>5 UNITED STATES EXPLORING EXPEDITIONS. UNITED STATES EXPLORING EXPEDITIONS. VOYAGE OF THE U. S. EXPLORING SQUADRON, COMMANDED BY CAPTAIN CHARLES WILKES, OF THE UNITED STATES NAVY, IN 1838, 1839, 1840, 1841, AND 1842: TOGETHER WITH EXPLORATIONS AND DISCOVERIES MADE BY ADMIRAL D'URVILLE, CAPTAIN ROSS, AND OTHER NAVIGATORS AND TRAVELLERS; AND AN ACCOUNT OF THE EXPEDITION TO THE DEAD SEA, UNDER LIEUTENANT LYNCH. -> BY JOHN S^JENKINS, \SrvSr- AUTHOR OP "THE LIFE OF SILAS WRIGHT," ''POLITICAL HISTORY OP NEW YORK," "HISTORY OF THE WAR WITH MEXICO," ETC., ETC. WITH NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS. DETROIT : KERR, DOUGHTY & LAPHAM 1853. ENTERED, according to Act of Congress, in the year ir BY JAMES M. A LI) EN, ta the Clerk's Office of the District Court for the Northeru l' New York. . B. SMITH 2lf> WinCIAM STREET. PREFACE. IT has been my main object, in the preparation of this work, to present, in an attractive and condensed form, an account of the various Expeditions mentioned in its pages, with such other information touching the places and localities described, as might be of interest to the general reader ; and if the public approve of the design, additions will hereafter be made to it, treating of similar enterprises undertaken by the American government. So far, however, from being an abridgment of the published narratives of Messrs. Wilkes and Lynch, this volume will be found to contain a very large proportion of facts not embraced in either of them. These have been obtained from divers sources. While engaged in preparing the work, I have consulted the Voyages of D'Urville, Ross, Beechey, King and Fitzroy; Ellis- Polynesian Researches; Crawfurd's Indian Archipelago ; Darwin's Journal of Researches ; Wil- liams' Missionary Enterprises ; Kidder's Sketches of Resi- dence and Travels in Brazil ; Bingham's Sandwich Islands ; Mrs. Meredith's Sketches of New South Wales; Earl's Enterprise in Tropical Australia; Greenhow's History of Oregon and California ; the travels of Hall, Mier, Moeren- hout, Clarke, Elliott, Stephens, Robinson, and Fisk; and a yj PREFACE. number of other books of voyages and travels, some or all of which are referred to in the notes. It would be unjust, too, not to acknowledge, in this connection, my indebtedness to the official narratives of Commanders Wilkes and Lynch. I have, as a matter of course, been essentially benefited by them, though I have found that of the former encumbered with frequent errors. Something may, indeed, be conceded to haste in preparing a work for the press; but it is .hardly excusable that any writer should be so far wrong in his geography as to confound San Salvador with Rio Janeiro, or so much at fault as to mistake a Peruvian montana for a forest. It would have been easy for me to have swelled the size of the Second Part of the book, by inserting the stereotyped gleanings of almost every modern traveller who has visited the Holy Land, which have, from continued repetition, become familiar to every reader ; but I could not find any justification for taking that course. The important results, and the actual information, obtained by the Dead Sea Expedition, may be reduced within a very narrow compass; and the account of it seemed to me appropriately to terminate with the breaking up of the Encampment on the shores of the lake. Anachronisms of frequent occurrence may be found in these pages ; but as my desire has been to impart informa- tion, they have appeared to me to be justifiable. The Expe- ditions of Wilkes and Lynch have been, as it were, the threads upon which I have strung the facts procured from different sources, many of which are not accessible to the majority of readers, or, if accessible, few have the leisure to examine them. Many of these facts relate to periods long subsequent to the date of the Expeditions with which they PREFACE. yft are connected, but no one can be misled by this arrangement ; and if the reader is as much profited by the perusal of this work, as I have been by the examinations necessary to its prsp^ration, he will not, I am confident, be inclined to doubt that I have rendered him an acceptable service. CONTENTS, PART I. CHAPTER I. Early Maritime Discoveries, 25. Indebtedness of America, 26. Act of Congress authorizing Expedition to the South Seas, 26. Organization of the Expedition, 26, 27. Departure from Norfolk, 27. Instructions of the Secretary of the Navy, 28, 29. Orders of the Commander of the Expedition, 29, 30. The Gulf Stream and Currents, 30. Western Islands, 31. Approach to Madeira, 31. Beautiful Scene" ry, 32. Arri- val at Funchal, 32. Appearance of the Town, 33. Other Towns on the Island, 33. The Interior; Rich Vegetation, 34. Mode of Travel- ling, 34. Population and Products, 35. Manufacture of Wine, 35, 36. Sailing of the Squadron, 36. The Cape de Verdes, 37. Productions and Exports, 37, 38. Houses, 38. Style of Dress, 39. St. Jago and Porto Praya, 39, 40. Route to Rio Janeiro, 40. CHAPTER II. Appearance of the City of Rio Janeiro from the Sea, 41. Imperial Pal- ace, Chapel, and other Public Buildings, 42. Celebration of the Em- peror's Birth-day, 42, 43. Churches in Rio, 43. Dwelling-houses and Streets, 44. Fountains, 45. Population of the City, 45. Condition of the Society, 45, 46. Fondness for Ornaments and Display, 46. Funerals, 46, 47. Amusements, 47. Slaves and Slavery, 47, 48. Beauty of the Suburbs and Environs, 48, 49. Discovery of Brazil, 49. History and Form of Government, 49, 50. Greatness of the Brazilian Empire, 50. Magnificent Flora, 50, 51. Rich Cabinet and Dye Woods, 51. Cacao, Mango, and Agave, 51. Other Plants and Shrubs, 51. Indigo Plant, and Manufacture of Indigo, 51, 52. Coffee Shrub; Mode of Preparing the Berry for Market, 52. Other Products, 52. Markets in Brazilian Towns, 53. Parasites and Creepers in the Forests, 53. 1* CONTENTS. Birds and Animals, 53. Wild Horses and Cattle of the Pampas, 53, 54. Gold Mines, 54. Diamond Washings, 55. Other Mineral Products, 56. Commerce of Brazil, 56. Caoutchouc, 56. Most Important Pro- ducts of the Southern Provinces, 56, 57. Importance of the Brazilian Trade to the United States, 57. Departure of the Expedition, 57. CHAPTER III. Pamperos off the Coast of La Plata, 58. The Rio Negro ; Barrenness of the Adjacent Country, 58. Pampas of the Interior, 58, 59. The Gua- chos; their Costume and Appearance. 59. Settlement at El Carmen, 69, 60. Early History of Buenos Ayres, 60. Its Population and Cap- ital, 60, 61. Other Important Towns, 61. Climate, 61. Vegetable Products, 61. Horses, Mules, and Cattle, 61. Mines, 61. Lagunas de Salinas, 61, 62. Matte, 62. Zoology, 62. Native Population, 62. Weapons of the Indian Tribes, 62, 63. Alarm at El Carmen, 63. Ap- proach to the Southern Extremity of the Continent, 63. Dreary Ap- pearance of Tierra del Fuego, 63, 64. Straits of Magellan, 64. Straits of Le Maire, 64. Doubling Cape Horn, 64, 65. Geographical Position of the Cape, 65. Arrival of the Squadron at Orange Harbor, 66. CHAPTER IV. Voyage of the Relief, 67. Discovery of Patagonia, 67. Geographical Description, 68. Mineral Formations, 68. Patagonian Indians, 68, 69. Dress, Appearance, and Mode of Life, 69. Use of the Solas, 69, 70. Interviews with the Natives, 70, 71. Orange Harbor, 71. Visits from the Futgians, 71, 72. Description of Tierra del Fuego, 72. Principal Trees, 72. Winter's Bark, 72. Geology, 72, 73. Mountain Scenery, 73. Animals and Birds, 73. The Fucgians, Physiognomy, Dress, and Mode of Life, 73, 74. Wigwams and Canoes, 74. Superstitions, 74, 75. Arms and Weapons, 75. Southern Cruise, 75, 76. Icebergs, 76. Vain Attempt to Penetrate beyond former Navigators, 76. Beautiful Luciform Appearances, 76, 77. Return to Orange Harbor, 77. The Pacific Ocean, 77. Arrival at Valparaiso, 77. Loss of the Sea Gull 78. CHAPTER V. Splendid View of the Andes on approaching the Chilian Coast, 79, 80. Country around Valparaiso, 80. View of the Town, 80, 81. The Har- CONTENTS. XI bor, 81. Fortifications, 81, 82. Facilities for Landing, 82. Choloes, 82. Custom-house and Exchange, 82, 83. Other Public Buildings, 83. Chingano and Samacueca, 83. City Prisons, 83. Taverns, 83, 84. Efficiency of the Police, 84. Population of the City, 84. Mercantile Character, 84, 85. Old Spanish Residents, 85. State of Morals, 85. Cemeteries, 86. Historical Notices of Chili, 86. Revolution, and Es- tablishment of Independence, 86, 87. Changes in the Government, 87, 88. Administration of Prieto, 88. Diego Portales, 88. Beneficent Legislation, 88. Improvement in the Finances, 88. Form of Govern- ment of Chili, 89. General Prosperity of the Country, 89. Boundaries of the Republic, 89, 90. Peonage, 90. Management of the Large Es- tates, 90. War with Peru, 90, 91. Defeat and Banishment of Santa Cruz, 91, 92. Santiago, 92. Imposing Appearance, 92. Public Prom- enades, 93. Cleanliness and Salubrity of the City, 93. Public Edifices, 93, 94. The Palace, 94. Cathedral and Parish Churches, 94. The Mint, 94. College and Public Library, 94, 95. Private Dwellings, 95. Markets, 95. Fine Horses, 95, 96. Amusements and Recreations, 96. Attachment to Religious Forms, 96. The Oraciun, 96. Fashions, 96, 97. Population of Santiago, 97. Coquimbo, 97. Huasco, 97. Con- cepion, 97. Valdivia, 97, 98. Dress of the Chilenos, 98. Traits of Character, 98. Dwelling-houses, 99. Indian Population, 99. The Cordilleras, and Intermediate Valleys, 99, 100. Climate of Chili, 100. Rivers, 100. Geology, 100. Fertility of the Soil, 100, 101. Chilian Forests, 101. Productions, 101, 102. Agriculture, and Implements of Husbandry, 102. Cattle-breeding, 102. Wild Animals, 102. Birds, 103. Commerce, 103, 104. Internal Trade, 104. Mode of Travelling and Carrying Burdens, 104, 105. Manufactures, 105. Mineral Wealth, 105, 106. Copper Mines in Coquimbo and Jajuel, 109. Mining Sys- tem, 106, 107. Departure from Valparaiso, 107. CHAPTER VI. Island of San Lorenzo, 108. Harbor and Town of Callao, 109, 110. Road to the Capital, 111. Lima, 112. Situation of the City, 112. Its Streets, 113. Beauty of its Public Edifices, 113. The Plaza Mayor and Fountain, 113, 114. Government Palace, Cabildo, and Cathedral, 114. Churches and Convents, 115. Monastic Establishments, Hospi- tals, and Asylums, 116. Palace of the Inquisition, 116. University, 117. Mint, National Library, and Theatre, 117. City Wall, 117. Spanish Colonization, 118. Fortifications 119. Private Houses, 119, 120. Pantcon, 120. Population of Lima. 121. Other Principal Towns in Peru, 121. Cuzco, 122. Arequ'pn, 122. Cerro di Pasco, 123. Gua- manga, 123. Huacho, 123. Huaneav* lica, 124. Truxillo, 124. Early Xll CONTENTS. History of Peru, 124. War of Independence, 125. Dictatorship of Bolivar, 125. Revolt of the Peruvian Patriots, 125. Civil Dissensions, 126. Protectorate of Santa Cruz, 126. Present Administration, 127. Population of Peru, 127. The White Creoles, 127. Peruvian Ladies, 128. Mixed Races, 129. Influence of Catholicism, 130. Style o* Dress, 131. Saya y Manto, 131. Popular Amusements, 132. Aman- caes F6te, 132. Intoxicating Drinks and Stimulants, 133. Houses of the Peruvians in the Interior, 133. Beasts of Burden, 133. Mode of Travelling, 133. Topography of Peru, 133, 134. Character of the Soil, 134. Harbors, 134. Rivers and Lakes, 135. Climate, 135. Dis- eases, 136. Earthquakes, 136. Mineral Wealth, 136. Silver Mines at Cerro di Pasco, 137. Mode of Working, 137. Other Mining Dis- tricts, 138. Agriculture, 138. Implements of Husbandry, 139. Pro- ducts of the Coast, 139. Cotton, Maize, and Sugar Cane, 140. The High Lying Districts, 141. Aracacha, Yucca, and other Productions, 141. The Olive Tree, 142. Castor Oil Plant, 142. Plants of the Sierra, 142. Quinua and Ulluco, 142. Lucern, 143. Fruits, 143, 144. The Chirimoya, 144. Peruvian Bark, 145. Balsam of Peru, 146. Tonga, 146. Ratanhia, 146. Flora of Peru, 146. Commerce, 147. Exports and Imports, 147. Roads, 147, 148. Manufactures, 148. Birds, 149. The Condor, 149. Wild Animals, 150. The Llama, 150. Alpaca and Guanaco, 151. The Vicuna, 152. Domestic Quadrupeds, 153. Fine Horses and Mules, 153. Sailing of the Squadron, 154. CHAPTER VII. The Paumotu Group, 155. Clermont de Tonnerre, 156. Unfriendliness of the Natives, 156. Mode of Surveying the Islands, 156. Other Islands of the Group, 157. Movements of the Squadron, 158. Boring on Aratica Island, 158. The Lagoons, 159. Geology, 159. Different Theories, 160. Botany, 161. Birds and Animals, 162. Population 162. Physical Character of the Inhabitants, 163. Dress and Customs, 163, 164. Mode of Constructing Habitations, 164. Canoes, 165. CHAPTER VIII. View of Tahiti from the Sea, 166. Society Islands, 167. Discovery ant Description of the Group, 167, 168. Rivers, 168. Harbors, 169. Pa pieti and Matavai, 170. Taloo, 171. Establishment of Missions, 171. Adoption of a Form of Government, 171. Features of the Constitution, CONTENTS. xiii 171, 172. Queen Pomare, 172. The King Consort, 172. Caricature of Royalty, 173. Tahitian Politics, 173. Police Regulations, 174. Character of the Natives, 174. Former State of Degradation, 174. Change Produced by the Missionaries, 175. Influence of the Climate on the Feelings and Disposition, 175, 176. Personal Traits and Char- acteristics, 176. Appearance, Customs, and Language, 177. Style of Dress, 178, 179. Love of Flowers, 179. Productions, 180. Otaheitan Cane, 181. Rich Fruits, 181. Wild Banana, 182. Guava and Cocoa, 182. Mode of Climbing the Cocoa-nut Tree, 182. The Bread-Fruit, 183. Mahi, 184. Diet, and Mode of Living, 184. Zoology, 184, 185. The Queen's Palace, 185. Native Dwellings, 185, 186. Furniture, 186. Commercial Resources, 186. Vessels and Canoes, 187. Inter- nal Traffic, 187. Manufactured Products, 188. Mode of Extracting the Oil of the Cocoa-nut, 188. Arrow Root, 188. Beating Tapa, 188, 189. General Influence of the Missionaries, 189. Errors Committed 189, 190. CHAPTER IX. Arrival of the Squadron at Tahiti, 191. Friendly Reception, 191. Voy- age to the Samoan Group, 192. Geographical Description, 192. Manua, 192. Tutuila, 193. Upolu, 193. Beautiful Scenery, 194. Manono and Apolima, 194. Savaii, 195. Streams and Lakes, 195. Formation of the Islands, 195, 196. Climate, 196. Harbor of Pago- Pago, 196. Apia, 197. Other Ports, 197. Population of the Group, 198. Personal Appearance of the Natives, 198. Treatment of Women, 198,199. Chastity, 199. Traits and Characteristics, 199,. 200. Habit of Bathing, 200. The "Devil's Men," 201. Heathen Women, 201. People of Savaii, 201. Fondness for Traffic, 201. Diseases, 202. Language, 202. The Maro, 202. Titi, and other Articles of Dress, 203. Ornaments, 203. Tattooing, 203, 204. Mode of Wearing the Hair, 204. Occupations and Amusements, 204. Lascivious Dances, 204, 205. Musical Instruments, 205. Games, 205. Marriages, 206. Births and Burials, 206. Manner of Cooking Food, 206. Disgusting Mode of Preparing Ava, 206, 207. Government, 207. State of Soci- ety, 207. Crimes and Punishments, 207, 208. Heathen Deities, 208. Successful Labors of the Missionaries, 208, 209. Marnier of Erecting Houses, 209, 210. Arrangements in the Interior, 210. Culinary Uten- sils, 210. Native Lamp, 210. Commerce, 211. Articles adapted for Exportation, 211 Mechanical Skill, 211. Tapa and Mulberry Cloth, 211, 212. Canoes, 212. Animal Kingdom, 212, 213. Mode of Taking Fish, 213. Cultivated Trees and Plants, 213. Ti-root Sugar, 213, 214. Yarn and Taro, 214. Beauty of the Forests, 214. Tamanu and Amai, XIV CONTENTS. 214. Tou, Toi, and Toa, 215. Manufacture of Pitch from the Bread Fruit, 215. Candle Nut Tree, 215, 216. Surveys of the Squadron, 216. Native Fono, 216. Departure from the Samoan Group, and Ar- rival at Sydney, 217. CHAPTER X. New Holland, or Australia, 218. Position of the Continent, 218. Firsf Discovery, 219. Subsequent Explorations, 219, 220. Geographical Features, 220. Mountain Ranges, 221, 222. Interior of the Country 222, 223. Geological Formation, 223. The Uplands, 224. Theory of Formation, 225. Harbors, 225. Port Jackson, 226. Rivers, 226. The Hawkesbury, 227. The Murray and its Tributaries, 228, 229. Lakes, 229. Character of the Country in respect of Fertility, 230. Soil, 230. Geology and Mineral Substances, 230, 231. Climate, 231, 232. Tropical Australia, 232. Wet and Dry Seasons, 233. Atmos- pheric Phenomena, 233. Diseases, 234. Peculiarities in the Vegetable Kingdom, 234, 235. General Arrangement of Plants, 235, 236. Cere- alia, Native Grasses, and Fruits, 236. Other Productions, 237. Cotton, Coffee, and other Tropical Plants, 238. Forest Scenery, 238, 239. Timber Trees, 239. Eucalypti, 239, 240. Medicinal Trees, 240. Im- pressions on the Mind of a Stranger, 240, 241. State of Agriculture and Horticulture, 241. Animal Existence, 241, 242. Birds, 242, 243. Cassowary, 242. Black Swan, 243. Mammalia, 243. Marsupialia, 243, 244. Kangaroo, 244. Other Genera, 244, 245. Ornithorhynchus? 245, 246. Rodentia, 246. Domestic Animals, 246, 247. Reptiles and Fish, 247. Insects, 248. Personal Appearance of the Aborigines, 248, 249. Character, 249, 250. Native Huts and Weapons, 250. Boo- mereng, 251. Canoes, 251. Mode of Living, 251. Ideas of Gov- ernment, 252. Customs, 252. " Making Young Men," 252, 253. Amusements, 253. Burying the Dead, 253. Superstitions, 253, 254, 255. Poetic Idea in Regard to Sleep, 255. First Colonization of Aus- tralia, 255. Embarrassments and Changes in the Government, 256. Cost of Establishing Colony of New South Wales, 257. Encourage- ment of Immigration, 257, 258. Speculation in Wild Lands, 258. Subordinate Penal Colonies, 258. Other Settlements by Voluntary Immigrants, 258, 259. West Australia, 258. South Australia, 259. Port Phillip, 259. North Australia, 259, 260. Population of Australia, 260. Government, 260, 261. The Judiciary, 261. Colonial Life, 261, 262. Different Classes of Society, 262. Amusements and Fashions. 262. Schools, Colleges, and Literary and Benevolent Societies, 263. Style of Building, 263, 264. Condition of the Convicts, 264. Their Treatment, 264, 265. Discontinuance of New South Wales as a Penal CONTENTS. 3TV Colony, 265. Tasmania, or Van Diemen's Land, 265, 266. Geology, 266. Manner of Selling Lands in the Colony, 267. Climate, 267. Vegetable and Animal Kingdoms, 267, 268. Harbors, Rivers, and Lakes, 268. Government, 269. Aboriginal Race, 269. Hobarton, 269, 270. Launceston, 270. Sydney, 270, 271. The Public Building* and Institutions, 271, 272. Paramatta, and Woolongong, 272, 273 Adelaide and other Towns, 273. Commerce of the Australian Colonies 273, 274. Manufactures, 274. Saltworks, 274. CHAPTER XL Departure of the Squadron from Sydney, 275. Antarctic Expedition, 276 Macquarrie Island, 277. Land supposed to Exist near the Antarctic Circle, 277, 278. Deceptive Appearances, 278. Actual Discovery of Land, 279. Antarctic Continent, 279. Return to Sydney, 280. Dis coveries of Biscoe and Balleny, 280, 281. French Expedition under M. d'Urville, 281, 282. Expedition under Captain Ross, 282. Discovery of Land, 283. Mount Erebus and Mount Terror, 283, 284. Icy Bar- rier, 284. Subsequent Voyages, 284, 285. Expedition under Lieuten- ant Moore, 285. Results of the Different Expeditions, 285. The Whale Fishery, 285. Magnetic Observations, 285, 286. Geology of the Antarctic Continent, 286. Belt of Ice, 286. The Icebergs, 286, 287. Splendid Exhibitions of the Aurora Australis, 287. Last Traces of Vegetation, 287, 288. Animal Kingdom, 288. Sea-Lion, and Sea- Elephant, 288. Killer," 288, 289. Wild Fowl, 289. Rendezvous of the Squadron in the Bay of Islands, 289. CHAPTER XII. Acquisitions of England, 290. New Zealand, 291. Discovery, 291. De- scription of the Islands, 291, 292. Formation of the Country, 292. Rivers and Streams, 292, 293. Harbors, 293, 294. Bay of Islands, 293, 294. Towns, 294, 295. Volcanic Phenomena, 295. Hot Springs, 295. Minerals, 295, 296. Soil, 296. Climate and Diseases, 296, 297. Population, 297. Abandoned Character of the Inhabitants, 297. Oc- cupation by Great Britain, 297, 298. Improvement in the State of Society, 298. Government, 298, 299. Native New Zealanders, 299. Their Character and Customs, 300. Ornaments, 300, 301. Influence Exerted by the Missionaries, 301. Mechanical Skill of the Natives, 301, 302. Amusements, 302. Power of the Chiefs in Former Times, 302, vi CONTENTS. 303. Fortified Towns, or Pas, 303. Native Habitations, 303, 304. Furniture, 304. Dress, 304. Diet, 304, 305. Taboo, 305. Funeral Ceremonies, 305. Botany of the Islands, 305, 306. Pine Timber, 306. Fern and Flax, 306. New Zealand Spinach, 306, 307. Agriculture, 307. Foreign Products, 307. Animals and Birds, 308. Exports and Imports, 309. Canoes, 309. Manufactures, 309, 310. Sailing of the Squadron, and Arrival in the Tonga Islands, 310. CHAPTER ATII. Discovery of the Tonga Group, 311. Description of the Islands, 311,312. Physical Geography, 312. Climate, 312, 313. Fertility of Tonga, 313. Productions of the Group, 313, 314. Culture of the Soil, 314. Popu- lation, 314. Personal Appearance of the Tongese, 314, 315. Beauti- ful Women, 314, 315. Cleanly Habits, 315. Character, 316. Dress, 315, 316. Native Warriors, 316. Occupations, 316, 317. Birds and Animals, 317. Fondness for Tobacco and Ava, 317. Singing, 317, 318. Government, 318. Ancient Religion, 3 1 8. Divinities, 318, 319. Island of Bulotu, 319, 320. Dwellings, 320. Articles of Furniture, 320, 321. Beautiful Mats, 320, 321. Nukualofa, 322. Manner of Fortifying their Towns, 322. Expertness as Seamen, 322. Canoes, 322, 323. Mode of Sculling, 323. Missionaries, 323. War between the Christians and the " Devil's Party," 323, 324. Defeat of the For- mer, 324. Sailing of the Squadron for the Feejee Group, 324. CHAPTER XIV. Bad Character of the Feejee Group, 325. Discovery and" Geographical Description of the Islands, 326. Important Members of the Group, 327. Eastern Islands, 327. Vanua-levui, 327. Viti-levui, 328. Ovo- lau and Malolo, 328. Assua Group, 329. Rivers and Streams, 329. Harbors and Towns, 329, 330. Levuka, 329. Savu-Savu and its Hot Springs, 329, 330. Ambau and Rewn, 330, 331. Sawau, 331. Somu- Somu, 332. Evidences of the Volcanic Origin of the Islands, 333 Geological Formations, 333, 334. Richness f the Soil, 334. Climate, 334, 335. Diseases, 335. Productions, 335, 336. Preservation ot Bread-Fruit, 335, 336. Fruit and Timber Trees, 336. Paper Mulberry and Tapa, 336. Mangrove, 336, 337. Edible Roots, 337 Cotton Plant and Tree, 337. Acclimated Fruits and Vegetables, 337. Flow- ering Plants and Shrubs, 337,338. Agriculture, 338. Labor performed CONTENTS. XVfl by the Women, 338. Zoology, 339. Whales and Turtles, 339. Modes of Taking Fish, 339. Bicke de Mer, 339, 340. Birds, 340. Physi- ognomy of the Feejeean, 340, 341. Appearance of the Women, 341. Mode of Wearing the Hair, 341, 342. Character of the Natives, 341, 342. Cannibal Propensities, 343. Wars between the Tribes, 343. Manner of Suing for Mercy, 343, 344. Contrast between the Charac- ter of the Feejeeans, and the Scenery and Climate of the Islands, 344. A Field for tho Missionary, 344, 345. Population of the Group, 345. Government, 345. Dress of the Natives, 345, 346. Attention paid to the Toilet, 346, 347. Tattooing and Circumcision, 347. Mode of Sit- ting, 347. Food, and its Preparation, 347. Pottery, 347, 348. Manner of Serving up Food, 348. Ava-Drinking, 348. Amusements, 348, 349. Language, 349. Polygamy and Marriage, 349. Putting to Death the Old and Infirm, 349. Treatment of Women, 349. Divinities, 349, 350. Traditions and Superstitions, 349, 350. Ambati, or Priests, 350. Mbures, or Spirit-Houses, 351. Fortified Koros, 351. Furniture in the Native Houses, 351. Canoes, 351, 352. Mechanical Ingenuity, 352. Tools, 352. Articles of Commerce, 352, 353. Capture of Vendovi, 353. Burning of Tye and Sualib, 353. Murder of Lieutenant Underwood and Midshipman Henry, 354, 355. Chastisement of the Natives, 355. Departure from the Group, 356. CHAPTER XV. Position and Destiny of the Sandwich Islands, 357, 358. Geographical Description, 358, 359, 360. Hawaii, 358. Maui, 359. Lauai and Kahoolawe, 359. Molokai, 359. Oahu, 359, 360. Kauai and Niihar., 360. General Character of the Scenery, 360, 361. Rivers and Streams, 361. Geology, 361. Volcanoes, 361, 362. Burning Crater of Kilanea, 362. 363. Population, 363, 364. Causes of the Diminution, 364, 365. Heterogeneous Mixture, 365. Personal Appearance of the Natives, 365, 366. Characteristic Traits, 366, 367. Melancholy, 367, Dress, 367, 368. Royal Attire, 368. Ornaments, 368, 369. Sporting in the Surf, 369, 370. Amusements, 370, 371. Ancient Sport of Hoolua, 371. Taboo, 371, 372. Marriage, 372. The Kanakas, 372, 373. Articles of Food, 373. Making Poe, 373. Use of Tobacco, 373. Habits, 373. Deaths, 373, 374. Mode of Salutation, 374. Arrival of tho Missiona- ries, 374. Abolishment of Taboo and other Ancient Customs, 374, 375. Errors Committed, 375. Deplorable Condition of the Hawaiian, 375. The Remedy, 376. Acknowledgment of the Sabbath, and Adoption of other Reforms, 376, 377. Accession of Kamameha III, 376, 377. Written Constitution Adopted, 377. Declaration of Rights, 377. Lead- ing Features of the Constitution, 377, 378. Police Regulations, 378. CONTENTS. Taxes, 379. Schools, 379. Scenery of the Islands, 37J, 380. Soil and Climate, 380. Common Diseases, 380, 381. Fruit and Timber Trees, 381, 382. Vegetable Productions, 382. Failure of the Attempt to Manufacture Silk, 382, 383. Calabash-Tree, 383. Pasturage, 383. Flowering Plants and Shrubs, 383, 384. Birds, Fish, and Animals, 384, 385. Introduction of Fleas, 385. Honolulu, 385, 386. Waikiki, 386. Kailua, 387. Lahaina, 387. Hilo Bay, 387. Kealakekua Bay, 387, 388. Waimea,388. Building Materials, 388. Grass-Houses, 388, 389, 390. Furniture, 390. Commercial Importance of the Hawaiian Group, 390, 391. Exports and Imports, 391. Tonnage, 391. Manufactures, 391, 392. Canoes, 392. Arrival of the Squadron, 392. Voyage to Oregon, 392, 393. CHAPTER XYI. Cruise of the Peacock and Flying Fish, 394. Washington Island, 394. Phoenix Group, 394, 395. Union Group, 395. Description of the Islands, 395, 396. The Inhabitants, 396. Dress, 396. Houses, 396, 397. Temple,. 397. Wells, 397. Canoes, 397, 398. Mechanical In- genuity, 398. Dances and Music, 398. Arrival at the Samoan Group, 398, 399. Burning of the Heathen Towns, 399. Ellice's Group, 399, 400. Appearance and Character of the Inhabitants, 400. Customs, 400. Ornaments and Dress, 400, 401. Canoes, 401. Implements and Weapons, 401. Kingsmill Group, 401, 402. Productions, 402. Beauty of the Climate, 402, 403. Animals, Birds, and Fish, 403. Population, 403. Personal Appearance, 403, 404. Beauty of the Young Women, 404. Hideousness of their Mothers, 404. Practice of Producing Abor- tions, 404, 405. Inhabitants of Pitt's Island, 405. Character of the Kingsmill Islanders, 405. Respect paid to the Dead, 405. Want of Chastity, 406. Social Divisions and Government, 406. Descent of Rank and Property, 406, 407. Dress and Ornaments, 407. Tattooing, 407. Fondness for War, 407. Weapons and Armor, 407, 408. Ordi- nary Occupations, 408. Divinities, 408, 409. Native Elysium, 409. Births, 409. Marriages, 409, 410. Amusements, 410, 411. Dwelling Houses, 411. Furniture, 411, 412. Manner of Preparing Food, 412. Beverages, 412, 413. Canoes, 413. Tools, 413. Supposed Murder Committed by the Natives, 413. Burning of the Town of Utiroa, 413 414. Sailing of the American Vessels, 414. Arrival at the Mouth of the Columbia, 414. Loss of the Peacock, 414. CONTENTS. XIX CHAPTER XVII. Boundaries of Oregon, 415, 416. Physical Geography, 416. Passes through the Mountains, 416, 417. Fertility of the Soil, 417. Geology, 417, 418. Population, 418. Indian Tribes, 418. The White Inhabi- tants, 418. Government, 4 18, 4 19. Principal Towns, 41 9. Rivers, 419^ 420. Columbia, 419, 420. Other Streams, 420. Harbors, 421, 423. Puget's Sound, 421. Gray's Harbor, 421. Entrance to the Columbia River, 421, 422. Tilamuke, Celeste, and Yacquina Bays, 422. Climate of Oregon, 422, 423. Diseases, 423. Timber Trees, 423, 424. Agri- cultural Products, 424, 425. Domestic Animals, 425. Fruits, 425 Game, 425. Wild Fowl, 426. Discovery of California, 4fQ. Expedi- tions of Cortes, 426, 427. Subsequent Expeditions, 427. Pearl Fish- eries, 427. Establishment of the Jesuits in California, 427, 428. Col- onization by the Spaniards, 428. Gold known to Exist, 428. Slow Progress of the Country, 428, 429. Boundaries, 429. Modern Explor- ations, 429, 430. Discovery of Gold in 1848, 431. Effect on the Inhabitants, 431. Manner of Working the Placeras, 431, 432. Extent of the Gold District, 432. Purity of the Metal, 432, 434. Productive- ness of the Mines, 434. Other Mineral Products, 435. Mine at Mari- posa, 436. Prospects for the Future, 436, 437. Yield for the First Year, 437. Severity of the Labor, 438. Rage for Speculation, 438, 439. Present Population of the Territory, 439. Rapid Immigration* 439, 440. State of Society, 440. Adoption of a State Constitution, 440. Boundary Established by the Convention, 440, 441. Physical Geography, 441. Rivers, 441, 442. Harbors and Towns, 442, 443. Climate, 443, 444. Wild Animals, 444. Fertility of the Soil, 444. Agricultural Products, 444, 445. Forests, 445. Flowering Plants and Shrubs,. 445, 446. Departure from San Francisco, 446. Arrival at Manilla, 446. CHAPTER XVIII. City of Manilla, 447. Dwelling Houses, 447, 448. Public Buildings, 448. Cigar Manufactories, 448. Streets and Canals, 448, 449. Suburbs, 449. Population, 449. Society, 449. Dress, 450. Commerce of the Town, 450. Harbor, 450. The Philippines, 450, 451. Geological Formation, 451. Character of the Vegetation, 451. Chief Products, 451, 452. Zoology, 452. Climate, 452. Monsoons, 452. Trade and Manufactures, 453. Pina, 453. Government, 453. Sailing of the American Vessels, 453, 454. Arrival of the Vincennes at the Sooloo XX CONTENTS. Islands, 454. Geography of the Group, 454. Personal Appearance of the Inhabitants, 454. Customs, 455. Dress, 455. Principal Products, 454, 455. Commerce, 455. Cowry Shells, 455. Treaty with the Sultan, 455. Voyage to Singapore, 455. Description of the City and Island, 455, 456. Geology, 456. Flora and Zoology, 456. Inhabi- tants, 456, 457. Commercial Importance, 457. Sailing of the Ameri- can Squadron, 457. Voyage Home, 457, 458. Cape Town, 458. Ar- rival in the United States, 458. PART II, CHAPTER I. Destruction of the Cities of the Plain, 461, 462. Traditions, 462. The Infidel, 462, 463. Ancient and Modern Writers and Travellers, 463. Scientific Explorations, 463, 464. Expedition Projected by Lieutenant Lynch, 464. Preparations, 464. Boats for Navigating the Jordan and the Dead Sea, 464, 465. Departure from New York, 465. Arrival at Smyrna, 465. Appearance of the City, 465, 466. Buildings, 466. Pop- ulation, 466. Costume and Climate, 467. Firman of the Sultan, 467, 468. Voyage to Beirut, 468. Description of the City, 468, 469. Costume of the Inhabitants, 469. The Tantur, 469, 470. Arrival at St. Jean d'Acre, 470. Architecture, 471. Landing of the Exploring Party, 471. Arabian Horses, 471, 472. Sherif Hazza, 472. The Sheikh 'Akll, 472. The Bedawi of the Desert, 472, 473. Description of his Person and Mode of Life, 473. Character, 474. Overland March of the American Exploring Party, 475. Plain of Acre, 475, 476. Arabian Escort, 476. Appearance of the Cavalcade, 476, 477. Villages of the Fellahin, 477 Houses, 477. Route taken by the Party, 477, 478. Vegetation, 478 . Arrival at Tiberias, 479. CHAPTER II. Changes on the Shores of the Sea of Galilee, 480, 481. Size and Ap- pearance of the Lake, 481. Depth of the Water, 481. Its Properties, -CONTENTS. XXl 481. Geology of the Surrounding Country, 482. State of Agriculture, 482. Scriptural Associations, 482, 483. Tiberias, 483. Condition of the Jews, 483, 484. Sanhedrim, 484. Contrast between the Male and Female Jews in Personal Appearance, 484. Beauty of the Women, 484, 485. Practice of Carrying Water on their Heads, 485. Dress and Ornaments, 486. Source of the Jordan, 486. Course of the River, 486, 487. Scenery along its Banks, 487. Valley of El-Ghor, 487. Sin- uosity of the Jordan, 487. Rapids and Cascades, 488. Tributaries, 488. Analysis of the Water, 488. Sacred Character of the River, 488, 489. Movements of the American Party, 489. Descent of the Stream, 489, 490. Passing the Rapids, 490, 491. Character of the Adjacent Coun- try, 491. Vegetation of the River Valley, 491, 492. Animals, 492. Bulbul, 492. Inhabitants living upon the Borders of the River and the Dead Sea, 492, 493. The Fellahin, 493. Pilgrim's Ford (El-Meshra'a), 493. Anniversary of the Saviour's Baptism, 493, 494. The Bathers, 494, 495. Arrival at the Mouth of the River, 495. Encampment on the Shore of the Dead Sea 495. CHAPTER III. Various Names given to the Dead Sea, 496. Depdt of the American Party, 497. Taking the Soundings, 497. Existence of a Ford dis- proved, 497. Surveys and Explorations, 497, 498. Pillar of Salt, 498. Difficulty in making the Surveys, 499. Return to Ain Tur^beh, 499. Dimensions of the Lake, 499, 500. Depth of the Water, 500. Sup- posed Subterranean Communication not possible, 500. Chemical An- alysis, 500, 50 1 . Density and Buoyancy of the Water, 501. Other Prop- erties, 501, 502. Evaporation, 502, 503. Its Rapidity and Cause, 503. Impregnated State of the Atmosphere, 503, 504. Overhanging Clouds of Vapor, 504. Popular Superstition, 504. Physical Geography, 505. Shape of the Sea, 505. The Peninsula, 505. The Mountains, 505, 506. Geology, 506. Shore Outline, 506. Character of the Bottom, 506,507. Mineral Substances found, 507. Tributaries, 507. Remarks of Chateaubriand, 508. Fish, 508. Animals, 508. Birds, 508. Veg- etable Kingdom, 508, 509. The Apple of Sodom, 508. The Plains and Deltas, 509. Supposed Position of the Five Cities, 509. Different Opinions, 509, 510. Ruins alleged to have been seen, 510. Concur- rence of History and Tradition in regard to the Main Fact, 510. Mod- ern Theory, 510. Examinations of Robinson and De Bertou, 510. Opinions of Rev. Mr. Wylie, 511-513. An Error Corrected, 513, 514. KX11 CONTENTS'. Facts ascertained by Lieutenant Lynch, 514, 515. Inferences and Con- clusions, 515. Position of the Vale of Siddim, 515.- The Argument based on Scripture, 515, 516. Manner in which the Cities were De- stroyed, 516. Most Reasonable Supposition, 616. Return of the Ex- ploring Party, 517. PART 1, EXPEDITIONS IN THE PACIFIC AND THE SOUTH SEAS. EXPLOBING EXPEDITIONS IN THE SOUTH SEAS. CHAPTER I. (1.) Maritime Discovery and Adventure. (2.) Act of Congress. Organization and departure of the Exploring Expedition. (3.) Instructions. (4.) The Gulf Stream. (5.) Incidents of the Voyage. The Western Islands. (6.) Isl- and of Madeira. Population and Products. Wine-Making. (7.) Cape de Verdes. Porto Praya. (8.) Passage to Rio Janeiro. (1.) WHEN the Genoese navigator and philosopher sailed with his little fleet, from the harbor of Palos, on the 3d of August, 1492, and directed his course over the fathomless waste of waters outside the pillars of Hercules, in search of the bright realms of Zipango and Cathay, he marked a new era in maritime discovery and adventure. The voyages of the Phosnicians, like those of the Scandinavian navigators at a later day, do not seem to have been productive of much benefit to the world at large ; or to have stimulated any ex- traordinary spirit of enterprise, unless among those immedi- ately ^interested in their results, but the discoveries of Christopher Columbus aroused the whole Continent of Eu- rope, and adventurers pushed out from every port and haven, in quest of the fair land of promise beyond the dark bosom of the Atlantic. Expeditions were fitted out in England, France, Spain, and Portugal, all having the same object, and prompted by the same motives. A new world was found in the far-off West, presenting a " Sweet interchange Of hill and valley, rivers, woods, and plains;" 26 ACT OP CONGRESS. [1836 and rich in mineral wealth, in majestic forests, and a virgin soil. It was a happy thought, that, when this country thus, as it were, called into existence had become peopled, and advanced to greatness and distinction, she should repay the debt of gratitude which she owed, by her discoveries in the same field in which the enlightened nations of the old world have been constantly employed for more than three hundred years. The Coast Survey of the United States first proposed in 1806, by the late Professor Patterson, and warmly favored, at that time, by Albert Gallatin, and other scientific and learned men, but not commenced until the year 1832 is a great work, and one from which other countries, as well as our own, will unquestionably derive the most im- portant benefits. The comparatively limited information possessed in regard to the great Southern Ocean, in which such a vast amount of the capital of our countrymen was employed, in whaling and other commercial enterprises, next attracted the attention of the American Congress. (2.) On the 18th of May, 1836, an act was passed au- thorizing an Expedition to be fitted out the first, of a similar character, undertaken by the national government for the purpose of exploring and surveying the Southern Ocean, " as well to determine the existence of all doubtful islands and shoals, as to discover, and accurately fix, the position of those which [lay] in or near the track of our vessels in that quarter, and [might] have escaped the observation of scientific navigators."