. RIC, DEPT, DEPARTMENT OF' AGRICULTURE, VICTORIA. AGRICULT LIBRARY, "UNIVERSITY -OF CALIFORNIA MODERN DAIRYING, BY MESSES. D, WILSON AND E, CROWE, DAIRY EXPERTS. ROBT. S. EP,\1X, (JOVERNMKNT PRINTER, MELBOURNE, 18 9 H. 3063 DEPAKTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, ; VICTORIA, MODERN DAIRYING, BY MESSRS. D. WILSON AND B, CROWE, DAIRY EXPERTS. ISg Sutfjoritg: ROBT. S, BRAIN, GOVERNMENT PRINTER, MELBOURNE. 189B. 3063 Main T.'ib. A -ric. . ; * PREFACE. In no other industry has there been more rapid changes in recent years than in that of Dairying. The machinery and utensils invented a few years ago are being greatly improved, and many are now quite out of date. Inventive minds are constantly at work to improve existing methods. Chemists, bacteriologists, and others skilled in science have given earnest attention to investigating and improving the pro- perties of dairy products. The necessity has therefore arisen for the publication of an up-to-date manual for the information of those engaged in Victoria in the Dairying Industry. The production of such a work, while being of special interest to the advanced butter and cheese maker, will also, it is hoped, prove of service to all milk suppliers and dairy produce manufacturers. The two dairy experts Messrs. D. Wilson and R. Crowe attached to this Department have devoted themselves to the task of producing a work which, I trust, will be found to give all the information which correspondents with the Department are fre- quently asking for. The advice tendered, it is hoped, will have the effect of causing improvement on the part of some suppliers and manufac- turers, for no matter how advanced a country may be in its methods of producing, there are always some laggards who bring reproach on those whose desires are to advance and not retard. We live in a progressive age. Times change, and we must change with them if we are to prosper. The marvellous progress which has taken place in the Dairying Industry in Victoria is almost a matter of history, and came as a surprise to other countries ; and, aided as we are by science, the extent of its further development and expansion is almost incom- prehensible. It therefore behoves us to exercise the greatest care in keeping up and increasing the high standard we have reached. It is the ambition of the Department to keep in the front of all the British possessions as regards the industry to which this brochure has reference, and it is sincerely hoped that the object desired may be accomplished somewhat by the information herein contained. D. MARTIN, Secretary for Agriculture. Department of Agriculture, Melbourne, April, 1898. 274433 MODERN DAIRYING, FACTORY BUTTER-MAKING. Rules for butter-making could easily be drawn up if the conditions under which each butter-maker laboured were alike. If the milk were in the same order, the climatic conditions identical, and like appliances used, it could readily be disposed of. The conditions in different localities and places vary. The cir- cumstances are also constantly changing in each place. It would be of little advantage, therefore, to frame rules without pointing out a method of applying them. More good will be derived from a general discussion of the subject. The subject will be shown from different stand-points, and it is hoped that in such form it will prove of the best service. The quality of butter largely depends on the treatment of the milk before it reaches the factory or creamery, and the condition of the milk when it reaches the butter-maker's hands. THE CARE OF MILK. Milk should be drawn from the cows in as cleanly a manner as possible. The surroundings should also receive due attention. It is a pleasure to notice the recent rapid increase of modern well-drained and paved milking-yards ; together with well- arranged and ventilated milking-sheds. Examples can be met with in every district that serve as models for the neighbours to copy. When yards are convenient in their arrangement and paved it is easy and pleasant to work in and keep them clean. Milk is a great absorbent of bad odours, and a good medium for the development of bacteria. If the surroundings be evil- smelling the milk will soon become tainted. The value of butter, therefore, becomes lessened as the contamination is permitted to increase in the milk. If a cow's udder is dirty it should be carefully washed, and if clean it should at least be wiped. Such simple precautions pre- vent filth and dust from falling into the bucket when milking. Milking with dry hands is preferable, and is fast coming into favour. It is a much cleaner and better plan than the old way. Milk should be kept in a clean place shaded from the rays of the sun, and away from dust and smells. The milk vessels and everything that the milk conies in contact with should be absolutely clean. The temperature of the milk should be reduced as rapidly as possible after it comes from the cow. (See Rules for Milk and Cream Supply, page 32.) When the milk is strong in odour and flavour from such food as fresh green rape, lucerne, trefoil, turnips, &c., aeration greatly improves it. The aeration of milk has long been advocated ; but because it was imperfectly understood, or entailed a certain amount of trouble, but few dairymen practise it. Milk that is quite nauseous to the tasle, and gives off a strong undesirable odour from the above causes, can be made quite agreeable and palatable by aerating. The fact that the odour rises from the milk is proof that the element causing it is volatile. If pure air is passed through the milk, or if milk is spread out thinly and exposed to such air, the undesirable element evaporates and is carried away. A simple experiment may be more convincing than any lengthy explanation. When the milk is affected take a cupful and pour it a few times from one cup into another. In doing so let the milk fall some distance through the air. After this is done a great improvement will be noticed. The same thing may be done by means of dippers or buckets ; but when large quantities are handled special appliances have been designed and are in the market for effecting the object. The process is greatly assisted if carried out when the milk is at a high temperature immediately after coming from the cow. Recent experiments have been made to find out if it were possible to eliminate this injurious element at the creamery in- stead of the farm. Considerable success was met with, and tne matter is dealt with elsewhere under the head of " Pasteurizing." Farmers reason in the following manner : " My milk is considered good enough to be taken at the creamery without my going to any bother with it, and anything that is considered good enough to receive there is quite good enough to send." Again : " If I put my milk in the best condition, and make it most suitable for manufacturing a tip-top quality of butter, and my neighbour does not, my good work is negatived by his care- lessness as soon as our milk is mixed at the creamery. He gets as much for his product as I do who supply a superior article." This contention applies to all milk inferior in condition, as well as from the neglect of proper aeration when necessary. This is really the weakest point in our otherwise excellent co-operative system of dairying. It has often been suggested that the remedy rests with the companies ; that they should extend the system of pay- ment by results, and pay for the milk according to the condition as well as according to the butter contained. Many difficulties present themselves in the carrying out of such a proposal. The chief obstacle is the want of a definite measure of the suitability of milk for butter-making at the time of its delivery at the factory. The determination of respective values would have to be placed entirely in the hands of the manager, and applied at his discretion. As his employers are generally suppliers and are often offenders, undesirable friction would sometimes be caused if the manager did his duty. Of course the same argument was put forward when the system of payment according to butter contents was initiated, but the cases differ considerably. In the one instance there is great definiteness in the result, which can be checked if a doubt arises. In the other no such precision exists. It was at one time sug- gested as practicable, in cases of dispute, to have the question settled by a board of reference from the suppliers present at the moment. Such a course would in many cases if not all 1 take the responsibility off the manager's shoulders, but could not give ultimate satisfaction. The sole power of exercising judgment should be vested in the manager's hands. Authority is given at present in nearly all places for the manager to refuse to take delivery of milk unfit for the making of good butter, but the line in 90 per cent, of our factories is drawn too low. If milk will pass through the separator it is generally con- sidered good enough to take, and sourness, or the degree of sourness, is the only point taken into account in some places in determining the suitability of the milk. Very often