' HC UC-NRLF B ^ S7E D7b PROVINCE OF SASKATCHEWAN CANADA Ite 6c^6o^wx^ and opporrumKe& PH'KiHo. Ifcparimcnl of hlur Inferior Hon. ArAur Ad^hca, ro C\i 3 b^ucd from IWural ^cbO)x\ocs> Inl^dli^cncc Dtrmck 'ff'ii yvia :--Ti%t .*. •• • ;• V*. *. ; •• : '•'i.'hsJp of Scale 100 miles to one inclL THE PROVINCE OF SASKATCHEWAN CANADA ITS DEVELOPMENT AND OPPORTUNITIES By F. H. KITTO, D.L.S., A.M.E.I.C. Prepared under the direction of the Superintendent Natural Resources Intelligence Branch Department of the Interior Canada Kon. Arthur Meighen W. W. Cory, C.M.G. Minister ' -Dcoutv Minister ■ /(/ 19 19. 61244— 1 3 V^ ^j? / - K'^' /■ ,»>" ^' CONTENTS PAGE Historical Description 5 Area and Population 9 Physical Features 10 Survey System 17 Government 22 Revenue 27 The Public Debt 29 Government Agencies 30 Judicature 31 Naturalization 32 Franchise 32 Transportation and Communications 33 Roads and Trails 33 Railways 35 Electric Street Railways 38 Waterways 39 Teleph nes 41 Telegraphs 45 Mail and Aerial Navigation 46 Education and Religion 47 Religion 54 Climate 56 Temperature .• 58 Soil. 63 Prairie Soils 64 Alkali Soils 68 Agriculture 69 Lands and Products .• 71 Government Aid 80 Successes and Opportunities 82 Cities and Towns 85 Regina 88 Saskatoon 89 Moosejaw 91 Prince Albert 92 Swift Current 93 North Battleford 93 Weyburn 94 Urban Opportunities 95 Forests and Water Powers 99 Species and Occurrence 103 Lumbering Industries 107 Forestry 108 Water Powers Ill Minerals 114 Economic Geology 118 Coal 121 Clay 124 Other Minerals 127 Fur, Fish and Game 129 Fur ; ; 129 Fish 133 Game 138 Appendix 1 Synopsis of Canadian Northwest Land Regulations . 141 " 2 Synopsis of Mining Regulations 142 " 3 Synopsis of Timber Regulations 144 " 4 Synopsis of Grazing Regulations 145 " 5 Synopsis of Saskatchewan Game Laws 146 " 6 Prairie and Forest Fires 147 " 7 Synopsis of Customs and Freight Regulations 149 61244—11 435721 BIBLIOGRAPHY. MAPS The Province of Saskatchewan Frontispiece Physiographic Map 12 Drainage Map 17 Railway Map 37 Telephone Map 42 Forest Map 100 Welter Powers Map 112 CHARTS Survey System 20 Crop Acreage 74 Cereal Pro uction 79 Game Seasons 146 ILLUSTRATIONS Harvest Fields of Saskatchewan 8 Legislative Buildings, Rei;ina, Saskatchewan 26 Canadian Government Elevator, Saskatoon 35 Saskatchewan University Buildings, Saskatoon 50 A Typical Saskatchewan Homestead 57 Agricultural Scenes in Saskatchewan 70 Forest and River Scenes in Saskatchsw.in 90 Lumbering Scenes in Saskatchewan 104 Saskatchewan Clay Products 116 Kettle Falls, Churchill River, Saskatchewan 136 HISTORICAL DESCRIPTION The prairies of Western Canada need no introduction. The fame of their wonderful magnitude and their unrivalled beauty has already spread the world over, while the romance of the transition from the buffalo hunting grounds of the red man to the wheat fields of the white is already history. At an early date the poet Bryant immortalized them in his lines entitled " The Prairies," wherein he described them as " the gardens of the deserts " and " the unshorn fields, boundless and beautiful." Like the mighty ocean they stretch away in every direction from the eye till their gently undulating waves of verdant vanish in the misty circle of the distant horizon. Day after day the early explorers pushed their way across these unbroken solitides, and night after night pitched their camps under the starry heavens, with the same vista always about them. What visions of the future they saw can only be imagined, but, with the multitudes of gorgeous flowers and the luxuriant vegetation carpeting their route, they must surely have realized that a great heritage of opportunity lay there. Even the transcontinental traveller of to-day, though schooled to expect it, marvels at the outlook. All day long his train rushes on its way, and from the first break of dawn till the lingering twilight shuts out the view the eye strains and fails to see any discord in the symmetry of the prairie gar- dens. From these mighty plains have been carved out three great provinces, the " prairie provinces " of Canada, of which Saskatchewan occupies the middle location. Their northerly limits extend beyond the plains, however, into the more rugged and complex districts of the Laurentian region, thus giving a field of more varied resources to draw upon and round out their internal complete- ness. The province of Saskatchewan embraces the heart of the prairies, and the lion's share of their choicest lands. To the east lies Manitoba and to the west Alberta. Here in the midst of the great grain belt it has developed within a few short years into the greatest wheat-producing province of the Dominion, and can boast of the most extensive unbroken area of lirst-class wheat land to be found anywhere in the world. The march of progress is now in full swing and the opportunity to share in the great growth that is to be witnessed in this province in the immediate future is open to all who may desire to cast in their lot with her people. The southerly boundary of the province is the International boundary line between Canada and the United States, being the 49th parallel of north latitude. The states of North Dakota and Montana are immediately adjacent to this line. The northerly boundary is the 60th parallel of north latitude, beyond which lie the Northwest Territories. In length, then, it extends over 11 degrees of latitude and measures 761 miles. Its width gradually decreases from 393 miles, at the International boundary, to 277 miles at the northerly end, extend- ing from an irregular line between longitude 101° 30' and 102° West, to longitude 110° West. The average width is 335 miles. 5 6 The Province of Saskatchewan, Canada Saskatcbewari is essentially an agricultural province and predominates in the production of wheat. The remarkable fertility of its soil, the ease with which its prairies could be brought under cultivation, and the wonderful suc- cesses of its crops have resulted in a more rapid development along these lines than any other district in the world can boast of. To maintain its supremacy, however, it will become necessary to practice more scientific methods of farming than are required during the first few years, and already mixed farming is receiving more attention. Following the rural activities, urban centres have sprung up with amazing rapidity and the many-sided perplexities of a young nation have demanded attention. Since the creation of the province in 1905 the provincial government has taken most progressive steps, and enacted far- seeing legislation to ensure the prosperity of this community and guarantee the welfare of its people. The history of Saskatchewan is brief and rather uneventful compared with that of the older provinces of Canada. However, it has its romances and one rebellion to mark its transition from the primeval to the modern. The provinces of Saskatchewan and Alberta are the youngest of the Confederation, and as such have a history dating back barely over a dozen years. The evolution leading up to the culmination of provincial status might be said to date from about the year 1870, when the lands now comprising the three prairie provinces and the territories were acquired by the Dominion of Canada. Prior to this date the history of Western Canada is the history of its fur trade, covering a period of some 200 years. The name "Saskatchewan" is a corruption of a Cree Indian expression signifying " swift current," or " rapid river." It was originally applied by the natives to any river having such peculiarities, but soon became restricted by the whites to the one great river of the fertile belt. The name was later given to one of the territorial divisions and finally adopted by the province. From 1670 to 1870 the Hudson's Bay Company constituted the chief power throughout this area. Prince Rupert's lands were supposed to include the whole of the Great Plains, and in these lands the Hudson's Bay Company claimed absolute authority under the terms of their royal charter. The French, however, had early laid claim to Western Canada, and as the Company's charter excepted such lands as were owned or claimed by other Christian powers, a clash of interests would have undoubtedly occurred had not the cessation of Canada by the French to the English in 1763 taken place before the advance guards of either the Company or the French explorers came together. In 1783 the United States of America gained their independence, but the international dividing line in the West was amicably agreed upon in the choice of the 49th parallel of latitude. All questions of inter-state having thus been disposed of before the colonization of this district, its development has been confined entirely to internal affairs. In 1811 the Hudson's Bay Company granted to the Earl of Selkirk 74 million acres of land on which to establish a colony. A settlement was made with the Indians for their claims and the famous Red River Colony, the pioneer agricultural settlement of Western Canada was forthwith launched on its stormy career. The government of this colony was entirely in the hands of the Hudson's Bay Company. This sufficed in the early days but outlived its Historical Description 7 scope as the colony grew, so that in the course of some 50 years a more demo- cratic form of government became imperative. A fur-trading company might be expected to carry out the preliminary colonization of a territory but it is impossible to conceive of its constituting the sole governing power of such colony when it has advanced beyond the first stages. The legality of the Company's claims to such authority brought matters to a climax. In 1867 the Dominion of Canada came into existence under the British North America Act. One of the first acts of the Government was to take steps to acquire the unorganized British possessions of Western Canada and to intro- duce a form of government commensurate with the requirements and well-being of its settlers. The claims of the Hudson's Bay Company were accordingly adjusted and for a small consideration these British possessions became the asset of the new Dominion. Some opposition to the new arrangement was manifested in the Riel rebellion of 1869, but proved only temporary. In 1870 the re-arrangement took effect. The province of Manitoba was created and the remainder of the lands made into the Northwest Territories. The Lieutenant Governor of Manitoba was made, ex-officio, Lieutenant-Governor of the North- west Territories, assisted by the Executive Council. The political history of Saskatchewan, therefore, dates only from 1870 with this nucleus of government. In 1875 the territory was conceded a Lieu- tenant-Governor of its own, while in 1882 the provisional districts of Assiniboia, Saskatchewan, Alberta, and Athabaska were made. In 1885 there occurred the Saskatchewan rebellion, otherwise known as the Northwest Rebellion of 1885 or the second Riel Rebellion. The encroachment of white settlers upon the lands claimed by the Indians and half-breeds, and, perhaps even more than this, the manner in which the latter were being hemmed in and restricted, led to this armed resentment. Its speedy suppression and prompt adjustment of just complaints marks the last forceful display of the red man's objection to the advance of civilization. A rebellion naturally attracts considerable attention to the district affected. In this case it resulted in a large influx of settlers who came to avail themselves of the opportunities this fertile district offered. It also resulted in bringing to the scanty population of pioneer settlers a voice in the management of their own affairs, representation at Ottawa being granted in 1886. This was followed two years later by the creation of a local legislature whose powers were enlarged in 1890 to include the control of all territorial expenditure. In 1897 the Execu- tive Council was made responsible to the legislature thus giving to the four provisional districts of Assiniboia, Saskatchewan, Alberta and Athabaska a responsible government with considerable latitude. In 1905 the Dominion governm.ent created out of these four districts the two provinces of Saskatchewan and Alberta which took their places with the seven older provinces of the Confederation on the 1st September. The province of Saskatchewan practically swallowed up the old districts of Assiniboia, Saskatchewan and the east half of Athabaska, the province of Alberta taking the district of Alberta and the west half of Athabaska. The first provincial government consisted of a Lieutenant- Governor and a Legislative Assembly of twenty-five members. The repre- sentation in the House of Commons consisted of six members and in the Senate of four. Harvest Fields of Saskatchewan. Historical Description 9 According to the terms of the British North America Act Quebec was to be made the basis of representation with 65 members in the House of Commons, the other provinces being represented according to their population. A Dominion census was arranged to be taken every ten years following which the necessary re-adjustment in representation could be made, the unit being derived from one-sixty-fifth of the population of Quebec. The rapid growth of the population of Saskatchewan has resulted in an increased representation at Ottawa which now consists of 16 members in the House of Commons and 6 members in the Senate. The Provincial Legislature has also extended in numbers as newly opened districts have been given representation. It now consists of 62 members, 59 of whom are elected from regular constituencies while 3 represent the soldier population of the province. The first gubernatorial honour of the newly created province of Saskatchewan was conferred upon the Honourable A. E. Forget, who was fulfilling his second term as Lieutenant-Governor of the Territories when the autonomy bills were introduced. To the Honourable Walter Scott was given the distinction of becoming Saskatchewan's first premier and the government he formed still holds office though the personnel of the original body has almost entirely changed. The late Honourable Geo. W. Brown was the second Lieutenant-Governor and he was succeeded by the Honourable Richard Stuart Lake who now holds ofifice. Owing to ill health Premier Scott was forced to retire from the leadership of the government after a term of eleven years. He was succeeded by the Honour- able W. M. Martin, the present premier. The Territorial capital of Regina, falling conveniently within the boundaries of the newly created province of Saskatchewan, was chosen as its capital, thus linking the history of the old with the new. Except for the control of Crown lands and natural resources the province is on a par as regards self government with the older members of Confederation and the demand for the conferring of this privilege upon her by the Dominion Government constitutes one of the chief political topics of the day. Area and Population The area of Saskatchewan is 251,700 square miles. Of this 8,329 square miles are covered by water, leaving 243,381 square miles of land. The province exceeds in extent that of any European country except Russia. It is greater than Austria-Hungary, Germany or France. It is more than double the combined area of England, Wales, Scotland, and Ireland, also more than double the area of Italy and more than twenty times that of Belgium. Of the total land area of Saskatchewan some 94 million acres are believed to be suitable for agricultural purposes. Of this less than 20 million acres have as yet been improved. Most of the land area unsuitable for agriculture is capable of producing forests of economic value, while the water areas are invaluable for their fisheries resources. The population according to the Quinquennial census of June 1, 1916, was 647,835 of which 363,787 were males and 284,048 females. The growth of the population during the past fifteen years has been very rapid as shown on the following table. 10 The Province of Saskatchewan, Canada Saskatchewan — Population Year Population 5-year Increase 1901 91,279 257,763 492,432 647,835 1906 182-4 per cent 91-0 " 1911 1916 31-6 " The total urban population in 1916 was 176,297 or 27.22 per cent as com- pared with the rural population of 471,538 or 72-78 per cent. The average number of persons per family was 4-29. The rapid increase of population was principally due to heavy immigration during the years preceding the war. Some details of this are shown on the following table. Immigrant Arrivals in Canada and Saskatchewan since 1906 Dominion fiscal Immigrant arrivals from Total Immi- grants to Saskat- chewan Per cent. of . total United Kingdom United States Per cent of total Other countries 1906 86,796 55,791 120,182 52,901 59,790 123,013 138,121 150,542 142,622 43,276 8,664 8,282 57,796 34,659 58,312 59,832 103,798 121,451 133,710 139,009 107,530 59,779 36,937 61,389 30 5 44,472 34,217 83,975 34,175 45,206 66,620 82,406 112,881 34,726 41,734 2,936 5,703 189,064 124,667 262,469 146,908 208,794 311,084 354,237 402,432 384,878 144,789 48,537 75,374 28,728 15,307 30,590 22,146 29,218 40,763 46,158 45,147 40,999 16,173 6,001 9,874 15-1 *1907 27 22 40 49 39 37 34 27 41 76 81 8 2 7 7 7 5 8 2 1 4 12 11 15 13 13 13 11 10 11 12 13 9 1908 6 1909 1910 1 1911 1 1912 1913 7 1914 6 1915 1 1916 3 1917 1 ♦Immigrant arrivals for 1907 are for nine months only. Physical Features The geographical features of Canada may be divided into five sections, in two of which the province of Saskatchewan lies. These divisions are: (1) The Appalachian Region, occupying the Maritime Provinces and eastern Quebec and underlain by folded sediments and igneous rocks. (2) The St. Lawrence lowlands of southern Quebec and southern Ontario underlain by nearly horizontal sediments. (3) The plain region of Manitoba, Saskatchewan and Alberta underlain by flat-lying sediments. (4) The Laurentian plateau, consisting of vast upland surrounding Hudson Bay and underlain chiefly by igneous rocks, such as granite, together with a lesser amount of hardened sedi- Physical Features 11 ments. (5) The Cordilleran region, the mountainous region extending from the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific Coast and underlain by folded sediments and igneous rocks. The southern part of Saskatchewan occupies a part of the third division or Plain region, while the northern part falls within the fourth division or Laurentian plateau. Without considering these regions in their entirety it is impossible to get a proper conception of the geographical features of the province, which in itself comprises no independent feature of peculiar prom- inence. The Plain region has been described in most instructive language by Dr. Bruce Rose of the Geological Survey of Canada while Mr. Wyatt Malcolm, of the Department of Mines, Ottawa, has given a lucid pen picture of the Laurentian plateau. The information in this connection has been obtained from these reliable sources. The topography of the Great Plains is essentially that of a base-levelled surface. It is a plain developed on nearly flat-lying, soft strata^ — clays, shales, and friable sandstones — and over great areas the slope of the Plain corresponds to the dip of the underlying strata; but, considered as a whole, the surface is seen to bevel the strata at small angles. It owes its flatness partly to the horizon^ tality of the strata, but primarily to base-levelling by normal erosion. The origin of the Plains is, then, in part structural and in part erosional. They were formed in pre-Glacial times and the surface has been modified by glacial scour and deposition. It is, in general, a region of rolling prairie, interrupted by ridges and valleys. The evenness of the surface is in places made more complete by the filling of the hollows with superficial deposits and in places broken by the piling up of superficial deposits in ridges. The superficial deposits are almost wholly of glacial origin and were deposited during the retreat of the continental glaciers. The fillings are outwash and lake deposits as is shown by their sorted and strati- fied condition, and the ridges are morainal deposits. A veneer of boulder clay mantles the surface almost everywhere. The underlying rock formations of the Great Plains are for the most part of Cretaceous age, but here and there plateaus of Tertiary rock stand above the general level. These are remnants of much more widely distributed Tertiary deposits, the greater part of which has been denuded away during the base levelling process. The rise from the Plains to the plateaus is usually abrupt. The boundaries of the plateaus are commonly marked by clay blufi^s, particularly on the south and west sides. The north and east slopes are, as a rule, covered with a mantle of boulder clay. The plateau surfaces are, like the Plains' sur- faces, rolling prairies and the question arises as to whether they owe their flatness to the original, horizontal position of the strata, or represent the rem.nants of a previous, base-levelled surface like that of the Great Plains. The valleys cut below the level of the Plains detract very little from the apparent evenness of the general plains surface. They are noticeable only when the observer is in their immediate vicinity and are lost to view from the broad interstream areas. The valleys are of two types. Streams such as the Saskatchewan with headwaters in the Rocky mountains and with a perennial flow have cut canyon-like valleys in the soft strata, while streams with headwaters on the Plains and an intermittent flow usually have shallow valleys. Streams Physical Features 13 of the latter type have their sources in an intricate system of ramifying and inosculating coulees especially when they head in the rocks of the Tertiary plateaus, mentioned above. A second and earlier system of stream courses, in part conciding with the present system, is marked by valleys which are now abandoned or in which the present streams are so small as to be wholly inadequate to account for their excavation. These valleys were excavated at a time when the climate was much more humid and the precipiation consequently much greater than at present, probably during the retreat of the continental glaciers. The abandoned valleys are commonly occupied at intervals along their courses by shallow saline lakes, or for short distances by intermittent streams. Over considerable areas, the evaporation is equal to the precipitation and there is an almost absolute lack of running water. In some areas the surface water is concentrated in lakes with no outlets, giving, locally, an interior basin drainage. The southern part of the Great Plains in Canada is divided into three steppes by two eastward facing escarpments. The first steppe or lowest prairie level is that of the Red River valley, the Winnipeg system of lakes and the flat land surrounding them. This Plain is developed on Palaeozoic rocks, and in that respect differs from the more typical Great Plains to the west, which are developed on the soft Cretaceous rocks. It was occupied on the retreat of the continental glacier by a great lake — glacial Lake Agassiz — and the surface is deeply mantled with boulder clay and with alluvium deposited in the lake. It has an average elevation of about 800 feet above the sea and drains to Hudson Bay by way of the Nelson river. The passage from the first to the second steppe is over a rise or eastward facing escarpment of Cretaceous rocks, known as the Manitoba escarpment. The drainage channels from the second to the first steppe are wide and divide the escarpment into several prominent groups of hills known as the Pembina, Riding, Duck, Porcupine, and Pasquia hills. The summits of these hills rise from 500 to 1,000 feet, in places more, above the level of the first steppe. West of the Manitoba escarpment the Cretaceous Plains stretch away to the foothills of the Rocky mountains. The elevation above the sea increases gradually from less than 1,500 feet to more than 4,000 feet. This is the area occupied by the second and third steppes. The second steppe lies between the Manitoba escarpment and the Missouri coteau, an eastward facing escarpment of Tertiary rocks. This escarpment is the eastern boundary of the Wood Mountain plateau, one of the Tertiary remnants mentioned above. The eastern boundary and a northwesterly trending arm from it form a steplike rise of from 200 to 500 feet; but since there is an equal drop on the western side of the Tertiary remnant the Missouri coteau does not mark a rise from one prairie level to another as the Manitoba escarpment does. It forms, however, a con- venient dividing line on the Plains. East of it, the boulder clay deposit is thicker than to the west and the front of the escarpment is almost everywhere deeply covered with the boulder clay. It seems probable that the coteau acted as a barrier to ice advancement at certain stages of the glacial period and that the great thickness of glacial accumulations along the front of it and to the east are to be accounted for in this way. 14 The Province of Saskatchewan, Canada The third steppe reaches from the Missouri coteau to the foothills. It is in general like the second steppe but the superficial deposits covering it are thinner; and, while there is only Tertiary plateau on the second steppe (Turtle mountain, along the boundary between Manitoba and North Dakota), there are a number of such residuals on the third steppe. Chief among these is the Wood Mountain plateau, and the Cypress Hills plateau. This threefold division of the Great Plains is chiefly useful for descriptive purposes. The actual decrease of elevation in passing from one steppe to the next lower is small in comparison to the decrease due to the general eastward slope of the Plains. Despite minor irregularities — plateaus, valleys, and escarp- ments — they preserve their character as plains throughout and stand as one of the best samples known of an uplifted and base-levelled surface. The region is often described as a " rolling prairie," a general term that is aptly applied to the whole extent of the Plains. The most extensive physiographic unit of Canada is the subdued Laurentian plateau. This is a gently sloping plateau of rather even surface, comparatively low and seldom rising 2,000 feet above the sea. The hills breaking the even surface rise but a few hundred feet at most above the general level. It is a great U-shaped area surrounding Hudson Bay and extends from the Atlantic ocean, on the Labrador coast, west to a line running northwest through Lake Winnipeg, Lake Athabaska, Great Slave lake and Great Bear lake. It extends south to Lake Huron and Lake Superior, and occupies nearly all of the provinces of Ontario and Quebec, except the area southwest of a line running from Kingston to Georgian Bay, and that part of eastern Ontario forming the angle between the Ottawa and St. Lawrence rivers, and that part of Quebec south of St. Lawrence river. This plateau is underlain by hardened sediments and igneous rocks. The latter are much more widespread than the former, and granitic types predominate.