* Liberal appropriations were made for accom- plishing the objects offthe Expedition, and it was at first or- ganized under Commodore Thomas Ap Catesby Jones, of the United States Navy : he subsequently resigned the station, and was succeeded, in turn, by several different officers, until, finally, on the 20th of March, 1838, Lieutenant Charles Wilkes assumed the command. The novelty of the undertaking occasioned numerous delays and hindrances ; but, early in the month of August, 1838, * Three other Exploring Expeditions were undertaken in the South Seas, at the same time ; two English, and one French. 1838.] DEPARTURE OF THE EXPEDITION. 27 the expedition was ready to sail, though, as it afterwards appeared, some of the vessels were not in as good condition as they should have been. The squadron consisted of the sloop of war Vincennes, the flag-ship of the commander of the expedition ; the sloop of war Peacock, Lieutenant William L. Hudson ; the brig Porpoise, Lieutenant Cadwalader Ring- gold ; the store-ship Relief, Lieutenant A. K. Long ; and the tenders Sea-Gull and Flying-Fish. As it was deemed important to divest the expedition of all military character, the armament provided for it was adapted merely for defence against the savage and warlike inhabitants of the South Sea islands. The boats*of the vessels were all clinker-built, with the exception of the launches, like those used by whalers and sealers. A full corps of scientific gentlemen, consisting of philol- ogists, naturalists, conchologists, mineralogists, botanists, horticulturists, taxidermists, and draughtsmen all employed by the government accompanied the Expedition. An ample supply of books, and a complete set of charts and instruments, of the most approved character and workmanship, were also furnished ; and several able reports of philosophical and other societies, together with a memorandum transmitted to the Navy Department by Vice- Admiral Krusenstern, of the Rus- sian Navy, were placed in the hands of Lieutenant Wilkes. All things being in readiness, on the 9th of August, the squadron, which had been fitted out at Norfolk, dropped down to Hampton Roads and anchored. On the 12th instant, they were joined by the tenders, and on* the 17th Lieutenant Wilkes received his final instructions from the Navy Depart- ment. Signal was at once made that the squadron was under sailing orders. At three o'clock in the afternoon of the following day, the vessels weighed anchor ; but as the breeze soon fell away, they anchored again at the H^rse- shoe. In a couple of hours the wind freshened, and the whole squadron stood down the bay in company. During the night the breeze slackened once more, and they made very little progress. Early in the morning of the 19th, how- 28 INSTRUCTIONS. [1838. ever, they passed Cape Henry Light, and at nine o'clock hove to, and discharged their pilots. The ships then stood out to sea together. This being Sunday, all hands were called to muster at eleven o'clock, and an impressive sermon was de- livered on board the Vincennes, by the Chaplain, Mr. Elliot. He alluded, in eloquent terms, to the arduous nature of the enterprise in which they had embarked, and the probably dis- tant period when they would be permitted to return to the bright shores then rapidly sinking below the western horizon ; and appropriately cautioned his hearers, through weal and woe, to put their trust in Him who holds the tempest in the hollow of his hand. (3.) The instructions issued to Lieutenant Wilkes, re- quired him, in the first place, to shape his course to Rio Janeiro, crossing the line between longitude 18 and 22 West, and keeping within those meridians to about latitude 10 South, in order to determine the existence of certain vigias, or shoals, laid down in the charts as doubtful. Hav- ing replenished his supplies at Rio, the longitude of which, as well as of Cape Frio, was to be determined, he was di- rected to make a particular examination of the Rio Negro, which falls into the South Atlantic ; and then to proceed to a safe port, or ports, in Tierra del Fuego, where the larger vessels were to be securely moored, while he explored the South Antartic, to the southward of Powell's Group, and be- tween it and Sandwich Land, with the brig Porpoise and the tenders. In the meantime, the officers left at Tierra del Fuego were to make accurate examinations and surveys of the bays, ports, inlets, and sounds, in that region. On rejoining the vessels at Tierra del Fuego, Lieutenant Wilkes was ordered to stretch towards the southward and westward, with the whole squadron, as far as the Ne Plus Ult^i of Cook, or longitude 105 West, and to return north- ward to Valparaiso, where a store-ship would join them, in March, 1839. From that port, he was to direct his course to the Navigator's Group, so disposing his vessels, in the latitudes where discoveries might be reasonably anticipated, 1838.] ADDITIONAL ORDERS. 29 as that they should sweep the broadest expanse of ocean practicable, and thence to the Feejee Islands, where he was to select a safe harbor for whalers and public vessels of the United States, and make such arrangements as would insure their being furnished with supplies. From the Feejee Islands, he was to proceed to the port of Sydney, and then make a second attempt to penetrate within the Antartic region, south of Van Diemen's Land, and as far west as longitude 45 East, or to Enderby's Land. The squadron was then to rendezvous at Kerguelen's Land, usually called the Isle of Desolation, and proceed to the Sandwich Islands, where a store-ship from the United States would meet them, in April, 1840. Thence they were to sail to the Northwest Coast of America, and make surveys and exami- nations of the coast of Oregon and California. From this coast, they were to repair to that of Japan, taking as many doubtful islands as possible on their route, and make a par- ticular examination of the Sea of Japan, and the Sea of Sooloo, or Mindoro. Having completed this examination, Lieutenant Wilkes was instructed to ascertain the disposi- tion of the inhabitants of the islands of that archipelago for commerce, their productions and resources ; after which he was to proceed to the Straits of Sunda, pass through the Straits of Billiton, touch at Singapore, where he would meet a store-ship, and then return home by the way of the Cape of Good Hope. In addition to the orders necessarily suggested by the fore- going instructions, Lieutenant Wilkes directed every officer of the Expedition to keep a journal, in which everything that occurred during the voyage was to be carefully noted. These journals were to be weekly submitted to him for inspection, and, on the return of the Expedition, to be disposed of ac- cording to the directions of the Secretary of the Navy. The scientific gentlemen were admonished to lose no opportunity to procure information in their several departments. Meteo- rological observations were required to be taken four times daily ; and particular instructions were given to measure and 30 THE GULF STREAM. [1838. observe, all astronomical and atmospherical phenomena, and every unusual appearance connected with the weather, such as shooting stars, zodiacal lights, aurora borealis, rainbows, halos, water-spouts, the Magellanic clouds,* lightning, and rain. After several days ? trial, the store-ship Relief was found to be so dull a sailer the other vessels being frequently required to lie to for her that Lieutenant Wilkes. determined to part company. Lieutenant Long was therefore ordered to pro- ceed, with all practicable dispatch, to Porto Praya, in the island of St. Jago, and thence to Rio Janeiro. In case of separation, the remaining vessels of the squadron were di- rected to rendezvous at Madeira. (4.) Immediately after leaving the Capes of Virginia, the influence of the cold polar, or counter-current, flowing paral- lel to the coast, close to the inner edge of the Gulf Stream, from Davis' Straits as far south as Cape Hatteras, was sen- sibly felt.t In crossing the Gulf Stream, the squadron were highly favored. They had light winds, and their progress was so slow, that they were forty-eight hours in passing it, although they were most of the time sailing at right angles to its direction. When they entered the stream, a sudden rise of the temperature of the water was indicated by the ther- mometer, which went up from 77 to 83 in a few hours, but soon fell again to a mean temperature of about 80, thus showing that the stream is considerably warmer towards the inner edge than on the outer. Its breadth, where the squadron crossed it, on the parallel of 34 30', was ascer- tained to be fifty- three miles, and its velocity two miles per hour. These data are not very reliable, however, as it is now well settled, that both the breadth and velocity fluctuate very materially.^ * The Magellanic clouds are three conspicuous nebulae, bearing the appearance of thin white clouds, situated near the south pole. They derive their name from Magellan, the distinguished Portuguese navigator. t This current is sometimes called the eddy of the Gulf Stream ; but the great difference in the temperature shows conclusively that the idea is erroneous. $ The observations of the officers of the Exploring Expedition, while in the Gulf Stream, were, necessarily, very limited ; consequently, they do not appear 1838.J ISLAND OF MADEIRA. 31 (5.) On the 25th of August, the squadron laid its course towards the island of Madeira. The winds had been light and the sea smooth, but on the night of the 26th there came up a squall, during which the Peacock and the Flying-Fish parted company with the other vessels. The first days in September were clear, bright, and beau- tiful ; immense shoals of flying fish disported about the prows of the ships, or darted through the air to escape from their voracious pursuers ; and beautiful dolphins, and " deep-sea" sharks, were seen in every direction. In the morning of the 6th, they encountered a huge cotton- wood tree, one hundred and twenty feet in length, and fourteen feet in circumference ; all covered over with barnacles, and much eaten by the tere- dine, or sea borer ; and probably thousands on thousands of miles from the place where it grew -on the banks of the Mississippi. In the afternoon of the 9th instant, they passed in sight of the Peak of Pico, one of the Azores, or Western Islands, and on the following day made the northern coast of St. Michael's, belonging to the same group, a high and moun- tainous island, but exceedingly fertile, and dotted with groves and villas, and rich cultivated fields, which could just be dis- cerned with the glass. (6.) At daylight on the 16th of September, the tall cliffs, and jagged precipices, of the island of Madeira, were dis- covered looming up above the wide expanse of waters at the south. The first sight of the island does not produce a favor- able impression, but a nearer view discloses scenery remark- ably picturesque, and, indeed, beautiful. Bold, embattled cliffs, rising to the height of sixteen hundred feet, the abodes of the ospray and sea-gull, and beneath which is heard the to have remarked the singular fact disclosed by the examinations of Lieutenant Bache, who was unfortunately wrecked off Cape Hatteras, while engaged in the Coast Survey, on the 8th of September, 1846, that the whole current of warm water, to the depth of at least four hundred and eighty fathoms, divides itself into two principal branches, separated by a portion of cold water. The transition from the cold to the warm water, on the inner edge of the stream, is said to be almost as instantaneous, as if the two were separated by a wall, nearly oerpendicular, except that it inclines slightly to the .east at the top. 32 FERTILITY. [1838. ceaseless roar of the ocean surf, stand like giant warders, on every hand. The shores are indented by a few small bays, receiving the waters of the mountain streamlets, at the upper extremities of which are the little villages whose white walls glisten like enamel in the beams of the morning sun. Throughout its whole extent, the island is mountainous, and the western half is divided by a central ridge, five thou- sand feet high, upon which is spread out the vast plain of Paul de Serra, mostly overgrown, and used for breeding horses and mules. Deep gorges, with steep precipitous sides, everywhere intersect the elevated ground. The intervals, and the lower slopes of the hills, are highly productive, and even the mountain tops are clothed with rich verdure, or groves of heath and broom, not the stunted varieties of northern climes, but the luxuriant growth of the tropics. From the rugged character of the scenery, it might be sup- posed that but a small portion of the island could be cultiva- ted ; yet, what nature has done amiss, or left unfinished, man has attempted to remedy and complete. Terraces, supported by stone walls, girt the acclivities, even to their summits ; and green patches start out, like emeralds, in bold relief, from the dark red soil that surrounds them. Within the narrow compass of this delightful spot, the productions of the torrid and temperate zones are brought together : on the lower ter- races, oranges, citrons, and lemons, may be found ; higher up, are bananas, figs, and pomegranates ; still higher, apples, currants, pears, peaches, plums, melons, tomatoes and egg- plants, greet the sight ; and above all these grows the potato, solitary and alone. Before sunset on the 16th, the Vincennes, Porpoise, and Sea-Gull, cast anchor in the harbor of Funchal, on the south- ern side of Madeira, the capital of the island. The Peacock and Flying-Fish joined them on the following day, when a party of officers was made up to go ashore, and pay their re- spects to the civil governor, Baron de Lordello, and the mili- tary commandant, Senor Rebello, who received them very courteously During the stay of the squadron, every point 1838.J FUNCHAL. 33 of particular attraction was visited by one or more parties ; the inhabitants usually receiving them with the utmost kind- ness and cordiality. The Madeira Islands belong to Portugal, and consist of Madeira proper, Porto Santo, and the Desert Isles. The first two, the only ones inhabited, are included in one district, and contain about one hundred and twenty thousand inhabi- tants, of all sexes and classes. The people are very loyal to their present sovereign, Donna Maria ; their taxes are not very heavy; and though beggars are somewhat numerous among them, they may be generally regarded as exceedingly industrious. They are gay and cheerful in their dispositions, and, with rare exceptions, hospitable and generous. Funchal, the capital of the island of Madeira, is pleasantly situated on the southern shore, surrounded by an amphitheatre of lofty hills, terminating, on one side, in Loo Rock, a bold quadrangular precipice, with a fortification on the summit, which overlooks the harbor in front of the town. It contains some eight or ten thousand inhabitants, most of whom reside in neat whitewashed cottages one story in height, though there are many more imposing structures, provided with verandahs, or light airy colonnades. The streets are narrow, but well- paved, and present quite a cleanly appearance. There are a number of churches and convents, which are always lighted in the early part of the evening. The prisons are well-filled, and extremely filthy. This may be attributed, however, to defective laws, as every offender is required to be sent to Por- tugal for trial, and sometimes years elapse before he leaves the island. , In addition to Funchal, there are several other pretty towns, among which are Santa Cruz, Porto Delgada, and San Vin- cente, on the north side of the island, and Canical and Co- mancha, on the east side. The principal objects of interest to the tourist, are, the Curral, a circular gorge, as the name implies, in the midst of the mountains, the winding pass at Estroza, and the Convent of Our Lady of the Mountain, the highest building on the island. 2* 34 APPEARANCE OF THE INTERIOR. [1838. There are, also, many fine rides in the interior. After as- cending the heights in rear of Funchal, you may travel miles on miles, over hard and well-conditioned roads, or bridle-paths, oordered with hedges of roses and myrtles ; with trellises sup- porting an infinite variety of gaudy colored creepers, or aro- matic shrubs that load the air with perfume ; or with stone walls, literally buried beneath the long trailing vines loaded down with their rich clusters of grapes. Gardens stocked with fruit trees, extensive vineyards, and fields of wheat, bar- ley, rye, and maize, arrest the attention on every hand. Neat cottages are discovered imbosomed amid thickets of tropical plants ; and the humbler habitations of the peasantry, with their low walls formed of huge blocks of lava, and their tall thatches of broom, are constantly peeping out from the lux- uriant foliage which surrounds them. Through the gorges of the mountains, glimpses open of almost fathomless depths, at the bottom of which are labyrinths of sweet-scented shrub- beries, miniature forests of dahlias, fuchsias, hydrangeas, geraniums, variegated convolvuli, and Ethiopian lilies. The spreading plane tree, the majestic palm, the dark and glossy- leaved banana, and the Madeira walnut,* enlivened, now and then, by the white tufts of the cotton- wood, abound on the lower terraces ; and the beetling cliffs above are crowned with mountain heath and laurel, with towering cedars, oaks, and elms. Over all this bright and glorious scenery, rests an atmosphere remarkably soft, pure, and transparent. Travelling is usually performed on the Madeira ponies, a tough and hardy race of animals, like the Shetland breed, or in sedans. The latter are generally preferred by the ladies. The hauling of heavy articles is principally done by the small oxen of the island, on sledges resembling the stone boats in use among American farmers. These are employed alto- gether in the seaport towns, for conveying pipes of wine ; but the liquor is brought from the interior, in sheep-skins, sowed together so as nearly to preserve the form of the animal, which are slung over the backs of the peasants. * The Madeira nut is the product of this tree. 1838.] WINE MAKING. 35 The inhabitants of Madeira are of Moorish origin, though free negroes, and descendants of the European race, are fre- quently to be met with. The men are tall, muscular, and well-built. The women, particularly among the peasantry, are masculine and vigorous, and rarely exhibit any traces of beauty : as they share the labors of their husbands, the soft- ness natural to the sex is very soon destroyed. All are tough and hearty, and capable of enduring great and long-continued fatigue. Among the higher classes, the fashions of Spain and Portugal are imitated or copied ; and rustling silks and gay velvets are often seen in the streets. The dress of the peasant is far less expensive, yet quite picturesque : the men wear trowsers descending as low as the knee, and shirts and jackets of the brightest colors ; and the women, bodices laced with pretty ribbons, and short gayly-striped petticoats. A conical cap, common to both sexes, completes the costume. The difference between the imports and exports of Madeira, indicates a high state of prosperity. The former barely ex- ceed one hundred thousand dollars annually, principally con- sisting of staves, rice, and oil ; while more than eight thou- sand pipes of wine, valued at over one and a half million of dollars, are exported during the same period. Most of the cereal grains, sugar, coffee, and taro, are produced in abun- dance. Large quantities of fine beef, vegetables, and fruit, are furnished, also, to the vessels that stop at the island. But the great staple is the far-famed Madeira wine, the best qualities of which, the connoisseur need not be told, come from the "south-side." Great care is taken to maintain the reputation of the wine, and the laws are so strict, that even the genuine article, once shipped, cannot be introduced into the island. The method of manufacturing the wine is certainly very primitive, and differs but little from that in vogue among the nations of the East in olden times. The grapes are deposited in an elevated vat, usually about six feet square and two feet deep, under an open shed covered with a thatch roof. Some half a dozen bare-legged and bare- footed peasants, then spring 36 SAILING OP THE SGIUADRON. [1838. into the vat, and commence stamping furiously, accompany- ing their motions with a rude song. After this process has been continued for a sufficient length of time, the legs of the men are scraped, and the pomace set up in the shape of a cone, and bound about with the young cuttings of the vine. A lever, to which a large stone, or rock, is attached by a screw, is now applied, and the juice expressed into tubs, one gallon being generally obtained from two bushels of grapes. The must is drawn off into casks, in which it ferments ; it is then clarified with gypsum or isinglass, and the necessary spirit imparted to it by the addition of two or three gallons of brandy to a pipe. (7.) Having completed their repairs, the Exploring Squad- ron weighed anchor in the afternoon of the 25th of Septem- ber, and sailed from the harbor of Funchal, in the direction of the Cape de Verdes. Delightful weather, and cool breezy winds, attended them during the whole time they were at sea. Passing Bonavista, one of the Cape de Verdes, to which the sailors have given the sobriquet of " Bonny- wiskers," without stopping, they came in sight of the island of Mayo, belonging to the same group, which loomed darkly in the dis- tance, at four o'clock in the afternoon of the 6th of October, and shortly before midnight lay to off St. Jago, the principal island. On the night of the 6th, a most brilliant display of the radiate animalculse, known as Medusa, or sea-nettles, was witnessed. The vast expanse of waters seemed paved with innumerable diamonds that out-sparkled the stars which glimmered above them, and wavy floods of phosphorescent light dashed against the vessels, or rolled slowly in towards the shore. Long trains of glittering light marked the courses of the fish ; and the motion of a rudder, or the disturbance occasioned in the water by anything thrown overboard, pro- duced beautiful flashing coruscations. A number of exper- iments were made, from which it was satisfactorily ascer- tained that the animalculse did not extend below eighteen fathoms' water. In the morning of the 7th of October, the fleet turned the 1838.] THE CAPE DE VERDES. 37 tall bluff' upon which stands the flag-staff and a ruined forti- fication, on the right of the entrance to the harbor, and came to anchor in the bay of Porto Praya. The Cape de Verdes were^ discovered by the Portuguese, in 1460, and are still subject to the crown of Portugal. The islands are about twenty in number, and contain seventy-five thousand inhabitants, thirty thousand of whom reside in St. Jago. The population is principally composed of mulattoes and blacks, there being but few native Portuguese. Some of the blacks adhere to their vernacular tongue ; but the common medium of conversation is a horrid jargon com- pounded of the Negro and Portuguese dialects. Near the sea, the islands are low, sandy, and barren ; but further in- land, there are lofty hills and mountains, which afford pas- turage for numerous herds of cattle and goats. On the coast, the water is brackish ; but it is brought from the interior except in St. Jago of good quality, in goatskins, on the backs of asses. The islands are only tolerably fertile, and are sub- ject to frequent droughts, probably occasioned by the preva- lence of the dry hot winds blowing from the Sahara, or Great Desert of Africa. In 1832, the inhabitants suffered severely from a visitation of this character. Their cattle were starved, and they would themselves have perished, had it not been for the contributions made for their relief in other countries, par- ticularly in the United States. The generous conduct of the citizens of the latter government is still remembered among them with the liveliest emotions of gratitude. The climate is said to be healthy, though very warm. The rainy season continues only three months ; it commences about the middle of July, and terminates about the middle of October, when everything assumes a livelier, fresher, and more verdant ap- pearance. The productions of this group of islands are not numerous, and the inhabitants are dependent on the vessels stopping there for many articles of comfort and convenience, for which they exchange their own products. Beef, poultry, eggs, fresh fish, cabbages, beans, pumpkins, squashes, corn, sweet pota- 38 PRODUCTIONS. [183S. toes, yams, bananas, dates, tamarinds, limes, oranges, and the fruit of the cocoanut tree, are usually quite plenty. Sugar and coffee are also raised in small quantities, and an inferior quality of wine, but a small portion of which is exported, is likewise produced. A palatable article of cheese is made from goats' milk. The flour used is imported, principally from the United States ; but a very good kind of bread is prepared from the roots of the manihot, or cassada plant, which are also roasted and eaten like potatoes.* The fecula, or starch, obtained by scraping and washing the roots, is called tapioca. Coarse salt, hides, goatskins, wine, and archil, are the main exports. The salt plantations, as they are called, are situated on the level, alluvial ground, near the coast. The land appropriated to the purpose is plotted into vats, by banks of clay, from one to two feet high, which become baked by the heat of the sun. The salt water is then pumped into the vats from wells, and exposed to evaporation. It is not an unusual sight to see a whole family, men, women, and chil- dren, engaged in the " plantation." Considerable attention is paid to neatness, and the walks between the vats are kept scrupulously clean. Archil is a lichen, which grows on the rocks, and is found both in the Canary and Cape de Verde Islands. It yields a rich purple color, which is exceedingly beautiful, but not durable. The blue pigment, litmus, is prepared from it. At the Cape de Verdes, archil is a govern- ment monopoly ; ninety thousand millreas, equal to fifty- six thousand, two hundred and fifty dollars, American cur- rency, being paid by a company, for the annual crop. The houses of the Cape de Verdians are miserable huts, built of stone, not six feet high, and thatched with salt hay, or palm leaves. Some are circular, some square, and others oblong. Occasionally one may be seen with a shingled roof. As fuel is scarce, the estiercol of the ass is used in its stead, * The bread made from the manihot was the principal article of food among the Caribs, when they were first discovered by the Europeans. They called it Yuca. 1838.] PORTO PRAYA. 39 as hunters and travellers on the American prairies use the bois de vache of the buffalo. Horses are found here, but the principal beast of burden is the ass, which carries its load in panniers. A long string of the animals, frequently seen dashing at full speed over the sand, is called a hato. White cotton shirts, aprons, and trowsers, are worn by the men, with dark vests, generally purchased at second hand from the crews of the vessels frequenting the islands. Some- times they wear straw hats on their heads, but oftener noth- ing. Party-colored turbans and handkerchiefs form the h^ad- gear of the women ; a shawl fastened about the waist, and another thrown over the bust and tied behind, complete the dress. The gobernddor, or governor, of the islands, resides at Porto Praya, in St. Jago. This island is about sixty miles in circumference, and is the most fertile and productive of the group. The former capital was Ribeira Grande, but Porto Praya now enjoys that distinction. The latter contains be- tween two and three thousand inhabitants, and is situated on an elevated plateau overlooking the bay. Its whitewashed walls and battlements may be descried far out at sea, and betoken a greater degree of cleanliness than is witnessed on landing. Blind beggars and naked children, pigs, fowls, and monkeys, cross the path at every step. Black soldiers, wi th huge muskets generally out of repair, patrol the entrdda of the Presidio, or governor's house ; and a squad of dirty recruits going through the manual exercise is usually the most striking object in the plaza. Officers, as well as men, including the governor, are black. A market is held daily in the square, when there are any vessels in port. A rocky ghaut, or pass, leads to the Valley of Dates, half a mile west of the town, which is one of the most attractive features of the island. Here was formerly the public foun- tain, from which water was obtained for the inhabitants and shipping. They are now supplied by a reservoir, constructed at the expense of the government, and filled with water brought in iron pipes a distance of two miles. The soil of 40 ARRIVAL AT RIO JANEIRO. [1838. the valley is a iich loam and the date tree grows luxuriantly. Lime, orange, banana, cocoanut, tamarind and papaw trees,* are also scattered through it, together with other tropical fruits and plants. (8.) The squadron left Porto Praya on the 7th of October, and continued their course southward, in search of the shoals, said to lie in this quarter of the ocean, off the African coast ; but none of particular importance were discovered. The nights were clear and beautiful till near morning, and the zodiacal light was once or twice observed. Falling stars, some of them of unusual brilliancy, were witnessed on the morning of the 18th of October, and on the nights of the llth, 12th, and 13th, of November. Large shoals of 'dol- phins, and wide luminous patches of phosphorescent animal- culae, were also seen. About the first of November, they crossed the Equator, and on the 22d caught sight of the rich neutral-tints resting, like a halo, over the tall and rugged summit of Cape Frio, forty miles north of Rio Janeiro. Favored by a light wind from the southeast, they entered the broad harbor of Rio, under full press of canvas, on the af- ternoon of the 23d ; having accomplished the passage in ninety-five days, about twice the time usually required by a vessel proceeding directly from the United States. The store-ship Relief took the direct course ; but, in consequence of her slow sailing, she was one hundred days, throe of which were spent at the Cape de Verdes, in making the trip. * The papaw. or papaya, grows to the height of eighteen or twenty feet. It is nearly naked to the top, where the leaves start out on every side, with long footstalks. The fruit, about the size of a melon, grows between the leaves, and is boiled, and eaten with meat, like ordinary vegetables. The juice is pungent and milky, but this is extracted by the process of boiling. CHAPTER II. (1.) Harbor of Rio Janeiro. (2.) Palace of the Emperor. His Birthday. (3.) Churches in the city. Sunday. (4.) Private Dwellings. Streets and Fountains. (5.) Number of inhabitants. State of Education. Funerals. Amusements. (6.) Condition and occupations of the slaves. (7.) Suburbs of the city. Appearance of the country (8.) The Empire of Brazil. Pro ducts. (9.) Mines. (10.) Imports and Exports. (11.) Sailing of the Squadron. (1.) COMING from the sea, Rio Janeiro, or more properly, perhaps, Rio de Janeiro, presents a grand and imposing ap- pearance. The city is built on the southern shore, close to the entrance, of the bay of the same name. Near it, but higher up, is the pretty town of San Domingo, and directly opposite, is Praya Grande. The bay is a fine sheet of water, one hundred miles in circumference, and sprinkled, here and there, with small evergreen islands. On the right, as you pass up to the anchorage, is Fort Santa Cruz, at the foot of Signal Hill ; on the left is Fort, St. Lucia, on an island near the mainland ; beyond this, in the same direction, is Sugar Loaf Hill an isolated rock on thousand feet high, around whose lofty crest the white fleecy clouds forever linger ; and further on, are the notched and uneven peaks of Gavia and Corcovado. In front is the busy and thriving capital of the Brazilian Empire, a forest of tapering masts and spars in the foreground, and richly deco- rated churches, glittering fa9ades, and massive tiled roofs, in the rear. Behind these are the blooming environs of the city, gay gardens, delightful quint as, cool shady groves and verdant forests, stretching far away into the interior, a con- stant succession of beautiful objects meeting the eye, till the view is bounded in the west by the towering pinnacles of the 42 BIRTHDAY OF THE EMPEROR. [183b. Organ Mountains, boldly pencilled against the pure azure of a tropical sky. (2.) St. Christoval, in the suburbs of Rio Janeiro, is the usual residence of the Emperor, Pedro II ; but his principal levees are held at the city palace, which he occupies on all great occasions. This is almost the first prominent object that presents itself, after ascending the rickety stairs at the usual place of landing. It stands on the Rua'Direita, the broadest street in the city, and is a heavy stone structure in the shape of a parallelogram. It has a front of one hundred and fifty feet, and extends about two hundred feet to the rear. The main centre building is three stories high, and the wings two stories. On one side of the court, in the cen- tre of the palace, is the Senate House, and on the other a splendid church belonging to the Carmelite friars, near which is the Imperial chapel, a pretty little bijou of a thing erected by the mother of the Emperor.^ The Chamber of Deputies is nearly a mile from the palace, in the Campo de Aclangao. While the Exploring Squadron was lying in the harbor of Rio, the Emperor made a visit to the city palace, in state, on the occasion of his birth day, which took place on the 2d of December. Escorted by a large body of troops, he entered the city about noon, in a splendid gilt carriage, English built, drawn by eight cream-colored horses guided by grooms in rich liveries. His two sisters, one sixteen, and the other fourteen years of age the former of whom afterwards mar- ried the Prince de Joinville, son of Louis Philippe rode in the carriage with him. The inhabitants collected every- where on the line of his route to welcome him. Triumphal arches spanned the streets ; rich satin draperies, intermingled with festoons of natural and artificial flowers, ornamented the fronts of the dwellings : national flags were displayed on every public building ; and the custom-house was ornamented with a bright collection of standards, conspicuous among which was that of the American Union. The ships in the * The Empress was for a long time childless, and made a vow that she would erect a church when she became a mother, which she religiously fulfilled. 