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 IN MEMORIAM 
 BERNARD MOSES 
 
Digitized by the Internet Archive 
 
 in 2007 with funding from 
 
 IVIicrosoft Corporation 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/firstlessonsinciOOformrich 
 
First Lessons in Civics 
 
 A TEXT-BOOK FOR USE 
 IN SCHOOLS 
 
 BY 
 
 S. E. FORMAN, Ph.D. 
 
 <:ri^^ 
 
 NEW YORK-:. CINCINNATI.:- CHICAGO 
 
 AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY 
 

 Copyright, 1898, by 
 S. E. FORMAN. 
 
 W. P. I 
 
 BEHNARO W08ES 
 
 
PREFACE 
 
 If instruction in citizenship is to be given to any con- 
 siderable number of thie children of the country, it must 
 be given in the grammar school grades, for not one child 
 in twenty passes beyond them to higher schools. This 
 book has therefore been prepared for use either in the 
 upper grammar grades or in the first years of the high 
 schools. 
 
 An attempt has been made to state briefly and simply 
 the leading facts of the several governments under which 
 we live. But stating facts about government, and having 
 children learn them, will not make good citizens. In the 
 teaching of civics the best must always come from the 
 teacher. His citizenship, his life, will teach more than 
 can be learned from a book. If he teaches in the right 
 spirit, he will make a lesson in civics a lesson in ethics. 
 Unless it is pursued with a distinctly ethical aim, the 
 study of Civil Government in public schools is of doubtful 
 utility. To equip a lad with a knowledge of the working 
 of governments and the rights of citizens, without equip- 
 ping him with a conscience that will constrain him to 
 practice the virtues of citizenship, may be to prepare him 
 
 3 
 
 885987 
 
4 PREFACE 
 
 for a more successful career as a public rogue. This fact 
 has not been lost sight of in the preparation of these les- 
 sons. Appeal is constantly made to the moral sense of 
 the child. 
 
 In teaching civics, as in teaching anything else, the key 
 to the situation is interest. This may be awakened and 
 sustained by training the pupils in the practical work that 
 Qonfronts the citizen when he enters upon public life. 
 The study of city and village charters, the drafting of 
 resolutions, the framing of constitutions for societies, the 
 discussion of current questions, are resources of which 
 the skillful teacher will constantly avail himself. Above 
 all, he will avail himself of the debate. The class may be 
 resolved into a little commonwealth, where questions of 
 public interest are discussed fully and fairly. By a wise 
 direction of the discussion, the teacher may lead his pupils 
 to become conscious of and to put into practice some of 
 the cardinal virtues of citizenship. By means of debate 
 they may learn to tolerate and respect the opinions of 
 others, to recognize the worth of others, to express them- 
 selves with candor but not with violence and abuse, to 
 abandon notions based upon ignorance and prejudice, to 
 submit gracefully to defeat. The questions discussed 
 should be, as far as possible, such as directly affect their 
 school life. For example, it may be a question whether 
 the class as a body shall visit a court in session or a legis- 
 lature in session. It can go to one, but not to both. The 
 teacher, without throwing his influence this way or that, 
 
PREFACE 5 
 
 may allow the question to be discussed until the claims for 
 both places are fully brought out. He may then put the 
 matter to a vote. They will probably vote for the place 
 where the prospect yields most fun. But the lesson will 
 be none the less impressive for that. The main thing is 
 to arouse a genuine division of sentiment and abide faith- 
 fully by the result. Those who are outvoted will have a 
 far keener perception of the meaning of majority rule than 
 they could ever have gained from the words of a book. 
 
 The discussions of the class may be so conducted as to 
 result in the formulation by the pupils themselves of a 
 set of rules for the citizen's guidance, a kind of citizen's 
 decalogue. When their hearts as well as their minds have 
 been reached, they may be taught to say : 
 
 I must not cheat the State. 
 
 I must not cheat the railroads. 
 
 I must give a due share of my time and energy to pub- 
 lic affairs. 
 
 I must vote whenever it is my privilege to vote. 
 
 I must not debauch my fellows by bribing them. 
 
 I must not accept a bribe of any kind. 
 
 I must make a decent living if it is in my power. 
 
 I must prefer my country to my party. 
 
 I must tolerate the opinions of others. 
 
 It is sometimes charged against our schools that neither 
 morality nor religion is taught in them. The teaching of 
 religion seems to be out of the question, and the formal 
 teaching of morals does not meet with much favor. There 
 
6 PREFACE 
 
 is but little teaching in our schools that relates to the con- 
 duct of life, which is, after all, by far the greater part of 
 life. Is this wise ? Is it right ? Should the moral nature 
 of man be so completely ignored in a scheme of educa- 
 tion ? Surely the development of the ethical nature of 
 children should receive formal recognition in a system of 
 education. It is the teacher's duty to aid in this devel- 
 opment whenever it is practicable. In the teaching of 
 civics it is practicable to set pupils morally right upon a 
 large class of questions, and the opportunity to do so 
 should not be lost. 
 
 S. E. FORMAN. 
 Baltimore, January, 1898. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 LESSON I 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Government and Laws 13 
 
 Meaning of the Word " Government " — The Study of Government 
 — The Necessity of Government — Laws. 
 
 LESSON II 
 
 The Government of Self 17 
 
 Self-control — Self-control may be Cultivated — Reward of Doing 
 Good — The Government of Self the Foundation of All Govern- 
 ment. 
 
 LESSON III 
 The Family 21 
 
 The Family in Ancient Times — The Family of To-day — The 
 Duties of Parents to Children — Rights of Parents in Respect to 
 their Children. 
 
 LESSON IV 
 
 The Family {continued) 25 
 
 Husband and Wife; Marriage — Servants — Importance of Family 
 Government. 
 
 LESSON V 
 
 The Government of the School 29 
 
 Pupils should know Something of School Government — The 
 School District — School Officers — Powers and Duties of School 
 Officers — The Teacher. 
 
 LESSON VI 
 The Government of the School {continued) .... 33 
 Rules that Pupils must Obey — Duties of Teachers and Pupils, 
 
 7 
 
8 CONTENTS 
 
 LESSON VII 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Citizenship — Who are Citizens 38 
 
 Introduction — Meaning of the Word "Citizen" — Aliens — Nat- 
 uralization. 
 
 LESSON VIII 
 Citizenship — Civil Rights . . . . . . . .41 
 
 Civil and Political Rights — The Right to Personal Security — Per- 
 sonal Liberty; Habeas Corpus — The Right of Private Property. 
 
 LESSON IX 
 
 Citizenship — Who are Voters 45 
 
 The Right of Suffrage — Persons who may not Vote — Registration. 
 
 LESSON X 
 
 Citizenship — Elections 50 
 
 At the Polls — Counting the Vote; Majority; Plurality — The 
 Right of Holding Office. 
 
 LESSON XI 
 
 Citizenship — Duties of Citizens 56 
 
 A Few Words about Duty — Obedience to the Law — Defense of 
 One's Country — Earning a Living — Attention to Public Affairs 
 — Duty of Studying Political Questions. 
 
 LESSON XII 
 Taxation 61 
 
 Government supported by Taxes — How Each Taxpayer's Share is 
 Determined — The Collection of Taxes — Exemption — ** Tax 
 Dodgers." 
 
 LESSON XIII 
 
 Taxation {continued) ,66 
 
 Duties and Excises — The Income Tax — Licenses; Fees — Poll 
 Tax — Franchises — Eminent Domain, 
 
CONTENTS 9 
 
 LESSON XIV 
 
 PAGB 
 
 Several Terms Explained 70 
 
 Self-government — Representative Government — The Three De- 
 partments of Government. 
 
 LESSON XV 
 
 Town Government 75 
 
 Early Town Government in New England — The Town Meeting — 
 Town Officers. 
 