* The rocks of this region are among the oldest rocks of which geologists have any knowledge. They are very resistant, and although they have been exposed to weathering since very early in the earth's history the inequalities in the surface features have not been wholly reduced. These inequalities have been augmented by glacial action. A further effect of glaciation was the denuding of much of this region of its soil. Generally speaking, therefore, the physiographic and soil conditions are not favourable to agricultural pursuits. Over a great part of the area, however, sufficient soil has been retained to support a forest growth, although insufficient for agriculture, and it is to be regretted that large stretches of such land have been depleted of their forests and have become dreary, barren wastes. The province has a main easterly slope, draining almost entirely into Hudson Bay eventually, though by widely separated courses. A considerable area in the northwest corner falls within the Arctic watershed, while a few smaller streams in the hilly sections adjoining the International boundary find their way through a maze of tributaries into the great Mississippi. The Arctic slope includes the Clearwater river, which flows westerly to join the Athabaska at McMurray, and the Cree and Black rivers, which drain into Lake Athabaska. Other lakes in this district are Cree, Black, Hatchet Physical Features 15 and Wollaston, the latter being on the height of land between the Arctic and Hudson Bay slopes. From Lake Athabaska the flow follows the Slave river to Great Slave lake, thence the mighty Mackenzie extends northerly to the Arctic coast. The northern part of Hudson bay slope is drained by the Churchill river of which the Beaver, Montreal, and Reindeer rivers are the main feeders in Saskatchewan. The principal lakes in this section are Reindeer, Lac la Ronge, Lac la Plonge, Montreal, Smoothstone, Dore, Primrose, Cold, Waterhen, Canoe, He k la Crosse, Clear, Buffalo, Peter Pond and Island. The central parts of the Plains are drained by the Saskatchewan river and its chief tributary the South Saskatchewan, which joins it a few miles below Prince Albert. Other tributaries include the Battle, Sturgeon, Sturgeon-Weir and Carrot, while the Red Deer river joins the South Saskatchewan just within the western bound- ary of the province. These waters flow into Lake Winnipeg at Grand Rapids, and are then carried to Hudson bay by the great Nelson river, the rival of the Mackenzie. The south-eastern part of the province slopes quite preceptibly to the south and east and is drained by the Qu'Appelle, Assiniboine and Souris rivers. The latter runs across the International boundary for some distance, then makes a sharp detour and returns north, joining the Assiniboine, which in turn joins the Red at Winnipeg. Flowing into the south end of Lake Winni- peg the waters from these various sources pass through it and swell the Nelson on its flow to Hudson bay. There is but little navigation on any inland waters of Saskatchewan. In early days shallow draught steamboats plied up and down the Saskatchewan from Grand Rapids to Edmonton, Prince Albert, Battleford, and Fort Pitt being on their line of route. The south Saskatchewan was navi- gated as far up as Medicine Hat in Alberta. Navigation was difflcalt owing to shallow water, sand and gravel bars, and rapids, though the course across the province is unbroken by any falls or other interruptions. Lake Athabaska is navigable by steamers from McMurray. The Churchill river is more in the nature of a chain of lakes joined by short stretches of swift flowing water, usually including rapids and falls which cannot be navigated, thus its route as a waterway is limited to the use of canoes or small boats which can be economically portaged around these numerous interruptions. No elevations of striking prominence occur. A number of rocky knolls and ridges are found along the Churchill while the elevations of note in the Plains sections are known as the Porcupine, Duck, Wood, and Moose mountains and the Pasquia, Beaver, Touchwood, Pheasant, Weed, Cypress, and Thickwood hills. The Geodetic Survey of Canada has projected a number of trunk lines of precise levels following the railway tracks in this province. The following table contains a list of their elevations for the more important cities and towns. The elevations given were taken on top of the rail in front of the stations as indicated. Proporcc/ in the N.RJ. Branch Physical Features *Saskatchewan — Precise Levels 17 Station (Top of rail) Elevation (In feet above sea level) l,896--t 1,778 7 1,589 7 1,413 3 1,657 8 1,870 4 1,857 3 2,432 2,507 2,154 Regina, C.P.R Moosejaw, C.P.R. . . Saskatoon, C.N.R. . . Prince Albert, C.N.R Yorkton, C.P.R Estevan, C.P.R Weyburn, C.P.R Swift Current, C.P.R Maple-Creek, C.P.R. Biggar, G.T.P.R *Geodetic Survey of Canada. Survey System Before the Crown lands of the province are thrown open for settlement or otherwise disposed of they are first surveyed into parcels of the required dimension. As the federal government gained possession of the entire area now comprising the province before any surveys had been commenced, or any appreciable settle- ment made, it enabled them to adopt a regular system of subdivision. This has been carried out by the Surveyor-General of Canada with a staff of especially qualified Dominion Land Surveyors in the field and an office staff of draughtsmen and map makers, comprising the Topographical Surveys Branch of the Depart- ment of the Interior. The Dominion Land system of survey is the most compre- hensive in the world. It extends uniformily over the whole of the western prairies and is especially adaptable to a plains country. Its checkerboard style enables one to determine the location of a given piece of land, either in the field or on the map, with the despatch and accuracy that an office record might be looked up by use of a modern cross index system, while its regular north-and-south and east-and-west lines give a succession of rectangular farms. The disadvantages that would arise from any system of survey resulting in triangular fields are only too obvious when one remembers that agricultural operations are now conducted on a large scale throughout the west. Nothing less than a four-horse outfit is seen in the fields, while six or eight are common, not to mention the ever increasing number of mechanical tractors with their array of farm implements following. The rectangular fields of the plains are ideal for such extensive farming operations. The unit of survey is the township, being a quadrilateral area approximately 6 miles square containing 36 sections, each of 640 acres or 1 square mile, which on being divided into 4 equal parts gives the homestead "quarter section" of 160 acres. The lines bounding a township on the east and west sides are true meridians, and those on the north and south sides are chords of the parallels of latitude passing through the corners of the township. These "block" townships are designated entirely by the numerical system and bear no individaul names. 61244—2 18 The Province of Saskatchewan, Canada. Commencing at the 49th parallel of latitude (International boundary) they number from 1 upwards in regular order northerly. Tiers of these are called ranges and they are numbered in regular succession westerly from certain true north and south lines which have been adopted and surveyed as standards. These standards are called "Meridians" and those affecting the svirveys of Saskatchewan are the Principal or First which is located approximatley in Long. 97° 27' 30" West, passing about 12 miles west of the city of Winnipeg; the Second, in Long. 102° West; the Third, in Long. 106° West, and the Fourth in Long. 110° West. Except between the Principal and Second Meridians there is a regular interval of 4 degrees of longitude. The eastern boundary of the province is the line between ranges 29 and 30 "west of the Principal Meridian till it converges with the Second Meridian, which is then the boundary. The western boundary is the Fourth Meridian, so that with the exception of a few ranges west of the Principal, the whole of the province lies between the Second and Fourth Meridians. The Third Meridian passes approximately through the centre of the province. Quarter sections are denoted according to the quadrants of the compass, north-west, north-east, south-west and south-east quarter-sections respectively. A location may, therefore, be designated in the briefest and clearest manner and at the same time its location indicated at a glance, for instance, the south-west quarter of section twenty-five, in township thirty-six and range seven, west of the Third Meridian, abbreviated thus: S.W. 25-36-7-W. 3. Working reversely, one finds the third meridian approximately in the centre of the province, then looking 7 ranges west and up 36 townships from the International boundary — the required township is located. The sections are numbered from the south- west corner, westerly across the township from 1 to 6, thence back along the next tier of sections, and across again on the next, and so forth, leaving section 36 in the extreme north-east corner as shown on the accompanying illustration. Section 25 is therefore readily located and from it the desired quarter. Rember- ing that each township is approximately 6 miles square, a moment's mental cal- culation will give the exact location of any piece of land so described. At 24-mile intervals north of the 49th parallel of latitude lines are run westerly from one principal meridian to the next, following the same parallel of latitude by deflecting at every township corner. These are called "base lines" and are the basis on which the townships are first laid out, the 49th parallel being the first. Commencing at a main meridian a township is laid out by meas- uring off six sections of the precise width of 80 chains (1 mile) with a road allowance of 1 chain in width adjoining each. The township outlines are then run north and south to a depth of two townships in each direction, that is half way to the adjacent base lines on either side. Owing to the convergence and divergence of all meridian lines these township lines will converge north of the base line and diverge to the south of it, hence the lines run north from one base line will not connect with those run south from the next base line above it when the townships come together, but will necessitate a "jog." The outlines of the township are completed by joining the corners with east-and-west lines and the line between townships on which the jogs occur, that is midway between the base lines, is known as the "correction line." Survey System 19 The interior or subdivision lines of a township consist of north-and-south lines adjoining every section, and east-and-west lines adjoining every second section, with road allowances of 1 chain in width in all cases. Only one side of a road allowance is surveyed out and marked on the ground, except in the case of correction lines, where it is necessary on account of the jogs to mark the lands on each side of the road independently. Other exceptions arise in certain cases, for instance, where Indian reserves or other irregular parcels of land intervene. The lines regularly run consist of the east boundary of every section and the north boundary of the second, fourth and sixth tier of sections, that is the survey monuments will be found on the west and south sides of the roads. A post is planted every half mile, exclusive of road allowances, that is at every section and quarter section corner along the lines run. Township corners are marked by posts of a larger size than those used for sections and quarter-section corners. In laying out the townships along a base line, the measurements, being carried westerly from one meridian to another, rarely, if ever, give an exact even number, hence fractional townships occur closing on the meridian. Owing to the convergence of these meridians themselves the length of each succeeding base line diminishes, hence the number of township widths or ranges will run out as the system is extended northerly. The accompanying diagrams illustrate the system for all practical purposes. There are certain modifications in the methods of survey giving rise to five forms or systems, though all are based on the same principle. The system just described is known as the third and is almost universal. The first and second differ slightly from each other but for all practical purposes they are alike. They differ from the third by providing for a road allowance of one chain and fifty links (a chain and a half) in width on every side of a section. The first system includes the area lying between the eastern boundary of the province and the second meridian as far north as, and including, township 30. The second system embraces townships 1 and 2, ranges 1 to 8 inclusive; townships 19 to 30, ranges 1 to 12 inclusive, and townships 27 to 30, ranges 13 to 16 inclusive, all west of the Second meridian. To facilitate the descriptions for letters patent of less than a quarter section, every quarter section is taken to be divided into quarter quarter- sections each of 40 acres more or less, and such quarter quarter-sections are styled " legal sub-divisions " and are numbered from 1 to 16 in similar manner to the numbering of the sections of a township, and as shown on the accom- panying diagram. Survey posts were originally of wood, then iron posts were introduced for township and section corners, the former being of larger diameter, while wooden posts were used for quarter section corners. Later iron posts were used entirely while during the last few years a new style of tubular post set low in the ground and with a bronze cap has been introduced. The corners were further marked by digging a set of 4 pits about the post, each pit being about 3 feet square and 18 inches deep. In wooded areas a pyramid-shaped mound was also built at the post. Where a corner fell in a pond or other unsuit- able place it was perpetuated by erecting a " witness " monument on the line at the nearest edge of such obstruction and recording on the post the distance 61244—2* SYSTEM OF SURVEY OF DOMINION LANDS PLAN OF A TOWNSHIP PLAN OF A SECTION 11 1 , ^ 1 1 L ...31... ..;... S3 ■34- 35 36 3:0 29 28 ■■27- — \ ■•26-- 25 ■ w 4 eo ■ -2i- '■ — • — ■■22- 23- [X E ■1$ ■ -iV- • -1& ■ 15 - •If- lis- ■f- .4..., ■•9- lb - — ♦ — ...g..., ,..,u _ 6 ■■•5- -4- -3,. T * 1 r^ I • 1 > r^-1 r^-f r ^ 15 14- 15 16 12 11 10 9 w in E 1^ 5 6 7 8 4- 3 a 1 s Survey monuments shown thus .♦ TOWNSHIP AND RANGE SYSTEM INTERNATIONAL BOUNDARY I^t BASE LINE Range.numbeps.shown.thus imniV Township „ ,, „ 12 3 4- ^h 3'V'-i'^:^M.fi: , , — :)t ::: ^r 4 _,! 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 M 1 1 M M M Mel 1 1 1 1 M 1 M 1 1 M 1 1 1 M M 14 1 M 1 M M M 1 . ::::::::: :::::::: ::^--::: j^ :^___± .: :? : :: : :: : : : ' : : -i^'^-E^^i-iHhf: 1 1 1 M 1 1 1 1 1 1 M 1 1 M 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 i3EI 1 M 1 1 M 1 1 1 M 1 1 1 1 1 1 M 1 1 1 M 1 1 1 M : : i::::::::::::::.-:::::::: :|:::::::::^::::::;:::::::::::r^ rrH LUJ T | rr ac'ar r-i- ■■■■ •-" --^ r T T r m T r\ \\ rrrri rrTti -r^r-rrf frrMM- rrriH r^4TTT '^Ji^i^iLJilJ±i.Jl.ii.ujJl.lJJilJ.lu.Ji[|JJJli.ui[LulLL.uil[^ Pnepored in the N. R. I Branch Survey System 21 and direction of the true corner. A circular trench was dug about such post and in the woods a cone-shaped mound was also built. The usual marking of the post is in Roman numerals, giving the number of the section at the north-east corner of which it stands, followed by the township and range, for instance, XV, XXIV, VIII reads north-east corner of section 15, township 24 and range 8. The meridian is not stated as a locator will know this. A quarter section post is mereU' marked " % ". It will be observed that the lines of this system of survey are run out on the ground irrespective of topographical irregularities except in the case of large bodies of water or inaccessible mountains. The land is thrown open for homestead on the basis of such survey. The old " trails " of the prairies followed the most direct routes or lines of least resistance so that new roads are required to keep pace with settlement. It is often found impracticable to construct such exacth' within the confines of the stereotyped " road allow- ances ". Ponds, steep cut-banks, or other obstacles frequently occur. Hence the highway engineers of the province, who construct the roads, find it neces- sary to make " road diversions " which are laid out around such obstacle by Provincial Surveyors, usually District Engineers of the provincial highway department. A number of small settlements, chiefly along river valleys, had taken place before the regular system of survey had reached such districts. In order not to molest conditions and to allow each settler to retain his improvements as far as possible, the regular survey was suspended for the extent of such areas, and " settlement surveys " substituted, the individual parcels of land being laid off to the best advantage to all concerned and given lot numbers. There is another form of survey which may be used in remote parts of the country, chiefly resorted to in survey of mineral claims, namely the " group lot ". Parcels of land so surveyed are designated b}- lot and group numbers which are furnished the field surveyor on application to the head office. Surveys on federal lands are made by Dominion Land Surveyors but recently an Association of Saskatchewan Land Surveyors has been formed with provincial jurisdiction to whom is entrusted such surveys as concern lands under the authority of the provincial government. The original survey of a homestead would be made by a federal surveyor but a subdivision of such parcel of land after the Crown grant had been issued would fall within the scope of the provincial surveyor. 22 The Province of Saskatchewan, Canada. GOVERNMENT Canada is a self-governing colony of the British Empire. Though lacking the dignity that would be hers if gifted with the status of a nation the loss is more than compensated for by the benefits derived through being an integral part of so powerful a world-wide empire. National protection, trade advantages and other favours are hers as a colony, while the right of self-government leaves her to all intents and purposes, save for the gravest of international affairs, an independent country. The link that binds the colony to the mother country is the lightest possible though strong in the hearts of the people on both sides of the water. Ofihcially then, Canada, as part of the Empire, places her highest authority in the Sovereign and the Imperial Government. Her own government is modelled, as far as possible, after that of the Mother Country. The constitution of Great Britain has been many centuries in the making and the result — a limited monarchy — is generally admitted to be most satisfactory. Nominally the Sovereign rules but in reality the government of the country is carried on by the elected representatives of the people. Parliament is composed of two Houses, the Lords and the Commons, and from these Houses an Executive Council or Cabinet is chosen, which constitutes the real governing body of the country. The leader of the Cabinet, usually called the Premier, is in reality the actual head of the country's affairs as the Sovereign acts only on his advice. To represent the Crown in Canada, the Sovereign, on the advice of his cabinet, appoints a Governor-General, who resides in the capital city of the Dominion during his term of office. Like the Sovereign he is nominally head of the colonial government but he too acts on the advice of his ministers. All new legislation must receive his approval before becoming effective. Should he consider that any such legislation is likely to prove unfavourable to the interests of the Empire it is his privilege and duty to refuse his consent, thus either causing its withdrawal or its being submitted for the consideration of the Imperial parliament. Such a state of affairs, however, is very unlikely to occur as legislation of such gravity would not be rushed through without wide discussion which would enable the attitude of the Imperial Government towards it to be known. It is thus evident that the position of the Imperial representative requires the presence of a man of great tact and a wide knowledge of affairs of state. Canada has been extremely fortunate in having had a succession of Governors-General of more than ordinary ability, who have proven themselves real leaders and who have welded closer and stronger the link of good fellowship binding her to the Empire. The government of Canada, called the Federal government, is very similar to that of the Mother country. Representing the Sovereign, the Governor- General is at the head of affairs. The Parliament consists of two Houses, the Senate and the House of Commons. The members of the Senate are chosen for life by the Governor-General on the advice of his ministers. The Commons are elected by the people every five years, or at lesser intervals should Parliament Government 23 for any reason be dissolved within that time. An exception to this rule was made during the war when the life of Parliament was extended to six years because of the unusual conditions. The political party having the majority in the House of Commons forms a government, choosing a number of their party, as a rule from the Commons though sometimes a few from the Senate, to form a Cabinet. The leader of the successful party heads the Cabinet as Prime Minister or Premier, the other members take charge of the various departments of the government's business and are styled Ministers. They carry on the business of the country till Parlia- ment's term of five years has elapsed when they must dissolve it and have a general election. Frequently the election is brought on before the five years term is up. Should the government lose the confidence of Parliament and suffer a reverse on the floor of the Commons, or lose the confidence of the people and fail to have a majority of supporters elected at a general election the Gover- nor-General receives their resignation and calls on the leader of their opponents (called the Leader of the Opposition) to form a new government. This form of government has been in existence since the Dominion of Can3.da was formed by the confederation of the colonies of Upper and Lower Canada (Ontario and Quebec), Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick on July 1, 1867. Its constitution is set forth in The British North America Act. Manitoba joined the confederation in 1870, British Columbia in 1871, and Prince Edward Island in 1873. The provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan were formed in 1905. The Yukon Territory is represented by one member in the Commons. Each province has representation in the Commons in proportion to its popu- lation and the members of the Senate are chosen along pretty much the same lines. The provinces then have individual governments of their own. The Dominion Parliament in 1918 was made up as follows: Representation in Federal Houses Province Commons Senate Ontario 82 65 16 11 4 15 16 12 13 1 24 Quebec 24 Nova Scotia 10 New Brunswick 10 Prince Edward Island 4 Manitoba 6 Saskatchewan 5 Alberta 6 British Columbia 6 Yukon (Territory) Total 235 96 The Provincial Governments are formed along lines similar to the Federal Government. At the head, and representing the Federal Government, is a Lieutenant-Governor appointed by the Governor-General for a term of five years. His duties in the province correspond to those of the Governor-General 24 The Province of Saskatchewan, Canada. in the Dominion. Though nominally head of the province's affairs he acts on the advice of his government. It is his duty, however, to veto any Act which in his opinion might be detrimental to the interests of the Dominion at large. The government of the province consists of one House only, elected by the people, and called the Legislative Assembly. In Nova Scotia and Quebec, there is, in addition to the Legislative Assembly, a Legislative Council, the members of which are appointed for life by the Lieutenant-Governor in Council. In Prince Edward Island the Legislative Council is united with the Assembly, each of the fifteen constituencies electing a Councillor and a member to the Assembly. From this Assembly the Lieutenant-Governor calls upon the leader of the party having a majority of supp'orter.s to form an Executive Council, the leader being the Premier. This Council, like the Federal Cabinet, carries on the business of the province. The Legislative Assembly of Saskat- chewan now consists of sixty-two members of whom fifty-nine were elected from regular constituencies and three by the soldiers of this province. The Executive Council consists of the premier and eight other ministers. The Assembly has control of legislation and matters especially affecting the province while the Federal government controls matters of a wider nature. In order that there should be no doubt the British North America Act set forth the following list of subjects to which the exclusive authority of the Federal Government extends. (1) The public debt and property; (2) trade and com- merce; (3) the raising of money by any kind of taxation; (4) the borrowing of money; (5) the postal service; (6) the taking of the census; (7) military and naval matters; (8) the payment of the ofificials employed by the government; (9) lighthouses; (10) navigation and shipping; (11) quarantine and marine hospitals; (12) fisheries; (13) ferries, except when entirely within a province; (14) currency and coinage; (15) banking and the issue of paper money; (16) saving banks; (17) weights and measures; (18) bills of exchange and promissory notes; (19) interest; (20) legal tender; (21) bankruptcy; (22) patents for inven- tion; (23) copyrights on books, pictures, etc.; (24) Indians and Indian lands; (25) naturalization of foreigners; (26) marriage and divorce; (27) the criminal law; (28) penitentiaries; (29) matters expressly stated in the Act as not assigned to the province. Those subjects over which the province was given legislative authoritv are set out in the following list: (1) The amendment of the constitution of the province, except in regard to the ofifice of lieutenant-governor; (2) direct taxation; (3) the borrowing of money on the sole credit of the province; (4) the civil service of the province; (5) the public lands, belonging to the province; (6) the prisons and reformatories of the province; (7) hospitals, asylums, and charitable institutions; (8) municipal institutions; (9) licenses, such as those of taverns, shops, and auctioneers; (10) local works and undertakings, except lines of steamships, railways, canals, telegraph, and other works and undertakings extending outside the province, and such works which, although wholly inside the province, are declared by the Dominion parliament to be for the general advantage of Canada, or of two or more of the provinces; (11) the incorporation of companies for business in the province; (12) the solemnization of marriage in the province; (13) property and Government 25 civil rights in the province; (14) the administration of justice in the province; (15) punishment by fine and imprisonment, in case any provincial law is broken; (16) generally all matters of a merely local or private nature in the province. By a further provision in the British North America Act, the Legislature of each province may exclusively make laws relating to education within the province. There are also certain subjects, such as agriculture and immigration, over which both the Dominion and the provincial governments have jurisdic- tion. In case, however, the law passed by the province does not agree with that passed by the Dominion, the latter governs. Any law passed by the provincial government may be disallowed by the Dominion government within one year after the receipt of an official copy of the Act. This, however, is very seldom likely to occur, except when the Act is one that interferes with the general welfare of Canada or the Empire. The Saskatchewan government at the close of 1918 was made up as shown on the following table: — SASKATCHEWAN PROVINCIAL GOVERNMENT. Capital Regina. Lieutenant-Governor His Honour Richard Stuart Lake, Esq. Executive Council Premier, Minister of Education and President of Council . . Hon. W. M. Martin, K.C. Attorney General Hon. W. F. A. Turgeon, K.C. Provincial Secretary Hon. W. E. Knowles Minister of Highways .' Hon. S. J. Latta Minister of Agriculture Hon. W. R. Motherwell Minister of Municipal Affairs Hon. Geo. Langley Minister of Public Works. . .: Hon. A. P. McNab Provincial Treasurer and Minister of Railways Hon. C. A. Dunning Minister of Telephones Hon. G. A. Bell Following out the basic principal of self-government which characterizes the success of British rule everywhere the provincial government grants to local bodies of her residents the rights to manage their own aff'airs as they desire, restricted only in so far as necessary for the well-being of the province at large. Four forms of Municipal Government are provided for according to the progress and population of the community. Three provide for urban centres and one for rural settlements. They are graded in the following order of descending responsibility, cities, towns, villages and rural municipalities. These municipalities all receive their incorporation from the provincial govern- ment and are under the special care of the Minister of Municipalities. They elect their own officers, fix their assessment and tax rate, raise and spend money, make by-laws, and generally look to their own advancement and welfare under several provincial and federal regulations. Saskatchewan now has seven cities, seventy-five towns, three hundred and fourteen villages and five hundred and thirty-one rural municipalities. ^ PQ Government 27 The various forms of government as affecting citizens of Saskatchewan are outlined in the following chart. Systems of Government I. Imperial f Sovereign \Parliament fHouse of Lords \House of Commons Cabinet f Premier \ Ministers II. Federal f Governor General \Parliament f Senate \House of Commons Cabinet /Premier ^Ministers III. Provincial j Lieutenant-Governor \ Legislative Assembly Executive Council. ./Premier \Ministers IV. Municipal L City fMayor \Aldermen 2. Town fMayor \Councillors 3. Village fOverseer \Councillors 4. Rural Municipality jReeve. \Councillors. Revenue Funds necessary for the carrying on of the country's affairs by these legis- lative bodies are secured from various sources, of which taxation in its many forms, is the main source. Revenues derived from the exploitation of the country's natural resources constitute most of the balance. The Federal govern- ment administers the customs tariff which is the chief source of its revenue. The provincial governments receive an annual subsidy from the Dominion government. In the case of Saskatchewan this subsidy is augmented consider- ably in lieu of Crown lands and natural resources which are still under the administration of the Dominion Government and of school lands held in trust by it. The subsidy for the year ending April 30, 1918 was $1,710,675 and the school lands fund $497,021.37, giving a total revenue of $2,207,696.37 from this source. This is augmented by certain direct taxation the provincial government levies for its own use, and by various commissions, duties and fees collected by the several departments in the administration of the duties 28 The Province of Saskatchewan, Canada. assigned to them. The Attorney-general's department during the year ending April 30, 1918, collected $115,801.98 in succession duties, $446,146.67 in Land Titles office fees, $175,159.59 from the sale of law stamps, $128,673.33 in sheriff's fees and $101,190.92 under the Liquor License Act. The Education Department collects fees for teachers' certificates and for certain examinations. The Agriculture Department adds to the revenue through its brand fees, game licenses, and registration of live stock. License fees from owners of motor vehicles and from persons conducting various lines of business over which government supervision is more or less necessary swell the fund considerably. Motor license fees yielded over $600,000, while the humble marriage license fee was responsible for a contribution of nearly $10,000 to the provincial treasury in a single year. Guilty offenders against the laws of the province who were so fortunate as to escape with the imposition of fines made amends by such payments to the extent of nearly $100,000 during the year, — a slight consolation at any rate to an outraged country. Direct taxation of the railways and corporations operating within the province and which for obvious reasons could not be looked after by individual municipalities, is pro- vided for in " The Corporations Taxation Act " and " The Railways Taxation Act." The revenue from this source exceeded $300,000 in 1917. The levies made by the province directly on the land are embodied in the following acts; (1) The Supplementary Revenue Act, 1917, provides for a tax of one cent per acre, the proceeds of which are to be used for the support of educational