1838.] CHURCHES IN THE CITY. 43 bay were dressed with flags, and at twelve o'clock, meridian, a grand royal salute was fired from the forts, which was re- turned by the vessels of war. As the Imperial pageant passed on, loud prolonged vivas mingled with the clashing of cymbals, and the braying of trumpets. The Emperor was then but a mere lad, only thirteen years of age ; yet he re- turned the congratulations of his subjects with ease and dig- nity. Arrived at the great square in front of the palace, which was densely crowded with citizens, and strangers from the four quarters of the globe, a feu de joie was fired by the troops, the Emperor exhibited himself in the balconies of the palace, and a levee, attended by the foreign ministers and their suites, completed the ceremonies of the day. (3.) Rio abounds in churches. On the outside, they bear marks of decay, and the steps and vestibules are frequently used by the market people to display their wares. In the interior, however, they are gorgeously decorated, with orna- ments of gold and silver, and fine specimens of painting and sculpture. The music is always good, and on important oc- casions especially attractive. The inhabitants are principally Roman Catholics, but they are fast losing their attachment to the religion of their forefathers. The churches are regu- larly opened for public worship on the Sabbath, and at other times during the week, but they are slimly attended. As in most Catholic countries, Sunday is a complete gala day. The stores and shops, particularly those where fancy articles are sold, and the cafes and coffee saloons, are kept open; hunting, riding, and fishing, usurp the place of the forms and ceremonies prescribed in the ritual ; the billiard rooms are crowded ; and the performances at the . theatres, of which there are three in the city, are witnessed by a far more nu- merous auditory than may be seen in the Cathedral. The English and American residents erected a neat Epis- copal, church, near the public gardens on the bay, in 1820, which is inclosed by an iron railing, and has a yard in front paved with granite. Service is held here with great punctu- 44 DWELLINGS AND STREETS. [1838. ality ; and there are missionaries belonging to other denomi- nations residing in the city. (4.) The houses are built of granite, large beds of which have been opened in the vicinity of the capital. The blocks are cemented together with clay, in consequence of the scarcity of lime, which is principally obtained by burning sea-shells. The floors, beams, and rafters, are made of the hard wood for which Brazil is famous. This is susceptible of a high polish, and might be made to add very much to the neatness and beauty of the dwellings ; but wainscoting is scarcely ever seen, and the interior walls and ceilings are usually provided with a rough coating of plaster, though the apartments of the wealthier citizens are often ornamented with stucco work and fresco painting, in rich and fanciful designs, or with silk and damask curtains and tapestries. The outer walls are also plastered, and generally wear a lively look. Most of the houses are two stories in height, though some exceed this. They have tall pyramidal roofs, surmounted with red tiles, which sometimes project fearfully. The doors and windows have heavy lintels and casings ; and jutting balconies, and wide, disproportion ed though, in a hot day, very comfortable verandas, are regarded as essen- tial requisites to every private habitation. With one or two exceptions, the streets are long and nar- row, and, for the most part, gloomy and sombre in appearance. They are badly paved with rudely-fashioned blocks of granite, and in the middle of them are the gutters, the receptacles of all the filth and abomination of a seaport town. Sidewalks are mainly dispensed with, and those which have been con- structed are never in good repair. There can be no just ex- cuse for the want of cleanliness indicated by the condition of the streets. The location is highly favorable ; wheeled ve- hicles for carrying burdens are comparatively little used, only a few antique coaches, and two-wheeled calescas, or calashes, occasionally jolting along over the rough pavements ; and an abundant supply of water is brought in aqueducts, from the Corcovado and Tejuca mountains, six or seven miles distant. 1838.] POPULATION OF THE CITY. 45 There are numerous fountains, also, scattered over the city, in the plazas, or squares ; and sparkling jets of crystal water may be seen in all directions, diffusing their grateful coolness through the heated and impure atmosphere. Some of the reservoirs have tastefully constructed edifices erected over them, which are alike useful and ornamental. The inhabi- tants rely, almost entirely, upon the fountains, for water for domestic purposes, which is carried by their slaves, in jars, or buckets, on their heads ; and " from dusky morn till dewy eve," they are surrounded by a motley collection -of water- carriers, engaged in filling their vessels, chattering the while like so many magpies, and laughing and jesting gayly with their companions. Near the fountain of Hafariz, the largest in the city, there are two stone basins, fifty feet long and twenty-five wide, which are daily filled with from two to three hundred negro washerwomen, who stand in the water, often half naked, all the day long, constantly drubbing and rinsing their clothes. (5.) The city of Rio Janeiro contains not far from two hundred and fifty thousand inhabitants, a great part of whom are slaves. In former years, the society was not very good, but latterly there has been a change for the better in this respect, though there is still sufficient room for improve- ment. Comparatively little attention is paid to education, especially among the female sex. The presence of the foreign ministers and their suites, and of intelligent merchants and travellers, has given a higher tone and polish to society, though the intercourse between the Brazilians and the citi- zens of other countries is not altogether free from restraint. This may be attributed, partly to the natural jealousy of their dispositions, and partly to the consciousness of their de- fective education. Females are rarely seen at public assem- blages and parties, and the visits which they interchange with each other are rather formal and ceremonious than cheerful and friendly. These impediments and drawbacks to an easy and unrestrained social intercourse are gradually being softened down, and they must soon entirely disappear 46 STATE OF SOCIETY. [1838. The time cannot be very far distant when Rio will become, what the capital of one of the richest countries on the Amer- ican Continent ought to be, as celebrated for the taste and refinement of its inhabitants, as for its importance and ad- vantages as a commercial city. A fondness for meretricious display and ornament is ex- hibited by both sexes in their dress ; they endeavor to follow the French mode, but are such zealous copyists that they very often overdo the original. This is much better, how- ever, than the opposite extreme. It is certainly more desir- able that the Brazilian ladies should appear in dresses powdered with jewels, or fringed with silver, or in party-col- ored robes and ribbons, on the most unsuitable occasions, than that they should be confined to their boudoirs their only knowledge of the world derived from occasional glimpses through their half-opened jalousies, and from the balconies of their apartments or immured for life in the dark walls of a convent. Ease and suavity of manners will, sooner or later, follow a " reverence for Turkey carpets and ormolu.'' 1 There is a large public library, and a well-stored museum, in the city. The latter is open twice a week, and both are much frequented by the inhabitants. One of the most interesting sights to be witnessed in Rio is a funeral, particularly of one of the wealthier classes ; for ooverty, here as elsewhere, is rarely troubled with ceremony. The body of the humble laborer or artisan is carried to the Misericordia ; a hasty prayer is said, a little lime sprinkled over his decaying remains, and he is thrown into a trench with some half-a-dozen others of the same stamp, and left to his long sleep, while his neighbor of distinction, is borne to his last resting-place, attended with all the pageantry of woe. His body is wrapped in satin robes, and his coffin is decorated with a scarlet pall ornamented with silver lace and fringe. The latter is placed on a black hearse, overhung with long nodding plumes, and drawn by mules in rich trappings, sometimes covered with silver bells. The driver wears a cocked hat, trimmed with lace, and adorned with a black 1838.] FUNERALS AND AMUSEMENTS. 47 plume. The hearse is preceded by altar-boys in their church dresses, and surrounded by the black servants of the deceased, all bearing lighted wax candles. Arrived at the church, or chapel, where the services are to be performed, the coffin is temporarily deposited near the altar, and the friends and relatives arrange themselves along the aisles. All the spectators having been furnished with lighted tapers, the priests enter from the sacristy arrayed in their rich sacerdotal vestments. Clouds of odorous smoke are emitted from the swinging gold and silver censers, and mass and the funeral rites are said from splendidly illuminated service- books. This done, the pall is removed, the coffin opened, and holy water thrown over the dead, after which the body is taken to the place of interment. A favorite burial-place is the Campo Santo, or cemetery, near the Imperial chapel. This is an amphitheatre, with high walls in which the vaults are built, surrounding a flower-garden. The coffins are deposited in niches just large enough for their admission, which are closed up with mason- work. Notwithstanding their reserve on ordinary occasions, the citizens of Rio Janeiro are fond of amusements. There are three theatres in the city, all of which are well attended. Hunting, riding and fishing, are favorite pastimes. White- jacket balls, so called from the fact that the gentlemen who attend them appear in white jackets and trowsers, and the ladies in white dresses, without ornaments or jewelry, are held monthly at Pray a Grande ; and similar entertainments are frequently given at Gloria Botofogo, and other small towns in the neighborhood of the capital. (6.) The great excess of the slave over the white popula- tion in Rio Janeiro, is soon noticed by the stranger. The former are nearly five times more numerous than the latter. In the city, burdens are carried almost exclusively by slaves, and scores of them may be seen at all hours of the day, bearing their water buckets, or staggering under packages of hides or bags of coffee. They usually go in gangs of 48 SLAVES AND SLAVERY. [1838. from twelve to thirty, sometimes yoked together with heavy necklaces of iron and attended by a driver, and at others headed by a leader, one of their own number, who carries a small tin rattle, filled with stones, with which he keeps time. They move along at a slow trot humming a monotonous refrain, the words of which are often changed, though the sound is rarely varied. Many masters rely solely upon the income derived from the earnings of their slaves, who are required to pay over from twenty-five to fifty cents, according to their ability, every evening. If they are so fortunate as to earn more during the day, the surplus is their own ; but if they fail to produce the prescribed amount, they are severely whipped. The females who are not employed as house servants, work at millinery, or other light handicrafts. Those slaves that carry burdens in the streets, or work in the fields, are poorly fed and scantily clothed, scarcely ever wearing anything more than a slight covering about the loins. Unlike the owners of slaves in most civilized coun- tries, the Brazilians manifest but little feeling for their servants. When they become worn out, or seriously diseased, they are generally turned into the world, without compunction, and left to die unfriended and alone. In 1830, the slave trade was prohibited ; but from seven to ten thousand blacks are now imported, annually, in defi- ance of the law. Pains are taken, however, to prevent their increase. The two sexes are usually locked up at night in different apartments, and all intercourse between them is prevented as far as possible. (7.) If within the city of Rio, the eye is pained by the constant recurrence of stone and mortar very few of the houses having either yards or gardens ample atonement is made for this defect in the suburbs and environs. Here all is bright and beautiful. A superabundant vegetation, flowers of the gayest colors, gardens filled with fruit trees and choice shrubby plants, and wide-spreading groves of tamarinds, oranges and bananas, extend to the foot of the distant moun- tains. But the delightful qui> tas, or country residences, 1838.] THE SUBURBS OF RIO. 49 half hidden by thick screens of mangrove bushes, or peeping out from behind hedges of laurels and myrtles, or rows of quaintly clipped arbor vitse, constitute the chief attraction as you progress towards the interior. There are, likewise, fields of corn and sugar cane in the champaign country, and on the slopes of the hills are the coffee plantations, present- ing, in the season, a constant succession of ephemeral white blossoms. Wild roses, tufts of sweet scented marjoram, and different varieties of cacti, spring up by the wayside, and, ever and anon, " The white Camella rears Its innocent and tranquil eye." Further on, are bosky dingles and leafy coverts, from whence the shrill chirp of the cicada is heard long after the dense forests that limit the view in the west are overspread with the sober hue of the passing day. (8.) Pedro Alvares Cabral is generally regarded as the discoverer of Brazil. He visited the country in 1500, when on his way to the East Indies, where he had been sent with a fleet by King Emanuel, of Portugal. Previous to this time, however, a Spanish mariner, by the name of Lepe, had penetrated as far south as the Brazilian strand, and two other Castilian navigators had landed and taken formal possession of the territory for the crown of Castile, but the claims of Spain were subsequently relinquished by the treaty of Tordesillas. Cabral first gave it the name of Santa Cruz, afterwards changed, by his sovereign, to Brazil, in allusion to the Brazil-wood found in the country, which, in turn, derived its name from the Portuguese braza, a live coal or fire, referring to the brilliant red color of this important dyeing material. For several years after its separation from Portugal, Brazil was subject to internal political dissensions and commotions ; but since the abdication of Pedro I, in 1831, it has been tolerably quiet, and has steadily improved in commerce and advanced in refinement. The government is a limited mon- 3 50 BRAZILIAN EMPIRE. [1838. archy, with a sovereign styled an Emperor. The legislative power is vested in two houses the Senate, and the Chamber of Deputies. The people seem to be well satisfied with their form of. government, but there exists a very friendly feeling towards the United States and their institutions, which it is for the pecuniary interest of both countries sedulously tc cultivate. Brazil is not wanting in the elements of greatness. She embraces within her boundaries a vast area of territory over three million square miles and her soil is highly fertile and productive. Nature has projected almost everything that belongs to her on a magnificent scale : she has four thousand miles of sea coast ; her plains and valleys are vast and extensive, and her rivers 1 * and mountains grand and imposing. Her population is computed to be five millions. About one fourth are whites, who chiefly occupy the narrow strip along the Atlantic and the province of Minas Geraes ; and the remainder are negroes, mulattoes, and Indians. Many of the savage tribes in the interior, who live remote from the white settlements and mission establishments, are exceedingly ferocious. Few countries surpass Brazil in the richness of her Flora, and her forests are truly magnificent; although the second growth is generally thickly matted with the bamboo that furnishes the material for the huts of the half-civilized Indians, which are covered with thatches of palm, in their primeval state they are comparatively free from underbrush; and the unsightly daddocks, which so often mar the beauty of northern scenery, are rarely encountered. Cedars, as stately as those which, in ancient days, shaded the brow of Mount Lebanon, rear their giant limbs towards the sky. Oaks, of various fantastic forms, lofty palms and caesalpinias, wide spreading mangos and tall and slender cecropias, are mingled with sycamores, myrtles and acacias, with the * Steamboats can ascend the Amazon, and its main tributary near its source, the Ucayali, to the mouth of the Rio Tambo, or Apurimac, nearly four thousand miles above Para. 1838.J PRODUCTS OF THE COUNTRY. 51 juvia,*' the cassada, the mahogany, -and the macaw tree. In many sections of the country, and particularly on the upper waters of the Amazon, there are miniature forests, or groves, of cacao, of surpassing beauty. Besides the rich cabinet and dye-woods found in the Brazilian forests, the finest timber for ship-building is also obtained in abundance. Excellent cordage resisting the action of water, is manufactured of the fibres of the palm tree. From the nuts, or seeds, of the cacao, the preparations known as cocoa and chocolate, are made ; this tree, sometimes called the chocolate-tree, is a species of theobroma, growing about twenty feet high, and bearing oval and pointed pods, in which are the numerous seeds imbedded in a white, pithy substance. The mango produces a fruit as large as an orange, and resembling the egg plant in shape ; it has a thick outer rind, beneath which is the fruit, of a fine golden color, surrounding a pit two inches long, to which it adheres, and possessing the mingled flavor of pine-apple and spruce. The agave, here called furcrcea, from its long furcated leaves, attains its highest state of perfection in this climate. Prominent among the other plants and shrubs, are the nu- merous varieties of the orchis tribe, with their odorous and beautiful flowers, the vochysia and its gorgeous yellow blos- soms, the cupheas with their clusters of lilac and purple, the lobelias and their long blue spikes, the towering organum, the anil, or indigo plant, the vanilla, the sarsaparilla, and the coffee-tree. Until of late years, the indigo plant was not very extensively cultivated in Brazil: it is usually planted towards the latter .part of March, twelve pounds of seed being allotted to the acre, and if the season is favorable, it will be ready to cut by the first of July. The maturity of the plant is indicated by the bursting forth of the flower- buds, and the expansion of the blossoms. Two croppings are taken during the year. The indigo is extracted by steeping the dried leaves and stems, or by allowing them to ferment when fresh ; the former process being considered the most * The Brazil nut is the fruit of the Juvia. 52 COFFEE, AND OTHER PRODUCTIONS. [1838. advantageous. A liquor is obtained, by either mode, which is churned or agitated till the dye begins to granulate ; the flakes are then permitted to settle, the remaining liquor is drawn off, and the indigo is drained in bags, and dried in boxes. One of the chief staples of Brazil is obtained from the coffee-bush. This shrub, in its natural state, rises to the height of fifteen or twenty feet, but, when cultivated, it is kept down by pruning, to five or six feet, for the greater con- venience thus afforded of gathering the fruit. The main stem is upright, and has a light brown bark ; the branches shoot out horizontally and opposite, crossing each other at every joint, a ad forming a sort of pyramid ; the flowers, which are of a pure white color, like those of the Spanish jasmine, grow in clusters, at the roots of the leaves, along the branches. The flowers soon fade, and are replaced by a fruit resembling a cherry, which contains a yellow glairy fluid enveloping two seeds or coffee berries. The seeds are glued together, and each is surrounded by a peculiar coria- ceous membrane. All along the Atlantic coast of Brazil, there are extensive plantations of coffee, the culture of which is said to be highly profitable. When the cherry-looking fruit assumes a deep red color, it is gathered, and passed between two wooden revolving rollers, and a third fixed one, from which it falls upon a sieve that separates the pulp from the beans. The latter are then steeped for a night in water, carefully washed in the morning, and afterwards dried in the sun. They are now detached from the coriaceous husk sur- rounding them, by a wooden edge wheel turned vertically by a horse or mule, and the membranes are subsequently sepa- rated from the berries by a winnowing machine. The final process consists in spreading the coffee upon mats or tables, picking it clean, and packing in bags. Sugar cane grows thriftily in the low grounds and interval lands, and all the tropical fruits are also produced ; in the interior, on the more elevated localities, where the vegetation begins to creep up the sides of the mountains, the shrubs 02 1838.] BIRDS AND ANIMALS. 53 and fruit trees natural to colder climates are met with in great variety. The markets in the Brazilian towns are plentifully sup- plied with beef, fish and poultry, and vegetables .of all kinds are sold in the streets. The principal articles of food, how- ever, especially in the country, are carne seca, or dried beef, and farina, a preparation of the manihot. It is not only for their valuable timber that the forests of Brazil are celebrated. Numerous species of parasites and creepers abound, bromelias, bignonias, honeysuckles, and mistletoes, which, extending their long sprays from tree to tree, from limb to limb, like the cordage of a ship, form leafy coverts that afford a shelter from the oppressive heat of the equatorial sun, to the brute denizens of these vast woodland solitudes. Birds displaying in their plumage all the bril- liancy and splendor possible to combine from gold and scarlet, purple and emerald ; fierce and ravenous beasts, chatter- ing monkeys, and huge scaly serpents and alligators, fre- quent these dark and shady retreats. Conspicuous among the birds, is the couroucoo, whose plumage is purple, green, and gold, beautifully blended together; the cephaloptem, which has a singular tuft on its head, like a parasol ; the aicurus, whose head is variegated with yellow, red and vio- let, its body green, the tips of its wings red, and its long tail yellow ; the mocking-bird, famous for its unrivalled strains of richest melody ; the witwall, or golden oriole, whose swinging nest, depending from the loftiest tree, sways to and fro with every breeze ; the gay-coated king fisher ; the scarlet macaw ; the lustrous jacamar ; the guara, of a vivid red color ; the cotinga ; and the many-tinted paroquet. Among the beasts, are the jaguar, or ounce of Brazil ; the puma ; the tapir ; the cabial ; the ant-eater ; the paca, which re- sembles the guinea-pig ; and the armadillo, called taton by the natives. Of the monkeys there are upwards of twenty different species, varying in color and size, from the acari, or scarlet monkey, to the silky tamarin. In the interior of Brazil, west of the Araguay river, and 54 MINES. L 1838 south of the Acaray mountains, there are extensive plains, wooded near the streams, but elsewhere covered with rank grass. These grassy plains are called llanos, or pampas ; countless herds of wild horses and cattle roam over them at will, unchecked and unpursued, save by the guaclws, or herdsmen, who spend most of their time upon horseback, armed with the knife and lasso. Immense numbers of cat- tle are annually taken by them and slaughtered, chiefly for their hides and horns, though the hams, and sometimes other portions of the carcass, are smoked or jerked. After being cured, the hides are bound up in packages, for exportation, one of which is called a last, and contains twelve dozen. (9.) Not more famous were the pearls of Ormuz, or the diamonds of Golconda, than, in former days, was the mine- ral wealth of Brazil. This may be said to have been meas- urably exhausted, yet the annual products of the mines and diamond washings, at this time, are by no means inconsider- able. The first discovery of gold was made in 1682, at Ca- lapreta, in .the sands of the Mandi, a tributary of the Rio Dolce. Since that time it has been found almost everywhere in the streams and ravines at the foot of the Brazilian Andes, from the fifth to the thirtieth degree of southern latitude. The most productive mines are near Villa Rica, in the sub- urbs of the village of Cocaes : a remarkable example is here presented, of the existence of this mineral among the primitive strata, disseminated in small grains, spangles and crystals ; great quantities of native gold, in spangles, being obtained from beds of granular quartz, or micaceous specu- lar iron. There are, also, many valuable mines in the prov- ince of Minas Geraes, where the metal is found in veins, in beds, and in grains, among the alluvial loams; and there are washings yielding handsome profits, on the eastern slope of the Cordilleras, in the upper valley of the Amazon. From 1790 to 1802, over fifteen thousand pounds, avoir- dupois, of gold, were annually taken from Brazil to Europe ; but the yearly product is now estimated at only two thou- 1838.] riAMOND WASHINGS. 55 sand eight hundred pounds, of the value of one million ster- ling. The matrix, or original repository, of the diamond of Bra- zil, is brown iron ore, occurring in beds of slaty quartzose micaceous iron ore, or composed of iron-glance and magnetic iron ore. The diamond mines were originally discovered in 1728, in the district of Serro-do-Frio. The most celebrated mine is that of Mandanga, north of Rio Janeiro, on the Jigi- tonhonha. The river, which is from three to nine feet deep, is made nearly dry, by drawing the water off with sluices at cer- tain seasons : and the diamond gravel, here called cascaiho, is removed from the bed of the stream, to be washed elsewhere at leisure. The gravel is always collected in the dry season, and washed during the rainy. For the latter purpose, a stream of water is admitted into a number of boxes containing the cascalho, beneath an oblong shed. Attached to each box is a negro washer, and there are inspectors placed at regular distances, on elevated stools. Great precautions are taken to prevent the concealment of the diamonds by the washers, and when one is discovered, the finder is required to rise up and exhibit it. When the negro is so fortunate, which very rarely happens, as to discover a gem weighing seventeen and a half carats,* he recovers his liberty. The earth of the bottom lands on either side is as rich in diamonds as that in the channel of the river. All the diamonds found in the dis <4 trict of Serro-do-Frio, are deposited, monthly, in the treasury at Tejuco. The amount thus delivered, from 1801 to 1806, has been estimated at about eighteen or nineteen thousand carats, annually. There are fine mines of diamonds on the Rio Pardo, and at Tocaya, in the district of Minas Novas, near the confluence of the Jigitonhonha and the Rio Grande. The largest dia- monds, however, obtained in Brazil, are found in the cantons of India and Abaite. In addition to these great mineral treasures, there are * A diamond of that pize is worth 2400 sterling, not far from $10,000, fed- eral currency. 56 COMMERCE. [1838. mines of silver and platinum in various parts of the country. In the canton of Abaite, in the province of Minas Geraes, there are rich lead mines, and a fine mine of antimony has been opened near Sabara in the same province. Iron is like- wise found in Minas Geraes, at Gaspar-Saarez, and there are extensive iron mines and furnaces in the captainry, or prov- ince, of St. Paul. (10.) The commerce of Brazil is rapidly increasing and extending. Most of her trade, however, is carried on through the vessels of other nations, although she has a very respect- able commercial maiine. The imports amount to about twenty-five millions of dollars annually, and the exports or- dinarily exceed that sum. Coffee is the principal article exported from the central provinces; upwards of one hundred and thirty-five million pounds being shipped every year, prin- cipally from Rio Janeiro and its great rival, San Salvador, or Bahia, on the Bay of All Saints. From the northern provinces, sugar, cotton and tobacco, are exported through the ports of Pernambuco,* Maranham, and Para. The best caoutchouc, also, is exported from Para, in large quantities it is extracted from thesiphonia calmed, or siphonia elastica, which is found in other parts of South America, as well as in Brazil, although it is nowhere so valuable as in the vicin- ity of Para. Incisions are made into the tree, through the bark, in several places, from which a milky juice, of a pale yel- low color, and having the consistence of cream, is discharged ; this is spread upon clay moulds, and dried in the sun, or by the smoke of a fire. The latter process, however, blackens the gum. Of late years, the juice has been extensively ex- ported ; but it is generally shipped in a concrete state. It is better known among us by the names of gum elastic, and india rubber, than by its appropriate one of caoutchouc. Hides, tallow and horns, are the chief products of tho * A large portion of the population of Pernambuco are foreigners, who are not very warmly attached to the government. Frequent ententes and disturbances have taken place one occurring as late as January, 1849, which have been with difficulty suppressed by the government troops. 1839.] TRADE WITH THE UNITED STATES. 57 southern provinces of Brazil. The most important seaport town in this section of the Empire, is Rio Grande. To the United States, the trade of Brazil is of considera- ble moment, as a ready market is afforded in the latter for a portion of our surplus agricultural products ; but it is more than probable that she is the greater gainer of the two, since our imports from Brazil, during the year ending in June, 1847, amounted to over seven million dollars, while our exports were a little short of three millions. (11.) In consequence of the unseaworthy condition of the Peacock, and the long time required to fit her for continuing the cruise, the squadron was detained at Rio for several weeks. About the middle of December, the- Relief was dispatched to Orange Harbor, to cut wood for the use of the other vessels, and on the 6th of January following, the remainder of the fleet dropped down the harbor of Rio and stood out to sea, directing their course towards the same place of destination. 3* CHAPTER III. (1.) The Pamperos. (2.) The Rio Negro. Guachos. El Carmen. (3.) Bue- nos Ayres. Population and Resources. Lagunas de Salinas. (4.) Indian Tribes. (5.) Alarm at El Carmen. (6.) Tierra del Fuego. Straits of Le Maire and Magellan. Cape Horn. (7.) Arrival at Orange Harbor. (1.) SOUTH of the thirtieth degree of north latitude, strong westerly gales prevail for a greater part of the year, which frequently terminate in severe pamperos, or hurricanes, the effects of which are often experienced far out at sea. These are supposed to be occasioned by the vast llanos, or grassy plains, in the valley of the La Plata, which disturb the equilibrium of the atmosphere. The currents of air here collected, being walled in on the west by the giant barriers of the Andes, and finding little or no resistance on the east, rush forth in the latter direction, either skimming softly and gently over the bosom of the Atlantic, or plunging and dash- ing on like the frightened courser. (2.) Favored by propitious, though light, and somewhat variable winds, the Exploring Squadron held on their way to the south. On the 25th of January, 1839, they again approached the coast of South America, at the mouth of the Rio Negro, the southern boundary of Buenos Ayres, or, as it is now called, the Argentine Republic. The coast in the vicinity of the river, is low and barren ; consisting of a succession of sand hills and downs covered with a dry and sickly vegetation, where the stunted shrubs that break the monotony of the landscape, rarely rise to the dignity of tree-hood, " And shrivelled herbs on withering stems decay." Further inland, there are immense pampas, over which roam 1839.] GUACHOS. 50 countless herds of horses and cattle. The inhabitants, who are principally of mixed Spanish and Indian descent, are employed, for the most part, in herding, and other occupa- tions incident thereto. The co'stume of the guachos, or herdsmen, is strikingly picturesque ; and it is shown to full advantage, when the wearer is mounted, with the knife in his girdle and the lasso at his saddle bow, pressing forward in hot pursuit after the lusty bullock, flying for dear life, over the broad grassy plain. It usually consists of a red, or party-colored shirt, striped or plaided ; white, Cossack drawers, fringed at the bottom of the leg, which are called calzoons, or calzoncillas ; wide, loose trowsers, of scarlet cloth; riding boots, fitting tight to the foot and leg, of un- tanned horse hide ; a gay sash ; and a conical cap, fiery red, with a large tassel dangling at the end. Thus arrayed, with his swart countenance, dark rnustachios, and keen penetra- ting eyes, the guacho is either formidable, or bizarre, accord- ing to the circumstances under which he makes his first appearance in the presence of a stranger. Twenty miles above the mouth of the Rio Negro, on the northern bank of the stream, is El Carmen, a small town containing about five hundred inhabitants. This is a convict settlement, under the authority of a governor general, and there are usually two or three hundred soldiers stationed here. The estancias, or residences, of the better and more prosperous inhabitants, consist of a dwelling house made of adobe bricks,^ divided into two or three compartments, with- out floor, ceiling, inner doors, or furniture, except a few rough benches and stools ; outhouses for the horses and slaves, also built of adobes ; and a caral for the cattle a circular inclosure surrounded by a palisade fence, constructed of poles from four to six inches in diameter, and twenty or thirty feet high. The converted Indians, who collect around the white settlements, and are called Indios Mansos, live in rudely fashioned huts, or toldos. Including the population of El Carmen, there are not * Bricks baked in the sun. 60 BUENOS AY RES. [1839. far from three thousand inhabitants embraced within the limits of the settlement on the Rio Negro. The river is only one third of a mile wide, but it is navigable for boats to Chi- cula, two hundred miles from its mouth. (3.) When Buenos Ayres first achieved her independence, she was connected with Paraguay and Uruguay, and the confederation assumed the name of the United Provinces of South America, afterwards changed to United Provinces of La Plata. Difficulties and contentions, artfully promoted by the government of Brazil, followed the separation from the mother country ; and after a severe and bloody struggle, in 1813, Paraguay became independent of the confederacy, and established a distinct government. Shortly after this, Brazil laid claim to Uruguay ; another fierce and protracted contest ensued, which was finally terminated, in 1828, by the erec- tion of the disputed territory into an independent state. Since that time, the remaining portion of the confederacy has been known as Buenos Ayres, and, latterly, as the Argentine Republic.* Harmony and tranquillity, however, have not generally prevailed in the country. Internal dissensions have been fomented by the intrigues of Brazil and the mo- narchical governments of Europe; and international difficul- ties have been occasioned by the attempt of Buenos Ayres to enforce her right to the sole navigation of the La Plata a right which would probably have never been invaded, or questioned, had she been as great and powerful, as she is weak and humble. England, France, and Brazil, have united to oppress her ; and at the time of the visit of the Ex- ploring Squadron, her ports were blockaded by a French fleet. Buenos Ayres contains about two million inhabitants, scat- tered over a 'territory nine hundred thousand square miles in extent. Its capital is Buenos Ayres, which contains near eighty thousand inhabitants, and is pleasantly situated on * The term Argentine Republic, (silver republic,) was, no doubt, adopted as being expressive of the mineral character of the soil; but it is hardly more ap- propriate, and is certainly less beautiful, than the former name of Buenos Ayres, 'pleasant breezes.) 1839.] CLIMATE AND PRODUCTS. 61 the southern shore of the majestic Rio de la Plata the river of silver. The manners and customs of the inhabitants, and the style of building, do not differ very essentially from those at Rio Janeiro. In the interior, there are several other towns of importance. Mendoza, containing twenty thousand inhabitants, and San Juan, about one third smaller, are sit- uated near the great passes through the Andes. Cordova and Tucuman are important trading towns, and Salta, on the Rio Salado is a celebrated market for mules. The climate of the country is delightful ; the heavens are serene ; the atmosphere is soft and refreshing, and remark- able for its transparent purity. In the southern provinces the air is so dry and pure, at certain seasons, that fresh meat will keep for a long time without becoming tainted. Grain, fruit and vegetables, are raised with comparatively little labor, and the soil is exceedingly fertile, with the excep- tion of a narrow strip of sandy barren land along the coast, like that near the mouth of the Rio Negro. But the inhabi- tants seem generally disinclined to till the ground, and their whole time and attention are directed to raising horses, mules and cattle. Of these they have the finest breeds in South America, and the mules exhibited every year at Salta, are unsurpassed in the world. The prices are quite moderate. Bullocks are sold at from five to ten dollars per head, accord- ing to age ; and horses and mules, when broken to the saddle, at from twelve to fifteen dollars. Buenos Ayres is not de- ficient in mineral stores ; she has valuable mines of gold and silver on the eastern slopes of the Andes, from which over four million pounds sterling of the former metal, and twenty- seven millions of the latter, were obtained, from 1790 to 1830 ; but, after all, the real, substantial wealth of the country, consists in the flocks and herds that feed upon the broad plains irrigated by the tributaries of the La Plata. Numbers of horses and mules are driven over the mountains to Chili, and quantities of hides, beef, tallow, horns and bones, are annually exported. Salt is also an important product. North of the Colorado, 62 LAGUNAS DE SALINAS. [1839 and between that river and the Rio Negro, there are numer- ous salt lakes lagunas de salinas upon which the salt collects in incrustations. It is obtained in great quantities after a severe rain, when the soil, which seems to be highly impregnated, has been the most thoroughly disturbed. The water soon evaporates, and the white salt, perfectly pure, and finely crystallized, appears in its stead. It is sold on the Colorado and Rio Negro, for twenty cents per bushel. On the right bank of the Paraguay, a small plant is found, called matte, which is used as a substitute for tea. It is sometimes called Paraguay tea. Sarsaparilla and vanilla likewise abound in the country. Most of the animals seen in Brazil exist in Buenos Ayres. There are deer in abundance, in the neighborhood of the salt lakes ; ostriches are quite common on the prairies ; tapirs, cabials, and other species of the cavy genus, frequent the grassy hummocks on the banks of the streams ; and ducks, partridges, pheasants, cassowaries, and wild geese, gratify, alike, the ambition of the sportsman, and the appetite of the epicure. The guanaco, an animal belonging to the same genus with the llama, is also frequently seen ; and in the northern section of the country there is a very pretty species of hare, called tapeti. Porcupines and armadillos a ~ found in every thicket. (4.) Ever since the iirst settlement of Buenos Ayres, the white population have been more or less annoyed by the savage Indian tribes of the interior, the off-shoots of the great Araucanian family, whose descendants still occupy the southern part of Chili. North of the Colorado are the Ran- gueles Indians ; between that river and the Rio Negro, are the Pehuenches ; and on its southern bank are the Tehuili- ches, or Patagonia ns, who are said, though on doubtful au- thority, to be of gigantic stature, but mild and inoffensive in their dispositions. The most formidable enemies of the whites, are the Chilenos Indians, who inhabit the mountain fastnesses separating Chili from the pampas of Buenos Ayres. The usual weapons of the Indians are a long lance, 1839.] ALARM AT EL CARMEN. 