 LESSON XVI 
 
 The County . . . .' 82 
 
 The Virginia County — County Officers. 
 
 LESSON XVII 
 The Township 89 
 
 The Nature of Township Government — Officers of the Township. 
 
 LESSON XVIII 
 
 Village and City Government 93 
 
 Importance of the Subject — The Beginning of a City — Charters. 
 
 LESSON XIX 
 
 City Government 98 
 
 The City Council —The Mayor — City Courts — What a City Gov- 
 ernment should Do. 
 
 LESSON XX 
 
 The State , 103 
 
 The Thirteen Colonies — The Thirteen Original States — The Ad- 
 mitted States. 
 
 LESSON XXI 
 
 The State Constitution 108 
 
 Meaning of the Word " Constitution " — Description of a State 
 Constitution — How the Constitution of a State is Made — How 
 a Constitution is Changed — " Constitutional " and " Unconstitu- 
 tional" 
 
lO CONTENTS 
 
 LESSON XXII 
 
 PAGE 
 
 The State Legislature 114 
 
 When and where the State Legislature Meets — The Two Branches 
 of the Legislature — Election of Members of the Legislature — 
 Organization. 
 
 LESSON XXIII 
 
 The State Legislature {continued) 119 
 
 How a Law is Made — What the Legislature of a State may Do — 
 Honest Men for the Legislature. 
 
 LESSON XXIV 
 
 The Governor and his Assistants 126 
 
 The Governor — Other Executive Officers — Impeachment. 
 
 LESSON XXV 
 
 Judges, Juries, and Courts of Law 132 
 
 The Judicial Department — The Justice of the Peace — The Circuit 
 Court — The Supreme Court — Civil and Criminal Cases. 
 
 LESSON XXVI 
 
 The National Government 138 
 
 Importance of State Government — The Articles of Confederation 
 — The Constitutional Convention of 1787. 
 
 LESSON XXVII 
 
 The National Legislature . 144 
 
 The Preaml)le to the Constitution — Congress — The House of 
 Representatives — The Senate — How a Law is passed in Con- 
 gress. 
 
 LESSON XXVIII 
 
 What Congress may Do 149 
 
 The Power of Congress Limited — The Powers of Congress. 
 
CONTENTS 1 1 
 
 LESSON XXIX 
 
 PAGE 
 
 What Congress may Do {continued) 153 
 
 Congress has Power : (Jo establish Post offices^ etc.) 
 
 LESSON XXX 
 
 What the Constitution Forbids 158 
 
 What Congress may not Do — What a State may not Do — The 
 Fifteen Amendments. 
 
 LESSON XXXI 
 
 How THE President is Elected 162 
 
 The Nomination of a President — Election of President — Inau- 
 guration. 
 
 LESSON XXXII 
 
 The President and his Cabinet 168 
 
 The Powers and Duties of the President — The Cabinet — The 
 Civil Service. 
 
 LESSON XXXIII 
 
 The National Courts 173 
 
 The Kind of Cases tried in the National Courts — The Four Grades 
 of National Courts. 
 
 LESSON XXXIV 
 
 Political Parties 179 
 
 What Political Parties are for — The Choice of a Party — Loyalty 
 to Party. 
 
 INDEX 185 
 
LESSONS IN CIVICS 
 
 OOi^O* 
 
 LESSON I 
 
 GOVERNMENT AND LAWS 
 
 " Order is Heaven's first law." 
 
 Meaning of the Word ''Government." — In the Latin lan- 
 guage the word gubernator means a pilots a steersman, one 
 who guides. A governor, therefore, is one who guides 
 something, and the word government means guidance or 
 management. Thus when we speak of the government 
 of a home, we refer to the management of the private 
 affairs of the home ; when we speak of the government 
 of a State, we refer to the management of the pubhc 
 affairs in the State. The word government will be used 
 a great many times in this book, and we shall learn that 
 there are many kinds of government. We shall speak 
 of ** self-government," of " school government," of "fam- 
 ily government," of ''state government," of "national 
 government." Wherever the word governmeiit occurs, it 
 will mean guidance, management, control. 
 
 The Study of Government. — You are now going to 
 study the subject of government; that is, you are going 
 to study how the affairs of mankind are managed ; how 
 
 13 
 
14 LESSONS IN CIVICS 
 
 men and women are guided in their journey through the 
 world amidst other men and women ; how society is held 
 together and controlled. The study is of great impor- 
 tance, and should be of great interest, for the happiness 
 of men depends largely upon the kind of government that 
 guides and controls their lives. The study of government 
 should interest children as well as men ; for children, as 
 well as men, are deeply affected by the government under 
 which they live. In his earliest years the child is under 
 the government of his parents. As soon as he is old 
 enough he is sent to school, where a new government 
 enters into his life and controls his actions. He now 
 lives under the government of the school, as well as 
 under the government of the home. He must obey his 
 teacher, as well as his father and mother. When he goes 
 out into the streets, and parks, and fields, he finds that 
 there is another government to restrain him and regulate 
 his conduct. If he is very noisy, or if he runs upon 
 flower beds in the park, or if he takes fruit from the 
 orchard of a stranger, he is promptly checked by a 
 policeman or other officer, and is, perhaps, punished for 
 his offense. The boy has now learned that there is a 
 third government which he must obey, — the government 
 of the city, or of the State. And thus it is all through 
 life ; no matter where we go, or which way we turn, 
 government always and everywhere follows us and regu- 
 lates our actions. If the governments that control us are 
 wise, and just, and kind, we are made happier by them ; 
 if they are harsh, or foolish, or tyrannical, our lives are 
 made miserable by them. By studying and understand- 
 
LESSON I 15 
 
 ing the different forms of government under which we 
 live, we may prepare ourselves to make them better. 
 
 The Necessity of Government. — Whenever two or more 
 people live together, there must be rules to regulate their 
 actions. Without such rules they would quarrel and fight, 
 brutal passions would be their guide, and they would soon 
 become savages. Hence, no matter how small or how 
 rude the society, a government of some kind is necessary. 
 Try to think what would happen around you if no one was 
 under any sort of control, if every one could follow his own 
 will and his own appetites and desires. 
 
 Laws. — The rules that governments make to guide our 
 actions are called laws. A law states what we are to do 
 and forbids what we are not to do. When a law has been 
 made it must be obeyed. No man can disobey a law with- 
 out being liable to punishment for his disobedience. We 
 may not like a law, we may think a law unjust or unwise, 
 yet so long as it is a law we must obey it. Moreover, 
 when a person violates a law, he is punished, although he 
 did not know there was such a law when he violated it. 
 Ignorance of what the law is will excuse no one. Laws 
 are made for the government of us all, and if we do not 
 know what they are it is either our fault or our misfortune. 
 
 How laws are made and changed, and how people are 
 forced to obey them, and punished for disobeying them, 
 will be explained hereafter. At present it is enough to 
 know that any government worthy of the name is always 
 strong enough to enforce the laws that are made. It is 
 the duty of all who live under a government to obey the 
 laws of that government without being compelled to do so. 
 
1 6 LESSONS IN CIVICS 
 
 If we think a certain law is bad, it is our right and our 
 duty to try to have it changed. Are you compelled to 
 obey any laws that you think are unjust? 
 
 QUESTIONS FOR ORIGINAL THOUGHT 
 
 1. What is the meaning of the word governess? governmental f 
 ungovernable ? gubernatorial 
 
 2. Explain the use of the "governor" on a steam engine. 
 
 3. Name the people whom you know to be officers of government. 
 
 4. What would happen if people on the street were allowed to do 
 just as they pleased? 
 
 5. What is a hermit? 
 
 6. The heavenly bodies move according to certain laws. What do 
 you think would happen if these laws should cease to operate, and sun, 
 moon, and stars should move according to no fixed law? 
 
