind of life as do those whom the Greeks call Pythag- oreans. . . . It is but fit to set down here the reasons wherefore Herod had these Essenes in such honor. . . . There was one, named Manahem, who had this testimony, that he not only conducted his life after an excellent fashion, but was endued by God with the foreknowledge of future events. . . . Many of the Essenes have, by the excellency of their life, been deemed worthy of divine revelations." This author curiously refers to a secret, mystery, or oath which the Essenes had, suggesting that on this point of esoteric or inner doctrine, we must take what he says with caution : Jones and De Quincey believe that this was nothing but an Agape, or religious ' Love-feast.' Josephus further says (' Wars,' book ii. c. 8), "The Essenes are Jews by nation and a society of men friendly to each other beyond what is to be found among any other people. They have an aversion to sensuous pleasure in the same manner as to that which is truly evil. Temperance (teen enkrateian), and the keeping their passions in subjection, they esteem a virtue of the first order. . . . They have stewards chosen for the management of their common stock, who provide for all according as every man hath need. They do not all live together in one city, but in every city many of them dwell. These give reception to all travelers of their sect, who eat and drink with them as freely as of their own, going in unto them, though they never saw them before, in the same manner as if they had been old acquaintances." Of their diet, regimen, and longevity, Josephus gives a most interesting account. In this manner, the Essenes passed the day: "They are, in what concerns God, remarkably religious. For before sunrise, they speak on no 256 CONNECTION OF OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS. secular subject, offering up to God their prayers in ancient forms received from their predecessors, specially supplicating that He would make the sun of his blessing to rise upon them. After this, each is sent by the superior of the com- munity to work in the employment they are best skilled in, and having diligently labored till the fifth hour [that is, till eleven in the morning], they assemble again in one place, and each having a linen garment to put about him, they wash them- selves in cold water. After this lustration, they go into a private room, where none but their own order is permitted to enter. And being tints cleansed, they go into the refectory (or dining-room) with the same behavior as into a holy temple ; and after a silence, the baker lays before every man his loaf of bread, and the cook in like manner, serves up to each his dish, all of the same sort of food. The priest then says grace before meat, it not being lawful for any one to taste before the grace be said ; and after dinner they say grace again : and thus they always begin and end their meal with praise and thanksgiving to God, as the giver of their food. After this they put off the robes, looking on them as in some sense sacred, and again betake themselves each to his work till evening, when returning they take their supper in the same manner as they had done their dinner, their guests sitting at meal with them, if any such happen to be in the place. No clamor or tumult is ever known in the houses ; for when together, they speak only each in turn. This silence appears to those not of their sect as a venerable and sacred custom. All this is the result of a constant course of sobriety in their moderating their eating and drinking only to the end of sufficing nature.* . . . They are long-livers, so that many of them arrive to the age of a hundred years ; which is to be ascribed to their simple and plain diet, and the temperance and good order observed in all things." Josephus records a fact concerning the Essenes, which is strikingly in harmony with Christian doctrine, as expounded by Paul (Rom. xii. i) "Though they send gifts to the temple, they do not sacrifice victims, having adopted a differ- ent mode of purification, being themselves the victims they offer up" a living sacrifice. (Antiquities, book xviii. c. i. ) Philo, in his treatise on ' the virtuous being also free,' refers to the Essenes in similar language. "They are above all men devoted to the service of God, not sacrificing living animals, but studying to preserve their own minds in a state of holiness and purity." In his ' Antiquities ' (book xviii. c. i. ), Josephus gives the following more con- densed description : "The Essenes refer all things to God; they teach the immor- tality of the soul, and hold forth the reward of virtue to be most glorious. . . . They deserve to be admired beyond all other men who profess virtue, for their justice and equality. For in opposition to every selfish consideration, they make their goods common property, whence the rich has not greater command or enjoy- irent of his own than those who have no legal claim upon them. This practice has not obtained among the Greeks or barbarians for any length of time, nor in any individual instance, though it has been long established by the Essenes. The men who do these things exceed four thousand, maintaining withal neither wives, *This passage in the original is of great critical value, occurring as it does in a contemporary of the Apostles. " The reason," says Josephus, " is their constant sobriety (neefisis, ' abstinence ') and measuring out their food and drink simply to satisfaction." No one can doubt the meaning of the word neeflsis here. In this connection, a passage from Philo may be reproduced, illustrating