63 and the b6las, or balls; the latter consisting rf two leaden balls attached to either end of a stout strip of hide, four feet locg ; this is grasped in the middle, whirled over the head a few times, and then thrown with astonishing velocity and precision. It rarely fails to disable the object aimed at, be it man or beast. (5.) Upon the appearance of the Exploring Squadron off the coast, the inhabitants living on the Rio Negro, fancying the French fleet was approaching to despoil them, became much alarmed, and having hastily collected their cattle, fled with them into the interior. The first party that landed found the estancias deserted, and the fires smoldering on the rude hearth stones. The mistake was soon discovered, however, and the people gradually ventured forth from their places of concealment. Partial observations and surveys were made, in order to prepare a correct chart of the river a work subsequently completed by Lieutenant Alden and on the 3d of February the squadron again got under way, and proceeded on their voyage. (6.) As they approached the southern extremity of the con- tinent, flocks of speckled h aglets, or cape pigeotis, a ad alba- trosses, were "occasionally seen ; the moon began to wear round further to the north, and the nights were rendered gloomy by the lengthening shadows which it cast. On the 12th of February, the barometer fell rapidly, and heavy squalls of rain, mingled with hail and sleet, followed. When the day broke on the morning of the 13th, and the dense mists that curtained the sky had lifted sufficiently to enable objects to be distinguished, the gray cliffs of Staten Land were discovered ; and, not long after, the barren rocks, and snow-clad mountain peaks, of Tierra del Fuego the land of fire loomed above the horizon, dark, bleak and desolate, and showing no signs of vegetation, except, here and there, a stunted shrub or tree. The coast of Tierra del Fuego may well be called iron- bound. It is composed of huge masses of trap rock, traversed by red veins, indicating its volcanic origin, which 64 TIERRA DEL FUEGO. [1839. rise abruptly to the height of one thousand or fifteen hundred feet. Inland, there are mountains, many of them of a con- ical shape, from four to five thousand feet above the sea level. Tall isolated rocks, detached from the main shore, are scattered along the coast, like giant sentinels on guard. Numerous ravines intersect the wall of rocks behind them, where the fierce blasts of the stormy Atlantic die away in echoes, or howl the requiem of some gallant ship stranded amid its foaming breakers. Even during the midsummer months of this climate January and February the moun- tains do not put off their mantle of snow ; but ever wear the same cold and cheerless appearance. Tierra del Fuego is separated from Patagonia on the north, by the Straits of Magellan, named after the Portu- guese navigator who discovered them. Vessels bound to the Pacific can pass through the straits without difficulty, if attended with favorable winds ; but, as there is a strong current setting in from the Atlantic, it is hazardous to attempt the passage, from the east, in a square rigged craft, though with steam vessels, or small fore-and -afters, there is much less danger. Coming from the west, the passage may be made with ease, and it is infinitely less hazardous than to encounter the squalls, " catpaws," and icebergs, which are the common accompaniments of a voyage around the cape. Between Staten Land and Tierra del Fuego, are the Straits of Le Maire, which are about fifteen miles wide, and something less than that in length. As a general thing, it is always best for a vessel intending to double the cape, to pass through these straits ; it shortens the distance considerably, and on all ordinary occasions there is not the least danger. Violent squalls sometimes issue from the ravines, but it is easy to guard against them. Northwest winds prevail off this coast, and with these the straits may be threaded in three or four hours. This was the route taken by the Exploring Squadron ; they passed through the straits on 1839.J CAPE HORN. 65 the 13th of February, with all their canvas spread. It was a beautiful day, and the weather continued favorable till they reached the cape. " Be it fair or foul, rain or shine ;" in all weathers, at all times and seasons, Cape Horn is a terror to the mariner ; and many and marvellous are the tales of peril and danger spun in the forecastle, as this dreaded promontory is approached, and the hoarse wail of the beating surf that spends its fury upon its rocky sides, is heard rising over the waters. In favorable weather, vessels sail within a short distance of it, in perfect safety ; but when the storm-king " holds high revel there," as wide a berth as possible is given to this formidable breakwater which nature has reared against the fury of the Atlantic.* The cape is situated in latitude 55 58' south. It is a conical, jagged peak, of trachytic rock, rising at the southern end of Hermit Island. The latter is two or three miles in length, and behind it there is a line of rocks extend- ing towards the north. Between it and Tierra del Fuego, there are several long, high, and narrow islands, which are covered with snow during the whole year. Cape Horn, how- ever, is not the southernmost land in this quarter. The Diego Ramirez Islands, a small cluster of sea-holms, on one of which is False Cape Horn, are 34' further south. (7.) On the 16th of February, the Squadron passed tho " stormy cape," within a few miles of the shore ; most of the vessels having their studding sails set on both sides and were soon lifted upon the long rolling swell of the Pacific " the summer sea." The 17th was cloudy and nearly calm ; and the day and night following were spent in beating through the passage between Hermit Island and False Cape Horn, and from thence into Nassau Bay, an * Vessels are often compelled to go as high as the sixtieth degree of southern latitude, in order to double the cape. 66 ARRIVAL AT ORANGE HARBOR. [1839. indentation of the southern coast of Tierra del Fuego. Early in the morning of the 18th instant, the Squadron came to anchor in Orange Harbor, on the western side of the bay, but separated from it by Burnt Island, where they found the Relief had arrived before them. CHAPTER IV. (1.) The Relief. (2.) Patagonia. Soil and Climate. (3.) Inhabitants. Mode of Life and Occupations. Weapons. (4.) Natives at Good Success Bay. (5.) Orange Harbor. Visit from the Natives. (6.) Tierra del Fuego. De- scription of the Country, and Products. (7.) Animals and Birds. (8.) The Fuegians. Dress and Appearance. Degraded Condition. (9.) Southern Cruise. (10.) Arrival of the Squadron at Valparaiso. (1.) AFTER leaving Rio de Janeiro, Captain Long proceeded with the Relief to the coast of Patagonia, where, in accord- ance with his instructions, he commenced running a line of soundings, and making examinations of the shoals said to exist in that quarter. Like that of Tierra del Fuego, the Patagonian coast is bold and rocky, but indented with frequent small bays or harbors, which are scantily protected, however, against the violence of the winds and waves. The Relief drew in to- wards the land several times, sufficiently near to discover the herds of guanacoes feeding on the slopes of the hills, and on two occasions came to anchor ; but it was deemed hazardous to remain so near the shore, and she accordingly hauled off where she would be sure of a wider berth in the event of a storm. (2.) Patagonia was discovered by Magellan in 1519. On account of the insecurity of its harbors, and their being so difficult and dangerous of access, no permanent white settle- ment has yet been formed in the country. About the year 1779, a party of Spaniards established themselves at Port St. Julian, in latitude 49 10' S., and longitude 67 40' W., but the attempt to colonize this inhospitable region was speed- ily abandoned. A few expeditions have been undertaken into the interior, yet very little is known, beyond the coast 68 PATAGONIA. [1839 outline, in regard to it. The Andes here consist of but ono cordillera, the mean height of which is estimated at three thousand feet, although there are many peaks opposite the Archipelago of Chiloe, from five to six thousand feet high. This mountain range divides the country into two unequal parts ; the larger of them, by far, lying on the East. The western coast is extremely abrupt and precipitous, and is skirted with numerous irregularly shaped and rocky islands. On the East, the surface of the country rises from the At- lantic to the Andes, in a succession of terraces, all of which are arid and sterile ; the upper soil being chiefly composed of marine gravelly deposits. On the banks of the rivers, herb- age and trees are occasionally found, but with this exception, these terraces produce nothing but a coarse wiry grass, and a small thorny shrub fit only for fuel. The general sterility of East Patagonia is probably occasioned by the westerly winds that prevail throughout most of the year ; the moisture which they bring with them from the Pacific, is condensed and precipitated in the mountains and their immediate vi- cinity, and they consequently become quite dry. Almost the only moisture, therefore, that is brought to this desert tract, comes with the easterly winds, which are very rare. Near the Andes, however, where the grateful moisture of the wes- terly winds is precipitated, wheat, maize, beans, lentils, pease, and other similar grains and vegetables, are raised. The most prevalent mineral formations of East Patagonia, are porphyry, basalt, sandstone, and a friable rock resembling chalk. Organic remains are found of different kinds, and in great numbers. There is an abundance of rodent mammals in the country, but there are few varieties of larger animals. Guanacoes are the most common, and are frequently seen in droves numbering several hundred. The puma, the inveter- ate enemy of the guanaco, and the fox, are the only other wild quadrupeds worthy of mention. The principal birds are the condor, the cassowary, and the rhea, or South Amer- ican ostrich. (3.) Until of late years, it was pretty generally supposed 1839.] ITS INHABITANTS. 69 that the Patagonian Indians were absolute giants. The ex- aminations made by recent navigators have shown this im- pression to be entirely erroneous^ ; yet they are undoubtedly the tallest people of whom we have any account, since the average height of the men is full six feet. Their heads and features are large, but their hands and feet are small, and they have less muscular strength than their size would indi- cate. Their dress adds much to the bulkiness of their ap- pearance ; it consists of a large mantle of guanaco skins loosely gathered about the person, which it completely en- velopes, hanging from the shoulders to the ankles ; and a kind of drawers, or loose buskins, usually made of the same ma- terial. Their complexions are a dark copper color ; their hair is long, black, and coarse, and tied above the temples by a fillet of braided or twisted sinews. Their foreheads are low, and their cheek-bones prominent. They are fond of dis- figuring their faces, and other parts of their bodies, with paint ; and those who live remote from the white settlements in Chili and on the Rio Negro, besmear themselves with clay, coal, and soot. The Patagonians live in tents formed of poles and skins. They lead a nomadic life and subsist mainly on the flesh of wild animals and birds. In the northern part of East Pata- gonia, the inhabitants procure wild horses on the pampas, which, when tamed, are ridden by both men and women. Saddles, bridles, and similar accoutrements, as well as Span- ish goods of various kinds, are obtained from Valdivia and other places in South Chili. The arms of the Patagonian are a long tapering lance, a knife, and the bolas, which con- sist among them of two round stones, weighing about a pound each, covered with leather, and attached to the thong or cord. So expert are the natives in the use of this double-headed shot, which, in its use and effects, resembles the ancient sling, that they will hit a mark of the size of an English * This idea originated with the Spaniards and Portuguese who first visited the country, and was probably based on a comparison of their diminutive proportions with the tall and bulky forms of the natives. 70 INTERVIEW WITH THE NATIVES. [1839 shilling, with both stones, at a distance of fifteen yards. It is not customary to strike the guanaco or ostrich with them, but they are thrown in such a manner that the cord is twisted about the legs of the animal or bird, so as to prevent its run ning away. As may well be presumed, there is little semblance of law or authority among the Patagonian Indians. They nominally live under various petty chiefs, but the latter in reality pos- sess no power except that of might, and, in point of fact, every individual is his own master. (4.) In passing through the straits of Le Maire, Captain Long visited most of the harbors, and nearly two days were spent in G ood Success Bay, on the coast of Tierra del Fuego, the best and largest of them all. While here, Captain Long, accompanied by several officers, went ashore in three armed boats, to hold communication with a party of natives, who invited them to land by their cries and gestures. The natives appeared friendly, and when, the captain and his men landed, they ran towards them, crying out, at the same time, " cuchillo ! cuchillo /" As this is the Spanish word for knife, it was thought they were begging to be supplied with that article ; but as they seemed to apply the term to every- thing shown them, or rather continued its repetition almost incessantly, it was found impossible to ascertain its real meaning or application. In their dress and physiognomy they resembled the Patagonians, and were supposed to belong on the other side of the straits of Magellan ; they wore guanaco skins over their shoulders, and fillets were bound around their heads. Some members of the party had san- dals, also made of the guanaco skin, on one foot. They were provided with bows and arrows, the latter having flint heads ; but they seemed to depend principally on fish for subsistence. All were exceedingly dirty, though well formed, and most of them were troubled with a disease of the eye, occasioned, perhaps, by the dazzling reflection from the snow during their long winters. It was evident that they had had intercourse before with 1839.] ARRIVAL AT ORANGE HARBOR. 71 the sailors of civilized nations, as many manufactured arti- cles, which they could have obtained in no other way, were found in their possession, and the report of fire-arms did not intimidate them in the least. The hair on the tops of their heads was cut short, and their faces were painted with a kind of clay, like red ochre. They were particularly well pleased with a looking glass and a string of glass beads which were shown them. Although they attached great value to their bows and arrows, they were willing to ex- change them for a piece of iron hoop or a few rusty nails. From Good Success Bay the Relief continued her course towards Orange Harbor. On the way, she touched at New Island ; no natives were seen here, but there were indications of their having recently been on the island. On the 30th of January, Captain Long cast anchor in Nassau Bay, and sub- sequently entered Orange Harbor. Immediately after he got his anchor down in the bay, a native canoe came alongside, in which were three men, ono woman, and a child. Two of the men came on board without hesitation. They were found to differ in many respects from those seen at Good Success Bay. They did not speak the same language; they were not so tall in stature, nor so well-proportioned ; and they were far more filthy and disgusting in their appearance. (5.) Orange Harbor is decidedly the safest, and the most spacious and convenient of all the harbors on the Fuegian coast. Captain Cook anchored and refitted here previous to his Antarctic cruise, as did also Captains King and Fitzroy while engaged in their expeditions. It is surrounded by lofty hills, intersected with numerous small inlets or coves, in which boats can enter and obtain wood and water, which are both abundant and of excellent quality. Shortly after the arrival of the squadron at Orange Har- bor, they were visited by the natives, a most abject, ill- shapen, and miserable race of beings. On one occasion, a party consisting of five men and one woman, the latter old and ugly, but as strong and muscular as those of the other sex, approached one of the vessels in a frail and leaky 72 TIERRA DEL FUEGO. [1839. canoe which required constant bailing to keep it afloat. But one of the number a young man not far from nineteen years of age could be induced to come on board. They brought with them a number of spears, and a necklace of shells, which they exchanged for pieces of cotton and an iron hoop. In dress, language and appearance, they resembled those at Nassau Bay. They were highly delighted with music, and fond of mimicking everything they heard ; the flute and guitar were played for their amusement, and they endeavored to imitate the accompanying songs. (6.) Tierra del Fuego properly includes the group of islands lying off the southern extremity of South America, and separated from it by the straits of Magellan ; but the term is usually applied, by way of distinction, to the largest, or main island, formerly called King Charles' South Land. The eastern part of this island is low, with sloping plains like those of Patagonia, though there is really no level land. On the west side it is traversed, from north to south, by a chain of mountains four thousand feet high. The island is all mountainous, and appears to have been partially sub- merged in the sea by some convulsion of nature, by which so many inlets and bays are occasioned where valleys would otherwise have been. The surface at the foot of the hills is covered with a thick bed of swampy peat. On the mountain sides, reaching up to an elevation of twelve hundred feet, there are dense forests ; the trees rise uniformly to the height of forty or fifty feet, and generally incline towards the north- east, in consequence of the prevailing southwestern winds. The principal trees are beech, birch and willow. One species of birch, the betula antarctica, has a stem from thirty to forty-six inches in diameter. Winter's bark, (dry mis winteri) first introduced as a medicine in 1579, was origi- nally discovered here. In Tierra del Fuego and the adjacent islands, hornblende is the most common rock, but slate is abundant. Lava and other volcanic products were discov- ered by Captain King, but nothing of the kind was found during the limited, and necessarily imperfect, reconnaissances 1839.] THE FUEGIANS. 73 of the American Exploring Squadron. The line of perpetual snow descends as low as three thousand feet ; yet, notwith- standing the unfriendliness of the climate, the scenery of the island is in many respects grand and imposing. " There is a degree of mysterious grandeur," says Mr. Darwin, in his Journal of a Voyage round the World," in mountain behind mountain, with the deep intervening valleys, all covered by one thick, dusky mass of forest. The atmosphere, likewise, in this climate, where gale succeeds gale, with rain, hail, and sleet, seems blacker than anywhere else. In the Strait of Magellan, looking due southward from Port Famine, the distant channels between the mountains appeared from their gloominess to lead beyond the confines of this world." (7.) Guanacoes, wolves, foxes and otters, are the only wild animals of importance found in Tierra del Fuego. Fish and seals are quite numerous. Among the birds are the cape pigeon, the petrel, and the albatross. Wild fowl, geese, ducks, and plover, are also plenty. The cape pigeons are of a white and lead color ; they fly in large flocks, and seem much attached to each other ; their flesh is equal to that of the American teal. The albatross resembles a goose, and its feathers, down, and quills, are equally valuable ; its meat is dark-colored but not unpalatable ; by sailors, it is considered as a rara avis, indeed, from the fact that it has no gizzard, and many of them look upon it with the same abhorrence with which the Mussulman regards pork. (8.) The Fuegians are elevated by only a few degrees above the brute creation. They have small low foreheads, prominent brows, diminutive eyes, large mouths, wide nos- trils, thick lips, black lank hair, and long and slender arms. Their bodies are large in comparison with their extremities, but they are rarely over five feet in height. On the eastern coast, the natives wear guanaco skins, and on the western, seal skins. The central tribes have otter skins. Sometimes a small scrap takes the place of a whole skin, and where this is the case, or the skin is too small to protect the whole per- son, it is laced across the breast by strings, and shifted from 4 74 MODE OF LIFE. [1839. side to side, according as the wind blows. It is by no means uncommon, however, to see them entirely naked. They ap- pear stunted in their growth ; their dark copper colored skins are filthy and greasy ; and their hideous faces are generally bedaubed with ashes or paint. Their voices are discordant, and their gestures, in conversation, animated and even vio- lent. Their wigwams are sometimes built of the trunks of trees, arranged in a circle and leaning against each other at the top, like a cone ; the interstices are chinked in with earth, leaves, and wild grass. Another kind of wigwam is made ot boughs or small branches bound together at the top with sedge or twigs ; other branches are interlaced with these so as to form wicker-work, and the whole is covered with grass, peat or bark. They subsist almost wholly on fish, seals, sea- eggs, and testacea. A few tasteless berries and fungi are the only productions of the moist soil which they make use of to satisfy hunger. The only habitable land is directly on the coast, and in summer and winter, through the endless mists and storms, parties of them may be seen wandering along the beach in quest of food. Their only mode of conveyance is a canoe drawn through the water by the kelp, or propelled by a rude paddle ; it is made of strips of bark sewed together, and is usually about twenty-five feet long and three feet wide. The bottom of the canoe is covered with a layer of clay a foot thick, on which a fire is always kept burning. Sea-eggs are obtained by diving, and small fish are caught by a baited hair-line, without any hook. Larger fish are speared. Shell-fish are picked from the rocks whenever it is low water, be it night or day, in storm or sunshine. Seasons of famine are frequent among the Fuegians, and at .nlri JIIK! rronoiny rigidly unlon^Ml in iwc.ry I.IJin.llnl Ihn |MlM|C :;c| Vice ( 'nnjMTSM K<'|)l, |)JKM', VVllJl UlO Mxor.ul.ivr ; iiitd H.M lo'M.s|:ii.inii \v;is ; n dircc.lc.d JIM l.o s.-.-iirn iho porfoot liberty of the citizen, so far as was compatible WlM\ Ifin j.iil.lir :;irr|y, nild nl.Moliilr <-i|ii;ili|y under Ihr. l;i\V i.'il privileges wo.ro perniil le,d (| I'lielo, \\,'IS Hie i.ipid 1 1 iei i -;i: e < l Ilic M \ nix- .in ,'nl ViiiM'e nl more Iliiin i \\ < > hundred ;ind lili\ per cent, in the annual receipts being realized in the short space of twelve years and, as a necessary consequence, tho |M,,|\ r\ I in;. in.- Inn. Mil of Ihe pulilio, del. I,. Kver silio.o Iho year |s;{,, Ihcre li.i ; hern ;i .iir|ilu;nr Ihe revenue, nver (lie expenditure ; in |S|'.>, Ihe loriuor jininiiiiled (o l.liroo. million oighl hundred !hnus;ind jiiiislors, and (he l;iller l.o I .wo million lour hundred lliou.sund, .showing i i surplus of nearly fourleen hundred lluui:.;ind junslors. In ;M;i\, lv> I'!, ( 'liili.-in six per eenl.s ro,s t > |o !K{, mid in IS- IT) Ihey were <|iio|rd nl |()|. Too iiiueh pr. it e e.'innol he ;i\v:inlod to Tiicio, lor his wise, skd- lul, .ind sueee: !ul si M lesiUMIIsllip ; Ihe ehiof IlKM'il of .leemn- ph -hill;', Iliese splendid lesnlls \\ilhlU so hriel ;i period is * Ah ..ill |< ii milli. HI ilnllars. li ?$. s throughout Hi. 1 , country, wS'h an occasional imitation of In J'.-vii costume.; hnt latterly. ; r to Lieutenant Severe, "English taihr> have tniosmo ; ' the, men, an French milliners have played the ?! ace ; rh". women. "* The cholo still adhered to his />t lay asid li< r gay-colored bay eta : the me,stiz<> continues to display his vest and breeches of shining velvet, decked with bright fili- gree buttons; but the prevailing fashions, among the upper classes, are French and English, and these are fast extend- ing to every rank and condition. At Lima and Truxillo, a singular dress, peculiar to those two cities, is worn by the ladies, at church, in religious pro- cessions, in their promenades, and sometimes during a morn- ing call ; but it is never seen in a ball room or theatre. This dress consists of the Sdya y Mdnto, literally, a petticoat and veil. There are two kinds of sdyas the sdya ajustdcla, and the sdya culepa, or sdya desplegdda. The former is a skirt, or petticoat, of thick silk, either of a brown or some other dark color, which is plaited at the top and bottom, in small fluted folds, drawn close together at the waist, but widening as they descend. It fits tightly to the form, and nothing could be better devised to display the symmetry of the wearer's limbs, unless it were complete male attire. It, of course, prevents any rapid movement in walking, though it does not reach quite as low as the ankle, the inventor, probably, not caring entirely to hide the tasteful chaussure. This garment, however, is rapidly going out of date, few really modest females making use of it, and the sdya desple- gdda is taking its place. The latter is plaited close at the waist, but from thence downwards, it presents the appear- ance of a hooped petticoat. The mdnto is a veil of thick black silk, fastened at the back of the waist, where it joins the sdya* by a narrow band. It is thence brought over the shoulders and head, and drawn over the face, so as to leave a small triangular space, in * Tour of Duty in California, p. It. 132 POPULAR AMUSEMENTS. [1839 which glistens the eye of the wearer, like a diamond set in jets. Sometimes a rich shawl is thrown over the shoulders, beneath the mdnto. The folds of the veil are confined by a small hand, always neatly gloved ; in the other hand is car- ried a richly embroidered handkerchief, or a pretty nosegay. Those who wear this strange costume are called tapddas. Its original design, it is said, was to secure privacy and pre- vent intrusion; but, of late, it has been sadly perverted, and is now a convenient shield and cover for the demirep and intrigant. Many are the tales related, in the gay capital of Peru, of jealous lovers and husbands outwitted, and of frail friars, and frailer nuns, forgetting the solemn vows which they had taken, and soiling forever the vestal purity and per- fectness of their high calling. All classes in Peru are passionately fond of amusements of every kind, of dancing, theatrical performances, and musi- cal entertainments. Religious processions may likewise be classed in the same category, as many seem to regard them in that light. The festivals of Corpus Christi, Santo Do- mingo, and San Francisco, are celebrated, in the cities, with great pomp and ceremony ; and from the highest to the low- est, the brilliant pageant is enjoyed with unusual zest. On St. John's day, (24th of June,) a grand festival is held by the lower classes in Lima and not, as Captain Wilkes, perhaps hastily, conjectured, by the population generally* in the valley, or plain, of Amancaes, which is about half a mile northwest of the city, and derives its name from a beautiful yellow lily, whose blossoms are liberally sprinkled over its surface at the time of the fete. It is merely a drunken bout, however ; drinking, gaming, gormandism, and dancing the obscene samacueca, constituting the principal attractions of this Peruvian Floralia. As has heretofore been stated, the white Creole in Peru, is not much addicted to the use of intoxicating drinks. When he takes wine, it is usually some sweet and light kind, c.*id is partaken of sparingly. But the mixed races, and the peo- * Narrative of the Exploring Expedition, Vol. I, p. 244. 1839.] MODE OP TRAVELLING. 133 pie generally in the interior of the country, are not so abstem- ious as those who reside in the cities and along the coast. The mestizo loves his aguardiente, and the cholo his chica. Smoking is an almost universal practice among all classes and sexes. Among the other stimulants made use of, is coca. This is a shrub extensively cultivated in the moun- tainous districts of Peru, the leaves of which, when dried, are mixed with burnt lime. It forms a powerful stimulating narcotic, which is used as a masticatory. Like opium, it brings on an apathy to surrounding objects, but its effects are more pernicious, and a confirmed coca-chewer, or coquero, is with difficulty reclaimed.* The private habitations of the Peruvians, in the interior, resemble those in Chili. Those of the better class are built of adobes, one story high, with thatched roofs ; but the In- dians, and the poorer inhabitants, live in miserable hovels constructed of cane and mud, which are dirty and filthy in the extreme. In the northern part of the country, among the sandy lomas, or hills, which are so common in that sec- tion, houses may often be seen that are erected on posts, from eight to ten feet high, in order to render them cool and airy, and to protect the occupants from the sand-flies. The ma- terial used in their construction is a species of reed, and the roofs are thatched with leaves. Mules and llamas are the principal carriers of burdens in Peru, and travelling is performed, either on horseback, or, where the roads will admit, in antique coaches of Spanish patterns, or in the calesa, a small chaise. Since the intro- duction of steam navigation, there have been steamers to accommodate those persons wishing to go from one port on the coast to another. In Lima, omnibuses have become quite common, and they have almost superseded the other modes of riding in the city, and between it and Callao. (6.) Two great mountain chains, running parallel with each other and the coast, intersect Peru, and divide it into * The annual value of the coca prepared in Peru and Bolivia, is estimated at two and a hall' millions of dollars. 134 TOPOGRAPHY. [1839 three regions These two ranges are called the Cordillera and the Andes,. Strictly speaking, the Cordillera is the chain nearest the coast, and the Andes the eastern chain ; but the terms are now used indiscriminately. The strip between the coast and the first chain, is from sixty to seventy miles wide ; some portions of it are covered with dry, barren sand ; others are less arid ; and, here and there, are small oases, like that in which Lima is built, which are exceedingly fertile. The space inclosed between the two mountain ridges, is called the Sierra. This tract is partly occupied by the cross ranges intersecting the two principal chains, and by huge naked rocks ; partly by wide-spread table lands, known as the Puna, or Despobltido, which are mostly uninhabited, and scantily covered with sickly looking yellow grass, stunted quinud trees, and large patches of the Ratanhia shrub ; and partly by expansive valleys, which make a suitable return for the labor of the husbandman.* But little is known of the third region, along the base of the eastern mountain chain, although the old inhabitants chiefly dwelt there, and obtained from the mines the metal which they manufactured into the curious forms and shapes that aroused the cupidity of Pizarro and his followers. * The Peruvian coast is rugged and lofty, throughout its whole extent, except in the northern provinces, where some rniles of a loose sandy desert occasionally intervene between the high lands and the Pacific. There are but few secure har- bors in the whole sixteen hundred miles of sea coast. Those of Callao, Payta, Sechura, Salina, Pisco, Islay, and Iquiqua, are esteemed the best. At Truxillo and Lambaqeque, there are mere open roadsteads, which, in rough weather, are ex- tremely insecure. On account of the great depth of the water, vessels are generally obliged to anchor within a quarter of a mile of the shore. Where there are no moles, or piers, the operation of landing, usually 'effected by means of the balsa, is very dangerous, in consequence of the heavy surf occa- * It is very evident from the appearance of these valleys, that they once sus- tained a much larger population than they now do. 1839.] CLIMATE. 135 sioned by the mighty swell almost constantly rolling in upon the shore. Peru cannot boast of any great rivers. The Rimac me'rely carries off the melted snow of the mountains ; it has not suf- ficient force to break through the sand-bar at its mouth, and its waters percolate through it in the most lazy manner im- aginable. But the largest tributaries of the Amazon, the Tunguragua, the Huallaga, and the Ucayale, have their origin here. The Tunguragua has its source in the small lake, Llauricocha, lying north of Cerro di Pasco. There is another lake, the Titicaca, the largest and most elevated in South America, situated partly in Peru and partly in Bo- livia, which abounds in fish, but its navigation is not free from danger, as it is liable to sudden squalls and storms ; and there are several smaller lakes in different parts of the country. The sources of the A mazon are considerable streams, and if the occasional obstructions were removed, they could be navigated for some distance, by steam-vessels of light draught. In most of the provinces of Peru, the climate is said to be proverbially fine, but the bills of mortality indicate that this must be taken with some reservations and exceptions, though, upon the whole, it may be pronounced salubrious. There are two seasons during the year the wet and the dry. From April till October, the coast lands are covered during the morning, and often throughout the day, by a dense fog or mist, which serves to moisten the ground, instead of the rain which nature has denied to it. Towards the north the fogs grow lighter, and in the extreme northern province rain some- times falls ; and when this blessing is vouchsafed, the arendles, or arid sands, are soon covered with an exuberant vegetation, [n October and November, the mists begin to rise, and, by a gradual transition, the dry season, which commences in De- cember and terminates in March, is at length introduced. During the summer on the coast, heavy rains, often accom- panied with thunder, fall among the montanas, or mountains, in the interior. The rivers and smaller streams now rush 136 EARTHQUAKES. [1839 down to the ocean swollen far beyond their customary size, and thus furnish abundant means for irrigation. Notwithstanding its proximity to the equator, the temper- ature in the coast region is not so high as would naturally be supposed, The prevailing winds are from the southwest, and are very cooling. West winds are not common, but they sometimes blow with terrific violence, and when they break against the mountains, often form dangerous whirlwinds. The northern winds, or, rather, currents of air, for they can hardly be called winds, are very sultry and oppressive. At night, the land breezes take the place of the sea breezes that blow during the day. The mean temperature of the year in Lima is about 70, but there are villages in its im- mediate vicinity, subject to the same atmospherical influences, where it is still higher. The great humidity of the atmos- phere upon the coast gives rise to severe fevers, and the change from the damp to the dry season frequently produces violent attacks of dysentery. Colics, bilious and inflamma- tory diseases, and small-pox, are also very common. The most agreeable climate in Peru is probably to be found in the extensive elevated valleys, between the Cordillera and Andes, and the paramos, or ranges connecting the two great ridges. The valley of Cuzco has long been admired for its fine climate, though it is ten thousand feet above the level of the sea. Earthquakes are of frequent occurrence in the country, and have repeatedly been attended with the most disastrous consequences. The entire town of Callao, and the greater part of Lima, were destroyed by an earthquake, in 1746. Shocks are felt more or less powerful every year. Since 1746, there have been two destructive earthquakes, in 1806 and 182, and another is confidently predicted as being soon to take place, by those persons in Lima and Callao who are fond of relating marvels, and divining signs and wonders. Were Peru deprived of all beside, she would still have much to boast of, in the vast mineral wealth cpncealed be- neath the frowning buttresses of the Andes. For centuries she has poured forth an almost unbroken current of gold and 1839.] MINING. 