institutions. (2) The Wild Lands Tax Act, 1917, aimedto strike at the absent land owner or land speculator, provides for a tax of one per cent of the assessed value of lands so held. The proceeds of this tax form part of the consolidated fund of the province and are used for general revenue purposes. (3) The Public Revenues Act, 1917, provides for a tax of one cent per acre, the proceeds of which are to be used for the support of Red Cross and patriotic organi- zations. The estimated revenue from these sources for 1918 were respectively $750,000, $500,000 and $1,000,000. Municipalities raise their money by direct taxation. Each has its assessor whose duty it is to prepare an annual statement showing all lands within the boundaries of the municipality together with the owners' names thereof, to set a valuation on such lands and on the buildings and improvements thereon, and to prepare a roll of the adult population of the municipality showing the value of the personal property and the amount of income of each. A tax is then levied to meet the estimated requirements of the ensuing year. The systems adopted vary somewhat but the usual method is to levy the tax against the full value of the land and to exempt certain percentages of all other assessments. Provision is made on the one hand for appeals from the rolls of the assessor and on the other for the collection of arrears of taxes. Drastic methods of collection are resorted to when payment of taxes is unduly neglected. The Rural Munici- pality Act was amended in 1916 to allow of wider concessions by way of exemp- tion from taxation of the soldier's home, the Arrears of Taxes Act being modified accordingly. The Village Act was also altered to provide that the home of the soldier, or the home of his wife, in any village is totally exempt from taxation during the period of his enlistment. The Public Debt 29 Several communities on the frontiers of the province where settlement is gradually directing its onward course, have been organized as Local Improve- ment Districts. The rate of taxation in each of these was, up to the end of last year, one and one-quarter cents per acre, excepting in the case of leaseholders who were required to pay only three-quarters of a cent per acre. Taxes in these unorganized districts are levied by the Department of Municipal Affairs to which they are payable. The amounts secured are disbursed for road and similar improvements throughout the communities concerned. The fixing of assessment valuations has been a difficult task. During boom days widly speculative values were attached by promoters to urban lots and these fictitious values were often adopted by the assessor, with the result that the taxes imposed against such lots became over burdensome. On the other hand the assessed values of rural properties has generally been very moderate. The rural districts have also avoided the undertaking of expensive improvements such as have caused the embarrassment of a number of urban centres that were unduly anxious to make rapid development and now find themselves carrying heavy loads. The burden of taxes may then be generally considered most moderate in rural districts and the smaller urban centres. Those large municipalities that have undertaken excessive improvements find taxes fairly heavy at present owing to the temporary distress caused by the war, but with an influx of popula- tion following the signing of peace, conditions may be expected to speedily improve. The percentage of municipalities in actual financial difficulty is less than three quarters of one per cent while many rural ones closed their books last year showing cash surpluses of over ten thousand dollars each. The general prosperity of the province may be expected to speedily bring about satisfactory conditions to all her cities and towns as their adversities were caused by extravagance in days of over-optimism and not through any fault of the country. They have learned lessons which will not be easily for- gotten and which may be the means of preventing future disasters. The Town Planning and Rural Development Act recently passed by the legislature is a progressive step looking to the future welfare of the municipalities of the province. A director of town planning will be associated with the Department of Municipal Affairs, whose duty it will be to assist in the preparation of by-laws and plans for the encouragement of growth along proper aesthetic and health-ensuring lines. A marked tendency on the part of the larger towns and cities to curtail their expenditures and borrowings as far as possible consistent with the upkeep requirements indicates an attitude of more sound management and civic economy. An era of extravagance could not be without its aftermath but the crisis is now well past and all indications point to a healthful and substantial develop- ment in the coming years. The Public Debt The Federal Government in creating the province of Saskatchewan in 1905 appointed a number of officials to form a provisional government and assume the affairs of the newly created province. This Government was imme- diately confronted with the necessity of providing public buildings for adminis- trative purposes and of meeting other demands which required the expenditure 30 The Province of Saskatchewan, Canada. of large sums of money. The population of the province doubled within a few years following this date thus necessitating the expenditure of larg^ initial sums of money in public improvements such as bridges, highways and ferries, in public buildings including the Parliament buildings, the land titles offices, court houses, jails, hospitals, and schools of the country. These undertakings being of a permanent nature have had their cost arranged to be spread over a number of years. As the ordinary revenue of the province was not sufficient to meet these heavy initial charges, the moneys required were provided out of borrowed funds obtained by selling government securities. Their cost was charged to capital account, which very largely comprises the public debt. Debenture loans floated from time to time add to the public debt while the redemption of the maturing ones decreases it. From the capital account certain expenditures are made in the nature of investments, for instance, funds for the Saskatchewan Provincial Telephone System were provided from this source and such funds deducted from the gross public debt show the net public debt of the province. The assets of the province include the aforementioned investments and all moneys, lands or other securities held by the province. The balance sheet for the year ended April 30, 1918, shows total assets of $53,444,165.99, and total liabilities of $29,645,836.62 or a balance of assets over liabilities of $23,798,329.42. This does not take into account the value of school lands held in trust for the province by the Dominion Government of which a conservative estimate would be $40,000,000. A state- ment of revenue and expenditure for the same year shows a total revenue of $8,278,465.34 and a total expenditure of $6,884,534.87. The condition of the country's finances, therefore, appears quite solid and it compares very favourably with that of any other province of the Dominion. Government Agencies It has been mentioned that the Federal Government still exercises control over the natural resources of the province. All vacant Crown lands, including homestead lands, are administered by the Department of the Interior. Timber, grazing, and mineral lands are also administered by this Department- The fisheries are under the control of the Fisheries Branch of the Department of Naval Service while the welfare of the forest lands generally is looked after by the Forestry Branch of the Department of the Interior. To facilitate the transaction of official business the province has been divided into Dominion Land Districts which are in charge of local agents. Business in connection with homesteads, grazing leases, timber permits or licenses, and the recording of mineral claims may be dealt with directly at the office of the agent in whose district the lands affected are Situated. The office of the District Inspector for the Forestry Branch is located at Prince Albert. The chief inspector of fisheries for the province of Saskatchewan has his office at Indian Head while his two district inspectors for Northern and Southern Saskatchewan respectively are located at Prince Albert and Indian Head. The Dominion Land Districts are shown in the following table: — Government Agencies Dominion Land Districts 31 District Office at Moosejaw Land District. . . . Swift Current Land District Saskatoon Land District . . . . Prince Albert Land District . Battleford Land District . . . . *Edmonton Land District . . , Moosejaw Swift Current Saskatoon Prince Albert Battleford Edmonton *0n account of the natural facilities for travelling to and from the north-westerly part of the province making Edmonton a more accessible point than any town or city in Saskatchewan a certain area in this section has been thrown into the Edmonton Land District. Matters of registration are administered by the Provincial Government. When a homesteader completes his duties and receives his patent from Ottawa, he receives from the Crown their right and title to the land affected and it then automatically goes under the control of Provincial legislation. The province has been divided into the following Land Titles or Registration Districts: — Land Registration Districts District Moosomin Assiniboia Cannington Moosejaw Yorkton Saskatoon West Saskatchewan East Saskatchewan . Humboldt Swift Current Office at Moosomin Regina Areola Moosejaw Yorkton Saskatoon Battleford Prince Albert Humboldt Swift Current Judicature The Supreme Court of Saskatchewan consists of a Chief Justice and six judges. This court has all the powers of the Supreme Court of the former Northwest Territories, which itself combined the functions of all the courts of England. The province is divided into seventeen districts, each having a district court, judge, registrar, deputy registrar, sheriff and deputy sheriff. The jurisdiction in civil matters is similar to that of county judges in the older provinces. In addition, the district judges exercise certain criminal jurisdiction under the Criminal Code. The rules of procedure in the district courts are, generally speaking, similar to those of the Supreme Court. There is also the Surrogate Court, governing all matters connected with the probate of wills. An appeal lies from the Surrogate judge to the Supreme Court of the province. Under the local statutes, all police magistrates in incorporated towns and cities are appointed by the Governor-in-Council. Each of these has the jurisdiction of two justices of the peace. 32 The Province of Saskatchewan, Canada. The Federal Parliament in 1875 established the Supreme Court of Canada and later the Exchequer Court of Canada. The Supreme Court of Canada has ap- pellate jurisdiction from all the courts of the provinces. The Governor-General in Council may refer questions to this court. The judgment of the Supreme Court is final in criminal matters. This court has also jurisdiction in cases of contro- versies between the provinces and the Dominion, and in certain cases between the provinces themselves. There is an appeal from the Supreme Court in civil cases, under certain limitations, to the Pri\y Council in England. The Privy Council also entertains appeals direct from the provincial Appeal Courts without the intervention of the Supreme Court of Canada. The decisions of the Supreme Court of England form a mass of most valuable and important declarations of law as to the constitution of Canada and as to the varied powers of the Federal and provincial legislatures. The following table contains a list of the seventeen judicial districts of the province. Judicial Districts Prince Albert, Swift Current, Moosomin, Humboldt, Saskatoon, Kerrobert, Yorkton, Kindersley, Cannington, Wynyard, Battleford, Estevan, Moosejaw, Scott, Regina, Melville. Weyburn, Naturalization Any alien desiring naturalization may apply to the Secretary of State of Canada for a certificate provided that he can comply with certain conditions; namely, he must have a residence of five years in Canada or a British possession; of which at least one must have been actually spent in Canada — all this within the last eight years before his application. Any person receiving this certificate shall be entitled to all the political and other rights, powers and privileges of a British subject, and be subject to all obligations, duties and liabilities of the same. The Secretary of State may include in the certificate the names of all the children of the applicant who are minors. The applicant who is a resident of Saskatchewan should apply to the Supreme Court or the district court of the district in which he is situated. The clerk shall post up his application for a specified time and then report the application to the Secretary of State, who issues the certificate if satisfied as to the circumstances. Franchise In Saskatchewan there is now universal suffrage. Every male and female who is of the age of twenty-one years and a British subject is entitled to vote, provided he or she has resided for twelve months in the province and three months in the electoral district, prior to the date of the closing of the registration of votes. The vote in municipal elections is restricted in certain instances to the actual holders of property within .such municipality. Saskatchewan has opened the doors of her legislature to women, though as yet, none have offered themselves as candidates for such legislative honours. TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATIONS Canada has been styled " a land of waterways " and in the days of early explorations when the canoe was the chief medium of travel, Saskatchewan, with her far-flung river system was able to live up to this description. As the expansion of trade and the development of the country's resources have gradually forced the canoe to give way to boats of commerce, and the winding portages have been replaced by canals and locks, this province has been forced to drop out of the race. True her waterways are of considerable magnitude and may yet be utilized to a greater extent than at present but without vast expenditures on various works necessary for the operation of large craft commer- cial navigation is impossible. The expenses involved in such undertakings and the long distances that would have to be traversed before reaching the main bodies of water on which Canada's mercantile fleets ply are drawbacks which will likely prove permanent obstructions to such projects. Aside from Alberta, Saskatchewan is the only province of Canada which does not border to a greater or lesser extent on salt water. The St. Lawrence river and the Great Lakes system give to Quebec and Ontario an additional wonderful advantage in water routes. The Maritime Provinces have the Gulf of St. Lawrence and the Atlantic ocean partly surrounding them. Manitoba has outlets on Hudson Bay while British Columbia borders on the great Pacific. The two mcst westerly prairie provinces are the only " inland " provinces of Canada and of these Alberta boasts of an extended steamboat route on the Peace, Athabaska and Slave rivers. Saskatchewan's main avenues of transportation therefore must be of the " overland " variety. Roads and Trails The densely wooded nature of those parts of Canada first explored by the white man no doubt accounted for his travelling by water. The native Indian cut out no trails through the bush that he could possibly do without and built no roads whatever. Hence we find all our earliest settlements clustered along the water's edge within reach of the supplies and protection that the boats guaranteed. One outstanding feature of the hardships suffered by the pioneers who penetrated into the depths of the Canadian forests was the difficulty of traviel. The " corduroy " roads of the bush country will never be forgotten. They form a part of the history of the settlement of all such districts and traces of them may be found to-day in many places throughout the oldest parts of Canada, The same methods are still being employed as the outer reaches of forest lands are being brought under cultivation. The prairies of Saskatchewan swept away in one stroke all such hardships from the eyes of the astounded pioneer, as the rising sun dispels the mist of early morning. No longer must he grope his way through the depths of the mysterious forests in hourly dread of ambush by hostile Indians or sudden attacks by hidden wild beasts. No more must his snail-like pace be halted 61244—3 33 34 The Province of Saskatchewan, Canada. by barriers of impas?able tree trunks or checked by oozing swamps that demanded days of laborious toil in constructing roads over which to pass his little procession of wordly goods. There lay the way before him, open and clear. Did he wish to pursue his onward course the ground beneath was firm and smooth for his cart wheels, nature laid her offerings of fodder at his horses' feet all along the way, and like the sailor, he had but to set his compass and glide away. Did he wish to pitch his tent and make his home here he had but to put his plough to the ground and break the mellow furrow. Little wonder that the wheat field of Saskatchewan has spread like a prairie fire till it now exceeds all such areas in any part of the world. In 1754 Anthony Hendry was despatched from York Factory on Hudson Bay by the Hudson's Bay Company to make explorations into the western interior, the land of the Assinibois. Travelling by canoe up the Hayes and Saskatchewan rivers he reached the broad prairies of this province and spent a winter with the Indians. Returning the following year with an account of his travels he reported having seen Indians travelling and hunting on hoise- back and was laughed to scorn. The idea of Indians on horseback ! Impossible, these pompous traders thought. His reports of the prairies were probably discredited to a like degree. This represents the general belief or disbelief of the old world in 1755 regarding the middle west. With what marvellous rapidity it has come to its own is one of the most interesting chapters of Canadian history. The wandering herds of countless thousands of majestic buffalo have left a net-work of trails deeply indented in the prairies. These trails have been followed by the Indian hunter on his fleet pony, by his squaw with the primitive travoise and by Indian and early white settler with the historic Red River cart till they became established routes of travel. The rectangular system of survey and the fencing in and ploughing up of the land by the ever- spreading tide of settlers have gradually obliterated these early trails but happily for the romance of the early days a few were permitted to remain and have been surveyed and established as permanent highways. Such historic ways as the " Fort Qu'Appelle and Duck Lake Trail " or the " Battleford and Fort Edmonton trail " could not be permitted to pass into oblivion without a distinct loss to the province. Traces of countless camp fires all along these routes stand as fading monuments to the passing of the red man and the coming of the white, to the eternal vigilance of the " riders of the plains " and the intrepid courage of the expeditionary force that quelled the rebellion of 1885, to the devotedness of the pioneer missionary and to the zeal of later arrivals, whose numbers overflowed the accommodation available along these routes and forced them, like their forerunners to camp beneath the stars. The construction and maintenance of highways is in charge of a special department of the Provincial Government. Roads, bridges and ferries are provided to meet the requirements of the various outlying districts as rapidly as they are settled, while improvements are constantly being carried on in the older settled parts of the province. As an evidence of the extent and satis- factory condition of the system of highways extending throughout the province one has only to observe the great number of automobiles seen on the roads everywhere or parked in any town or village on a market day. Over forty Railways 35 thousand licenses were issued in the province during 1918, principally to rural owners. Incredible as it may seem in this number are included many names of homesteaders. How the sturdy pioneers of Eastern Canada and the New England States would have marvelled could they but have caught a glimpse of such conditions as these. Homesteading by motor car is an innovation not uncommon in Saskatchewan but rarely permitted elsewhere in the world. The advantages of " good roads " are now realized in earnest and every- where in Canada strenuous efforts are being made to improve rural conditions. Saskatchewan is fully alive to the importance of such works and is keeping pace with the other provinces. She has the natural advantage of an open and level country, free from rocks and easy to grade and drain. Gravel and sand are widely distributed and much glacial drift is found which is admirably suited for road material. The success of the farm is enhanced by the ease of reaching the markets and the pleasures are multiplied by the splendid roads extending in every direction giving outlets for pleasure drives by motor car or horses wherever desired. The county roads of the province are not being neglected. Canadian Government Elevator, Saskatoon. Railways In railway service the province has been singularly fortunate. As the prairies made easy the acquiring of roads and trails so the position of the pro- vince with respect to the rest of Canada has solved her railway problems to a major extent. When British Columbia joined the Dominion in 1871 it was stipulated that a railway to connect her with the older provinces should be immediately constructed. Hence the Canadian Pacific Railway was built and as the prairies of Saskatchewan lay directly in its path they found themselves shortly after the rebellion of 1885 penetrated by a Une of steel which served to further encourage the large number of settlers attracted to these districts by the publicity given them by this uprising. This line was well in advance of settlement, the population of the Northwest Territories at the time of the Saskatchewan rebellion being very meagre. It kept well to the south, though the original location aimed to follow the great fertile Saskatchewan valley farther north. 61244— 3 i 36 The Province of Saskatchewan, Canada. This was accomplished by a second transcontinental railway some twenty years later, namely the Canadian Northern Railway, now a part of the Canadian National Railways. When the province was inaugurated in 1905 it found itself in possession of two lines of railway traversing its most valuable farming sections from east to west and already throwing out branch lines and feeders. Incidentally it also found itself encumbered by extensive grants of land to both companies. Still another great transcontinental railway was to stretch its long lines of steel across the province, paralleling the former lines but lying far enough between them to afford service to an area beyond the economic reach of either, namely, the Grand Trunk Pacific Railway. Thus 'yirig ^^ the path of these three great transcontinental systems the province has been supplied with a framework of railways from which feeders may easily reach every part. Expan- sion has been very rapid until the last few years, when, owing to the great war, all railway construction in Canada had to be curtailed. The east and west lines have been more than duplicated while a decided growth in a general north and south direction has been prosecuted, with Regina, Saskatoon and Prince Albert as the main points en route. The Canadian Pacific Railway early secured a southern outlet to Minneapolis and St. Paul while the Canadian Northern pushed branches northward to connect with the Hudson Bay project at The Pas and north of the Saskatchewan River to Big River and the Turtleford District. At the inception of the province in 1905 the Canadian Pacific had 1,090 miles within its borders and the Canadian Northern had 462, a total of 1,552 miles. The Grand Trunk Pacific was then not started. In 1917, twelve years later, the Canadian Pacific had 2,779 miles of road, the Canadian Northern 2,206 and the Grand Trunk Pacific 1,164, a total of 6,149 miles, or an increase of about 400 per cent. This is indeed a remarkable showing and now that conditions may be expected to become normal it is certain that further extensions will be prose- cuted. As the older sections of the province become more densely settled and the acreages under crop are increased additional branch lines and feeders will become necessary to adequately meet increased requirements. The opening up of coal and clay areas will also make additional railway service necessary. The Canadian Northern, having recently been taken over by the Dominion Government may be expected to be extended in harmony with the Grand Trunk Pacific and Hudson Bay sections. It is impossible to suggest what additions will be made as no announcements have yet been made public by either the Government or the Canadian Pacific Railway Company as to their intentions in this respect, but among other improvements a more direct connection between such great wheat centres as Saskatoon and Regina and the Hudson Bay route could be carried out to advantage. A line northeasterly from Prince Albert to tap the great forest and agricultural areas about Candle and Cumberland lakes, the water-powers of the Sturgeon-weir river, the gold and copper fields of Amisk Lake and Northern Manitoba and connecting easterly with the Hudson Bay section would no doubt open up vast resources. The Big River branch might well be extended northerly to Beaver riv^er and even to He a la Crosse to tap the great fisheries resources of these inland waters. The Turtleford Branch Pr-K pared in the H R I Br. 38 The Province of Saskatchewan, Canada. from Battleford might be swung westerly to traverse the great agricultural dis- trict lying between the Beaver and Saskatchewan rivers, and if extended as far as Edmonton would serve a district in Alberta already settled but in dire need of a railway to save it from disaster. The interests of the province in these connections is looked after by a Department of Railways which has given encouragement and substantial assis- tance in the guarantee of bonds and otherwise to various branch lines built within her limits. In addition to the three main railway companies mentioned there are subsidiary companies of two of them by which their branch lines are operated, namely, the Canadian Northern Saskatchewan Railway Company, the Grand Trunk Pacific Branch Lines Company and the Grand Trunk Pacific Saskatchewan Railway Company. The following table gives a summary of the track and station situation existing in the province in 1917. *Saskatchewan Railway Situation, 1917. Railway Miles Track Depots Loading Plat- forms Ele- vators Ware- houses Freight Sheds Stock Yards Canadian Pacific railway. . . . Canadian Northern railway . Grand Trunk Pacific railway 2,779 2,206 1,164 348 182 137 357 301 189 1,008 688 296 19 89 276- • 61 13 217 175 74 Total 6,149 667 1 847 1,992 108 350 466 ♦Department of Railways, Saskatchewan. The express business of the province is fully provided for by three great Canadian companies whose operations cover all lines of steel. They are the Canadian, Canadian Northern and Dominion Express Companies respectively. Electric Street Railways Three cities of Saskatchewan have already been provided with electric street railways, namely, Regina, Saskatoon and Moosejaw. Regina had the honour to commence operations, putting a municipally owned system into harness in July of 1911. Moosejaw followed rapidly with a privately owned company starting to run cars in September of the same year. Saskatoon, like Regina, decided on a municipal system, which commenced operating in January of 1913. The equipment and service of these railways is of a high standard and has been of inestimable value to the cities served in stimulating their growth. They have all been successfully operated during the dull years of the war and may be expected to expand to meet the renewed growth of these urban centres which will doubtless rapidly follow the signing of peace. Further particulars are shown on the following table. Waterways 39 *Saskatchewan Street Railways, 1917 Particulars of System Regina Municipal Railway Saskatoon Municipal Railway Moosejaw Electric Railway Company Commencement of operations Miles of line Average number of employees Passengers carried Passenger cars Freight cars Work cars Snow-ploughs Sweepers July 29, 1911 34-27 114 5,112,460 34 29 1 1 2 Jan. 1, 1913 16-23 85 3,910,101 18 Sept. 4, 1911 12 (approx.) 