milk which is too sour for separating is belter suited for making a good butter than another class of milk which has been tainted through having been kept in unclean surround- ings, or in dirty vessels. This is the class of milk that causes most damage in the factory. It often arrives sweet to the taste, but having a bad odour. Such milk is responsible for far more trouble and deterioration in the finished product than milk that has naturally soured through being kept at too high a temperature. It is that class of milk that presents the greatest difficulties in determining its value. There is another phase of the subject, and one that presents as practical a solution of the difficulty as is likely to be found. In our best managed factories the milk is generally all good. The reason is that the manager exercises a wise influence over the producers. If milk is brought that is not up to the mark, the fault is pointed out, and advice given how to remedy it. Should the cause be of such a nature as to render it easily overcome, no excuse is taken after the first warning, and the delivery of such milk is promptly refused. If the remedy is difficult to apply, more latitude is given, advice and help are tendered, and the same firmness is displayed in dealing with the supplier. It is in such firm supervision of the milk supply where most of our fac- tories score and succeed. It is in the want of such safeguard, 8 and, necessarily, sure foundation, that so many fail to make good butter. A good builder makes a secure foundation before he erects a structure that he wishes to last long and reflect credit on him. So a good manager or butter-maker has to take similar pre- cautions. Managers should have full control in all matters pertaining to the quality of the butter. The exercise of such authority always demands the greatest tact. It would be an easy matter to make one's methods of dealing objectionable, and drive the suppliers away. Great changes for the better should be brought about gradually in a factory. Suppliers should recognise that their factory manager has to daily act as an arbitrator in matters relating to their welfare. First of all there is the relationship between the shareholders of the company and the milk suppliers to be borne in mind. Then there is fair play to be meted out between one supplier and another. And the manager has to protect his reputation by turning out a good article. It is a delicate position to fill well. In a few instances where full control is given the necessary backbone is wanting, proper authority is not exercised, and the energies of the manager are sometimes misdirected, undue attention being paid to certain branches of his work. The manager, in some cases, is always to be found behind the butter-worker, concentrating his main efforts to the make, the build, the texture, and finish of his butter. Such points are all necessary, and should receive their due share of attention. But what is the good of a butter perfectly made and got up if it is wanting in bouquet and flavour ? Flavour is the great essential in good butter. All the other points texture, salting, packing, colour, &c. embrace the condi- tion of the butter, and can be easily controlled and regulated* The great desideratum is flavour. It is the fineness of flavour that makes butter sell at a shilling a pound, and it is the want of it that causes an equally good butter in other respects to bring only eightpence in the same market. Any manager, therefore, who does not make the flavour his chief study and object is not working in the best direction. The greatest success attends those who make the condition in which the raw material, the milk or cream, reaches their hands their first care. It does not follow that they must always be present when the milk is being received. Instructions to those who take the milk should be definite and pointed, and in large places an occasional visit to see that it is done properly is generally suffi- cient. Suppliers should not think that any hardships are pro- posed to be laid upon them. The proportion of careless suppliers that really require looking after is small, and it is not fair that for the faults of those few the quality of the produce belonging to the great majority should be lowered. We have attained uniformity in individual factories, but in many the standard is too low, owing principally to want of strict- ness in looking after the milk supply. Without a standard of excellence in his mind the butter-maker cannot tell what he is aiming for. Each has an idea of what a perfect butter should be, the same as every one has a different standard for cleanliness. What one considers perfect another often thinks far from perfect. A butter-maker who aims at making the kind of butter that the customers like the best, and are prepared to pay most money for, cannot go far wrong. Never mind catering for individual fancy, not even your own. If your butter is to be consumed in Melbourne, make it to suit Melbourne customers. If for West Australia or Cape Colony, make and prepare it in the manner and shape preferred there ; and if for London, try and study the best means of manufacture that will cause it to give best satisfaction there. The hard matter in connexion with this is to secure reliable reports as to how the butter suits the consumers. The account sales serve as the best indicator ; but very often a 112s. report accompanies a 105s. price. It is considered busi- ness to take steps to secure the continuance of butter through one's hands, 110 matter what the quality of it is. The opinion of the consumer, if not flattering, must therefore be withheld, or trimmed into such shape so as not to run the risk of losing that brand another season. Producers are often naturally suspicious that a report drawing attention to faults is framed to justify low prices. This is a delicate and important point, that may eventually call for a more satisfactory method of dealing with that would be more agreeable and satisfactory to all parties. Too many of our butter-makers miss this great point altogether. They strive to make an article that pleases themselves an article which, at the time of manufacture, is good and nice. They do not follow it up, and try to find out how it stood the journey to the consumer, and what effect the variations in tem- perature had on it. Rarely do they closely inquire as to how it stood the tests of the buyers, and suited the consumers. From this it will be seen what an important part the care of the milk takes in making good butter. It is little use to expect to make choicest butter from milk any proportion of which is not good. However, the question has to be faced as it is, not as it ought to be. In many localities it is more than a man's position is worth to refuse milk and cream not first class. The following extract from a factory manager's letter will serve to illustrate how matters stand : I am not at all surprised to hear you complain about our output being bad in flavour. I am far from satisfied with the general quality of our export make ; but I can assure you that I have done my level best with the material I am obliged to handle. 10 Eighty per cent, of our business is hand or turbine separator trade, and during the summer months I find it is impossible to make anything like a first-class article. Some of the suppliers are far from being clean, whilst others keep the cream too long on hand, and give it no attention. A few of my suppliers are very careful people, whose cream always reaches me in the best of con-, dition, but the majority are hard to do business with. The small separators are rapidly increasing, and are accountable for so much bad cream. They have come to stay in some districts, so I think it is time something was done to protect the export trade. I cannot remedy the evil at the factory, neither do I think any man can do so. The cream is gone too far for that ere it reaches us. I have been amongst my suppliers, giving them any useful hints I knew of. The results were an improvement for a few days, but they soon fell back to their old groove again. If I reject their cream some one else will take it, so I have to try and hold all kinds, good, bad, and indifferent. I think the Government should take some steps, and enforce stringent measures to rectify the matter. I regret to say that most of the suppliers are indifferent, and do not care what harm they do, as long as they can get rid of the cream. Eventually (if not protected) I am afraid the whole industry will suffer through this means. It is no use in waiting for any one else to make a move, and I don't think any other person's protest will carry so much weight as yours. I stand on delicate ground, and dare not take up the cudgels against my own suppliers, and so I am in hopes you will take some measures to cope with this evil before our next export season commences. We are sorry to say that the above letter presents an exact state- ment of the position of affairs in a few cases. It is not general as yet, but is growing, and has a strong tendency to spread. To put it plainly, much