another form of the same Greek word occurring in the New Testament, both in its literal and figurative applications: "As the acute Plato holds, Envy (selfish unwillingness) stands outside the Divine assembly; while Wisdom, conversely, as being truly God like, is communicative and beneficent, never shutting up its school, but expanding (its doors) as with open wings, allures those who are thirsting for refreshing words. For this, she pours out the copious (unenvying) stream of twice pure (disakratou, twice unmingled) instruction, and induces men to be filled with her SOBER WINE " (methueinteen neephalian anapeithei metheeii). CONNECTION OF OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS. 257 nor keeping slaves, as thinking the latter to be contrary to justice, and the former to be productive of domestic broils. As they live in a distinct community, they supply the place of slaves by each administering to the wants of the other. They elect good and holy men to be stewards over their revenues, in order to provide corn, and a supply of such things as the ground produces. The course of life which they pursue is exempt from change or the caprices of fashion ; and they bear some resemblance to the clans or communities said to subsist among the Dacians." The Essenes of whom these Jewish writers speak, are said to have been four thousand in number, but on the perusal of the whole account, it becomes evident that this estimate can hardly be meant to apply beyond the locality of Jerusalem, or to any but the rulers of the body. Who the Therapeutae were we have no exact contemporary authority, though Eusebius asserts that they were Christians. But it is needful to remember, that when Philo begins his description of these singular people, he expressly says that ' some of them were called Essenes.' If this word meant 'holy' or 'healing,' like hosios, and a kindred Syriac term, then it might have been applied to a select number of persons, who were either ' saints ' or physicians, exclusive of a larger number of outstanding neophytes or probationers. Dean Prideaux, it appears to us, gives less weight to the authority of Philo than it deserves, and at the same time makes statements somewhat more precise than his author's language will warrant. He says : " Philo, being a Jew of Alex- andria, knew nothing of the Essenes of Judaea but what he had by hearsay; but with the Essenes of Egypt he was indeed much better acquainted ; for although the principal seat of them was in Judaea, yet there were also of them in Egypt, and in all other places where the Jews were dispersed ; and therefore Philo dis- tinguished this sect into the Essenes of Judaea and Syria, and the Essenes of Egypt and other parts. The first he called practical Essenes, and the others he calls Therapeutic, or contemplative " (vol. ii. p. 379, seq.). Nothing can certainly be determined as to the origin and signification of the name Essenes, but that of the ' Therapeutae ' (healers), explains itself. They were, like our Lord, and all Oriental teachers and reformers of manners, physicians both of the body and soul. It should be recollected that John, the Nazarite and Baptist, had a large number of followers, adopting something of the mode of life pursued by these Essenes ; and there was, probably, some connection also with the Sabutzans ( = Baptists), identified by Epiphanius (Op. i. p. 28) with the Essenes, and whose posterity according to Norberg, cited by Michaelis (Introd. iii. p. 285), have sur- vived to our own day, claiming John for their great master. The same writer asserts that the Essenes were chiefly 'Samaritans.' When our Lord, in a season of per- secution, went into the wilderness beyond Jordan, his teaching seems to have had a singular identification with the doctrines of the Essenes, on the subjects of marriage, divorce, and humility ; yet at the same time, in utter antagonism to the diabolical doctrine of the Samaritan Simon, who had embraced the dualistic tenet which represented the creation of matters a subordinate and evil deity " there is none good but one, that is, God." Philo gives the following account : " Palestine and Syria are not barren of honorable and good men, for there are considerable numbers of such scattered about, even compared with the very popu- lous nation of the Jews. Among these are some whom they call Essoeans, being in number about four thousand men, according to my opinion ; they have their name by reason of their great piety, from the Greek word 00*10,, which signifies holy, though the derivation is not according to exact analogy. While they are most devoted servers and worshipers of God, they do not sacrifice unto Him any living creature, but rather choose to form their minds to be holy, thereby to present 33 258 CONNECTION OF OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS. them a fit offering unto Him. They chiefly live in country districts, avoiding cities by reason of the vices prevalent among citizens, being sensible that, as the breathing of a corrupted air engenders diseases, so the conversing with evil com- pany often produces an incurable contagion of the soul. Some of them labor in husbandry, others follow trades or manufacture, confining themselves, however, to the making of such things only as are utensils of peace, endeavoring thereby to benefit themselves and their neighbors. . . . You shall not find among their handicraftsmen any who ever put a hand to the making of arrows, or darts, or swords, or head-pieces, or corslets, or shields ; neither any armor, or engines, or any other instruments of war ; nay, they