137 silver, but the supply is not yet exhausted. Stories border- ing upon the marvellous have long been told in regard to these precious deposits, but though they have not, and will not be realized, they are not wholly fictitious."* Silver has always been the principal mineral obtained in Peru. The most productive mines of this metal now wrought, are at Cerro di Pasco. These were accidentally discovered in 1630, by an Indian shepherd, who was tending his flocks on a small pampa southeast of the lake of Llauricocha. Hav- ing wandered one day further from his hut than usual, he found himself, towards evening, in the vicinity of the Cerro de Santiestevan. After building a fire to protect him against the cold, he lay down to sleep. On awaking the following morning, he discovered that the stone underneath his fire had melted and turned to silver. The discovery was immediately made known to his master, who forthwith commenced active preparations for working the mines. Since that -time they have been constantly worked by a greater or less number of persons. One class of speculators has been eagerly followed by another class ; but few of them, however, owing to the want of thrift and proper management, have amassed any very considerable wealth. All the mine laborers are Indians. They consist of two classes, one working in the mines the year round, and re- ceiving regular wages from the proprietors of tiie mines, and the other making only temporary visits to Cerro di Pasco, when an unusual supply of the metal is procured. In the mines, also, the laborers are divided into two classes ; the barreteros, who break the ore, and the apires, who bring up the ore from the shaft. From fifty to seventy-five pounds of metal is the usual load of the apire ; this he carries up the shaft in an untanned hide, called a carpdcho. When the * At the commencement of the present century, the annual value of the gold and silver produced in Peru, was upwards of six millions of dollars. It is now between three and four millions. But about one thirtieth part of this amount ia gold. Great quantities of gold and silver are smuggled out of the country, the latter in the shape of pldta pina, or native silver. 138 MINERAL WEALTH. [1839. mines yield abundantly, the laborers receive a share of the ore instead of wages ; but at other times, the barretero is paid six reals per day, and the apire four. Mining at Cerro di Pasco, as well as at the other mines in Peru, is not managed with as little difficulty as in other countries, where improvements in science and the arts are so quickly employed to diminish labor and expense. One ad- vantage is possessed at the former place, by which a great saving is made : the mines are near a large coal bed which has recently been opened. Besides the mines at Cerro di Pasco, there are other rich mining districts in the provinces of Pataz, Huamanchuco, Caxamarca, and Hualgayoc. The mines of Cerro de San Fernando, in Hualgayoc, were discovered in 1771, and there are now more than, fourteen hundred bocaminas ; the veins of metal intersect each other in every direction; they are easily worked, and are very productive. The mines of Huan- tajaya, on the coast near Iquiqua,. were at one time consid- ered quite valuable, as they yielded, annually, about fifty-two thousand pounds of silver. The metal obtained was nearly pure, but it was soon exhausted.* In southern Peru, there are some rich mines, among which are those of San Antonio de Esquilache, Tamayos, Picotani, Cancharani, Chupicos, and Salcedo. Gold is obtained in Tarma, from the mines of Pataz and Huilies, and in the washings, on the banks of the upper Ama- zon. At Huancavelica there is one of the richest quicksilver mines in the world. Between 1570 and 1800, they yielded 537,000 quintals of the metal, and the annual product is now estimated at 18,000 quintals. Most of it is used for the pur- poses of amalgamation, at the silver mines. Besides the precious metals, Peru produces iron, copper, tin, coal, and saltpetre. (7.) Agriculture has never been in a prosperous state in Peru, and it is now languishing more than ever. None of * Two masses of native silver were found at Huantajaya, one weighing 225 pounds, and the other 890. 1839.] AGRICULTURE. 139 the inhabitants appear fond of moiling in the earth, and, in most cases, where the maize fields or gardens, exhibit more than ordinary luxuriance of vegetation, it must be attributed to the kindness of Nature, rather than to the industry of man. The implements of husbandry are rude enough. The plough is slightly made, has but one handle, and is constructed of wood, without a mould-board. The ploughshare is a thick iron blade, or piece of hard iron-wood, tied, when in use, to the point of the plough, by a strip of leather. There are no harrows ; but large, clumsy rakes, are used in place of them ; and, sometimes, a green bough with heavy stones laid upon it, is dragged over the sown ground, in the same manner as in Chili. Cane plantations are ploughed and cross-ploughed eight or ten times, and the earth is then broken down with the heel of a short handled hoe. The Indians use, for the same purpose, a flat round stone, with a long handle inserted in a hole perforated through the centre. Instead of the scythe, the sickle is used for cutting grass and grain ; and among the large planters, two or three per- sons are kept constantly employed in cutting lucern, or alfalfa^ for the cattle and working oxen which are confined at night in pens, or corrals. Potato grounds are turned up with long narrow spades. The same instrument is used for preparing the soil on the hillsides, for the reception of maize. The seed is planted in holes made by a sharp-pointed stick. The fields and gardens in Peru are principally inclosed within tapzaSj or mud fences, and hedges of maguey and the Indian fig. Considerable attention is paid to irrigation, with- out which a great portion of the land now yielding abun- dantly, would be wholly unproductive. Manure, however, is not deemed of much consequence. Quantities of guano are brought every year from the adjacent islands in the Paci- fic, but this is applied rather to horticultural, than to general agricultural purposes. Cotton, sugar cane, maize, and camotes, or sweet potatoes, are the principal products along the coast. The sweet pota- toes are of two kinds, the yellow and the violet ; they do 140 SUGAR AND MAIZE. [1839 not grow beyond the height of 3500 feet above the level of the sea. Cotton and maize are grown in almost every part of the country. The former ranks next to the Sea Island and Egyptian, in the English market, and, except in the province of Piura, is all short-stapled. Maize has formed, from time immemorial, the chief farinaceous food of the Peruvians. There are three sorts of this grain : the mdis morocho has small bright yellow or reddish brown kernels ; the mdis ama- rillo is large, shaped like a heart, solid and opaque ; and the third species, the mdis amarillo de chanyay, resembles the second variety, but is a square-shaped grain, semi-transparent, and having an elongated head. The maize stalks are from eight to nine feet high and bear very large ears. The sugar plantations lie on the sea-coast or along the banks of rivers, below the altitude of 4500 feet above the sea level, on the western declivity of the Andes, and extending as high as 6000 feet on the eastern declivity. In former times, the Creole, or West India cane, was the species most culti- vated ; but, latterly, the Otaheitan cane has been introduced, and the product is both more abundant in quantity, and much better in quality. The sugar mills are very rude structures. In the valley of Huanuco, which contains the largest and finest plantations, the cane is passed through wooden presses with brass rollers. These clumsy machines are called trapi- clies or igenios ; they are mostly worked by oxen or mules ; though, upon the largest plantations, water power is some- times employed, and steam-engines have recently, in a few instances, been put up. A portion of the expressed cane juice is distilled into rum, or used for making a liquor called gud- rapo; the remainder is boiled down into sirup, or simmered till it forms cakes (chancdcas) of brown sugar. From the latter, loaves of white sugar are made, by purification, which usually weigh about two arrobas* The Peruvian sugar exceeds the Havana in sweetness, but its color is not so pure, nor is its grain as fine. * The arrobain Spanish America, as in old Spain, contains twenty-five pounds avoirdupois. 1839.] YUCCA AND OTHER VEGETABLES. 141 Maize is likewise produced abundantly in the fertile moun- tain valleys, on the warm slopes of the Andes, and in the elevated Sierra. Wheat and other European cerealia are little cultivated, though they succeed admirably in the high lying sections of the country. Potatoes do not thrive very well near the coast, where both the climate and soil are un- favorable to their growth ; but on the high ridges and in the. elevated valleys, from seven to ten thousand feet above the level of the sea, they constitute a profitable and productive crop. A most agreeable and nutritive tuberous vegetable, called the aracdcha, grows in abundance on the coast. It resem- bles celery in flavor, and is either boiled or made into a soup. In favorable districts, two crops are obtained within the year. The yucca, or jatropha mani/iot, is another fine vegetable found almost everywhere below the elevation of 3000 feet. The stalks of this plant grow to the height of five or six feet, and are about the size of a finger. The roots, which are the edible parts, are from one to two feet long, and shaped like a turnip; the external skin. is tough, but internally they are pure white. In taste they resemble chestnuts. They are boiled in water and then laid in hot ashes, when they become quite mealy. Flour is prepared from them by the Indians, out of which the finest bread and biscuits are made. The yucca is propagated by cuttings from the stalk, which are placed obliquely in the earth. The roots are fit for use in five or six months. Nearly all the different kinds of pulse are raised on the coast, but beans flourish best in the hilly country. Cabbages and salads of every variety, tomatoes, and peppers, are pro- duced in all parts of Peru except in the very coldest sec- tions. Rice is also grown to a considerable extent. Of culi- nary vegetables there is a generous supply, as well in kind' as in quality, throughout the year. The vine is cultivated in some quarters to great advantage ; the grapes are exceed- ingly well-flavored, but the wine made from them is rather insipid. In the southern coastwise provinces, the olive tree 142 PLANTS OF THE SIERRA. [1839. is found. Its fruit resembles that of the Spanish olive, though the oil is by no means as good, probably on account of the defec- tive manner of expressing it. The olives are permitted to ripen thoroughly on the tree ; they are then gathered, sub- jected to a slight pressure, dried, and packed in small earthen jars. They are served at table with pieces of tomato and aji (Spanish pepper) laid upon them. Sometimes they are pre- served in salt water, when they remain plump and green, instead of becoming shrivelled and .black, as in the other pro- cess. The castor-oil plant grows wild in Peru,' and is culti- vated also on many plantations ; the oil, however, is not purified, but is used for the street lamps in Lima, and for greasing machinery. Another oil plant is the pinoncillo tree, which produces a fruit shaped like a bean, and, when roasted, having an agreeable flavor. One of the most nutritious, and one of the most important articles of food, in the Sierra, is the quinua, or quinoa. Its leaves, when green, are eaten like spinach ; but the most valuable parts of the plant are the seeds. These are boiled in milk or in broth, and are sometimes cooked with cheese. and Spanish pepper. They are highly prized by the Peru- vians, and most travellers commend their agreeable flavor. The dried stems of the quinua are also made use of as fuel. Besides the potato, there are three other tuberous plants cul- tivated with success in the Sierra. These are the ulluco, the oca, and the mashua. The ulluco is much smaller than tho potato, and varies in its form, being either round or oblong, straight or curved. The skin is thin and of a reddish yellow color ; the inside is green. When boiled, its flavor is nearly the same as that of the potato, yet it is much more savory when cooked as a piquante. In addition to the root, that part of the plant above the ground furnishes an agreeable and wholesome vegetable, something like the bean ; three crops of this green portion of the ulluco may be gathered in the same season.* * The ulluco has been cultivated with success in the gardens of the Luxem- bourg palace, and is regarded as a very good substitute for the potato. 1839.] ?RUITS. 143 The oca is an oval-shaped root ; the outer skin is a most delicate red, and inside it is white. It is watery when cooked, but has a sweetish taste. The mashua resembles the oca in this respect, though it is somewhat more insipid ; it is of a flat pyramidal shape, however, and its lower end terminates in a fibrous point. Lucern, or alfalfa, as. it is called by the natives, is the great article used for fodder. From the " sea-beat shore" of the Pacific, across the sunny slopes of the tierra caticnte, up the luxuriant valleys and gloomy quebrddas of the interior, to the rocky heights of the Sierra, eleven thousand feet above the level of the ocean, it is scattered lavishly around. It is cut from three to five times during the year, and, as may readily be presumed, furnishes an almost inexhaustible sup- ply of provender. The hot weather of the coast, in Febru- ary and March, and the keen frosts of the mountainous dis- tricts, occasionally dry it up, and the maisillo is then used in its stead. The most fastidious epicure would be delighted with the fruits which ripen in the fine climate, and on the rich soil, of Peru. Besides the vine and olive, the succulent pomegran- ate, famed for its " pleasant sweetness," the luscious plantain, the grateful and nutritious banana, and the juicy guava,* are found here in profusion. Apples and pears grow but in- differently ; and cherries, plums, and chestnuts, are likewise as inferior as they are rare. The absence of these produc- tions of temperate climes is more than made up, however, by the extensive groves of oranges, lemons, limes, nectarines, and granadillas, which occupy the warm mountain valleys even as high as ten thousand feet above the sea. Peaches and apricots, too, of the finest and most agreeable flavor, are abundant. In the months of April and May, excursions to the durazndles, or apricot-gardens, are all the rage. Melons * The fruit of the guava is yellow and smooth, and a little larger than a hen's egg. The pulp is flesh colored, and has a very agreeable aromatic taste. It is used at the dessert and made into a preserve. The jelly prepared from it is one of the finest conserves. 144 THE CHIRIMOYA. [1839. of every variety are raised on the coast, and in the woody districts. Of figs there are two kinds, the higos and the brevas. The pulp of the former is red, and that of the latter white. Fig-trees grow wild in every section of the country. No one thinks of drying the fruit, as the almost perpetual summer furnishes a constant succession of figs. The mulberry tree also flourishes without cultivation, but its fruit is so little esteemed in comparison with others more tempting to the appetite, that the birds are left to enjoy it with impunity. Quinces are rare on the coast, but are plentiful in the que- brddas. Among the other fruits are the patta, resembling the pear in shape, which dissolves like butter on the tongue, and has a not unpleasant bitter taste ; the tuna, the product of different varieties of cactus, which is almost the only indi- genous fruit in the Sierra ; the pacay, a white, soft and flaky substance, contained in the seed pods of the prosopis dulcis, which is extremely sweet ; the lucuma, a dry, fibrous, yel- low-colored fruit, inclosed with its kernel in a gray-brown husk ; the pepino, or Peruvian cucumber, a fruit produced by a small plant grown in the fields, the pulp of which is solid, juicy, and highly-flavored ; and the mani, or earth almond, an oily kernel contained in a shrivelled husk, which is roasted and crushed, and then eaten with sugar. Pine-apples are not much cultivated on the coast. They were formerly brought to Lima, in considerable abundance, from the Montana de Vitoc; but since the era of steam navi- gation on the Pacific coast, they have been brought, in much less time, from Guayaquil, and, consequently, they are gen- erally allowed to ripen before being cut. Cocoa palms are tolerably abundant in the northern provinces, and the date palm grows excellently well about Yea at the south. But the just pride and boast of the Peruvian, is the chiri- moya ; beyond question excelling all other tropical fruits in the delicacy of its flavor. The tree which produces this rich fruit is from fifteen to twenty feet high, and has a broad flat top. Its foliage is of a pale green color. In Lima and its 1839.J PERUVIAN BARK. 145 vicinity, the fruit is small, being scarcely larger than an orange ; but in Huanuco and other districts, where it is in- digenous, it attains to the greatest perfection, and often weighs sixteen pounds and upwards. It is of a roundish pyramidal or heart-shaped form, and unites with the stem at its broadest base. Externally it is green, and is covered with scaly knobs, and black marks resembling network. When it becomes perfectly ripe, black spots appear on the surface The skin is thick and tough, but, underneath this, there is a juicy, snowy- white fruit, containing a number of seeds, which is prized above all other delicacies by those who have once tasted it. Both the fruit and the flowers emit a fine fragrant odor that fairly intoxicates the senses. Cedar, ebony, mahogany, and walnut, are the most valua- ble forest trees. Numerous medicinal plants are obtained in the country, and the bark of the cinchona lancifolia, so well known under the name of Peruvian bark, forms an important article of export. The various species of cinchona grow spon- taneously in the forests of Peru. The tree resembles the cherry in appearance, and bears large clusters of red flowers. Its medical properties were discovered by the natives, and brought into use by the Jesuits, for which reason it was originally called Jesuits' bark. It takes its botanical name from the Countess del Chincon, the wife of a Spanish vice- roy, who was cured by it. The natives collect the bark from May till November. The trees are felled close to the roots, and then cut up. After the sticks have dried three or four days, the bark is peeled off in broad strips, which are imme- diately exposed to the heat of the sun. This causes them to roll up in a cylindrical form, the folds or coils being some- times so close that there is no cavity in the centre. The value of the bark depends mainly on the rapidity with which it is dried. The drying process being completed, it is packed in bales, each containing four or five arrobas, and exported in chests carefully inclosed in skins.* * It is comparatively but a few years since the French chemists, Messrs. Pel- letier and Caventou,made the discovery, that the medical properties of Peruvian 7 146 BALSAM OP PERU. [1839. Balsam of Peru is an important product, chiefly valued for the benzoic acid it contains, and also employed as a perfume. It is extracted from the myroxylon peruiferum, sometimes by incision, and sometimes by evaporating the decoction of the bark and branches of the tree. The first kind is very rare, and is exported in cocoa husks, from whence it is called balsam en cogue ; it is of a brown color, of the consistence of thick turpentine, and has an agreeable smell, but an acrid and bitter taste. The second kind is called the black balsam, and is quite common. It is of a deep reddish brown color, and is much more acrid and bitter, and has a stronger smell, than the other sort. The balsam of Peru always commands a high price, and is, therefore, frequently adulterated. A species of red thorn apple, (the datura sanguima) is found in the Sierra, from which a powerful narcotic drink, called tonga , is prepared by the Peruvian Indians. It pro- duces a heavy stupor, during the continuance of which the natives who make use of it fancy they can hold communica- tion with the spirits of their forefathers, and obtain from them a clew to the rich treasures said to be concealed in their graves, or hudcas. From this superstitious belief, the thorn- apple has obtained the name of hudca-cachu, or grave-plant, among the Indians. In the Puna there are large patches of ground covered with the ratanhia shrub (krameria triandria.) This is used by the Indians for fuel, and for roofing their huts. It is also a favorite remedy among them, for spitting blood and dysen- tery. The extract was formerly prepared in Peru, and ex- ported in large quantities to Europe, but latterly very little has been shipped. Warmed by a tropical sun, and blessed with a genial cli- mate, Peru exhibits a most magnificent flora during the greater part of the year. Blossoms and flowers constantly bark depended upon the presence of the valuable alkaloid known in pharmacy as quinine. It is said that the use of 90,000 ounces of the sulphate of quinine produced in France in a single year, obviated the necessity of swallowing at least 10,000,000 ounces of the bark. 1839.] COMMERCE. 147 alternate with each other. The great and mysterious agents of decay and reproduction are incessantly at work. If, at one moment, Nature seems to sicken and die, at the next, borrowing, as it were, renewed beauty, life and loveliness, from death itself, she springs forth again, like the Phenix from its funeral pyre. The fertile oases of the coast country are liberally sprinkled with tropical flowers, not more rich in color than agreeable in fragrance ; and even in the Sierra, amidst rushes, and mosses, and syngenesia, may be seen the purple gentian, the brown calceolaria, the echino and ananas cactus. The different varieties of cacti can scarcely be enumerated ; their Protean shapes and divers hues excite the wonder and admiration of the traveller ; and in many in- stances, where the vegetation is otherwise scant and sickly, they clothe the landscape in rare and beautiful apparel- ling. (8.) Peru not only carries on her own commerce through her seaports, but she is the great entrepot of the adjacent state of Bolivia.* The total value of Peruvian and Bolivian produce shipped through the ports of Peru, in 1837, amounted to near seven and a half millions of dollars. The principal articles of export were bark, bullion and copper ore, hides, seal skins, and vicuna, alpaca, and sheeps' wool. The im- ports for the same period were also about seven and a half millions. Two thirds of the imports, and rather more than that proportion of the exports, -belong to Peru alone. For the past ten years the foreign commerce has increased but slowly, and in some years has sensibly declined. Great Bri- tain enjoys by far the better part of the Peruvian trade ; the United States, in 1847, exported goods only to the amount of $227,537, and imported from Peru $396,223. Internal commerce languishes under the numerous disad- vantages which have long obstructed its successful prosecu- tion. In the days of the Incas, anterior to the Spanish con- quest, there were several great roads traversing the country, * Koliva has but one small seaport, that of Cobija, or La Mar. * 148 MANUFACTURES. [1839 which, aside from the bridges constructed of osiers, would compare favorably with the vias of ancient Rome, that " Time, and Goth, and Turk, have spared." In addition to these important and extensive thoroughfares, the remains of which, grand and imposing though in ruins, are still visible, various passes were cut in the steep para- mos, or mountain ridges, of the Andes. But the deplorable effects of the same want of spirit and energy, that, elsewhere in Peru, have suffered her morning splendor to be prematurely dimmed and overshadowed, may be witnessed here. The roads built by the rude and unlettered aborigines have fallen to decay under the auspices of their European masters ; and the passes excavated with so much labor and care, have dis- appeared beneath the debris washed down from the Cordil- leras. With a few exceptions in the neighborhood of the large cities, the roads laid out by the Spaniards are mere bridle tracks for horses or mules, and the gulleys and streams that cannot be crossed or forded, are passed by means of hang- ing bridges, in nine cases out of ten a very unsafe mode of transportation. Quite recently, laudable efforts have been made for the improvement of the roads, but the want of suit- able means of communication constitutes the chief drawback on internal commerce, and is a great obstacle in the way of social and commercial progress. But little can be said in commendation of the manufactur- ing industry of a country whose pedigree dates back so many hundred years. Lima can boast only of her mint, some smelting houses, and a glass house lately established. At Cuzco, cotton, linen, and woolen stuffs, and leather and parchment, are manufactured, in which considerable trade is carried on with the neighboring provinces. There are flour- ishing manufactures of woolens and cottons, and gold and silver cloths, at Arequipa ; and at Guamanga is made the fine 'filigree silver work for which inland Peru is celebrated. Coarse straw hats, and mats called petdtes, are manufactured at Huacho, and brought into Lima for sale. In Piura, cord- 1839.] BIRDS. 149 age for packing is prepared from the maguey, and at Tarma, loose cloaks, or ponchos, are made, of great beauty and firm- ness. In the Sierra, coarser and heavier blankets and pon- chos are manufactured by the Indians. In the lower districts, goat skins are made into cordovans ; cow hides into saddle- bags, and travelling cases for beds and bedding ; and rushes into mats and carpets. (9.) The bay of Callao abounds with the finest water-fowl. Humboldt's penguin, and the common gray penguin, are the most remarkable. There is another small species, called by the Peruvians the paxdro nino, or child-bird ; it is easily tamed, and follows its master like a dog, wacjdling along after him on its short legs and balancing itself wfth its wings. Among the other marine birds, are the banded cormorant; the iris, which changes throughout the whole circle in regular square spots of the most delicate white and sea-green; and the spotted gannet, and the inca tern. Of the land birds, the turkey, or red-headed vulture, is, perhaps, the most commonly seen on the coast, and in the interior the black gallinazo takes its place. There are some beautiful gold-feathered colibri in the country. A small bird about the size of the 'starling, of a deep blue color, and with a short curved bill, is called the horse-protector ; it is ex- tremely fond of perching on the back of the horse or ass and catching the flies and insects a kind of amusement which both the animal and bird enjoy with equal zest. The principal singing birds are the crowned fly-king, the red- bellied picho, the black chivillo, and the cuculi ; the picho and chivillo are of the starling species, and the cuculi is a pigeon. The most extravagant notions once prevailed respecting the size and strength of the condor, the king of Peruvian birds. A full grown condor measures from twelve to thirteen feet, from the tip of one wing to that of the other, and about five feet from the point of its beak to the extremity of its tail. It feeds chiefly on carrion. When hungry it is some- times extremely fierce, and will seize and carry off lambs 150 WILD ANIMALS. [1839 and the young of the llama and vicuna. It is unable, how- ever, to sustain a greater weight, when flying, than eight or ten pounds, and it is absurd to suppose, as has been frequently stated, that sheep and calves could be carried off by it. The Indians of the Sierra relate numerous instances of its attack- ing children, but their stories must be received with a great deal of allowance. The plumage of the condor is strong and thick, and forms a very good protection against fire-arms. It is usually caught by the natives, in traps or by the lasso ; or killed by the bolas, or by stones thrown from slings. Among the wild animals are the puma, or American lion, the ounce, a kind of tiger cat called the uturuncu, the tapir, and the hucumari, a black bear that inhabits the mountains. The anas, or skunk, and a singular kind of guinea pig. are found in the bushes. The red deer, the wild boar, and the tarush) or Puna stag, are the favorite objects of the chase. Armadillos, rock rabbits, chinchillos, and the venddo, a spe- cies of roe, are also caught in large quantities by the hunters. Of the amphibia, the iguana, the land agama, and the fresh water tortoise, are the most numerous. Alligators infest the streams, but noxious reptiles and insects, though occasionally found, are not as frequently met with as in many other coun- tries. Monkeys are abundant in the forests. Of far greater importance than the other native animals of Peru, are the llama, or South American camel, the alpaca, the guanaco, and the vicuna. Both the llama and alpaca are domesticated, and previously to the Spanish invasion they were the principal beasts of burden among the Peru- vians. The young llama is left with its dam for about a year, after which it is removed and placed with flocks. Wlien four years old, the males and females are separated ; the lat- ter being kept for breeding, and the former trained to carry burdens, principally in the silver mines of North Peru. They are usually made to carry about one hundred pounds each, as they are only capable of sustaining one hundred and twenty- five without injury, and if overloaded they will lie down, and utterly refuse to rise again till some part of the load is 1839.] LLAMA AND ALPACA". 151 removed. These animals will rapidly and safely ascend, or descend, the steep mountain sides, where the ass, or mule, cannot maintain its footing. They cannot well travel more than three or four leagues during the day, as they will not graze at night. The Indian drivers, or arrieros, are very fond of them, and often attach bows of ribbons to their ears, and hang bells round their necks. The llama is not used for riding or draught ; the Indian lads sometimes mount them, but this is very rare. The price of one of these animals, when full-grown, is from three to four dollars ; but in Cuzco and Ayacucho, where they most abound, they may be pur- chased in flocks for one and a half or two dollars per head. The flesh of the llama is spongy and of a disagreeable flavor. Its wool is used for making coarse cloths. The alpaca, or paco, whose wool enters into so many fabrics now commonly worn, is smaller than the llama, and but lit- tle larger than the common sheep, which it resembles in form. Its neck is longer than that of the sheep, and its head is much better proportioned. The fleece is from four to five inches long, and is beautifully soft. Its color is commonly white or black, but it is occasionally speckled. These animals are kept in flocks, in the elevated pastures, and are driven to the Indian huts or villages, only at shearing time. The wool is made into blankets and ponchos, and always commands a good price for exportation. They are very shy, but equally obstinate. It is almost impossible to separate one from the flock ; if the attempt is made, the alpaca will cast itself upon the ground, and neither punishment nor entreaty will avail in the least. If separated from its species when very young, it may be reared ; otherwise it soon dies, where it cannot escape to its companions. The guanaco is the largest of the family to which all these animals belong. It measures five feet from the bottom of the hoof to the top of the head, and resembles the llama very nearly in form, though its color is different, and its wool is shorter and coarser. Its neck, back, and thighs, are reddish- brown, and the under part of the body and breast, and the 152 GUANACO AND VICUNA. [1839. inner sides of the limbs, are of a dusky white. The face is of a dark gray color, and the lips of a pure white. The guanacos live in herds, from five to seven in number. If taken young they may easily be tamed, but it is with great difficulty that they are trained to carry burdens. Still more beautiful than either of the animals of which it is the co-genera, is the vicuna. In size it is between the llama and alpaca, but it has a longer and more slender neck than either. The crown of its head, the upper part of the neck, and the back and thighs, are of a reddish-yellow color, possessing so peculiar a hue that it is called by the natives color de vicuna. The lower part of the neck, and the inner parts of the limbs, are of a bright ochre, and the breast and belly are white. While the rainy season continues, the vicuna inhabits the ridges of the Cordillera, but does not venture up the rocky acclivities, as its hoofs are soft and ten- der, and better adapted to turfy ground. Like the guanaco, it lives in herds, consisting of from six to fifteen females and one male ; the latter is the leader and protector of the herd, and is as jealous of his companions as the Grand Turk of the beauties in his harem. Unlike the latter, however, the female vicunas exhibit the utmost fidelity and affection to their lord and master ; and if he be wounded, when pursued by the hunters, they will gather about him in a circle, uttering their shrill tones of lamentation, and suffer themselves to be cap- tured rather than desert him. This animal is principally caught in what the Indians call a cliacu; this consists of a circular inclosure surrounded by stakes connected by ropes or cords. The vicunas are driven into the chacu through an opening left for the purpose, and are prevented from leaping over the ropes by the fluttering of colored rags which the Indian women hang upon them. Thus secured, the animals are easily dispatched by the bolas. The flesh of the vicuna is more tender and better flavored than that of the llama. After a hunt the meat is divided among those engaged in it, and the skins are always set apart for the church. The price of a skin is four reals 1839.] DOMESTIC QUADRUPEDS. 