 7. Watch the movements of ants. Do you not see signs of govern- 
 ment among them ? 
 
 8. Watch a large flock of birds flying through the air. Do you not 
 see signs of government among the birds ? 
 
 9. Can you see law and order in the world of nature around you? 
 Observe an ear of corn ; a rose ; a leaf. 
 
 10. Name some of the uses of government and law. 
 
 • 
 
LESSON II 
 
 THE GOVERNMENT OF SELF 
 
 " He that ruleth his spirit is better than he that taketh a city." — Bible. 
 
 Self-Control. — Before you begin to study the different 
 forms of government under which we live, I wish to call 
 your attention to something that is at the foundation of all 
 government. I wish you to think for a few moments upon 
 the subject of the government of one's self, or self-cont7vl. 
 You doubtless feel in yourself the power to control your 
 own actions in many ways. You can be studious, or you 
 can be idle ; you can be respectful, or you can be impu- 
 dent ; you can be kind, or you can be cruel. I think you 
 will not deny that there is within yourself a government 
 which controls your private actions; a will that directs 
 the actions of your mind and body. We should all con- 
 stantly ask ourselves whether our wills carry us in the 
 right direction. True self-control consists in deciding to 
 do what is right and doing it. Anger, appetite, laziness, 
 envy, jealousy, pride, revenge, tempt us to do wrong. 
 Love, duty, conscience, whisper to us to do right. For 
 which shall we decide — for the wrong or for the right } 
 If we decide for the wrong, we may in the end become the 
 slaves of our passions and be destroyed. For which, then, 
 shall we decide } 
 
 LESS. IN CIV. — 2 17 
 
1 8 LESSONS IN CIVICS 
 
 Self-Control may be cultivated. — I believe you all think 
 that you ought to control yourselves and do right, but 
 some of you may feel unequal to the task of always doing 
 right. Now self-control lies in the will. If your will is 
 strong, you will be able to govern yourself under the most 
 trying circumstances; if it is weak, you will not. But 
 remember this : A weak will may be strengthened by 
 exercise, just as an arm may be strengthened by exer- 
 cise. If a boy who has learned to smoke feels that smok- 
 ing is injuring him, he should leave off the habit at once. 
 When a cigar is offered to him he should refuse to take it. 
 This may be hard to do at first. Let him refuse a second 
 time and he will find it easier ; a third time he will find it 
 still easier. By continuing to refuse he will at last find 
 that his desire to smoke has gone. His will conquers his 
 appetite and he is master of himself. If a girl who in- 
 dulges in the ugly habit of saying spiteful and untruthful 
 things about her acquaintances becomes ashamed of her- 
 self and desires to do better, she should begin by exercis- 
 ing and strengthening her will. When she hears some one 
 saying unjust things about another, instead of helping 
 along with the abuse, she should keep silent, even if she 
 must bite her tongue to do so. By refusing for a time to 
 speak falsely or unjustly about people, she will find that it 
 is not necessary to bite her tongue to prevent herself from 
 joining in when she hears slanderous remarks. She will 
 probably be inclined to use her tongue either to rebuke 
 the slanderer 'or to say something good about the person 
 slandered. Young people will find that a strong will bent 
 on doing right will carry them safely past temptation. 
 
LESSON II 19 
 
 The Reward of Doing Right. — Thoughtless young peo- 
 ple sometimes ask : " What is the use of doing right ? 
 What is the use of checking bad impulses and exercising 
 self-control ? " If you will look around you, and reflect 
 upon what you see, you will find an answer to this ques- 
 tion. You will find that the people who exercise control 
 over themselves are happier than those who are carried 
 along by passion and appetite. Sometimes, it is true, 
 wicked and violent men seem to prosper and even to be 
 happy. But they are not really happy. If you could 
 learn the secret of their lives, you will find that bad, dis- 
 honest men lack one thing that is more precious than any- 
 thing else in life. They may have wealth, and honor, and 
 high social rank, but they have not their own self-respect, 
 and no one can be truly happy without this. With self- 
 respect one can never be thoroughly unhappy. You may 
 be unfortunate or unsuccessful ; people may scorn you or 
 neglect you, yet if you always firmly do the right thing, 
 you will always have a good conscience and your own 
 self-respect. 
 
 The Government of Self the Foundation of all Govern- 
 ment. — There is another reward for those who exercise a 
 strict control over themselves. Their government of self 
 makes them good citizens and fits them to take part in the 
 government of others. A community is composed of indi- 
 viduals, and the character of its government will be like 
 the character of the individuals who compose it. If it 
 contains a large number of rogues, swindlers, idlers, 
 drunkards, then its government will certainly be bad, for 
 the government of a people is never much better than the 
 
20 LESSONS IN CIVICS 
 
 people themselves. If a community consists of honest, 
 industrious, moral citizens, then it will have a good gov- 
 ernment. Good government begins with the individual, it 
 begins with yoti personally. If you intend to take a part 
 in public affairs when you grow up, and if you intend to 
 help in making your government better, you should begin 
 by trying to make a good man of yourself. 
 
LESSON III 
 
 THE FAMILY 
 
 " There is in the family an angel possessed of a mysterious influ- 
 ence of grace, sweetness, and love ; an angel who renders our duties 
 more cheerful and our sorrows less bitter. This angel is woman. 
 Whether as mother, wife, or sister, woman is the joy of existence. She 
 is a treasure of gentle consolation sufficient to soothe every sorrow. It 
 is through woman that the family points to Eternity. Hold then the 
 fauiily sacred, my brothers. Reject every attempt to undermine it, for 
 it is of God." — Mazzini. 
 
 The Family in Ancient Times. — The oldest form of 
 government with which we are acquainted is that which 
 exists within the family. In very early times men did not 
 live in large bodies and associate closely with each other 
 as they do in our day. The father, as the head of the 
 family, was the only one that made laws, and he was, 
 therefore, the only one that must be obeyed. 
 
 The power of the father in those old times was very 
 great. He had complete control over the lives and for- 
 tunes of all the members of his family. He could sentence 
 a son or a daughter to death ; he could sell his children 
 into slavery. A son, whatever might be his age, could 
 not marry without the consent of his father, and could not 
 acquire land or other kind of property and hold it in his 
 own name. Even the children of a son were in the power, 
 not of their father, but of their grandfather. 
 
22 LESSONS IN CIVICS 
 
 The Family of To-day. — In our times the power of 
 the father over his children is not so great. Many of the 
 things that the father once could do can now be done only 
 by the government of the State. Yet even now there is 
 no government that affects the lives of young people 
 more than that which comes to them from their parents. 
 Parents regulate the conduct of children, support them, 
 protect them, educate them. It is in the home, while 
 members of the family, that children must look for their 
 greatest happiness. The law that should govern, and 
 that usually does govern, in the family is the law of love 
 and duty. In the home there should be no force. Par- 
 ents, as a rule, devote their lives to the happiness of their 
 children. What should children do in return ? 
 
 It has been found that parents are not always kind and 
 loving and just towards their children, and that children 
 are not always grateful and obedient to their parents. It 
 sometimes happens that the parent or the child fails to do 
 his duty. When this does happen, the government of the 
 State steps in and commands what must be done. Let us 
 learn something of the rights and duties which the law 
 will not allow parents or children to disregard. 
 
 The Duties of Parents to Children. 
 
 (i) Support, — The first duty the parent owes to the 
 child is to support it, to provide it with food, clothing, 
 and shelter. If a father should be so hard-hearted as to 
 turn his child out of doors and refuse to give it food, a 
 stranger could take the child into his house and feed it 
 and charge the father with the expense, and the law would 
 
LESSON III 23 
 
 compel the father to pay the bill. This duty of parents 
 to support their children continues until the children are 
 twenty-one years of age. After that time children may 
 not look to their parents for support. It is not often that 
 the law interferes with the parents in these matters ; love 
 alone is nearly always strong enough to hold them to their 
 duty. 
 