harm has already been done to our export trade through the breaking down of the original co-operative system in some localities. A little further on and it will mean the forfeiture of our position in the world's markets, and not un- likely the wrecking of our export trade. To those not in the business a short explanation may not be out of place. The origina. splendid co-operative system was started on the follow- ing sound lines: Factories and creameries were established where the milk was delivered by the farmers. The lots of cream were large enough then to warrant proper attention and prompt delivery to the factory, and the making of a uniform quality of butter of a high standard. With our high-class butter of uniform quality we got a footing on the London market, and year by year gradually improved our position. Of recent years there has been a growing disposition on the part of dairymen to purchase small plants and separate their own milk ; the individual supply of cream is, consequently, so small that it is not worth special attention, and as the cream is only sent to the factory when convenient three times a week, and often only once a week it can be imagined that in our hot climate it frequently reaches the factory in an unsatis- factory condition. The foundation of our past success unifor- mity is thus being destroyed. The average quality is lowered 11 ill standard, and the cost of production and marketing increased. It is difficult to understand why dairymen are doing this with their eyes open. The danger is pointed out to them on every possible occasion. Of course, there is no alternative open to those who are not within reach of a creamery or factory, and they cannot be blamed. If the factory were to send round collectors daily it would add to the cost of production consider- ably, and it would also be undesirable to have inspectors who would insist on all cream being properly handled and cared for. Neither would it do, when butter from such cream is not best quality, to refuse its shipment, so the simplest way out of the difficulty would be to discard the system and dispose of the small machines to our opponents in other countries. It is to be hoped that sufficient has been said to impress upon dairy farmers and dairy students the important part that the dairy- man takes in the production of good butter. Having recognised that point we can now proceed to discuss the part allotted to the butter-maker. SKIMMING. A temperature of 80 d^g. Fahr. is laid down as the most suit- able temperature for skimming. At that temperature the cream is taken off cleaner and more readily than at a lower one. Good work can be done at a much lower temperature than 80 deg., but to do so the milk must be passed through the machine more slowly. There is a danger of the cream clogging when skimming at a low temperature. It is often necessary to skim at as low as 65 deg. in the summer months where there is insufficient refrigerating power available. It has been maintained that, if the temperature of the cream is over 80 deg. when skimming, the butter would be greasy. The texture of the butter is not, however, affected if the skimming be done at 160deg. The higher the temperature of the milk the more perfect the skimming, and the greater the quantity that may be passed through the separator with as good results. The same thing holds good in regard to the speed of separa- tors. The higher the rate of speed the better the separation, and more can be passed through with good results. The lower the speed the more imperfect the skimming, or to a certain point as good, but less work can be done. Separators should on no account be run much beyond their stated speed. The essential points in good skimming are even temperature, even speed, and even feed. Separators should be checked daily in their work. If samples be taken in a factory where a number of machines are working all of the same make and estimated capacity, all being fed through the one pipe with milk of the same temperature, all driven by the 12 same shaft, and going at the same rate of speed and tested, it will be found that the results vary. In the skim-milk from No. 1 we will probably find 0'2 per cent, of butter fat ; in that from No. 2, 0-025 ; from No. 3, O'l ; No. 4. 0-14 ; No. 5, 0'05, and so on. This will not be found in a factory where the result is con- stantly tested and the machines properly adjusted. Machines are liable to go out of best form from time to time. In early separat- ing days an average loss of under O'lo per cent, of fat in the skim- milk was considered good, whilst at the present time any average loss of over O'Oo is considered bad skimming. Thus 0' 1 per cent, of loss in a company's average turnover of 2,000 gallons a day, means in twelve months about 8,322 Ibs. of butter not recovered. It will thus be seen that it pays to keep a sharp watch over the separators. TREATMENT OP CREAM. After the cream comes from the separator it should be cooled. The exact degree of cooling depends on the ripeness of the milk when skimming, the state of the weather, and when it is in- tended to be churned. When the milk has been separated in good condition, 65 deg. would be cool enough temperature for the cream, as the cream will ripen more rapidly than at a lower temperature. If the milk was ripe at the time of separating, the cream should be cooled to 60 deg., or according to the degree of ripeness. Should the weather be warm and close the lower the cream will have to be reduced in temperature to retard ripening, and if the day is cold the higher the cream may be left in temperature to hasten the ripening. When the churning is to be done on the day following separating, the more rapid must the ripening be made, and slower when the cream is left till two days old. The cream can be hastened in ripening by the addition of a starter, such as good buttermilk, or a culture prepared in skim or new milk. (Cultures are dealt with elsewhere under the head of " Pasteurizing.") Churning has to be done as soon as practicable after separating, but not before a certain degree of lactic acidity has been developed. In many factories it is practicable to churn on the day following sepaiating, whilst in many others it is not convenient to do so till two days afterwards. In all well-regulated places there is a time- table arranged and followed as closely as possible. The cream is prepared so as to be right for churning when churning hour arrives. Authorities differ widely as to how cream should be treated from 'the time of separating till the time of churning. Managers have been met with who, after separating, cooled the cream down to 64 deg., and gradually to 58 deg., and churned it on the following morning. By this treatment butter 13 was made that brought highest prices for each consignment right through the season in England. Again, another factory- manager cooled the cream to 67 deg. or 68 deg., left it at that temperature for 24 hours, then cooling to 54 deg., and after another 24 hours, churning and making a butter that brought equally high prices. Both systems had been adopted as the result of many years' close practical study of the business. The goal is secured in different places by sometimes widely differing routes, and it would be invidious to say that either way was wrong. At many places sufficient refrigerating power is not available to enable the manager to control the temperature as he would wish. It is when placed in such a position that the resourceful man conies out on top. A great deal can be done in some places with- out a refrigerator. If plenty of cold water is at hand the cans of cream may be put into the water. After a time the water becomes warm with the heat abstracted from the cream and should then be replaced. Mistakes are often made by leaving the cans in the water when the atmosphere is colder. Placing wet bags round the cans when neither cold air or water is procurable is a good plan. At any place where much butter is made the aid of a refrigerator is imperative in the summer months. A man's surroundings or environments will always suggest methods of treatment for the cream. TESTING ACIDITY OF CREAM. During the last two seasons many systems have been adopted at our factories for recording the acidity of cream before churning. It is unfortunate that one standard system was not carried out. At many places alkaline tablets are used. Some use acidimetric tablets. Others use phenolphthalein as an indicator, and an alkali either lime water, caustic soda, or potash solution to deter- mine the percentage of lactic acid. Again, a difference is found in the method of applying the various tests. One adds the solution to pure cream, another to a 50 per cent, cream solution, and the next to a 33^- per cent, solution. The data recorded is of the greatest value to the butter- makers themselves, but difficulties are met with when an attempt is made to compare experiences. Working from so many stand- points is prejudicial to mutual improvement the policy of the Australasian Butter and Cheese Factories Managers* Association. It would assist the progress