will not make such utensils of peace as are apt to be employed for mischievous purposes." Referring to the Therapeutae of Egypt, he states : " Their drink is only water from the stream ; they eat only to satisfy hunger, and drink only to quench thirst, avoiding fulness of stomach, as that which is hurtful both to soul and body. At their feasts they drink no wine, but only pure water. . . . They abstain from wine, as reckoning it to be a sort of poison that leads men into madness ; and from too plentiful fare, as that which breeds and creates inordinate and beastly appetites. While they thus sit at meat there is observed a most exact silence, none making the least noise ; and when they have done eating, one of them proposes a question out of Holy Writ, which another answers, imparting what he knows in plain words, without affectation or aiming at praise. " As to slaves, they have none ; all are equally free, and all equally labor for the common good. The upholders of slavery they condemn as unjust and base despots, by whom are violated the sacred laws of Nature, who, like a common parent, has begotten all mankind without distinction, and seeks to educate them in the genuine bonds of fraternity, consisting not in name but in reality." Sodalities of this kind, teaching doctrines so just and true, and following prac- tices so pure and good, necessarily modified at once the language and opinions, the character and habits of mankind around them. They were a people who lived a protest against the corruptions and errors of their time, the lineal spiritual descendants of the prophets, the adapted forerunners of that Gospel which, under the sway of reason, is subservient in still higher measure to the same great ends of purity and freedom, though, alas ! it has often become, in the hands of craft or ignorance, the instrument of quite contrary effects. Lust of power has perverted it into the apology for oppression, appetite into the excuse for sensuality ; while 'spiritual despotism,' instead of obeying the injunction of its Author, and holding it up as ' the light of the world,' has put an extinguisher upon the Word, and used its authority as a torch for kindling the flames of persecution, and obscuring the reason of men with the smoke of superstition and the fumes of fanaticism. Mr Conybeare, in his Life of St Paul,' jusH, 'now on the first (day) of the unfermented things.' Tyndale's and Cranmer's versions read, 'swete breed.' XXVI. VERSES 26 29. 26 And as they were eating, Jesus took bread, and blessed //, and brake it, and gave it to the disciples, and said, Take, eat ; this is my body. 27 And he took the cup, and gave thanks, and gave // to them, saying, Drink ye all of it ; 28 For this is my blood of the new testa- ment, which is shed for many for the remission of sins. 29 But I say unto you, I will not drink henceforth of this fruit of the vine, until that day when I drink it new with you in my Father's kingdom. V. 27. THE CUP] To poterion, 'the drinking-vessel,' 'the cup.' Potecrion (also poteen) signifying a vessel, cup, or goblet to drink from is related to poton 2/6 MATTHEW, XXVI. 26 29. and/<7/. 232. t Vide the original, cited in ' Works of Dr Lees,' ii. p. 169, from the Mishna, Tr. Terumoih, xi. Rirtenor.i adds, in a Latin note, ' Because people drink less of boiled wine,' which is certainly true, since boiling grape juice makes it more saccharine and satisfying. 280 MATTHEW, XXVI. 26 29. and no one acquainted with the ignorance of most of the Fathers of the Western church on many questions of Oriental philology and usage, would appeal to their opinions, or to the decisions of councils under their influence, for testimony as to Jewish manners and customs centuries before their time. But the objection may be more directly met. Bingham, in his 'Antiquities of the Christian Church' (book xv. chap. 2, sect. 7), discusses the practices of some ancient heretics who used only water in the Lord's Supper, and also the custom, widely adopted, of mixing the wine with water. He then continues, "And the third council of Braga [in Portugal] relates Cyprian's words, correcting several other abuses that were crept into the administration of the sacrament; as of some who offered milk instead of wine ; and others who only dipped the bread into the wine, and so denied the people their complement of the sacrament ; and others who used no other wine but what they pressed out of the cluster of grapes that were then presented at the Lord's table. All which they condemn, and order * that nothing but bread, and wine mingled with water, should be offered, according to the determination of the ancient councils.' " The words printed above in italics are Bingham's translation of the words of the council viz., quosdam etiam expression vinum in sacramento Dominici calicis offerre, 'some even present wine expressed in the sacrament of the Lord's cup.' Passing by the curious fact that non, 'not,' before expressum is given by some MSS. as the reading of the passage, it is obvious that the objection of the council had not respect to the unfermented nature of the juice distinctly called vinum 'wine,' but to the juice of the grape being expressed at the time of the sacrament, when no provision was made for the canonical admixture with water. But Pope Julius, or whoever wrote the Epistle to the Egyptians preserved by Gratian, had long before said, with an eye to this objection, Sed si necesse sit botrus in calice comprimatur, et aqiia miscatur, ' but if needful let the bunch of grapes be pressed into the cup, and let water be mingled with it.' Thomas Aquinas alludes to this; see Note on p. 285. 