 (2) Education. — A second duty which parents owe to 
 their children is to educate them. In many of the coun- 
 tries of Europe, and in several of the States of our own 
 country, parents are compelled by law to send their chil- 
 dren to school. In every State schools are provided for 
 children free of cost, and parents are expected to send 
 their children to them : "A parent who sends his son into 
 the world uneducated does a great injury to mankind as 
 well as to his own family, for he deprives the community 
 of a useful citizen and he bequeaths to it a nuisance." 
 Do you think the State should compel parents to send 
 their children to school } 
 
 Rights of Parents in Respect to their Children. — Parents 
 have not duties only ; they have rights also. 
 
 (i) Obedience. — They have the right to the obedience 
 of their children. The child must obey its parents in all 
 reasonable commands. If it refuses to obey, it may be 
 punished in such manner as the parents think fit. The 
 punishment, however, must be reasonable ; it must be such 
 as not to endanger the health of the child or injure it in 
 mind or body. 
 
 (2) Service. — Parents have the right to the service of 
 
24 LESSONS IN CIVICS 
 
 their children. Until children are of age they must work 
 for their parents if their parents need their service. If 
 they earn wages, their parents have a right to take their 
 earnings. 
 
 (3) Assistance in Old Age, — If the parents are old and 
 poor and unable to take care of themselves, their children 
 may be compelled to assist them. Just as parents are 
 compelled to support the child when it is young and help- 
 less, so the child is compelled to support its parents when 
 they are old and helpless. 
 
 QUESTIONS FOR ORIGINAL THOUGHT 
 
 1. What is the average number of persons in a family? (Find the 
 number of persons in ten families of your acquaintance and divide this 
 number by ten.) 
 
 2. Are parents responsible for the actions of their children? 
 
 3. Who is the most unselfish member of the home? 
 
 4. Is it a kindness for parents to live beyond their means for the 
 sake of their children? 
 
 5. Name some bad habits that children are guilty of in their homes. 
 
 6. What sacrifices do parents make in order that their children may 
 be kept at school ? 
 
 7. How may parents be repaid for these sacrifices ? 
 
 8. How should disobedient children be punished? 
 
LESSON IV 
 
 THE FAMILY (Continued) 
 
 Husband and Wife ; Marriage. — At the head of the 
 family government stand the father and mother who are 
 united as husband and wife by marriage. Marriage is 
 regarded by the law as a contract, but it is a very strong 
 contract, and it ought to be a very sacred one. It is a con- 
 tract that cannot be, and ought not to be, easily broken. 
 The marriage relation continues as long as both husband 
 and wife live. The only way the marriage tie can be law- 
 fully broken during life is by diiwrce. When either the 
 husband or the wife acts in such a way as to destroy the 
 happiness of the home, a court of law will grant (to the 
 wife when the husband is guilty, or to the husband when 
 the wife is guilty) a divorce, that is, the right to live apart. 
 Thus a divorce breaks up the home and usually results in 
 unhappiness to all members of the family. The laws of 
 the different States differ very widely in the matter of 
 granting divorces. In some States a very trifling offense 
 on the part of the husband or the wife is a lawful cause 
 for divorce. In other States it is very difficult to get a 
 divorce, even for the most serious offense. Some have 
 thought that the law in reference to divorce should be the 
 same in all the States. When you grow older you may be 
 called upon to express an opinion upon this question. 
 
 25 
 
26 LESSONS IN CIVICS 
 
 In olden times the wife was regarded as the property of 
 the husband, and everything that she owned before mar- 
 riage became his after marriage. But in our day woman 
 holds a higher place in the family. She is regarded as the 
 equal of the husband, not as his slave. In most States she 
 may hold in her own name the property she had before 
 marriage, and if she acquires property after marriage she 
 may claim it as her own. The law is gradually coming to 
 regard woman with more favor and to bestow upon her 
 more rights than she had in the past. The husband is 
 bound to support his wife. If he refuses her the neces- 
 saries of life she may buy what she needs from any one 
 who will trust her and the husband will be compelled to pay 
 for what she gets. If the wife leaves her husband without 
 cause and of her own free will, he will not be compelled to 
 support her. Upon the death of the husband the wife has 
 the right of dozver ; that is, she has a right for her lifetime 
 to one third of the property in land held by her husband at 
 his death. 
 
 Servants. — Servants employed to assist in the work of 
 the household are not usually regarded as members of the 
 family, yet in discussing family government we must not 
 pass them by without a word. There was a time when the 
 position of the servant in the family was quite different 
 from what it is now. A hundred years ago the relation 
 between servant and master was close. The master then 
 would protect his servant from harm, would care for him 
 when he was sick, would support him in his old age. The 
 servant in return was loyal to his master and rendered to 
 him a faithful and willing service. And it was the same 
 
LESSON IV 27 
 
 with the maidservants of the household. Mistresses in 
 the olden times did not look upon their maids as hirelings 
 unworthy of sympathy or help. We may learn from a 
 Greek author how a lady was expected to treat her ser- 
 vants in ancient times. A husband and his young wife are 
 talking over household matters just after their marriage: 
 
 Husband, '* But there is one of the duties belonging 
 to you which, perhaps, will be more painful to you than 
 any other, namely, the care of your servants when they 
 are ill." 
 
 Wife. " Nay, that will be most pleasing to me of all 
 my duties if only m.y servants will be grateful when I min- 
 ister rightly to them and will love me better." 
 
 Hitsband. "You will have other duties that you will 
 like better. When one of your handmaidens does not 
 know how to spin you will teach her, and make her twice 
 the girl she was ; or when one is ignorant of housekeeping 
 you will teach her how to manage a house and make her 
 faithful and mistresslike, and every way worthy." 
 
 From this dialogue we learn that in Greece more than 
 two thousand years ago the mistress of the house took a 
 deep personal interest in the welfare and happiness of her 
 servants, and that she was bound to them by ties of love 
 and duty. In order that she might be better served she 
 tried to make her servants noble and good. 
 
 We must confess that in our own day there is no such 
 happy relation existing between mistress and maid. The 
 mistress usually thinks her duty is ended when she has 
 paid her servant the wages, and the servant is careful to 
 
28 LESSONS IN CIVICS 
 
 render as little true service as possible. The result is dis- 
 content and quarreling and frequent changes. Would it 
 not be better for the mistress, would she not be better 
 served, if she treated her servants with kindness and 
 friendliness ? Would it not be better for servants to try 
 to win their employers' good will and affection by thor- 
 ough service and loyal deeds ? 
 
 Importance of the Family Government. — The govern- 
 ment of the family is the smallest of the governments that 
 we shall have to study, but it is not the least important. 
 The larger governments, such as the city or the State, are 
 simply a number of families bound together, and if all the 
 families of a town or of a State were well governed, there 
 is no doubt that the town or the State itself would be well 
 governed. How important then is it that we should do all 
 in our power to make our homes what they should be. 
 Children can serve their country simply by doing their 
 duty in their Jiomes. They can repay the love and sacri- 
 fice of their parents by loving and unselfish deeds. Broth- 
 ers and sisters may bless their homes by living at peace 
 with each other. We should never forget that t/ie law of 
 the home is the law of love, service y and sacrifice. 
 
LESSON V 
 
 THE GOVERNMENT OF THE SCHOOL 
 
 ** The school should be pervaded by a spirit of honesty and truth- 
 fulness. It should inspire its pupils with a manly resistance to all 
 temptations to deceive or be false." — E. E, White. 
 