of the industry if that body were to discuss this matter and agree to the adoption of a uniform system as a standard. Doubtless a comparison could be made by finding the percentage of lactic acid per the respective systems. Hitherto 14 this was impracticable, as the rules available failed to give corre- sponding results, either the tablets or the tables being incorrect. About 0-6 per cent, of lactic acid is the quantity required to be developed in cream before churning. The percentage should range from O55 to 0-65 per cent, of acid. The system that gives best satisfaction is known as the Titration method. This test is based on the fact that if an alkaline solution is added to an acid solution a point is reached where the mixture is neither acid nor alkaline. Then, if an alkali of known strength is used, all that remains necessary is an indicator by which to tell when the point of neutrality is reached. The apparatus required for the test is a 20 c.c. burette for measuring the cream, a 50 c.c. glass-stoppered burette for lime water, a cup, a glass stirring rod, and a medicine dropper, a bottle of full-strength lime water, and a bottle of phenolphthalein. The method of operating is to measure with the burette 20 c.c. of the cream to be tested into the cup, then rinse the burette with an equal quantity of rain water into the cup. Into this mixture put four drops of phenolphthalein indicator with the medicine dropper. Fill the 50 c.c. burette up to the top of the gradua- tions with lime water. Let the lime water go into the cup slowly until the pink colour no longer disappears on stirring. The quantity of lime water taken to produce this permanent pink colour determines the amount of lactic acid present. TEMPERATURE FOR CHURNING. Generally 60 deg. may be quoted as the churning temperature If the temperature be too high an undue loss takes place in the buttermilk ; the butter will be soft, and cannot be readily handled, and the quality may be injured. If the temperature be too low, time is wasted in churning. It is always better to be a little low than high in temperature for churning. When fresh or sweet cream is churned the temperature needs to be lower in order to recover as much of the butter as possible. Equally good results are obtained at one place at 60 deg. as in another at 54 deg. at the same time of year. The pro- per temperature also varies slightly in the same places at different seasons the range being about from 54 to 62 deg. Owing to the rise that takes place in temperature when churning, the cream needs to be lower in the summer as com- pared with the winter time. This variation is accounted for by the relationship or proportion that the liquid and solid fats in the butter bear to one another. The melting point of butter varies according to the pasture, the period of lactation of the cows, and the season of the year. 15 The buttermilk should be daily tested in all factories. In some apparently well-conducted places at the present day the loss sometimes amounts to 0*5, and even 1 per cent, of butter fat. Through carelessness, want of refrigerating power, or lack of opportunity to attend to this branch of the business, buttermilk is at times run away from the churns as rich in butter fat as new milk. On one occasion the buttermilk was kept from one churning of 1,200 Ibs. of cream. The cream was unripe, and at too high a temperature. This buttermilk was properly ripened and cooled, then put back in the churn and churned again, when it yielded 108 Ibs. of first-class butter ; and as there were four churnings a day at the factory the annual loss at this rate would be serious. Once in a life-time is sufficient to meet with such an ex- perience, and be impressed with the importance of keeping a check on the results of the churn. Assurance has been given by factory managers on more than one occasion that if the value of the waste in skim-milk and butter- milk could be estimated since their companies started business, it would amount to more than was invested in buildings and plant ; in many cases to some thousands of pounds. This state of affairs is almost at an end now, and directors of companies are every day recognising what their managers mean when they agitate for more refrigerating power. They are also becoming better acquainted with what constitutes the proper qualifications and duties of a manager. Unfortunately, there are still a few who think that a manager is engaged and paid more for his manual labour than for his brains and experience. If a man works hard with his hands from daylight till dark, it is most unreasonable to expect him to study and look after those vital points upon which so much of their success depends. CHURNING. The churning should begin slowly, and if the churn has a tight lid the gas should be allowed to escape till its generation stops. Care should be taken that the speed of the churn is not so great as to carry round the cream without causing concussion. With ordinary box-churns 40 revolutions per minute are deemed fast enough. The churn should never be filled too full with cream ; two-thirds full is sufficient. If the speed is too slow the process is needlessly prolonged. Practice will soon determine the proper speed to drive the churns at. Should the butter not come in half-an-hour, or thereabouts, the cream is not ripe enough, or it is too low in temperature, or there is too much of it in the churn, or the speed of the churn is too slow. When the cream is breaking cold water should be 16 added, and all the corners rinsed down. The churning has to be continued till the butter is about between the size of sago and rice. As soon as the churn is stopped the buttermilk should be run off. If unnecessary delay takes place the milk coagulates and becomes difficult to get rid of. When the buttermilk is run off more cold water should be added, and a few turns given to the churn, and then run off. Another rinsing ought to be sufficient. The main point to be studied in washing, or rather rinsing the butter in the churn, is to get the buttermilk away thoroughly and readily with the least possible quantity of water. The butter is then taken to be worked. WORKING THE BUTTER. A certain quantity not more than the capacity of the machine should be weighed and placed on the worker. After working the moisture out, J ounce to the lb., or 3 per cent, of best dairy salt should be added. Many prefer to add 4 per cent, of salt. If the butter is intended to be kept for a consider- able time a preservative may be added with the salt, but never more than one-half per cent, or ^ lb. in 100 Ibs. of butter. Recent decisions in England indicate that it is injudicious on our part to have anything to do with preservatives, and where they are required the above proportion should not be exceeded. Some of our most successful factories have never used more than that quantity. The quantity of salt is arrived at by the taste of the consumers. If the market demands more or less salt, by all means supply that demand as long as the quality and prices are not jeopardized. The percentage of salt should always be arrived at by weighing both butter and salt so as to secure uniformity. The working of the butter should distribute the salt evenly, and bring it in contact with all the particles in the first operation. That point is best determined by the number of revolutions of the worker, or by time. To arrive at the proper time, a number of samples may be taken off at intervals, then placed aside for 24 hours and examined. The samples showing streaks or uneven- ness in colour indicate that they have not been worked long enough. The one that does not showim evenness in colour, and that has been on the worker for the shortest time, points out the time neces- sary. This time varies according to the style and speed of the worker in use, and slightly on the consistency of the butter. It must always be remembered that the salting should be thoroughly done in the first working, and the less working that will bring that about the better for the butter. The butter should then be placed in a cool room till the next morning, and then put through the worker for the second time to 17 remove surplus moisture before packing. Between the two workings it is not desirable to set the butter hard as it then receives a grinding on the worker that injures the texture. In packing, the tare of each box should always be taken for local trade 56^ Ibs. should be placed in the box, and 57 Ibs. for export trade. The extra weight is to provide for a loss that takes place, and it insures the turning out of 56 Ibs. when it reaches the retailer. The butter should be firmly packed so that no air-holes are left in the butter, nor spaces in the corners or up the sides of the box. A good plan is to strip and examine a box of butter occasionally. It is false economy to use inferior parchment paper for lining the butter-boxes. The boxes should be placed in the cool room, and the temperature reduced before sending away to market. It is a comparatively easy matter to make a fair quality of butter under favorable conditions. It is a