8. The objection of the late Archdeacon Tattam, that only the Abyssinian, amongst all the Eastern branches of the Church universal, supports the doctrine of the Abstainer, is the exact contrary of the fact. Hardly any church but the cor- rupted, intolerant, and persecuting churches of the West ever introduced any other practice than that of the Abstainer. [Consult Student's Edition of Dr Nott's 'Lectures on Bible Temperance,' p. 227, Appendix D, in reply to Dr Tattam; 'Works of Dr Lees,' vol. ii. pp. 131, 180; and see under II. division, No. 4, farther on.] II. The arguments in favor of the position that the Saviour used the zmfer- mented * fruit of the vine ' may be thus summarized : I. Obedience to the Mosaic law required the absence of all fermented articles from the passover feast. The law forbade seor yeast, ferment, whatever could excite fermentation and khahmatz, whatever had undergone fermentation or been subject to the action of a seor. [See Note on Exod. xii. 15, 19.] Fer- mented grape-juice must, therefore, by the necessity of the case, have been equally interdicted with fermented bread. Most noteworthy is it that Maimonides, Barte- nora, and other mediceval rabbins, in allowing the use of intoxicating wine, defend their permission by supposing that it is not fermented. They say, "It is an, hypothesis of the Jews that the water of fruits does not ferment; hence the prohi- bition does not apply to pure water and to wine." In other words, to excuse a violation of the letter of the Divine law, rabbinism sets up a proposition which is a plain contradiction of natural law ! If grape-juice does not ferment, whence did the rabbins suppose its intoxicating power was derived ? It is hardly possible MATTHEW, XXVI. 26 29. 28 1 to stretch our charity so as to believe that the assertion was ever put forth in good faith. An attempted distinction between the ferment of grain and the ferment of grape-juice is not a whit more defensible; for (i) all ferment was forbidden, and (2) the ferment (yeast) of grain and of grape-juice is chemically identical, both being rotting albumen. Nor can it be pretended that ferment only, and not the spirituous product of ferment, was prohibited ; for the Gemara and rabbins forbade all fermented liquor of grain, however well fined; and, moreover, rum and all distilled spirits which are quite free from seor have been always rigidly interdicted. Besides, it must have been practically impossible for the Jews to retain large quan- tities of fermented wine on their premises without a considerable portion of the ferment remaining attached to skins and casks. We here reach the last pinch of the argument. Did the Saviour understand the law, or did He not? Did He observe the law, or break it ? If He used fermented liquor, He must, either ignorantly or intentionally, have broken it; and reverence for their Master ought surely to lead Christians to the conclusion that the cup He ' blessed ' and gave to His disciples contained nothing which the law of Moses had interdicted. 2. The consistency and beauty of the sacramental symbol demanded the absence of all fermented drink. Leaven had been used by the Great Teacher as an emblem of the doctrine of the Pharisees ; and both among Jews and heathens ferment was a common sign of corruption. The Lord of the dispensation of grace, who was now about to seal the new covenant by His blood, offers the cup as the type and token of that blood : could grape-juice which had been subject to a decaying and fermenting process be fitly and consistently used as its visible symbol? Could that blood, signifying the redemption of man and the cleansing of the conscience, be aptly represented by an intoxicating cup, which, in the Psalms and prophets, had been adopted, on the one hand, as the figure of human depravity, and, on the other, as the emblem of Divine indignation ? 3. If the traditions of the Talmud correctly state that each person at the pass- over was supplied with four cups at least, and had permission to take an extra quantity between ; and if the Saviour kept the passover, according to this custom, with His disciples, unless we assume the absence of fermented liquors, the inference is inevitable, that both the Lord and His followers countenanced and illustrated alcoholic excess! Each cup, says Lightfoot (vol. ix. p. 151), was to contain " not less than the fourth part of a quarter of a hin, besides what water was mingled with it" ; and as the hin contained twelve English pints, the quantity of wine which it was obligatory upon each person to drink would be three pints ; but three pints of alcoholic wine would be sufficient to make any person, save a hardened toper, grossly intoxicated. Kvcn if the Talmud be accused of extrava- gance, and the quantity is reduced one-half, nine out of ten persons who drank it, and all women and children, would be inebriated. Indeed, to suppose any sort of wine to be freely drunk, except an wwfermented species, is to presuppose conse- quences from which the truly pious mind instinctively recoils.* * the confusion of thought evinced in the sentence preceding the quotation (gjven on om the Evanr,-: -if (No. 103, Nevr Series), " All Protestants strongly resent of the Church of Rome in denying the cup to the laity ; but though we have received Hence p. 139) from the /-" i> the usage of the (Jhui-.. _. and restored to the people the visible symbol which for many centuries had been withheld from them, it is not quite certain that we have permitted ourselves to apprehend itf. mMnniR. We ttilt celebrate the Lord's Suffer a* if t lit ivine mtr* fn*Udt* u*." This implies that the quantity used i* much too small, and that it should be supped, not s.pned. But would the writer of this complaint recommend tint eich communicant should receive the Talrnud.c allowance of a bottle and a hnlf of intoxicitin- wine' Is it not clear, tint so Ion- as alcohol .c wine >s used, th only condit.on of ufetv is limiting the amount to a mouthful? and tint the wine of the Supper can never be taken copiously and festally till it ceases to be alcoholic and inebriating ? 