153 Fine cloth and hats are made of the wool, which is soft, deli- cate, and curly. The vicunas can be tamed when young ; but when old they are intractable and malicious. Most of the domestic quadrupeds now used by the Peru- vians are descended from foreign stock. This is the case with the horse, the mule, the famous black cattle of the Sierra, the sheep and goats. The sheep were the .easiest acclimated, and have succeeded the best. On the great com- mons or pastures of the Puna, flocks may be seen containing many thousands, which are mostly coarse wooled. Few sheep are raised on the coast, and the markets of Lima and the seaport towns are mainly supplied with mutton from the interior. The fecundity of the sheep in Peru is remarkable. The farmer usually calculates on obtaining one hundred and fifty lambs from one hundred ewes, at a single yeaning. The ewes bear twice a year, also, generally in June and De- cember. Goats are common in Peru, and the province of Piura is especially famous for them. Great numbers of pigs are like- wise fattened for the markets; when from ten to sixteen months old, they sell readily at from six to nine dollars per head, if of a good breed. The cattle of Peru are, upon an average, as large as the generality of English, American, or Spanish breeds. The horses and mules are particularly fine. The former far ex- cel their Andalusian progenitors in grace and elegance of form, and in the rapidity and precision of their movements. The saddle horses trained for the Lima market are practiced in every art of the manege, and are highly esteemed by all competent judges. Ordinary horses and mules bring from forty to fifty dollars ; but the best mules raised in Piura, which is noted for its excellent breed, will often command two hundred and fifty dollars each. (10.) After spending about a month in making the neces- sary repairs, furnishing their outfits, and taking in stores, the Exploring Squadron completed its preparations for the pro- jected western cruise, on the 13th of July. At five o'clock 154 SAILING OP THE SQUADRON. [1839. in the afternoon of that day, the flag ship of the Expedition stood out to sea, having the whole squadron in company, with all canvas spread. The Relief directed her course tow- ards the Sandwich Islands, under orders to proceed thence to the United States, by way of the port of Sydney ; but the other vessels steered nearly due west from Callao. CHAPTER VII. (1.) The Paumotu Group. (2.) ClermontdeTonnerre. Unsuccessful An to Communicate with the Natives. Other Islands. (3.) Subsequent F rations. (4.) The Lagoons. Geology. (5.) Various Tlu-ories in r'-j the Origin of this Group. ((>.) Productions. (7.) Hirds and Aiu (8.) Population. Character. Dress. (9.) Habitations. Canoes. (1.) SKIRTING the Southern Oriental Ocean on the \v> > between the tenth degree of southern latitude and the Tropi< of Capricorn, is a group of low coral islands, sixty-five in number, which, though comparatively little known, form one of the most striking features of Polynesia, "the region," as the name imports, " of many islands." Different navigators visited this group previous to the Expedition under Captain Wilkes ; but their observations and reconnoissances were directed rather for hydrographical purposes, than with a view of making valuable contributions to physical geography and ethnology. There is another reason why the information ob- tained in regard to these islands has been so limited ; which is, that the crews of whalers have repeatedly stopped here, and so grossly maltreated the poor and inoffensive inhabitants, that it is with great difficulty they can be brought to have the least intercourse with the whites. This cluster was formerly designated on maps and charts, as the Low Archipelago ; but it is now known as the Pau- motu Group, or Cloud of Islands, the term applied to it by the natives themselves, and by the inhabitants of the Society Islands. (2.) It was with considerable reluctance that the officers and men of the Exploring Squadron bade adieu to the glo- rious climate and fertile soil of Peru ; yet the prospect of visiting the fairy islands towards which they were fast wend- 156 CLERMONT DE TONNERRE. [1839. . ing their way, soon compensated them for the absence of the oeautiful scenes they had witnessed, and they had not been out many days, ere they began anxiously to cast their eyes over the western waters, and to fancy they already felt the " gentle airs which breathed, Or seemed to breathe, fresh fragrance from the shore." On the afternoon of the 13th of August, they caught sight of the feathery shrubs cresting the surface of Clermont de Tonnerre, or Minerva Island. English navigators have given the latter name to this island, but the former, by which it is at this time more generally known, was bestowed upon it in 1823, by Captain Duperrey, of the French navy, in honor of his countryman, Count Clermont de Tonnerre, who fell a vic- tim to his opposition to the Jacobins, in 1793. On approach- ing the island, the boats were lowered, and some of the officers and scientific corps started to reconnoitre. Though obliged to swim through the strong surf, they succeeded in reaching the shore, and obtained a number of specimens of shells, plants, and coral. Several natives were discovered, but could not be induced to approach near enough to have any conver- sation with them. A second attempt to hold communication with the islanders, which proved equally fruitless, was made on the 14th instant, by means of one of the crew of the Vin- cennes, a New Zealander by birth, who spoke the Tahitian language. It being evident that further efforts, even if suc- cessful, would most likely lead to collisions with the natives, the island was surveyed, by stationing the vessels at inter- vals around it, and measuring base lines by means of guns fired at each station in quick succession, and noting the lapse of time between the flash and the report ; and the commander then issued orders for the squadron to get under way. From Clermont de Tonnerre, the squadron proceeded to Serle Island, further to the west and north, which was sur- veyed in like manner. They then continued on their north- westerly course, and on the 19th of August made Hennake, or Honden Island. On the 23rd instant, they reached the 1839.] OTHER ISLANDS OF THE GROUP. 157 Disappointment Islands, (Wytoohee and Otooho,) so named by Commodore Byron, who discovered them in 1765. The natives of these two islands appeared far more friendly than those seen at Clermont de Tonnerre ; yet they did not seem over anxious to cultivate an acquaintance with their visitors ; they were shy and timid, and manifested great fear lest their women, whom they had concealed, would be taken from them by violence. These islands having been surveyed, the squad- ron bore away for Raraka, one of the principal islands be- longing to the group. On the 29th instant, a small island, named King's Island, after the man at the mast-head, who first saw it, was dis- covered in latitude 15 42' 25" S., and longitude 144 38' 45" W. This is a small island, being only about four or five miles in circumference, and averaging one mile in width. The highest point on the island is not over twenty feet above the level of the sea. Springs of fresh water were found here ; cocoa-nuts were abundant ; and the soil appeared to be highly productive. No natives were seen, but there were indications- that the island had been recently visited by persons engaged in the pearl-fishery. Early in the morning of the 30th of August, they came up with Raraka Island, the inhabitants of which, though few in number, exhibited every feeling of kindness and friendship. The influence of the missionaries at the Society Islands has been extended hither, and a native missionary from Tahiti was found among them. Every opportunity was afforded to the commander of the American Expedition and his officers, to obtain the information they desired ; a few presents dis- tributed among the natives permanently secured their good will ; and a couple of sheep given to them by the purser, Mr. Waldron, elicited the warmest expressions of gratitude. Leaving Raraka towards sunset on the 31st of August, the squadron proceeded to Vincennes Island, called by the natives Kawahe, and from thence to Aratica, or CarlshofF Island, where they arrived in the morning of the 3rd of Sep- tember. Hogs and fowls were found on Aratica. There 158 ROUTE TO TAHITI. [1839. were large quantities of fish seen also in the lagoon. Cocoa- nuts and bread-fruit likewise appeared to be abundant. A large supply of very good water was procured by the squad- ron, from a deep pool near the lagoon ; after obtaining which, the vessels again got under way, with the intention of mak- ing King George's Group, to the northeast. This being found to be impracticable, without great loss of time, the tender was dispatched to survey the group, with directions to follow the squadron to Tahiti. Previous to this time, on the 1st of September, the Porpoise had parted company with the other vessels; she coasted along the south side of B-a- vaka Island, and then proceeded to Tahiti, the appointed place of rendezvous, where she arrived on the 9th instant, having taken, in her way, the islands of Katiu, or Sacken, Makima, Aratica, and Nairsa. The Vincennes and Peacock now bore further westward, and on the 5th instant made the island of Manhii the Watcr- landt of Schouten and Le Maire, so named by the former of those navigators, in allusion to a large pool of fresh water on the southwest side of the island. Having surveyed this island, they proceeded to Ahii Island, still further to the west, which was found to be uninhabited. The two vessels then separated ; the Peacock proceeding to Aratua Island, and thence around the southern side of Nairsa, or Dean's Island, the largest of the Paumotu Group, and the Vincen- nes steering directly for Nairsa, and then continuing her southerly course, by way of Metia Island, to Tahiti. (3.) All the islands visited by the squadron at this time were carefully examined and surveyed. Subsequently, in the winter of 18401, the Porpoise, in command of Lieutenant- Commandant Binggold, was again dispatched to this quarter, from the Sandwich Islands. She visited the principal islands which had been missed on the former occasion ; and while engaged in surveying, a small party, under Lieutenant John- son, landed on Aratica Island with boring instruments, in order to ascertain, if possible, with some precision, the geo- logical character of this extensive group. But the rainy sea- 1839,] THE LAGOONS. 159 son having already come on, the soil was found to be so saturated with water, that very little progress could be made in boring, after attaining a depth of twenty feet, and the project was abandoned without arriving at any satisfactory results. (4.) A remarkable peculiarity of the Paumotu Group, is the existence of large and deep tunnel-shaped lagoons, con- taining salt water, in the centre of most of the islands. Some- times these are entirely isolated from the surrounding ocean, and, at others, its waves break over the broken ramparts of coral which appear here and there above the surface of the water. Such of them as have their pretty little lakes com- pletely insulated, present a singularly picturesque appearance when viewed from the mast-head of a vessel. In the centre is the lagoon, " deeply, beautifully blue," neither disturbed oy the tempest whose sullen roar is heard amidst the neigh- boring breakers, nor ruffled by the tossing surge rolled lazily in upon the shore by the soft winds of the summer ; imme- diately around this, is a strip of earth, in some cases but a few, and in others several hundred yards, in width, covered with a vegetation varying with the character of the island, and either sparse or luxuriant, according to the nature and depth of the soil ; and further beyond, extending to the brink of the ocean, is a belt of white sand glistening like silver in the perpendicular rays of the tropical sun. Within is the blue turquoise, looking up to the bright heavens reflected from its polished surface ; about it, is a gorgeous setting of emeralds ; and the latter is, in turn, encircled by a rich chasing of argent. Most of the islands are of a curvilinear form, and, with the exception of Metia, which is a coral island uplifted, and sur- rounded by a bold coralline shelf, rarely exceed twenty or thirty feet in height. They are composed, at least near the surface, of corallites, conglomerates, and limestone, above which are coral debris, decayed vegetable matter, and guano, with coral blocks occasionally cropping-out. The bottoms and sides of the lagoons are lined with coral, and the shores, 160 GEOLOGICAL FORMATION. [1839. which are generally shelving, are likewise of the same for- mation. (5.) Various theories have been advanced in relation to the geology of this group. Some have supposed that the islands were entirely the work of the lithophyte ; but the better opinion seems to be, that they are the crests of submarine volcanoes, the ruins and bottoms of whose craters are overgrown with coral.* Captain Wilkes has based a very pretty theory on the result of his examinations, which has certainly the merit of originality, if not of ingenuity. He supposes that the coral islands of the Pacific originally composed a vast continent, the several portions of which have been separated from each other ; and that the borders of the islands, being less compact in some places than in others, have been torn asunder, the underlying strata carried off by the influx and efflux of the sea, and thus undermined, the central portions have caved in and formed the lagoons.t In support of this view, he lays great stress upon the facts, that the islands are evidently in a state of dissolution, produced, in the main, by the constant abrasion of the sea, and that there are comparatively few liv- ing polyps to be found. $ But assuming his own premises, and taking his own facts, although they may tend strongly to show that the islands could not be the work of zoophytes, they clearly do not prove the existence of a continent; on the contrary, the theory which he advances, appears to be left very much in the situa- tion of the central portions of the islands, without any under- lying strata to support it. It requires far less stretch of the imagination, to suppose these islets to have been thrown up separately, by volcanic agency, than that a whole continent was upheaved, with its superincumbent load of corallites. The position of the Paumotu Group, also, with regard to the currents of the Pacific, the conical form of the islands, and the existence of coral, in a living, or decomposing state, all * Lyell's Geology, Vol. III,p.226, et seq. t Narrative of the Exploring Expedition, Vol. IV, p. 268, et seq. ^ Narrative, ut supra. 1839.] PRODUCTIONS. 161 around them, and in the basins of the lagoons, show, conclu- sively, that the coralline substances must have been depos- ited, either by the animals themselves, or by the sea, since the upheaving of these submarine mountains. If this be so, why put the fancy to so severe a test, when a much sim- pler, more probable, and more rational explanation, is at hand ? (6.) The productions of these islands are not numerous. A species of short wiry grass, and low tropical shrubs, cover many of them, but on others there are trees from fifty to sixty feet high. Endogenous plants are the most frequently met with. The cocoa-nut (cocos nucifera), the bread-fruit, and the pandanus odoratissimus, are the most valuable trees. On the island of Anaa, the cocoa-nut is exceedingly abundant. Like the other palms, this tree is tall and straight, and from thirty to sixty feet in height. It has leaves only at the top, under which the nuts hang in bunches. Fresh blossoms ap- pear every four or five weeks, and there are generally ripe fruit, and newly opened flowers, on the tree at the same time. One tree will sometimes produce a hundred nuts within the year. There are few trees which furnish more useful pro- ducts to the islander. Besides the milk and kernel of the nut, whose nutritive qualities are so well known, the woody shell of the trunk, when old enough to be tough and durable, is employed in building huts and canoes ; the leaves are used for thatching and ceiling houses, and for making baskets and wicker-work ; and of the fibres of the nut, twine and sennit, and even strong ropes and cables, are twisted, which last longer in salt water than those made of hemp. Pisonias, tournefortias, euphorbias, and apapas. are found on the islands. Hibiscus tiliacm, bamboo, and wild cane, are likewise common. Among the principal roots are the taro, (arum esculentum,) and the sweet potato, the latter probably introduced by the Spaniards. The leaves of the taro resemble those of the water-lily : the roots, which are large, thick, and oblong, are baked and eaten by the natives, and a favorite paste, called po'e^ is also made of them. Mel- 162 BIRDS AND ANIMALS. [1839 ons, yams, and tobacco, are more rare than other products, but they thrive excellently well where they have been intro- duced. (7.) Pigs and fowls are the only domesticated birds or animals, except the sheep recently introduced, on which the inhabitants rely for food ; and these are alone found upon those islands to which the influence of the Tahitian mission- aries has extended. Fish are plentiful in the lagoons, and are principally caught in pens into which they are driven ; latterly, however, nets woven of cocoa-nut fibres have been used for the purpose of taking them. Cetaceous animals of all kinds abound in the vicinity of the islands. Aquatic birds of almost every species are equally numerous, and some of the uninhabited islets are perfect rookeries. Among the sea-fowl, the frigate and the tropic bird, the gannet, and the sooty tern, are the most important. Crabs and snakes to the former of which the natives are especially partial exist in great numbers. The pearl oyster is tolerably abundant in the lagoons, and the fishery promises at no distant day to be quite valuable. Quantities of biche de mer, or the sea-slug, are also obtained on the rocks ; and this may, in like manner, ultimately prove an important arti- cle of commerce. (8.) It is difficult to form any precise estimate of the pop- ulation of the Paumotu Group. It can scarcely exceed ten thousand, and very likely may not be over eight. Full on quality; the finer varieties being equal to the best Spanis! and averaging two and a half pounds to each animal. Shee are apt to stray, as well as the horned cattle, though the are kept in flocks, and watched by shepherds, either native or convicts ; but they do not return to a wild state, as the are soon cut off by the ferocious dingo, or native dog. Reptiles are abundant. There are twenty- three know genera, twenty-one of which are peculiar to this countn There are two or three varieties of turtles, and about th same number of alligators. Lizards and snakes are nume ous, and some of them are exceedingly venomous. The laii lizards, or guanas, and the crimson-sided snake, are of ex traordinary beauty, but their bite is deadly. The black, th diamond, and the whip snake, and the deaf adder, are als poisonous ; and as it is not easy to distinguish them whei curled up amid the tufts of grass, it is sometimes dangerou to frequent the places where they abound, on foot. Sanu leeches, or blood-suckers, are quite common, and are muel dreaded on account of their bite, as the wound always ulcer- ates, and is very painful. The bays and inlets along the Australian coast, and th adjacent islands, are favorite places of resort for cetaceon- animals ; and the whale fishery is annually increasing in im- portance. All the surrounding waters and the rivers aboun J in fish. The largest of the edible varieties is said to be th river perch, or rock, specimens of which have been taken in the Murray and Morrumbidgee rivers, weighing from one hundred to one hundred and twenty pounds. Besides thi> species, there are barracoota, native salmon, flat-head, trum- peter, crawfish, rock oysters, muscles, and cockles, all in great plenty. Sharks, of different varieties, are numerous along the shores, and are frequently found a great distance up the riwrs. The smallest of the species is called Watts' shark, ami is remarkable for having the mouth near the extremity 248 ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS. [1839 of the head, and not underneath, as is the case with the other varieties. Insects are also found in considerable numbers, yet they do not, differ essentially from those found in other countries simi- larly situated. Flies, spiders, cockroaches, chintz, and mus- quitoes, abound. Of ants, there are many varieties, and of different colors and sizes. Some of them are as large as wasps, and have visible stings ; and nearly all the kinds are said to be poisonous. (6.) Mr. Crawfurd insists that the East insular negro is a distinct, and decidedly inferior variety of the human race ;* and so far as the native Australian is concerned, his many peculiarities afford strong reasons for separating him from the African Ethiop, whom he resembles more nearly than any other species. He is by nature stupid, and puny and weak in person. Both in his physical character, and in his moral and intellectual attainments, he bears the impress of inferiority. His average stature barely exceeds five feet. He has a higher forehead, and a thicker skull than the Afri- can negro, and his nose is not so much depressed ; but his jaws advance still more boldly, and his buttocks are consid- erably lower. His chest and shoulders are slenderly built, yet the abdomen is quite prominent. The muscles are not very powerfully developed, though he is remarkable for his agility. The complexion of. the aborigines is chocolate colored, or a tint between the sooty black of the African, and the clear olive of the Malay. Their lips are not unusually thick, and their teeth are white and even. Their eyes are small, black, and deep set. Their hair is long and black, generally straight, but sometimes slightly curled : it is commonly cropped short, but almost always matted and filthy, though without grease, and free from vermin. The beards of the males are thick and bushy, but are not suffered to grow long. They be- smear their bodies with fat or oil, when it can be procured, * History of th Indian Archipelago, Vol. I. p. 24 1839.] CHARACTER. 249 and red ochre, black paint, or soot. Sometimes, also, they scarify their breasts and shoulders, which gives them an ex- tremely unpleasant appearance. Their voices sound like the cackling of geese ; and they jabber away so rapidly, and in such a confused lurry, that it is almost impossible to distin- guish words, or articulations, so as to comprehend their meaning. They have various dialects among them, which differ from any other language in the world, though approx- imating the most nearly to that of the Indians of South America. In regard to character, they are said to be treacherous and deceitful, though naturally proud and independent. They are timid, and silent and reserved in disposition. Being al- most entirely ignorant of the distinction between meum and tuum, they are consequently arrant thieves. Of agriculture, or arts, or manufactures, except the construction of rude huts, and a few arms and implements, they are utterly ignorant. Placed by their Creator in an inhospitable climate, and on an unfriendly soil, they seem to have no desire to better their con- dition. To care they are strangers, and their wants are but few. If the necessities of to-day are supplied, they are con- tent, and leave, to-morrow to take care of itself. Since the settlement of the country by the English colonists, great pains have been taken to ameliorate their situation ; missionaries have been sent among them, and other means liberally em- ployed, but the results have not been very flattering. Some of their habits have been changed, and, perhaps, they are not as ferocious and murderously inclined as they once were ; yet their minds do not seem to be susceptible of improvement ; and no excitement can remove the natural sluggishness of their temperaments, and the inertness of their faculties. Lat- terly, too, they have contracted many of the pernicious hab- its and appetites of the whites, and have become much ad- dicted to the use of intoxicating drinks. It is not strange, therefore, that they are dwindling away as a people ; for, like the North American Indian, it seems to be their destiny, to 11* 250 HUTS AND WEAPONS. 1839.] give place to the fairer, and more highly gifted races, who are gradually supplanting them.* (7.) The native huts are of the simplest and rudest charac- ter, consisting merely of a few pieces of bark, inclined against a pole laid horizontally across a couple of forked sticks, which are driven into the ground. They sleep on dried herbs or grass, and cover themselves with kangaroo skins. In the warmer latitudes, it is not often that they construct a hut, or provide any protection against the weather. Originally, they went entirely naked, but since their intercourse with the Europe- ans, many of them clothe themselves with kangaroo skins, and wear caps made of the bark of trees. Those in the im- mediate vicinity of the settlements array their persons in the rast-off clothing of the whites. Considerable skill is displayed in the construction of their implements and weapons. They make hooks, and spears, the latter usually three pronged, for fishing; and they have, also, stone hatchets. Their weapons consist of a spear, or javelin, ten feet long, made of cane or other wood ; a club, called nulla-nulla, made of ti wood, and about three feet in length ; the dundumel, or tomahawk ; the bundi ; and the boomereng. They have likewise shields, made of the thick bark of the eucalypti, which, though small, with their agility and quick- ness of eye, are sufficient to protect the whole body against the missiles of an enemy. Their spears are slender, and ta- per gradually to the barbed point : they are thrown with the wammera, a straight flat stick, three feet long, with a socket of bone or hide at the extremity, in which the heel of the spear is -placed. The wammera is firmly grasped by three fingers of the right hand, and the spear steadied between the forefinger and the thumb, till the thrower is prepared to hurl it. Such is their dexterity in the use of this weapon, that a native is a dangerous neighbor, particularly if he cherishes * The number of native inhabitants of Australia was computed, at the time of its discovery, to be about 200,000 ; but it is now rated at 60,000, and this is supposed to be an over estimate. It is certain, however, that the aboriginal popu- lation is diminishing. 1839.] CANOES. 251 anv enmity . he will crawl through the tall grass like a American savage, and his aim is deadly, and his spear strike far. The boomereng is the most singular offensive implemei in use among the Australians. It is made of tough and ha> wood, about three feet long, two inches wide, and three qua: ters of an inch thick. It is curved or crooked at the centr e-o as to form an obtuse angle, and sharpened at the end.- When hurled by a skilful hand, it rises with a rotatory motif > ; in the air, strikes at a great distance, and then returns tu within a few feet of the thrower ; or if thrown upon th ground, it rebounds in a straight line, and ricochets along till it reaches the thing aimed at. It is useful in hitting one ob- ject concealed behind another, and it may also be thrown with the back of the thrower turned towards the mark. It is ern ployed by the natives in hunting, as well as in war. Rude canoes, fourteen feet long, and three feet wide, aiv made by the natives from the bark of the gum tree. For this purpose the tree is girdled, and a piece of bark, of th< proper size and dimensions, is stripped off; this is folded in at either end, and fastened together with cords made of the fibres of the bark, or wooden pins. The canoe is then com- pleted, and though not very strong, answers their purpose in coasting along the shores within the surf, or ferrying across the creeks and rivers. It is customary among them, as with the Fuegians, to build fires in the bottom of their canoes, on layers of earth or clay. They are not great eaters, nor are they fastidious in their diet. Hunger is appeased by the spontaneous products of the soil, such as roots and berries, and the shell fish found on the sea shore, with reptiles, insects, and their larvae. They sometimes kill a bird or kangaroo, or find one dead ; in either case it is greedily devoured. The latter has become so scarce, that young men are forbidden to eat it. The great quantities of wild cattle now roaming at large over the plains and through the valleys of Australia, might afford a great deal of sustenance to the natives, and contribute much to 252 CUSTOMS. [1839 their comfort ; but they seem wholly unable to profit by this streak of good fortune. Of government they have little or no knowledge. They have chiefs among them, but the distinction is merely nomi- nal, and the respect paid to them is only personal. Their habits are gregarious, rather than social. They live together in families, or tribes, holding everything in common except their women, and rove about from one place to another, usually confining themselves to a circuit of fifty or sixty miles in extent. Frequent conflicts take place between the rival tribes, and encounters between individuals are not of rare occurrence. The former are not very bloody ; neither are the latter, except when the feelings of the parties are very much embittered, or the injury sought to be avenged is es- teemed of a very grave character. They have a sort of duel, frequently resorted to for the redress of personal affronts, which, though not in accordance with the code of honor, is certainly less harmless than pistols at ten paces : The challenged party offers his head, with the crown uppermost, to the challenger, who strikes him a blow with a waddy, sufficient to drive in the skull of a white man. The other party then returns the compliment, and thus they continue alternately striking each other, till one or the other is satisfied. Women are considered and treated in the same manner as goods and chattels. They are sold or given away by their friends, without consulting their inclinations or wishes. The natural consequence is, that all the finer affections are blunt- ed, and parental tenderness, and filial love, are almost un- known among them. Polygamy is commonly practiced ; but the men are exceedingly jealous, and infidelity is punished with great severity. When the boys arrive at the age of puberty, they are " made into young men," as the settlers say, after a strange fashion. An evening or two previous to the time appointed for the ceremony, a dismal wailing cry is heard in the woods, pro- ceeding from some of the old men of the tribe or family, which the lads are told is the voice of the Bulu, or spirit that 1839.] RELIGIOUS BELIEF. 253 watches over the destinies of young men, calling upon them. They then proceed with their elders to some secluded spot, where each one has a front tooth knocked out, and is obliged to submit to other inflictions calculated to test his courage, fortitude, and powers of endurance. The ceremony differs among the different tribes, and in the interior it is said that the teeth are not knocked out. After their initiation, the now young men are restricted in their diet, and are never al- lowed to speak to or approach a female till their marriage. Though reserved in their dispositions, the natives have their amusements, the principal one of which is the corrobory, a sort of dance, in which the performers bedaub themselves with pipe clay, and go through a series of saltatory motions, neither very easy or graceful, round a large fire, with a monotonous accompaniment chanted by themselves, and beaten by the spectators upon their shields. They bury their dead in mounds, constructed with great skill and taste, which resemble the barrows of the ancient Celts. Like that people, too, the corpse is disposed with the head towards the east ; though the limbs are doubled back, so that the soles of the feet touch the crown of the head. Comparatively little is known in regard to the supersti- tions of the natives. Either from their natural timidity, or from a fear that it would be improper to communicate the information sought, they appear unwilling to talk on the sub- ject of their religion. No adults have yet embraced Christian- ity ; consequently, that means of obtaining intelligence, has not been possessed by the missionaries, and others who have directed their attention to this subject. None of the tribes appear to have a just idea of God ; and when his character and attributes are explained to them, they seem unable to comprehend what is said. They have some indistinct notions (jf a Deity, or Supreme Being, called Bai-a-mai, whom, with his son Burambin, they regard as the creator of all things. According to their superstitious belief, Bai-a-mai resides on an island beyond the sea, and lives upon fish, which come up out of the water at his call. Bahnnbah are white angels, SUPERSTITIONS. [1839 who live a great way off, on a high mountain to the south- west, and feed on honey. They also believe in an evil spirit, or devil, called Wandong, or Metagong. They have no definite idea concerning a future state of rewards and punishments. After death, they suppose the spirit, or goor-de-mit, is conveyed through the bosom of the ocean to some distant land, in which it then takes up its residence. As he is obliged to pass through so much water, the deceased person, as they suppose, is washed white : hence, they deem the whites the returned spirits of theii ancestors and friends. The Malays and Lascars are also regarded as returned spirits, but on account of their bad conduct they have been left black. The night-bird, or cuckoo, which the natives call pogo- mit, is considered by them as the cause of boils and erup- tions, which it produces by piercing them, when asleep, with its beak. They have, also, a great dread of sharks ; and a fabulous aquatic monster, termed waugal, which they represent as having long arms, long teeth, and large eyes, and inhabiting the depths of the ocean, is regarded with simi- lar emotions. Certain round stones found along the coast they believe to be the eggs of the waugal, and when they discover one of them, they always stop, and make a bed for it, of leaves ; believing that by thus treating them with care and veneration, they will be spared by the monster, which is said sometimes to devour great numbers of the inhabitants. In sorcery and enchantment they are firm believers, and there are persons among them, who are supposed to possess the power of curing many of the ills that flesh is heir to, of healing wounds and sores, and of dooming or devoting those who fall under their displeasure to sudden death. If a fire be lighted at night, or stirred with a crooked stick, it is thought that some young child will immediately die. It is considered ominous of ill, to burn the blood of a wounded person ; to eat the flower of the honeysuckle too soon ; or to sleep on the spot where the blood of a relative has been shed, 1839.] COLONIZATION OF AUSTRALIA. 255 until a victim has been sacrificed to appease the shade of the deceased. There are some hills, to pass over which, as they fancy, is certain death. They have quite a beautiful superstition in regard to sleep : when a person is in a slumber, they say he is away " over the water," meaning thereby, that his spirit or mind has returned to the country from which he came, to revisit the scenes of his nativity. With respect to their own origin, they suppose that their earliest progenitors either sprung from emus, or were brought to the country they now inhabit, on the backs of crows. Of conception they have a singular idea ; believing that the infant is con- veyed into the mother's womb, by a secret and unknown agency, from some place across the sea. (8.) In May, 1787, the first British colony, for the estab- lishment of a proposed penal settlement in Australia, was sent out from England, under Captain Phillip, the person selected for the office of governor. The Expedition con- sisted of eleven vessels, conveying, besides their complement of seamen, two hundred marines, and seven hundred and seventy-six convicts. They first landed at Botany Bay ; but becoming satisfied that the adjacent country was barren and unprofitable, the governor sailed for Port Jackson, and on the 26th of January, 1788, laid the foundation of Sydney, the future capital of New South Wales. For the first twenty -five years after its establishment, the colony was nothing more than a work-house or penitentiary, constructed on an isolated spot, in a defective and costly manner, and altogether too remote from the supervision of the home government. Subordinate settlements were soon attempted at Paramatta and Norfolk Island. The former was eventually successful, but the latter failed, though the attempt has been since renewed, under more favorable aus- pices, with complete success. A number of voluntary im- migrants now arrived, but they were of dissolute habits, and, with the discharged convicts, formed a population not very well calculated to build up a new colony. At length a 256 DIFFICULTIES AND CHANGES. [1839. regiment of troops destined for service in New South Wales, was raised in England, and subsequently recruited from there. The officers' commissions were sold to dissipated adventurers, and the men placed under their command were little better than convicts in character and habits. Governor Phillip had hitherto manfully contended against numerous difficulties ; but on the arrival of this regiment, in 1791, the embarrassments of his position were increased in a tenfold degree. The officers set at defiance the civil authority, and organized a separate faction ; and having secured the mono- poly of the trade in Sydney, they encouraged the use of ardent spirits, and in that way exercised a most pernicious influence. Utterly despairing of accomplishing any good by remain- ing at his post, the governor resigned his office in 1792. He was succeeded by Governor Hunter in 1795, who founded Castlehill, Bankstown, and Windsor. He, too, was unable, with the powers at his command, to repress the disorders and excesses in the colony, which daily grew more outrageous, wherefore he also resigned. Captain King was then appoint- ed to succeed him, in 1800. He likewise sooii resigned, and was followed, in 1806, by Captain Bligh, who first attempted to resist the military : but a rebellion ensuing, headed by Captain M'Arthur, he was seized by the insurgents, and sent as a prisoner to Europe. Governor Macquarrie was then sent out, in 1810, and continued at the head of affairs till 1822. During his administration, the refractory and turbulent leaders of the military combination were effectu- ally put down, and law and order in great part restored. Settlements were established on every side ; roads were con- structed between the principal towns ; and measures taken to develop the resources ">f the country, and ensure its con- tinued advance in prosperity. Under the administrations of the subsequent governors, Brisbane, Darling, Bourke, and Gipps, the affairs, of the colonies in Australia have grown more and more promising, till now nothing short of a miracle could retard them in their successful career. 