63 2,294,698 21 ♦Department of Railways, Saskatchewan. Waterways The waterways of Saskatchewan, though mentioned as being of little commercial importance in comparison with those of most of the other provinces, are nevertheless worthy of attention. The historic interest attached to them is most interesting. The earliest explorers to reach the prairies came by canoe. La Verendrye with his three sons and a nephew blazed the way dux-ing the years 1731 to 1748 and traversed the Qu'Appelle, Souris and Saskatchewan rivers. De Niveryille ascended the Saskatchewan in 1751 as far as the Rocky Mountains. Anthony Hendry also crossed the province by way of the Saskatchewan in 1754. The rapidly expanding fur trade soon created scenes of activity along the many water routes now embraced within the limits of the province and made famous by two centuries of use. The Assiniboine, Qu'Appelle and Souris with Manitoba's famous Red river were for long years the highv/ays of commerce and discovery for the bold adventurers of New France who came by way of Lake Superior, or the haughty traders of the Hudson's Bay Company striking in from York Factory, both anxious to outdo the other in securing the pelts of the prairies or gaining a foothold in the valley of the Missouri. The mighty Saskatchewan, most famous of all, and which gives its name to this province, is the outstanding river of the prairies of Canada. Two main branches, the north and the south, whose tenacles of origin constitute the entire drainage of three hundred miles of the eastern slope of the Rocky mountains, unite below Prince Albert and pour into Lake Winnipeg the surplus waters from the vast valleys whose fertility has been instrumental in making the province all that it is today. For long years the Canadian Pacific was the only railway of Western Canada and as it crossed the southern parts of the prairies the great Saskatchewan became the highway of commerce for the north. Flat-bottomed, stern-wheeled river boats plied regularly the waters of the main branch from Grand rapids at Lake Winnipeg to Prince Albert, Battleford, Fort Pitt (now in ruins) and even up to Edmonton in the adjoining province of Alberta. The south branch was also navigated past the present city of Saskatoon, around the "big bend" and up to the forks of the Red river at the western boundary of the province, and some- 40 The Province of Saskatchewan, Canada. times beyond as far as Medicine Hat. Like the historic boats of the Mississippi the boats of the Saskatchewan have almost disappeared as the more speedy overland routes have encroached on their territory. The Battle, Carrot and Torch rivers are tributaries found within this province now chiefly used in rafting logs to the mills. Another famous waterway is the Churchill, whose headquarters are found in this province. Colossal fortunes are represented in the furs that were transported by this route. The Athabaska brigades, paddling up the Clearwater and packing their burdens across the "long portage" found themselves ready to follow this famous route, commencing just within the present bounds of the province of Saskatchewan. This is decidedly a picturesque way. Unlike the Saskatchewan, which retains its symmetry almost all along its route, the Churchill is more in the nature of a series of crystal lakes, nestled among hills of granite, dotted with myriads of beautiful islands and connected by short stretches of river proper. These usually contain rapids and falls which compel the voyageur to portage his canoe and forbid the passage at any hazard of power boats. In place of the meadows and fertile valleys of the Saskatchewan are found low swamps of spruce and tamarack, or rugged hills of upheaved rocks, partly bare and partly wooded with groves of jackpine or clusters of gay birch. Before reaching the eastern limit of the province an alternative route is found, which the early traders usually made use of. Leaving the Churchill at Frog portage the way lay nearly south, following a chain of lakes leading to the Sturgeon-weir river, thence by way of Amisk, Namew and Cumberland lakes to join the Saskatchewan. This diversion brought the French traders to their posts at The Pas and allowed the English to reach tide water at York Factory by way of Hayes river, their principal route. The main tributary of the Churchill above Frog portage is the Beaver river, a swift flowing stream heading near Lac la Biche and flowing through a valley rich in timber and grazing lands. A short distance below the portage Reindeer river enters the Churchill, flowing southerly from the great lake whose name it bears. The far northern waters of the province off'er the adventurer an interesting route leading from Reindeer lake on the east to Athabaska lake on the west by way of Wollaston, Hatchet and Black lakes, Black river and Fond du Lac. The Cree river enters Black lake from the south while to the north a canoe route, broken by numerous portages, leads to the haunt of the Eskimo in the great silent "barren lands." If not of great commercial importance these northern water routes nevertheless off'er unparalleled attractions to the lover of the great lone land who seeks an opportunity to enjoy an outing far from the nerve-racking worries of his every-day duties. For a new province Saskatchewan is singularly fortunate in its many mediums of communications. Its six thousand miles of railways, its far-flung waterways and complete system of rural roads give opportunities for travel and intercourse far beyond those of most new districts. The Dominion govern- ment maintains the mail service which is kept up to a high standard. In terri- torial days a telegraph service had also been provided by the same source, which has been continued and considerably extended. Telegraph lines also follow the rails in usual fashion. The provincial government has established a most Telephones 41 thorough telephone system which is growing by leaps and bounds and promises soon to be available for every rural home except the most outlying. Even the most remote stragglers are kept in touch with, through the patrols of the police, forest fire rangers, or other officials. The regular physical features of the lower part of the province, its uniform surface of level, fertile land, and the evenly distributed settlement spreading over all prevents the isolation of any section in the great agricultural areas. Its seven cities are widely separated and these augmented by some seventy-five towns and over three hundred villages scattered over the province give an urban centre with all its advantages within easy reach of every rural quarter. Telephones The telephone situation in Saskatchewan is quite unique. It is under the control of a special department of the local government whose powers were delegated it by "The Railway and Telephone Department Act of Saskatchewan." A novel form of compromise is practised by which the government owns and controls the long distance lines and controls and supervises all other lines. It is a combination of government and private ownership all under the guidance of the telephone department, the urban and long distance systems belonging to the government owned class, and the rural systems to the privately owned class, with a very few exceptions. The legislation in this respect was introduced in 1908 and has been improved upon from time to time till now it is generally con- ceded that the province has the most satisfactory and complete grasp o'f the telephone situation exercised in Canada. In the early years of operation the following systems had been purchased and taken over by the government: Telephones — Purchases by Government System Bought Date Price Subscribers Bell System Saskatchewan Telephone Company. . Wapella-Harris System . North Western Telephone Company. Saltcoats Telephone Company Swift Current Plant Yorkton, N. W. Electric System . . . 1905 1909 1909 1911 1911 1911 1912 Total. 367,500 150,000 1,200 70,000 3,000 22,500 3,600 617,800 2,100 1,011 34 925 53 293 188 4,604 The Balcarres Municipal System, the Lumsden Radial System, and the Montmarte and Simpson private systems have since been acquired. Starting with this purchased nucleus the government adopted a vigorous policy of extension and enlargement which has been carried out from year to year resulting in a network of lines and offices which embraces the whole of the settled parts of the province, giving service to all the principal urban centres and supplying connections to hundreds of rural systems. The steady increase of Telephones 43 the population, both over additional area and in density on old areas, creates a steady demand for new lines and enlargements and improvements of existing ones, which during the period of war, taxed the construction branch of the Department to its utmost. It is hoped now that conditions are becoming more normal that th.e work can be kept well in hand. Some idea of the progress of extension of the system will be obtained by reference to the following tables: *Growth of Saskatchewan's Telephone System Year Pole Miles Long Distance Wire Miles Long Distance Exchanges Toll Offices 1910 1,132 1,647 2,163-22 3,172-17 3,388-17 3,622-77 3,622-12 4,274-99 4,383-64 3,280 4,404 8,171 11,857-8 13,714 15,760 16,114-3 18,833-40 20,152-30 20 33 70 93 96 99 103 150 222 100 1911 143 1912 195 1913.. 280 1914 298 1915 311 1916 317 1917 320 1918 353 ♦Department of Telephones, Saskatchewan. "Table Showing Purchases and Constructions by Province, April 30, 1918 Part of System Purchased Constructed Total Pole Miles 492-20 1,562-00 26 54 3,891-44 18,590-30 196 299 4,383-64 Wire miles 20,152-30 Exchanges 222 Toll offices 353 ♦Department of Telephones, Saskatchewan, 1919. The only points reached outside the province when the government took up the project were Manitoba and North Dakota. The system has now been extended to reach Western Ontario, Manitoba, Alberta, Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, Minnesota, Wisconsin and Illinois. The telephone map on another page shows the extent of the government system. The outstanding feature of Saskatchewan's way of dealing with the telephone question and wherein it differs from a straight government owned venture, is the manner in which the rural telephones are handled. In a purely agricultural country, forging ahead with astounding strides, the providing of the country homes with telephone service becomes of vital importance. Saskatchewan has introduced a method which is meeting with marked success by which the government provides and owns a network of long distance lines and exchanges and permits the connection thereto of various local rural systems, organized, constructed and operated under government supervision. 44 The Province of Saskatchewan, Canada. Rural telephone companies may be organized by the farmers of the district to be served for their own benefit and are not allowed to furnish service to resi- dents of towns or villages. These companies are governed by the provisions of "The Rural Telephone Act" and are subject to the regulations of the Depart- ment of Telephones. The organization of a company must be in accordance with these provisions and regulations. Advice and assistance in these prelim- inary steps are provided by officials of the government and when tl^e organization meets with their approval a certificate of incorporation is issued. An issue of debentures may then be proceeded with. The debentures are limited to 15 years and the interest thereon is not to exceed 8 per cent. The provisional officers of a company are to consist of five hona fide farnicrs of the district, one of whom acts as chairman, and a secretary-treasurer. Any interested person may subscribe for shares but only hona fide farmers are eligible to be directors. All lands adjacent to the lines constructed and subject to municipal taxation are made assessable for a telephone levy, and all residents on such lands are to be given an opportunity to become shareholders, or to receive service at any later date on application in writing. An initial amount of $5 per mile of line proposed must be collected to defray organization expenses. The capitalization of a company is not to exceed $10 per mile for each mile it is proposed to build. Shares are fixed at $5 each and no subscriber may subscribe for more than four shares. The department requires that all rural lines be built to a standard in accordance with their specifications, and until they have been passed by an inspector of the department and accepted as satisfactory, connection with the government exchanges on long distance will not be granted. A metallic circuit is required and not more than ten instruments are allowed on one circuit. It has been found that those companies whose systems do not exceed four or five circuits obtain the most satisfactory results in maintenance, operation and service. A company is allowed connection with one town or market place only and is required to provide for the future development of the district it purports to serve. The advantages of this rural system are legion. Communities bound together by peculiar ties of interest or location are permitted to obtain local systems under their own management. The supervision and assistance of the government guarantees a uniform service, highest efficiency and minimum cost. Classes of instruction on the maintenance of these lines are held every winter by the Department free of charge, for the benefit of residents of each district having a rural system, and have been largely attended by farmers or their sons. Thus each district has a trouble-man in its midst and is enabled to effect repairs at a minimum of cost. This co-operative system between the various rural companies on one hand and the government on the other has proved most satisfactory and is rapidly spreading to all farming sections of the province. Up to April 30 of 1918 some 958 rural companies were operating such telephone systems and applications for the organization of over twenty additional com- panies were pending. At this date the number of subscribers had reached 35,555. Telegraphs 45 The following table compiled from the Report of the Telephone Department of April 30, 1918, shows the growth of the system to that date: Telephones of Saskatchewan, April 30, 1918 I. Government Systems Exchanges 222 Toll offices 353 Stations 24 , 690 Long distance lines, pole miles 4 , 383 ■ 64 Long distance lines, wire miles 20, 152-30 IL Rural Systems Number of Companies 958 Capital or Debenture issued $7 , 989 , 400 Stations 35 , 555 Rural lines, pole miles 34 , 5 1 () Rural lines, wire miles Ill, 193 in. Other Systems Independent Rural Systems 3 Independent Town Systems 28 Municipal Systems 4 Lines, pole miles 115 Stations 1 ,415 Stations Total number of stations giving service in the Province. . . . 61,660 Telegraphs The telegraph facilities of the province are in keeping with the general advancement of its utilities. Generally speaking it may be said that the railway situation represents that of the telegraph, the steel being followed by the wires everywhere. The Canadian Pacific Railway Company own and operate their own telegraphs and every railway station is also a telegraph office. In case of flag stations or small stations where an operator is not employed connection by telephone is invariably available to the nearest operating point. In spite of the high cost of material during the years of war this company strung an extra wire of copper from Montreal to Vancouver, crossing this province en- route. The Great Northwestern Telegraph Company has served the Canadian Northern lines in a similar manner. The railway and operating wires have recently been taken over by the Dominion government. The Grand Trunk Pacific Telegraph Company operate wires along the lines of the Grand Trunk Pacific Railway. All these three companies maintain down town offices in the cities in addition to those in the railway depots. There are also a number of telegraph lines totalling over one' thousand miles which have been built and operated by the Department of Public Works of the Dominion government for the benefit of remote sections. The con- struction of the oldest of these dates back to 1883 when a line was extended from Qu'Appelle to Onion Lake and thence carried west to Edmonton. This 46 The Province of Saskatchewan, Canada. line has a military record to add interest to its history, the wires having been cut by the rebel Indians during the uprising of 1885. The Battleford-Ile a la Crosse line constructed in 1912 has the distinction of tapping the far northerly wilds of the Churchill and keeping the fur-trader in touch with civilization. The following table contains statistics of interest in this connection: Canadian Government Telegraphs Lines built and operated in Saskatchewan by the Department of Public Works, Ottawa Lines Constructed Qu'Appelle — Onion Lake. Moosejaw — Wood Mountain Wood Mountain — Willow Bunch Gravelbourg Loup Leeville Loop Saskatoon Loop Duck Lake — Batoche Duck Lake — Indian Agency Lloydminster Loop Lipton Loop Fort Qu'Appelle — File Hills Agency. Kamsack — Indian Agency Kamsack — Indian Agency — Pelly. . . Battleford — He a la Crosse Meota Loop Sintaluta — Assiniboia Reserve Total. Year Miles Wire Offices 1883 402 9 1885 107 4 1904 39 2 1910 38 1 1912 28 1 1892 28 1 1902-10 9 2 1902 3-5 3 1904-09 58 1 1906 2 1 1907 28 4 1907 6-5 2 1910 17-5 4 1912 275 ■ 6 1912 20 1 1913 8 1 1,069-5 43 Telegraphs of Sask.\tchewan Companies Canadian Government Canadian Pacific Railway Co Great Northwestern Telegraph Co. Grand Trunk Pacific Telegraph Co Canadian National Railways Total 14,306-5 Miles Wire Offices 1,069-5 43 1,681-0 270 4,347-0 188 4,208-0 64 3,001-0 Service in connection with railway operations. 565 Mail and Aerial Navigation The postal service is administered by the federal government and is main- tained in a high state of efficiency. Its expansion follows closely upon the opening up of all new districts. The number of post offices in Saskatchewan according to the Postal Guide of 1918 was 1,530. The cities of Regina, Saskatoon Education and Religion 47 and Moosejaw have postal deliveries and collections. Some 70 rural routes have been established and mail is now being delivered to 2,100 rural boxes along these courses. During the period of the war the expansion of the rural delivery system was not pressed, but with the return of normal conditions this service will be rapidly extended. A free daily mail service at the farmer's gateway is an advantage of primary importance. The only cost to the recipient is the price of the mail box. Now that the war is over and steps are being, taken to direct to commercial channels of activity the army of highly trained air pilots with their modern planes of speed it is reasonable to expect that Saskatchewan will witness some of the earliest undertakings in this connection. The level expansive prairies and clear skies of the southern part and the chain of lakes with equally clear skies extending over the northern sections should make ideal conditions for the operation of both air and sea planes. The Dominion government is already giving some attention to the matter and the advantages of a private service by air has already been recognized by the officials of one of the great fur trading companies of the north who are looking into the matter seriously. EDUCATION AND RELIGION Under the provisions of the British North America Act the Legislature of each province in Canada exercises exclusive control of educational matters within its own boundary. The Saskatchewan government has a department of education of which the premier himself is at present the active head assisted by a superintendent, a deputy minister, an educational council, and a large staff of prominent educationalists. The educational system of the province is most thorough and comprehensive It is headed by a provincial University, and from this distinguished seat of learning to the most humble rural public school, provisions for the dissemination of knowledge are most complete. The Act establishing the University of Saskatchewan was passed on the third of April, 1907. It provided for a Convocation consisting of all graduates of any University in His Majesty's Dominions who were actually residing in the Province for three months prior to the first meeting and who applied for registration. Four hundred and thirteen names were placed upon the register. At the first meeting of Convocation, held on the sixteenth of October, 1907, the Honourable Edward Ludlow Wetmore, Chief Justice of the Province, was unanimously chosen Chancellor, and twelve members of the Senate were elected. The Senate held its first meeting on the eighth of January, 1908, when appoint- ments to the Board of Governors were made, and the policy of the University was discussed. The Board of Governors appointed a President in the following August, and immediately approached the difficult problems of selecting a site and determining the relation of the University to the proposed College of Agri- culture. After a careful inquiry, it was unanimously decided by the Senate and the Governors to make provision within the University for instruction in Agri- 48 The Province of Saskatchewan, Canada. culture. This decision was cordially approved by the Lieutenant-Governor in Council and the Legislature. When this question had been settled, the Governors selected a site for the University at Saskatoon. Temporary quarters were secured and classes in Arts and Science were opened September 28, 1909, seventy students registering. In the same year the College of Agriculture was organized. The following year the educational work of the Provincial Department of Agriculture was transferred to the Uni- versity. The corner stone of the first building was laid by Sir Wilfred Laurier on July 29, 1910, and the buildings were opened for the admission of students in October, 1912. The College of Agriculture was opened for students October, 1912; the School of Engineering October, 1912; the College of Law, September, 1913; and the School of Pharmacy January, 1914. The University of Oxford has admitted the University of Saskatchewan to the privileges granted to Colonial Universities by the Statute of Affiliation. The University granted affiliation to the following provincial institutions; Emmanuel College, St. Chad's College, the Presbyterian College, the Normal Schools, the Collegiate Institutes and High Schools, the Institute of Chartered Accountants, the Pharmaceutical Association, the Association of Architects, the Dental Council, the Association of Registered Nurses, and the Veterinary Association. Emmanuel College was established at Prince Albert by the first Bishop of the Diocese of Saskatchewan, the Right Rev. John MacLean, in 1879, as a training college for native helpers. When the University was placed at Sas- katoon in 1909 the College was moved to a site near the University. New buildings were erected on the University grounds in 1912. The Presbyterian Synod by Act of a general Assembly in 1912 established a Theological College in affiliation with the University and began its erection in 1913. There are two Provincial Normal Schools, the first of which was establishe"d at Regina in 1893, and the second at Saskatoon in 1912. The Collegiate Insti- tutes and High Schools were instituted under the Secondary Education Act of 1907. While a larger staff and better equipment is required for the Collegiates the course of study and the provincial examinations are the same for both. In 1918 there were six Collegiate Institutes and fifteen High Schools. The revenue of the University is derived from one-third of the Succession Duties, ten per cent of the Supplementary Revenue Fund, one quarter of the Corporation Tax, the Legislative Grant, one-third of the Dominion grant in aid of Agriculture, fees, gifts, and the sale of the produce of the farm. The University is an integral part of the Provincial System of Education. The Collegiate Institutes and High Schools prepare students for the Junior and Senior Matriculation as well as for Teachers' Certificates. The Matriculation and Teachers' Examinations held by the Department of Education in July are ac- cepted by the University as equivalent to its examinations held in September. The University embraces: 1. The College of Arts and Science, including Schools of Pharmacy and Accounting, offering, (a) Courses in Arts and Science leading to the B.A. and B.Sc. Degrees. (b) Partial Courses intended for those who cannot take a full course. Education and Religion 49 (c) Courses in Pharmacy, one leading to the B.S.P. Degree, and one to the License in Pharmacy. (d) Course in Accounting leading to the Degree of B. Ace. 2. The College of Agriculture, offering, — (a) The course leading to B.S.A. Degree. (b) The Associate Course in Agriculture. (c) The Extension Work. (d) The Demonstration Work on the College Fann. (e) Short Courses for Farmers. 3. The College of Law, offering,^ — (a) The Course leading the L. L. B. Degree. 4. The College of Engineering, offering, — (a) The Course in Civil Engineering leading to the B.E. Degree. 5. The Summer School, offering, — (a) Courses for Teachers. (b) Courses leading to a Degree. The University Buildings command a very prominent site overlooking the valley of the South Saskatchewan, and the city of Saskatoon. They are built of stone which was obtained in the vicinity and which is believed to be drift from the Silurian limestone formations of Cumberland Lake district. The foundations of a library and museum have been laid with a valuable collec- tion of some 16,000 scientific and historical volumes and museum specimens. A varied list of scholarships, prizes, and medals are available in the various departments. These include among others one Rhodes Scholarship, and the Governor-General's gold medal annually. The University Act gives the University full power and authority to grant such degrees in the several faculties and different branches of knowledge as the Senate may from time to time determine. The Act reserves for the University the sole right to confer degrees in this province, except in Theology. A statute provides for the admission ad eiindem grhdum of graduates of recognized universities holding one or more of the degrees mentioned above. At the inauguration of the province on September 1, 1905, the Educational Institution consisted of a Normal School at Regina and some 894 public school districts. The increase has been most phenomenal. The report of the Department of Education shows the total number of school districts in existence on December 31, 1916, to be 3,878, showing an increase of almost 3,000 in a period of eleven years or an average of 270 annually. This is a record that cannot be beaten by any other province of Canada or any state in the adjoining republic. The province started out with no Collegiate Institutes or High Schools. At the close of the year 1916 it boasted of 7 of the former and 14. of the latter with an enrolment of 3,849 pupils under the instruction of 138 teachers. The Saskatchewan Act passed by the Parliament of Canada in 1905 to create the province provides for the organization of separate school districts for Protestants or Roman Catholics. This provision in tjie Provincial Consti- tution contained a privilege that had been in force from the earliest territorial days. The fears that it might be taken advantage of to such an extent as 61244— 4 CQ Education and Religion 51 to unnecessarily multiply separate school districts to the disadvantage of public schools have proven groundless. At inauguration September 1, 1905, there werie 894 school districts and nine separate school districts. At the end of 1916, the public school districts had increased to 3,859 but the separate school districts only amounted to 19, of which 16 are Roman Catholic and 3 Protestant. The number of pupils enrolled in all elementary schools in 1916 was 125,000, with 5,677 teachers. The Superintendent of Education exercises the general supervision and direc- tion of high schools and collegiate institutes, model schools, public and separate schools, training schools for teachers, the granting of teachers' certificates, technical schools, departmental examinations, teachers' institutes, teachers' reading courses, school libraries and the inspectors of any such schools. The Educational Council, consisting of five members appointed by the Lieutenant- Governor, holds sessions at least once a year, and all general regulations respecting the inspection of schools, the examination, training, licensing and grading of teachers' courses of study, teachers' institutes, and text and reference books, before being adopted or amended, are referred to the Council for consideration and report. Elementary Schools are supported partly by taxes levied by the munici- palities concerned, and partly by grants paid to the Government in accordance with the School Grants Act. Funds for high schools are raised by the muni- cipalities concerned and are assisted by the government grants payable on the conditions prescribed by the Secondary Education Act. As a further source of revenue to both public and high schools, grants are paid from the supplement- ary revenue fund in accordance with the provisions of the Supplementary Revenue Act. The School Act provides for the establishment of schools wherever necessary, and any portion of the province with an area not exceeding twenty square miles may be organized into a school district, provided there are residing therein ten children of school age, and four persons, each of whom on its organization is liable to be assessed for school purposes. These schools are under the contiol of local bodies of trustees chosen on a popular vote. The appointment of teachers is in the hands of the trustees, but the Education Department issues the certificates of qualification. Provision was made in 1913 for the establishment of consolidated districts containing from thirty-six to fifty square miles for the purpose of conveying pupils to a central school. There are now some sixteen consolidated schools in operation. In addition to the usual school grant the Government pays an additional grant of one-third of the actual cost of conveyance. In case a small district is unable to raise sufficient taxes by reason of its limited area to operate a school, or has insufficient school population, the resident children may be conveyed to a neighbouring school at the expense of the district. In this case also the Government pays one-third of the cost of conveyance. Where an unorganized area is settled by families with children of school age, the Minister may order the establishment of such area into a school district. This action is necessary only in foreign-speaking settlements where the settlers are not sufficiently acquainted with the English language to conduct organization proceedings. 