36 282 MATTHEW, XXVI. 26 29. 4. As subsidiary evidence, we may cite the long-established practice of nearly all the Christian communities of the East, though widely separated from each other. Baron Tavernier, in his ' Persian Travels ' (1652), says of the Christians of St John, whom he found very numerous at 'Balsara' (Bassorah), "In the eucharist they make use of meal or flour, kneaded up with wine and oil ; for, say they, the body of Christ being composed of two principal parts, flesh and blood, the flour and the wine do perfectly represent them. To make their wine they take grapes dried in the sun which they call in their language zebibes, and casting water upon them, let them steep for so long a time. The same wine they use in the consecration of the cup." The Christians of St Thomas, who were found on the coast of Malabar, and claimed to have derived the gospel from St Thomas the apostle, celebrated the Lord's Supper in the juice expressed from raisins ' softened one night in water,' says Odoard Barbosa. 'They use in their sacrifices wine prepared from dried grapes ' (vino et passis uvis confccto in sacrificiis utuntur), states Osorius (De Rebus, 1586). Ainsworth, in his ' Travels in Asia Minor' (London, 1842), notes the administration of the sacrament among the Nestorians, and adds, 'Raisin water supplied the place of wine.' Tischendorf, in his narrative of visits to the Coptic monasteries of Egypt, remarks that at the eucharist the priest took the thick juice of the grape from a glass with a spoon ; end Dr Gobat (the Protestant Bishop of Jerusalem), in his Abyssinian 'Journal/ records the reception of ' some bottles of grape wine. The wine is the juice of dried grapes with water.' It is morally certain that the eucharistical notices of some of the ancient Christian sects, who are represented as denouncing wine and rejecting it from the Lord's Supper, are colored and perverted statements, pointing simply to a refusal to use fermented wine in the sacrament. When so able and acute a theologian as St Augustine charges his old associates, the Manichseans, with inconsistency because they condemned intoxicating wine and yet allowed the use of grapes, it is difficult to estimate the capacity for blundering in lesser minds upon the kindred question of the wine used by the independent sects of antiquity; some of whom may have been very wrong in respect to articles of faith, and very right in points of discipline and practice. 5. In spite of the sophisms of many celebrated doctors, the Jews of the syna- gogue do conform very extensively to the Mosaic injunction to celebrate the pass- over without fermented drinks. Speaking no doubt from his own observation, the Rev. C. F. Frey, a converted Jew and author of several Hebrew works, has said, "Nor dare they (the Jews) drink any liquor made from grain, nor any that has passed through the process of fermentation." The Arbah Turim, a digest of Talmudic law, by Rabbi Jacob ben Asher, in the thirteenth century, says of the four cups, " If needful, he must sell what he has, in order to keep the injunction of the wise men. Let him sell what he has, until he procure yayin ov zimmooqim wine or raisins." The learned Rabbi Manasseh ben Israel, in his Vindicia Judceorum (Amsterdam, 1656), says of the passover, " Here, at this feast, every confection [ = matzoth] ought to be so pure as not to admit of any ferment, or of anything that will readily fermentate" (Sect, i., No. 4). Mr. Noah, a leading Jew of New York, informed Mr Delavan that the use of wine prepared from steeped raisins was general among American Jews. Mr A. C. Isaacs, a teacher of the Jews, among whom he had lived twenty-six years before his conversion, stated in a letter (1844), "All the Jews with whom I have ever been acquainted use wintoxicating wine at the passover, a wine made in this country expressly for the occasion, and generally by themselves. Some raisins (dried grapes) are steeped in water for a few days previous to the passover, the vessel being placed MAI illEW, XXVI. 26 J> 283 near the fire. This liquor is bottled off, and u.^cd at the fe^t of unleavened bread as ' the fruit of the vine.' Sometimes, when time does not permit of steeping, the raisins are boiled on the same day on which the feast is to be celebrated at night; and when the whole of the saccharine matter is thought to be extracted, the decoc- tion is bottled off and corked; and this is the passover wine." Dr Cunningham, the learned Hebraist, says, "What is now chiefly used by the Jews at the pass- over for wine is a drink made of an infusion of raisins in water, which is either boiled at once or simmered during several days. It is free from alcohol and acidity. It is quite sweet. I have tasted it at the paschal table. No Jew with whom I have conversed, of whatever class or nation, ever used any other kind. But a Mr Jonas informed me that he believed the proper kind of wine is that expressed from the red grape at the time." In Home's 'Introduction to the Scriptures ' it is said (vol. iii. p. 322, foot-note, Edit. 1846), " The modern Jews, being