science to be able to make a choice butter possessing good keeping qualities under varying circumstances. The art of butter-making is yet in its progressive state. Our best specialists in the business are still learning something, and they all recognise that much remains to be learned, and as a strictly definite rule cannot be followed in butter-making each must adapt himself so as to secure best results under existing local conditions. BUTTER-MAKING FOR FARMERS. Much of the butter produced in the colony is made by farmers and dairymen who find it inconvenient or impossible to dispose of their milk to a creamery or factory. The proper handling of the milk, the treatment of the cream, and manufacture of butter demand consideration separate from that of the factory. As the average run of dairy butter on the market is of much lower quality than that from the factories, there would appear to exist a greater scope for improvement. But owing to many reasons the dairy butter can never hope to get on equal terms with factory output. The chief obstacle in the way in our climate is the want of refri- geration. It will not pay small dairymen to bestow as much attention, or to provide as perfect appliances for manufacturing butter, as it does when treating it in a large way. In exceptional instances as good, and occasionally a better, article is made on the farm; but being small in quantity, it is confined purely to the local market. When a surplus of dairy butter finds its way on the local market, it has to be disposed of at low figures, to allow fo r 3063. R 18 mixing up and making into large quantities of uniform quality that will warrant exporting. In some places this handicap can be overcome by the people combining and adopting the factory system. Attention is specially directed to the regulations on another page regarding the care of milk and cream. Many hints are also given under the heading '-'Factory Butter-making." The milk when set in dishes in hot weather often thickens before half the cream rises, and even under ordinary circumstances a greater percentage of the butter-fat is lost in the skim-milk by the gravity system than by the modern separator. Cleanliness and temperature are the great essential points to be studied for success- ful butter-making. The dairy should be so erected as to permit of its being easily kept clean and sweet, and the temperature regulated. Every dairy should have a fire-place, or stove, to keep the place dry as well as to regulate the temperature during the winter. Small cheap refrigerators within the reach, and suitable for a small dairy, is a convenience not yet catered for. In the meantime the temperature of the dairy in the summer must be kept as low as possible. A temperature of 60 deg. is the average required, about 65 deg. is the best in winter, and 54 deg. in summer, but it is seldom practicable to get the dairy so low in hot weather. Speaking of temperature, in how many dairies is a thermometer to be found ? A thermometer in a dairy is as great an essential as a compass on a ship. A ship can be steered on her course without the aid of a com- pass, so can batter be made without a thermometer, but how much safer, and what a lot of energy, time, and trouble are saved by their use. Every dairyman should possess a thermometer and use it. A proper one for the dairy costs Is. or Is. 6d. Those without any frame are best, as they can easily be kept clean. If it is set in a wooden frame, it ought to be removed before placing in the milk or cream. If the frame is put in the milk, it soon becomes foul. The dairy is unfortunately too often considered a handy depot in which to place all sorts of things. Sometimes a hare or rabbit is left hanging up. Often it is made to serve as a general cool room for fruit, vegetables, and meat. Even in careful hands those things bring about flies and evil odours sometimes. Milk, cream, and butter are great absorbents of odours, and great damage is caused by exposing them to any objectionable smells. 19 It is not generally known that delicately scented pomades are made by exposing pure fat in thin layers to the scent of flowers. The fat absorbs and retains the beautiful odours. The natural delicacy, aroma, and flavour of nice butter properly made should be preserved. If those characteristics are spoiled in any way the value of the butter is reduced. The surroundings of the dairy should, there- fore, be always kept clean and sweet. The cream should be mixed always after each skimming is added, and churning should not take place sooner than twelve hours after the last lot has been mixed. If the churning is done immediately after mixing, the older or riper cream comes into butter first, and the newer or more unripe cream is liable, and often does, run away with the buttermilk. As the matter of temperature is easily disposed of on paper, but often difficult to carry out in practice, it is perhaps better to dwell on it a little longer. To raise the temperature of the cream for churning the vessel containing it may be placed in a larger one which contains warm water. ' Stir the cream, and take it out when it reaches the desired heat. Never pour hot water into the cream to raise the temperature. A well or stream of cool water is a great help on a farm. With cold water a great deal can be done. The cream can be reduced in the same way as pointed out above for raising the temperature by putting cold water in the outer vessel instead of hot. In most places it is the exception rather than the rule to have a supply of cold water. When ordinary means are not at hand, cream can be cooled by putting a wet bag or cloth round the vessel and placing it on a shallow pan of water in a draught of air over night. Water can be reduced in the same manner for washing the butter. This plan was practised all through the past severe summer with good results. When a sultry close night was encountered a little salt was added to check the souring, and the cream was left over till the following night to be cooled. If there is no air in motion this plan of cooling is not effective. It is the rapid evaporation that causes the reduction in temperature. Water may also be cooled by dissolving a little salt and saltpetre in it quickly. A reduction of up to 10 deg. can be obtained by this means. In some localities the only water to be had at times of the year is discoloured and muddy. A good easy plan for clearing such water will be found in Mr. Pearson's paper, read at the last meeting of the Factory Managers' Association, and referred to on another page. B 2 20 For the churning, working, salting, packing, and other treat- ment of butter, the dairyman can be guided by the suggestions for factory butter-making. His attention is also directed to the chapter on the care of dairy utensils. MILK TESTING. SHORT INSTRUCTIONS. There are three vital points in milk testing that must be recog- nised in order to insure reliable results. The first is to .secure a proper representative sample of the milk to be tested. The second is to get a true sample from the composite test bottle into the test flask. And the third point includes careful attention to all the remaining details of working. PREPARING THE SAMPLE BOTTLES. Composite samples give reliable results, and save the trouble of daily testing. Special graduated bottles are in the market, and may be obtained very cheaply. Rubber corks should be used, as they are easily kept clean and sweet. Pure formalin is the most satisfactory preservative for keeping the samples. Four drops of formalin added with a medicine-dropper is sufficient to put in the composite bottle. The bottles should be thoroughly cleansed after each testing is done. For use on the farm, the names or numbers of the cows can be attached to the neck of the bottles, and at the creamery or factory the name or number of the supplier can be attached. SECURING THE SAMPLES. After a cow is milked, and the milk weighed, pour it from one bucket into another and then back before taking the sample. Immediately afterwards take some with a cup or measure, and put some into the composite bottle. The same quantity should be added each time, and at the end of each week the bottle will contain a representative sample of the milk for that period. In a factory or creamery the drip system is the most reliable. MEASURING THE TEST SAMPLE. The contents of the composite bottles should be thoroughly mixed. If the cream has set or is hard to mix, the bottles should be placed in warm water at a temperature of 120 deg. for a few minutes. The cream is then more easily dissolved and mixed with the milk. A bottle-extender greatly facilitates the mixing when the bottles are too full to shake. The sample is measured with a 17*6 c.c. capacity pipette, and put in the test flask. To prevent spilling, the flask should be held at an angle to allow the air to escape. THE SULPHURIC ACID. For milk-testing, sulphuric acid of 1'827 specific gravity is used. Special hydrometers for ascertaining the strength of the acid cost 3s. 6d. each, and a glass jar for holding the acid Is. 6d. When using the hydrometer the