61244— 4i 52 The Province of Saskatchewan, Canada. The two normal schools located at Regina and Saskatoon are devoted to the provisional training of teachers. In addition, local sessions of the normal school for the training of teachers for elementary schools are held during the winter months at several points in the province and are conducted by the in- spectors of schools. Normal school training is considered of supreme importance, and permanent certificates are issued only to those who have received professional training in the training schools of the province or upon satisfactory evidence of equivalent training elsewhere. A reading course for teachers is regarded as part of the professional training, and permanent certificates are not issued until the regulations governing the course are complied with. The average annual salaries of teachers in Saskatchewan for the year 1915 are shown in the following statement: Saskatchewan, Salary ti Teachers, 1915 Schools Qualifications Male Female Rural First Class. . . Second Class. Third Class. . Provisional.... First Class. . . .Second Class. Third Class. . Provisional.... $ 832 813 785 779 1,298 1,015 849 825 $797 Cities towns and villages 779 749 742 873 800 737 764 The task of the Department of Education in providing school accommodation to keep pace with the rapid settlement of the province has been enormous. In 1901 the population was 91,279; in 1906, the year following the inauguration of the province, the population had increased to 257,763. During the next five years it almost doubled, being given as 492,432 in the census of 1911, while the Quinquennial Census of the prairie provinces in 1916 places the figure at 647,835. Had these new-comers all spoken the English tongue the matter of providing educational facilities for the children would still have been a momentous task. As great percentages of them were from European countries the difficulties of the educationalist were thereby multiplied. As will be seen by reference to the following table a conglomeration of mother tongues was spread throughout the settlements. Not only were many of the foreigners unable to speak our language but they were illiterate as far as their own was concerned. The govern- ment was alert to recognize that in order that these new citizens might assimilate to the best advantage the children must be educated in the uniform language of our Dominion. English has, therefore, been designated as the one and only language of the public schools, with slight modifications in exceptional instances respecting French. The showing of the schools of Saskatchewan today are a credit to those in charge of this work. The following table shows the origins of the people of the province by percentages according to the census of 1916. Education and Religion *Saskatchewan — Origins of People, 1916 53 Origin Percentage British (races) 54 -.S English 26 12 14 4 11 9 1 1 4 1 4 2 1 6 Irish . 7 Scotch 6 Welsh 6 Frenc i 9 German 9 4 Austro-Hungarian 1 Danish 5 Dutch 4 Icelandic 5 Indian Italian 1 6 2 Polish n o.s ■. Russian . ) Swedish 5 Ukranian 7 Others; 5 Total 100-00% ♦Census of Prairie Provinces, 1916 *Saskatchewan- -showing Percentage of Inhabitants of Foreign Origins Ten Years of Age or Over unable to speak English, 1916 German Austro-Hungarian Belgium Danish Dutch Icelandic Italian Jewish Norwegian Polish Russian Swedish Ukranian *Census of Prairie Provinces, 1916 The education of the Indian population is principally in the hands of the Church of England and the Roman Catholic Church, being combined to a more or less intimate degree with their missionary activities. Other churches have also contributed to some extent in this work but the two mentioned have for many years carried on a campaign of religious and educational activity 5 t The Province of Saskatchewan, Canada. among the red men of the west. The schools on Indian reserves are assisted financially by the Department of Indian Affairs at Ottawa, which also provide the reserves with agents and instructors to teach and assist the natives in bettering their own conditions by such industries as farming and stock raising. On nearly all the principal reserves are found such religious and industrial institutions. In the far north the Roman Catholic church has a most com- plete establishment at Lac la Plonge, consisting of church, school, hospital and residence buildings, a modern saw mill and an up-to-date farm. A large church and school are also located at He a la Crosse, with various smaller churches scattered throughout the adjacent districts where visiting officials hold sessions of two or three weeks duration from timevto time. The Church of England maintains a similar institution on Lac la Ronge. A very picturesque and striking edifice is the English Church at Stanley. Built on a rocky point projecting out from the north bank of the Churchill river, it commands a sweeping view of this water, v/hile the rocky pine-covered hills behind form a pleasing background to its tall lone steeple. The windows consist entirely of stained glass, every pane of which was imported from England and transported with considerable difficulty over the tedious canoe route from York Factory. The interior woodwork, pews and fittings were also imported while the outer boards and shingles were sawn by hand from native timber by the Indians themselves. The Indian industrial school at Duck Lake is a most thorough institution and native children from considerable distances attend. Both Anglican and Roman Catholic missions are found on the Onion lake reserve, also a well equipped government agency, while some form of church, school or other agency for the uplift of the native is to be found almost everywhere a band of these exists. The adult Indian displays a marked interest in religious ceremonies and is a persistent church goer. The children also prove apt scholars, but it is evident that both religious and educational impressions are often only transient and when the fancy passes the lapse into former conditions is rapid and generally lasting. Great credit is due these earnest workers, in both chyrch and school, and on the farm, who strive for the uplift of the primitive race in the face of considerable odds. To get the foreign element to realize the importance of education is a tremendous task. Many of the lower class of Europeans brought to the pro- vince are content to neglect such matters and allow their children to grow up illiterate. A widely distributed system of public schools, free but compul- sory, where the English language is the medium of instruction, is the remedy. The aggressiveness of the school policy along these lines is the assurance of its ultimate success in producing an enlightened class of people equal to the best of any rural district. Taken all in all there is no other province in Canada that offers better educational facilities or a broader system of education. Religion Religious denominations are widely represented, which is only to be expected considering the various sources of the cosmopolitan population now located Religion 55 in the province. Freedom of worship has permitted all creeds to thrive and almost every known form of worhsip under the sun exists here. According to the census of 1916 the various principal Protestant religions predominate with a Roman Catholic census almost equal to the highest single Protestant denomination. The Presbyterians head the list with a majority of about seven thousand over the Roman Catholics who are second. The Methodists take third place with the Anglicans a close fourth and the Lutherans well up in fifth place. These constitute nearly five sixths of the entire population. Of the remainder the Greek Church, Baptists and Mennonites come in the order named. The executive divisions of the Presbyterian and Methodist churches make of the province in each case an individual field, namely the Synod of Saskat- chewan and the Conference of Saskatchewan respectively. The Anglican churches of the province are included in the Ecclesiastical province of Rupert's Land and the Roman Catholic churches in the Archdiocese of Regina. In the principal cities and towns of the province some very fine edifices are to be seen while throughout the rural districts the number and excellence of the church buildings is a pleasant surprise to the traveller. As far as external indications suggest the spiritual welfare of the people is in no more danger of suffering neglect than the intellectual. In the following table will be found a summary of the religious standing of the province according to the census of 1916. *Saskatchewan — Religions of People, 1916 Presbyterians Roman Catholics Methodists Anglicans Lutherans Greek Church Baptists Mennonites fMiscellaneous Protestants Doukhobors No religion Jews Christians Congregationalists.. . . Adventists Pagans Evangelicals Mormons Undenominationalists Salvation Army Total. . . 129 019 122 242 98 355 97 916 81 098 33 702 22 813 18 934 8 219 7 157 5 880 5 134 3 990 2 566 2 483 2 100 634 245 174 087 077 647 835 ♦Census of Prairie Provinces, 1916 fMiscellaneous includes all religions less than 1,000 56 The Province of Saskatchewan, Canada. CLIMATE The climate of Saskatchewan is rapidly becoming recognized as one of the province's most valuable assets. Not only is it healthful and invigorating but its conditions are such as tend to stimulate the agricultural possibilities of the land, especially in respect to wheat growing. These statements may appear, to those who have not given the matter careful attention, rather start- ling, since the general reports of earlier days spread a rather gloomy picture of climatic conditions throughout the whole of Western Canada. Such tradi- tional misconceptions are by no means uncommon. Earliest explorers in Canada carried back to Europe most harrowing tales of the severity of the climate of the St. Lawrence valley. The regions including the present cities of Montreal and Quebec were pictured in Arctic phrases and for long years the future of Canada was prophesied to be exceedingly uninviting because of her severe climate. Fur traders and others interested in keeping vast areas reserved for the purpose of furthering their own selfish gains took no pains to correct such misbeliefs, but rather corroborated them. Thus it is that a campaign of education is necessary to inculcate the truth regarding such matters. Manitoba was at first condemned as unsuitable for the growing of grain of any description. Today her wheat belt is steadily enlarging. Saskatchewan has undergone a somewhat similar experience. True the winters are cold. No one attempts to deny this. But is this a detriment? Aside from short spells of extra severity, or a few blizzards, — and what country has not its off days and storms, — -the winters are indeed delightful. Under foot the ground is frozen hard and dry and the lakes and streams are covered with a safe sheeting of ice. The snow is dry and powdery, — fleecy as down, — and the fall is exceedingly light. The air is clear and crisp, — the sky usually perfectly free from clouds. By day the sunshine spreads a brilliant glow over the sky and land, and though its heat is small, it dispels all damp and gloom from the atmosphere, making the air exceedingly dry and light. By night the silvery moon-beams, the twinkling stars and the ever- shifting " Northern Lights " shed through the motionless air and over the carpet of snow an enchanting enticement that calls one out of doors in spite of the fact that the thermometer may be doing its best to terrify one into remaining by the fireside. This clear, dry, crisp, motionless cold is not the cold of a damp, dull, seaside winter with its slush and mud underfoot, or its deep snow, heavy atmos- phere and lowering sky. At twenty-five degrees below zero children romp and play out of doors entirely unconscious of the cold. Men will tell you that at forty-five below they experience less difificulty in keeping warm than at zero in other countries. The dry clear cold of the western provinces is peculiar to them and a source of wonder and delightful surprise to new-comers. The fears of encountering a whole winter of climatic severity may therefore be lightly dismissed and replaced by a picture of real enjoyment. As to the short spells of excessive cold which must be expected, or occasional blizzards, due provision should be made to cope with them if it is found necessary to be out of doors, and to keep the home well wanned within. The summers are characterized by high day temperatures and an abundance of sunshine. The heat is not oppressive; the dryness of the air is most marked "JT Tr.":* — : "•".'»'.>5"i.'w: 58 The Province of Saskatchewan, Canada. and the nights are cool. Sultry, murky days are almost unknown. The northern latitudes and expansive prairies give a long period of daylight. In fact the nights during the summer months are merely short periods of twilight. The skies appear high and the air exceedingly bright. This is not a mere imagina- tion but is most noticeable in photographic work. Very rapid exposures of plates and films may be made on summer days on the prairies. The average sunshine is nearly nine hours a day during the summer months. Temperature The mean temperature of the province for the year is 36 degrees Fahrenheit. During the growing season it is about 55 degrees. The mean annual precipi- tation is only about 16-75 inches. This is nearly all in rain however, the snowfall being very light. It also occurs mainly during the growing months of May, June and July, when it is most needed by the crops. As a rule it proves sufficient for their needs when careful methods of farming are followed. It is, however, too low for sure crop production, with average careless methods of soil cultiva- tion; hence dry farming methods are found to be necessary in order to secure the best results. A certain amount of hail is annually precipitated in varying districts. The amount varies from year to year. Some sections appear to be more liable to receive it than others, but its times and places of appearance as well as its severity are quite uncertain. The percentage of damage it does to growing crops, taking the province as a whole, is small, though often very severe locally. For this reason, the provincial hail insurance scheme is in opera- tion. Severe wind and electric storms are very rare. Only one hiirricane of any account has ever visited the province and its scope was limited to a small area. Thus taken the year around the climate is more pleasant and health- ful than that of most countries of the world. Temperatures throughout the province differ but little from the mean at any given time and rise or fall with fairly uniform variations. Lower tem- peratures in the more northerly latitudes are offset to a certain extent by the shelter derived from the woods and the modifying effects of large bodies of water. The uniform altitude of the prairies bears an important relation in this respect. The altitude of the second prairie steppe, which comprises the greater part of the province, is 1,600 feet on an average. That of the third prairie steppe, embracing the westerly part of the province and extending to the Rockv Mountains, is about 3,000 feet. A very noticeable feature of the climate is the rapidity with which winter gives way to spring or even summer weather. A sudden rising of the tempera- ture, with bright sun and soft breezes, and in an incredibly short time the light mantle of snow has disappeared. Without waiting for the frost "to come out of the ground" the waters from the melted snow disappear, the ground surface dries up as fast as it thaws out and in a few days the dust is flying again. Seeding operations soon follow and the transition has taken place usually without the proverbial "March winds and April showers" and all their discomforts. As a rule the snow disappears during March or very early in April. Seeding operations usually commence about the first week of April. During the past ten years the average date of the commencement of seeding operations was April 8th and the average date at which seeding operations were general was April 18th. Harvest begins early in August and is usually well under way by Temperature 59 the middle of that month. Early frosts and fall weather may be looked for in September. The most pleasant months of the year, however, are usually September and October. Wintry weather is due any time after the first of November though open falls till the first of December are not uncommon. Thus it will be seen that the summers on the prairie are unusually long and the winters, though cold, are shorter and brighter than those of eastern districts with more moderate temperatures. In a recent publication entitled "The Resources of Manitoba and Their De- velopment", the author. Professor R. C. Wallace of the University of Manitoba, draws attention to the relation existing between climate and human energy. The effects of climate on the human temperament are psychological as well as physio- logical, and for that reason difficult to appreciate fully by scientific methods. A beginning has however been made in the work of reducing to an exact science the influence of the weather on human energy, both physical and intellectual. The results of these investigations prove conclusively that the climate of a country is a controlling factor in the industrial activity and even in the intellec- tual status of its people. In summing up a review of the various climates of the world that of Western Canada is found to occupy a most favourable position with respect to its influence on human energy. A noted investigator of this subject is Ellsworth Huntington, whose findings are made public in his book on "Civilization and Climate". He has prepared a map of the world showing the regions of "very high", "high", "medium", "low", and "very low", human energy on the basis of climate. The southern part of the province of Saskat- chewan lies well within the "very high" energy belt. It is thus evident that the climatic conditions of the province are favourable for its successful expansion in the many sided phases of national completeness. The dates of the opening and closing of the Saskatchewan river at Prince Albert for a number of years are shown on a table following. Another table gives the temperature, precipitation, hail and frost at representative points in Saskatchewan for April, May, June, July, August and September in 1916. *Date9 of opening and closing Saskatchewan river at Prince Albert Year Date opened Date closed 180Q April 26 12 21 18 25 21 7 14 May 11 April 21 May 8 April 1 18 15 15 19 9 19 December 1 1000 November 10 1001 " 10 1009 " 9 1003 16 1004 " 20 100S " 27 1006 " 16 1007 " 14 1008 " 5 1000 " 12 1010 " 7 1011 7 1019 December 2 lon November 15 1914 i915 i916 i917 i918 16 12 " 14 30 10 December 1 November 21 *T. E. Parker, Prince Albert, Sask. 60 The Province of Saskatchewan, Canada. *Temperature, Precipitation, Hail and Frost, 1916. — Sas- katoon. Prince Albert. Battle- ford. Swift Current. Regina. Kam- sack. 1,571. 1,414. 1,622. 2,432. 1,885. 1,445. Temperature in degrees Fahr — High St Lowest Mean Difference from average. . . 74- 14- 38- + 1- 75- 2- 38- + 1- 76- 15- 40- + 2- 80- 18 41- 4-t)- 72- 2- 36- -1- 71- -1- 35- 5 a- < Precipitation in inches — Total Difference from average. . . 0-64 +0-27 1-21 + 0-38 0-73 + 0-32 0-62 -0-13 0-56 -017 0-15 Sunshine in hours — Total number Possible number 204- 417- 197- 413- 418- Number of days of hail Number of days below ^2°. . . . 0- 19- 1- ,19- 0- 0- 23- 0- 20- 0- 21- Temperature in degrees Fahr — Highest Lowest Mean Difference from average. . . 78- 19- 47- -3- 78- 20- 48- -1- 77 21- 48- -4- 79- 23- 48- -3- 77- 20- 48- 75- 24- 47- < Precipitation in inches^ Total Diflerence from average. . . 2-45 4-0-86 4-38 + 2-84 2-77' + 1-08 1-59 -0-53 1-89 -0-09 2-21 Sunshine in hours — Total number Possible number 198- 48 • 210- 478- 88- Number of days of h il Number of days below 32° . . . . 0- 7- 0- 3- 0- 8- 0- 9- 0- 8- 0- 9- Temperature in degrees Fahr — Highest Lowest Mean 78- 32- 56- -2- 77- 30- 56- -1- 78- 32- 57- — 2- 79- 28- 56- -4- 79- 35- 55- -4- 77- 28- 54- Difference from average. . . z D <—> Precipitation in inches — Total Difference from average. . . 1-68 -0-83 2-60 -003 3-66 +0-19 4-05 -fl-00 4-28 -fl-11 2-29 Sunshin in hours — Total number Possible number 250- 498 230- 488- 501- Number of days of hail Number of days below 32°. . . . 0- 1- 0- 1- 0- 1- 1- 1- 0- 0- 0- 2- ♦Compiled from information furnished by the Meteorological Service of Canada. Temperature Temperature, Precipitation, Hail and Frost, 1916 — Continued. 61 — Sas- katoon. Prince Albert. Battle- ford. Swift Current. Regina. Kam- sack. Temperature in degrees Fahr — Highest Lowest Mean Difference from average. . . 90- 48- 66- + 3- 86- 46- 66- + 4- 89- 47- 66- + 2- 91- 44- 67- + 1- 89- 42- 68- + 4- 87- 38. 67- :3 Precipitation in inches — Total Difference from average. . . 4-79 + 2-25 3-88 + 1'46 2-11 000 5-2^ + 2-78 5-02 + 2-53 1-13 Sunshine in hours — Total number Possible number 304- 502- 335- 491- 503- Number of days of hail Number of days below 32°. . . . 0- 0- 0- 0- 0- 0- 0- 0- • 0- 0- 0- Temperature in degrees Fahr — Highest Lowest Mean Difference from average. . . 83- 37- 59- - 1- 85- 30- 60- + 1- 84- 34- 60- - 2- 88- 32- 61- - 3- 7- 34- 61- 0- 95- 24- 59- C/) O Precipitatio.n in inches — Total Difference from average. . . 1-99 -0-18 1-66 -0-87 4-70 + 2-72 2-54 -fO-65 0-69 -1-17 0-58 < Sunshine in hours — Total num er Possible number 288- 52- 302- 446- 45'- Number of days of hail Number of ays below 32°. . . . 1- 0- 1- 1- 0- 0- 1- 1- 0- 0- 0- 4- Temperature in degrees F^hr — Highest Lowest 78- 24- 49- - 1- 80- 26- 51- + 2- 81- 23- 52- 0- 81- ■5- 53- 0- 80- 26- 50- - 1- 0- 19- w H W c/5 Mean . Difference from average. . 47- Precipitation in inches- Total Difference from average. . . 1-3 -0-0 1-00 -0-41 105 -0-21 1-46 +0-13 4-14 + 2-95 3-21 Sunshine in hours — Total number Possible number 178- 378- 165- 377- 378- Number of days of hail Number of days below 32°. . . . 0- 11- 0- 7- 0- 3- 1- 1- 0- 8- 0- 12- 62 The Province of Saskatchewan, Canada. The following table shows the highest, lowest and mean temperatures at the stations mentioned in the preceding table for each of the remaining six months of the year 1916, namely the colder months of January, February, March, October, November and December; also the precipitation. Tempera- tures are in degrees Fahrenheit and the precipitation, which would be chiefly snow during these months, is shown in inches of rain. In this connection one inch of rain is considered the equivalent of ten inches of snow. *Temperature and Percipitation 1916. • Sask- atoon Prince Albert Battle- ford Swift Current Regina Kam- sack Elevation in feet 1,571 1,414 1,632 2,432 1,885 1,445 Temp Highest 17 -51 -16 17 -58 -15 20 -61 -16 27 -49 -12 13 -53 -15 27 u Lowest -56 3 Mean -23 C >—> Precipitation 0-55 0-96 0-76 2-70 M5 0-20 * b Temp. Highest 44 -32 4 55 -42 6 50 -32, 8 48 -28 10 40 -31 1 34 Lowest -38 3 Mean - 2 ^ 0) Precipitation 0-15 0-06 0-02 1-02 0-75 0-10 Temp. Highest 43 -28 11 50 -32 15 48 -30 15 56 -26 24 38 -33 12 -d Lowest 'e. Mean % Precipitation 0-70 0-98 1-00 1-88 2-08 Temp. Highest 66 10 36 64 11 36 71 21 40 75 12 39 74 4 36 67 4J Lowest 10 i=i Mean 33 o Precipitation 0-92 1-88 0-71 Ml 1-85 1-01 u Temp. Highest 57 - 2 • 26 58 - 4 25 61 27 61 -13 28 59 - 8 25 44 B 4) > Lowest Mean -21 19 O Precipitation 012 0-65 0-62 0-06 Temp. Highest Lowest 45 -35 44 -32 - 1 45 -30 2 42 -35 - 4 48 -34 g Mean OJ Q Precipitation 0-45 0-26 0-22 MO 0-57 ♦Compiled from information furnished by the Meteorological Service of Canada SOIL Scientific investigations of the soils of Saskatchewan have been practically confined to prairie soils, but as the prairies comprise almost the entire agricultural area of the province a very comprehensive knowledge of the subject has been attained. In general terms it may be said that the over-burden of soil is most generous and its quality amazingly fertile. Added to this is the wonderful percentage of arable land within the limits of such area, — very trivial parts being covered by water and nothing wasted by mountains — which gives one of the most extensive yet compact wheat-growing districts of the world. The soils of the prairies have been found to be peculiarly adapted to the requirements and conditions of the province and as wheat producers they are par excellent. The agricultural belt of Saskatchewan might be said to be roughly limited on the north by the 54th parallel of latitude. Beyond this there is considerable good land but it occurs in more or less irregular areas owing to the outcropping of rock and the numerous lakes and rivers of this district. Evidence of the fertility of the soil in such areas is seen in the luxuriant gardens about the trading posts and missions of these northern parts. The prairies may be said to extend approximately northerly to the Saskat- chewan river. In the western part of the province, however, they reach slightly beyond, practically to an imaginary line drawn from Fort Pitt to Prince Albert. The Saskatchewan river might then be considered as a rough limit as far easterly as Fort k la Corne. In the eastern part of the province the wooded areas en- croach south of the river to an irregular line extending from Fort a la Corne to Fort Pelly. North of the boundary indicated irregular areas of prairie and light woods are found. The soil is on a par with that of the prairies farther south. Some wheat is grown but owing to lack of transportation, only limited quantities. The notable feature of this soil is the luxuriant growth of hay and grass it yields, which makes these sections very attractive fields for ranching purposes. Ridges of sand are found in certain areas which appear too barren for either farming or grazing. On these forests of jack-pine will grow and nearly all such areas have now been made into forest reserves so that they may not be allowed to become useless wastes. In the spruce forests there is considerable muskeg. On being cleared up and drained these muskegs make excellent soil resembling black vegetable mould, which produces very heavy growths of grains and grasses. As far north as climatic conditions will permit plant life grows profusely where its roots can obtain a foothold in soil, however scanty it may be. The fertility of these northern soils is most remarkable. In certain small areas of the southern part of the province discouraging results were obtained in attempting to secure crops. Investigation showed that the top soil had been burned off by disastrous fires in dry seasons. However the percentage of poor or barren soils in the agricultural section of the province is practically nil while the general value is exceptionally high. Careful studies of the soils of Western Canada have been conducted by Dr. F. T. Shutt, Dominion Chemist, during the past twenty-five years and 63 64 The Province of Saskatchewan, Canada. his conclusions regarding the fertility and productiveness of the soils of Saskat- chewan's prairies are most encouraging. His reports and findings are embodied in a pamphlet entitled "Western Prairie Soils". It is from this source that most of the information here given in connection with the subject of soils is extracted. Prairie Soils The outstanding characteristic of the western Prairie soils is the large proportion of vegetable matter and its concomitant nitrogen they possess. It is to this fact they primarily owe their remarkable fertility and lasting quality. For the most part they contain abundant stores of the mineral elements cf plant food, though in this respect they do not differ from many soils of less productive- ness found in other parts of the Dominion. It is the larger percentage of nitrogen- holding, humus-formimg material and its intimate incorporation with the sand and clay that give to these soils their superiority, chemically, physically and biologically. Soils of great productiveness are characterized by large percentages of organic matter and nitrogen, while wor^ or partially exhausted soils, resulting from continuous grain growing or other irrational treatment, and soils from naturally poor areas, show meagre amounts of these constituents. As far as soils in humid and semi-humid districts are concerned, there exists a relationship between the organic matter and the-nitrogen such that methods of culture which increase the amount of the former raise the percentage of the latter. On the other hand when the organic matter is destroyed, nitrogen is dissipated. In humus is found nature's storehouse for nitrogen that m.ay be readily nitrified and made available for crop use. Upon further decay of the humus valuable percentages of potash, phosphoric acid and lime are liberated so that a large part of the soil food supply of the growing crops is no doubt obtained from the humus. Of equal importance with its chemical value is its influence on the physical condition of the soil. This is most important in increasing the capacity of the soil for holding moisture. Investigations have shown that soils of the same type from adjoining areas, apparently under the same climatic conditions and with equal drainage, will retain moisture in proportion to their organic matter content. The prairie soils, during the growing season, may retain amounts of water far in excess of those present in soils less rich in organic matter though favoured with a heavier precipitation. The high absorptive capacity of these soils under suitable cultural methods allows moisture to be held over from one season to another. Thus it is possible, in districts of scanty precipitation, to secure by means of a fallow, two good crops in three years, when only meagre yields would be obtained if the land were seeded every year. Humus also contains properties which favourably modify the tillage and tem- perature of both clays and sands. The growth of crops depends largely upon the rate of nitrification during their vegetative period, and while temperature and moisture largely control this process, the amount of nitrates formed must be materially affected by the quantity of the food supply the micro-organisms find in the form of partially decomposed organic matter. Of all the elements of plant food, nitrogen is the most potent in its influence on crop production. As regards prairie soils, nitrogen Prairie Soils 65 may be regarded as the chief index of their fertility or the most reliable measure of their crop-producing power. This applies to both clay and sandy loams. The extraordinary growth that characterizes vegetation on the prairie as soon as the season opens is due, for the most part, to the fact that very rapid nitrification takes place in the spring and early summer months, consequent upon the large water content of the soil and the high temperatures which then prevail. The richness of these prairie soils is due to the tremendous accumulation of nitrogenous organic matter with its associated mineral constituents, the remains of countless generations of plant life. Since the glacial period the prairies have been continuously covered with grasses and leguminous herbage. As layer upon layer of decaying forests are pressed down by succeeding growths to form beds of coal for man's use in future ages so these growths of grasses and herbs have formed a soil of remarkable depth and wonderful fertility. This heritage of wealth is now being reaped in the form of bountiful crops. In order that it may be made a lasting resource it will be necessary to practice rational methods of farming. Other reasons for the remarkable fertility of the soil are the favourable climatic condition of the prairies and their regular physical features. High diurnal temperatures, long days, and a sufficient rainfall during the growing season are conducive to a most luxuriant growth. Rapid nitrification and conversion of inert mineral matter into available plant food take place practically throughout the summer. The winter season, with its dry cold, then practically locks up the stores of plant food from the autumn until the season opens again. Waste from leaching, which occurs where there is an excess of rain to carry off the soluble constituents, or where the winter is mild and open, is thus prevented. The generally level character of the prairies also has precluded those losses of soil by erosion which naturally occur in more or less mountainous districts. Particulars of the examination of twelve representative samples of Saskat- chewan soils made by the Dominion chemist are quoted in the following para- graphs. In this connection he has pointed out the difficulty that has been encountered in selecting only those which were truly representative of fairly large areas, owing to the fact that the second prairie steppe, comprising the larger part of this province, is not characterized by the uniformity noticed in the Red River valley. This fact has precluded the possibility of examples of all types being found but he remarks that the larger number of soils examined, and more particularly those in the noted wheat-growing districts, have been found to be abundantly supplied with humus-forming material and nitrogen. ♦Samples of Saskatchewan Soils. No. 1. A rich, black loam from Moosomin, a point on the main line of the C.P.R., 220 miles west of Winnipeg. The elevation of this locality is in the neighbourhood of 1,800 feet, and this soil may be regarded as fairly representative of the southeastern part of the second prairie level. This true prairie soil possesses abundant stores of plant food, and is, judged by accepted standards, one of high fertility. No. 2. From the district of Tisdale, on the Canadian Northern Railway, about 160 miles due north of Indian Head. The district is one that in a large measure is comparable to the Dauphin country, being partly wooded with scrub, poplar, etc., and therefore, unlike the true prairie requiring clearance. It is a greyish-black loam of a decidedly clayey nature. The nitro- gen, on the water-free soil, is almost half of one per cent, with notable amounts of potash and lime, and an average phosphoric acid content. •Dominion Chemist. 