 Pupils should know Something of School Government. — 
 
 For several years you have attended school, and while in 
 school you have found that you are under a government ; 
 that you cannot do as you please ; that teachers and school 
 officers regulate your conduct in many ways. This gov- 
 ernment of the school, in the lives of young people, is 
 next in importance to the government of the family. The 
 present happiness, as well as the future welfare of pupils, 
 depends in a large degree upon how the school which they 
 attend is governed. Pupils, therefore, should understand 
 something of the nature of school government. If you 
 will study this subject carefully, you will understand your 
 teachers better, and your school life may thereby be made 
 pleasanter. Very frequently trouble arises in a school- 
 room merely because teachers and pupils do not under- 
 stand each other. 
 
 The School District. — You are sent to school in order 
 that you may acquire useful knowledge, and that your 
 mind may be trained to think rightly upon questions 
 that may arise in your life. The State provides for you 
 
 29 
 
30 LESSONS IN CIVICS 
 
 schools which you may attend free of cost. It does this 
 in order that you may grow up to be intelligent citizens. 
 Ignorant citizens are a source of danger to a state. In 
 order that all children may attend school, schoolhouses 
 are built at convenient distances from each other in all 
 parts of the country. It is rare that a child lives more 
 than three miles from a school. When a school is to 
 be established, a portion of territory with definite boun- 
 daries is laid off as a School District. Near the center 
 of this district is built the schoolhouse. In a thinly popu- 
 lated community the school may have but one teacher and 
 but twenty or thirty pupils. In a thickly populated dis- 
 trict, as in a city, a single school may have twenty or more 
 teachers and a thousand or more pupils. Whether small 
 or large, the School District is the unit of school govern- 
 ment. 
 
 School Officers. — At the head of the government of the 
 School District is a body of officials whose duty it is to 
 appoint the teacher and supervise the affairs of the school. 
 This governing body is known by different names in dif- 
 ferent States. In some States it is called the School 
 Committee, and is elected each year by the voters of the 
 School District. In other States it is called the Board of 
 School Trustees, and is not elected but is appointed by 
 some authority above it. Sometimes the governing body 
 is called the Board of School Directors : sometimes it is 
 called the Board of Education. In a few States it is 
 called the Board of School Visitors. In all the States 
 every public school has a set of officers, — whatever they 
 may be called, — who exercise a very close and a very 
 
LESSON V 31 
 
 complete direction of its affairs. In other words, every 
 school has its governors and its government. 
 
 Powers and Duties of School Officers. — The school offi- 
 cers of the District have at their disposal for school pur- 
 poses a certain amount of money raised by taxation. 
 With this rhoney they pay the salary of the teachers, 
 build and repair schoolhouses, furnish the schools with 
 fuel, furniture, maps, books, and other supplies. They 
 make rules for the government of teachers, and usually 
 declare what studies shall be taught. They may make 
 rules for the government of pupils if they choose to do 
 so, although generally they allow the teachers to make 
 such rules. In all important matters relating to the school 
 the teachers must consult the school officers of the Dis- 
 trict. For example, a teacher may send an unruly pupil 
 home for a short time, but he cannot expel the pupil ; 
 that is, he cannot take away from the pupil entirely the 
 right of coming to the school. A pupil can be expelled 
 only with the consent of the school officers. These offi- 
 cers determine the hours of opening and closing schools ; 
 they fix the lengths of recesses ; they decide when a holi- 
 day may be given ; they care for the health of the pupils. 
 Thus we see they play a most important part in the gov- 
 ernment of the school. 
 
 The Teacher. — Next to the school officials in the gov- 
 ernment of the school comes the teacher. So far as the 
 pupils are concerned, the teacher is the real head of the 
 school. The duty of the teacher is twofold, — he must 
 teach, and he must govern. As there can be no good 
 teaching where there is not good government, the teacher 
 
32 LESSONS IN CIVICS 
 
 must make every effort to secm'e obedience and good 
 habits in his pupils. In order to do this, he usually makes 
 a set of rules for the guidance of the school. If these 
 rules are just and reasonable, the pupils must obey them. 
 If a pupil refuses to obey a proper rule, he may be pun- 
 ished for his disobedience ; if he persists in disobeying, he 
 may be expelled from the school. What are some of the 
 rules that a teacher may make and that pupils must obey ? 
 In the next lesson I will mention a few of those rules that 
 judges in courts of law have found reasonable and have 
 upheld teachers in enforcing. The rules that will be men- 
 tioned are such as no pupil can safely disobey. 
 
 QUESTIONS FOR ORIGINAL THOUGHT 
 
 1. Do you know the boundaries of your School District.'* Draw a 
 map of the district, locating the schoolhouse. 
 
 2. May a pupil living in one School District attend school in an- 
 other ? 
 
 3. Name the members of your School Committee. 
 
 4. In some States women may serve as school officers. Do women 
 serve as school officers in your State? 
 
 5. Draw up a formal petition asking your School Committee to pur- 
 chase something that your school needs. 
 
 6. Is a pupil on his way to or from school under the government of 
 the school or under the government of his parents ? 
 
 7. In what subjects are teachers required to pass an examination 
 before they are permitted to teach ? 
 
 8. Imagine you are a school officer and write a letter appointing 
 a teacher; a letter accepting a teacher's resignation. 
 
 9. Draw up resolutions expressing sorrow for the death of a school- 
 mate or teacher, and sympathy for the relatives. 
 
LESSON VI 
 
 THE GOVERNMENT OF THE SCHOOL (Continued) 
 
 •^ The seven cardinal virtues of the school are : regularity, punctu- 
 ality, neatness, accuracy, silence, industry, and obedience." 
 
 — E, E. White. 
 
 Rules that Pupils must Obey : 
 
 Rule I. Pupils must not be Tardy. — ''Tardiness is 
 a direct injury to the whole school. The confusion of 
 hurrying to seats, gathering together of books, etc., by 
 tardy ones, at a time when all should be at study, cannot 
 fail to impede the progress of those who are regular and 
 prompt in attendance. The rule requiring prompt and 
 regular attendance is demanded for the good of the whole 
 school. It is therefore a rule for the government of the 
 school, and must be regarded as proper and reasonable." 
 
 Rule II. Pupils must conduct themselves properly while 
 
 at School. — "Henry H was expelled from school by 
 
 the Committee of Rockport, M , for acts of misconduct, 
 
 which consisted of whispering, laughing, acts of playful- 
 ness and rudeness to other pupils, inattention to study, 
 and conduct tending to cause confusion and distract the 
 attention of other scholars from their studies and reci- 
 tations." Henry thought the expulsion was unjust, and 
 brought suit against the Committee. The judge who tried 
 
 LESS. IN CIV. — 3 33 
 
34 LESSONS IN CIVICS 
 
 his case thought that the boy was justly expelled, and 
 decided in favor of the Committee. 
 
 Rule III. Pupils sJioidd be Regular in Attendance. — 
 Pupils may not be allowed to remain absent from school 
 without a satisfactory excuse. They may be required to 
 bring written excuses for absence. On this rule a judge, 
 delivering an opinion in court, said : " Continued or re- 
 peated absences of one of a class is not only injurious to 
 the absentee but, if allowed beyond a certain point, is 
 calculated to demoralize those who attend and derange the 
 orderly instruction of the teacher." Notice that the judge 
 was not so much interested in the boy who was absent as 
 he was in the pupils who were regular in their attendance. 
 It is the welfare of a whole school, and not the welfare of 
 a single person, that must be considered when making a 
 rule for the government of pupils. In what ways does 
 absence interfere with the general work of the school } 
 
 Rule IV. Pttpils must not Play Truant. — When a 
 child that has been sent to school by its parents does not 
 come to school, it commits truancy, and this is an offense 
 against good school government. In some States and in 
 many cities truant officers are employed to follow up 
 truants and bring them to school. Truancy is a grave 
 fault, and pupils who commit it are liable to get them- 
 selves into serious trouble. A judge in a court of law is 
 usually severe with truants. What does the truant lose 
 by remaining away from school '^. What does the school 
 lose } 
 
 Rule V. Piipils must pursite the Prescribed Course of 
 Studies. — Every school has, or ought to have, a regular 
 
LESSON VI 35 
 
 course of study which all pupils are to follow. If pupils 
 were allowed to select their own studies, there would be 
 the greatest confusion. No two would select exactly the 
 same studies. Neither can pupils be allowed to choose 
 the class in which they are to recite. Both their studies 
 and their rank in school must be left to the decision of the 
 teacher. Would you rather be in a class where the work 
 was too easy for you, or in a class where the work was 
 difficult ? 
 