temperature of the acid should be 60 deg. Fahr. Never put a metal or wooden frame thermometer in the acid, only glass or porcelain vessels should be used. The acid bottle should be kept corked when not in use, as it absorbs moisture from the air if exposed and becomes weak. The acid and milk ought to be about 70 deg. in temperature before mixing. It is neglect of temperature and strength of acid that causes a white curdy matter, or a black charred substance, to appear in the fat column. This temperature may be secured by placing the test bottles in a water bath of the desired heat after measuring. The acid may be cooled or heated in the same manner, but before measuring. Altering the strength or quantity of the acid is not recommended. All bottles containing sulphuric acid should have glass ground stoppers. The bottles should always be labelled "Poison, 1 ' and kept out of the reach of children, when not in use. MEASURING THE ACID. The acid is measured with a 17*5 c.c. glass measure, and poured down the inside of the neck of the test flask without disturbing the milk. The test flask should be held at an angle to allow the air to come out as the acid goes in, to prevent spilling. The test samples may be shaken separately by hand or together in a cradle. It is possible to dissolve the milk in less than the quantity of acid added, and sometimes a clear layer of acid remains at the bottom. This can be overcome by giving the bottles a good shaking with a reverse motion before finishing. WHIRLING THE BOTTLES. The speed at which the machine has to be turned depends on the gearing, and the diameter of the testers. If the bottle- wheel of the machine is 12 inches in diameter, that wheel should be made to turn 980 times per minute. If 18 inches in diameter, 800 revolutions per minute, and if 24 inches in diameter, 693 revolutions per minute. If the bottle-wheel is 18 inches in diameter, and geared to revolve ten times for one turn of the handle, the operator should turn the handle 80 times per minute to attain the necessary speed. If the bottle-wheel be geared by friction, care should be taken that no slipping takes place. For factory or creamery use the steam-turbine machines are far preferable to the others. 22 ADDING THE WATER. After turning the tester for six minutes, hot water, 180 deg., is added up to the neck of the flasks. Rain or soft water should be used for this purpose. After adding the water the machine is turned for three minutes, then more water is added to bring the liquid up in the neck of the flask to between the 7 and 10 mark. Another minute's turning and the operation is complete. If only a few samples are to be tested, the water may be added with the milk pipette ; but where a large number have to be done a can with a rubber tube and pinch-cock is handiest. READING THE TESTS. A pair of fine-pointed dividers is of great assistance in taking the measurement of the fat column. The fat is measured from the lower line between it and the water to the top of the column. Having taken that span with the dividers, one point is placed at 0, and the other will show the percentage of fat on the scale on the neck of the bottle. Each large division represents 1 per cent., and each small space two-tenths or 0-2 of 1 per cent. In very cold weather the fat column often partly solidifies before a reading can take place. This may be prevented by keeping up the temperature of the samples. Hot water may be put in the pan of the machine, and the test flasks placed in warm water after whirling is finished, until the readings are recorded. This precaution is not necessary for the greater part of the year. COMPUTING THE BUTTER CONTENTS. In order to arrive at the commercial butter contents in milk per the respective butter-fat percentages, it is necessary to deduct a small loss that takes place in skimming, plus another loss that occurs in churning, and then add a percentage to make up for the usual quantity of water, curd, and salt contained in commercial butter. As the net addition is different with each test it is im- practicable, as well as a waste of time, to work out each result by such a roundabout method. The following table of test values agrees with the Babcock table adopted by most of our factories. All milk should be reduced to butter, per its test, before quoting its money value. This system is more precise and equitable than differential rates per gallon, and is not liable to many misleading and complicated interpretations. Many useful hints, together with detailed instructions, are generally issued by the makers of each machine. Beginners should take a few lessons in the use of the Babcock tester from some one who has had experience. 23 VALUE OF TESTS. BABCOCK TESTER. Tests. Lbs. of Milk required to make 1 Ib. Butter. Correctly in Decimals. Approximately in Fractions. r;< 3-0 30-58 301 g 3-1 29-58 291 3-2 28-51 281 3-3 27-62 27i 3-4 26-73 26} 3-5 25-90 26 3-6 25-15 25 3-7 24-45 241 3-8 23-74 23} 3-9 23-12 23 4-0 4-1 ^2-52 21-94 221 22 4-2 21-35 2l 4-3 20-81 20} 4-4 20-29 20^ 4-5 19-80 19 1 4-6 19-34 191 4-7 18-89 18} 4-8 18-46 181 4-9 18-06 18 5-0 17-67 17} To compute the number of pounds weight of butter contained in milk, ncu^/ Divide the pounds and decimals of a pound, of milk agreeing with the test result, into the total number of pounds of milk. Example 1,000 Ibs. of milk tests 4*0 per cent, butter fat. It will be seen above that it takes 22-52 Ibs. of milk testing 4*0 to make one pound of butter. Therefore : 22-52) 1000-00(44-4 9008 ~9920 9008 9120 9008 112 44-4 Ibs. of butter are computed to be contained in 1,000 Ibs. of milk with a 4-0 test. MONTHLY CHART. FOP the guidance oF Dairymen in recording each Cow's Milk. T NAMtS OF COWS. DATE LES. 2 k?s 3 LBS 4 iis_ 5 .LBS. 6 ujy. 7 LBS. 8 .BS 9 TH 10 II 12 13 K 15 Ib 17 18 19 20 21 22 'STuT 23 MTuT 24 1 2 ^lil M0_ Ml " ^M1U_ 3 4 5 g 7 8 3 10 II 12 15 14 15 Ifi 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 ; 74 25 26 77 28 29 30 31 OTAL | i'KUK 47" A.vmrt _.. j ,.. ._- . SCALE : ONE-THIRD OF PRACTICAL SIZE. 25 Cow LEDGER FOR RECORDING EACH Cow's MILK FOR THE YEAR. BEAUTY. (Calved 26.7.97.) Month. Milk. Test. Butter. Price. Value. 1897. gals. s. 5 1 17 10 October 142 3-5 54-8 5? 1 16 6 November 128 3-5 49-4 )J 1 12 11 December 116 3-6 46-1 7d. 1 6 10 1898. January 97 3-7 39-6 55 1 3 '1 February 52 4-0 23 8d. 15 4 March 34 4-1 15-9 Is. 15 10 April 12 4-3 5*7 05 8 May June... TOTAL ... 879 ... 345-9 ... 11 10 4 26 THE UTILITY OF TESTING COWS. The accompanying table of the actual return of a small dairy herd of Victorian cows has been compiled with a view of im- pressing on dairymen the great advantage to be derived from recording the results from each and every cow. It is all very well to judge a cow by appearances, but practical men are well aware that many a fine-looking cow is unprofitable for the dairy. At the present time it is fully recognised that there is no way so reliable to tell a good cow from a bad one as a scales and Babcock tester. The average Victorian cow has the reputation of giving a very small return as compared with the cows of many other countries. Whether this is so or not is open to question, and would be a difficult query to settle definitely. From previous records it would appear that Victoria possesses some cows almost as good as are to be found in any part of the world. No doubt the greater number are anything but profitable for dairying. If bad cows were known for certain and weeded out, and the remaining cows received better attention, our prospects would be bright indeed in the dairying line. DESCRIPTION OF HERD. The herd of cows under review is a cross-bred one. There is more shorthorn blood in them than anything else. About three- quarters shorthorn and the rest a .mixture, but no Channel Island blood whatever. (METHOD OF TREATMENT. They did not receive any special attention. Each cow was treated alike, and they were all pastured together. With the exception of a limited supply of small potatoes for a few weeks, the cows had nothing but straw in addition to pasture. In common with the herds in many parts of the colony last season, this one was reduced to skin and bone for some months. As a consequence the cows did not, at their best, give more than three-fourths of the yield of a normal season. They were kept in the Koroit district, and the dairy formed an auxiliary to other branches of farming. Cows going out of milk at the beginning of the year and dis- posed of are not included. Neither are heifers coming in before the close of the year. All cows are quoted that could be said were on the farm the year round. Some of those milked for six months and others up to eleven months. A VICTORIAN HERD. SUMMARY OF RETURNS FOR YEAR ENDED 31 ST DECEMBER, 1897. (Compiled by R. Crowe.) No. Name. Milk. Test. Butter. Price. Value. gallons. Ibs. d. s. d. 1 Caroline ... 697 4-2 326-41 8 10 17 7 2 Star 641 4-2 300-18 8 10 1 3 Spot 630 4-2 295-03 8 9 16 8 4 Lottie ... ... 683 3-6 271-55 8 9 1 5 Bess 531 4-5 268-04 8 8 18 8 6 Kitty 563 4-2 263-65 8 8 15 9 7 Lily ... ... : 509 4-6 263-15 8 8 15 5 8 Stumpy ... 