1.839.] ENCOURAGEMENT OF IMMIGRATION* 257 The establishment of the colony of New South Wales, was neither easily nor cheaply effected. From 1788 to 1815, in- elusive, the expenses of the colony were nearly three and a half million pounds sterling. The annual cost of maintain- ing each convict, during the same period, was upwards of thirty pounds, while his earnings did not exceed twenty. The cost of transporting the convicts, from England to the colony, was about thirty-seven pounds sterling per head, and it was computed that nearly one-tenth died on the passage out. Various propositions of reform in these particulars were suggested ; and, after some delay, improvements were introduced into the system, which secured the better health of the convicts, and greater economy in the 'ad ministration of the fiscal affairs of the colonies. The increase of population, too, did not keep pace with the expectations of English legislators, and vessels were freighted with abandoned females, fresh from the purlieus of St. Giles, designed as wives for the male convicts. Of course, every cargo was taken up as soon as landed : all were promptly secured, for better or worse, and pretty surely the latter. It could hardly have been expected that a career of lewdness and vice would have fitted them for being chaste wives, and affectionate mothers; inasmuch as personal vanity, and the rum and gin shops of Sydney, were ready to allure them back to their old habits. Doubts have, therefore, been entertained, whether this step operated beneficially so far as regards the morals of the colonists. Still there are as many arguments on one side as the other. The convicts were, no doubt, better contented ; and some of them, with their wives, became thrifty and industrious, and made quite decent members of society. Encouragement was also offered to the emigration of per- sons of respectable character and standing. A large tract of land was given, gratis, to every man going to New South Wales with his family : after his arrival, he was allowed as many servants as he might require, from among the convicts, at a very low rate of wages ; and he and his family were 258 SUBORDINATE COLONIES. [1839 victualled for six months, at the expense of government, all points, said Sydney Smith, worthy of serious attention, to those who were " shedding their country." In 1839 and 1840, there was a great deal of speculation in the government lands in Australia, and the sales in New South Wales exceeded, for the two years, three hundred and forty thousand acres. When the reaction took place, a gen- eral depression of business followed ; the sales for 1841 were less than sixteen thousand acres ; and a check was therefore given to emigration. The whole number of immigrants -that arrived in the Australian colonies in 1841, was 28,721 ; and in 1842 there were only 5,740. Since that time, however, business has revived ; and every year witnesses the arrival of great numbers of immigrants, who locate themselves on the unoccupied lands, of which there are still immense tracts, in the interior. A penal colony was established on Van Diemen's Land in 1803, which is subordinate to that of New South Wales, and is under the charge of a lieutenant governor. Until 1813, it continued to be merely a place of transportation from the mother colony, but since that time it has gradually taken the place of the latter as a penal settlement, and con- victs are now sent thither direct from England. This settle- ment, though requiring an enormous outlay for its establish- ment, has advanced more rapidly in prosperity than New South Wales, and is destined to become of great importance. The other settlements on the main continent, besides New South Wales, were formed by voluntary immigrants, and not by convicts. The proximity of northern, or tropical Australia, to China and the Indian Archipelago, pointed it out as a proper site for a colony many years ago ; and attempts were made, with that object in view, as early as 1824. But the difficulties encountered led to the abandonment of the project, and in 1829 the foundation of a colony on the Swan river, at the foot of the Darling range, now known as West Australia, was laid, by commencing the construction of three towns Guilford, Freeman Ue, and Perth the last of which 1839.] GOVERNMENT. 259 was made the seat of government. In 1834, a settlement was formed on Vincent's Gulf, called South Australia, under the patronage of a joint stock association constituted in Eng- land, to whom the management of the affairs of the colony was intrusted. The association had the power of disposing of the unappropriated lands within the colonial limits, on condition that the proceeds should be devoted, in the first in- stance, to replacing the outlay incurred on the original estab- lishment of the colony, and then to be applied for the com- mon benefit of the inhabitants. It was further stipulated, that the colony should remain under the immediate su- perintendence of the crown, the governor appointed by whom was also to be the agent of the company, till the population should reach fifty thousand, when a representative legislature might be organized. This colony enjoyed a large share of prosperity for several years ; the price of land, in March, 1836, rose as high as a pound sterling per acre ; and by the 1st of January, 1838, 64,358 acres had been sold. But a period of severe financial embarrassment now folio wed; in 1841, the land sales amounted to only three hundred and twenty acres ; and in 1842, there were less than one hun- dred and fifty immigrants arrived. Still, this colony pos- sesses many of the elements of wealth ; it contains some of the finest pasture lands in Australia, and there are nearly half a million of sheep, many of which are merinos, now owned by its inhabitants. In 1838, a new colony was established to the south-east of New South Wales, to which it was annexed, and received the name of Port Phillip. This settlement lies in the region known as Australia Felix, one of the most delightful and productive tracts of country, as may be inferred from the appellation bestowed upon it, in all Australia. In the course of the previous year, it was, by some means, understood, that the French government were preparing an expedition to form a settlement in northern Australia. They were antici- pated, however, by the English authorities ; who, in 1838, dispatched a number of persons, and an armed force, to estab- 260 POPULATION. [1839. lish a colony and military post, at Port Essington, on the Coburg peninsula. The situation fixed upon for the settle- ment is a favorable one in a military aspect, and well located for a commercial emporium, though there is not, in its im- mediate neighborhood, a sufficient extent of soil for an agri- cultural or pastoral colony. According to a census taken in 1841, the population of New South Wales, including Port Phillip, amounted to 87,298 males, and 43,558 females, making, in all, 130,856, double the number seven years previous. In this computa- tion were included 26,977 convicts. The population of West Australia, at that time, was supposed to be about three thou- sand, and the white settlers of the two other colonies proba- bly amounted to about fifteen thousand. The executive power in the colony of New South Wales resides in a governor, who is assisted by a council consisting of the highest officers of government. He also shares the legislative power with a council, composed of private individ- uals appointed from among the principal settlers and mer- chants, and persons elected as representatives by the people, constituting altogether a sort of colonial assembly. Both councils are appointed by the king. Every new law is pro- posed by the governor, who, after submitting it to the chief justice, to obtain his opinion whether or not it contains any- thing contrary to the law of England, lays it before the leg- islative assembly. If they approve of the bill, it must be trans- mitted to the home government and laid before the British Parliament within six months. The sovereign may inter- pose his, or her veto, at any time within three years. This tedious process of legislation has naturally created discontent, and elicited frequent murmurs among a people unusually firm in their loyalty, and devoted in their attachment to the " fast-anchored isle." They are now making strenuous ex- ertions to obtain a colonial parliament, and it is to be hoped their wishes will be regarded ; for when we consider the im- mense distance, about twelve thousand miles, that separates them from the home government, it seems as unjust as it is 1839.] COLONIAL LIFE. 261 absurd, to continue their present state of dependence on a power so remote. The judicial power of the colony is vested in a chief jus- tice, and two assistant judges, who try all cases, both crimi- nal and civil. In criminal actions, which mostly arise among the convicts, a jury consisting of seven naval and military officers, selected by the governor, is associated with one of the judges. The party on trial has the right of challenge, however, and the judge decides all questions that may arise in relation thereto. Civil causes are tried before one of the judges, and two assessors, who must be magistrates of the colony, unless the parties mutually consent to have a jury of twelve men, when the proceedings are conducted pretty much in the same manner as in the English courts. An appeal lies to the governor, in all cases where the amount in contro- versy exceeds five hundred pounds, and, where a judgment has been reversed, or the amount in litigation exceeds two thousand pounds, to the king in council. Similar powers are possessed by the executive officers in the other colonies, and the legislative and judicial depart- ments are constituted in like manner, and exercise their func- tions in nearly the same way. An Englishman may well be pardoned for being proud of these colonial establishments of his country. They are stu- pendous monuments, more enduring than marble or brass, of the greatness and power of his native land. The penal settlements, founded at such an enormous outlay, afford un- mistakable evidences of her wealth ; and the prosperous con- dition of the colonists, declares, in eloquent terms, the all- conquering industry and indomitable perseverance of the race to which they belong. There is, in all this, much to excite feelings of pride ; and he who manifests them, does but justice to the nature God has planted within him. (9.) Colonial life is the same in Australia as in the other possessions of England, of a similar character. In the towns situate in those colonies which are not penal, there are no pe- culiarities observable, that seem to require particular mention j 262 MANNERS. [1839. and were it not for the presence of the convicts, the same might be said of those in the penal settlements. At Sydney, and other places in New South Wales, the government offi- cers, and the wealthier inhabitants who have never been con- victs, constitute the aristocracy, and are called exclusionists ; the commonalty is composed of the liberated convicts, or eman- cipationists ; and lowest in the scale, are the convicts them- selves, on whom rests heavily the ban of social outlawry Each class looks with contempt on that beneath it ; and each, in turn, although there may be some little friendliness of feeling between the emancipationists and convicts, regard with hatred that which is placed above it. The aristocracy are as exclusive in the bestowal of their favor and preference as the lady patronesses of Almack's ; and the liberated con- victs and their families are not admitted into their society, even though the wealth of Croesus may be theirs, the sins of the fathers being literally visited on the children, even to the third and fourth generations. The native born sons and daughters of the emancipationists, too, are very reluctant to associate with, or marry, liberated convicts. In the interior, there is, of necessity, a more intimate fusion of the mixed classes composing the society, and, consequently, the prejudice of caste is not so great, nor so strongly marked. The Australian farmer, or grazier, resembles his prototype in the old country, and grumbles as incessantly, over his glass of poor gin or rum, about the bad weather, the bad crops, and the bad government, as does the other, over his pot of brown stout or humming ale. Balls, fetes, and dinner parties, are, of course, of frequent occurrence at Sydney, and the other large towns. All those who possess the necessary means, ape the manners of Bond street ; and the fashions are mere copies, with an interval of twelve months, of those of the Rue St. Honore and Picca- dilly. Some articles of dress, however, are more in accord- ance with tropical fashions ; and broad-leafed Panama hats, and white linen jackets and trowsers, are commonly worn in warm weather. 1839.] DWELLING-HOUSES. 263 A most commendable interest is manifested in the estab- lishment of schools, colleges, and literary and benevolent so- cieties ; and government has liberally extended to them her fostering care and patronage. As early as 1817, one eighth of the revenue of the colony was set apart for educational purposes. Large tracts of land were also given to female or- phan schools, and a portion, consisting of fifty or a hundred acres, allotted to each orphan. Schools were likewise founded for the civilization and education of the natives, and funds provided for sending missionaries among them. In 1838, the number of scholars attending the public schools in New South Wales, to the support of which government contributed over twelve thousand pounds, was nearly four thousand ; and there were upwards of eighteen hundred scholars attending private schools. There were three collegiate institutions, at the same time, which were well attended ; King's School at Paramatta, and Sydney College, and Australian College, at Sydney. In the towns, the mode of building is similar to that wit- nessed in European and American cities, except that every- thing looks much fresher and newer than in the antiquated capitals of the old world. Some of the cottages, or country ,ach ;" but since the British government have taken possession, a police similar to that at Sydney has been introduced, and a much better state of things now prevails. Pahia, on the opposite side of the bay, is very pleasantly situated: the principal missionary establishment of th Epi- copal church is located at this place ; and here are tli resi- dences of tho^e attached to the missions, and their printing presses. East of Pahia is a new town, called Victoria, which 1840.] GEOLOGY. 295 at first grew, under the impetus of speculation, with con- siderable rapidity. Its progress has since been checked to some extent, but it must eventually become quite a town. Eleven miles from the Bay of Islands, up the Waicaddie river, is Wajcaddie Pa, probably the largest native town in the islands. It is a neat and cleanly place, and, as might bo presumed from this fact, has a prosperous mission estab- lishment. Auckland, the capital of New Zealand, is situated on the Waitemata river, which affords it a spacious harbor, in lati- tude 36 51' 27" S., and longitude 174 45' 20" E. : it is a thriving town, and contains between two and three thousand inhabitants. The other principal stations are Port Nicholson, which has upwards of five thousand inhabitants, Port Nelson, and New Plymouth. (4.) Volcanic phenomena may be witnessed almost every- where in the interior. There is an active volcano on the Bay of Plenty, on the east coast of New Ulster, and at the north- ern extremity of the island there are a great number of coni- cal hills, from three to five hnndred feet high, with small cavi- ties in their tops, which appear to be extinct craters. Cellular lava, and lava in boulders, are abundant. In those districts, too, where these indications of a volcanic origin are more conclusive, there are hot springs, resembling the geysers of Iceland, the waters of some of which rise to the boiling point, and are used by the natives in cooking.^ The coasts are lined with dark basaltic rocks, which are worn into various shapes by the constant attrition of the waves. Quantities of pumice stone are found, and it is used by the natives for polishing their spears. Quartz, iron, and iron pyrites, have been discovered imbedded in the soil. Coal is plentiful in the middle island, which also furnishes the green talc, both in bunins and of a loose form, of which the natives make some * About iifleen miles west of the Bay of Islands is the hot spring of Taiaimi. v Inch is sr.id to be an emission of heated gas bubbling up through the water. and thus giving the latter a boiling appearance. Sulphur is abundant in the vicinity, and a slight crust of alu n is formed. The water is stronglv impreg- nated wifh iron. The gas hns no smell neither is it inflammable. 296 SOIL AND CLIMATE. [1840. of their weapons and ornaments. Manganese, alum, sulphur, slate, copper, whinstone, granite, and marble, are quite com- mon ; and clay, suitable for making bricks, is easily obtained in every part of the islands. In the vicinity of the Bay of Islands, the rocky subsoil is compact and argillaceous, and it is covered with a layer of stiff clay. In the neighborhood of the craters the land is much more productive than elsewhere. On the ridges and elevated plains, the upper stratum is thin, on account of its being washed into the valleys and gulleys, that divide or in- tersect them, by the frequent rains. Marshes alternate now and then with the rocky bluffs and precipices along the coast, and are often met with on the banks of the streams. In gen- eral, the soil may be said to be a rich yellow loam or vegeta- ble mould, very fertile, and well adapted to the production of all the vegetables, and most of the grains, raised in Europe and America. Though the climate of New Zealand is changeable, it is temperate and healthy ; being analogous to that of France, southern England, and the middle states of our own country, and therefore well adapted to European constitutions. At Auckland, the mean annual temperature is about 59 ; in the summer months it averages about 67, and in the winter about 52. The oppressive heats of the mid-day at Sydney, and the long continued droughts that parch and wither up the vege- tation of the Australian continent, are unknown. Of moisture there is a great abundance. North-easterly and south-westerly gales prevail at every change of the moon, and almost al- ways bring heavy rains, particularly in the winter season. In the interior, the weather is much colder, but is also more equable. Nevertheless, on the whole, the climate may be pronounced salubrious, and decidedly favorable to longevity. In some situations scrofulous and glandular affections are common ; pectoral diseases, rapid consumptions, phthisis, pleurisy and rheumatism, are by no means rare ; yet, after all, most of the prevalent forms of disease have been either introduced by 1840.] POPULATION. 297 Europeans, or occasioned by the habits and vices which they have imported. (5.) It admits of great doubt, whether the native popula- tion of New Zealand comes up to 150,000, which is the num- ber usually fixed upon, though some estimates reduce it nearly as low as 100,000. The white, or European popula- tion, occupying New Ulster, which has alone been regularly colonized, is not far from twenty thousand. At the general peace in Europe, the claims of Great Bri- tain to the different islands included in the term of New Zea- land, under and by virtue of the discovery of Cook, were recognized. No effort was made, however, to enforce them by occupation and possession, till the year 1833, when a res- ident, subordinate to the authorities of New South Wales, but clothed with limited powers, was sent thither. The islands had already become infested with runaway convicts and sailors, and marauders of every dye and description. Out- rages were daily committed on the persons and property of the natives ; the latter were fast learning to imitate the vices and crimes of the outlaws, who both persecuted and demoral- ized them ; and drunkenness, with its consequent evils, crimes, and wretchedness, was becoming everywhere prev- alent. Here and there, where the missionary stations were established, and their influence felt, bright spots appeared amidst the moral darkness that overshadowed the land ; but beyond their limits, there was nothing to relieve the general depravity, and sensuality, licentiousness, and excess, rejoiced in one continued holiday. British, American, and French whalers, frequently visited the islands, but they were liable to be molested by the free- booters and their native retainers ; resistance often provoked renewed aggressions ; and they were sometimes attacked and plundered. Combinations were likewise formed, principally in New South Wales, to purchase land of the natives. Associations of this character, by the grossest swindling and imposition, obtained the control of extensive tracts in the northern island 13* 298 GOVERNMENT. [1840. Influenced by their representations, settlers emigrated in con- siderable numbers from New South Wales, and the other Australian colonies ; but colonization, so far from keeping pace with speculation, was completely distanced by it. Mat- ters were in this position, in 1839, and would probably have continued to remain so ; but at that time it was reported, either with or without sufficient cause, that the French gov- ernment contemplated taking possession of the southern island, and planting a colony there. The British authorities promptly interfered ; a colonial organization subordinate to that of New South Wales was formed in January, 1840 ; and Captain Hobson, of the Royal Navy, was appointed lieutenant governor of the new dependency. On the arrival of the lieutenant governor at the Bay of Islands, he issued his proclamation, announcing that all future purchases of land from the aboriginal inhabitants would be absolutely void, unless made through the British local gov- ernment. A commission was then appointed to inquire into the validity of all claims to land, under instructions to recognize and confirm those only which were founded on just and equi- table considerations, with the proviso, also, that no claim should be allowed for a greater extent than twenty-five hun- dred and sixty acres. The lieutenant governor likewise ob- tained from the principal chiefs, a cession to the British mon- arch, of the paramount right of sovereignty in the islands, and extinguished the native titles to large bodies of land. These government lands were divided into suitable tracts, and disposed of at auction, to the settlers, and the immigrants who were daily arriving. Since this formal occupation by the British, a more healthy state of things has existed in New Zealand. In April, 1841, it was separated from New South Wales, and placed under a governor possessing similar powers with the chief executive officers in the colonies of Great Britain. With the governor, the colonial secretary and treasurer, the attorney general, and three senior justices of the peace, constitute the legislative council, by whom all laws and regulations, of minor impor- 1840.] PERSONAL APPEARANCE. 299 tance, are enacted. The annual expense of administering the government exceeds fifty thousand pounds sterling. (6.) Ethnologically considered, the native New Zealanders may be classed as belonging to the Malay family, and they are undeniably the best specimens of the race. The men are tall, well-formed and athletic ; many of the chiefs are up- wards of six feet high ; and all possess great strength and activity. The women are likewise well shaped, but they lack the fulness of muscle, and the soft rounded contour, wit- nessed among other Polynesians. Their color varies in indi- viduals, from a dark chestnut to a light copper or brunette, and resembles very nearly that of the European gypsy, or the Eurasian in India. They have round faces, high fore- heads sloping backwards, aquiline noses full at the point, large lips, and fine white teeth. Their eyes are black, strong, and piercing. Their hair is black and commonly straight, but sometimes thick, bushy, and curly ; that of the women is frequently fine, soft, and silky. Some crop their hair, leav- ing only a small bunch on the top of the head, and others suffer it to grow long. Whiskers and beards are not con- sidered at all in good taste among the New Zealand ex- quisites. Tattooing is practiced, by all who can afford the expense, and often gives a dark expression to the counte- nance, where it does not really exist. The men ornament their faces and arms, and their whole bodies and limbs, from the navel downwards ; but the women rarely tattoo any other parts of their persons except the mouth and the pubes the latter taking place on their arrival at the ago of puberty though a few ornamental devices about the wrists and ankles are occasionally seen. They pay little regard to personal cleanliness, rarely ever bathe, besmear themselves with grease and dirt, and seem to delight in being filthy. Portions of the middle island, or New Munster, are said to be inhabited by individuals evidently of the Papuan race, who differ widely from the true New Zealanders, and bear a strong resemblance to the natives of Australia, and the islands of the Eastern Archipelago. 300 CHARACTER. [1840 We have different accounts in regard to the cnaracter of the New Zealander ; some pronouncing him vindictive, crafty, and treacherous ; and others again insisting that he is frank, generous, and confiding. Probably all these traits are by turns displayed. The fierce and bloody conflicts, which are known to have taken place between the different tribes, in- dicate a warlike disposition. They are exceedingly proud, and when insulted, inclined to be revengeful ; yet they are hospitable to strangers, and seem to know how to appreciate kind treatment. Though practicing infanticide, to a greater or less extent, they are strongly attached to their children. Honesty is not one of their failings ; but they are somewhat given to trickishness in their dealings, and their intercourse with the whites has hardly contributed to divest them of it. The men are capable of enduring fatigue, yet as their wants are few and easily supplied, they are naturally indolent ; the labor and drudgery, as is generally the case in Polynesia, and among all savage races, being performed by the weaker, more suffering, yet less complaining, part of humanity. A fondness for curiosities and ornaments is characteristic of both sexes. Besides tattooing their persons, they bore holes in their ears, in which are inserted small rings of jade or talc, or shark's teeth ; these are tipped with sealing wax, or ornamented with white and red, or other bright colored feathers. The principal chiefs and their wives wear green talc stones, called heitikis, depending from their necks ; these are carved so as to resemble a human figure sitting cross- legged ; they are held very sacred, and with the me'dra, a short cleaver or club, are handed down as heirlooms, from father to son. Acquisitiveness is a prominent trait among them, and they are always ready for trading and bartering. They will sell everything they have, even their sacred heitikis. At one time a considerable trade was carried on in New Zealand curiosities, which were purchased at the islands, and exported to Australia, Europe, and America. Prominent among the articles of traffic were the tattooed heads of their chiefs, which dcmuriandad very high prices ; 1840.] MISSIONARY INFLUENCE. 301 but the supply has recently been cut off, in consequence of the absolute prohibition of the sale of them by the British authorities. Comparatively few of the vices usually witnessed among a savage people, are observed here. Cannibalism and infant- icide were formerly very common, and they are now practiced in those districts remote from the white settlements, though they are gradually decreasing. The New Zealand chiefs, and many of the common people, are polygamists, yet always having one favorite wife. They are very jealous of their marital rights, and adultery is punished by the death of the offending parties, and often of their friends. The effects of dissipation are plainly visible among those natives who have adopted the habits and imitated the practices of the abandoned whites. Since 1815, missionaries have been laboring among them with considerable success. In 1843, there were a bishop and twelve clergymen of the established church, and about seventy ministers of the Roman Catholic, Church Missionary, Wesleyan and Scotch Churches. Wherever the influence of the missionaries has extended, though their labors have not been as practically directed as they might have been, a marked change is observable. As the natives have been so much accustomed to receiving presents, they sometimes ex- pect to be paid for their good conduct, and their zeal in at- tending to their devotional duties. Gifts and proselytes are often made at the same time. But all those who have em- braced Christianity, or regularly attend church services, are much more virtuous and happy than the other natives ; the men are more industrious, and more ready to share the burdens of their wives, while the latter are better-looking and lighter of heart, and no longer seek to check the jocund sprightliness of their daughters, by pointing them to a sad destiny a dark future of misery and care. In intellectual endowments they are by no means deficient. They possess a great deal of mechanical skill and ingenuity, though exhibiting it, hitherto, rather in the construction of their richly carved and ornamented canoes, and their fine and 302 INTELLECTUAL ENDOWMENTS. [1840. delicate mats, than in the erection of their habitations. They have shown a singular aptitude in accustoming themselves to the usages of civilized life. Of poetry they have an abund- ance, chiefly of a lyrical kind ; rude it is, indeed, yet they are not entire strangers to metre and quantity. They have a passionate attachment for music, and, in fact, noise of any kind is scarcely ever unwelcome to them. Their voices are monotonous, and when singing pitched in a high key. They have their war dances and love dances, and sometimes sharn fights : these are much like exhibitions of a similar character throughout Polynesia, very picturesque by candlelight, but not bearing the full glare of day, and always tiresome on repetition. It is customary, however, among the New Zealanders, on almost every occasion of ceremony, be it a funeral festivity, or a dance, to intersperse the proceedings with discharges of fire arms, the noise produced by which seems to afford them real delight. Surprising though it may be, they have a kind of astronomy among them ; and like all Polynesians, they appear to have a faint, though imperfect idea of the creation. In regard to their own origin, they have no tradition, except that their an- cestors came from the east in canoes, sewed together with sennit.* While they have given no names to their islands, strangely enough, there is not a single thing in the animal or vegetable creation, for which they have not a distinct appella- tive term by which it is generally known. There was not originally, at the time of the discovery, any * They have likewise a tradition, that their kuiTiara, or sweet potato, was brought from the east. Might not these islands, then, have been visited by South American Indians, who found them peopled with Malays, or Papuans, and from whom the present inhabitants have descended 1 or did the ancestors of the latter come from some of the intermediate isles of the Pacific 1 The ease with which the New Zenlander and the Tahitian converse, on first meeting each other, has before been remarked (ante p. 178) ; and it is by no means improbable, that the canoes, the memory of which is preserved in the traditions of the former, may have originally come from the Society Islands. Nevertheless, how true it is, that the more ethnology is studied, the more speculative it seems to become. 1840.] FORTIFIED TOWNS AND HOUSES. 303 general head among the natives, even those who were evi- dently of the same race ; but they were divided into tribes, distinguished by separate names, which were governed by principal chiefs, or arekees, and between which fierce and ex- terminating wars often took place. A very large proportion of the people were slaves, being subject to chiefs who were owners of the soil, and had the power to dispose of their lands, and alienate their servants, at will. These chiefs were them- selves dependent on the arekees, or head chiefs, but often proved refractory and disobedient subjects. Fortified towns, called pas, are the permanent places of resi- dence of the natives. They consist of collections of huts or houses, built closely together 7 on high promontories or insu- lated hills ; such a position being usually selected as will af- ford the greatest natural resistance to an attacking enemy These clusters of houses, or pas, are surrounded and protected by palisades, or upright stakes, perhaps ten feet high, driven firmly into the ground. Some of the inclosures contain as many as two or even three hundred huts. The main entrance, or gateway, opening through the row of palisades, is commonly flanked with larger posts, on which are sometimes carved dis- torted representations of human figures. Within the princi- pal inclosure, there are frequently minor ones, containing five or six houses, separated from each other by intervening alleys or walks, from two to four feet wide. Formerly, when the natives were ignorant of the use of fire arms, a pa may have been pretty secure against attack, but it would now form a feeble defence. The huts of the New Zealander are most sorry affairs. They are of an oblong shape, low and small, blackened inside and out with soot and smoke, and defiled from top to bottom, with grease, filth, and dirt, of every kind. Those of the largest class are only twenty feet long, by twelve feet broad. In erecting them, they begin with the frame, which consists of four posts driven into the ground at the corners. These pro- ject from two to five feet above the ground, and are connected by horizontal beams firmly secured in their places with twine 304 DRESS. [1840. or sennit* The rafters are laid upon the horizontal beams, and ascend upwards by a slight slope to the ridge pole, which is laid upon two or three posts set on a line running through the centre of the building. The roof descends on all sides, and is composed of rush thatching. Smaller poles fastened to the upright posts, with interstices of a foot in width, form the sides of the building. Twigs are sometimes wattled with the poles to fill up the chinks, or mats are hung up as screens. The doorways are under the eaves at the gable ends, over which mats are hung, though good and substantial doors of deal may now be occasionally seen. A few mats, a number of bark dishes and baskets, two or three fishing nets, an old sea chest in which the household goods are deposited for safe keeping, an iron pot that does all the cooking, and an old- fashioned rusty musket, or double-barreled gun, are about the usual assortment of furniture. Outside the house, there may be a few fruit trees growing, and sometimes a small garden spot can be discovered, though it is more common to see noth- ing but the former. Mats, called kakahus^ made of flax and braided by hand, are worn by both sexes. Those of the men are often very fine, and are sometimes interwoven of various colors, or beau- tifully embroidered. The women of the lower classes wear coarse corn leaf mats, particularly when at work. The kakahu is worn tied round the waist, or thrown over the shoulders. Short cloaks, or patutus, about three feet long, made of mat, coarse cloth, or dogskin dressed with the hair on, are worn by the chiefs. Loose slips of calico drawn about the neck, resembling the ancient tiputa of the Tahitian female, are frequently displayed by the women. Latterly European fashions have been introduced. Sailors' jackets and trowsers and often the former without the latter may sometimes be seen adorning the person of a swarthy New Zealander. Blankets, too, have been introduced, and they are now worn in the same manner as the kakahu. Pork, fish, and potatoes, are the chief articles of food among the natives ; and when other vegetables fail them, they 1840.] BOTANY. 