 Duties of Teachers and Pupils. — The few rules that 
 have been given above are such as have been found neces- 
 sary in all schools. In all schools children must be punc- 
 tual, they must be regular in their attendance, they must 
 be obedient, they must not play truant, they must pursue 
 the studies that are selected for them. Many other rules 
 might be mentioned, but more are not necessary. After 
 all, a school is not made good by rules. A good school is 
 one in which both teachers and pupils try day by day to 
 do their d?^tf. What is meant by duty ? What is it to do 
 one's duty .'* You do your duty when you do what your 
 conscience tells you is right. Try to find out what is 
 right, and when you have decided what is right, act for 
 the right, and you have done your duty. It is sometimes 
 hard to tell what is right and what is wrong, but some 
 things are pretty clear. It is perfectly clear that it is the 
 duty of the teacher to do the following things : 
 
 (i) To prepare himself thoroughly in the subjects that 
 he teaches. 
 
 (2) To work hard for the advancement of all his pupils. 
 
36 LESSONS IN CIVICS 
 
 (3) To treat his pupils with respect and kindness, and 
 to extend to them, whenever he can, help and sympathy. 
 
 (4) To set an example of right living. A bad man 
 cannot be a good teacher. 
 
 (5) To be punctual. A teacher cannot expect his pupils 
 to be prompt if he allows himself to be tardy. 
 
 (6) To be careful of his own health and of the health 
 of his pupils. 
 
 (7) To train his pupils in such habits as will make good 
 men and women of them. 
 
 These are a few of the duties of a teacher. Your 
 teacher has doubtless thought much upon the subject of 
 his duty, and has perhaps read books upon the subject. 
 It would not be strange if you have thought very little of 
 your duty; yet as pupils you have your duties, and you 
 ought to learn what they are and try to fulfill them. A 
 few of the most important duties of pupils are : 
 
 (i) To obey cheerfully the five rules that have been 
 stated. 
 
 (2) To avoid wasting their own time or the time of 
 their fellow-pupils by whispering, passing notes, or mak- 
 ing unnecessary noises in the schoolroom. 
 
 (3) To be kind and respectful to their teachers and 
 schoolmates. 
 
 (4) To be truthful in all things. 
 
 (5) To be loyal to the school and to support the teacher 
 in his efforts to improve it. 
 
 (6) To be neat and clean in dress and person. 
 
 (7) To avoid speaking ill of their classmates. 
 
LESSON VI 37 
 
 (8) To avoid slandering or misrepresenting the teacher. 
 
 (9) To avoid bearing tales. 
 
 (10) To refrain from cutting, marking, injuring, or de- 
 facing school property. 
 
 (11) To obey all signals promptly. 
 
 (12) To conduct themselves properly on the way to 
 and from school. 
 
 There are, of course, other duties besides those men- 
 tioned above. In the schoolroom, as elsewhere, there 
 are constantly arising questions of duty that can only be 
 settled by taking into consideration particular facts and 
 circumstances. In all cases, l\pwever, the rule is the 
 same : Do right, forget self, and do what your conscience 
 tells you to do. By following the path of duty a pupil 
 will help to make his school what it ought to be — a place 
 where the minds and hearts of boys and girls are trained 
 for the highest manhood and womanhood. 
 
 QUESTIONS FOR ORIGINAL THOUGHT 
 
 1 . From the list of duties of pupils given in the lesson a most im- 
 portant duty is omitted. What is the duty ? 
 
 2. Make a Hst of duties that parents owe to the school. 
 
 3. Make a list of duties that teachers owe to parents. 
 
 4. Name the qualities that teachers like in pupils. 
 
 5. Name the qualities that pupils like in teachers. 
 
 6. When things go wrong at home with teachers and pupils, do 
 they ever take their spite out in the schoolroom ? 
 
 7. What does the word impartial mean? Can a teacher be per- 
 fectly impartial? 
 
 8. In your conduct towards your teachers and schoolmates, do 
 you follow the " golden rule " ? 
 
 9. Discuss " cheating" and " copying." 
 
 10. Name some of the benefits of education. 
 
LESSON VII 
 CITIZENSHIP 
 
 WHO ARE CITIZENS 
 
 " The ideal citizen is the man who believes that all men are brothers, 
 and that the nation is merely an extension of his family, to be loved, 
 respected, and cared for accordingly." — Habberton. 
 
 « 
 
 Introduction. — We have studied the government of the 
 family and the government of the school and have learned 
 something of the rights and duties of the members of a 
 household, and also something of the rights and duties of 
 pupils and teachers. The governments that we shall study- 
 hereafter are those that we meet with outside of the family 
 and school. They are governments that include a much 
 larger number of people than either the family or the 
 school. A family seldom consists of more than a dozen 
 persons, while the school seldom numbers more than sev- 
 eral hundred pupils. But the larger governments that 
 you will be interested in when you go out from school con- 
 sists of many thousands, and some of them of millions, of 
 people. They are governments, therefore, far more diffi- 
 cult to understand than that of the family or the school. 
 But as they are governments that most of you will be 
 called upon to take a part in managing, it is highly impor- 
 tant that you understand their workings. Before we take 
 
 38 
 
LESSON VII . 39 
 
 up the study of these larger governments, in order that we 
 may be able to understand our subject better, we shall 
 have several lessons on the subject of citizenship, and 
 shall try to learn what are our rights and duties as 
 citizens. 
 
 Meaning of the Word ** Citizen." — Let us begin by 
 trying to learn what is meant by the word citizen. In 
 the strict meaning of the word a citizen is one who has 
 the rights and privileges of an inhabitant of a city; but 
 the word now means more than this. A citizen is one who 
 has the rights and privileges of the inhabitants of a state 
 or nation. As a member of the family you have certain 
 rights and duties under the family government; as a 
 member of a school you have certain rights and duties 
 under the government of the school ; and so, as one of the 
 inhabitants of a nation, you have certain rights and duties 
 under the government of that nation. A citizen of a coun- 
 try is one born in that country. If you were born in the 
 United States, you are a citizen of the United States. The 
 rank of citizen does not belong to grown men alone, for 
 women and children are as truly citizens as men are. To 
 be a citizen is simply to be a recognized member of a com- 
 munity, and the test of such membership is birth within 
 the community. 
 
 Aliens. — But there are many people among us who 
 were not born in the United States. Thousands come to 
 our shores every week from foreign countries. These 
 foreigners are citizens of another country, and are for 
 that reason called aliens, the word alien meaning another. 
 Aliens have not so many rights and privileges as citizens 
 
40 * LESSONS IN CIVICS 
 
 have. As a rule they are not allowed to vote, and in 
 some States they are not allowed to hold land in their own 
 name. As they are citizens of another country it is not 
 just that they should share all the privileges of citizens 
 of this country. A person cannot be a citizen of two dif- 
 ferent countries at the same time. 
 