732 3-2 256-63 8 8 11 1 9 Fanny ... ... 575 4-0 255-24 8 8 10 1 10 Flo 697 3-3 252-31 8 882 11 Bawley ... 619 3-6 246-12 8 840 12 Mary Ann 662 3-3 239-64 8 7 19 9 13 Jenny 670 3-2 234-89 8 7 16 7 14 Blossom ... 666 3-2 233-49 8 7 15 7 15 16 Polly Snaily 587 521 3-6 4-0 233-38 231-27 8 8 7 15 7 7 14 2 17 Judy 502 3-8 211-44 8 7 11 18 Rosy 594 3-2 208-24 8 6 18 9 19 Lady ... 435 3'9 188-13 8 655 20 Bonny ... 430 3-9 185-97 8 6 3 11 21 Dolly ... 421 3'8 177-32 8 5 18 2 22 Molly ... 392 4-0 174-01 8 5 16 23 Matilda ... 492 3'2 172-48 8 5 14 11 24 Liz 399 3-8 168-05 8 5 12 25 Princess ... 409 3-7 167-28 8 5 11 6 26 Betty ... 385 3-9 166-56 8 5 11 27 Cherry ... 375 4-0 166-46 8 5 10 11 28 Nelly 471 32 165-12 8 5 10 29 Violet ... 359 3-8 151-20 8 509 30 Gloss 347 3-8 146-15 8 4 17 5 31 Redmond 365 3-6 145-11 8 4 16 8 32 Pansy 299 3-7 122-29 8 4 1 6 16,658 ... 6,886-79 ... 229 10 ANALYSIS OF SUMMARY. The average number of pounds of milk required to make a pound of butter was 24' 19. The average return in milk per head was 520 gallons, of butter 215-21 Ibs., and in money 7 3s. od. The return in milk from the best cow was 697 gallons, from the ten best an average of 625 gallons, from the ten worst an average of 390 gallons, and from the worst cow 299 gallons. 28 The return in butter from the best cow was 326*41 Ibs., from the ten best an average of 275*21 Ibs., from the ten worst an average of 157*07 Ibs., and from the worst cow 122*29 Ibs. The return in money from the best cow is 10 17s. 7d., from the ten best an average of 9 3s. od., from the ten worst an average of 5 4s. 8d., and from the worst cow 4 Is. 6d. STRIKING DEDUCTIONS. In order to make the lesson more instructive, it is assumed that the cost of each cow's keep for a year amounts to 2 1 Os., and the cost of attention to 1 10s. This 4 is estimated to sufficiently provide for rent or interest on the investment for each cow's keep, and the labour involved. Anything returned over that sum may be looked upon as profit. Therefore the best cow gives a profit of 6 17s. 7d., the ten best average 5 3s. 5d., the ten worst average 1 4s. 8d., and the worst cow a profit of Is. 6d. The best cow gives over 91 times as much profit as the worst one, arid the profit from the ten best cows amounts to nearly the gross return from the ten worst cows. AN INTERESTING COMPARISON. X Many dairymen believe in cows that give a large quantity of milk ; others believe only in cows that give a good test. Both are right to a certain degree, and to be safe, the quantity as well as the quality must be taken into account. Attention is directed to the two cows, Nos. 7 and 8. The latter gives 223 gallons more milk than the former and yet brings in less money. Both are almost equally profitable cows, although one gives a 4*6 test and the other only 3*2. The goal can really be secured by widely-differing routes. ANOTHER COMPARISON. In looking over the monthly charts containing the records of those cows, it is found that "Lady," No. 19, gives the largest quantity for that period. The following monthly comparison is interesting : Galls. No. Milk. Test. Butter. Price. Value. 19 ... 140 ... 3*7 ... 57*26 ... 8d. ... 1 18 2 2 ... 89 ... 3*7 ... 36*40 ... 8d. ... 143 The best return for a month by cow No. 2 is quoted, and in the monthly comparison No. 19 cow would get credit for being by far the more profitable animal. However, in looking at the year's record it is found that she was only a sprinter. For the month No. 19 gives 13s. lid. more than No. 2, but for the year No. 2 gives 29 3 14s. 8d. more than No. 19. The one cow gave a big yield for a short period. The other did not give a big flow, but was a consistent milker, and came out best. CHEAPENING COST OF PRODUCTION. If it costs 4 to produce 326 Ibs. of butter with the best cow and the same amount to produce 122 Ibs. of butter with the worst cow, then it has cost less than 3d. per Ib. to produce butter from the good cow and almost 8d. per Ib. with the bad one. A PROBLEM. A herd that would give an average return of 7 3s. 5d. under such conditions, and in a jear described by the oldest residents as the worst experienced for 30 years past, would be designated a picked herd. Therefore, this may be termed a picked herd, and if the individual members of a picked herd vary so much in the returns given by them, it would be most interesting to know to what extent the results of an average herd would differ when recorded in the same way. GREAT POSSIBILITIES. If such returns can be obtained under such adverse circum- stances by an ordinary or mixed herd of cows in Victoria, what is it possible to secure from a herd, say, like the ten best cows in a favorable year ? Jt is said that the average return from Victorian cows is 290 gallons not equal to that of the worst cow here quoted. The ten best cows gave two and a quarter times that of the worst cow, so it can easily be seen what scope for improvement lies in this direction. If it has been worth our while building up an industry of the magnitude local and export of 2,500,000 with the indifferent cows we are credited with, it will not be a hard matter to more than hold our own against all countries in the world if we pay more attention to the breeding, feeding, and management of our cattle. To say that we are not making headway in this direction would not be true. In every district there are to be found a few up-to-date dairymen, who serve as splendid examples to the remainder, and who are ever ready to adopt improved methods. This system of recording the quantity of each cow's milk, together with the quality, is strongly recommended. The beginning is the hardest part of it. Give the plan a trial, and you will find the trouble or delay not nearly so much as it appears. In a short time it will become part of the routine of milking, and the infor- mation continually gained will far outweigh the little extra attention. What better technical education can be afforded the young people who usually do the milking ; and what a splendid thing it is to know definitely which cows are worth keeping and breeding from. 30 CARE OF DAIRY UTENSILS. All cans and vessels of tin in which milk has been used should be rinsed out with cold water first, then washed with hot water, and afterwards scalded with boiling water or steam. If scalding water is used first, the albumen in the remaining milk sticks fast to the tin and renders the operation of cleansing most difficult. Wooden vessels should receive almost the same treatment. Churns and butter-workers should have all the small particles of butter washed down with cold water after use, and then scrubbed and scalded. Should hot water be used first, the little waste atoms melt on the wood, and are sometimes liable to soak in. If the wood is once allowed to become greasy in this manner it is almost impossible to' again get it back into good working order. The frequent use of lime-water cannot be too strongly recommended for all milk and butter appliances, churns in par- ticular. Many instances are known where contaminated vessels have caused hundreds of pounds worth of loss to the producers, therefore, proper attention should be bestowed on cleanliness to insure best results. PURIFYING WATER. In the northern districts of the colony it is the exception, rather than the rule, to have a supply of clean pure water suit- able for washing butter. Mr. Pearson, Government Agricultural Chemist, explained a simple process of treatment for muddy or discoloured water, at the Conference of the Australasian Butter and Cheese Factories Managers' Association, May, 1897. Two tanks are used, one above the other. The upper one is used for the clarification of the water, and the lower one is for the recep- tion of the clarified water. The top tank is fitted with a tap at the lowest point of the bottom. Let us suppose that 500 gallons of clear water are required for use each day ; then it will be necessary to have those two tanks of 500 gallons capacity each. Two vessels of any convenient size are necessary to contain a supply of soda and alum solutions ; also a watering-can for measuring the liquid. Fifty gallons is a handy size for the former vessels. The alum solution is of such a strength that one measureful of it wiW convey to the 500-gallon tank 12 grains of alum per gallon, or 6,000 grains altogether. As there are 7,000 grains to the 1 Ib. avoirdupois, that would be six-sevenths of a pound. If the measuring-can holds 1 gallon, then the amount of alum to be put into the 50-gallon vessel would be 43 Ibs. That would be sufficient to last for 50 days. The amount of soda should be about 9 grains per gallon ; that is to say, the strength of the soda solution should be three-quarters that of the alum solution. Thus, if 43 Ibs. of alum were put into 50 31 gallons, about 33 Ibs. of soda should be dissolved in the other 50- gallon vessel. The process is simple. Fill the top tank with water in the afternoon. The measureful of alum solution is then evenly distributed over the surface of the water by means of the rose of the watering-can. The alum solution is then stirred into the water with a stirrer, this