forbidden to drink any fermented liquor at the passover, drink either pure water, or a wine prepared by themselves from raisins (Allen's ' Modern Judaism,' p. 394; the Truth-Seeker, 1845, p. 78). It is not known when the Jewish custom began of excluding fermented wine from the passover feast. It is, however, very ancient, and is now almost universal among the modern Jews." The late Professor Moses Stuart, in the Bibliotheca Sacra (voi. i.), remarks, "I cannot doubt that khamats, in its widest sense, was excluded from the Jewish passover when the Lord's Supper was first instituted; for I am not able to find evidence to make me doubt that the custom among the Jews, of excluding fermented wine as well as (fermented) bread, is older than the Christian era. . . . That this custom is very ancient; that it is even now almost universal; and that it has been so for time whereof the memory of man runneth not to the contrary, I take to be facts that cannot be fairly controverted." The Encyclopaedia Britannica observes, that "considerable dispute has been raised as to whether the wine used on the occasion was fermented or unfermented was the ordinary wine, in short, or the pure juice of the grape. Those who hold that it was unfermented, appeal mainly to the expression 'unfermented-things,' which is the true rendering of the word trans- lated 'unleavened bread.' The rabbins would seem to have interpreted the com- mand respecting ferment as extending to the wine as well as to the bread of the passover. The modern Jews, accordingly, generally use raisin wine, after the injunction of the rabbins " (Art. 'Passover,' 8th Edit.). The Jews may, indeed, differ in their practice, as the rabbins have differed in their opinions ; but, un- questionably, multitudes consider that a regard to the Mosaic prescription requires them to exclude fermented liquor of all kinds from their dwellings during the passover, and to celebrate that feast in wine of a perfectly unintoxicating character. It may be inferred from the evangelical history, that, in the time of our Lord,* the custom of using ' the fruit of the vine ' at the passover had become general. As it is not named by Moses in his regulations for the observance of that feast, we may presume that it was introduced after his day, perhaps after the captivity. Whenever introduced, however, this ' fruit of the vine ' would fall under the general principle prohibiting both the u^e and presence of ferment during the passover week, from the I4th to the 2ist of the month Nisan. The wine thus employed would, therefore, be composed (i) of grape-juice squeezed at the passover feast perhaps from the grape yielding a red, sweet juice, and drunk immediately after straining; or (2) of grape-juice previously boiled down, and 284 MATTHEW, XXVI. 26 29. reconverted into a potable liquid at the table by water, hot or cold (hot is men- tioned in the Mishna) ; or (3) of the juice of raisins which had been kept steeped and simmering in readiness for the occasion. If the order of proceeding described in the Mishna was followed by the Lord and His apostles, the following would be the course of events : The company being seated, the Lord, acting as master of the feast, took the first cup of wine, and having pronounced a blessing, such as " We thank Thee, O Lord, our heavenly Father, who hast created the fruit of the vine," He drank of the cup, and gave it to the disciples that they might also partake. The hands of all were then washed, and the table was furnished with the paschal lamb roasted whole, with bitter herbs, two unleavened cakes, the remains of the peace offerings presented on the pre- ceding day, and the charoseth or thick-sauce. A piece of salad was then taken and eaten, and a blessing pronounced on the herbs ; * after which, the provisions having been temporarily removed or permitted to remain (as no children or strangers were present), conversation followed upon the origin of the feast; the supper (if removed) was then replaced, and water having been mingled with the second cup of wine, " He saith unto them, With desire have I desired to eat this pascha with you before I suffer ; for I say unto you, I shall no more eat thereof until it be fulfilled in the kingdom of God. And He took the cup, and gave thanks, and said, Take this and divide among you ; I will not henceforth drink of the fruit of the vine until the kingdom of God shall come." The H3th and H4th Psalms having been read, the second cup of wine, distributed to each, was drunk. Hands were again washed, an ejaculatory prayer uttered, and one of the unleavened cakes blessed and broken, and a piece offered to each disciple. This was eaten with the bitter herbs, the bread being dipped into the sauce. " And as they were eating, He said, Verily I say unto you, that one of you shall betray Me. And they were very sorry, and began each of them to say unto Him, Lord, is it I ? And He answered and said, He who dippeth his hand with Me in this dish, he will betray Me." Dipping a sop into the dish, the Saviour gave it to Judas. The flesh of the peace-offerings was then eaten, a benediction pronounced, and the paschal lamb served. "And as they were eating, Jesus took the bread (the second unleavened cake), and blessed and brake it, and gave it to His disciples, and said, Take ; this is My body, which is given for you: this do in remembrance of Me." Thanks were offered, hands were again washed, and 'the cup of blessing' prepared, which received a new and exalted significance, for "after the same manner also He took the cup after supper, and having given thanks, gave it to