61244—5 66 The Province of Saskatchewan, Canada Nos. 3 and 4 are from Saltcoats and Yorkton, points on the nofthwestern branch of the C.P.R., 250 and 270 miles respectively, west of Winnipeg, and approximately 75 miles northeast of Indian Head. Their similarity and comparative contiguity render unnecessary the separate considera- tion of these two soils. They are black, sandy loams of the true prairie type, rich in vegetable matter and nitrogen, with excellent percentages of phosphoric acid and potash. Nos. 5 and 6 are black loams of a markedly sandy character, taken from areas that had been under grain (without manure) for a period of about fifteen years. Wolsely, the place of collec- tion, is about 20 miles east of Indian Head on the C.P.R., a district which has produced large crops of very fine wheat. The data are of some interest since these soils have borne probably ten crops of grain, with a bare fallow every third summer. The evidence is that these soils are still of an exceedingly rich character, plentifully supplied with semi-decomposed vegetable matter and high in nitrogen; indeed, as regards these constituents, the data are not such as would differ- entiate them from virgin prairie soils. In "total" phosphoric acid they are decidedly above the average, but the amounts of this constituent immediately available are very small. This may be due to the taking up of the available phosphoric acid by the grain crop being more rapid than the conversion of the insoluble soil phosphates into assimilable forms. Nos. 7 to 10 inclusive are from the Dominion Experimental Farm, Indian Head, and con- stitute a very instructive series, since they allow a comparison between the virgin prairie with the same soil after 22 years of cultivation without manure. The soil would be designated a heavy clay loam. A complete record of the cropping and fallowing since the prairie was broken in 1882 shows that the "cultivated" soil has borne six crops of wheat, four of barley, and three of oats, with a fallow between each crop since 1887 — nine fallows in all. The virgin soil was taken from an adjacent area, the point of collection being about 150 feet distant from where the cultivated soil had been taken. The samples were of a composite character, and every precaution was taken to have them thoroughly representative. There is every reason to suppose that the soil, over the whole area examined, was originally of an extremely uniform nature; in other words, that, at the outset the nitrogen content was practically the same for the soils now designated as virgin and cultivated, respectively. The tabulated data show the percentage of organic matter and plant food in the first four and the first eight inches of these soils, and make very clear that enormous losses of organic matter and nitrogen have followed upon the present method of continuously cropping with grain. The particulars respecting the nitrogen are given in the fol- lowing arrangement, which allows a ready comparison of the two soils in this important matter. Depletion of the Nitrogen Nitrogen-content of virgin and cultivated soils, Indian Head, Saskatchewan Virgin soil , Cultivated soil Difference or loss due to removal in crops and to cultural methods To a depth of 4 inches Per cent •409 •259 150 Lbs. per acre 3,824 2,421 1,403 To a depth of 8 inches Per cent .371 •254 117 Lbs. per acre 6,936 4,750 2,186 Though the cultivated soil today, after nearly a quarter of a century's working, is still very rich, and possibly might yield as fine a crop as it did at the outset, yet compared with the untouched prairie, it is seen to have lost practically one-third of its nitrogen. An inquiry as to what proportion of this loss is due to removal by crops and what to cultural operations shows that the nitrogen contained in the various grain crops grown in the twenty-two years amounted to approximately 700 pounds per acre. If we subtract this amount from the total loss, calculated to a depth of eight inches of soil, we shall see that more than twice as much nitrogen has been dissipated by methods of cultivation as has been removed in the crops. The loss ordinarily in the grain growing districts of the Northwest would not, in all probability, be as great as that here recorded, because, as a rule, the land is fallowed every third year only. Never- theless, their deterioration must be marked, and unless checked by the adoption of a system of rotation involving the formation of a sod and by the keeping of stock, will inevitably lead to that low degree of productiveness which now characterizes large areas in eastern North America.' A study of these partially exhausted areas both in Canada and in the Northeastern States makes Prairie Soils 67 it clear that the deterioration has been, in a very large measure, due to the loss of humus and the dissipation of nitrogen consequent upon grain and potato growing, with ut any due return of organic matter. A quite marked falling off in phosphoric acid is also to be noted, though what is perhaps of more signifiance is the reduction in the proportion of this element in the available condition. Since loss of phosphoric acid cannot be accounted for save in removal by crops, it would seem that in continuous grain growing the rate of abstraction exceeds that of conversion, a probability to which we have already referred. In the "total" potash, the differences throughout the series are not large, but, as in the case of phosphoric acid, we find that the percentage of "available" in the cultivated soil is considerably less than in that of the prairie. No. 11 is from the prairie in the neighbourhood of Vermilion Hills, 130 miles west of Indian Head and some 20 miles north of Lake Chaplin. It is a dark-brown, sandy loam. In organic matter and nitrogen it is fully the equal of the heavier (clay) loams of the prairie, but as regards phosphoric acid, potash and lime it is, as might be expected, somewhat inferior. Although the "total" stores of this mineral plant food may not be very large, it is significant that the "assimil- able" proportions are not less than in those heavier loams which are considered wheat soils par excellence. No. 12 is from an area in the eastern part of the third steppe, 281 miles west of Indian Head along the main line of the C.P.R., and not far from the bovmdary between Saskatchewan and Alberta. The district from which this soil was taken enjoys, as a rule, but a very limited rain- fall, and previous to the adoption of special methods for the conservation of moisture, gave but scanty yields. It was thought by some that the poor crops were due to a deficiency in some important fertilizing constituent, or to the presence of "alkali" or other matter deleterious to plant growth. From this analysis it will be seen that there is no lack of plant food, though the percentage of organic matter and nitrogen are only about one-half of those found in the richer prairie soils. Absence of "alkali" was established and the conclusion reached that the meagre yields were due to insufficient moisture rather than to any inherent fault in the soils. SASKATCHEWAN SOILS RESULTS CALCULATED TO WATER-FREE B.\SIS Available Constituents Organic and Phos- o z Locality. Character of Soil Volatile Nitrogen phoric Potash Lime Phos- Matter Acid (K^O) (CaO) phoric Potash Lime (Loss on (P2 o6) Acid (Ki 0) (CaO) ignition) (P2 O^) % % % % % % % % 1 Moosomin Tisdale Black loam Grayish-black 11-79 14-23 -479 •480 •116 ■202 •306 •622 •95 111 2 •024 •041 •568 loam. 3 Saltcoats. Black, sandy loam 13-54 -572 -213 •340 2-89 •018 •033 1^110 4 Yorkton " 14-01 -504 -211 •486 117 •025 •048 •531 5 Wolseley, N.E.J, Sec. 27. Black loam (culti- vated). 13-93 -514 •391 •555 •87 •005 •Oil •306 6 Wolseley, S.W. \, Sec. 27. Black loam (culti- vated). 10-98 -389 ■369 •512 •76 •005 •018 •264 7 Indian Head Black clay loam. Taken to a depth of 4 inches. 13-31 -409 •212 •863 1-26 •036 •070 1-187 8 Black clay loam. Taken to a depth of 8 inches. 12-83 ■371 •234 •868 141 •032 •059 1261 9 Black clay loam. Taken to a depth of 4 in- ches (cultivat- ed). 10-20 -259 •159 •839 341 •016 •039 1384 10 Black clay loam. Taken to a depth of 8 in- ches (cultivat- ed). 10-70 -254 •163 ■898 351 ■013 •038 1^336 11 Vermilion Hills, Tp. 21, R. 5, W. 3rd. Dark brown sandy loam. 10-43 •354 •164 ■164 •50 ■044 •050 •383 12 Maple Creek, sec. 16. Tp. 11. R. Heavy clay loam . 5-54 •134 ■064 •300 106 26. W. 3rd. 61244— 5 i 68 The Province of Saskatchewan, Canada Alkali Soils These soils occur only in very limited areas in the province of Saskatchewan. Their extent has been greatly exaggerated as well as their injurious properties. Fortunately they do not constitute any serious drawback to the development of the province but as the term " alkali " is met with so frequently on the western prairies the following notes by the Dominion chemist appearing in a pamphlet entitled* " Alkali Soils " may be found of interest here. Alkali soils occur in arid or semi-arid districts only, and these in Canada may be said to be restricted to certain areas in British Columbia, southwestern Alberta and in a limited degree Saskatchewan and Manitoba. Two classes of alkali are generally recognized, " white " and " black." White alkali consists chiefly of the sulphate and chloride of sodium (Glauber's salt and common salt). Black alkali is characterized by the presence of sodium carbonate (washing soda), which through its solvent action on decayed vegetable matter gives a black incrustation to the soil. Soils impregnated with alkali are injurious to vegetation, but the greater number of alkali soils when freed from excess of alkali are exceedingly fertile. Black alkali is more injurious than white alkali. Alkali soils can be reclaimed by thoroughly washing out and carrying away the alkali. If the natural drainage of the soil is not good, flooding by irrigation should be preceded by the construction of an adequate system of under-drainage. The black alkali in soils can be converted by the application of land plaster (ground g^^psum) into white alkali, which, as already stated, is a milder form as regards vegetable life. In this way large tracts of useless soil in the United States have been eff^ectively and cheaply reclaimed. If the black alkali is only present in small amounts the land may be rendered cultivable simply by a dressing of land plaster, but in most cases it will be necessary to wash away the resulting white alkali before the soil is fit for bearing crops. *"Alkali Soils", by F. T. Shutt, M.A., F.I.C., Dominion Chemist. AGRICULTURE Wheat has become to Saskatchewan a symbol of outstanding significance on a par with coals to Newcastle, diamonds to Kimberly or gold to the Klondike. The golden grain of her prairies has become famous the world over and her marvellous yields of " number one hard " have placed her in a position of pre- eminence among the wheat-producing provinces and states of North America. In 1915 her wheat crop exceeded in value the total output of gold from the Klondike during the whole of its history. The annual production now exceeds that of Manitoba and Alberta combined and in 1917 was more than double that of any state in the adjoining republic. Its average for several years has been well over the hundred million bushel mark,while in 1915, one of its " bumper" years, it reached well beyond two hundred millions. This is composed entirely of the famous hard spring wheat which makes the finest of flour so eagerly sought by all classes. The entire area sown to wheat as yet has not exceeded one-tenth of the available area judged suitable for grain-growing so that the outlook for still greater yields is indeed encouraging. In fact one hardly dare prophesy what the future may be expected to unravel, so marvellous has been the expansion in the last few years, but with a growing population to increase the acreage of cultivated lands, and with more intensive methods of farming the yield might not surprise us if it were to double within a few years. Spreading westward from the famous Red River valley of Manitoba, where the first colonists of the prairies broke the virgin soil, a great army of wheat growers invaded Saskatchewan along the fertile banks of the Souris, Qu'Appelle and Assiniboine rivers. The riches of the great Saskatchewan valley lured their ever increasing ranks more northerly and the path of their progress might be fairly well indicated by a line starting at the international boundary, at the south-east corner of the province, and extending in a north- westerly direction to the point where the Saskatchewan river crosses its western boundary. As the crow flies this distance is nearly 500 miles and the heart of the belt is 200 miles in width. Within this area are included such famous wheat centres as Areola, Estevan, Weyburn, Moosomin, Indisji Head, Qu'- Appelle, Regina, Moosejaw, Saskatoon, Rosthern, Battleford and Lloyd - minster — names that always suggest visions of expansive harvest operations. Spreading out from this main belt the grain fields have reached to all but the more northerly parts of the province and wheat has been supplemented by oats, barley and flax according to the demands for these grains or their better adaption to growing conditions, until their combined production now exceeds that of the former. Thus the total yield of grain in the province in 1917 was over 250 million bushels and in 1915 it was over 375 millions. It must not be supposed, however, that farming in Saskatchewan is by any means limited to grain-growing. Since the provincial government came into existence in 1905 it has been most active, through its Department of Agriculture, in providing for a rational and complete system of farming that would guarantee the permanency of the industry and provide for its continued prosperity. In too many instances the richness of the soil has been the undoing of a new country. 69 Agriculture 71 Lands have been mined, not farmed, and in a few years a depleted soil, over-run with weeds, is all that remains of what promised a wonderful future. To guard against such disaster has been the constant effort of the department and the success achieved is strikingly evident in the improved methods of farming everywhere seen, the tendency towards " mixed farming " and the remarkable yields in dairy products, wool, poultry and eggs, live stock, vegetables and kindred lines now found in all sections. Lands and Products The Crown lands of the province are the property of the Dominion govern- ment and are administered by the Department of the Interior at Ottawa. When such lands are alienated, however, either by sale, grant, homestead or otherwise, and patent issued therefor, further control passes automatically to the province. Free homesteads of 160 acres each are still available in the northern parts of the agricultural belt and a limited number in the southwestern part of the province. The former are chiefly bush lands and the latter are mostly rough. It must be admitted that the choice prairie homesteads have been practically all taken up. This class of land is now a purchase proposition. There is considerable lightly wooded land of excellent quality still available, however, for the homesteader who is willing to undertake clearing it. The following statement shows the disposition made by the Federal govern- ment of those lands in the province surveyed up to the first of January, 1919: Land Situation — Saskatchewan Detailed Statement of Surveyed Area January 1, 1919 Lands Acres Area under Homestead (including Military Homesteads) Area under Pre-emption and Pur. Hds. (1st Sept. 1908 to 20th Mar. 1918) Area under Half-Breed Scrip, sales, Special Grants, etc Area granted to Railway Companies Area granted to Hudson's Bay Company Area of School Land Endowment (1-18 of area surveyed in sections) Area sold under Irrigation System ^ *Area under Timber Licenses *Area under Grazing Leases *Area of Forest Reserves and Parks *Area reserved for Forestry Purposes (Inside Surveyed Tract) *Area of Road Allowance Area of Parish and River Lots Area of Indian Reserves Area of Indian Reserves Surrendered *Area of Water-Covered Lands (Inside Surveyed Tract) Area now available for entry (Includes lands reserved for soldiers' settlement) Total Surveyed Area 27,133,700 5,854,200 2,302,000 15,177,0.63 3,087,000 3,932,000 76,672 1,119,200 3,009,100 6,195,700 1,430,000 1,464,000 82,500 1,119,454 344,414 1,902,300 4,607,300 78,836,603 *Area not available for cultivation. 72 The Province of Saskatchewan, Canada From this table it will be seen that 4,607,300 acres of surveyed land were available for homestead entry in January of 1919. Much of this has since been taken up but the surveyed area is capable of considerable extension so that there is still room for possibly 25,000 homesteaders and their families, although there is less good land now than formerly from which to choose a homestead. In the following table is shown a classification of the farm land of the province according to an estimate made by the Dominion Census Ofhce in 1916: Saskatchewan — Farm Land Classification 1916 Class Farm Lands Occupied Acres I. Improved: (1) Under wheat 8,532,700 (2) Under oats 3,543,600 (3) Under barley 357,400 (4) Under flax 519,500 (5) Other 6,679,006 19,632,206 II. Unimproved: (1) Forest 2,192,547 (2) Prairie 12,513,844 (3) Marsh and waste 2,462,901 17,168,492 Total Farm Land Occupied 36,800,698 Total Farm Land Unoccupied 57,199,302 Total Area of Province Estimated Available for Crop Production 94,000,000 From these figures it is seen that the lands actually occupied consist of but little more than a third of the area suitable for agricultural purposes, and of such occupied portions only slightly over half is improved. If the estimate of 94,000,000 acres agricultural land is correct, and there is no reason to doubt it, then the ratio of actual improved land to that available amounts to only approximately 20 per cent or one-fifth. All conditions being equal it might be deduced then that the agricultural products could be expected to increase fivefold. However allowance must be made for inferior lands which might be included in the unimproved areas. Against this will be pitted the most intensive methods of farming being adopted from year to year so that it is impossible to place any estimate on future production. It is sufficient to poin(t out that, stupendous as has been the yields, they are small compared with what may be confidently expected during the coming years. The following table shows the production of wheat, oats, barley, and flax for the years 1905 to 1918 inclusive: Lands and Products Acreage and Yield of Wheat, Oats, Barley and Flax, 1905 to 1918 (Compiled from figures published by Department of Agriculture, Saskatchewan.) 73 Year Wheat Acreage Production Yield per Acre Oats Acreage Production Yield per Acre 1905 1906 1907 1908 1909 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914 1915 1916 1917 1918 1,130,084 1,730,586 2,047,724 3,703,563 4,085,000 4,664,834 5,256,474 5,384,092 5,760,249 6,003,522 8,523,600 8,532,700 8,273,253 9,249,260 26,107,286 37,040,098 27,691.601 50,654,629 90,215,000 72,666,399 97,244,769 107,167,700 112,369,405 74,610,643 214,794,720 121,864,454 117,921,300 92,492,600 449,936 369,873 801,810 1,772,976 2,240,000 2,082,607 2,332,912 2,421,932 2,638,562 2,792,611 3,200,400 3,543,600 4,521,642 4,998,499 19,213,055 23,965, 28 23,324,003 48,379,838 105,465,000 63,315,295 104,981,040 107,619,948 110,210,436 66,698,953 146,898,360 138,882,716 123,213,600 107,262,728 f Year Barley • Flax Acreage Production Yield per Acre Acreage iProduction Yield per Acre 1905 32,946 53,565 79,339 229,574 244,000 238,394 273,988 267,139 307,177 313,537 285,000 357,400 669,927 699,296 893,396 1,316,415 1,350,265 3,965,724 7,833,000 5,859,018 7,671,664 8,319,584 9,279,263 5,627,783 9,462,000 9,469,426 14,067,900 11,888,499 27-1 24-5 17-9 17-2 32-1 24-5 28-0 31-1 30-2 17-9 33-2 26-5 21-0 17-0 25,315 76,005 128,528 264,728 319,100 396,230 682,000 111,651 976,137 802,794 697.000 519,500 753,700 840,957 398,399 710,689 1,364,716 2,580,352 4,448,700 3,044,138 7,706,600 14,171,214 11,654,280 5,086,475 7,806,400 5,452,549 4,710,600 4,204,785 15-7 1906 9-3 1907 10-6 1908 9-7 1909 13-9 1910 7-6 1911 11-3 1912 12-7 1913 12-0 1914 6-3 1915 11-2 1916 • 10-4 1917 6-2 1918 50 It will be observed that the ye^ars 1905-06-09 and 15 were particularly productive with 1915 holding the record. Its nearest rival was 1901 when wonderful crops were reaped. The three following years were also above the average. The amount of land sown to wheat, oats, barley, and flax and the yields of these cereals during the years 1905 to 1918 is illustrated in chart form while the tables immediately following have been compiled to demonstrate the favour- able position the province occupies in respect to the production of such cereals when compared with various states of the adjoining republic: f'reparect in the N.R.I. Br. Lands and Products 75 ♦Statement of .Saskatchewan's Wheat Production in 1916 and 1917 compared with that of each of the twelve States of the Union producing the largest quantity of this grain during the same year. Province or State Saskatchewan Minnesota. . . North Dakota South Dakota Kansas Ohio Oklahoma Indiana Illinois Washington . . . Missouri Pennsylvania. . Montana Winter or spring wheat Spring Winter and spring Spring Winter and spring Winter and spring Winter Winter Winter Winter Winter and spring Winter Winter Winter and spring 1917 117, 57, 56, 52; 45, 41, 35, 30, 29, 27, 24, 17, 921,300 965,000 000,000 024,000 934,000 140,000 650,000 392,000 400,000 218,000 540,000 482,000 963,000 1916 121,864,454 27,555,000 39,325,000 24,825,000 98,022,000 21,600,000 29,585,000 19,440,000 16,775,000 37,635,000 16,575,000 26,125,000 28,655,000 ♦Statement showing Saskatchewan's production of Wheat, Oats, Barley and Flax compared with that of twelve States of the Union producing the largest quantities of these grains in the same year. 1917 1916 1915 1914 1913 Saskatchewan 259,913,400 North Dakota 121,201,000 Minnesota 217,995,000 Illinois 277,275,000 Iowa 265,732,000 South Dakota 144,974,000 Kansas \ 124,476,000 Nebraska | 134,880,000 Wisconsin 125,527,000 Indiana 110,503,000 Ohio 120,560,000 Michigan I 75,230,000 Oklahom- i 62,262,000 275,669,145 121,208,000 144,130,000 190,240,000 206,182,000 101,373,000 139,421,000 151,537,000 103,075,000 72,345,000 69,243,000 58,740,000 44,765,000 378,961,480 301,304,000 252,120,000 250,471,000 224,662,000 161,862,000 158,838,000 145,886,000 128,019,000 113,044,000 110,127,000 90,753,000 74,552,000 152,023,854 181,743,000 162,719,000 173,862,000 189,616,000 97,681,000 242,310,000 140,421,000 84,147,000 88,327,000 87,738,000 70,408,000 78,400,000 243,513,384 169,380,000 218,634,000 147,417,000 195,018,000 95,935,000 123,547,000 123,764,000 104,954,000 76,355,000 90,420,000 59,884,000 36,103,000 *Co lParative Statement showing the average yields of Spring Wheat per acre in Saskatchewan and certain States of the Union during the past ten years. 1917 1916 1915 1914 1913 1912 1911 1910 1909 1908 Ten year average Saskatchewan Kansas 14-2 60 17-5 8-0 140 16-5 21-5 12-6 14-2 10-5 7-3 5-5 6-3 12-5 130 8-8 25-2 120 17-0 18-2 17-0 16-0 16-7 18-4 12-4 15-0 10-5 11-2 9-0 11-5 13-5 11-8 19-5 8-5 16-2 10-5 9-0 12-0 17-0 13-0 19-9 150 15-5 18-0 14-2 14-1 17-0 17-2 18 4 10 8 4 10 13 9 5 2 1 8 4 15-5 8-4 160 5-0 12-8 13-9 20-9 11-0 22-1 10-2 17-4 14-3 14-6 12-8 12-9 15-4 13-6 12-6 130 11-6 13-0 17-0 17-2 14-1 17-5 10-2 Minnesota 14-0 North Dakota South Dakota Nebraska Iowa 110 11-3 13-6 16-3 United States 13-1 ♦Department of Agriculture, Regina, Saskatchewan 76 The Province of Saskatchewan, Canada The commencement of seeding operations during the past ten years has varied from April 1st to May 6th with a ten year average for the whole province of April 8th. The corresponding average for general seeding operations was April 18th. Harvest operations usually commence about the middle of August. Wheat cutting is completed on an average by the end of the first week of Septem- ber, barley cutting a few days earlier, oat cutting about the middle of the month and flax cutting by the end of the month or early in October. Threshing com- mences about the middle of September or slightly earlier and is rushed to completion as rapidly as labour and weather permit. Wages for threshing help for 1917 averaged for the province at $4.25 per day, the farmer providing the board as usual. The nominal wages in the southern half of the province were from $4.00 to $4.50 and $5.00 per day, while in the northern part, wages were slightly lower, ranging from $3.00 and $3.50 to $4.50. The large straw-burning steam threshing engines so comm.on a few years ago are now being replaced by gas engines of the traction type which are also employed in ploughing and cultivating the land. The storing of the grain is provided for by some 2,000 elevators with a total capacity of about 60,000,000 bushels in addition to the Moosejaw and Saskatoon interior elevators of 3,500,000 bushels capacity each. After threshing operations are completed as much land is ploughed as time will permit before freeze-up occurs. The fall of 1914 was an open one and the farmers were enabled to complete two-thirds of their ploughing. Usually less than half this work can be accomplished before winter sets in, the balance being left over till spring. The area under summerfallow is annually increasing while the new breaking is decreasing. The following table shows the areas of new breaking, summer fallow, fall ploughing and stubble lands prepared for the years 1914 to 1918 inclusive. Statement showing areas of new breaking, summerfallow, fall ploughing, spring ploughing and stubble lands prepared 1914-1917, and estimate for 1918. New breaking of previous year Summer- fallow of previous year Fall ploughing of previous year Spring ploughing and stubble Total acreage 1914 1,148,855 1,075,955 945,598 659,081 431,698 2,775,489 2,601,299 2.668,400 2,536,428 3,758,941 1,733,805 4,407,320 2,253,891 1,295,987 1,943,980 4,253,305 2,459,222 7,085,511 9,727,026 9,766,898 9,912,464 1915 10,543,796 1916 12,953,400 1917 14,218,522 1918 15,901,512 In the early days of settlement wild hay was the only variety that could be obtained locally. Now domestic grasses such as rye and brome are being successfully grown in all parts of the province, while timothy and alfalfa are gaining a place of considerable importance. In the following table details of the yields and prices of domestic grasses, alfalfa and wild hay are given for the nine crop districts of the province. These nine divisions have been made to follow as closely as possible areas having a similarity of soil, climate, and general equality of growing conditions. Lands and Products Saskatchewan — Hay Yields and Prices 1916 77 Di'^trict Domestic Grasses Alfalfa Wild Hay Average price Average yield Average price per ton Average yield per acre Average price per ton Average yield per acre 1 South Eastern 2 Regina Weyburn 3 South Central 4 South Western 5 East Central $ 9 00 11 40 9 75 12 00 7 73 10 00 11 00 7 00 10 00 1.64 1-88 2-00 1-40 1-76 2-00 200 2 00 2-37 $ 15 00 13 00 12 00 12 00 10 00 15 00 15 00 2 25 2-60 3-16 3-00 2-80 2-00 2-33 $ 6 10 7 88 7-75 9 27 5 00 7 16 6 72 4 90 5 76 1-80 1-60 1-37 1-40 1 -81 6 Central 1-31 7 West Central 8 North Eastern 1-50 1-84 9 North Western 14 00 3-00 1-64 Province 9 75 1-89 13 25 2-64 6 72 1-585 The production of wool is also steadily on the increase. The production and value of live stock are shown in the following table: Statement showing Increase in Production and Price of Live Stock in Saskatchewan 1918 Price 1918 1917 In- crease 1918 1917 1,000,076 888,673 111,403 160 00 160 00 352,989 354,403 * 1,414 100 00 100 00 926,342 856,687 69,655 81 00 52 00 134,177 127,892 6,285 15 00 15 00 521,240 573,938 * 52,698 25 00 20 00 Increased value Horses Cows.., Cattle. Sheep. Swine . 