 Naturalization. — We have learned that aliens living 
 among us continue to be citizens of the country in which 
 they were born. Yet if they so desire they can be natural- 
 ized, that is, they can be made citizens by a process of law 
 called naturalization. Before he can be naturalized, an 
 alien must have lived five years in this country. When an 
 alien wishes to be naturalized he must first go into some 
 court of law and declare upon oath before a judge that he 
 intends to become a citizen of the United States. This is 
 called "declaring his intention." After he has declared 
 his intention of becoming a citizen, he must wait two 
 years, at the end of which time he again goes before 
 the judge and swears that he renounces his citizenship 
 in the country in which he was born and that he will sup- 
 port the Constitution of the United States. If the judge 
 believes that he has resided in the United States for five 
 years and that there is no fraud, the alien will then have 
 conferred upon him the distinction of being an Ameri- 
 can citizen. Would it be right to require that aliens, 
 before they are naturalized, should read the Constitution 
 that they swear to support } 
 
LESSON VIII 
 CITIZENSHIP (Continued) 
 
 CIVIL RIGHTS 
 
 "What is liberty without wisdom and without virtue? It is folly, 
 vice, and madness." — Edmund Btirke. 
 
 Civil and Political Rights. — We shall nov^ speak of 
 those rights of which American citizens are so proud. 
 The rights of the citizen may be divided into tv^o classes : 
 (i), his civil rights, and (2), his political rights. Civil rights' 
 are those that are enjoyed by all citizens v^hether men, 
 women, or children. For example, they are such rights 
 as pupils may enjoy. Political rights are such as adult 
 citizens have of sharing in government. Thus the right 
 to vote and hold office are political rights. In this lesson 
 we shall speak of civil rights. 
 
 The Right to Personal Security. — By this is meant the 
 right to be secure from injury to our body, our health, and 
 our reputation. If our person is attacked, if violent hands 
 are laid upon us, we can call upon the government to 
 defend us. Policemen, sheriffs, and constables are em- 
 ployed at public expense to secure citizens from harm. If 
 a citizen is attacked, and he cannot get the immediate aid 
 of an officer, he has the right to defend himself. If a 
 burglar breaks into a house at night, the occupant of the 
 
 41 
 
42 LESSONS IN CIVICS 
 
 house, in defense of himself and family, may lawfully kill 
 him. If a citizen is threatened harm by a person, he may 
 have the one who threatens him taken before a magistrate 
 and bound with sureties to keep the peace. If the health 
 of citizens is threatened by some nuisance, as by poisonous 
 fumes from a factory, or by a careless accumulation of 
 filth, the citizen may call upon the government to have the 
 nuisance removed or abated. In these and in many other 
 ways the government cares for the personal safety and 
 happiness of the citizen. The government will also defend 
 the reputation of its citizens. If a person slanders you, 
 that is, talks about you in such a way as to injure your 
 good name and lower your standing in the community, you 
 may call upon the government to defend you and punish 
 him who slanders you. If what is said about you is true, 
 you can, of course, do nothing. A person whose conduct 
 is what it ought to be will have but little to fear from 
 slander. 
 
 Personal Liberty ; Habeas Corpus. — Another right that 
 all citizens enjoy is the right of personal liberty. By this 
 is meant the right to move about freely from place to 
 place without hindrance, to choose a place of residence, 
 to engage in whatever occupation one may see fit, to wor- 
 ship in the church of one's choice, and to speak and print 
 one's thoughts. Of course while you are under the charge 
 of your parents you cannot enjoy this right so fully as you 
 will when you shall come of age. The right of personal 
 liberty is one of the most valuable rights that free men 
 possess. In olden times a powerful man could throw an 
 humble man into a dungeon and keep him there as long 
 
LESSON VIII 43 
 
 as he desired. In our day such a wrong cannot be in- 
 flicted upon a citizen. No citizen can be imprisoned by 
 a private person, nor can any one be imprisoned at all 
 without just cause. If a person is thrown into prison, 
 or is put into confinement against his will, he has the right 
 to a writ of habeas corptis. Every one should know some- 
 thing of this famous writ, for it is the greatest safeguard 
 of personal liberty. Let us see what the writ of habeas 
 corpus is and what it does for the citizen. Suppose you 
 are thrown into prison unjustly, or that you are confined 
 in some place against your will ; how shall you get out } 
 Somebody who is interested in you, perhaps it will be a 
 lawyer, will go at once to a judge of a court and ask that 
 you be taken out of prison immediately and brought before 
 a judge in order that your case may be heard. The judge 
 is bound to grant this request, he is bound to have you 
 brought before him at once. He, therefore, at once issues 
 a writ of habeas corptts. This writ is an order to the 
 sheriff, or whoever it is that keeps you in confinement, to 
 bring you as soon as possible, before the court. When 
 you are brought before the judge, and it is found that you 
 are innocent of crime, you are restored to your freedom. 
 If the judge should find that there is good reason for your 
 imprisonment, he will send you back to jail to await a 
 regular trial. Thus we see that the writ of habeas corpus 
 gives quick relief to a person who has been unjustly im- 
 prisoned. In times of war or great public danger, this 
 writ may be snspendedy and when it is suspended a citizen 
 may be confined in prison for no cause whatever, merely 
 on suspicion. 
 
44 LESSONS IN CIVICS 
 
 The Right of Private Property. — A citizen has the 
 right to hold property in his own name, and the govern- 
 ment must protect him in the enjoyment of this property. 
 If any one attempts to deprive a man of that which he 
 lawfully owns, the government will come to the aid of the 
 owner and will punish the offender. If a mob burns down 
 a house, or in some other way destroys property, the gov- 
 ernment will make good the loss to the owner. It is the 
 duty of the government to protect property, as it is its 
 duty to protect life and liberty. Besides the right to enjoy 
 in peace the property he owns, the citizen has the right to 
 acquire more property by labor or by trade or by the 
 exercise of his talents. This right of acquiring property 
 is sometimes abused. In the pursuit of wealth a man has 
 no moral right to disregard the just rights of others. Too 
 often men think only of themselves and do not hesitate to 
 take for themselves what in strict right belongs to some 
 one else. But no truly good citizen will do this. A good 
 citizen will follow the rule : Render unto others their due. 
 We cannot all be rich, but we can all be honest and just. 
 
 QUESTIONS FOR ORIGINAL THOUGHT 
 
 1. A farmer shot and seriously injured a boy who was in his tree 
 stealing chestnuts. Could the farmer have been punished for this act? 
 
 2. Is there full enjoyment of all civil rights in your community? 
 
 3. In what way may the newspapers abuse the "freedom of the 
 press " ? 
 
 4. What is meant by "religious liberty''? 
 
 5. Discuss the expression, " Live and let live." 
 
LESSON IX 
 CITIZENSHIP (Continued) 
 
 WHO ARE VOTERS 
 "Voters are the uncrowned kings who rule the nation." — Morgan, 
 
 The Right of Suffrage. — Civil rights, we have learned, 
 are those rights enjoyed by all citizens, old and young, 
 rich and poor, educated and ignorant. Political rights are 
 enjoyed only by those citizens who are old enough and 
 wise enough to exercise them properly. The greatest 
 political right of citizens is the right of suffrage. It has 
 been said that the word sicffrage originally meant a piece 
 of a broken pot, and that in olden times a man was voted 
 for by casting for him potsherds, or pieces of broken pot- 
 tery. Whatever may be the origin of the word suffrage^ 
 the right of suffrage is the right of voting. Voters are 
 sometimes called electors, that is chrosers. To vote is to 
 express a choice for this or that man for an office, or for 
 the enactment of this or that law. What citizens are 
 voters or electors .^ Answers to this question will be differ- 
 ent in the different States of the Union. In every State, 
 however, there are certain qualifications, certain marks of 
 fitness, required of a citizen before he can exercise the 
 right to vote. These qualifications are : 
 
 (i) Age. — To be a voter one must at least be twenty-one 
 years of age. It is thought that a person younger than 
 
 45 
 
46 LESSONS IN CIVICS 
 
 this does not know enough to vote intelligently, and such 
 is usually the fact. It is also true that many who are 
 much older than twenty-one do not know enough to vote 
 intelligently. 
 