them, saying, Drink all of you out of it ; for this is My blood of the covenant, which is shed for many for the forgiveness of sins. But I say unto you, I shall not drink henceforth of this fruit of the vine, until that day I drink it new with you in My Father's kingdom." The allusion to God's kingdom touched a chord of ambition in the disciples' breasts, and they discussed who should be the greatest in it. This self-exalting disposition was reproved, and Peter was warned. The wonderful and mysterious discourse re- corded by John was then commenced, and carried on down to the words (chap. xiv. 31), 'Arise, let us go hence.' The fourth cup of wine was then filled, and the grand *The language of the 'blessings' was very precise, nicely distinguishing between natural and manufactured things. For example : For fruit which grows upon a tree, say, Who ' createst the fruit of the tree ' ; save for wine, whereon the benediction is, ' Who createst the fruit of the vine.' For things which derive not their growth immediately from the ground (Psa. civ. 14, 15), say, 'Who gave being lo all things.' " (Mishna, Tr. Berakoth, vi.) Let it be remembered, that though no one would think of calling vinegar the ' fruit of the vine,' it is really more deserving that appellation than any form of alcohol. The former is sometimes found in growing fruit, the latter never. MATTHEW, XXVI. 26 29. 28$ hallel or hymn of praise comprehending Psalms cxvi. to cxviii. having been sung, the disciples drank of ' the fruil of the vine ' ; and the company having passed into the open air and out of Jerusalem, the Saviour resumed His discourse, with an implied reference to what had been last done in the passover chamber; as if saying, " Ye have been drinking of the fruit of the vine, but remember! ' I am the true vine, and my Father is the husbandman.' " The principal reasons for a use of unfermented wine in the present day, at the Sacramental communion, may be briefly enumerated: 1. Unfermented wine, if the preceding arguments are valid, was used by the Lord when instituting the Supper, conformably to a law, the moral significance of which remains the same, and is even greatly enhanced ; for if ferment, the symbol of corruption and insincerity, was out of place at the passover, how much more unsuitable is it at the board of Christian fellowship and joy! It may be answered that conformity to the old analogy requires the disuse of fermented bread ; and why should the conformity not be complete ? Yet partial conformity is better than total contrariety; and if the conformity must be partial, there are special reasons (afterwards assigned) why the cup should be selected, not to insist on the fact that in fermented wine the effects of the ferment remain, while in bread they have been expelled by the heat of baking. 2. Unfermented wine is, in literal truth and beyond all question, the only ' fruit of the vine.' That designation it may challenge without fear of contradic- tion. What the vine has made it by vital processes, and what earth, sun, and air have combined to make it by the genial chemistry of absorption, warmth, and nutrition, it has become.* Fermented wine, on the contrary, is,jusf so far as itf fermented and alcoholic character gofs, something quite other than the ' fruit ' of the vine, the result of disintegrating forces which do not operate upon the vine, or within the grape, as formed by the Creator.! One practice, therefore, is at least right, while the other may be wrong, since the juice of the grape must be the fruit of the vine, whereas the wine of commerce cannot be so entirely, and may not be so in any degree. Under such circumstances, who can decide in favor of the latter, and against the former, as the substance which Christians are commanded to use in remembrance of their Lord ? 3. Unfermented wine, on account of its innocent and nutritious properties, is a proper symbol of the blood of the Redeemer shed for the remission of sins. But fermented wine is almost destitute of any nutritious property, and, as containing the invisible but potent spirit of mischief, is, in proportion to its alcoholic strength, more fitted to represent moral disease and guilt than pardon and purification. This inversion of all analogy becomes the more serious when almost all the wines sold are charged with brandy, and are otherwise adulterated, so as more to resemble * The schoolmen, with all their acumen, did not dream of denying so plain a fact. The work* of Thomas Aquinas are contained entire in Migne's Patrologia Cursus ComflletMS ; and in the 4th book, 74th question, and sth article, where it is asked, in reference to the Lord's Supper, vtntm vinum vitis sit propria materia hujus incramenti ' whether wine of the vine is a proper sub- stance to be used in this sacrament,' he answers. Mustum (intern jam kabtt sfOeciem vini, 'grape-juice has the specific nature of wine' ; and decides, Idea de musto fotest con/lei hoc tftfnfam, 'therefore this sacrament can be kept with grape-juice.' He cautions against the use of must just expressed, on account of its turbidness : but stales that, by the decree of Pope Julius si tucesse f Merit botna in calice com^rimaiur, ' the cluster may, if necessary, have its juice pressed into the cup.' [See page 280 ] t " It is curious," says Professor Brande, in his 'Manual of Chemistry.' "how perfectly the exclusion of air is provided for by the natural texture of the grape, which does not allow its ingress although it admits of the transpiration of aqueous vapor, as U shown by the spontaneous desiccation of the berry." 