17,824,480 00 * 141,400 00 2,017,430 00 94,275 00 1,552,240 00 21,317,025 00 *Decrease. The homesteading of the land reached its zenith in 1910 when some 26,878 entries were recorded. The influx of population continued to rise, however, for some time after, the greatest number of immigrants to arrive in one year being 46,158 who came to the province in 1912. As the building boom was then at its height the tendency of newcomers to locate in urban rather than rural localities gained impetus from about the earlier of these dates. «' -06 -07 -08 -09 ^,0^ ^ p, s II -\Z -\3 -\^ -15 -16 -17 -18 prepared in the N.R.I. Br. Lands and Products 79 The following table contains statistics of the homesteading for a number of years when the highest limits were being reached. Statement showing the number of Homestead Entries in Saskatchewan made each month of the year for the past ten years ' January. . . . February . . . March April May June July August September . . October November. . December.... Total 1917 172 128 220 274 234 394 321 317 230 255 275 147 2,967 1916 268 298 368 371 508 536 477 383 396 294 317 299 4,515 1915 327 293 416 475 516 756 742 658 422 484 692 568 6,349 1914 669 533 796 1,166 875 1,262 1,178 757 436 885 624 571 9,752 1913 657 541 820 1,637 1,523 1,811 1,720 1,231 840 1,150 1,417 1,168 14,524 1912 803 893 1,190 2,263 1,948 2,243 2,269 1,726 1,275 1,213 1,513 1,089 18,425 1911 642 830 1,610 2,483 2,328 2,516 2,446 2,194 1,679 1,499 1,422 1,032 20,681 1910 976 1,069 2,688 4,240 3,745 3,440 2,576 1,958 1,530 1,845 1,783 1,028 26,878 1909 605 636 1,271 2,393 1,611 2,347 2,304 1,218 1,316 1,816 2,492 2,072 20,081 1908 711 718 967 1,607 1,526 1,907 1,551 1,110 4,162 2,905 2,001 1,639 20,804 In the growing of vegetables and roots Saskatchewan has had an experience similar to that of its hay productions. It has been only in recent years that the province has come to the front in these respects. Now it is conclusively proven that table corn, peas and beans as well as all the common varieties of vegetables, roots and small fruits can be grown most successfully. Several prizes have been won by exhibits of these at international soil products expositions. The suc- cesses being attained along these lines suggest that the province may witness a phenominal increase in the production of such fruits, vegetables, and roots. It now imports immense quantities of canned fruit and vegetables which might be grown and canned to better advantage within its own borders and adjacent to the centres of greatest consumption. With cheaper labour sugar beets might be grown in sufifiicient quantities to warrant the establishment of a refinery while the ever increasing dairy herds and poultry farms of the province offer a profitable use for field roots. In live stock the province is well supplied and while there has been consider- able increase in the numbers during the past few years particular attention is being paid to the improvement of the grade. Not "more stock" but "better stock" has been the advice of the agricultural officials and as a result the propor- tion of pure bred to grade stock is steadily on the increase. Poultry farming is making rapid strides while bee-keeping does not appear to have yet been under- taken to any extent. Dairying has been established as an extensive and perma- nent industry and is proving one of the greatest boons to the province. It not only creates a steady flow of business throughout the entire year, but draws the country gradually towards a condition of "mixed farming" which must eventually be accomplished to keep up its productiveness. 80 The Province of Saskatchewan, Canada Government Aid The provincial Department of Agriculture is most active in furthering the interests of farming in Saskatchewan. Its organization includes several distinct divisions of which the Dairy Branch, Live Stock Branch, Weeds and Seed Branch and the Co-operative Organization Branch are most closely associated with the improvement and advancement of the various lines of agricultural pursuit. In addition to these branches the department has a Labour Bureau, Statistics Branch, and Game and Museum Branch. Saskatchewan has placed on her statute books many Acts brought forward from time to time for the encouragement and betterment of agricultural condi- tions. Many of these have been further amended to improve their working conditions after having been given trials so that now there is no province in Canada more progressive in the matter of useful farm legislation. Among the many beneficial acts may be cited the Saskatchewan Co-opera- tive Elevator Company Act, the Saskatchewan Co-operative Creameries Act, the Municipal Hail Insurance Act, the Stray Animals Act, the Farm Implements Act, the Agricultural Aids Act, the Municipalities Seed Grain Act, the Noxious Weeds Act, the Live Stock Purchase and Sale Act, the Agricultural Instruction Act, the Dairyman's Act, the Horse Breeder's Act, the Wolf Bounty Act, the Game Act, and the Saskatchewan Farm Loan Act. The Farm Loan Board is authorized to loan money to farmers for productive and improvement purposes on the security of first mortgages on their farm. The amount loaned does not exceed fifty per cent of the value of the security offered. The rate of interest is the lowest possible. The term is for thirty years, on an amortization basis with the option of repaying more rapidly. During the first year's operations by this board, the sum of $1,758,288.00 was loaned to farmers. The sums now voted annually by the provincial assembly to be expended under the terms of The Agricultural Aids Act amount to about half a million dollars. As money is essential for the expansion of any industry these actions of the government in providing it for the use of the farmers is most opportune. The Co-operative Organization Branch has achieved remarkable results and today Saskatchewan stands out prominently as the leader of North America in the application of the principles of co-operation. The Saskatchewan Co- operative Elevator Company, Saskatchewan Co-operative Creameries, Limited, the Municipal Hail Insurance Association, and the Co-operative Wholesale Department of the Saskatchewan Grain Growers Association are outstanding examples of remarkable successes attending such enterprises. Some 500 co- operative associations throughout the province have been organized and registered under the guidance of this branch and are, with scarcely a single exception, meeting with great success. The co-operative branch itself conducts enterprises in the marketing of wool. An educational campaign has increased the standard of this product, satisfactory prices have been obtained and a great impetus has thus been given to the sheep raising projects. The Dairy Branch is doing a most valuable work in fostering the growth of cream production and butter making throughout the province. No other branch of farming is more important than this. It creates a stability and permanence Government Aid 81 that grain growing or stock raising alone fails to do. The conditions are favour- able and the field unlimited. Farmers are quick to realize that in this depart- ment of their labour they have an opportunity to provide for a steady cash income the year round, to spread out the year's work more uniformly and to keep up the fertility of the soil. The transition to more intensive methods of mixed farming and dairying is rapidly spreading and speaks well for the future prosperity of the province. Butter is now being shipped from Saskatchewan to Vancouver, Toronto and Montreal. Many private and co-operative creameries are to be found throughout the province and their number is continually being added to. The Dairy Branch now operate official grading stations at Regina and Saskatoon. Butter from the various creameries of the province is graded at the nearest station and stamped, while accompanying official grade certificates are issued. The producer, manu- facturer and consumer are thus guided and protected in the trade. The following table shows the amount of butter graded at each of the stations operated during the year 1918. Saskatchewan Butter Graded 1918 Butter Graded Station co-operative creameries private creameries Total Regina Lbs. 1,248,632 681,156 182,742 127,176 61,544 Lbs. 474,810 202,748 159,978 15,680 Lbs. 1,723,442 Saskatoon 883,904 Prince Albert 342,720 Vonda 142,856 North Battieford ... 61,544 2,301,250 853,216 3,154,566 The Live Stock Branch devotes its energies to the betterment of the live stock industry generally. Chief among its varied duties has been the importation of pure bred stock for breeding purposes which are disposed of to farmers at actual cost and on favourable terms. This is a most important action and is having far-reaching and beneficial results in raising the standard of quality of horses, cattle, sheep and hogs throughout the province. It costs no more to raise or keep a good animal than one of inferior grade, while the returns obtained usually spell profit or loss as the case may be. The campaign for better stock is thus being augmented in practical form. Not only do the duties of the branch concern the production of stock but also its disposal to the best advantage. Transportation problems, stock yards management, packing house methods, activities of commission men and drovers and financial aids rendered by banks all require constant attention. Steps to put the industry on a sound basis have been most carefully and thoroughly considered and the stock raiser may feel assured of the best conditions possible under which to operate. 61244—6 82 The Province of Saskatchewan, Canada The Weeds and Seed Branch have a dual task in coping with that ever persistent enemy of the farmer — the weed — and in choosing and testing clean and sound seed. These matters m^y appear trifling on the surface but in reality if neglected spread disaster with alarming rapidity. Sound seed of strong germinating qualities and free from the presence of injurious neighbours is essential to ensure a healthy crop growth. Land overrun by obnoxious weeds cannot be expected to produce good results and if steps are not taken to eradicate the evil, the land soon becomes useless either for grain growing or stock raising. Both urban and rural municipalities are required to appoint weed inspectors before the end of March for the current year. Gophers also destroy great quantities of growing crops, the estimate of this branch putting it at a quarter of a million acres annually. In destroying these pests the help of school children has been enlisted by offering various prizes and awards. During the year of 1917 some 880 schools joined in the competition and before Gopher Day, May 1st, had destroyed 514,140 of these little a.nimals. Similar competitions were conducted during 1918 with much greater success. Seed fairs are now conducted armually at various points throughout the pro- vince. Good work is being done in agricultural extension in connection with the various agricultural societies of the province. During the year 1917 there were held thirteen stallion shows, fifty ploughing matches, one hundred and thirty- three exhibitions, twenty-three standing crop competitions, sixty-two seed fairs, and twenty-eight poultry shows. Short courses in agriculture were held in fifty-seven points outside of the University during the first three months of 1918 in addition to a number of short courses provided for women. The total aggregate attendance at these courses was 6,796. Two week courses were also given at the College of Agriculture, as well as short courses in gas tractors. "Better Farming" trains have been operated from year to year on various lines throughout the province with marked success, the demonstrations and lectures being largely attended. Modern and scientific methods of farming are constantly kept before the public. The Federal Department of Agriculture at Ottawa is also most active in furthering the industry in Saskatchewan, For many years an extensive experi- mental farm has been conducted at Indian Head. A wide range of live stock is constantly kept on hand. The keeping of poultry and bees has become a successful branch of the work. Experiments in rotation and cultural work are carried out on large scales, while work with cereals, forage plants and horti- culture receive much attention. More recently experimental stations have been established at Rosthern and Scott and are meeting with remarkable success. The Federal Department embraces a number of divisions specializing on certain subjects, such as the divisions of chemistry, field husbandry, animal husbandry horticultural, cereals, botany, bees, forage plants and others. The province enjoys the privilege of benefiting by the results obtained from the work an^l experiments of these divisions. Successes and Opportunities The preceding pages amply illustrate the remarkable success attained by agriculturists as a body in Saskatchewan. Space will not permit of attempting Successes and Opportunities 83 to quote individual instances. The homesteaders who have settled on their lonely " quarter " without means or capital, save an optimistic spirit backed by a stout heart, have found themselves in a few years financially independent and in possession of an enviable farm home in the midst of smiling plenty. In like prosperity are those who have purchased farms and paid for them out of the proceeds of the first few crops. In fact testimonials are freely submitted from delighted purchasers who have made payments in full from a single crop. Annual visitors to the province have witnessed a series of scenes unfolding to their astonished gaze that constitute a drama of national growth crowding into the space of a few years the events that took our forefathers generations to accomplish. First on the lonely prairie is seen the humble "shack" of the bachelor homesteader, who drives with dogged perseverance his slowly moving yoke of oxen as the virgin soil is broken in long furrows. The next visit the golden grain is seen, the furrow has widened, cattle are grazing be^^ond and other " shacks " have made their appearance in the landscape. Succeeding scenes show rapid advancement. Horses replace the oxen, gas tractors assist the horses, the " shack " fades from the scene and modern buildings spring up as if by magic, the patches of grain take definite shape in expansive fields. Trees, flowers, a woman's face and romping children appear and the annual tourist wakes up with a start to find that in a few short years the pioneer scenes that interested him have passed away and he is merely travelling in a land as conventional as his own. No reference to the successes attained by Saskatchewan farms would be complete without mention of the envious record attained by this province in the winning of awards in various wide competitions in agricultural exhibits. The proud boast of the province as being the king of wheat-growing countries has been substantiated by Mr. Seager Wheeler of Rosthern, who has five times won the world's championship in the wheat class. In grains of all kinds, grasses, and even during later years in vegetables, the province has attained remarkable success in competition with all comers. Out of forty-six exhibits shown at the Dry Farming Exposition at El Paso in 1916 by farmers from Saskatchewan forty-four prizes and three sweepstakes were captured. Equally satisfactory results were obtained at The International Soil-Products Exposition and Dry- Farming Congress held at Peoria, Illinois, in 1917 and at Kansas City, Missouri, in 1918. In both quantity and quality the yields of the Saskatchewan farms are able to hold their own with the world. But what are the opportunities now? This is the question that concerns every prospective citizen of Saskatchewan. Are free lands still to be had? Are good wild lands available for purchase at reasonable prices? Are improved farms being offered for sale on terms that promise good investment? Are the chances for the poor man as good as ever? Can the small farmer with limited capital find in this new province an opportunity to expand? Are its roads, markets and general conditions advanced to a sufficient degree to warrant heavy investments in large modern method operations of farming? These are questions which demand specific replies and evasive statements or broad generalities will not suffice. 61244^61 84 The Province of Saskatchewan, Canad'a With improved agricultural conditions, better transportation facilities, rural telephones, and good markets the opportunities for success in grain farming, mixed farming, dairying, and poultry-raising are better than ever before, even if free prairie homesteads are almost a thing of the past. The chances for the man without means to file on a quarter section which will spring into sudden heights of value are not good. Homesteads are still available but not on the prairie. The poor man's opportunity still awaits his coming but the procedure is not the same as in the boom days. It is nevertheless as sure if not as fast. In the northern parts of the province lightly wooded homesteads are to be had. The land here is good and the district is admirably adapted to mixed farming. Until sufficient land is brought under cultivation to yield a revenue that will support him the homesteader in his spare months is assured of plenty of work at good wages — an advantage not available in the earlier days. If not afraid of work the man without means need not hesitate. In ten or fifteen years he will, with ordinary luck, be possessor of a good farm home that will yield him an independent living. The greatest opportunities lie in the vast areas of unimproved vacant land held by absentee landowners, railroad companies and others. These lands comprise a considerably greater area than that occupied. They are scattered throughout the whole province and have the advantage of being sandwiched in between the improved lands, thus giving their purchasers the advantage of roads, school, markets, and the like enjoyed by older settlers. The average man who has homesteaded will tell you that, provided he has enough means to warrant the undertaking, he would buy vacant land rather than repeat his homesteading experiences were he called upon to decide again. On such locations as these the newcomer finds himself launched at once into the midst of a flourishing settlement and his pioneering is deprived of its hardships and loneliness. Neighbours assist him in erecting a house and getting a start, in return for which they are glad of his help in harvest time before he has a crop of his own. In like manner his land is quickly broken, crops are soon being harvested and often such men pay for a farm before a homesteader gets his patent. Prices for vacant lands are very reasonable, all things considered, and will never be less. As an example the figures obtained from sales of school lands in Saskatchewan during the past few 3>^ears are shown on the following table. *Saskatchewan — School Lands Sales Year " Average Prices obtained for Wild Lands Acres sold Average price per acre 1916 116,791 214,899 535,066 $ 14 15 1917 18 90 1 18 22 54 ♦School Lands Branch, Department of the Interior, Ottawa. Successes and Opportunities 85 These figures are generally higher than the price of wild land§ for the reason that farmers on adjoining sections bid strongly to secure land convenient to their holdings, and get easy terms for payment. Improved farm lands are being bought and sold at reasonable prices depend- ing to a large extent on their location, amount of improvements, and records in production. Both improved and unimproved farm lands in Saskatchewan represent the soundest of investments. To the extensive operator no better field is offered. The great level stretches of choice land, free from hills or ravines, stones or stumps, offer unparalled oppor- tunities for the successful operations of power machinery. At the prices lands can be purchased in Saskatchewan today no mistake can be made in securing all one can faithfully attend to. They are bound to advance as settlement grows more dense. The rural opportunities offered in the province of Saskat- chewan are genuine and attractive and success awaits the newcomer now as surely as it has crowned the efforts of those who cast in their lot earlier. CITIES AND TOWNS For a purely agricultural province the growth of Saskatchewan's urban centres is most remarkable. It demonstrates with striking force the source of wealth derived from the land. No seaports or fishing towns are found to swell the ranks of urban dwellers as is the case of provinces bordering on the sea. No vast deposits of raw material have caused great manufacturing cities to spring up in their proximity and speedily outnumber the rural inhabitants. The various cities, towns and villages of the province have sprung into existence to meet the requirements of their immediate vicinities as the land became settled, and their growth has been entirely dependent on, and in harmony with, the progress of agricultural development. The agricultural barometer indicates the state of the city's business as accurately as it does that of the farm. As the time for harvest approaches the banker watches the weather as anxiously as the farmer. Railway companies and financial institutions send out an army of experts to keep them supplied with crop reports and estimates of the probable yield. Almost every business move depends on these reports. Let an adverse rumor appear and a spirit of retrenchment or economy permeates the air. But let a bumper crop be announced and everybody smiles. Railroads rush in empty cars on every siding in readiness to receive the golden grain, bankers work overtime changing money, and business everywhere booms. Implement dealers relax their anxious vigils while the piano agent gets his opportunity to make a record sale. The success or failure of the crop is of vital interest to every home and forms the chief topic of conversation on the street, in the club or about the family fireside as the climax approaches. It is needless to state that success has happily been the good fortune of the province almost universally. Its wonderful advance- ment proclaims it more eloquently than words could. A few partial failures 86 The Province of Saskatchewan, Canada and varying degrees of success have established a period of anxiety, which will probably never disappear, though it is becoming more and more a period of estimate rather than of anxiety. The urban growth as compared with the rural makes an interesting study. While both have been wonderfully rapid the greatest rate of increase goeS to the former. The general tendency of the world has been a drift of the population to the centres and strenuous efforts are everywhere in evidence to get the people " back to the land." In a new country such as Saskatchewan, advertised as a farming district offering free lands, one might expect the rural population to increase more rapidly than the urban. Some explanations may be offered in this respect. In the first place the census returns include as " urban " the population of villages, which after all are largely rural, containing many farmers whose lands adjoin. The same applies to a large extent to the towns. Before roads or schools were available many farmers established their families in the nearest town and divided their own time between town and farm. With the coming of better roads came also the automobile, permitting him to continue the arrangement to even better advantage. Children were formerly sent away for their higher education. Now they receive it in their own province. Prosper- ous farmers spent their winters at the coast or in eastern or southern cities. With the improved conditions in their own cities and the advantages of modern utilities afforded they are now building city homes in their own province. Were these factors all taken into consideration it would be evident that there is a healthy and well balanced rate of growth in both urban and rural Saskatchewan. The following figures are compiled from the official census returns of 1906 and 1916. Saskatchewan Urban Population 1906 1916 Urban No. Pop. Per cent. No. Pop. Per cent Cities 4 24 70 20,778 21,380 6,304 7-15 6-39 5-26 7 72 304 79,921 49,427 46,949 12-'?4 Towns 7-63 Villages 7-25 Total Urban 98 48,462 209,301 18-00 81-20 383 176,297 471,538 27-22 Total Rural 72-78 Total Population 257,763 100-00 647,835 100-00 In 1906 the urban population was 18-8% of the total and the rural 81-2. In 1916 the ratios were 27-22 and 72-78. The urban showed a ten year increase of 263 • 8% and the rural of 179 • 8%. The cities and towns, with their populations according to the census of 1916 are shown in the following list. In addition there were 314 incorporated villages in 1918. Ciiies and Towns Cities and Towns of Saskatchewan Population shown for 1916 87 City Population City Population Moosejaw North Battleford Prince Alb rt Regina 16,934 3,145 6,436 26,127 Saskatoon.. . . Swift Current Weyburn .... 21,048 3,181 3,050 Town Population Town Population Alameda Alsask Areola Asquith Assiniboia Balgonie Battleford Biggar Bredenburg. . Broadview . . . Canora Carlyle Carnduff Caron Craik Davidson . . . . Delisle Duck Lake. . . Estevan Fleming Francis Gavan Grenfell Gull Lake. . . . Hanley Herbert Humboldt Indian Head. Kamsack Kerrobert. . . . Kindersley . . . Langham . . . . Lanigan Lemberg Lloydminster Lumsden 304 301 852 272 719 221 1,436 830 169 877 835 412 555 254 427 513 286 459 2,140 310 222 500 873 712 368 950 1,435 1,334 1,202 571 770 352 372 410 494 615 Macklin. . . . Maple Creek Melfort Melville Milestone.. . Moosomin. . Morse Mortlach. . . Nokomis Ogema Outlook Oxbow Qu'Appelle. . Radisson... . Radville Rosetown. . . Rosthern . . . Rouleau. . . . Saltcoats.. . . Scott Shaunavon. . Sintulata. . . Strassburg . . Sutherland. . Vonda Wadena. . . . Wapella .... Watrous. . . . Watson Whitewood.. Wilkie Wolseley Wynyard ... Yellowgrass . Yorkton .... Zealandia. . . 250 1,140 971 2,100 450 1,329 452 456 508 276 613 678 722 438 621 731 1,200 495 491 316 897 364 544 940 323 449 441 843 246 446 815 1,054 682 408 3,144 242 The Provincial Government, through its Department of Municipal Affairs, exercises a general supervision pertaining to the welfare of all urban and rural municipalities. One of the most vexed questions concerning these that has arisen in recent years has been that of taxation. During 1917 the Department engaged Doctor Robert Murray Haig, Assistant Professor of Economics, Columbia 88 The Province oj Saskatchewan, Canada University, New York, to make a survey of the incidence of taxation in the urban municipalities and report thereon with suggested improvements. His report treats the matter most comprehensively and his recommendations favour a reduction in land taxation and an increase in that on improvements. The general drift had been towards the " single tax ", villages being permitted on a two-thirds vote to adopt this system, while towns and cities were allowed to reduce the assessment on improvements below the normal figure of 60 per cent fixed by law. In 1917 the seven cities of the province assessed their improve- ments at percentages of their full value ranging from 15 to 45 while 81 villages were operating on the " single tax " basis. Considerable legislation in the interests of the municipalities has been enacted from time to time of which the "Town Planning and Rural Development Act " is worthy of special mention. It came into effect on July 1, 1918, and aims to insure that townsites will be laid out on modern healthful lines rather than for the purpose of speedy sale and high profits to the vendors. " The Village Act " has been amended to provide for assessment of lands, buildings and improve- ments, personal property and income. " The Union Hospital Act ", " The Arrears of Taxes Act " and " The Seed Grain Act " are other progressive enact- ments. Brief descriptions of the seven cities of the province follow. Persons desirous of obtaining fuller information or particulars of business, professional, educational or other opportunities in these cities or in any of the towns and villages of the province should communicate with the local officials. It may be taken for granted that each city and town has a Board of Trade. Inquiries, therefore, should be addressed to the secretary of such body or to the chief municipal corresponding officer, namely, the city clerk, town clerk, or village secretary- treasurer as the case may be. Regina The history of Regina dates back to 1882 when the first settlers arrived and erected a canvas town about a mile west of the centre of the present city. The town site was selected the following year, being arranged jointly by the Government and the Canadian Pacific Railway Company. The name "Regina" was conferred upon this townsite by Lord Lome, then Governor-General of Canada, and on the 27th of March, 1883, the town was declared to be the seat of government of the Northwest Territories in place of Battleford. The North- west Mounted Police also selected their headquarters here about the same time. In May Lieutenant-Governor and Mrs. Dewdney took up their residence. A post office, school, and a Dominion Lands Office were opened in the spring and by October the Government buildings. Council Chamber, and Indian Office were ready for occupation. Regina was incorporated as a city on June 19, 1903, just twenty years later. In 1905 it became the capital of the newly created province of Saskat- chewan and in 1908 the erection of the Parliament Buildings was commenced. It has been said that there are no Parliament Buildings more dignified or better adapted to the needs of legislative work than these. The building is constructed of Tyndall stone, fireproof throughout, and was erected at a cost of approxi- mately $1,900,000. The Departmental offices were occupied in the fall of 1910. Regina 89 The length of the building is about 543 feet, and the height of the dome approximately 187 feet. The central portion is 98 feet in width and 267 feet in depth with a wing on either side, each 222 feet long and 72 feet in depth. Regina is a great financial centre of the province, and its development in this respect is very remarkable. Fourteen of the leading Canadian banks now have branches in the cit^^ and the majority of them have erected substantial and elaborate offices of their own. The Bank Clearing House Association was established in 1909 and the clearings for 1918 were $184,624,626. Practically every loaning institution of importance in Canada has an office in the city, many of them occupying their own building. A very large volume of business is transacted in the purchase and sale of bonds and debentures of the muni- cipalities and school districts of Manitoba, Saskatchewan and Alberta, the City being the headquarters of Western Canada for this class of business. Twelve lines of railway radiate in all directions from the city and plans are under way for the construction of ten additional branch lines. The city has also some 320 acres of municipally owned industrial sites served by a spur-track system for the benefit of manufacturers and distributing houses. These sites are sold on easy terms to bona fide applicants or leased for terms of 49 years. A vast volume of business is already accumulating in this section, in 1913 the wholesale distribution business amounting to over $40,000,000. Regina has now a large number of manufacturing concerns, some 114 whole- sale and over 360 retail houses. Included in these are the $200,000 buildings of the Robert Simpson Western Limited erected in 1916, the $500,000 refining plant of the Imperial Oil Company erected in 1916, the $200,000 Mail Order House of the T. Eaton Company, Limited, and many other large buildings. The city is a firm believer in municipal ownership and owns its street railway, light and power plant, and municipal stock yards. It is the headquarters of the Saskatchewan Co-operative Elevator Company, and the Grain Growers* Grain Company, both of which have been of remarkable benefit to the grain- growing communities. Its public market is under the control of the Local Council of Women. Besides the government and municipal buildings the city has the Regina College, St. Chad's College, the Provincial Government Normal School, all carried out in Gothic treatment, and a Collegiate Institute of classic design. Its many schools, churches, hospitals, and business blocks are a credit to any city while its uniformly superior residences have given it the title of "The City of Beautiful Homes". Saskatoon The city of Saskatoon is beautifully situated on the South Saskatchewan river in the heart of one of the greatest wheat growing belts of the world. Its growth has been most remarkable. In December, 1903, the entire population consisted of 113 souls, in 1911 it had jumped to 12,000 and by 1916 it had passed the 21,000. It is now estimated at 25,000. In 1909 it was selected as the seat of the Saskatchewan Provincial University and Agricultural College and has thus become generally known as "The University City". Its splendid educa- tional facilities are augmented by some twenty-one places of worship. Three of the larger churches may easily rank with the most beautiful religious edifices in the Dominion. The residences of the city are also of a high class. u.- Pi Pi (u j:? CO 3 13^ Pi Saskatoon 91 Its unique geographical location makes it a natural centre for a vast district. Here is found a favourable site for crossing the valley of the South Saskatchewan river and the three great Canadian Transcontinental lines have bridged the waters with structures ranging in length from 1,000 to 1,530 feet. There are also two traffic bridges. One is built of steel and is 1,000 feet long. The other is a most beautiful reinforced concrete structure, consisting of ten arches, four of which have a span of 150 feet each. The total length of this bridge is 1,593 feet. The traffic of this district is thus focused on the city. The river also pro- vides an adequate and pure supply of water at all times of the year. Municipal ownership is exercised in relation to water, light, power, street railway, sewerage and hospitals. These various utilities have been most success- fully managed and show surplus revenues over expenditures. At the same time the rates are most reasonable, those for power being especially enticing. Its splendid shipping facilities, central location and the great agricultural district surrounding it guarantees the commercial future of this progressive city. Among the industrial institutions are found the Dominion Government elevator with a capacity of 3,500,000 bushels and the mammoth western plant of the Quaker Oats Company of Chicago. Among the natural resources which are likely to be available for the city's use may be mentioned coal, gas and building material. These are all found at no great distance and will probably be made accessible in a short time. Building stone is found on the ground and has already been utilized in the erection of the University buildings. As a residence city Saskatoon takes a leading place. Its site, overlooking the valley of the river, and commanding an extensive view of the prairies, is admirable. Its wide and well laid out streets, flanked by avenues of trees, its parks and drives, and its general planning along sanitary, healthful and progres- sive lines, make it an attractive location for homes. The social, educational and business advantages of this city are worthy of consideration. Moosejaw This progressive city is located on Moosejaw Creek about fifty miles west of the city of Regina, and also in the heart of an extensive wheat belt. Indian legends tell us that some fifty years ago a pioneer. Lord Dunsmore, with his wife and child, camped at a point and mended the broken wheel of his "Red River" cart with the jaw bone of a moose. They afterward spoke of the spot as the place where the white man found the moose jaw, hence the name. In 1906 the population was 6,250, which increased during the next ten years to nearly three times this number. It is the great railroad city of the province being the divisional point of the Canadian Pacific Railway. These yards are the third largest individually owned in the world. Founded as a town in 1884 on this newly constructed railway it early became an important divisional point with an ever-increasing pay-roll which went to build it up. From here lines were built south-easterly to Minneapolis and St. Paul and north-westerly to Edmonton, in addition to several local lines. The surrounding district developed into a rich wheat-growing area and the city now finds itself the centre of an extensive and populous agricultural district. Its 92 The Province oj Saskatchewan, Canada commercial and industrial expansion has been rapid. The Dominion Govern- ment has erected an elevator here with a capacity of 3,500,000 bushels. Flour- milling has been extensively prosecuted while the butter now graded and shipped from this point amounts to considerable proportions. Moosejaw owns and operates its own light and power plant. In 1917, this utility showed a surplus of $7,692.32 after paying all charges, including interest, sinking fund and depreciation. Its fire loss has been exceptionally small. The city is well laid out and has a substantial class of public buildings, business houses and residences. Its educational and social facilities are in keeping with its general advancement and the future of the city bids fair to witness continued prosperity. Prince Albert Prince Albert is beautifully situated on the south bank of the North Saskat- chewan river a few miles above its junction with the south branch. It is located in the midst of a particularly good mixed farming country and with respect to the province as a whole occupies a more central position than any of the other six cities. This location will stand it in good stead when the unlimited and varied resources of the great north land come to their own. Already the city has felt the beneficial influence of its forests and fisheries and to a lesser degree of its minerals. Prince Albert is one of the oldest centres of the province and in its early days was headquarters for a number of river steamboats plying the waters of the Saskatchewan. It is now served by two railway companies whose lines give direct connection with Winnipeg, Regina, Saskatoon, Battleford and beyond, as well as a thorough local service including a branch line northerly to Big River in the heart of the lumbering district. A joint railway and traffic bridge spans the Saskatchewan in front of the city and a network of roads and trails lead out in every direction. Its principal industry for many years has been lumbering, its mills giving employment to thousands of men and providing a market for vast quantities of farm produce. This amounts annually to about 100,000 bushels of oats, 1,000 tons of hay, 250,000 pounds of pork, as well as enormous quantities of vegetables, butter, and other farm produce. The output of sawn lumber from this city has reached a total of about 100 million board feet. About 5,000 men and 1,500 teams are now employed during the winter months in the woods, and about a third this number during the summer months. Another industry of vital interest to the district is the newly erected plant of the Burns Packing Company which has a capacity of 100 head of cattle a day and 100 hogs per hour. A flour mill and a creamery have also been estab- lished and have attained a permanent place in the industrial sphere. The city, therefore, has splendid opportunities for advancement. Among the public institutions is included the Dominion penitentiary located on its own farm adjoining the city boundaries. The Dominion Land and Crown Timber Agent,' Mining Recorder, District Forestry Inspector, Customs Officers and Provincial Police District Officers are also located here. The wholesale and retail houses and the hotels of the city are well in keeping with the best. Prince Albert 93 As an educational centre the city has excellent advantages. It has four public schools, a collegiate institute, a girl's school, a convent for the education of girls and an institute recently opened by the Presbyterian church for the training of Ruthenian boys. Two large hospitals are among the public buildings. The city is also noted for its fine churches. It is the site of the Roman Catholic bishop's residence and the diocesan cathedral. The Anglican Pro-Cathedral is also located here and the Bishop of Saskatchewan also has his headquarters and residence in the city. The Presbyterians, Methodists, and Baptists have excel- lent churches. The financial houses of the city include eight banks. The public utilities include the provincial government telephone system and municipal electric light and power and water service. During the past ten years the city has made vast improvements in its streets, parks, and buildings till it is now a decidedly attractive residence centre with its hillside location overlooking the river and its substantial buildings attractively set off by a sprinkling of trees and shrubs. Swift Current Swift Current is the third city of Saskatchewan located on the main line of the Canadian Pacific Railway. Its history dates back to the building of this first transcontinental line, and it has witnessed a steady growth. In 1914 it was granted incorporation as a city and in 1916 the government census showed it to have a population of over 3,000. For many years it was an important ranching centre and the shipping point for a large number of western cattle. During more recent years the ranching lands have been largely encroached upon by grain growers and the district has proved a successful one for both ranching and farming. The utilities are municipally owned and the advancement of the city generally is along most progressive lines. Some eighteen wholesale houses, and five elevators are doing a large business. Its industrial concerns include a 200-barrel flour mill, cement products factory, aerated water factory, planing mill and creamery. Among the business and educational institutions are found eight banks, a high school, three public schools, a business college, land titles and judicial districts offices, a customs house and two newspapers. It has also five churches and a very creditably showing of substantial residences. Its distributive area embraces about 3,000 square miles of the south-westerly part of the province. North Battleford This new city has sprung up with astonishing rapidity on the north bank of the Saskatchewan river opposite the old historic town of Battleford, one time capital of the Northwest Territories and about which still clings the fast fading landmarks and legends of pioneer days, mounted police exploits and Indian rebellions. The old town might have grown to be the great city of this 94 The Province of Saskatchewan, Canada district had not the westward creeping railway, void of any sentiment, crossed the river and passed it by on the north bank leaving the yawning depths of the forbidding valley between to shut it off and permit a rival to grow up before its eyes, usurp its name and spring into fame on its reputation. A day of retribution may yet come. The valley has been traversed by roads, the river bridged, connection with this and other lines of steel secured and an outraged town of mature years threatens still to run this phenomenal child city a stern race. In the meantime, however, the city has gained a wide start. It is a divisional point on the Canadian Northern Railway and the distri- buting point for the great areas of farming and grazing lands extending northerly to the fertile valley of the Beaver river. Another line to the north of the river makes direct connection with Prince Albert. The city is built on a commanding site overlooking the Saskatchewan valley and the bald prairies of the district give it an extensive view in every direction. It has been most fortunate in the permanent nature of its buildings which have been erected. Too often the rapid growth of a new town is marred by a cheap class of buildings being hurriedly thrown together. The traveller cannot but be struck by the absence of such signs in North Battleford. Not only are the streets and public buildings of an attractive, modern and permanent nature but the residential sections exhibit the same traits. The expansion of the city along these lines is most adequately provided for. A very fine collegiate institute and a number of excellent schools are found. The churches, hospitals, and library are well in keeping with their usual high standing throughout the province. The outlook of this young city is very promising. Weyburn Weyburn occupies the most southerly and easterly location of any city of Saskatchewan and lies in the heart of a prosperous farming community. The land about it has long since been all taken up and as the acreage being put under crop has steadily increased a great number of rural villages and towns have sprung up. The pioneer stage has passed and scientific and intensive methods of farming are making a most permanent and prosperous section about this centre, increasing the scope of its distribution and commercial and industrial activities. It has also the additional advantages of being located in the lignite coal area, the deposits of which are now being utilized to great commercial advantage, especially in connection 'with clay working industries which find an abundant supply of suitable raw material throughout the southern parts of the province. Its outlook for industrial expansion in these and other lines is most promising. It was made a city in 1913 and its municipal policy has been active and progressive. Its utilities are quite up to the standard and are publicly owned. In financial, educational, and commercial jnatters it is in excellent condition. It offers inducements of no mean proportions to those seeking commercial or industrial opportunities as well as to those seeking a residence location. Weyburn 95 table: Further statistics of the three largest cities are shown on the following Principal Cities of Saskatchewan Details Regina Saskatoon Moosejaw Date founded Date incorporated as city Population 1906 (Gov. Census) . . . Population 1911 " Population 1916 Population 1918 (estimated) Total area in acres Area of parks in acres Miles paved streets Miles concrete sidewalks Miles plank sidewalks Miles sewers Miles water mains Miles street car lines Number railway lines radiating. . . . Number schools and colleges Number of churches Number of theatres and rinks Number city police Number city firemen Number banks Number wholesale houses Number retail houses Number manufacturing plants Number daily newspapers Number weekly newspapers Bank clearings, 1918 Tax receipts, 1918 Customs receipts, 1918 Postal receipts, 1918* (sale stamps) Assessment value, 1918 (net) Value municipal buildings Value Prov. Government Buildings, Value Dom. Government Buildings Waterworks ownership Light and power ownership Telephone ownership Street railway ownership Tax rate (Pub. School), 1918 Tax rate (Sep. School), 1918 1882 1903 6,169 30,213 26,127 40,000 8,427 257 30 42 72 69 73 32 12 19 29 8 31 36 14 114 360 15 2 2 $184,624,626.00 1,372,070.82 1,527,325.12 561,854.23 57,272,550.00 1,280,200.00 2,566,500.00 445,800.00 Municipal u Prov. Gov. Municipal 30 mills 30-6 " 1883 1906 3,011 12,004 21,048 25,000 8,480 395 5 53 14 48 45 16 3 Transconti- nental. fl University, 1 13 schools, [and 1 college. 21 6 22 36 15 52 200 42 2 3 $91,412,813.52 671,853.53 1,167,377.86 190,398,69 30,018,838.00 42,000.00 122,000.00 120,500.00 Municipal Prov. Gov. Municipal 30-25 mills 34-15 " 1884 1903 6,249 13,823 16,934 20,500 9,760 170 5- 40 30 45 67 12 /7 schools, \2 colleges 17 6 14 30 11 20 150 15 2 2 78,425,563.00 699,595.64 514,867.23 119,764.35 24,462,055.00 680,000.00 202,166.00 108,555.00 Municipal it Prov. Gov. Private 28 mills 36 " *Year ending March 31, 1918 Urban Opportunities Throughout the volumes of literature that have been published pertaining to the inducements offered to prospective settlers by the new provinces of Western Canada particular attention has been paid to the rural or agricultural phase. The one outstanding call has been for tillers of the soil. With a population that promises soon to reach the million mark it is evident that wide opportunities must present themselves to the manufacturer, the merchant, and the professional man. To what extent do the various cities, towns, and villages of Saskatchewan offer inducements to such classes? This is a broad 96 The Province of Saskatchewan, Canada question and one worthy of careful investigation. When free grants of the world's choicest wheat lands were being handed out as inducements to settlers to take up their abode in this province there was no occasion for waiting to consider; one had merely to follow the crowd and take the first gift that lay in his path. There was but little choice. The land was uniformly all good and those who chose blindly were almost as sure of success as the most careful. In the investment, however, of a large amount of capital the field must be more thoroughly examined and the location decided upon only after the most mature deliberation. Unsuitable locations and misdirected energy often result in failures that are otherwise entirely unwarranted. In early days it was said that the West might attain to great agricultural proportions but could not hope to succeed along industrial or manufacturing lines. This misconception is being rapidly dissipated and it becomes quite evident that the industrial and commercial activities of the province have every promise of keeping pace with its agricultural expansion. In proof of this assertion may be quoted as an illustration the remarkable success which has been achieved by the mammoth plant of the Quaker Oats Company since its establishment at Saskatoon. The tremendous volume of products annually yielded by the Saskatchewan farm offers unlimited opportunities to such industrial concerns as cereal mills, packing plants, creameries and canneries. When cattle were shipped alive to distant markets their hides only became available to the tanners at such distant points, consequently it was only natural that they should return to the province in the form of ready-made leather goods. The order of things is rapidly changing and as the abattoirs of the province increase their capacity the opportunity arises for tanners, harness makers, saddlers, shoemakers and other leather manufacturers to establish permanent and remunerative local industries. It appears only reasonable that many such products of the farm which return to it in various forms of manufactured articles might be so treated in closer proximity than is being done at present. Even should the cost of such process be more excessive than in distant centres the saving in time and money spent on freight is an offset of considerable proportions. The products of the forest and lakes might be treated more thoroughly than at present. Sawn lumber and frozen fish are being shipped out of the province in great quantities, yet wooden boxes and canned fish are being imported. This suggests that wood-working industries might find lucrative fields in some of the towns adjacent to the timber areas and that avenues are open for the better utilization of the vast quantities of fish to be found in the northern waters. Large areas of swamp, muskeg, and bog found in the northern parts of the province might be made to support a large peat industry. The mineral resources of the province are only beginning to be known and prominent among the possibilities is the outlook for gas and oil. At present unlimited opportunities for the manufacture of brick, fire-brick, tile and pottery are available in the extensive high-grade clay areas of the southern parts of the province where the vast adjoining lignite coal fields guarantee unlimited power for industrial purposes. It has been demonstrated that the production of flax and wool can be most successfully carried on in all southern parts of the province. There is no real Urban Opportunities 97 reason why this raw material should not be locally manufactured into finished articles of wear. Only small fruits are grown in the province but these and vegetables of every description flourish most luxuriantly and would support any number of canneries. These are only a few random suggestions but they serve to illustrate that the manufacturing possibilities of the province are by no means to be ignored. Cheap power is of course an item of considerable importance and this has not been overlooked by any municipality. It has been made one of their most important considerations and an examination of this point will reveal the encouraging fact that the almost universal muni- cipally-owned plants of the province have made provision for the supplying of power at exceptionally low figures. The opportunities in the commercial world throughout the province are legion and need no enumeration. There is not a village, town, or city in the whole province that is not making rapid strides in keeping with the tremendous growth of the rural districts. Commercial houses of every description to be found in an agricultural country may safely depend on an ever-increasing volume of business which the certain expansion of the province in the coming years will guarantee. To the professional man the attractions are none the less inviting. Many a young lawyer or doctor starting out in the world with nothing but his diploma and a burden of college debts has come to this province and found in one of the outlying new centres of settlement an opportunity to establish himself in humble quarters according to his scanty means where the outlook for rapid expansion dispelled the disappointment of being denied a more auspicious start. In a few years he has found himself beautifully located in a thriving town with a large and lucrative practice and a home surrounded by every comfort. It is not uncommon to find such men in a few years rising from their modest embarkations to the highest positions of public trust and responsibility. Many a member of parliament, city mayor, or other prominent official can point to such an experience. The smaller towns and villages of the province, and hundreds of others which will spring up in the next few years, offer such opportunities to profes- sional men of all callings, while the larger cities are becoming worthy of the presence of men of the highest degree of proficiency in their various callings. The growth of the educational department culminating in the provincial uni- versity has created a demand for school teachers, music teachers, lecturers and educationalists in general that scarcely existed at all a quarter of a century ago. As the agricultural pursuits of the province are becoming more and more scientific and intensive so will the industrial activities of the cities become greater and the business and professional advantages be rounded out to greater completeness. It is evident that the province is about to witness a phenomenal expansion during the next quarter century and that its urban opportunities will be in keeping with its rural. The remarkable advancement achieved by its seven cities is only a fair sample of the general forward trend of all its urban centres and rural districts. Another unfailing indication of its financial growth has been the establishment 61244—7 98 The Province of Saskatchewan, Canada throughout the province of numerous branches of nearly all the chartered banks of Canada. In 1905 there were 39 such banks in Saskatchewan. In 1918 the number had reached 480 in addition to 12 private banks. Bank clearings from these 480 institutions for the year 1918 amounted to $368,631,391. The faith of the leading financial houses of Canada in the future of Saskat- chewan's various municipalities is thus made manifest in concrete form by the establishment of these many branches. Further particulars of these banks are shown in the following table: — - Chartered Banks of Saskatchewan Name of Bank Head Office Total Number of Branches in Saskatchewan Commerce Dominion , Hamilton Hochelaga Home Imperial Merchants Montreal Nova Scotia Ottawa Royal Standard Sterling Toronto Union Weyburn Security Toronto, Ont. . . Toronto, Ont.. . Hamilton, Ont. Montreal, Que.. Toronto, Ont.. . Toronto Ont. . . Montreal, Que.. Montreal, Que., Halifax, N.S... Ottawa, Ont. . . Montreal, Que. , Toronto, Ont. . . Toronto, Ont.. . Toronto, Ont. . . Winnipeg, Man Weyburn, Sask Total. 77 4 24 4 7 21 33 41 5 9 97 14 2 22 101 19 480 FORESTS AND WATER-POWERS To speak of the forests of a " prairie " province is somewhat of a paradox, yet the extent of wooded areas in Saskatchewan practically equals that of the unwooded when the province in its entirety is considered. The adoption of the term " prairie provinces " however, as applied to Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta cannot be wondered at when one considers that for a distance of some 800 miles, from east of Winnipeg to west of Calgary, the traveller crosses the southern parts of these provinces and sees only the vast undulating prairies of apparently endless magnitude. The whole of the southern part of Saskatche- wan, from the International boundary line to Prince Albert on the North Sas- katchewan river, some 300 odd miles in depth by a width of about 350 miles is practically prairie country. To be able to boast of this unbroken tract comprising over 100,000 square miles of fertile wheat land is wonderful, and to be able to add to it an equal area of forest land is amazing, yelr-such is the privilege of the province of Saskatchewan. As the settlement to date has been almost entirely within the former area the province is still to the public at large the " prairie " one and because of the predominance of its agricultural possibilities may ever remain so. The forests however, are no mean asset and their economic development is bound to assume definite form in the near future. The total dependence of the neighbouring prairies for wood supplies from other districts, of which the forest areas of the northern part of the province are most convenient and the unsuitability of much of this wooded district itself for any other purpose than forestry makes a double inducement for the stimu- lation of its productiveness in tree growth. Lest this statement might be misconstrued to apply to the general forest wealth and resources as compared with the prairie possibilities it must be stated here that only in relation to certain areas can such be applied. Nearly the entire area listed under the " prairie " division comprises the most fertile of agricultural land, which, on being brought under cultivation, yields a vast wealth of grain and other farm products and supports a large population. On the contrary, the greater part of the area included in the " forest " division lies in those northern parts where neither the forest products nor the soil can be considered of any particular value. Taking the entire prairie division the percentage that might be termed " first class agricultural lands " is high, probably easily 90 per cent, while that of the " forest " division which could be rated as " commercially valuable " is low, possibly not over 25 per cent. In the cold and rocl