305 have recourse to the roots of the fern. They are quite partial to rice, and as fond as bears, of sugar, molasses, and other sweet things. The Polynesian mode of cooking was formerly in vogue, but it has now given place to the iron pot, in which everything is boiled. Where the influence of the mission- aries has not proved sufficient to restrain their appetites, they are much addicted to the use of spirituous drinks, and scenes of revelry and debauchery, in which both sexes participate, are often witnessed in the native pas. They also make for themselves a very pleasant beverage, resembling spruce beer, and having slight intoxicating properties, which they call wai-maori. They are quite fond of tobacco, and often use it to excess. The custom of taboo has yet the force of law. It is for the most part enforced with great strictness, and carefully observed ; and it is found exceedingly useful in protecting their kumara-patches and vegetable gardens. Funeral ceremonies are noisy enough ; a few rounds of musketry being always regarded as a sine qua non. When a chief dies, unusual attention is paid to the rites of sepul- ture. A small canoe is cut through the middle, and the two sections being joined together, the body is placed in the cavity. These receptacles of the departed chiefs are painted some bright color, and ornamented with feathers. Instead of being deposited in the ground, however, they are placed beneath sheds, round about which are fence inclosures. (7.) Owing to the prevalence of the dark green foliage of the evergreens, New Zealand wears the appearance of per- petual vegetation. Yet the islands are not within the tropics, neither do they possess the fruits or vegetables indigenous to countries so situated. Barren wastes alternate with their dense forests ; and nowhere is there exhibited the exuberance of growth in the vegetable kingdom that may be witnessed in warmer latitudes. Scandent and parasitic plants, which always add so much to the beauty of tropical landscapes, are rarely met with ; though now and then a tree may be seen completely garlanded over with vines. The timber trees 306 INDIGENOUS PRODUCTS. [1840. nevertheless are really magnificent ; they are mostly of the pine species, and are regarded as among the most valuable in the world for ship building. The Kauri pine attains an enor- mous size : in 1841, one was cut and shipped which meas- ured twenty-five feet in circumference at the base, and was one hundred and fifty feet long ; and quite lately there was another standing on the eastern coast of New Ulster, seventy- five feet in circumference, and estimated to be considerably more than two hundred feet high. The Kaikotia pine does not grow as large as the Kauri, but it is highly valued for spars. The plains and low lands of New Zealand, in their natural state, are overrun with masses of tall impenetrable fern (pteris esculenta,) and with thick bushy shrubs, while the swamps and marshes produce rushes and the native flax (phormium tenax). From the latter is procured what has already become, and what will henceforth be, one of the most important staples of New Zealand. The flax is obtained from the leaves, and not the stem, of the plant. It is remarkable for the length, strength, and flexibility of its fibres ; and when the necessary improvements shall have been introduced in its preparation, it must yield a handsome profit to the grower. The preparation is now left to the native women, who cut it, and after dividing it into strips an inch wide, separate the ex- ternal epidermis, while still in a green state, from the inner fibres, by means of a muscle-shell or a piece of glass. Great care is required to keep the inner fibres straight, in order to preserve thoir beauty ; and when the separation is completed, oo) are hackled and divided, washed, and then bleached in the sun. Among the other indigenous products of N^w Z^aiarv 1 , >re t 1 !.' knmara, or sweet potato ; a species of firuiu osonlev xn, kwwj) ? is ooo^os or oddor.s : s^vjr \\ vari^ti i s x' ^ >^*J3 . .A (I ' -,^.),i'jL ctp.llSl. Tr, la,. s i ,. I'oJl ! vVA " V Zc.il la 1 sj)in.joh, w litih his b^n "mfcr lu v, i i.jt.* Llarope a 1 j America. It is a s.icculeat trailing plant, having no preten- sions to beauty, but possessing this advantage over the com- 1840.] AGRICULTURE. 307 mon spinach that, if well watered, it will produce leaves of the greatest juiciness during the entire summer. It is said that a bed of twenty plants will afford a supply sufficient for a large family. The natives are not ignorant of the art of cultivating the soil. When Cook first visited the islands, he found that they turned up the earth in their kumara patches with sharp-pointed sticks and other rude implements. Of late years spades and plows have been introduced. A great incentive to industry is furnished by the almost indestructible native fern. It springs up everywhere where the forests have been cut down, or in the open ground where its cultivation is neglected. When it has once established itself, it is with difficulty extirpated ; and it can never be got rid of except by plucking it up by the roots, and burning it. Even then, wherever there is careless- ness in tillage, it again makes its appearance, as if it were a judgment or a punishment for indolence and neglect. Before he sailed from the islands, at the time of making his discovery, Captain Cook planted, and left with intelligent natives, the seeds of wheat, peas, cabbages, onions, potatoes and turnips. All these soon run out, with the exception of the turnips and potatoes ; the latter of which is the chief de- pendence of the New Zealander during the winter season. In those soils where black loam, vegetable mould, or decom- posed basalt, predominates, most of the cerealia flourish, though Indian corn is the principal grain that is cultivated. Sometimes wheat is sowed where the fern has been dug up and burned, yet it rarely yields over fourteen bushels to the acre, and after it is reaped the ground is seeded down to gras*. Of native grasses there are scarcely any, but the foreign grasses thrive well. The New Zealanders themselves do not, i i general, raise over two crops from the same ground, but . .1. '-"liur n. piece for two seasons they prefer br \-ikbj7 '?! (j r 1; i. A.})ples, peaches, grapes, cape-goose! en it .<, n-'i.iy kiii;ls of melons and other vegetables, havo be. n introduced and cultivated with success. The apples and 308 ZOOLOGY. [1840. peaches are very fine, but the grapes do not succeed very well except on volcanic soils. There being such an excess of moisture in New Zealand, it is quite doubtful whether grain growing, unless it be for home consumption merely, will ever prove very profitable, but for pasturage the climate is decidedly favorable, and the rearing of stock will undoubtedly make handsome returns. It is a singular fact, that when these islands were first dis- covered, they possessed no indigenous mammalia whatever ; the only quadrupeds, in fact, being a few species of lizards that were objects of terror and veneration to the natives. The hog, the dog, and the rat, were early introduced. The first was allowed to run wild, and multiplied so rapidly that the islands were soon well stocked. The hogs are very fond of the roots of the fern, which is so exceedingly abundant. When required for food, they are caught by the dogs. The flesh of the rat was esteemed a great delicacy by the natives, and it is now the principal species of game. Cattle, sheep, and goats, were imported by the missionaries, and large additions have been made to the stock of the first two, since the formation of settlements by the whites ; excellent browsing is afforded by the immense thickets of shrubs, where grass cannot be procured, and both appear to thrive unusually well. Fish abound on the coast. Whales are taken in great plenty ; but it is said their numbers are diminishing, in con- sequence of the indiscriminate massacre which has been go- ing on for so many years. Smaller fish are taken by the natives with hooks and nets ; they also catch great quantities of shell-fish for food, and there is a clam, called pipi, which they esteem highly delicious. Of the bird kind, there are parrots and parroquets, and wild ducks and pigeons, of large size and fine flavor, in the forests ; and there is an abundance of sea fowl on the coasts. Poultry have been introduced, and are now reared in con- siderable numbers. The principal singing birds are the native nightingale and the tm. The latter is also called 1840.] COMMERCE. 309 the "parson-bird," probably for the reason that its loud, screaming, and not very pleasant notes, resemble the declam- atory articulations of the Wesleyan missionary. (8.) The chief articles of export from the islands, are flax, spars, pine timber, potatoes, and kauri gum. The last is obtained from the pine tree of that name, and is shipped to New South Wales and Europe, where it is made into excel- lent varnish. In return for their commodities, the inhabit- ants of New Zealand import, or purchase from the trading ves- sels in exchange for their products, domestic goods, blankets, guns, powder, lead, agricultural implements, rice, sugar and molasses. At one time the whale fishery was the most profit- able employment connected with commerce, and both French and American vessels participated largely in it ; but since the establishment of custom houses, and a regular government, they do not visit the islands as much as formerly, and from the causes before mentioned, the fishery is said to be less valuable, though numbers of persons are still engaged in it. Though exhibiting so little skill or taste in the construction of their mean, low, and dirty hqpses, the native New Zea- landers in reality possess great mechanical ingenuity. This is displayed in their preparation of the flax, in their beautifully woven mats, in their canoes, which are carved and orna- mented with great care, and particularly in the aptitude with which they imitate the whites in the use of weapons, tools, or implements. For common purposes, they now use whale- boats instead of canoes ; and have substituted the square sail for the triangular one. They have no outriggers on their craft, and though liable to accidents, they show themselves to be expert seamen in their management of them. Their war canoes are from forty to seventy feet in length, with prows extending up to the height of ten or twelve feet, and adorned with waving tufts of bright-tinted feathers, and richly carved ornamental work. Mills have been set up in New Ulster, and there is a great abundance of water power for propelling machinery on all the larger islands. In the opinion of Mr. Terry, when they 310 MANUFACTURES. [1840. become cultivated and stocked with cattle, and, as an imme- diate consequence, when the necessaries of life, and labor, grow cheaper, they must be the seat of extensive manufac- tures. "In addition," says he. "to moderate wages arid cheap food, there would be the further important auxiliaries of coal, timber, and clay, with endless excellent localities, having water communication. New Zealand would then bring into profitable production her timber, for ship-building ; flax, for canvas, ropes, &c.; copper, for sheathing her ships, and all other purposes ; sulphur, for brimstone, &c.; alum and dye woods, in manufacturing the wool of Australia or the cotton of India ; tan, for leather from the hides of her own cattle, or from Australia and South America ; tobacco, which could be manufactured ; breweries and distilleries, for barley and hops of native growth, &c. But it is far more rational to con- ceive that, instead of attempting fruitlessly to compete in the exports of raw produce, the colonists, in the first in- stance, will endeavor to render themselves independent of any other colony for the supply of food ; and when food and labor are cheap, they will direct^their capital and energies to bring into play the other national products, in manufactures for their own wants, as well as to supply Australia, India, China, and Spanish America, all of which are not far distant." * (9.) Having completed their repairs, all the vessels belong- ing to the American Exploring Squadron, with the excep- tion of the Peacock, left the Bay of Islands on the 6th day of April. Prosperous breezes wafted them rapidly on their way ; no incidents of special importance occurred on the pas- sage ; and on the 22d instant they made the islands of Eooa and Tonga iaboo. On the 24th they came to anchor off Nukualofa, the principal town on the latter island, and on the 1st day of May they were joined by the Peacock. * Terry's New Zealand, etc., pp. 2GO, 261. > CHAPTER XIII. (1.) The Tonga Islands. (2.) Physical Geography. Climate. Productions. (3.) Population. Character and Appearance. Dress. Customs. Super- stitions. (4.) Houses Canoes. (5.) Missionaries. Wars between the Christians and the " Devil's Party." (6.) Sailing of the Squadron, and Arrival at the Feejt j e Group. /I.) AMONG the many other important discoveries of the eminent Dutch navigator, Abel Janssen Tasman, were the Tonga Islands, or Hapai Group. He touched at Tongataboo in 1642, and afterwards visited the Feejee ^ Group ; but in conformity with the general policy of his government, the world was not enlightened in regard to his discoveries, till other navigators had found their way to the islands. Captain Cook first saw the Tonga Islands in 1773 ; he spent consider- able time in the group, and in allusion to the kind and hos- pitable treatment he received from the native inhabitants, named them the Friendly Isles, by which term they are now most commonly designated.* There are six principal islands : Eooa, Tongataboo, Hapai', Vavao, Keppel's Island, and Boscawen, besides which, there are a number of small and uninhabited isles, visited by the natives only for fishing and obtaining biche de mer. Eooa, and Tongataboo, or Tonga, are the southernmost of the group, and the others lie further to the north ; all be- ing included between the parallels of 17 and 22 south lati- tude, and 172 and 176 west longitude. A strait eight miles in width, separates Eooa from Tonga, and the other * The term " Friendly Islands" is often applied, as a general appellation, to the extensive group embracing the Navigators', Feejee, and Tonga Islands. 312 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. [1840 islands are divided in the same manner by deep sea channels, of greater or less width, in which vessels are often protected, in a degree, from the violence of the waves in the open ocean, by the immense coral reefs that encircle the group. These are low and sunken in many places, and unless provided with a correct chart, or the weather be particularly favorable, it is dangerous for a strange vessel to attempt to pass through the openings. Passages of this kind, however, are quite numerous, and once inside the reefs, still water may fre- quently be found, even when the storm rages the most fear- fully without. (2.) Quite a variety of scenery is presented in this group of islands. Eooa is rocky and barren, and rises to the height of six hundred feet above the level of the sea. Tofooa, one of the smaller islands, attains a still greater elevation, and is the highest of the group. Hapa'i, Vavao, and Tonga, are much lower, and far more fertile. Some of them are of volcanic origin, and exhibit all the distinctive features peculiar to that formation ; but the only active volcano is on the island of Tofooa. Others are the work of the coral. Tonga is low and almost level ; there being only here and there a small hillock from twenty to forty feet high, and near the northern extremity of the island a conical hill about sixty feet in height. It is not far from one hundred miles in circumfer- ence, and has a shallow lagoon, like those in the atolls of the Paumotu Group, extending some ten miles into the interior, though, of course, surrounded by a much greater mass of elevated ground. Hurricanes and earthquakes are frequent, and the former are very destructive. Rain falls in great quantities, and heavy dews descend at night. The mean temperature in the summer months is about 80, and the thermometer often rises to 98 in the shade. In consequence of the moist atmosphere, the oppressive heat, and the sudden transitions from the ex- tremes of temperature, the climate is not at all healthy, though the natives, where their habits are regular, frequently live to an advanced age. Fevers, with the exception of in- 1840.] PRODUCTIONS. 313 \ termittentSj are not unusually prevalent, but colds, coughs, influenza, and consumption, are common. Glandular swell ings and eruptive complaints, superinduced in many cases b) intemperance and excess, are more or less prevalent. Tonga is, perhaps, justly entitled to be called the garde r of the group, since it is the most fruitful, and exhibits * greater exuberance of foliage. Yet all the coralline islands are covered with a deep and rich vegetable mould, containing very little sand, which is highly productive. They are beauti- fully feathered with bread-fruit and cocoas, and adorned with the graceful and majestic trees of the tropics, whose boughs are often interlaced with luxuriant vines and creepers, and with shrubs and plants, in all stages of growth, d'esirable either for their utility or for ornament. Like the happy val- ley of Cashmere, each is a paradise rejoicing in " perpetual spring," and when fanned by the soft breezes of summer, waft- ing the many odors of its perfumed flowers among its sister isles. All the principal tropical productions flourish on these islands in great abundance. Yams, sweet potatoes, bananas, taro, bread-fruit, cocoa-nut, sugar-cane, shaddocks (citrus de- cumana), limes, papaw, or Carica papaya, and the ti, are the most important indigenous products. The sweet orange of Tahiti has been introduced by the missionaries, and appears to be well adapted to the soil and climate, but the fruit is almost always destroyed by an insect that deposits its larvse on it, which cause it to fall before it becomes fully ripe. Pine-apples, water-melons, cabbages, turnips, mustard, pep- pers, maize, a species of chirimoya, and the North American papaw, or custard-apple, have likewise been introduced, and richly reward the time and labor expended in their cultiva- tion. The heathen cultivate the tobacco-plant with great success. The ahia, (eugenia malaccontis,) producing a pulpy fruit something like the apple in shape, is occasionally found. There are several species of palms, and different va- rieties of cane and reeds. The casuarina affords the material for the native clubs, the shafts of their spears, their drums, 314 THE TONGESE. [1840. x and some of their culinary utensils. There is a species of nutmeg-tree, yielding an abundance of fruit, which is up- wards of forty feet in height. Specimens of the ficus-tree may be seen here, having trunks, as it were, composed of in- tertwining roots, one hundred feet in circumference. Orna- mental shrubs and climbing-plants, euphorbias, tournefortias, the apapa, and the faifai, are quite common. The pandanus is also plentiful, and great care is taken by the natives to prune it, and otherwise encourage its growth, as all their mats are made from its leaves. Most of the fruits and other edible productions of the Tonga Islands are cultivated by the natives, though they have latterly become less industrious than they once were, probably for the reason that they have contracted many of the bad habits of the whites, and not a few of the vices of their neighbors of the Feejee Group. Still, their yam-grounds, and their sweet- potato patches, receive a great degree of attention, and are often objects of pride, especially since the substitution of more modern agricultural implements for the rude ones formerly in use. (3.) Like most of the island-groups of Polynesia, the popula- tion of the Tonga Islands has been much overrated. It has been estimated as high as fifty thousand, but the missionaries loca- ted there, who have had ample means of observation, do not think it can possibly exceed twenty thousand. Almost one half of this number are inhabitants of Tongataboo, or Tonga ; Hapai and Vavao each contain near four thousand inhab- itants ; and the remainder are scattered about among the different islands. The Tongese have a strong resemblance to the people of the Sarnoan Group, and the evidences of a generic affinity be- tween the two are very striking. The former are more fair, ><-rhaps; but their countenances have the same general cast and expression. The men have large and powerful frames, with an abundance of bone and muscle. Many of the women and children are almost white, and the Tonga maidens are remarkable for the possession of great personal beauty. Their 1840.] CHARACTER. 315 hair is straight and fine, and naturally of a dark color, but the frequent use of lirne-water and lime turns it red ; yet they have black, expressive eyes ; their oval faces are just tinged with olive ; their busts and shoulders are well developed, their forms rounded and full, but not gross, and their limbs neatly turned. These are certainly attractive charms, and when united to an intelligent expression of countenance, gavety, but not frivolity of heart, frank and easy manners, and a true inbred modesty, almost always proof against temptation, surely entitle their possessors to an enviable distinction, Cleanliness is characteristic of both sexes. The habit of frequent bathing is early acquired, and not often neglected. They are a cheerful and light-hearted people ; fond of music, dancing, and other amusements ; docile ; ingenious ; apt at imitation ; and great chafferers in making bargains. Gen- erally speaking, they are virtuous and industrious ; but, though not yielding so much as might be expected to the enervating influences of the climate, they cannot resist the temptations placed before them by the whites or the neighboring islanders. They are usually quite happy in their domestic relations; the attachment between husband and wife is strong, and the " olive branches" that twine themselves about their hearts, serve to knit them more firmly together, and render the tie that binds them to each other nearer, dearer, and more indis- soluble. A warlike disposition does not appear to have been origi- nally characteristic of the Tongese, but they have imbibed it in their intercourse with the natives of the Feejee Group, and with it, have learned to be crafty, cunning, and treacherous. They are courageous, however, and are well acquainted with the use of fire arms. Muskets are quite plenty among them. Their other principal offensive weapons are clubs and spears, commonly made of the casuarina, or iron-wood. Many of the natives possess European articles of dress, of which they are exceedingly proud, yet it is not usual for either sex to wear anything but the siapo, a sort of short petticoat made of tapa, and descending from the waist half- 316 DRESS. [1840. way down the thighs. The pareu is also worn, and the mis- sionaries have prevailed upon the Christian women to arrange its folds so as to cover their bodies as high as the neck, but they do not like to conform to this new custom, and very often disregard it. Neither sex wear a covering on their heads, upon ordinary occasions, and the children are rarely incum- bered with any clothing whatsoever; but the latter have their hair cropped close, except a small lock over each ear, to keep out the vermin. When the native warriors array themselves in their mar- tial costumes and war-paint, and put on their richly orna- mented mats, and their gay belts and turbans, they present a most striking and picturesque appearance. A sight like this was witnessed during the visit of the American Explor- ing Squadron, which is thus described by Captain Wilkes in his narrative : " I was now surrounded by large numbers of warriors, all grotesquely dressed and ready for the fight, with clubs, spears, and muskets. In addition to the usual tapa around their waist, they had yellow and straw-colored ribands, made of the pandanus-leaves, tied around their arms above the elbows, on their legs above and below the knees, and on their bodies : some had them tied and gathered up in knot's ; others wore them as scarfs some on the right shoulder, some on the left, and others on both shoulders. Some of these sashes were beautifully white, about three inches wide, and quite pliable. Many of them had fanciful head-dresses, some with natural and others with artificial flowers over their turbans (called sala) ; and nearly all had their faces painted in the most grotesque manner, with red, yellow, white, and black stripes, crossing the face in all directions. Some were seen with a jet black face and vermilion nose ; others with half the face painted white. When a body of some eight hundred of these dark-looking, well-formed warriors, all eager for the fight, and going to and fro to join their several com- panies, is seen, it is hardly possible to describe the effect." 5 * Beating tapa^ and weaving mats of pandanus leaves, and * Narrative of the Exploring Expedition, Vol. III. p. 8. 1840.J OCCUPATIONS. 317 baskets of the same material, or of reeds or cane, with the performance of the necessary household duties, are the chief occupations of the women. All the out-door work is performed by the men. They cultivate the yam and sweet potato patches, gather the bread-fruit and cocoa-nut, build houses and canoes, weave sails of pandanus leaves, and hunt and fish. They also display a great deal of ingenuity in making boxes of their beautiful woods, baskets of cane and reeds, and miniature canoes. Rat-catching was once a favorite amuse- ment, and when the animals were captured they were often eaten uncooked. But the natives now subsist mainly on the produce raised by themselves, and the fruit of the cocoa and bread-fruit. Hogs and poultry are reared among them, and are gradually becoming quite plenty. Fish are abundant, especially the edible kinds, though sharks and whales are like- wise numerous. Birds of different species, abound along the coasts, and in the groves and forests of the interior, the most conspicuous among them being the tropic bird, wood- pecker, turtle dove, and parroquet (trichoclossus), but though often hunted, and killed or snared, they are not much eaten. The mode of preparing their food is similar to that practiced in the Samoan Group. Among the heathen, smoking tobacco is a common practice. The leaf of the plant is cut, and rolled up inside of one of the finest and most delicate pandanus leaves, like a cigar. They are also fond of foreign liquors, and often drink to excess. These indulgences are forbidden to the Christians ; they do not smoke, yet they occasionally give way to their love for ardent spirits. The fondness for ava is universal, it being drank alike by Christian and heathen. It is pre- pared from the piper mythisticum, and the natives frequently meet together in small parties, to drown their sorrows, or heighten their joys, in the flowing ava-bowl. Singing is a favorite diversion with all classes. The voices of the females are very musical, and all take great delight in displaying their powers. Both men and women have their tunes, appropriate to the employment or occupation in which 318 CUSTOMS. [1840. they may be engaged. These are hummed or sung, when at labor, whether it be beating tapa, weaving mats, plucking the bread-fruit, or sculling the canoe. The heathen have their war and love dances, as among the Samoans ; but they are by no means so beastly or sensual in their habits and appetites, as the same class in the Navigator Group. Their principal musical instrument is the drum, or toki, which is made of the half section of a circular hollow log of hard sono- rous wood. No general head is recognized in the Tonga Group, though the king of Tongataboo and the southern islands is usually regarded as superior in rank to the other kings and chiefs. There are different tribes, often on the same island, and not- withstanding there may be a nominal king to whom all pay allegiance, their loyalty is not of the most devoted kind, being neither very loud in its profession, nor enthusiastic in its manifestation. Ail business affecting the general wel- fare, is transacted in the fonos, or councils. Tonga was originally the sacred island of the group, and here were the principal morals, and temples, to which the na- tives of the other islands were obliged to bring their votive offer- ings. These temples are now maintained by the heathen in some of the districts, yet ancient superstitions and observances are fast losing their hold upon the minds of the people. The religion of the heathen is not exactly feticism, though they ha.ve images of some of their gods, for most of their divinities are purely imaginary, and many, perhaps, are the distin- guished heroes and kings of Tonga in former days, apotheo- sized by their countrymen for their good deeds and qualities, whether real or fanciful. They worship a great number of dei- ties, who are fabled to possess unlimited power over them, for good or for evil. These are called the gods of Bulotu, or Atua faka Bulotu, and are supposed to be immortal. Their oldest god was Maui, who drew the islands out of the sea with a hook and line ; he and his two sons live under the earth, and when he turns over he produces earthquakes ; the worship of this divinity is now entirely neglected. Tangaloa is their 1840.] SUPERSTITIONS. 319 second god, who resides in the skies and is esteemed equal to Maui in dignity. Hikuleo is the god of spirits, and is the third in order ; he dwells in a cave on the island of Tonga. The gods who produce evil are called Atua Banuu. Bulotu, however, is the principal deity. He inhabits M cave on a fabulous island bearing his name, which lies t ?< considerable distance north-west of Tonga. In consequent of his long tail he is unable to leave the cave, but holds hi* feasts there, and solaces himself with a great number of wives. He possesses absolute power over all, but is destitute of either love or goodness. The most valuable presents are deposited in his spirit-temple, and human sacrifices are offere ! to him, when an act of sacrilege has been committed, within the morals, or sacred inclosures. Other gods inferior to Bn- lotu reside on the same island. When the natives of the lower class die, they remain in the world, and feed on ants and lizards, but the spirits of the kings, nobles, and mata- booles, or inferior chiefs, are wafted to Bulotu " the island of the blessed." This island is supposed to be larger than the whole Tonga Group, and to be well stocked with useful and ornamental plants, in a high state of perfection. It pro- duces the richest fruits, and the most beautiful flowers, al- ways imbathed in fragrance. Brilliant-tinted birds fill the air with their melody. There is also an abundance of hogs and other animals. Neither fruit nor flower ever fades ; but if either be plucked, another starts forth, its exact imagp, in the very place it occupied. So, too, the birds and animals are immortal. If one of the former be destroyed, ere its song be hushed, its rich melody is continued, without the loss of a single note, by another warbler that instant called into existence. If a hog be killed for the use of the gods, its place is supplied in a moment, and the occupants of porker- dom, like the birds, and fruits, and flowers, never diminish in numbers. It is supposed by the natives, that the air of Bulotu can- not be inhaled by mortal bodies without producing speedy death, unless the gods so will ; that it is dangerous to go 320 HOUSES. [1840 thither in their canoes, that they cannot reach the island, or if safely arriving there, return again, except through the same special interposition of their deities. Yet it is said, that a party of Tongese once visited this enchanted spot, and were delighted with its beauties, but on attempting to pluck the luscious bread-fruit, it eluded their grasp ; and they walked through the trunks of the trees, and the houses, which were built after the Tongese fashion, without encountering any resistance. Trees and dwellings, fruits and flowers, birds and animals all appeared but as shadows to those who were strangers in this spirit-land. (4.) When speaking of the dwellings in the Samoan Group, it was remarked that they had borrowed their style of house- building from the Tongese. The houses of the latter are of an elliptical form, twenty feet long by fifteen wide, and about fifteen feet high under the ridge-pole. The posts are either of cocoa-nut or bread-fruit, and are set in the same manner as has been previously described. 1 * Indeed, the houses are con- structed similarly to those of the Samoans, in every respect, except that the sides are made of wicker-work, composed of the slender stalks of the sugar-cane firmly wattled together. Glazed windows are nowhere seen except in the residences of the missionaries. Mats are hung at the doors, and sometimes they are made use of within, to divide a house into several compartments. The floor is also covered with mats ; coarse ones being commonly used, and the finer ones kept in reserve for extraordinary occasions. In the centre of the house, a small space of ground is left uncovered, where the cooking is performed. Clubs, spears, muskets, fishing gear, an occasional shelf, the ava-bowl, a supply of mats, drinking- vessels made of cocoa-nut shells, earthen jars dried in the sun, a few cook- ing utensils, and a chest or box to contain all the principle val- uables, are the ordinary embellishments and articles of fur- niture found in a Tongese habitation. Besides their more common mats, they have stiffer ones about two feet wide, made to stand on the edges, supported by scrolls at either end ; * Ante, p. 209 et seq. ' IMPLEMENTS AND UTENSILS OF POLYNESIANS. 322 FORTIFICATIONS. [1840 these are curled about the young children when laid down upon the larger mats, or are used as screens by the females, to hide their persons when seated on the floor and engaged at their occupations. Fans are made of the same material with the mats, and both are often highly ornamented. In addition to their other uses, the mats of the Tongese are their couches at night; their pillow is made of a strip of bamboo, supported on legs from eight to ten inches high ; if the weather be very cool they cover themselves with their lighter mats, and in the summer they are obliged to swathe fine tapa cloth about their limbs and bodies to protect them from the troublesome mus- quitoes. Nukualofa, near the northern end of Tongataboo, and Le- fooka on the island of Hapai, are the largest towns in the group. The former contains between six and seven hundred houses, and is situated on the hill before mentioned, being half imbosked amid a grove of bread-fruits and cocoas, which pro- tect it from the fierce radiance of the tropical sun, and shelte) it from the destructive hurricanes. This is a fortified town, being defended by a high wall or embankment made of earth and logs, which is surrounded by a ditch. On the top of the parapet there is a wicker-work fence, from five to eight feet high, and in some places of several thicknesses. Narrow openings through the glacis, terminating in gateways admit ting the passage of two persons abreast, and which can be easily filled up with earth, constitute the entrances to the fort. Hollow logs are placed obliquely in the embankment which are used as loop-holes for the musketry. Most of the other towns in the group are similarly fortified. The Tongese are fond of the water. They are daring and expert sailors and swimmers. Some of their canoes are one hundred feet long. They are made like those in use among the inhabitants of the Feejee Group. The double canoes will often hold from forty to fifty persons ; they consist of two single ones united together by a deck or platform project- ing two or three feet beyond the canoes on each side. One of these canoes is smaller than the other ; it serves the pnr- 1840.] MISSIONARIES. 323 pose of an outrigger, and i^ always kept toward the weathr, side. There is a single mast, usually about thirty feet hi