being done gently and carefully, so as not to get any air bubbles into the water. About ten minutes afterwards the measureful of soda solution is distributed through the water in the same way, stirring carefully as before. In the morning it will be found that the alumina has been entirely pre- cipitated, and has settled on the bottom of the tank, carrying with it the solid impurities, including bacteria, from the water, and leaving the water in the tank absolutely clear and limpid. A siphon should then be carefully introduced, so as not to stir up the mud at the bottom, and the clear water should be removed into the lower tank, where, if required, it could be cooled for use when necessary. Under the orifice of the siphon is a tin plate attached to the siphon pipe about 10 in. or 12 in. in diameter, which prevents the water from taking up with it as it passes into the siphon any sediment from the bottom of the tank. When empty the top tank is sluiced out through the tap, and the whole operation is gone through as before. Mr. Pearson states that this is an old-fashioned process, but recent investigations have shown that it is as efficient as any known process of purifying water. Alum used to the extent of from 12 to 20 grains per gallon has been found to result in com- plete sterilization of water that is to say, in the perfect removal of bacteria. Some who have seen this process at work have greatly admired the appearance of the water, but have expressed a fear that by using alum they would be introducing an injurious substance into the butter, in the manufacture of which the water was used. This fear is groundless, because, as already explained, the whole of the alumina is separated in the form of precipitate. It is, in fact, by virtue of this precipitation of the alum, and the conveyance in the precipitate of all the impurities, that the clari- fication takes place. But even supposing that a little of the alum were to be left in the water, a very simple calculation will show that the amount thereby introduced into' the butter would be infinitesimal. The amount of water in butter is about 10 per cent., so that 1 cwt. of butter would contain about 11 Ibs. (a little over 1 gallon) of water, As 1 gallon of water receives only 12 grains of alum, even if all the alum that was put in were to remain in the water, the amount conveyed to the butter would be not more than 13 grains to the cwt. As a matter of fact, even if only partial precipitation of the alum were to take place, there could be only 2 or 3 grains of alum left in a gallon of water, so 32 that there would never be any fear of more than 2 or 3 grains of alum to the cwt. of butter. It will be seen that those 2 or 3 grains of possible addition of alum are too insignificant to be con- sidered. When once the process is seen in operation it will be found so very simple and so very easy of applicatiou that is unlikely that any one troubled with impure water would hesitate to adopt it. RULES FOR MILK AND CREAM SUPPLY. The quality of the butter made in this colony largely depends on the care bestowed on the production and treatment of the. milk and cream before being manufactured. In the interests of the dairying industry it is necessary for the producers to exercise every precaution to insure the production of a first-class quality of butter. This fact is recognised by most dairymen, but there are some who do not give due attention to these matters. It is to be regretted that it is not possible to deliver all the milk produced to the creameries and factories, and it is deplorable to find many who are within easy reach of a creamery or factory trying to separate the milk from their own cows and manufacture their butter in small lots. Perhaps the worst results are obtained from cream separated on the farms and kept until too old before being delivered to the place of manufacture. The cause for complaint is not due to the use of small separators, but to the want of proper con- veniences and accommodation, and, the lots being small, the necessary care is not given to the cream. In our warm climate it is absolutely essential to have the aid of refrigeration at times of the year in order to make best butter. In the absence of refrigeration the quality of the output is irregular, so, in order to attain and keep up uniformity, the milk should be delivered to where it can be treated in large quantities And manipulated to best advantage. With a view to encouraging an improvement on the existing conditions, the following rules have been suggested by the dairy experts connected with this Department as a] guide to dairy- men : RULES. Care of Milk. 1st. The pastures, yards, and surroundings should be kept clean and free from carrion, and all decaying matter which may cause noxious smells. 33 2nd. Milk should be used and supplied only from healthy cows, which are fed on wholesome food, and have access to plenty of pure water. 3rd. In districts where sufficient salt is not naturally available a moderate allowance should be provided, as it adds to the health of the cattle and to the quality of the milk. 4th. Provide shelter for the cows against excessive heat and cold, and the flow and quality of the milk will be better. 5th. Be sure and make provision against the dry season by providing green crops, in order to prolong the period of milking and maintain the health and condition of your cattle. 6th. Treat the cows kindly ; milk them thoroughly and with regularity, that they may cultivate a milching habit. 7th. Milk should be drawn from the cows in a cleanly manner, the udders should be brushed or washed ; milking with dry hands is preferable to the practice of dipping the fingers into the milk to moisten them. 8th. Immediately after the milk has been drawn from the cow it should be strained through a wire or cloth strainer. 9th. All buckets, cans, and other utensils with which the milk is brought into contact should be of tin ; rusty vessels should be discarded. 10th. The milk vessels should be kept clean and sweet and washed with cold or tepid water first, then scalded with boiling water, and finished with a rinsing of limewater ; they should afterwards be drained out, sunned, and aired. Milk cans should not be left bottom upwards. llth. The milk should be aerated, by dipping, pouring, or stirring, or by use of an aerator. After the milk has been aired it should be cooled quickly to as low a temperature as possible ; and this should be done in a clean place where there is no dust or smell. 12th. The milk should be kept in a place where the atmosphere is free from foul or injurious smells. Milk that is left without the shelter of some roof should be protected from sun and rain by placing the lid on the can upside down, or by some other -efficacious means. 13th. Every dairyman should have a thermometer, and know the difference between the temperature of the atmosphere and -water ; the cans of milk should be kept in the coolest place. 14th. The night and mornings' supplies of milk should be kept in separate vessels, and may be mixed, when cooled to the same temperature, at the creamery or factory. loth. " Biestings," or milk from newly-calved cows, should j. I Pootila Private factories. 65 Name of Factory. Address. Secretary or Proprietor. Creameries Attached. Werribee Park Werribee Park G. T. Chirnside Warrenbayne ... Warrenbayne A. Shaw Winton Winton ... W. Irving North Winton | Nirranda Warrnambool ... Allan sford T. Beattie 1 Mepunga East Lake Gillier Willung Willung, via Rose- E. McRae dale Waggarandall * Waggarandall M. Lalor Warragamba* ... Elmore ... Fiedler and Pine Grove Wright, A. F. S.* Wattle Creek * Warragul Winton ... Appleby A. F. S. Wright T. McEwan East Boomahnoo- moonah Wilby Wilby F. H. Lovelock Boweya Peechelba Lake Rowan Ailsa Areegra Warracknabeal Warracknabeal J. Kelsall A libra i Bangerang f Kellalac Woodstock ... on Loddon J. T. H. Cocks Woodleigh via Lock Warragul Warragul W. H. Snow and Co. Wodonga Wodonga A. E. Gibson Woodstock ... Traralgon Winchelsea Winchelsea W. Caldom Wangaratta Wangaratta Boase Wangaratta Sth. W angaratta Colson Wycheproof White, W. G.* Wycheproof Flinders-lane, Mel- W. G. White bourne Homewood Flowerdale Strath Creek Yea High-street, Yea ... R. A. Wall - Molesworth Glenburn Murrindindi Terip Terip f Wonwron Yarram Yarram ... T. W. Wyatt 1 Devon Cabrossie Yarrawonga ... Yarra Glen ... Yarrawonga Yarra Glen Wood & Co. Wood & Co. * Private factories. 66 1 Name of Factory. Address. Secretary or Preprietor. Creameries Attached. , Buelgeree Boolarra Yinnar Yinnar F. McCoull East Mirboo Fairlie Mid Creek Driffield Yambuk rww Yannatlian Port Fairy Caldermeade A. Kell | Westring Orford Corbrington Yarck near Mansfield ' Sundry Creameries: Morrison's Bass Mt. Wallace Telford Toolem Burramine Boosey Oven's Bridge Youanmite Bundalong Bullengarook Irrewillipe Oaklands Rochester Boorhamin Millow North Boorhamin Bunbartha Yabba Gowangardie Drouin Labertouche Spring Vale Congupna Gheringhap Seymour Sefton's By Authority : ROBT. S. BRAIN, Government Printer, Melbourne. UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY