CALIFORNIA AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SERVICE CIRCULAR 110 MARCH, 1939 TURKEY PRODUCTION IN CALIFORNIA V. S. ASMUNDSON and T. H. JUKES Cooperative Extension work in Agriculture and Home Economics, College of Agriculture, University of California, and United States Department of Agriculture cooperating. Distributed in furtherance of the Acts of Congress of May 8, and June 30, 1914. B. H. Crocheron, Director, California Agricultural Extension Service. THE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA BERKELEY, CALIFORNIA CONTENTS PAGE Introduction 3 Breeding 6 Varieties 6 Selecting breeding stock 7 Age of breeding stock 13 Trap-nesting and pedigree breeding 14 Inbreeding, outbreeding, and crossbreeding 16 Management of breeding stock 18 Incubation 20 Care of hatching eggs 20 Natural incubation 22 Artificial incubation 24 Brooding 29 Brooder houses 29 Brooders 30 Brooder management 36 Management of growing turkeys 38 Nutrition 43 The nutrients 43 Practical considerations in feeding turkeys 45 Wet feeding 45 Roughage 45 Fine vs. coarse grinding 45 Grasshoppers in turkey feeding 46 Pellets in turkey feeding 46 The use of "remedies" in feeding turkeys 46 Protein requirements of turkeys 46 Vitamin requirements 47 Vitamin A 47 Vitamin D 49 Vitamin-G complex 50 Other vitamins 52 Mineral requirements 52 Feedstuffs used in turkey rations in California 54 Energy concentrates 54 Protein concentrates 56 Vitamin supplements 57 Mineral supplements 58 Formulas for turkey mashes 58 Poult starting mashes 58 Poult growing and developing rations 59 Developing and finishing rations 60 Feeding breeder hens 61 Feed consumption 61 Marketing 62 Condition 64 Preparation for market 65 Market grades 71 Farm prices of turkeys 72 Capons 73 Specialties 73 Hatching eggs 74 Cost of production 74 Sanitation 77 Acknowledgments 78 TURKEY PRODUCTION IN CALIFORNIA^ V. S. ASMUNDS0N2 and T. H. JUKES^ INTRODUCTION The turkey industry in California is a well-established branch of agri- culture. Like many other agricultural enterprises of the state, the turkey industry is highly specialized. Thus, while there are many small farm flocks, a high percentage of the turkeys are raised in large units on farms where turkeys are the main source of revenue. Naturally, many problems face such an industry. These problems are at present the subject of much research activity and, in consequence, knowledge in many fields of direct interest to those engaged in the turkey industry is rapidly increasing. In the following pages, useful informa- tion gathered from the experience of those engaged in various phases of the turkey industry, from the literature, and from work in progress in the California Agricultural Experiment Station, is presented. Growth of the Turkey Industry. — Turkey raising developed first in the New England states and gradually spread with settlers to other sec- tions of the country. Turkey production was for a long time confined to small farm flocks in California and elsewhere, although commercial flocks (that is, the production of turkeys as the main enterprise) were reported as early as 1888 in this state. For a long time, however, there was little progress in the turkey industry, and in fact, according to cen- sus figures, some decrease in the number of turkeys raised in California occurred from 1890 to 1910. By 1920, turkey production again increased slightly, and in more recent years there has been a rapid growth, which reached a peak in 1936 followed by an apparent decrease in 1937. Several factors are responsible for the recent growth of the turkey in- dustry. It was found that chickens carried the causative organism of blackhead (infectious enterohepatitis)* and that the heavy losses among turkeys from this disease could be avoided by raising turkeys entirely separate from chickens and adult turkeys, and by using clean equipment, clean houses, and ground that had not been used by mature stock. An- ^ This circular supersedes Ext. Cir. 58, Turlcey Raising in California, by N. L. McFarlane, W. E. Lloyd, and Grant Merrill. Certain parts of Ext. Cir. 58 have been quoted with permission of the authors. 2 Associate Professor of Poultry Husbandry and Associate Poultry Husbandman in the Experiment Station. 3 Instructor in Poultry Husbandry and Junior Poultry Husbandman in the Experi- ment Station. * For a full discussion of this and other turkey diseases see : Hinshaw, W. E. Dis- eases of turkeys. California Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 613:1-112. 1937. [3] 4 California Agricultural Extension Service [Gib. ho other important factor contributing to the development of the turkey industry in California was the development of artificial incubation and brooding. A few poults could be purchased about fifteen years ago, but the great majority of turkey eggs were hatched under hens by the turkey growers for their own use. Now many hatcheries sell turkey poults as a part of their business, many hatcheries do custom hatching, while a few are devoted exclusively to the hatching of turkey eggs. There has been a similar change in brooding methods. Whereas formerly hens were used to raise poults, now the great majority are started under brooders. More- over, there has been a gradual change from the use of miscellaneous brooding equipment to more modern equipment. The improvements made in transportation and refrigeration facilities have undoubtedly also been factors in the development of the turkey industry. Distribution of Turkeys in California. — With the development of the turkey industry, the raising of turkeys on a commercial scale has become general in the Sacramento and the San Joaquin valleys and in certain areas in southern California. Commercial flocks of turkeys can be found in most sections of the state ; the distribution by counties, as given in the 1935 Census, is illustrated in figure 1. There are some differences in the methods employed in the different sections of the state, owing in part to local conditions, and in part to pref- erences of growers. Growers in the southern part of the state generally use artificial methods of hatching and brooding exclusively, whereas a few growers in the central valleys and certain other parts of the state still use less modern methods. Thus, many growers in certain districts still show preferences for wood-burning brooders or for feather brooders, which are not generally used elsewhere. Also, it is more general in the south to raise birds in close confinement or semiconfinement without range, although some flocks in other sections of the state are also raised in this way. Many of the flocks raised in the central valleys are finished on barley range or in the rice fields after harvesting. Such birds go to market somewhat later than those raised without range. Some growers also do not have alfalfa or clover range available, whereas others do. Nevertheless, despite much diversity in local conditions and methods, the differences are gradually becoming less localized, the tendency being to use standard practices with modifications to suit local conditions. Turkeys do better where the climate is dry and should not ordinarily be raised in low, damp areas, although they can be raised under varying conditions. It is evident from figure 1 that turkeys are grown under very diverse climatic conditions in the state. Nevertheless, the development of the industry has been most marked in certain well-favored localities. Turkey Production in California In recent years the production of turkey hatching eggs has assumed considerable importance. This phase of the industry has been emphasized in certain districts in the southern part of the state where the climate is favorable to early egg production. Under these conditions, more eggs have been produced per hen than in central or northern California, MAP SHOWMS comry oismBur/o/f OF ri/P/(£yS, 3 MOUTHS OF A6£ Ofi OLDER, AS OF JA/WARY, I93S. CACH DOT nepResenrs soo rt/gKers on fmct/om thehsof. Fig. 1. — Turkey population of California by counties, January, 1935. (Data from a special report of the Bureau of Census, United States Department of Commerce. ) which gives growers in these areas in the south an advantage over those where egg production begins later and the number of eggs produced per hen is less. The development of artificial methods, including the use of artificial light to secure early eggs, and advantages possessed by growers located in other districts in the purchase of feed has in many cases offset the advantage of a better climate for egg production, at least in part. In general, however, districts having a climate that favors early egg pro- duction are more suitable for the production of hatching eggs, whereas 6 California Agricultural Extension Service [Cir. ho districts in which some local grain is available for feeding purposes are more favorable for the raising of turkeys for market. The commonest method of renewing the turkey flock is through the purchase of day-old poults. Next in importance are custom-hatched poults. Many growers produce their own eggs and have these custom- hatched, selling such surplus eggs as they have to others. Some growers also buy their eggs and have them custom-hatched. The purchase of hatching eggs direct by growers is less common, and comparatively few buy breeding stock unless they are starting in the business and wish to purchase special breeding stock. There has been some purchase of breed- ing hens, however, for the purpose of producing hatching eggs, but this is not common. Those who are going into the turkey business for the first time get their start in very much the same way, the most popular and generally most satisfactory method being the purchase of day-old poults from reputable breeders or hatcheries. BREEDING VARIETIES The turkey is a native of America. The native turkeys of Central America (presumably Meleagris gallopavo Mexicana) were taken by the Spanish conquistadores to Europe in 1498. From Spain, turkeys were gradually introduced into other European countries. The descendants of these tur- keys were later brought to America by the early New England settlers. Frequent crossing of these turkeys with the native wild turkey (Mele- agris gallopavo sylvestris) of the eastern Atlantic seaboard occurred. The practice of crossing domesticated and wild turkeys continued so that the domesticated turkey as now found must be considered a mixture of the two principal geographic subspecies of the wild turkey. Other geo- graphic subspecies supposedly contributed little or nothing to the domes- ticated turkey as now found. The crossing of domesticated and wild turkeys is no longer popular. There are comparatively few wild turkeys,^ whereas superior strains of domesticated turkeys are now available. Crossing birds of such improved strains with wild turkeys might well produce a less useful instead of a more useful bird. The Bronze is the most popular variety of turkeys on commercial ranches in California. This is one of the six varieties of turkeys described in the American Standard of Perfection.^ The other varieties are : Bour- ^For a brief but adequate discussion of wild turkeys see: Marsden, S. J., and C. W. Knox. The breeding of turkeys. U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook of Agriculture 1937:1350-66. 1937. ^ American Poultry Association. American standard of perfection. 487 p. Ameri- can Poultry Association, Port Wayne, Ind. 1933. Turkey Production in California 7 bon Red, Narragansett, White Holland, Black, and Slate. The last two named are seldom grown in commercial flocks. Certain differences are set up in the weight of these varieties by the American Standard of Per- fection as shown in table 1. However, there are just as great differences between strains as between varieties. This is particularly true of the Bronze, where some of the birds are bred to the weights set up by the Standard while others are much smaller. There are also differences in TABLE 1 Weights of Turkeys in Pounds, According to the American Standard OF Perfection, 1933 Variety Pullet Hen Cockerel 1-year old cock Adult cock Bronze . . 16 14 20 18 25 23 33 30 36 Bourbon Red, Narragansett, White Holland, Black, Slate 33 rate of growth, in fleshing qualities, and in feathering of the various strains. Table 2 shows the average weights for the Bronze, White Hol- land, and Bourbon Red varieties at different ages. These weights illus- trate differences in rate of growth of different strains rather than the average differences between the varieties. The Bronze (table 2) may be considered typical of a fairly large strain ; the White Hollands and the "mixed varieties mostly Bronze," intermediate ; while the Bourbon Reds may be considered more or less typical of small strains of any variety. Species Crosses. — When turkeys and chickens are crossed by means of artificial insemination, fertile eggs are obtained, but none have hatched.' Naked-neck chickens are sometimes represented to have resulted from such a cross, but these claims are without foundation in fact. The naked- neck is a breed of chickens, not related to turkeys in any way. SELECTING BREEDING STOCK The great majority of turkeys on commercial ranches are, as already stated, Bronze. Many of them weigh less and are inferior in plumage color to birds bred for exhibition. Stock that conforms reasonably well to the requirements set by the American Standard of Perfection is de- sirable, but too much attention should not be placed on this point nor should too high prices be paid for the stock for commercial purposes. ^ Warren, D. C, and H. M. Scott. An attempt to produce turkey x chicken hybrids. Journal of Heredity 26:106-07. 1935. Quinn, J. P., W. H. Burrows, and T. C. Byerly. Turkey-chicken hybridization. Jour- nal of Heredity 28:169-73. 1937. 8 California Agricultural Extension Service [Cir- ho There is no justification, however, for the use of inferior stock and such should be avoided. The characteristics desired for a good commercial strain are rapid growth, good conformation and fleshing, and early feathering. Bate of Growth. — The growth rate of males and females varies as shown in table 2, maximum weight during the first year being attained TABLE 2 Average Weights of Turkeys in Pounds to 72 Weeks of Age Age in weeks Mixed varieties, mostly Bronze Bronze White Holland Bourbon Red Males Females Males Females Males Females Males Females 0.11 0.68 2.32 5.41 9.07 12.32 15.30 18.73 22.46 24.88 26.78 29.18 29.76 28.03 26.22 25.25 25.26 24.69 26.47 0.11 0.58 1.86 4.12 6.41 7.93 9.52 10.82 12.16 12.97 14.44 14.69 14.25 13.20 12.50 12.31 12.13 12.24 12.42 0.11 0.72 2.41 5.80 10.06 15.02 19.01 0.12 0.63 1.97 4.76 7.69 10.64 12.46 0.12 0.78 2.33 5.38 9.39 13.15 16.42 0.12 0.69 1.97 4.31 6.95 8.88 10.74 0.11 0.41 1.27 3.00 * 8.0 0.11 4 0.39 8 12 16 20 1.13 2.40 * 6.30 24 1 1.6 8.00 28 32 36 40... 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 * Dashes indicate data not available. Sources of data: , , -,. . . ,^ ,., . Mixed varieties, mostly Bronze: from previously unpublished data on the University of California flock at Davis. Birds hatched April and May, 1936. The males are a small group kept for breeding. The difference in the weights of the males and females would have been less had data for all brothers been Bronze and White Holland: from Funk, E. M. Rate of growth in Bronze and White Holland turkeys. Poultry Science 9:343-55. 1930. Also in- Funk. E. M., and P. H. Margolf. Feed consumption and costs in raising turkeys. Pennsylvania Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 250:1-11. 1930. „ , „, Bourbon Red: from Brooks, F, D. What can be expected from turkeys? Indiana Poultry Blue Book. p. 20-21. 1932. at about eleven months, after which the weight decreases slightly. The females reach their maximum weight slightly earlier than the males. The decrease in weight is apparently due partly to climatic conditions. Males grow more rapidly than females from the start and attain a higher weight, the weight of the hens being about two-thirds the weight of the males at market age (24 to 28 weeks). Poults from large strains of tur- keys tend to grow more rapidly than those from smaller strains, but finishing the larger birds for market may also require a longer time. The later gains may be so costly as to make them less economical to produce Turkey Production in California 9 than medium-sized birds despite the fact that the larger birds are likely to make more economical early gains. Some strains of birds appear to grow more rapidly at first, then later make gains more slowly, whereas others tend to be a little slow in starting but make up the weight later on. As a rule, however, the birds that grow rapidly at first continue to make the best gains up to market age. For this reason, it is well to select for rapid early growth, whenever possible. Weight of Birds. — As indicated, most commercial turkeys are of me- dium rather than large size. The birds to be kept for breeding should be selected before any are sent to market. This may be at any time during the fall months. Those who desire a large breeding bird usually set a minimum weight of 14 pounds for hens and 22 pounds for toms. Those who want a medium-sized breeding bird set a minimum weight of 12 pounds for hens and 20 pounds for toms. If smaller birds are acceptable, the minimum weights may be reduced even beyond this. These weights have to be varied according to the age of the birds when selected. Since the birds continue to grow past the age at which they are normally mar- keted, the final weight of the birds will be greater than those set as mini- mum weights for breeding stock before birds are marketed. Conformation. — Turkeys are grown mainly for their meat. Hence this should be kept in mind in selecting breeding stock. For meat production the following conformation points should be particularly stressed : Back flat and uniformly wide throughout. Birds with crooked backs should not be used for breeding. Legs short with moderately fine bone. Excessively heavy-boned birds are likely to be slow maturing and coarse, being less desirable as meat birds. Keel hone of the sternum long, straight, and free from deformities or defects such as knobs and calluses. The keel bone should be approxi- mately parallel with the back. Breast well fleshed. There is considerable difference in the fleshing of the breast, particularly among birds that are not fully grown. Strain differences between such birds indicate that much could be done to im- prove fleshing qualities by careful selection. There is a difference in the age at which birds acquire mature feathers. This may be influenced by environmental conditions, including climate, but also by hereditary factors. Birds should be selected that have fully grown feathers at an early age, which may be tentatively suggested as between six and seven months. Those who wish to develop exceptionally early-maturing strains should select for feathering at an even earlier age. Abnormalities. — Special care should be taken not to use birds with ab- 10 California Agricultural Extension Service [Cm. no normalities. Those known to occur in turkeys include pendulous crop (fig. 2),^ crooked toes and deformed feet (crippled feet), deformed eyes (including poorly developed eyes and protruding eyes) , deformed beaks, short neck, short legs, and rumplessness. Other deformities such as en- larged hocks, calluses on the keel bone, and deformed backs appear to be due, at least in many cases, mainly to faulty rations or to improper Fig. 2. — Turkey hen with pendulous crop. (From Bui. 613.) management. Even here, however, inherited weakness may be a factor, hence such birds should never be used for breeding. Birds with pendulous crop occur particularly in districts where the summer temperatures are high, the humidity low, and the days bright. They seldom, if ever, occur in the coastal districts where the average day temperature is low, the humidity relatively higher, and where the sunshine is reduced by fog. In the interior valleys, where conditions are conducive to the development of this abnormality, the number of cases is much greater in some instances than others and points to an inherited tendency to develop the abnormality. Some families are entirely free from it. When pendulous-crop birds are mated together, the percentage of cases among the progeny varies from about 50 per cent to as high as 100 per cent. For this reason, great care should be taken to avoid using any birds that develop this abnormality, whether or not they recover later. ^ Hinshaw, W. R., and V. S. Asmundson. Observation on pendulous crop in turkeys. Journal of the American Veterinary and Medical Association 88:154-65. 1936. Turkey Production in California 11 This can be done if the birds are identified by banding, slitting the web between their toes, or otherwise marking them so that they can be dis- posed of even if they recover. . Less information is available about the other abnormalities listed, but some of them have shown a tendency to run in families or have occurred in small flocks in such numbers as to indicate that they may be inherited. These include crooked toes and eye deformities. But whether or not there is any indication that these abnormalities are inherited, birds having them should never be used for breeding. Bronze hens sometimes grow feathers with black tips on the breast when they molt at the end of the first laying year. This indicates inactivation of the ovary, and since such birds seldom lay, they should not be kept. As stated above, the birds that are to be retained for breeding should be selected before any birds go to market. The exact age for this selection will depend upon when the grower wants to obtain birds that are ready for market. The most convenient time is usually shortly before the flock is ready for market, but if the grower wishes to build up an earlier- maturing strain, then the selection should be made at that earlier age. The practice of breeding the late-maturing birds that are not ready for market is likely to result in deterioration and will eventually make it necessary to replace the flock by purchasing from a turkey breeder who has been selecting for desired qualities such as rapid growth, good flesh- ing qualities, and early feathering. Egg Production. — The increased production of hatching eggs in Cali- fornia has made it important to produce strains of birds that begin to lay early and lay well after they have begun. The practice followed by some growers of hatching the early eggs, produced before there is a demand for hatching eggs, for their own use, has resulted in the building up of earlier-maturing strains. Not many growers, however, have been in a position to segregate such hens and breed only from these. A few turkey breeders have started to trap-nest, their selection being based first on characteristics essential to the production of good meat birds and second on egg production. There is room for considerable work along this line since the development of high-producing strains would undoubtedly in- crease efficiency and result in lower costs for those who are producing hatching eggs. The egg production of turkeys resembles that of chickens.'' There is a greater tendency for turkeys to lay a litter of eggs and then rest, or stop laying, for a time. However, many hens do not show this tendency at ^ Marsden, S. J. A study of egg production in Bronze turkeys. Poultry Science 15 : 439-45. 1936. 12 California Agricultural Extension Service [Cir. ho all and will lay throughout the season. The factors that influence egg production'" and should be selected for, are: (1) early maturity, (2) absence of pauses, or at least a tendency to take only a very short rest period when such pauses do occur, and (3) rate of production. Total egg production, as in the case of chickens, is much higher for birds that are persistent layers, laying late into the fall. The later eggs, however, are usually not wanted for hatching and are too expensive to produce for food ; consequently this character is of less importance than for chickens. TABLE 3 Egg Production of Turkey Hens Selected for Early and Late Maturity ON THE Basis of Date of First Egg Early-maturing birds Late-maturing birds* Year Average date of first egg Average egg production Average date of first egg . Average egg production In April To end of May Total for first year In April To end of May Total for first year 1933 1934 1935 1936 1937 1 Feb. 26 Feb. 16 Feb. 16 Feb. 28 1 15.7 17.5 15.8 17.5 -t 53.8 60.6 58.9 56.2 — t 83.4 84.4 96.6 89.1 Mar. 15 Mar. 11 Mar. 15 Mar. 9 Mar. 16 17.9 8.2 16.7 8.2 16.1 44.8 31.3 38.1 31.5 40.5 68.0 53.2 55.3 59.3 67.3 * The birds used for breeding in the late-maturing line were also selected to some extent for their ten- dency to pause and to lay few eggs during the year. t Matings of birds selected for early and late maturity were first made in 1934; hence data for only one group are given in 1933. Data so far available indicate that sexual maturity is influenced by hereditary factors. In the case of turkeys, the most useful and convenient measure of sexual maturity is the date at which the birds begin to lay. Table 3 shows that selection based on date of first egg can be used to establish relatively early-maturing strains. It is not known whether dif- ferences in the tendency to take rest periods or the rate of production are influenced by hereditary factors, but this seems probable on the basis of information now available. While selection for egg production can be done most efficiently with the aid of trap nests, segregating the early- maturing hens from the rest of the flock and keeping only the progeny of the early-maturing hens will undoubtedly help materially to build up good laying strains. Egg Characteristics. — Egg size or weight, shape, shell color, and shell texture show considerable variation. These are undoubtedly influenced by hereditary factors and, accordingly, only eggs that are of suitable size ^° Asmundson, V. S. Factors influencing egg production in the turkey. Journal of Agricultural Research 56:387-93. 1938. Turkey Production in California 13 and free from defects should be used for hatching. Hatcheries usually will not accept eggs below a certain size, some demanding eggs that weigh 30 ounces per dozen, while others set a higher standard demanding eggs weighing 33 ounces per dozen. These standards are purely arbitrary. They are of importance to the hatcherymen because the weight of the poult depends very largely on the weight of the egg from which it was hatched, but they have no bearing on the rate of growth or the mature weight of the birds hatched.'^ The setting of large eggs, therefore, will not insure rapid growth nor will the birds hatched from such eggs be necessarily larger when mature than those hatched from small eggs. Medium-sized eggs, weighing about 3 ounces each, do, however, usually hatch better'" than unusually large or small eggs. To insure reasonable egg size, a minimum weight of 2^,4 ounces per egg and a maximum of 3% ounces with an average of 33 ounces (2% ounces per egg) per dozen may be tentatively suggested. Unless the birds begin laying at a relatively early age, the eggs laid at first will be only slightly smaller than those laid later. Late-hatched birds begin laying at an earlier age than early- hatched birds and, therefore, the eggs laid by the former are usually smaller at first. Common defects in turkey eggs include rough lumps of shell material on the surface, ridges, thin shells or parts of the shell. Eggs having these defects and all abnormally long and narrow or short and round eggs should be discarded. AGE OF BREEDING STOCK Most of the hens used for breeding purposes are in their first laying year and most of the toms are also one-year-old birds. The egg production of hens is highest in the first year and decreases by about one-third from the first to the second laying year as shown in table 4. There are further slight decreases as the birds grow older. These decreases in egg produc- tion with increase in age are due to the fact that the birds usually begin to lay later and lay at a lower rate as they grow older. The breeder is undoubtedly justified in selecting his best hens at the end of the first lay- ing year and keeping them for a second year or even more years of breeding. Those who are trap-nesting and pedigree-breeding should keep the best hens, as measured by the trap-nest records, hatchability of eggs, and livability of poults, since such hens may prove to be valuable breed- ers. The most promising males should also be retained. Those which prove " Scott, H. M., and E. E. Phillips. Egg size in relation to the growth of Narragan- sett turkeys. Poultry Science 15:435-38. 1936. ^2 Marble, D. E., and P. H. Margolf . The selection and management of turkey breeders. Poultry Science 15:225-29. 1936. 14 California Agricultural Extension Service [Cir. lie to be good breeders, as measured by the performance of the progeny, should be retained just so long as they prove useful breeders. The commer- cial grower is not justified in using breeding stock for more than one sea- son, however, unless he is carrying out a program of improvement which would compensate him for the added expense. Another point that should TABLE 4 Effect of Age on Egg Production and Egg Weight of Turkey Hens Average date of first egg Average total egg production for year* Average number of eggs laid in April Average weight of eggs Average weights Laying year Day-old poults Poults 16 weeks old J Mar. 8 Mar. 20 Mar. 21 Mar. 29 76.6 49.5 44.2 44.6 17.6 12.9 11.8 10.4 ounces'\ 3.01 3.20 pounds^ 0.12 0.13 poundsf 6.87 2 7.02 3 4 * Slightly less than half the eggs were usually laid before the end of April. These data are based on seven years' records. t The data for egg and poult weights are based on one year's records. Source of data: Asmundson, V. S., and W. E. Lloyd. Effect of age on reproduction of the turkey hen. Poultry Science 14:259-66. 1935. be considered is that the fertility obtained with the older males is usually lower. The fertility of the eggs laid by older hens is generally satisfac- tory, but the hatchability shows a tendency to drop after about the second year. This will vary somewhat, but there are definite indications of a decrease in hatchability with increase in age. TRAP-NESTING AND PEDIGREE BREEDING With the growth in the production of hatching eggs there has been some interest in trap-nesting, as already stated. To be effective, trap-nesting should be followed by pedigree breeding and progeny testing. The rec- ords needed include (1) egg records, (2) mating records, (3) incubation records, and (4) poult index. Records of Egg Production. — The records of egg production may be kept on a large sheet, or sheets (fig. S, A), with a separate line for each hen and a separate column for each day of the month. The eggs should be entered on the record sheet when the hen is removed from the trap nest. The trap nests (see fig. 6) should be visited once every 2 hours in cool weather, once every hour in hot weather. Mating Record. — The minimum information required is the leg-band number of the male heading each pen and a list of the hens to which he was mated. The leg-band number of the sire and dam of each bird in the breeding pen should also be entered in this record. Where egg produc- Turkey Production in California 15 tion, weight of bird, and other information is available for the hens used, this information might well be entered in the mating record. Incubation Record. — The incubation record should provide columns for the leg-band number of the hen, number of eggs set, number of in- Breed. Bronze. M.t*dto. Tl*-1?6 .3.5. INDIVIDUAL Pen ? EGG RECORD a YEAR 19 37 TO 19 LegbandNo...T-645 Age in day, at l3l egg Weight at Ist egg 14,8 BOV«dS . Mating No. TM-178;T-519. Month 1 2 3 4 S a 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 Total. 1 Month Tod.t. January February March / / / / / / / / 8 8 April / / / f / / / / / / / 1 / / 1 / / 17 25 May / / / / / / / / / / 10 35 ( ( 1 ( ( / ( ( / 9 44 July 1 / / / / / 50 August T^talJ 50 A BreedBrOJWft Mated to "JUtX. Date hatched A m pril....28 INDIVIDUAL EGG RECO 19.36 ... p.„ 2 RD r-n U] Year 19 37 to 19 LegbandNo..T-594 WingbandNo..425. '''''■' lilJllMo i«U.iJU *1 V-,.i l.gV Month » 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 2. 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 ToUl, 1 Month Tod.w January February / / / / / / / 7 7 March / / 1- / z] / L. / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / 23 30 April l- J- J- / / / 1 / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / H2 52 May z_ L. /_. / / / 1 / / / / / / / / / / / / / / 21 73 L. J- J- J- J- /., / / / / / / / / / / 16 89 July 1 / / / / 5 94 August "~ ~ Ito tal 94 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ — L __ _ _ B Fig. 3. — A, Eecord of a poor layer. Note slow maturity, pauses, and low rate of production. J5, Record of a useful layer. This bird did not make a high record, but it will be observed that she began to lay in February and did not pause until late in June. The rate of production was also satisfactory. fertile eggs, number of dead germs, and number of poults hatched, with a separate column for the number of vigorous poults banded. VouU Index. — This is a list of the wing-band numbers of the poults hatched arranged in numerical order with columns for the sire and dam of each. Summary of Records for Each Hen. — From these records a summary should be prepared for each hen. This should show : sexual maturity (the date of the first egg) ; absence or presence of pauses and their length in days ; rate (per cent production, eliminating nonlaying periods of 7 or 16 California Agricultural Extension Service [Cir. ho more days) ; total number of eggs laid during the trap-nesting period which might well extend to the end of May ; number of eggs set ; per cent fertile ; per cent vigorous poults hatched from fertile eggs. If the weight of the bird and the average weight of eggs laid is available, this should also be entered in the summary. The records of full sisters and the daugh- ters of each sire should be grouped together and an average obtained for the females of each family. The average for the family should be consid- ered when selecting birds for further pedigree breeding, and only good birds from superior families should be used. The occasional good bird out of an otherwise inferior family is not so likely to prove as good a breeder as the good bird out of a superior family and, hence, should not be used for pedigree breeding. For pedigree breeding, the number of the hen and the date should be marked on the egg at the time the hen is removed from the trap nest. If there are several breeding pens, the number of the pen should also be marked on the egg. The eggs from the trap-nested hens are then set in the usual way, those from the same hen being placed together in the in- cubator trays so as to reduce the amount of sorting that has to be done later. On the twentieth day of incubation, the eggs should be candled and the infertile eggs and dead germs removed. On the twenty-fourth or twenty-fifth day, the eggs that are left should be placed in pedigree baskets, the eggs from each hen being placed in a separate basket. In each basket should be placed a piece of cardboard on which is written the hen number and the number of eggs from that hen. The side of the card on which this information is written should be turned down. When the poults are removed from the incubator, they should be banded and a record (poult index) made of the number of the dam and the numbers of the poults from this hen. The wing band may either be placed directly in the wing or around the leg and later, usually at about 2 weeks, trans- ferred to the web of the wing. This identifies the poult permanently. INBREEDING, OUTBREEDING, AND CROSSBREEDING Inbreeding is the mating of related birds. Close inbreeding is the mating of closely related birds, such as brother to sister or sire to daughter. Out- breeding is the mating of birds of the same variety but unrelated. Cross- breeding is the mating of birds of different varieties. Close inbreeding in turkeys is followed by lowered hatchability.''' This ^^ Marsden, S. J., and C. W. Knox. The breeding of turkeys. U. S. Dept. Agr. Year- book of Agriculture 1937:1350-66. 1937. Also based on unpublished data of the California Agricultural Experiment Station, part of which was summarized in : Asmundson, V. S. Some results of turkey breeding work at the California Agricultural Experiment Station. California Turkey News. p. 3-4. Aug., 1935. Turkey Production in California 17 is the jBrst and most important effect of close inbreeding and apparently occurs in most cases where closely related birds are mated together for more than one year. Continued close inbreeding for several generations may also result in lowered fertility, increased mortality, slower growth, and later maturity. The effects of continued close inbreeding appear to vary considerably in different strains but are so unfavorable, on the average, as to indicate that this practice is not advisable with turkeys. The mating of distantly related birds may give entirely satisfactory re- sults provided it is possible to select for desired characters. For those who are doing trap-nesting and pedigree breeding, there is little danger from inbreeding if there are several hundred birds in the breeding flock. If the flock is not very large, it can be divided into two groups and the poults from the two flocks can be identified by slitting the web between the toes on all poults in one group. The toms should then be selected from one group and the hens from the other. This will not eliminate inbreeding entirely but will serve to reduce the chances of the closest forms of in- breeding. For growers who are not carrying on an improvement program of their own, it would be desirable to use carefully selected hens out of their own flock and to mate these to toms raised from eggs or poults purchased from a breeder who is definitely selecting and breeding for improvement in his own flock. There is little danger of inbreeding even if males are purchased from the same breeder in this way year after year. Unrelated stock need not be purchased to ensure satisfactory results. The practice of trading males, which is common, is undesirable. This does not result in any improvement, and in fact in many cases results in defi- nite deterioration of the flock. It has the added disadvantage that it dis- courages selection for improvement. When different varieties of turkeys are crossed, the fertility and hatchability of the eggs are usually high. Results obtained at the Cali- fornia Agricultural Experiment Station indicate that there are excep- tions, since some of the crosses made failed to improve hatchability. In any case, the results in fertility, hatchability, livability, and growth of the poults were not sufficiently superior to those obtained by outbreed- ing, or by the mating of carefully selected, distantly related birds of the same variety, to warrant recommending crossbreeding until more infor- mation is available. 18 California Agricultural Extension Service [Cir. ho MANAGEMENT OF BREEDING STOCK The average number of breeding females is ten for each male. The size of the breeding flock may vary all the way from a single unit headed by one male up to a thousand or more birds. The exact size of the unit will depend upon conditions on the particular farm. Some growers put the necessary number of toms into the breeding flock at the beginning of the season and leave them there until the birds are marketed at the end of the breeding season. Others have the same total number of males but alternate them by dividing them into two or three groups. One group is placed with the hens 1 day and the following day is removed, being replaced by the second group. If the toms are divided into three groups, this is repeated, the birds being out of the pens 2 days and in the pens 1 day. This practice appears to give good results, but exact comparative data are not available. The matings should be made up about a month before eggs are to be set. The length of time necessary to establish fer- tility in turkeys is not known, but if the birds are mated one month before eggs are set, that should be enough. Fertility does not decrease appre- ciably for about 2 weeks after the toms are removed. It is frequently low late in the season, the reduction apparently depending on climatic con- ditions and probably also on feeding and management. Individual birds show considerable differences in this respect. The mature weight of the birds raised can be increased by the use of heavy toms. This practice, however, increases the rather large difference between the weights of the males and the females. If this difference is too great, it may result in reduced fertility. There is some tendency on the part of the toms to tear the hens, which results in loss, such hens having to be removed from the pens and in some cases must remain out of the breeding pen. Moreover, their value as market birds is reduced. Trimming the toenails of the toms with heavy shears will help to avoid this. Bleeding may be allowed to stop naturally, or a cautery can be used. Another method that has gained general acceptance is to use "saddles" made out of canvas or heavy muslin, which fit over the backs of the hens and are fastened around the wings (fig. 4). Those with straps around the wing or holes cut in the "saddle" for the wings stay on the back some- what better, but occasionally those with holes cut in the "saddle" slip on the wings and may chafe or rub the wing and cause sores. Those fastened with two strips of canvas that pass under the wing and around the breast do not injure the wings but occasionally slip to one side on the back. As indicated above, earlier eggs may be obtained by selective breeding. Also, early eggs can be obtained by the use of artificial lights. Eggs are Turkey Production in California 19 obtained about two months earlier by the use of lights where climatic conditions are such that unlighted birds usually begin laying in March.'* A 12- or 13-hour day (obtained by turning the lights on for 2 or 3 hours in the morning or in the morning and evening) is long enough. The lights should be turned on about 2 to 4 weeks before eggs are wanted. A 100- Fig. 4. — Turkey hen with "saddle." (From Bui. 613.) watt globe is large enough for a house (or a space) 20 feet x 20 feet. Im- mature birds cannot be expected to lay ; consequently, there is no use in turning lights on late-hatched stock before they have a chance to mature. Where lights are used, a common practice is to house the birds or at least provide open sheds for them. It seems probable, however, that housing is not necessary in order to get early eggs from the birds. Field observations indicate that the fertility of eggs from lighted birds is satisfactory and "Scott, H. M. Turkey production in Kansas. Kansas Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 276: 21-25. 1937. Charles, T. B., P. A. Wilcox, D. W. Flagg, and A. E. TefPor. Confinement versus open range for Bronze turkey breeders. Poultry Science 17:248-52. 1938. 20 California Agriculturad Extension Service [Cir. ho the hatchability equal to that of eggs from unlighted birds. On the other hand, Scotf reports that eggs from lighted birds did not hatch so well as eggs from unlighted birds. The decrease in fertility and hatchability of turkey eggs, which is commonly observed late in the season, occurs also with lighted birds, and at about the same time as in the case of unlighted birds. Hence, with artificially lighted birds starting to lay earlier than unlighted birds and maintaining fertility and hatchability just as late, it is possible to get hatching eggs over a longer period by the use of lights. INCUBATION CARE OF HATCHING EGGS The eggs should be gathered frequently. In warm weather they should be gathered several times a day and promptly cooled. Prompt cooling is important since the eggs deteriorate relatively more rapidly during the first few hours after they are laid than they do later. When possible, the eggs should be thoroughly cooled in wire pails before they are packed. The optimum holding temperature is approximately 50° to 60° Fahren- heit. They may be held at a slightly lower temperature than this, but if held at too low a temperature, hatchability is likely to decrease just as it would if the eggs were held at too high a temperature. A fairly high humidity should be maintained where the eggs are stored. This is not important, however, with eggs that are held for only a short time. If the eggs are not set every few days, they should be packed in egg cases equipped with duck fillers and flats and turned by tipping the cases (see fig. 5). Turkey eggs held under ideal conditions will hatch well even if stored as long as 3 weeks before they are set. If conditions are not ideal, however, they will deteriorate, and hatchability will be considerably reduced by holding them as long as 2 weeks.'" Since the conditions under which eggs are kept are seldom ideal, they should be set much more fre- quently, preferably holding eggs for not more than 10 days with a maxi- mum of 2 weeks. If they can be set every few days, so much the better. Eggs which are to be shipped any distance should not be more than a few days old at the time they are shipped. The nests used for turkeys vary considerably. They can be made simi- lar to the trap nest shown in figure 6 ; or the "A" coops (fig. 7) or barrels with the end knocked out, laid on the side, blocked and with a 6-inch ^^ Scott, H. M. Turkey production in Kansas. Kansas Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 276: 24-25. 1937. ^'^ Scott, H. M. The effect of age and holding temperature on hatchability of turkey and chicken eggs. Poultry Science 12:49-54. 1933. Turkey Production in California 21 board nailed across the bottom of the entrance can also be used. Nests should be placed in the shade. Crowding generally causes most of the breakage of hatching eggs; Fig. 5. — Ordinary chicken-egg cases with duck-egg fillers make turning of eggs awaiting incubation easy: A, Case tilted against a wall ; to turn, position of case is reversed. This involves lifting the heavy case. B, Case is elevated on a 4 X 4 inch block near center of case and eggs are turned by tilting in opposite direction without unnecessary lifting. (From Agr. Ext. Cir. 58.) plenty of nests should be provided to avoid this. If the nests are slightly darkened and divided up into medium-sized units or built as separate units, crowding is reduced. Any nesting material conveniently available can be used, such as rice hulls, straw, or other material. 22 California Agricultural Extension Service [Cir. ho NATURAL INCUBATION Turkey eggs can be hatched under turkey hens or chicken hens, the num- ber set under each depending upon the size of the bird. Only the number of eggs that the hen will comfortably cover should be set. This number may be slightly greater in warm weather than in cool weather. For tur- key hens, the number will vary from 15 to 18 eggs ; for chicken hens, from about 8 to 11. A turkey hen will brood up to 20 poults. ^ * ■SK.< ^ „A.Viim Fig. 6. — A battery of five turkey trap nests. Each nest is 25 inches deep by 20^4 inches wide, inside measurement. When a hen shows signs of being broody, she should be moved to the nest where she is to be kept. Where large numbers are being set, the A-shaped coop, illustrated in figure 7, is the most convenient. The nest is built on the ground by scooping out a small amount of earth. A spoonful of coal-tar disinfectant should be placed in the bottom of the nest and on top of this should be placed the nesting material, which may be straw or other material commonly used for litter. The hen should be treated with sodium fluoride powder for lice at the time she is moved on the nest and again once (10 days later) or twice, if necessary, during the time that she is setting on the eggs, but well ahead of the time that the poults will hatch. The bird can be placed on infertile eggs for a day or so to test her ; the fertile eggs can then be placed under her if she shows no tendency to leave the nest. If it is necessary to change the location of the setting hens, this should be done after dark. When large numbers of eggs are being Turkey Production in California 23 set under hens, a good practice is to wait until several hens are available before setting them. Hens that are setting should be given water, grit, and grain, mash, and some green feed. They should be examined at regular intervals to make sure that they are eating and also to examine them for parasites. If regu- larly inspected, difficulties which might result in the hen's leaving the nest can be avoided. When the eggs are ready to hatch, the hen might well be confined to the nest so as to prevent her from leaving with the first coops — satisfactory for natural methods of brooding. (From. Agr. Ext. Cir. 58.) poults hatched. If she shows any restlessness, the first poults hatched should be removed and kept warm until the hatching is completed, at which time all of them can be placed with the hen. After the poults hatch, they are left with the hen, but ordinarily it is advisable to confine her to a small enclosure, the poults being allowed to get outside after the first few days. Losses are likely to be heavy if the hens are allowed free range from the very beginning. The hens can be removed after the poults are sufficiently large and well feathered so that they no longer need additional heat from the mother hen. When turkey eggs are hatched with turkey hens there is danger that any diseases carried by the hen will be transmitted to the poults. The danger of transmitting such diseases as pullorum disease and blackhead is even greater where chicken hens are used. This is one of the factors responsible for the popularity of artificial incubation and brooding, since disease can be more easily controlled when artificial instead of natural methods are used. Since chicks may carry the pullorum organism, turkey and chicken eggs should not be hatched in the same machine and prefer- ably not in the same room. Moreover, poults should be raised by them- selves because they are likely to succumb to disease such as pullorum or blackhead if raised with chickens or allowed to come into contact with mature birds. 24 California Agricultural Extension Service [Cir. ho ARTIFICIAL INCUBATION The tremendous increase in the artificial incubation of turkey eggs has resulted in the building up of a large hatchery industry. Many factors contribute to the success of such a business, but unless satisfactory hatches are obtained, failure will inevitably result. Quality of the stock from which eggs are obtained is of great importance because of its influ- ence on the success of the turkey grower who buys the poults. The incubator can be operated in any kind of room, but to obtain con- sistently good results, the incubator room should be reasonably well in- sulated and well ventilated so as to insure satisfactory change of air. There has been an increasing tendency to use air conditioning for incu- bator rooms. This is likely to improve hatches, particularly in districts where high temperatures are experienced. In some cases, partial regula- tion of room temperature has been achieved by building the incubator room partly underground ; in others, where the building is aboveground, by using good insulation and by controlling the intake and outgo of air. Some attempts have also been made to control humidity, which would be desirable in view of the considerable variation which normally occurs in the humidity of air from one season to the next. For those who buy the larger machines, suggestions are usually obtainable from the manufac- turer concerning the requirements for suitable incubator rooms. Care should be taken not to put too many machines in a room unless it is cer- tain that the ventilation is adequate for the number of machines used. In several cases, unsatisfactory results have been obtained through in- creasing greatly the number of incubators in the room without proper attention to increased requirements for ventilation. Incubators. — Most of the incubators on the market have proved satis- factory for hatching turkey eggs. The failures reported may possibly have been due to the use of an incubator room which was not suitable for the machine, or to improper operation of the incubator. Before purchas- ing any machine, however, it should be investigated thoroughly to make sure that it has been operated successfully under similar conditions for hatching turkey eggs. If forced-draft machines are used to incubate the eggs for the first 25 days, sufficient space should be available in a separate hatching compartment or unit, or in gravity-ventilated machines to hatch the eggs (twenty-fifth to twenty-eighth day). Operating the Incubator. — The recommended methods of operating in- cubators issued by the manufacturer should be used unless experience indicates that they are unsatisfactory. In some incubators, the tempera- ture and humidity recommended are identical with those used for chicken Turkey Production in California 25 eggs. In others, slightly different temperatures and humidities are used. In such cases, the temperature is either the same or slightly lower, while the humidity is, as a rule, slightly lower during the first 25 days of the incubation period. During the hatching period the temperature may be about the same as during the incubation period (first 25 days) , although this apparently varies with different machines. The humidity is kept high while the eggs are hatching. As already mentioned, all types of in- cubators are used for incubating turkey eggs during the first 25 days. Forced-draft machines, with rapid circulation of air, have not always proved satisfactory when used during the twenty-fifth to twenty-eighth days for hatching. Consequently, the eggs, when incubated in such ma- chines, are moved to flat-top or naturally ventilated machines or to machines built especially for hatching on the twenty-fifth or early on the twenty-sixth day. The eggs should be moved before they begin to pip, which usually occurs on the twenty-sixth day. The hatching should be complete on the twenty-eighth day. Most hatcheries reset the machines on the same day. In trials designed to determine the optimum temperature and humid- ity for turkey eggs, the experiments with gravity-ventilated machines agree that best results were obtained when the machines were started at a temperature of 100° to 101° F and increased to 103° F the last week, with the thermometer on a level with the tops of the eggs. Lower hatches were obtained when the machines were started at a lower temperature," or when operated at a higher temperature the last week. Martin and Insko'^ found that eggs hatched well in a forced-draft machine operated at 99° F with a relative humidity of 61 per cent the first 25 days and 70 per cent the last three days. On the other hand, Romanoff^'^ found that eggs incubated in a forced-draft machine at 99%° F up to the twentieth day hatched best when the machines were operated at temperatures of about 97° to 100° F during the last 8 days. The relative humidity in this case was 65 per cent. Byerly, Haynes, and Marsden"" reported that eggs kept at temperatures below 99%° F for the last 3 days hatched just as 1^ Scott, H. M. Turkey production in Kansas. Kansas Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 276: 1-95. 1937. ^^ Martin, J. Holmes, and W. M. Insko, Jr. The effect of temperature and position in the incubation of turkey eggs. Poultry Science 14:152-55. 1935. Martin, J. Holmes, and W. M. Insko, Jr. Incubation experiments with turkey eggs. Kentucky Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 359:151-77. 1935. ^^ Romanoff, A. L. Influence of incubation temperature on the hatchability of eggs, postnatal growth and survival of turkeys. Journal of Agricultural Science 25:318-25. 1935. -° Byerly, T. C, S. K. Haynes, and S. J. Marsden. Incubation conditions and hatcha- bility of turkey eggs. Poultry Science 17:253-56. 1938. 26 California Agricultural Extension Service [Cir. ho well as those continued at 99%° F, while those kept at 102° F did not hatch well. The optimum evaporation of turkey eggs during the first 24 or 25 days is 11 to 13 per cent, according to Scott,"' and 13.5 to 14.5 per cent, according to work done at the Idaho Agricultural Experiment Station." Mussehl and Ackerson^^ have shown that the relative humidity can vary from 40 to 70 per cent during the first 24 days without much effect on the hatchability, in the case of turkey eggs incubated in a forced-draft cabi- net machine. They obtained best results, however, when the eggs were transferred to a gravity-ventilated incubator on the twenty-fourth day, but the relative humidity was not given. The Idaho Agricultural Experi- ment Station recommends 40 to 45 per cent relative humidity up to the time the eggs begin to pip (first 25 days) and about 60 per cent while the eggs are hatching. General practice agrees well with this recommen- dation, except that even higher relative humidity, up to 70 per cent, is maintained while the eggs are hatching. Turkey eggs evaporate more slowly than chicken eggs, presumably because of the thicker shell mem- branes. This lower rate of evaporation is offset by the longer incubation period so that the average percentage evaporation is about the same as for chicken eggs or may even be slightly greater. Since the relative hu- midity maintained in the incubator may need to be varied according to the machine used, the room in which it is operated, and other factors, probably no hard and fast rule can be laid down. Cooling the eggs may improve hatchability if the incubator is not con- structed or operated so as to provide sufficient ventilation, but it is no longer common practice. Usually there is no effect except that cooling too long may delay the hatch. If the eggs are cooled, about 5 minutes morn- ing and night is enough to keep the eggs out of the machine. Experiments by Taylor, Gunns, and Moses"* with chickens indicate that current inter- ruption is not likely to decrease hatchability much, provided it is not too long and provided further that the temperature of the room is not below 70° F, which is somewhere near the optimum temperature for the incu- bator room. -^ Scott, H. M. Turkey production in Kansas. Kansas Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 276: 1-95. 1937. " Anonymous. Humidity in relation to hatchability of eggs. In : Work and progress of the Agricultural Experiment Station. Idaho Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 192:36-39. 1932. ^^ Mussehl, F. E., and C. W. Ackerson. Some observations on humidity and weight loss in the incubation of turkey eggs. Nebraska Agr. Exp. Sta. Research Bui. 74:3-11. 1934. Mussehl, F. E., and C. W. Ackerson. Humidity and the development of the turkey embryo. Sixth World's Poultry Congress Proceedings 2:63-65. 1936. -* Taylor, L. W., C. A. Gunns, and B. D. Moses. The effect of current interruption in electrical incubation. California Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 550:1-19. 1933. Turkey Production in California 27 Eggs should be turned at least twice a day, which is often enough if the eggs are turned by hand, but if the machine is equipped with a turn- ing device, the eggs may well be turned three or more times a day at regular intervals. Testing the Eggs. — The common practice is to test the eggs when they are moved from the incubator trays to the hatching trays. At this time, the infertile eggs and the dead germs are removed. Those who are doing pedigree breeding may find it advisable to test oftener than this, and remove the infertile eggs on the tenth day and the dead germs on the twentieth day. In any case, for pedigree breeding at least one test would be advisable before the twenty-fifth day, this test being made on the twentieth day. The eggs then eliminated can be noted and provision made for pedigreeing the eggs still in the machine. Where pedigreeing is not done, the one test on the twenty-fourth or twenty-fifth day may be suffi- cient. Infertile eggs and dead germs are easily identified. Dead germs can be distinguished by the absence of blood vessels running up to the air cell (see fig. 8) . These blood vessels are visible in eggs with live embryos until just before hatching. Birds that are nearly ready to hatch will generally show some movement when held up to the candler. The procedure fol- lowed is to hold the egg with the large end containing the air cell up to a small round opening in a box or otherwise enclosed container having the light, usually an electric-light globe. Other methods of candling are to use a candler which can be held in the hand and placed on the egg, or to use a box as wide as the egg tray with the light or lights just under- neath a slit the width of the top of the box and to move the trays of eggs over this slit. This method is less accurate than candling each egg sepa- rately, but is fairly rapid and satisfactory where great accuracy is not necessary. Taking Off the Hatch. — A certain percentage of the poults will pip the shell but will fail to get out. Many hatchery men help some of these poults out of the shell. If they have not dried down too much and are normal, this will help to increase the hatch slightly, and the majority of these poults may develop into satisfactory birds. However, the mortality among such poults appears to be somewhat greater than among those that are able to hatch without assistance. The practice may be permissible where custom-hatching is being done and may also be used commercially by hatcherymen provided they inform those who get the poults that they have been helped out of the shell. They should not be sold as first-class poults. Moreover, breeders should not make a practice of helping poults out of the shell but should rather attempt to improve hatchability by 28 California Agricultural Extension Service [Cm. no using only such hens for their special matings as are characterized by high hatchability. Spraddle-legged poults are considered likely to occur where the tem- perature in the incubator has been too high or too low, but the evidence on this point is contradictory. Other factors which may increase the num- ber of spraddle-legged poults are the use of smooth and very fine mesh Fresh egg Infertile egg at 10th day Dead germ egg at 10th day Live germ egg at 10th day Live germ egg at 20th day Live germ egg at 24th day Fig. 8. — Increasing size of air cell in live-germ egg as development takes place. (From. Agr. Ext. Cir. 58.) wire in the incubator tray. Prompt removal of the poults after they hatch to boxes with excelsior pads may help to prevent the development of spraddle legs. All spraddle-legged or otherwise badly crippled poults, together with obviously weak poults, should be discarded. Causes of Poor Hatches. — Poor hatches may be the result of a variety of causes. Thus low fertility may be caused by too few males in the breed- ing flock, too cold weather, or excessively hot weather late in the season. Apparent low fertility may be due to holding the eggs too long or storing them at unfavorable (low or high) temperatures. Failure of fertile eggs to hatch may be due to improper incubation. Too high a temperature will cause an early hatch, while too low a temperature will cause a delayed Turkey Production in California 29 hatch. High humidity during the first 3 weeks or so may reduce hatcha- bility, while insufficient moisture when the eggs are hatching may pre- vent many poults from getting out of the shell. Insufficient ventilation of the incubator or the incubator room, which causes the air to have too high a percentage of carbon dioxide, will also lower hatchability. Too rapid change of air combined with low humidity may also occasionally reduce hatchability. Furthermore, nutritional deficiencies may be a cause. In addition to supplying the necessary protein, carbohydrates, fats, and minerals, it is very important to supply enough of the vitamins found in such foods as milk, green feeds, and certain fish oils (p. 43-61) . Finally, inbreeding may cause reduced hatchability. BROODING There is considerable variation in the houses and equipment used for brooding poults. Standard methods are gradually evolving, although cer- tain types of equipment seem to be common in some districts but not used in others. In general, it may be said that the brooder house and brooder equipment which are satisfactory for brooding chicks will also be found satisfactory for brooding poults. BROODER HOUSES A brooder house with an alley w^ay (fig. 9) has been found very satisfac- tory for brooding poults. With this type, one man can brood up to around 3,000 poults. Such a house when built with a concrete floor is easily cleaned, requires relatively little extra attention, protects the poults, and can be managed in such a way as to meet variations in climate with a minimum of effort. It is easily disinfected and may be used for brooding two or three successive lots of poults during the season. The size of pen may be varied according to the number of poults to be brooded together. For commercial brooding, from 200 to 400 poults are usually placed in one pen. Better results may be expected if the number put in any one pen does not exceed 300, and the growth is likely to be more uniform if less than this number are brooded together. The greater the number in one lot the greater the danger of crowding, which results in uneven growth, if not in actual mortality. At least 0.7 square foot of floor space should be provided for each poult and 1.0 square foot per poult is better. The permanent type of brooder house illustrated in figure 9 is a well- built and useful type for brooding poults. Some may prefer a colony type, but one man cannot take care of so many poults when such houses are used. Some may also feel that the investment is too great. A cheaper 30 California Agricultural Extension Service [Cm. no type of construction may be satisfactory where the poults are brooded late in the season. A well-constructed brooder house is likely to be more economical, however, in its greater usefulness under all conditions, by Fig. 9. — Turkey brooder house. The door at the rear opens onto an alleyway in the back. reducing the labor required to look after the poults, and by a consequent reduction in mortality due to better care and better sanitation. For de- tailed information regarding the construction of brooder houses, see Bul- letin 476.-'^ BROODERS A brooder should, above everything else, be so constructed that it will maintain the correct temperature under all conditions. Humidity cannot be accurately regulated but should be kept low so that the floor is reason- ably dry Also the brooder should be so constructed that it is easily cleaned. Many of the brooders now in use require too much labor to oper- ate and to keep clean. Brooders in general use are heated by electricity, gas, oil, coal, or wood. Electricity is used for brooding in at least five ways in California. These are: (1) the electrically heated, insulated hover, (2) the electric contact brooder, (3) the small outdoor brooder, (4) the electric battery brooder, and (5) electric cable-heated brooder. The most important type is the electrically heated, insulated hover in ^ Dougherty, J. E., and H. L. Belton. Poultry houses and equipment. California Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 476:1-76. Revised 1936. Turkey Production in California 31 which the air under the hover is heated from above, but relatively little heat escapes into the room. For this reason, even large hovers can be operated in a small room with good results, provided the number of poults brooded does not exceed the capacity of the room. Eight-inch cur- tains at the edge of the canopy help to conserve heat and reduce the amount of electricity used. It is desirable to have the brooder equipped with a fan to ensure adequate ventilation. If not equipped with a fan or some effective means of removing stale air, the hover can be adjusted to provide proper ventilation by raising or lowering the hover, by removing or adjusting the curtains, or by placing the brooder on a %-inch mesh hardware-cloth platform such as shown in figure 10, raised 2 to 4 inches Fig. 10. — Hardware-cloth squares can be easily moved and cleaned and are sanitary. (From Agr. Ext. Cir. 58.) off the floor. When used early in the season, electric brooders should be capable of producing enough heat to maintain the right hover tempera- ture unless they are operated in a room with auxiliary heat. To maintain sufficient heat, the resistance wires or heating elements should carry 5 or more watts per poult when the hover is equipped with curtains and 12 or more watts per poult if the hover is without curtains. Hover space 12 square inches — or better, 14 square inches — should be allowed per poult. Brooders of this type are easy to operate, and the temperature can be accurately regulated. They give excellent results, if not overcrowded, where cheap, dependable electricity is available. The electric contact brooder consists of a heated rubber sheet or other material so placed, by adjusting the height of the hover, that the backs of the poults are in contact with it. The outdoor brooder consists of a small compartment, heated with elec- tric elements. The heated compartment is connected with a small outside run, which is usually enclosed with wire and has a floor made of %- or %-inch mesh hardware cloth. For older poults %-inch mesh hardware 32 California Agricultural Extension Service [Cir. ho cloth or chicken netting may be used. The entire unit is raised off the ground. These brooders can be operated successfully only where the cli- mate is dry and mild. The electric battery brooder can be used to start poults, but ordinarily the purchase of such equipment for brooding poults is not economical because it is not used long enough each season to justify the expense. Electric cables buried about 2V2 inches under the surface in sand are used to a limited extent. They are operated in a low compartment or a hover is placed over the heated area. Heat can be regulated by a thermo- stat but not so precisely as in the other types of electric brooders. More labor is required to keep these brooders clean than the first type dis- cussed above. Their chief advantage over that type is low cash cost of installation. The electric cables also help to keep the litter dry. Gas, oil, coal, or wood-heated brooders all heat the brooder room more than the electrically heated brooders. Care should be taken, therefore, to see that the brooder room is large enough for the brooder stove. When too large a stove is put into the room, the poults may be overheated, which is just as detrimental to them as chilling. If they crowd to the walls as far as possible away from the stove, the temperature should be checked to make sure that it is not too high. Brooders can be heated by natural gas when available from local mains or by compressed gas which is sold in steel cylinders or tanks. The tem- perature can be easily regulated by a simple thermostat. Oil-burning brooders come next in ease of regulation, then coal, with wood-burning brooders usually requiring more labor to operate. Some wood-burning brooders are not dependable, although they give good results most of the time. Small brooders made of feathers, felt, or similar material, while diffi- cult to keep sanitary, are used with satisfactory results for small lots of poults. A small electric bulb may be used to supply heat. The bulb should be in free air and should not touch any of the felt, cloth, or feathers. Cost of Brooder Fuel. — Little information is available about the rela- tive efficiency of different fuels for brooders. Table 5 summarizes some of the information available on the cost of different fuels, most of it being for electric brooders. Since mortality and rate of growth of poults started in brooders heated with different fuels appear to be about the same, dif- ferences in dependability, ease, and cost of operation should determine which type is used. According to table 5 more fuel per unit is required to brood in cold than in mild climates ; it is well established that more fuel is required per unit early in the season when the weather is cool than later when the weather is warm. Moreover, the brooder may have to be oper- Turkey Production in California 33 ated longer early in the season with a resulting increase in fuel consump- tion. Slightly more fuel is used per poult for the smaller than for the larger units. Less electricity is required when auxiliary heat is used (Pennsylvania and Washington) but this does not necessarily indicate TABLE 5 Amount and Cost of Fuel Required to Brood 100 Poults for 6 Weeks Number of chicks or poults per brood Type of house or brooder room Diameter of hover Amount of fuel per 100 poults* Cost of fuel per 100 poults* Location Electricity 320 Unheated 200 Unheated 350 Heated room 265t Insulated houses . . 265t Uninsulated houses 372t Unheated 250§ Unheated 250§ Unheated 500 Unheated 459 Heated room 2501 Unheated 1901 Unheated inches 56 42 56 56 56 -t 56 56 56 kilowatt- hours 194 273 143 310 330 182 306 246 137 104 971 771 dollar. 5.82 8.19 4.29 I 9.30 1 9.90/ 5.46 6.12\ 4.92 / 4.11 \ 3.12 / 2.91l\ 2.311/ Pennsylvania New Hampshire Indiana (Purdue Univ.) New York (Cornell) Washington Oregon Coal 350 200 350 Unheated Unheated Unheated inches pounds 844 1.116 206 dollars 7.17 \ 9.49 / 2.50 Pennsylvania Oregon Oil 350 Unheated . inches gallons 34.4 dollars 5.50 Oregc * Data for chicks were multiplied by 2 except where otherwise noted. The figures so obtained may be a little too high. Costs were calculated on the basis of 3 cents per kilowatt-hour for electricity, $17.00 per ton for coal (amounts given in pounds), 16 cents per gallon for oil. t Average values based on several broods. t Dashes indicate data not available. § Brooded for 8 weeks instead of 6 weeks. ^ Based on poults. Sources of data: Callenbach, E. W., J. E. Nicholas, and P. H. Margolf. Poultry brooding systems. Pennsylvania Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 340:1-40. 1937. Ackerman, W. J., T. B. Charles, G. M. Foulkrod, A. E. Tepper, and F. D. Reed. Electric brooding of chicks. 1. Heat requirements. New Hampshire Agr. Exp. Sta. Cir. 46:1-16 . 1934. Hienton, T. E. Electric brooders on Indiana farms. Indiana (Purdue Univ.) Agr. Exp. Sta. Cir. 187:1-4. 1934. Fairbanks, F. L., and J. H. Bruckner. Brooding chicks under electric hovers. New York Agr. Col. (Cornell) Ext. Bui. 366:1-23. 1937. Garver, H. L., and J. S. Carver. Electric incubation and brooding. Washington Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 231:16. 1929. Price, F. E., A. G. Lunn, and F. E. Fox. Electric brooders. Oregon Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 262:1-24. 1930. 34 California Agricultural Extension Service [Cir. ho a saving in fuel, since the amount of fuel used for auxiliary heat is not given. Auxiliary heat is not usually needed in California. There is so little advantage in brooding in insulated houses (New Hampshire) that the additional expense is not warranted. Fig. 11. — A, Ji;iectric brooder with guard used for the first few days after the poults are placed in the brooder house. B, Arrangement after the guard is removed. The cost of electricity, as shown in table 5, was no greater than that of gas or oil. This leaves the disadvantage of a possible interruption in service, where poults are brooded early in the season, to offset the advan- tages of more precise control of temperature, less fire hazard, and saving Turkey Production in California 35 in labor. When poults are brooded in the regular season, beginning the latter part of March, there has been little or no difficulty from current interruption. The results reported by Callenbach, Nicholas, and Margolf ^ show that the higher humidity under electrically heated hovers did not influence growth or mortality. Humidity, therefore, appears to be of no practical importance unless it is so high as to require more frequent changing of litter. This is not likely to occur with properly ventilated Fig, 12. — Brooder runs. Note green-feed hoppers on the end of the runs. The shade makes the runs comfortable on hot days. (From Agr. Ext. Cir. 58.) brooders unless they are overcrowded or the operator fails to raise the brooders as the poults get older. The cost of gas for brooding has apparently not been reported. It prob- ably compares favorably with the cost of electricity and other fuels. Brooder Equipment. — A thermometer should be kept in each room. It may be suspended under the brooder with the bulb about 2 inches above the floor and 3 or 4 inches in from the edge of the canopy. A hover ring or guard, which may be made of building paper, roofing paper, or of chicken netting covered with burlap, should be provided. This should be about 12 inches in width (see fig. 11, A). A 1-gallon drinking fountain should be provided for each 75 to 100 poults, also feed troughs to supply at least % inch of feeding space per poult. A trough 4 feet long is usually adequate for 100 poults to 8 weeks of age, grit hoppers and green-feed racks will be required later. Some of the equipment required is illus- trated in figures 11, B, and 12. -'' Callenbach, E. W., J. E. Nicholas, and P. H. Margolf . Poultry brooding systems. Pennsylvania Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 340:1-40. 1937. 36 California Agricultural Extension Service [Cm. HO BROODER MANAGEMENT Under no circumstances should turkey poults be brooded with chicks. Even where the chicks are from pullorum-tested stock, this practice is extremely dangerous, since relatively few broods of chicks are entirely free from this disease. Brooding turkeys with chickens has in numerous instances been the cause of heavy mortality among poults. As stated pre- viously, the turkeys should also be reared away from mature stock, whether chickens, turkeys, or other species, to lessen the risk of mortality from blackhead and other diseases. The poults can be fed just as soon as they are dried off. This will usually be about 24 to 36 hours from the time that they hatch. There is considerable variation in some cases in the time at wiiich the poults hatch. In such cases, it may be necessary to feed those that hatched earliest be- fore the ones hatching later are fed. There is no advantage in keeping feed away from the birds ; in fact the practice of keeping them without food for long periods of time, such as 2 or 3 days, is definitely detrimental. If left without food too long, some of the poults will become weak and may die as a result. Vigorous poults usually learn to eat readily. Where difficulty is experienced in getting the poults to start eating, putting the feed on egg flats or in shallow pans will help to get them started. Some growers have found that putting colored pebbles or marbles in the feed attracts the poults. These should be large enough so that the poults will not swallow them. Putting a little chick-sized grain with the starting mash will also help. The temperature under the part of the hover used by the poults should be about 95° F. This may be reduced when the poults feather. They should be watched carefully to make sure that they are comfortable and the temperature adjusted accordingly. In electric brooders, the tempera- ture under the center may go to 100° F, since electric brooders do not ordinarily raise the temperature of the room. The temperature under the brooder should be kept up during the day time, at least for the first 3 weeks, so that the poults can get warm quickly. The temperature outside the hover, where electric brooders are used, may be too low in cold weather. Under such circumstances, the poults sometimes refuse to go out from under the hover. If this ooccurs, the water and the feed should be placed partly under the hover so that the poults can have access to it. The guard (see fig. 11, A) helps to prevent too much heat loss from the brooder for the first few days, although its main function is to keep the poults from wandering too far from the brooder and to train them to go back to it for heat. When used with a gas or similar type of brooder, Turkey Production in California 37 the guard may be placed about 18 to 24 inches from the edge of the canopy. When used with an electric brooder, it may be placed about the same distance away from the brooder, but should come up to the edge of the canopy at least at one place so as to lead the poults under the brooder. After the first few days the guard should be removed (fig. 11, B), but care should be taken to see that the birds do not get into corners and pile. Crowding is likely to result in uneven growth and increased mortality, ^pm^ma^mm HI ^^B^^^B ^^H H^B$T^' . -'s^rwr^KKKt^^^^Km^ H 'i^^^SM I^^H i- ^**^^**'***'w^f^ ^^H Fig. 13. — Roosts are put into the brooder room when the birds are 4 or 5 weeks old. hence special care should be given the poults at dusk when they are settling down for the night. When first allowed outside the poults may be driven out and in two or three times to make sure they know their way. Even in warm weather the strangeness of the surroundings outside may cause them to crowd. The danger of such crowding is much greater in cool weather. If the birds are fed well-balanced rations with an adequate amount of vitamin D (see "Formulas for Turkey Mashes") it is not necessary to get them out at any particular time. They should not be allowed outside in very wet or cold weather. In warm weather the birds can be fed and watered outside, if shaded yards are available (see fig. 12) . Roosting helps to prevent crowding, and for this reason the birds should be taught to get onto the roosts reasonably early. If they go onto the roosts too early, however, or if the roosts are too narrow, the propor- tion of birds with crooked keels is likely to be considerably increased. The first roosts should be made of frames similar to those in figure 13. These are about 1 foot above the floor and the roosts are 1 inch x 2 inches laid flat (not on edge) with the edges beveled. 38 CAiiiFORNiA Agricultural Extension Service [Cm. no MANAGEMENT OF GROWING TURKEYS The poults are usually kept in the brooder house for 6 to 8 weeks and they may be left somewhat longer, particularly in cold weather. In warm weather, heat may be discontinued even before the birds are 6 weeks old, but it is not good practice to take the birds out of the brooder house before this time, because if the weather turns cool, heat should be applied. In general, there are three methods of growing turkeys. These methods are : (1) to rear in close confinement and provide all feed, (2) to rear on Fig. 14. — Equipment used for rearing poults after they are about 8 weeks old. The feed hopper, which is 8 feet long, is placed on the ground at first but later is raised as shown. open range but provide all feed, and (3) to rear on more or less open range with the birds getting a part of their feed from the range. The first method is relatively intensive, the birds being reared in re- stricted yards (see fig. 14 for equipment used). One hundred birds can be put into a yard 50 feet by 100 feet in area and will grow satisfactorily under such conditions until marketed. When larger numbers are reared together, the area allowed should be correspondingly larger. Where lim- ited space is available for the birds, care should be taken, however, not to allow the yards to get dirty. Many growers rear their turkeys on open range with up to about 5,000 birds in each band. The usual number looked after by one man is around 2,500 to 3,000. The birds may be supplied with all their feed in hoppers up to the time they are marketed. Birds raised by this second method will be ready for market at about the same age as closely confined birds. Commercial growers in grain-growing sections of California often finish their turkeys on barley stubble or on rice fields. This third method Turkey Production in California 39 of ranging the birds has proved economical and satisfactory where sup- plementary mash is provided. The birds may be provided with roosts (see figs. 15 and 16) or they can roost on the ground. While this method has proved cheaper, the birds so reared are usually not marketed until later than those reared under intensive conditions or on range with all feed Fig. 15. — iSmall alfalfa ranges provide greens (vitamin A) and exercise. Note the inexpensive roosting quarters, suitable for dry climates. (From Agr. Ext. Cir. 58.) Fig. 16. — Wire-enclosed open-air roosting shed protects the birds from preda- tory animals. A turkey dog can be seen lying against the catching crate. Roosts are here placed with the wrong side of the 2x4 inch boards up. (From Agr. Ext. Cir. 58.) hopper-fed. In addition to the care needed in providing supplementary feeds in the way of concentrates (see section on "Nutrition"), the birds should have access to uncontaminated water at all times. A variation of this last method is used on many general farms where small flocks of turkeys are allowed to range over the farm. Good results are obtained under such conditions except where the birds mix with flocks of chickens, in which case the losses from blackhead are likely to be heavy. Occasionally reports are received of poults' picking feathers oif each 40 California Agricultural Extension Service [Cir. ho other in the brooder house or later on after they have been moved out of the brooder house. Although the exact cause can seldom be determined, several factors may be involved in starting the vice. One of these factors is crowding. This vice seems to be more common v^here a wire floor is used, but this may be due to the tendency to crowd the birds when they are kept on wire. It may occasionally be due to diet, caused either by a specific deficiency or by the feeding of a ration which is lacking in bulk. Irregular feeding may also be a factor. Probably, however, the diet ordi- narily plays a relatively minor role in causing this trouble. For young birds, the vice may be controlled by applying coal tar or one of the anti- pick preparations to the birds. This is not practical with larger birds. In these cases, the grower may need to use one of the antipick devices on the market or to use pig rings for the purpose. The pig rings should be clamped into the lower beak, one on each side, to keep the upper and lower beaks slightly apart. In the case of young poults, darkening the brooder house may help. Shutting out ordinary light by the use of win- dow glass painted wdth red-lacquer paint or the use of ruby-colored elec- tric bulbs as the only source of light will stop cannibalism, but obviously these control measures cannot always be used. The chief difficulty result- ing from this vice is a discoloration of the back caused by picking the feathers in this region. This may easily reduce the market value of the birds. Stopping the trouble once it has begun is not easy. Consequently, every effort should be made to prevent it from starting by giving the birds plenty of room, by good management, and by feeding a properly balanced ration. Poults do not always begin feeding readily, as has previously been mentioned (p. 36) . Furthermore, it is sometimes difficult to get the birds to eat and drink after they are moved from the brooder house to the rear- ing range or from one range to another. This difficulty may be lessened by taking care to use the same equipment both for feeding and for water for the first 2 or 3 days in the new quarters and to feed the same ration. If the equipment is being changed, this should be done by putting some of the new equipment in the pens with that used previously until the birds get used to it. Special attention should be given to the birds when moved, to see that they are eating and drinking properly in their new quarters. Carelessness in this regard is likely to result in increased mor- tality. Figure 17 shows the average mortality in two groups of flocks. Special precautions were taken when moving the University of California flock and in this case no increase in mortality occurred. The mortality was slightly higher in the Utah flocks but nevertheless was so low as to indi- Turkey Production in California 41 cate that the flocks were well managed. Despite this apparently good management there was a small increase in mortality at 9 weeks of age which probably occurred when the birds were moved. Since there ap- pears to be some increased mortality even when well-managed flocks are moved, it will be readily appreciated that carelessness may result in heavy losses. While roosts are not always provided for birds on range, those reared in confinement should be provided with roosts. These should be raised s I \ \ \ \ \ \ \ //^y^ / 9S4 \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \\ ^ CC7//) ^orn/o /SS4-3 7 \ / / / / \ \ \ "~'~'~-— "*''"■•-«. z^^ ^"^" / / > 5 6 7 3 Aje j'r? ii/eeAs /o /2 Fig. 17. — Percentage mortality of poults to 12 weeks of age in twenty Utah flocks and in the California Agricultural Experiment Station flock. (Utah data from: Frischknecht, C, and B. Alder. Farm business analysis of twenty Utah turkey flocks in 1934. Utah Agr. Col. Ext. Serv. 8 p. Mimeo.) 2 or 3 feet off the ground and are usually made of 2 x 4 inch pieces laid flat with the upper edges beveled (see fig. 14). If natural shade is not available (fig. 18), artificial shade should be provided, for without it turkeys may suffer heat prostration in very hot weather. When reared in confinement, running water should be provided, if at all possible. For birds on range, every precaution should be taken to prevent the birds from getting access to contaminated water. Fresh, clean water to drink should always be available. There is some tendency for turkeys to stampede when disturbed, par- ticularly in bright moonlight. They may also stampede or fly in different 42 California Agricultural Extension Service [Cir. ho directions if suddenly disturbed at other times. Since a certain per- centage of the birds are likely to be injured when this occurs, always try to avoid anything that would scare them. The use of lights on the birds at night will help to prevent stampeding. Birds that have been reared on range do not readily take to confine- ment. Putting such birds in limited quarters for the purpose of fattening them is likely to be an expensive practice. They are usually restless in the new environment and fail to gain until thoroughly accustomed to it. Fig. 18. — Commercial turkey flock in a desert area. The corn in the ))acKgiound is grown for shade. (From Agr. Ext. Cir. 58.) The best practice with such birds is, therefore, to finish them for market on range. If they get all the feed that they will consume, they will acquire a satisfactory finish more economically than if penned up. There is no advantage in segregating the sexes in the brooder. This may be done later by size or by the lighter color of the tip of the breast feathers in the case of the female Bronze, Narragansett, and Bourbon Red. The sexes can be readily distinguished by the color of the tip of the breast feathers when the birds are 16 weeks old, which is usually early enough for all practical purposes. It is of some practical importance to segregate the birds according to development. Birds that have not grown properly during the earlier stages will do better if placed with others of their own size. Later on, such birds can be reunited with the flock. Such slow-growing poults should be marked so that they can be identified later. They should never be used for breeders. It is not good practice to place stunted birds that have recovered from some disease, with younger, healthy poults, since the recovered poults may carry the disease organism Turkey Production in California 43 and thus spread the disease. Similarly, any new stock brought onto the place should be kept isolated for 2 weeks or more. As a rule, partly reared stock should not be brought onto the place. A much safer practice is to buy eggs or day-old poults. MARKING TURKEYS TO PREVENT THEFT Where losses from theft are troublesome, it may be desirable to tattoo a brand in the web of the wing of the growing turkeys. The birds can be marked rapidly and cheaply. The brand adopted should be registered as provided in the Agricultural Code of California, Division III, Chap- ter 1, Article 4. NUTRITION THE NUTRIENTS The nutritional requirements of turkeys are similar in many respects to those of chickens. There are certain important differences, however, which will be discussed. The requirements of turkeys will be considered for the six different groups of nutrients, namely, carbohydrates, pro- teins, fats, vitamins, minerals, and water. Carbohydrates. — These compounds contain three chemical elements : carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Certain carbohydrates, such as starch, are digestible. Other carbohydrates, such as cellulose, are indigestible but may play some part in the mechanical functioning of the intestines. Starch is by far the most common digestible carbohydrate in turkey ra- tions. It occurs in large amounts in cereal grains and is the principal source of energy in turkey nutrition. When starch is digested, it is turned into glucose — a simple sugar — which is absorbed into the blood stream of the turkey. Other digestible carbohydrates, such as lactose, which are found in turkey rations undergo similar changes. Carbohydrate is the main food of turkeys. It supplies them with energy for muscular movement ; it is used to produce heat to keep their bodies warm ; and it is converted into fat, which is stored in the flesh. It is important that turkey rations should contain fairly large amounts of digestible carbohydrates. Proteins. — Proteins are complicated substances which contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, usually sulfur, and frequently phos- phorus. Proteins are the main constituents of flesh and feathers and form the greater part of the weight of a bird's body. Birds must receive pro- teins in their diet. Proteins are extremely complex and are composed of many simple units called "amino acids." During digestion, the proteins in the food are broken down into amino acids, which pass into the blood stream and are carried to various parts of the body where they may be 44 California Agricultural Extension Service [Cir. HO used for several purposes. The first of these is for building new tissue. Flesh, feathers, and eggs are largely formed from protein, which the bird receives in its food. The second purpose is for fuel to provide energy. It is cheaper to provide carbohydrate for fuel rather than protein, but, in any case, a considerable portion of the protein in a turkey's diet is used for fuel. When protein is burned in this manner, the nitrogenous part is turned into uric acid and excreted through the kidneys. The third pur- pose for which proteins are used is for the repair of worn-out tissues. The fourth purpose, if there are large amounts of protein in the diet, is for the formation of fat. Some proteins are indigestible and hence are valueless in turkey ra- tions. Examples of such proteins are horn, hoof, and feathers. Others, such as the protein of corn, are digestible but do not have a very high nutritional value. On the other hand, certain proteins are digestible and have a high value for producing growth and eggs. The proteins of fish meal are an example of this type. Fats. — Fats are an expensive form of food and are valued for use in human diets, hence only small quantities of fat find their way into turkey rations. Turkeys can readily form fat from carbohydrates. However, fats need consideration in turkey rations for two reasons. First, fats are car- riers of the fat-soluble vitamins. Fish oils are an example of fats which are used for such a purpose. Second, feeds which contain large amounts of fat are apt to become rancid if exposed to the air for a long time and rancid feeds may be injurious to birds. Vitamins. — ^Vitamins are a group of nutrients which are needed only in traces but which must be provided in all rations so that nutritional- deficiency diseases will not develop. Vitamins are necessary to keep the body in good working order. Traces of vitamins must be present so that such feedstuffs as carbohydrates and proteins can be used in the body. The known vitamins will be discussed later (pp. 47-52). Minerals. — Growing birds need a constant supply of minerals so that bone and other tissues which contain minerals may be formed. Laying birds must be provided with the minerals essential for eggshell forma- tion. All birds should be supplied with minerals, even if they are not growing or laying eggs, because minerals are constantly being excreted in the droppings. If minerals are fed at too high a level, harmful effects are produced. Water. — Water is, of course, just as essential as the other forms of food. It is important to remember this, and a supply of pure water must be kept before turkeys at all times. Lack of water for even a short period will give turkeys a setback from which recovery will take a long while. Turkey Production in California 45 PEACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS IN FEEDING TURKEYS The feedstuff s used for turkeys are mixtures of the nutrients just dis- cussed. Table 7 gives the approximate percentage composition of certain common f eedstuffs as determined by chemical analysis. These figures give only a rough idea of the value of a feedstuff, since chemical analysis does not show the extent to which a feed can be digested and metabolized. This can be found only by actually feeding it to turkeys under controlled con- ditions and observing the effect. Digestibility is an important factor in considering the properties of a feedstuff. Very little is known at present about the digestibility of feeds for turkeys. Wet Feeding. — Many turkey growers think that giving birds at least one feeding a day of a wet feed is desirable. The turkeys relish feed in such a form and eat it rapidly. However, turkeys also eat dry feed very well, and the latter is cheaper and more convenient to use. Moreover, there is always a certain danger that wet feed will become stale and putrid. Dry feed is used exclusively for turkeys at the California Agri- cultural Experiment Station and no difficulty is experienced in getting the birds to eat enough. Roughage. — It is a matter of common observation that older turkeys eat large amounts of bulky feed without harm. In this respect they seem to be different from chickens. This fact gives the turkey grower an ad- vantage over the chicken raiser because it means that turkeys can con- sume a greater proportion of green feed and alfalfa meal than chickens. Green feed contains many of the vitamins needed by poultry and is much cheaper than certain other f eedstuffs commonly fed as a source of the same vitamins. Baby poults, however, should not be fed rations contain- ing large amounts of fiber or roughage, but when the birds become older they can apparently tolerate more roughage than chickens can. Recent experiments by Scott^ have shown that if a mash low in fiber is fed to growing turkeys, their growth is actually improved by adding a small amount of relatively pure fiber in the form of wood pulp. However, add- ing fiber to an ordinary turkey ration is unnecessary, since the alfalfa, ground grains, and grain by-products, which are normally present in such a ration, supply enough fiber (see table 7). Fine vs. Coarse Grinding. — Turkeys should not be given feed which is too finely ground, for this may make their mouths sore. A coarsely ground mash is better than a finely ground mash. In fact, most or all of the grain can be fed to older turkeys as whole grain because the birds can -^ Scott, H. M. Turkey production in Kansas. Kansas Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 276: 1-95. 1937. 46 California Agricultural Extension Service [Cir. iio grind it in their gizzards. This saves the expense of grinding grain, and, when birds are outside, helps to prevent the feed from being blown away by the wind. Grasshoppers in Turkey Feeding. — Many turkey growers believe that grasshoppers are an important item in the range feeding of turkeys. Re- cent results at the Oklahoma Agricultural Experiment Station^^ indicate that grasshoppers, when properly supplemented, may prove to be a valuable protein feed for turkeys. Grasshoppers, supplemented with some animal protein in the mash, produce excellent growth for a short period. Dried ground grasshoppers, substituted for a mixed protein supplement on an equal crude-protein basis, however, did not support normal growth. Pellets in Turkey Feeding. — Some growers prefer to feed at least a part of their mash in the form of pellets. It is doubtful whether the extra expense involved is justified unless there is danger that the mash may be blown away by the wind. Turkeys readily consume mash which has not been pelleted. The Use of ^'Bemedies^' in Feeding Turkeys. — Purgatives, medicines, spices, sulfur, charcoal, copper sulfate (bluestone), etc. are harmful rather than beneficial to healthy turkeys. If turkeys become sick, they should be treated according to their symptoms. Information on turkey diseases may be found in Bulletin 613.^. PROTEIN REQUIREMENTS OF TURKEYS An outstanding difference between baby chicks and baby poults is that the latter require more protein than baby chicks for rapid early growth. A poult starting mash should contain about 24 per cent crude protein. Turkeys started on a mash containing 20 per cent protein, however, will eventually weigh as much as turkeys started on a mash containing 24 per cent protein. Since grains contain only from 10 to 12 per cent protein, a protein concentrate must be provided in the mash. Animal protein con- centrates give the best results, but a part of the protein concentrates may consist of vegetable-oil meals. Fish meal and meat scrap are good protein concentrates for feeding "poults since they contain a large percentage of digestible protein of a high biological value. Soybean meal is an example of a vegetable protein concentrate which is successfully used in feeding turkeys. Dried milk also provides animal protein of good quality. As poults grow older, their rate of growth decreases. Although they ^* Anonymous. Hoppers make protein supplements, Oklahoma experimenters find. Poultry Supply Dealer 16:27. [May,] 1939. -« Hinshaw, W. R. Diseases of turkeys. California Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 613:1-112. 1937. Turkey Production in California 47 may gain in weight faster, their rate of growth, when measured by the percentage gain in weight, decreases from the time they are hatched (see fig. 24). This means that their requirement for protein will gradually decrease as they grow older. Results at the California Agricultural Ex- periment Station^" indicate that from 23 to 24 per cent protein is a suit- able level for the first 6 weeks, after which the protein level may be gradually decreased. From the sixth to the twelfth week, 20 per cent in the total ration is a suitable level, and after this the protein content may be lowered until the birds are receiving about 15 per cent protein in the total ration at six months of age. No sudden changes should be made in turkey rations at any time or the birds will be thrown off their feed. One way of lowering the protein content of the ration is to feed the birds grain. Grain feeding should be started gradually. Another way of lower- ing the protein content is to change the composition of the mash. This is somewhat more troublesome than adding grain, but it is advisable to change the composition after the birds have been moved from the brooder house because the mash for baby poults is necessarily more expensive than a mash for growing turkeys. Formulas for mashes are given on pages 58 to 61. VITAMIN REQUIREMENTS Six vitamins are definitely known to be needed by turkeys and others will no doubt be added to the list. Vitamins are particularly important in the starting ration because baby poults have a higher requirement for certain vitamins than baby chicks. All vitamins known to be required by turkeys are present in commonly used feedstuffs and therefore it is not necessary to buy special products. Avoid mysterious, highly priced, pat- ent mixtures. Vitamin A. — ^Vitamin A exists in plant and animal forms. The plant form, known as "carotene," is present in green leaves and alfalfa meal. Carotene is an orange-red pigment. The animal form of vitamin A is nearly colorless and is present in certain fish oils. Birds have the power of converting the plant form of vitamin A to the animal form ; it does not seem to matter which form is fed to birds because they can make equally good use of either form. For some years it has been known that poults have a high requirement for vitamin A. Vitamin-A deficiency is characterized by loss in weight and an inflamed condition of the eyes, nose, and sinuses known as "nutri- tional roup" (fig. 19). The birds die soon after the appearance of symp- toms unless vitamin A is promptly fed, in which case they may recover. 2° Jukes, T. H. Turkey feeding experiments. California Turkey News. p. 19-20, Sept., 1936; p. 5-7, Aug., 1937. 48 California Agricultural Extension Service [Cir. ho Hinshaw and Lloyd^^ and Scott^' have found that poults need from two to four times as much vitamin A in their ration as chicks. Poults should receive 4,500 units^' of vitamin A per pound of feed to be on the safe side. The requirements for mature turkeys are not known, but 4,500 units of vitamin A per pound of feed is probably sufficient. The following tabu- Fig. 19. — A five-week-old poult and a six-wcek-old chick, Loth show- ing typical symptoms of a vitamin-A deficiency. (From Hilgardia, Vol. 8, No. 9). lation gives the approximate potency of the common sources of vitamin A in turkey rations and indicates how much of each feedstuff would be needed to supply 4,500 units of vitamin A per pound. Obviously, if more than one source is present in the ration, the amount of each source re- quired will be less than if only one source were used. Approximate Per cent in ration units of vitamin A to supply 4,500 Feedstuff per pound units per pound Yellow corn 3,000 50 per cent would supply only 1,500 units Alfalfa meal, containing 45 milligrams of carotene per pound 75,000 6 Fresh green leaves 45,000 10 High-potency fish oil, 3,000 A 1,360,000 0.33 The table shows how important is the carotene content of alfalfa meal. As turkeys become older, they are able to consume comparatively large amounts of bulky feeds such as fresh greens and alfalfa meal. These feeds are the most practical and economical sources of vitamin A and the vita- min-G complex for older birds. It should be noted that the vitamin A of fish oils tends to diminish after the oil has been mixed in the mash, and ■*^ Hinshaw, W. E., and W. E. Lloyd. Vitamin-A deficiency in turkeys. Hilgardia 8(9): 281-304. 1934. ^2 Scott, H. M. Turkey production in Kansas. Kansas Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 276: 1-95. 1937. ^^ The vitamin-A unit referred to is the United States Pharmacopeia (XI) unit, which is the same as the International unit, defined as the activity of 0.6 microgram of beta carotene of the International Standard of Eeference. Turkey Production in California 49 that, when alfalfa meal is stored, the vitamin-A content decreases, espe- cially in warm weather. Vitamin D. — This vitamin is present in certain fish oils. It is also sup- plied by direct sunlight, which changes certain substances in the skin to vitamin D. Vitamin D is of great importance to poults, which have a high requirement for this factor. A deficiency of vitamin D produces rickets in young birds (fig. 20). This disease is marked by slow growth, soft Fig. 20. — The two poults at the left have severe rickets. Their bones are soft and rubbery and they are unable to stand. These poults received a diet containing no vitamin D and were kept away from sunlight. The poult on the right, from the same hatch, was kept under the same conditions, except that its diet con- tained biologically tested fish oil to supply vitamin D. In addition to the absence of rickets, note its superior growth and feathering. bones, softness of the beak, ruffled feathers, and a tendency to squat. If vitamin D is not provided soon after the symptoms appear, the poults will die. Vitamin D is also necessary for egg production and hatcha- bility. A lack of it contributes to the development of crooked breast bones in turkeys. There are several forms of vitamin D, some of which are very effective for the prevention of rickets in rats, but not in chicks and poults.'^* For this reason, a source of vitamin D such as a fish oil should be tested with chicks before use in turkey feeding. Such a test is commonly made by the A.O.A.C. chick test, and the oil is stated to contain a definite number of A.O.A.C. chick units."^ Poults need several times as much vitamin D '•^^ Bills, C. E. New forms and sources of vitamin D. Journal of the American Medical Association 108:13-15. 1937. ^^ The vitamin-D chick unit referred to in this publication is that determined according to the tentative procedure of the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists in which it is defined that 1 U.S. P. unit of vitamin D (in the United States Pharmacopeia Reference Cod-Liver Oil) equals 1 A.O.A.C. chick unit. 50 California Agricultural Extension Service [Cir. ho in their feed as chicks. This explains why poults sometimes develop rickets when placed on chick starting mashes. A poult starting mash should contain 200 A.O.A.C. chick units of vitamin D per 100 grams of feed for complete protection against rickets in the total absence of direct sunlight. This may be supplied by 0.5 per cent of a 400^D fish-oil con- centrate (containing 400 A.O.A.C. chick units of vitamin D per gram), or an equivalent percentage of a vitamin-D oil of some other strength. If the poults are receiving some direct sunlight, 0.3 per cent of 400-D oil may be sufficient in the starting mash. Biologically tested fish oils of guaranteed vitamin-D potency are the only oils that are suitable for supplying turkeys with vitamin D. Fish oils that have no guarantee of potency may or may not contain vitamin D. Vitamin-G Complex. — ^Vitamin G is now known to consist of several factors. Recent experiments with poults show that at least two of these factors are needed by turkeys.^*" The first is called "riboflavin," "lacto- flavin," or "flavin." The other may be referred to as the "filtrate factor." Riboflavin is very important for the promotion of growth and the pro- duction of hatchable eggs. Fresh greens and alfalfa meal are the cheapest source of riboflavin, which is also present in milk and whey. Poults re- quire about the same amount of riboflavin in their ration as chicks. Poult starting mashes should contain alfalfa meal and, in addition, dried milk or dried whey as sources of riboflavin. Older turkeys, however, may re- ceive their complete riboflavin requirement from fresh greens and alfalfa meal. Consequently, riboflavin is readily supplied in the ration of older turkeys, which should receive 10 per cent or more of alfalfa meal in their mash. It is a good plan to supply them with fresh greens and alfalfa hay, if these are available. Turkey poults on a ration deficient in riboflavin develop symptoms of dermatitis, consisting of a sore mouth with incrustations at the corners ; diarrhea, resulting in an inflamed vent ; thickened eyelids which tend to stick together; ragged feathers; and a listless, unthrifty appearance. Figure 21 illustrates these symptoms. Growth is very slow and mortality is high. The symptoms of riboflavin deficiency in poults are quite differ- ent from the symptoms in chicks, which do not develop dermatitis as a result of riboflavin deficiency. The second factor, or "filtrate factor," is sometimes spoken of as the "chick antidermatitis vitamin." It appears not to prevent dermatitis in poults, but if they are placed on a diet deficient in this vitamin they grow slowly and many of them die in a short time. Poults require about the 2° Jukes, T. H. The vitamin-G requirement of young poults. Poultry Science 17: 227-34. 1938. Turkey Production in California 51 Fig. 21. — Dermatitis in turkey poults. A shows a poult with an encrusted mouth and stuck eyelids, which resulted from a diet deficient in riboflavin. B illustrates another symptom of riboflavin deficiency. The shanks and feet on the left are those of a poult receiving a diet deficient in riboflavin ; those on the right belong to a poult receiving the same diet to which riboflavin had been added. Note the swelling and peeling of the shanks and feet of the deficient poult. (From Bui. 613.) 52 California Agricultural Extension Service [Cir. ho same amount of filtrate factor in their ration as chicks. The filtrate factor is present in moderate to fair amounts in many poultry feeds. Other Vitamins. — Vitamin B^ and vitamin K are both needed by tur- keys. These are present in all ordinary rations to an extent which makes a deficiency practically impossible. Other vitamins, such as vitamin E, are probably required by turkeys, but, if so, these vitamins are supplied by f eedstuffs commonly used in turkey feeding, and special provision for them is not necessary so far as is known at present. MINERAL REQUniEMENTS All living animals, including birds, need certain mineral elements in their diet. The principal mineral elements needed are : calcium, phos- phorus, potassium, magnesium, sodium, chlorine, small amounts of iron, traces of iodine and manganese, and possibly minute amounts of some of the other elements. Many of the common f eedstuffs are richly supplied with minerals. Grains and their by-products contain potassium, magne- Fig. 22. — A turkey poult with slipped tendon, caused by too high a level of bone meal in the ration. The hock joint was dislocated, but the poult was otherwise healthy. sium, iron, and a little manganese. Iron is present in fish meal and meat scrap. Sodium and chlorine are provided by common salt. Iodine is pres- ent in fish meal and oystershell. Calcium and phosphorus are provided by steamed bone meal, fish meal, and meat scrap, and to some extent by milk. Calcium is also provided by ground limestone or oystershell. It is important that turkey rations should contain enough calcium and phosphorus, although excessive amounts are distinctly injurious. For this reason, calcium and phosphorus are commonly balanced in a ration Turkey Production in California 53 by adding the required amount of steamed bone meal and ground lime- stone or ground oystershell to the mash. Hopper-feeding of limestone grit to growing birds is an unnecessary and dangerous practice because it throws the minerals of the ration out of balance. Growing turkeys are particularly susceptible to the injurious effects of excessive amounts of calcium and phosphorus. A bone deformity known as "slipped tendon," "perosis," or "hock disease" (fig. 22) sometimes results when too much calcium and phosphorus are fed. There are other causes which lead to TABLE 6 Approximate Percentages of Calcium and Phosphorus IN Feedstuffs Used for Turkeys Feedstuff Calcium Phosphorus Grains . . . . . 0.0 0.1 1.7 9.0 5.0 1.3 2.0 0.3 39 33 0.3 Grain by-products (bran, mill run, rice bran, etc.) . Dried alfalfa 1.2 0.2 Meat scrap, 50 to 55 per cent protein 4.5 3.0 Dried milk or dried whey 0.9 Sesame meal 1.6 Other oil meals, such as soybean meal 0.6 Limestone or oystershell Steamed bone meal Trace 15 Source of data : Mostly adapted from: Almquist, H. J., T. H. Jukes, and W. E. Newlon. Feeding chickens. California Agr. Ext. Cir. 108:22. Table 3. 1938. development of slipped tendon, but in practice the most common cause is too much bone meal or too much meat scrap, which contains large amounts of added bone meal. A dietary factor which tends to prevent slipped tendon in chicks is the mineral element manganese.^^ Manganese salts are poisonous in large amounts, but the addition of % pound of manganese sulfate to 1 ton of mash has been found at the California Agri- cultural Experiment Station to prevent slipped tendon in chicks without slowing their growth. Experiments with turkey poults have not, to date, given conclusive results. Cereal by-products such as wheat bran and rice bran contain manganese. A poult ration containing from 1.8 to 2.0 per cent calcium and from 0.8 to 1.0 per cent phosphorus may be relied upon to provide enough calcium and phosphorus for bone formation, and at the same time these levels of calcium and phosphorus will not cause slipped tendon under ordinary conditions. Table 6 lists the approximate calcium and phosphorus content of common feedstuffs. ''^' Wilgus, H. S., Jr., L. C. Norris, and G. F. Heuser. The role of manganese and certain other trace elements in the treatment of porosis. Journal of Nutrition 14: 155-68. 1937. 54 California Agricultural Extension Service [Cir. ho FEEDSTUFFS USED IN TURKEY RATIONS IN CALIFORNIA A successful turkey ration must contain sufficient quantities of digestible carbohydrates and must supply the necessary proteins, minerals, and vitamins for turkeys. Rations are based on certain common energy con- TABLE 7 Approximate Percentage Composition of Some Feedstuffs Used for Turkeys Feedstuff Crude protein Nitrogen-free extract* Crude fat Crude fiber Alfalfa meal 18 to 21 9 10 43 64 to 68 56 31 50 to 55 34 12 11 11 5 10 8 13 43 44 8 10 to 12 16 17 39 to 40 71 68 27 3 3 23 2 50 72 12 71 62 62 64 41 24 30 59 71 to 73 54 56 3 2 4 7 s 10 7 11 1 2 3 7 2 13 7 6 4 2 5 5 15 to 30 Barley 6 Corn, dent 2 Cottonseed meal 11 Fish meal, sardine 1 Fish meal, tuna scrap 2 Hempseed meal .... . . 23 Meat scrap 2 Milk products: Dried skim milk Dried whey Milo or kafir or Egyptian corn 2 Molasses, cane Oats 9 Rice, paddy 9 Rice bran 13 Sesame meal 6 Soybean meal Water-grass seed 6 10 Wheat 2 to 3 Wheat bran 10 Wheat middlings 7 * "Nitrogen-free extract" usually consists principally of starch and other digestible carbohydrates, although a part of the "nitrogen-free extract" always consists of material which is worthless as food. Source of data: Mostly adapted from: Almquist, H. J., T. H. Jukes, and W. E. Newlon. Feeding chickens. Califor- nia Agr. Ext. Cir. 108:12. Table 1. 1938. centrates, protein concentrates, vitamin supplements, and mineral sup- plements. Table 7 gives the approximate composition of some common feedstuffs. ENERGY CONCENTRATES Energy concentrates are mostly grains and grain by-products. Such feeds are comparatively high in digestible carbohydrates and supply a certain amount of protein. Energy concentrates also supply important vitamins and minerals. Barley. — Barley is a deservedly popular feed for turkeys in Califor- nia. Barley of excellent quality is grown on the Pacific Coast and may often be obtained more cheaply than the other grains, particularly at Turkey Production in California 55 harvest time. It is a satisfactory grain for turkeys, both in the scratch- grain mixture and in the mash. Sorghum Grains. — Milo, Egyptian corn, kafir, etc., are excellent feeds for turkeys and may often be obtained at a favorable price. Their feed value is nearly as high as that of corn. The supply of sorghum grains is sometimes limited, and at certain times of the year they are difficult to obtain, but they may well be used for turkey feeding when they are available. Bice. — When rice is cheap, it is a valuable feed for turkeys. It is often fed as whole paddy rice in the scratch-grain mixture. Turkeys in the Sacramento Valley are often turned on the rice fields in the fall after the crop has been harvested and in this way the birds pick up a lot of rice from the ground. Rice is a grain which is comparatively high in carbohy- drate and low in protein. Corn. — Corn is a highly palatable grain and is richer than some of the other grains in total digestible nutrients. The price of corn, however, is often considerably higher than the price of other grains, and under these circumstances California-grown grains are a more economical feed for turkeys, particularly in the case of older birds, which consume large quantities of grain. Wheat. — Wheat is a popular grain for turkey feeding and may well be included in the ration when it is reasonably priced. It ranks nearly as high as corn in feeding value. Wheat Bran. — Good results are obtained when turkeys receive from 10 to 20 per cent wheat bran in the mash. Bran has been found to pro- mote growth in chickens, although the factor responsible for this effect has not been identified. Bice Bran. — Rice bran is a valuable feed for turkeys if it is obtained fresh and fed immediately. It has nutritional properties similar to those of wheat bran. However, rice bran is rich in fat and hence has a tendency to spoil. Rancid rice bran should never be fed to turkeys. Cane Molasses. — Cane molasses is laxative when fed in amounts ex- ceeding 5 per cent of the ration. It is somewhat difficult to mix, but this may be overcome by using dried molasses. Information on mixing liquid molasses in a mash may be obtained from the Agricultural Extension Service.^^ A small amount of molasses in the mash is very palatable to turkeys and its dampness helps to keep the mash from blowing in the wind. Cane molasses contains the filtrate factor mentioned on page 50. ^"^ Information on mixing molasses in feeds is given in detail in : Fairbank, J. P., and J. R. Tavernetti. Handling feed molasses on the farm. Univ. California Col. Agr. Agr. Engin. Inform. Ser. No. 11:1-7. 1937. (Mimeo.) 56 California Agricultural Extension Service [Cir. ho Beans and Peas. — Cull beans or cull peas up to 5 or 10 per cent may be included in the turkey ration if they can be obtained cheaply as is sometimes the case. They are similar in composition to the grains but are higher in protein. Water-Grass Seed. — Small quantities of water-grass seed are some- times available as a by-product of the rice industry. Water-grass seed may be included in the scratch-grain mixture, if the price justifies it, at a level not exceeding 25 per cent. PROTEIN CONCENTRATES Fish Meal. — Pacific Coast fish meal furnishes protein of high biological value and is a deservedly popular constituent of turkey rations. Only high-grade fish meals should be used in feeding turkeys. It has been found in experiments at the California Agricultural Experiment Station that fish meal of high grade does not impart any undesirable flavor to the meat.''' Meat Scrap. — Meat scrap is a valuable animal protein concentrate. It is somewhat lower in protein and higher in bone than fish meal and tends to contain more low-grade material than a fish meal of good quality, such as whole sardine meal. Some forms of meat scrap are excessively high in ground bone. There is a certain amount of danger in feeding a ration containing too much ground bone to young poults, for slipped tendon may develop under such circumstances (see p. 52) . Vegetable Protein Meals. — These are sometimes spoken of as "oil-cake meals." Soybean meal is known to be a valuable feedstuff for turkeys, but its price is often high. Other vegetable protein concentrates are sesame meal, peanut meal, hempseed meal, cottonseed meal, and linseed meal. Sesame meal and hempseed meal have given good results with chickens. Preliminary experiments at Davis, in which peanut meal was fed to tur- keys, gave slightly poorer growth when peanut meal was included in the mash than when it was omitted. Linseed meal is highly laxative and is of doubtful value in the ration, although some growers often include it at a level of about 5 per cent. Milk Products. — Dried skim milk, dried buttermilk, and dried whey are deservedly popular in turkey rations because of their palatability and their content of vitamin-G complex. Their vitamin content is prob- ably more valuable than the proteins they contain. Dried milk products are especially valuable in the poult starting mash. Older turkeys can consume sufficient fresh and dried greens to make milk products unneces- 3» Asmundson, V. S., T. H. Jukes, H. M. Fyler, and M. L. Maxwell. The effect of certain fish meals and fish oils in the ration on the flavor of the turkey. Poultry Science 17:147-51. 1938. Turkey Production in California 57 sary in their rations. Many turkey growers, however, feed milk products to turkeys of all ages with excellent results. Condensed milk products, which contain from 60 to 70 per cent water, are popular with many turkey growers. Their expense seldom justifies their use, for dried milk products are usually cheaper on the basis of their solid matter. Condensed milk products have a tendency to spoil, espe- cially in hot weather, when they attract flies. Homemade condensed milk products may be cheaply produced by adding hot water to corresponding dry product. VITAMIN SUPPLEMENTS A turkey ration, to be complete, must always contain sufficient vitamins. An elementary knowledge of vitamins and their sources (pp. 47-52) will enable the turkey grower to mix economical rations. The vitamins are present in natural feeds ; certain widely used f eedstuffs, which do not come under the heading of energy concentrates and protein concentrates, are important as sources of vitamins. Particular attention should be given in the ration to sources of vitamins A, D, and the G complex. Fresh Greens. — Turkeys may receive their entire vitamin-A supply by means of fresh greens when these are available. Fresh greens are also a source of riboflavin, which is of great importance for growth and hatcha- bility. Fresh greens are a richer source of vitamin A than of riboflavin, but nevertheless, they may be relied upon to supply a large part of the riboflavin requirement, especially in the case of older birds. Fresh greens also supply other vitamins which are imperfectly understood at present. Turkeys have an excellent appetite for green leaves. Green pasture will supplement the turkeys' ration not only with vitamins, but to a certain extent with protein, carbohydrate, and minerals. Alfalfa Meal. — Since alfalfa meal consists of dried alfalfa leaves, it fol- lows that most of the feeding value of fresh greens is contained in alfalfa meal. However, certain vitamins present in fresh alfalfa leaves may be partly destroyed when the alfalfa is dried. The extent to which these vitamins are destroyed will depend upon the curing process. Vitamin A is very seriously damaged by prolonged drying in the sun, hence only rapidly cured alfalfa should be used in making sun-cured alfalfa meal. Riboflavin is not so easily destroyed as vitamin A, but there is a loss if the alfalfa is allowed to lie in the field a long while after it is cut, especially if it is rained on. Alfalfa meal is one of the most important constituents of turkey rations. In addition to supplying vitamins, it also supplies some protein, carbohydrate, and certain minerals such as iron. Alfalfa Hay. — This is often fed in bales to older turkeys. If of good quality, it has properties similar to those of alfalfa meal. 58 California Agricultural Extension Service [Cir. ho Biologically Tested Fish Oil. — A biologically tested fish oil should be added to the poult starting mash to provide vitamin D. Older birds which are outside can usually obtain their entire vitamin-D supply from the sun under California conditions. An exception to this may exist in the case of breeders in the cloudy winter months. Fish oils which have not been biologically tested with chicks should not be used (p. 49). MINERAL SUPPLEMENTS Salt. — A small quantity of salt is thought to be a desirable addition to a turkey ration ; 0.5 per cent salt in the mash is probably all that is neces- sary. High levels of salt cause digestive disturbances. Calcium Carbonate. — This mineral may be supplied cheaply in any one of its common natural forms such as ground limestone or ground oystershell. Expensive forms of calcium carbonate are not necessary so long as cheap natural forms continue to be abundant. Bone Meal. — Steamed bone meal should be used when phosphorus as well as calcium is to be added to the ration. Low-grade bone meals should not be fed to turkeys. Steamed bone meal of good quality can usually be obtained cheaply. Manganese. — The relation of manganese to slipped tendons in chicks was discussed above (p. 52) . If a manganese salt such as manganese sul- fate (manganous sulfate) is used, it may be added to the mash at the rate of not more than % pound per ton of mash. Mineral supplements other than the above are not necessary in practi- cal turkey rations. FORMULAS FOR TURKEY MASHES Poult starting Mashes. — The poult starting ration should be an all-mash and should be well supplied with vitamins. It is poor economy to feed poults a cheap mash during the first 6 weeks of their lives when they consume comparatively small amounts of food. A satisfactory poult start- ing mash has been found to be as follows : Pounds Ground barley 400 Ground yellow corn 500 Ground wheat 140 Wheat bran 300 Fish meal 350 Dried skim milk 100 Alfalfa meal of good quality, not less than 45 milligrams of carotene per pound 150 Ground limestone 30 Steamed bone meal 20 Biologically tested fish oil (400 A.O.A.C. chick units of vitamin D per gram) 10 (5 qts.) S(K\*r - * '0 Turkey Production in California 59 This mash contains about 23 per cent protein, 2.0 per cent calcium, and 1.0 per cent phosphorus, and is intended to be fed without supplements of any kind. It is balanced completely ; if the poults are fed grain in addition to this mash they may consume too much grain and in this way they will not get enough protein and vitamins in their ration. Fish meal of good quality, such as 65 per cent protein sardine meal, should be used. Poult Growing and Developing Rations. — After poults are 6 weeks old they no longer need such a high level of protein, and the protein content of their ration may be reduced by feeding them some grain. The feeding of grain should be started very gradually. Sudden changes in the ration will slow up the growth of turkey poults. A little grain may be scattered on top of their mash in the afternoon at first. When the poults leave the brooder house, they do not need vitamin D in their ration because they will receive a sufficient supply from the sunlight. A suitable growing ration for turkey poults that are running outside consists of the starting mash given above with the fish oil omitted, and with whole grains added at the rate of 1 part of scratch grain to 2 parts of mash. This will provide a protein level of about 20 per cent in the entire ration, which is suitable until the birds are about 12 weeks old, when the protein content of the ration may be reduced still further with good results. For those who wish to mix a growing mash that is somewhat cheaper than the starting mash, the following formula is suggested. It is intended to be fed to poults of 6 weeks and over at the rate of 2 parts of mash to 1 part of scratch grain. The kind of grains used in the scratch and mash is not important, provided the grains are of good quality. A mixture of two or more grains is probably advisable. Equal parts of barley, milo, and wheat make a good mixture. Pounds Ground grains 1,000 Wheat bran 300 Pish meal 380 Dried milk or dried whey 50 Alfalfa meal (of good quality) 200 Steamed bone meal 30 Ground limestone or oystershell flour 30 Salt 10 This mash contains about 23 per cent protein, 2.3 per cent calcium, and 1.1 per cent phosphorus. When 2 parts of the mash are fed with 1 part of scratch grain, the mixture supplies 19 per cent protein, 1.5 per cent calcium, and 0.9 per cent phosphorus. Fresh greens are a valuable sup- plement to the growing ration and, indeed, to all turkey rations except 60 California Agricultural Extension Service [Cir. ho the poult starting mash. Scott*" states that fresh, coarse, stemmy green feed may cause impaction of the digestive tract when fed to young poults. Developing and Finishing Rations. — The developing and finishing ra- tion may consist of a mash that is fed in conjunction with equal parts of whole grains or it may consist of a high-protein mash (sometimes termed '^high-protein concentrate") that is fed with large amounts of scratch grains. The following formula is an example of a developing and finish- ing mash for turkeys of 12 weeks and older that are consuming equal parts of scratch grains and mash. The mash contains about 21 per cent protein, 2.4 per cent calcium, and 1.1 per cent phosphorus. When the mash is fed with an equal weight of scratch grain, the mixture supplies 16 per cent protein, 1.2 per cent calcium, and 0.7 per cent phosphorus. Pounds Ground grains 1,140 Wheat bran 200 Fish meal 300 Alfalfa meal (of good quality) 260 Steamed bone meal 40 Ground limestone or oystershell flour 40 Salt 20 The following is an example of a developing and finishing high-protein mash for turkeys of 12 weeks and older, which should be rationed out to the birds so that they will consume about 3 parts of scratch grains to 1 part of high-protein mash. Care should be taken that the turkeys do not eat too large a proportion of the high-protein mash because of its pala- tability. Such a mash as this can be used to advantage for birds on barley or rice range and where home-grown grains or cheap locally grown grains are available. It contains about 31 per cent protein, 5.0 per cent calcium, and 2.0 per cent phosphorus. When 1 part is fed with 3 parts of scratch grain, the mixture supplies 15 per cent protein, 1.3 per cent calcium, and 0.7 per cent phosphorus. Pounds Wheat bran 500 Fish meal 700 Alfalfa meal (of good quality) 450 Cane molasses 150 Steamed bone meal 80 Ground limestone or oystershell flour 80 Salt 40 Alfalfa hay and fresh greens are valuable supplements to the develop- ing and finishing ration. Many turkey growers place bales of alfalfa hay for the birds to pick at. *^ Scott, H. M. Turkey production in Kansas. Kansas Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 276: 1-95. 1937. Turkey Production in California '61 The ration fed during the last two or three months before the birds are marketed should not contain fish oil. This is important, since an excess of fish oil fed at this time will cause an off-flavor in turkey flesh/' Feeding Breeder Hens. — For good hatchability, the mash fed to breed- ers should be rich in vitamins. During the cloudy months, it may be de- sirable to include some vitamin D in the breeder mash. The following formula suggested as a mash for breeders should be fed with equal parts of scratch grain. Fresh greens should be fed when they are available. If fresh greens are available in abundance, the alfalfa meal may be reduced to 200 pounds and the ground grains increased to 1,000 pounds. This mash contains about 21 per cent protein, 2.5 per cent calcium, and 1.2 per cent phosphorus. When fed with an equal weight of scratch grain the mixture supplies 16 per cent protein, 1.3 per cent calcium, and 0.7 per cent phosphorus. Additional calcium may be supplied by placing cracked oystershell before the birds. Pounds Ground grains 950 Wheat bran 300 Fish meal 300 Alfalfa meal (of good quality) 300 Dried milk or dried whey 50 Steamed bone meal 40 Ground limestone or oystershell flour 40 Salt 20 Fish oil, 400 chick units of vitamin D per gram 5 (5 pints) When pullets are being carried through the winter months in order to be used for Q^g production in the early spring it may be advisable to feed them a ration low in protein until 2 or 3 weeks before Qgg production is desired. Such a ration may be comparatively high in scratch grains. FEED CONSUMPTION The approximate daily feed consumption of turkeys at different ages and the average total feed consumption to different ages is shown in table 8. A simple calculation will show that the amount of feed required to produce a pound of gain increases as the birds grow older. This is largely due to an increase in the maintenance requirements and a slower rate of growth. Males consume more feed than females but utilize their feed slightly more efficiently than hens during the growing period.*^ Rapidly growing *^ Asmundson, V. S., T. H. Jukes, H. M. Fyler, and M. L. Maxwell. The effect of certain fish meals and fish oils in the ration on the flavor of the turkey. Poultry Science 17:147-51. 1938. ^- Brooks, F. D. Influence of sex on utilization of feed in turkeys. Poultry Science 12:299-304. 1933. 62 California Agricultural Extension Service [Cm. iio turkeys at different ages require less feed to produce a pound of gain than slower-growing birds of the same age, but since a moderate rate of growth during the first few weeks may be compensated for by a more rapid rate of growth later" it is important to obtain consistent gains. TABLE 8 Average Weights of Turkeys, Total Feed Consumption to Age Given, AND Approximate Daily Peed Consumption at Various Ages* Age in weeks Average weight of bird Total feed consumed to datet Approximate daily feed consumption per bird Grain Mash Total Grain Mash Total pounds 0.123 0.597 1.823 4.051 6.969 9.530 12.134 14.713 16.735 pounds 5.446 12.809 22.903 35.586 pounds 1.061 4.174 10.676 21.135 27.461 34.281 42.032 48.795 pounds 1.061 4.174 10.676 21.135 32.907 47.090 64.942 84.381 pounds 0.226 0.310 0.405 0.496 0.442 0.156 pounds 0.060 0.172 0.302 0.396 0.236 0.263 0.259 0.224 0.208 0.184 pounds 4 0.060 8 0.172 12 0.302 16 20 24 0.396 0.462 0.573 28 0.664 32 0.720 Mature males Mature females . . . 0.650 0.340 * Results based on figures for all turkeys in 1933, University of California, Davis, t The birds were fed a mash containing 20 per cent protein to 8 weeks of age. The mash fed from 8 weeks on contained 18 per cent protein. No grain was fed until the birds were 16 weeks old. Table 8 shows that about 5 pounds of grain and mash is required to produce a pound of live turkey. This will vary to some extent according to the amount of fresh greens fed. Also a total of about 10 and 19 pounds of grain and mash each month is required to feed mature females and males, respectively, of average size. The amounts for hens agree reason- ably well with those given by Marsden" for laying turkey hens. MARKETING A gradual change in marketing practice has taken place so that now most growers deliver their birds alive to killing plants equipped with cooling facilities instead of killing their birds on the farm. The present tendency toward inspection of dressed poultry of all kinds may eventually result in the virtual discontinuance of farm killing of turkeys except perhaps by those who market a part or all of their birds locally. ^^ Asmundson, V. S., and W. E. Lloyd. Effect of season on the growth and feed consumption of turkeys. Poultry Science 15:186-91. 1936. "* Marsden, S. J. Feed consumption and cost of feeding Bronze turkey breeding stock. Poultry Science 15:400-401. 1936. Turkey Production in California 63 /" H^^^^^ 1 '' ' JhbI p I^^^^Hw^^WM 1 ¥. ^■H"' "" ' '<«ipB"'^'' B Fig. 23. — Catching chutes, useful when sorting birds for market: A, small catching chute that can be conveniently moved ; B, a larger type with a higher runw^ay. 64 California Agricultural Extension Service [Cm. HO CONDITION When marketed in the ordinary way, the first step is to determine whether the birds are ready for market. For handling the birds, a catch- ing chute such as illustrated in figure 23 is useful. The birds should be driven into the chute slowly to avoid crowding, which may result in bruising and in lower grades. If a chute is not available, the system rec- /so 140 J30 /20 //O /OO 90 ^30 S s< Fig. 25. — Two methods of suspending birds for killing. age total loss in weight for properly starved birds is about 24 per cent, of which 10 per cent is lost when the birds are dressed and 14 per cent is lost when they are drawn. The range in total shrinkage of individual birds of from about 19 to 26 per cent shows that there are large individual dif- ferences. The best market birds, as shown by grade (fleshing, straightness of keel), shrink least. Killing. — The bird is usually suspended from a shackle (fig. 25, A), before killing, by putting the feet through the hooks, which are 8 to 12 inches apart. The bird may also be suspended by using strong, light cord tied to a rafter. The cord is wrapped around both legs of the turkey and Turkey Production in California 67 kept in place by a small block of wood or iron washer, on the end of the cord (fig. 25,5). A good killing knife has a straight cutting edge, with the back of the blade curved to the point, the blade being % inch wide, 4 to 4% inches long and so strongly built that it will not break when twisted (fig. 26, C). Fig. 26. — A, Blood cup ; B, 6-pound weight used in place of a blood cup ; C, killing knife ; D, pinning knife. With the back of the head lying in the palm of the left hand, the mouth is held open so that the knife can be inserted. The cut is made diagonally across the upper surface of the throat just behind the angle of the jaw so as to sever the jugular veins and the carotid arteries (see fig. 27) . The knife is next inserted in the cleft in the roof of the mouth and pushed in a line just below the eye to the rear lobe (the medulla ob- longata) of the brain. The knife can also be inserted past the eye in such a way that it passes into the skull through the opening for the optic nerve. When properly done there is a characteristic squawk and a con- vulsion of the bird's body. The feathers are more difficult to dry-pick if the bird is not properly killed in this way. A 5- to 7-pound weight or a blood cup (fig. 26, A and B) weighted with 68 California Agricultural Extension Service [Cir. HO 4 or 5 pounds of lead or concrete is hooked in the lower jaw. The bird should not be allowed to raise its head after bleeding starts, since it may swallow blood which will cause discoloration of the crop. ^^^^^^^^ ' ^ f'^^I^H^^^Hri^HB^^^I W^M ^^^H Hi '4 |H MiH Fig. 27. — Roof of the mouth and throat showing a, a, jugular veins; b, cross vein; c, groove in the roof of the mouth. In commercial killing plants, the birds are usually semiscalded (or soft-scalded). They are bled by cutting the veins in the neck from out- side, taking care to cut deep enough to cause the blood to flow freely yet not so deep that blood collects, which may later cause mustiness. The bird is killed by sticking under the eye or it may be allowed to bleed to death. It is then dipped into a tank of water kept at a temperature of 128°-130° Turkey Production in California 69 Fig. 28. — Directions for poultry head -wrapping (as recommended by Carl L. Alsberg, United States Department of Agriculture Bureau of Chemistry). A, Getting started: Hang the bird by the feet in a shackle or rope loop. Hold the head firmly, bill to the front. Slant the paper as shown, being sure that the longer edge is uppermost. There must be plenty of thumbhold on the pointed end over the neck. B, Pull tight : Pull the upper long edge downward and to the left. Be sure the edge of the paper at the neck is tight. Notice how it dents the flesh a little. C, Changing hands to get bell shape : As the left hand swings the paper around, the right loosens its hold and the left hand catches neck and paper firmly. This makes a "bell" with even overlapping edges at the bottom, and the edge X almost a vertical line from the grasping fingers downward. D, Close the bell : Holding with the left hand, turn the head so that you can see inside the "bell. "With the thumb and just a little assistance from the fingers, push the edge of the "bell" up and in. E, Neat and clean: This is the finished head wrap. Holding the bird by the legs you can "snap" it hard, but the head wrap will not come off. (From Agr. Ext. Cir. 58.) 70 California Agricultural Extension Service [Cm. no F for about 30 seconds. The heads of birds killed in this way should always be wrapped (see fig. 28) unless they are to be sold dressed and drawn with the head and feet removed. Picking. — When dry-picked, the wings are held together firmly with the left hand. The feathers are then removed, first the tail feathers, then the long flight feathers (primaries and secondaries) with the right hand. Heitz*^ recommends picking the rest of the feathers in the following order : breast, sides, legs, back, hips, neck, body feathers between the legs, and small wing feathers. These feathers are removed by the rough picker who usually does the killing as well. Care should be taken not to bruise or tear the skin. The pinf eathers and other feathers are usually removed by pinners or pickers who remove the pinf eathers and other small feath- ers left by the roughers when large numbers of birds are being killed. The bird should be picked clean. Instead of removing the small feathers and pinf eathers by hand they may be removed by dipping the birds into a specially prepared wax. The wax is melted and kept at a temperature of about 125° F. The birds are rough-picked, dry or after semiscalding, and are then cooled and dried, after which they are dipped into the melted wax twice, or oftener, if necessary. They are then allowed to cool or are dipped into cold water to harden the wax, after which it is removed. The wax can be used re- peatedly. Cooling. — When picked, the birds are hung up to cool. They should be sufficiently far apart to allow prompt cooling. Cooling to 34° F is de- sirable. If a temperature of 40° is not available, it would be advisable to deliver the birds immediately to a refrigerating plant or butcher shop for cooling. Under some circumstances, such as where there is a local out- let for turkeys over an extended period, it may be advisable to install cooling facilities. Refrigerating units are now available at comparatively low cost so that a small cooling room suitable for holding a limited num- ber of birds for a week or two, can be built at a cost of a few hundred dollars. Some growers who have cold running water available from ar- tesian wells or other sources use a spray of cold water to cool the birds. They can also be dipped in cold water for a few minutes and any blood or dirt washed off at the same time. Birds should not be left in water to cool for any length of time since they do not keep so well if stored.*^ The cooling should therefore be completed in a cool room or refrigerator " Heitz, T. W. Dressing and packing turkeys for market. U. S. Dept. Agr. Farmers' Bui. 1694:1-28. Eevised 1934. *^ Benjamin, E. "W., and H. C. Pierce. Marketing poultry products. 401 p. John Wiley and Sons, New York. 1937. Turkey Production in California 71 plant. Whatever the details of the method used, prompt cooling is very- important, since birds not cooled properly within about 12 hours may turn green in a few days. MARKET GRADES Grading places a premium on quality above the average, but penalizes the low-quality bird and for that reason discourages the marketing of birds which are not ready for market or are unattractive because of im- proper handling at any stage. Since inferior birds are likely to affect the market unfavorably for all turkeys, it would be desirable to have all tur- keys paid for according to grade. The tentative United States govern- ment grades are widely used and are gaining in popularity, although it is not compulsory to buy and pay for turkeys according to grade. Some cooperative organizations and many firms use their own systems of grad- ing, but since all such systems have the same objective of designating the relative quality of the dressed bird, the following tentative U. S. grades for young females will serve to indicate some of the points considered. Allowances are made for sex and age differences in grading young males, old hens, and old males. U. S. Special or TJ. S. Grade A A. — Young, fine-grained, soft-meated female bird, with broad full-fleshed breast, and with the entire carcass fully covered with fat. Must be well bled, well dressed, and practically free of pinfeathers, and have empty crop. No flesh bruises allowed; and only very slight skin abrasions, bruises, or dis- colorations permitted, none of which shall be on the breast. Slightly dented breast bones (not to exceed i/4 inch in depth) permitted, but no crooked breasts or other deformities allowed. A broken or disjointed wing above the wing tip, or a broken or disjointed leg, not permitted. Must be dry-picked or semiscalded and must be dry-packed. U. S. Prime or U. S. Grade A. — Young, soft-meated female bird, with well-fleshed breast, and with entire carcass well covered with fat. Must be well bled, well dressed, with breast practically free of pinfeathers and only a few scattered pinfeathers over remainder of carcass. Crop must be empty. Only very slight flesh or skin bruises, abrasions, or discolorations permitted, with breast practically free of such defects. Slightly dented breast bones (not to exceed % inch) permitted, but no crooked breasts that would interfere with the slicing of the meat, or other deformities, allowed. Broken wings above the wing tips or broken legs not permitted. A disjointed leg or wing permitted if only sightly bruised. Birds with crops properly removed and sewn up may be included in this grade. Must be dry-picked or semiscalded and must b€ dry-packed. TJ. S. Choice or TJ. S. Grade B. — Young female bird, with fairly well-fleshed breast, and with carcass fairly well covered with fat. Must be fairly well bled and dressed, and may show scattered pinfeathers over the entire carcass. Crops must be practically free of feed. Slight flesh or skin bruises permitted, but not more than three such defects on any bird. Slight skin abrasions or discolorations permitted. Abrasions or tears over 3 inches in diameter not allowed, unless properly sewn up. Dented or 72 California Agriculturad Extension Service [^ir- ho slightly crooked breast bones or other slight deformities permitted. One broken wing or one broken leg permitted if bone does not protrude through the flesh and if not showing excessive bruise or blood clot. Z7. S. Commercial or U. S. Grade C. — Young female bird which may be poorly fleshed and with carcass poorly covered with fat. May show evidence of poor bleeding and have numerous pinf eathers over the entire carcass. Skin abrasions and discolora- tions permitted. Huachback or other deformities allowed if birds are fairly well fleshed. Birds badly bruised so as to make any appreciable part of the carcass inedible not permitted. Birds showing emaciation or external evidence of disease or other condition which renders them unwholesome or unfit for human food not permitted.'*" The grades for individual birds take into consideration fleshing, feath- ering, deformities (particularly of the keel), and injuries. The birds are classified as male or female, old or young. In some years a slightly higher price is paid for hens than for toms. Small, well-fieshed toms in such cases usually sell for the same price per pound as hens. FARM PRICES OF TURKEYS Most of the turkeys marketed are sold in the months of October to Febru- ary, inclusive. Birds kept for breeding are usually sold in May, although in some years they are marketed in April, while in certain years a part of TABLE 10 Farm Prices of Turkeys in Cents per Pound on Fifteenth OF Each Month in California, 1925-1938* Year January February March April October November December 1925 33.0 1 32.7 39.5 42.1 1926 43.4 33.4 40.8 45.0 1927 41.0 • 35.0 39.0 38.0 1928 35.0 36.0 36.0 33.0 1929 31.0 32.0 32.0 30.0 1930 29.0 28.0 28.0 26.0 1931 28.0 27.0 25.0 25.0 1932 23.0 18.0 17.0 14.0 1933 13.0 13.0 12.0 13.0 17.0 17.0 15.0 1934 15.0 15.0 15.0 15.0 17.0 18.0 20.0 1935 20.0 22.0 17.0 20.0 20.0 17.0 19.0 21.0 19.0 20.0 22.0 20.0 21.0 23.0 20.0 22.0 23.0 1936 . . 18.0 1937 21.0 1938 20.0 20.0 20.0 18.0 20.0 * This table was compiled by Edwin C. Voorhies, Professor of Agricultural Economics, Agricultural Economist in the Experiment Station, and Agricultural Economist on the Giannini Foundation, Univer- sity of California. t Dashes indicate data not available. Source of data: U. S. Dept. Agr. Crops and Markets, monthly issues. the breeding flocks may not be sold until much later. Less than 20 per cent of the California crop of turkeys is marketed before Thanksgiving, while slightly more is marketed between Thanksgiving and Christmas, *^ United States Department of Agriculture Bureau of Agricultural Economics. Tentative U. S. standards and grades for dressed turkeys, p. 4. 1936. (Mimeo.) Turkey Production in California 73 with 50 per cent or more marketed in January and February. The per- centage varies from year to year. As a rule, birds that are raised in con- finement are marketed earlier than range-finished birds, and this, as well as the time the birds are hatched, largely determines when the birds are marketed. Some birds are sent to market in the early fall, but in many sections of California it is difficult to finish birds at that season because of hot weather. Growers located in districts having a relatively cool cli- mate might find it profitable to market some of their birds early, but since the demand is relatively small it is not advisable to plan to market many birds much before Thanksgiving. Prices paid to producers vary considerably from year to year and from month to month. Farm prices of turkeys are shown in table 10. They are based on all classes, grades, and sizes. As can be seen from table 10 and the more extended data published by Tinley and Voorhies,^" price pre- dictions are extremely difficult. Estimates made must take into consider- ation so many factors that the safest procedure for the individual grower would be to market his birds when ready (p. 64) through a cooperative organization or a reliable, licensed dealer. The birds should in all cases be sold before they are sent to market, whether sold alive or dressed. CAPONS Turkeys can be grown into sufficiently large birds to meet all ordinary demands before sexual maturity causes a deterioration in the quality of the flesh. Males do relatively little damage to each other by fighting. Furthermore, caponizing has little or no influence on growth and feed consumption. Caponizing of turkeys is, therefore, not justified. Turkey capons, according to Scott and Payne" and others, have typical male plumage but small head furnishings like those of the hen. SPECIALTIES Most turkeys are sold as live or dressed turkeys through the regular chan- nels. A few specialties have been developed in recent years. These include : (1) '^SquaW^ turkeys or young birds in good flesh but having little fat. They look dark and unattractive but have a good flavor and can sometimes be sold at a premium. Unless a premium is obtained, the marketing of such birds would not pay. Since there is no open market for such birds, they ^° For a more complete discussion of the economics of marketing turkeys see: Tinley, J. M., and E. C. Voorhies. Economic problems affecting turkey marketing in California. California Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 612:1-78. 1937. ^^ Scott, H. M., and L. F. Payne. The effect of gonadectomy on the secondary sexual characters of the Bronze turkey {M. gallopavo). Journal of Experimental Zoology 69:123-36. 1934. 74 California Agricultural. Extension Service [Cir. ho have to be sold through private channels. (2) Smoked turkeys are sold in limited amount. The birds are dressed and drawn in the ordinary v^^ay, then rubbed with the preserving fluid and cooled to about 38° F (24 hours), placed in a home-mixed or commercial preserving fluid for a week, split and smoked (48-60 hours) using hardwood or a commercial smoke product and finally allowed to stand for about a week. (3) Tur- keys are sometimes sold as half turkey, in parts such as breasts, legs, or wings, and dehoned. The deboned turkey may be rolled in such a way that the different layers are surrounded by the skin. (4) Feathers have some market value if properly prepared. HATCHING EGGS Turkey hatching eggs are usually shipped in standard egg cases. Duck- egg fillers and flats are used. The package may be made firm by the use of cushions, but the use of bran or other material seems unnecessary. Turkey hatching eggs, except those produced by breeders who market their own eggs and poults, are usually sold to local hatcheries or through cooperative organizations. Many growers have lost money by selling to distant customers of undetermined reputation and financial standing, accepting future payment on the basis of a guaranteed fertility. The eggs should be sold at a definite price per egg, which usually decreases as the season advances because of increased egg production and reduced fertility. COST OF PRODUCTION The costs of production vary from year to year. To a less extent, costs vary from one district to another. They also vary considerably on dif- ferent farms in the same district and in the same year. For these reasons, data on costs can, at best, give only an approximation to the average expenses involved. Cost of Producing Market Turkeys. — The more important items enter- ing into the cost of producing turkeys for market are summarized in table 11. The largest item is for feed, stock purchases and labor coming next. Minor items of cost include brooder fuel and litter, insurance, de- preciation, and interest on the investment. Since feed is such an impor- tant item, special care should be taken, first to get good stock which will make economical use of feed ; second, to use well-balanced rations, good equipment, and methods of management to ensure uninterrupted growth ; and, third, to avoid paying excessive prices for feed used to grow poults, particularly after the first few weeks and when finishing them for market. Turkey Production in California 75 TABLE 11 Costs of Producing Turkeys, 1928-1930, 1932, and 1937 Tehama County Tulare County, 1932 San Bernardino County, 1929 Riverside County, 1937 1928 1929 1930 Per cent raised 58.7 632 12.8 62.2 5.4 70.1 973 14.6 96.0 7.3 69.4 1,361 15.9 86.0 6.6 70.0 601 1.6 16.3 52.2 17.5 69.7 5.9 * 15.4 37.5 47.0 84.5 6.1 65.5 Average number sold Hours of labor per bird Average live weight per birdt 1.02 14.8 Grain in lbs. per bird Mash in lbs. per bird Grain and mash in lbs. per bird 23.6 58.0 81.6 Grain and mash in lbs. per 5.5 Costs and returns in dollars per bird Cost of grain and mash .... Cost of range 1.25 0.38 1.73 0.38 1.34 0.24 0.99 0.01 0.16 2.67 1.72 0.10 Total feed costs 1.63 0.20 0.96 2.11 0.47 0.72 1.58 0.41 0.64 1.16 0.60 2.67 0.47 0.31 1.82 Operator's and family labor 0.31 Value of all labor Stock purchases 1.16 0.03 0.02 0.06 0.22 3.12 3.83 1.00 1.19 0.01 0.04 07 0.16 1.05 0.02 0.06 09 0.29 0.50 0.09 0.15 0.10 2.00 2.09 2.50 0.78 0.38 0.31 44 Depreciation Interest on Investment 0.07 08 0.08 0.53 Total costs per bird .... Total income per bird Average investment per bird 3.58 4.17 1.08 3.09 4.23 1.16 4.36 5.29 2.82 2.80 2.91 1.33 Costs and returns in cents per pound Total costs 24.4 29.9 24.5 28.6 19.4 26.6 12.3 12.8 28.3 34 4 18 9 Total income 19 7 * Dashes indicate data not available. t When dressed weight was given, the live weight was calculated by assuming that the dressed weight was 90 per cent of the live weight. (See table 9.) Source of data: Data collected from cooperating turkey growers and analyzed by the California Agricultural Ex- tension Service. Losses appear to be excessively high in most flocks. These losses on the farms surveyed increased the cost of stock by one-half the original pur- chase price of the poults. Poor management and unsuitable equipment are probably the most important factors causing these losses. It will be 76 California Agricultural Extension Service [Cir. ho observed that labor costs are lower than formerly, presumably because of a change in the methods of hatching the eggs and brooding the poults. The reduction in labor costs has more than offset any increase in the cost of the stock purchases or items chargeable to hatching the poults. Since labor and mortality are such important factors, any prudent improve- ment in buildings and equipment which will reduce the cost of these items should prove a good investment. Cost of Producing Hatching Eggs. — The cost of producing turkeys in Oregon,^^ based on 45 flocks with an average of 144 hens, 15 toms, and 33 hatching eggs per hen, was 13.7 cents per egg, or $4.58 per hen. The items per hen were as follows : feed, $1.76 ; labor, $0.91 ; use of land, buildings, and equipment, $0.36 ; taxes, $0.05 ; depreciation of breeding flock, $1.36 ; interest on the value of the flock at 5 per cent, $0.09 ; other items, $0.05. The more important items for each hen were 56.5 pounds of grain, 52.2 pounds of mash, 6.2 pounds of shell and grit, 1.4 pounds of milk, 4.1 hours of labor. Cost of labor and depreciation on the flock were appar- ently excessive. An interesting point is that those with small flocks of less than 50 hens had labor costs of $1.68 per hen and total costs per egg of 15.2 cents, whereas the corresponding costs for flocks over 100 (aver- age 234) hens were $0.73 per hen for labor and 12.8 cents per egg. Those who obtained 40 hatching eggs per hen produced them at a cost of 8.9 cents each, whereas those who obtained only 23 eggs per hen produced them at an average cost of 24.7 cents per egg. These two factors — number of eggs per hen and size of flock — were the most important ones influenc- ing the cost of producing hatching eggs. These figures indicate clearly the importance to the producer of turkey hatching eggs of securing satis- factory egg production. Figures on cost of producing turkey eggs are available on 11 flocks in San Diego County, California.'^ These are not intended to be average for California or to represent a true cross section of the turkey industry. Those who participated in the study are probably above average in effi- ciency. The flocks average 325 hens, 45 toms, and 44.6 hatching eggs sold per hen. The cost of producing eggs was 10.6 cents per egg, or $4.76 per hen. The items per hen were as follows : feed, $2.55 ; labor, $0.66 ; depre- ciation of breeding stock, $1.03 ; all other items, $0.60. Income not from hatching eggs was $0.08. The more important items for each hen were 28.8 pounds of grain, 73.8 pounds of mash, 2.2 hours of labor. The cost ^- Burrier, A. S., S. L. Knowlton, and H. E. Selby. Cost of producing turkey hatch- ing eggs. Oregon Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 333:1-18. 1934. °^ Shultis, A., J. C. Miller, W. Sullivan, and F. P. Smith. First annual turkey cost study, San Diego County, 1938. p. 1-8. California Agr. Ext. Serv. 1938. (Mimeo.) Turkey Production in California 77 per hen was higher than in Oregon, in spite of lower labor and stock- depreciation costs, but the cost per egg was lower, obviously because of the higher average egg production. The importance of high egg produc- tion is indicated by the cost of producing hatching eggs which was 8.7 cents per egg for six flocks with an average of over 50 eggs sold per hen and 12.3 cents per egg for three flocks with an average of less than 40 eggs sold per hen. SANITATION'* Losses among growing turkeys cannot in practice be entirely eliminated, but they can be reduced to a minimum by good management and proper attention to sanitation. While most of the mortality is among young growing stock, losses which can properly be considered mortality may occur to some extent at all stages from the time the eggs are put into the incubator until the last bird is sent to market. Since many of the points have already been dealt with, only a few will be considered here. 1. If the breeding turkeys have been with chickens at any time, or if there is any reason to suspect pullorum disease, they should be tested and the reactors removed. 2. Turkey eggs should be incubated and hatched in a machine separate from the eggs of any other species of poultry and preferably in a sepa- rate room. 3. The hatching compartment or machine should be thoroughly washed and disinfected with any one of the standard poultry disinfectants at the end of each hatch. All incubating equipment should be cleaned and disinfected at the beginning and end of the season. Fumigation between hatches also helps to control some diseases. 4. Clean and disinfect the brooder house and brooding equipment sev- eral days before the poults are due to hatch. Make sure that the brooder house is in a sanitary condition. 5. Keep the brooder floors clean and dry. Change litter every week. Clean fountains or other waterers daily. Do not let water spill onto the floor where the poults have access to it. 6. Clean and disinfect the brooder house and brooding equipment thor- oughly after each brood regardless of whether or not another lot is to be brooded immediately. 7. Brood and rear poults by themselves — never with chicks or other species. They should not come into contact with mature birds of any sort. ^* For more complete information see : Hinshaw, W. E. Diseases of turkeys. Cali- fornia Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 613:5-25. 1937. Also : Beach, J. E., and S. B. Freeborn. Diseases and parasites of poultry in Cali- fornia. California Agr. Ext. Cir. 8(5th ed.) :5-14. Eevised 1936. 78 California Agricultural Extension Service [Cir. ho 8. Rear poults on ground which has been vacant for several months and which has not been used by mature stock. 9. Clean, disinfect, and dry the rearing equipment thoroughly before moving the poults from the brooder. 10. Keep poults away from stagnant, dirty water and supply them with plenty of fresh, clean water and clean, fresh feed. 11. If an outbreak of disease does occur (a) get a diagnosis by sending affected birds to the nearest state diagnostic laboratory; (h) segregate affected birds, if possible; (c) make sure that everything is clean and dry, that the temperature under the hover is right (if the poults are still in the brooder house), and that the birds are eating and drinking prop- erly; (d) feed small amounts and renew frequently; (e) avoid radical changes in feed, equipment, or management that are likely to upset the birds ; (/) correct any deficiencies in feeding and management, and try to keep the birds eating and drinking but do not subject them to treat- ment for diseases or parasites unless a diagnosis has been obtained from a laboratory or a qualified veterinarian. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We are indebted to Mr. George Makins, General Manager, California Turkey Growers' Association, for information regarding the methods of killing and dressing turkeys used in their killing stations. Many of our colleagues have made valuable suggestions. 20m-5, '39(7333)