286 MATTHEW, XXVI. 26 29. the dreadful ' mixed wine ' of Scripture than the sweet and sanctifying influences of Divine grace in Christ Jesus our Lord. 4. Unfermented wine can be used by all communicants, young or old, without any danger of creating or of reawakening the drunkard's appetite; while the use of fermented wine at the Lord's Supper has been known to rekindle the flame which abstinence had laid in many reformed inebriates. Surely the Lord's table ought not to be a place of fierce temptation to any Christian ; or a place where, for the soul's sake, one-half of the emblems has to be rejected by any believer a course that not few reformed drunkards are compelled to follow whenever fermented wine is present at the Eucharist. 5. Unfermented wine may be used by all without any scruples or qualms of conscience, but fermented wine cannot ; and therefore, on the broad principle of ' not casting a stumblingblock in a brother's way,' Christians who might themselves (till otherwise convinced) use alcoholic wine conscientiously, should cheerfully, from a spirit of brotherly affection, commune in elements of which all can partake without danger or offence. The course taken by some Congregational officials, of excluding from membership those who have not been able to use alcoholic wine, is a violation of Christian equity and charity, an arbitrary and cruel act, which is self-condemned. A majority of those who have power to decide not to supply unfermented wine ought, at least, to allow those who desire it to have it provided for their separate use. A contrary course must inevitably produce division. * 6. Unfermented wine is procurable without extending any sanction to the iniquitous traffic in alcoholic liquors. The fearfully injurious influence of that traffic upon national morals is such as to make it eminently desirable that all connection between it and true Christian communities should be avoided. This may be done with ease and satisfaction by exchanging the wine which mocks and deceives for the uncorrupted 'fruit of the vine,' on which a blessing may be freely invoked without any sense of incongruity, and without exciting aversion and disgust. At a moderate computation, the quantity of alcohol consumed any year in Great Britain at the Sacramental table cannot fall short of 25,000 gallons, representing five times as many gallons of wine purchased, at a minimum cost of ,75,000. What God has not joined may be lawfully sundered whenever a laudable purpose is to be attained ; and while no sacred principle binds the table of the Lord to the vender of intoxicating and mostly factitious wines, a separation between them would withdraw from that 'mystery of iniquity,' the Wine Trade, a patronage and implied approval which is simply shocking. Surely it is 'a consummation devoutly to be wished,' that the Church of God, and the sanctuary of a pure and spiritual worship, should be kept as free as possible from every taint of intoxication, and from everything that feeds and fosters the wide-spread intemperance of the nation. * Whether a Christian abstainer should take the Lord's Supper in fermented wine, when he must do so or not commune at all, is a question of conscience which each person must determine for himself. Consistency certainly requires that he should use his legitimate influence to obtain a substitution of pure for alcoholic wine in the communion service of his own church. Failing this, he may claim to be supplied with the only wine of which he can safely or conscientiously partake, or not to have the intoxicating cup forced upon him by the penalty of excision. The recipe for making passover wine is as follows : " Take a quantity of the best bloom or Muscatel rasins ; cut them into small pieces ; pour on them boiling water in the proportion of a pint to every pound ; let the infusion stand overnight ; then press out the liquor from the fruit, adding two tea-spoonfuls of burnt sugar for coloring. After the whole has settled for a few hours, decant the clear wine by pouring slowly into the vessel to be used, leaving any sediment behind." A sufficient quantity of unfermented grape-juice can thus be produced at a very economical rate. Where a wine more scientifically prepared, and of clear and beautiful appearance, is preferred, the ' passover wine ' of Mr Frank Wright, of Kensington, England, can be recommended ; or that of Mr Reynolds, of Ripley, Ohio. It is, undoubtedly, grape-juice pure and wholesome. MATTHEW, XXVII. 34, 48. 287 CHAPTER XXVII. VERSE 34. They gave him vinegar to drink, mingled with gall : and when he had tasted thereof, he would not drink. VINEGAR] Oxos, derived from oxus 'sharp,' applied to the edge of tools, and then to the sense of taste; hence oxos, that which tastes sharply = vinegar, sour wine. In Codices C and Z the passage is lost ; but Codices Aleph, B, and D have oinon, 'wine.' With this reading agrees the V., vinum ; but Beza has acetum, 'vinegar.' Mark says 'wine.' The obvious conclusion is, that wine which had undergone both the alcoholic and acetous fermentations was used, agreeably to the prophecy, 'In My thirst they gave Me vinegar (khometz) to drink.' [See Note on Psa. Ixix. 20.] MINGLED WITH GALL] Meta choices memigmenon. Cholee is the word by which the Lxx. translates the Hebrew rosh, ' gall,' and faana/t, ' wormwood.' The literal meaning is bile, gall (from cheo ' to pour out ' = that which is poured out of the gall-bladder). It is applicable to any bitter substance, such as the myrrh referred to by Mark, unless by cholee is to be understood some substance associated with the myrrh. [See Note on Mark xv. 23.] The V. and Beza give/