 In France and in Germany and some other countries of 
 Europe a citizen is not allowed to vote until he is twenty- 
 five years of age. Do you think that would be a good law 
 for our country to adopt ? 
 
 (2) Sex. — In most of the States a voter must be a male 
 citizen. In two States, Wyoming and Colorado, women 
 share the right of suffrage equally with men. In these 
 two States women may not only vote, but they may hold 
 office and otherwise take part in public affairs. In many 
 of the States women have the right to vote upon school 
 matters. The movement to give women the right of suf- 
 frage seems to be gaining strength. 
 
 (3) Residence, — A citizen may not vote until he has lived 
 a certain time in the State, and in the city or county in 
 which he desires to cast his vote. A stranger coming into 
 a place should not be allowed to take a part in its govern- 
 ment until he has first had time to inform himself upon 
 public matters. For this reason every State requires that 
 a citizen shall '' gain a residence " before he is permitted 
 to vote. In some States he must wait two years before 
 he can vote, in others one year, while in a few States a 
 residence of only three or four months is required to give 
 him the right. 
 
 (4) Property ; Poll Tax. — In times past a citizen was 
 not allowed to vote unless he was the owner of a cer- 
 tain amount of property, but in our day a man may vote 
 
LESSON IX 47 
 
 even though he owns no property at all. In a few States 
 there is a poll tax — usually a small tax of one or two 
 dollars — that every male citizen of age must pay, no 
 matter how poor he may be. If this poll tax is not paid, 
 the right to vote is withheld. If we except this poll tax, — 
 and even it is fast dying out, — the right to vote is given to 
 all without any expense. Sometimes we hear people say 
 that no one should be allowed to vote unless he owns some 
 property. Do you agree with such people ? 
 
 (5) Education. — In nearly all the States the right to 
 vote is given to the ignorant as well as to the educated. A 
 person may not be able to read or write his name, and yet 
 may vote. Of course such a person seldom knows what 
 he is doing ; he cannot make an intelligent choice ; he 
 votes either blindly or as some one tells him. Several 
 States demand that a citizen shall be able to read and 
 write before he is allowed to vote. 
 
 Persons who may not Vote. — There are several classes 
 of men who may not vote, although they are old enough 
 and have lived in the State as long as is required by law. 
 Such people are : 
 
 (i) Aliens, — We have learned what is meant by the 
 word alien. When an alien has been naturalized, that 
 is, when he has been made a citizen, he then has the right 
 to vote. This is the general rule, although a State may, if 
 it sees fit, allow an alien to vote, and it may refuse to allow 
 a man who has been naturalized the right to vote ; for 
 voting is one of the rights of citizenship that are regulated 
 by each State, according to its own wishes. 
 
48 LESSONS IN CIVICS 
 
 (2) Criminals. — A criminal, that is, a person who has 
 been convicted of theft, or murder, or arson, or some other 
 crime, is not allowed to vote. If a man has been im- 
 prisoned for crime, and has been lawfully pardoned, the 
 right of suffrage is restored to him with his freedom. 
 
 (3) Idiots. — Idiots, lunatics, and imbeciles are not al- 
 lowed to vote. 
 
 (4) Paupers. — As a rule paupers supported in an alms- 
 house at the expense of the public are not allowed to vote. 
 
 Registration. — For one who has the right to vote and 
 wishes to exercise his right, the first step to be taken is to 
 get his name registered. In every election district there 
 is a Board of Registrars, consisting of two or more per- 
 sons, whose duty it is to make out a list of the names of 
 all citizens in the district who have a right to vote. One 
 wishing to vote must appear before the Registrars several 
 weeks before election day and state his name, age, birth- 
 place, where he lives, and what his occupation is. If the 
 Registrars find that he has all the qualifications of a voter, 
 his name will be enrolled upon the voting list — he will be 
 registered.^ 
 
 QUESTIONS FOR ORIGINAL THOUGHT 
 
 1. Would it be wise for the State in which you live to pass a law 
 (if it has not already done so) requiring that citizens shall be able to 
 read and write before they shall be given the right of suffrage ? 
 
 2. What would be the advantages of woman suffrage? What would 
 be the disadvantages ? Are women citizens ? 
 
 3. For what reason is the right of voting withheld from paupers? 
 
 1 Registration is not required in the States of Indiana, Oregon, New Hamp- 
 shire, Arkansas, and West Virginia. 
 
LESSON IX 49 
 
 4. Do you feel that you could now vote intelligently? 
 
 5. Are Indians and Chinese, living in the United States, allowed 
 to vote? 
 
 6. In what large city of the United States do the inhabitants have 
 no vote ? 
 
 7. State accurately the qualifications for voting in the State in 
 which you live. 
 
 8. Discuss the words elector, resident^ inhabitant^ denizen, citizen. 
 
 LESS. IN CIV. — 4 
 
LESSON X 
 CITIZENSHIP (Continued) 
 
 ELECTIONS 
 
 " The proudest now is but my peer, 
 The highest not more high ; 
 To-day of all the weary year, 
 A king of men am I. 
 
 " To-day, alike are great and small. 
 The nameless and the known ; 
 My palace is the people's hall, 
 
 The ballot box my throne!" — Whittier. 
 
 At the Polls. — On election day every good citizen 
 should go to the polls and vote. The polls is simply a 
 room where several election officers, known as Judges of 
 the Election (sometimes called Moderators) and Clerks 
 of the Election, meet for the purpose of receiving and 
 counting the ballots of the voters of an election district. 
 When a voter enters the polls, he gives his name to the 
 Judges, who have the registration list before them. When 
 his name is found on the list, it is checked off, and an 
 envelope containing a ballot is given to him. A ballot is 
 a slip or sheet of paper upon which are printed the names 
 of the great political parties and the names of the candi- 
 dates for election. The voter takes his ballot and passes 
 into a small booth where he cannot be seen by any one. 
 
 50 
 
LESSON X 
 
 51 
 
 In the booth he finds writing material and a shelf or desk 
 on which he may write. If he wishes to vote for all the 
 candidates of a certain party, he makes a cross mark X 
 opposite the name of that party. This is called voting 
 " a straight ticket.^' If he wishes to vote for candidates 
 without respect to party, he must make separate cross 
 
 A TOLLING IJUUi'll 
 
 marks opposite the name of each candidate for whom he 
 wishes to vote. This is called *' splitting the ballot." 
 After his ballot has been properly marked the writer 
 returns to the place where the Judges sit, and his ballot 
 is put into a large box which is usually made of glass. 
 
 The above is the method of voting followed in most 
 States. It is known as the " Australian System," because 
 
52 LESSONS IN CIVICS 
 
 it was iirst adopted in Australia. It is the best method 
 that has thus far been tried. A long time ago men used 
 to vote by calling out in a loud voice the name of their 
 favorite candidate. But this method often led to quarrels 
 and fights, and it had to be abandoned. , The open ballot 
 was then tried. By this method the voter cast his ballot 
 before the judges and bystanders in such an open way 
 that any one who desired could see how he had voted. 
 This led to briheiy. A sum of money would be given the 
 voter for voting in a certain way, and the man who gave 
 him the money would follow him up to the polls, and 
 watch him to see that he voted the way he was paid to 
 vote. The open ballot also led to intimidation. The 
 voter was frequently afraid to vote the way he would like 
 to, lest he might offend an employer or some one else 
 whom he could ill afford to offend. For such reasons as 
 these voting by open ballot grew unpopular, and the 
 Australian or secret ballot system was adopted. This 
 system has its disadvantages. It does not encourage men 
 to come out openly and fearlessly and announce their 
 convictions. Under the secret ballot law a man by guard- 
 ing his tongue and not letting any one know how he votes, 
 may deprive the community of the influence of his ex- 
 ample. It would be better if we could always know how 
 good citizens vote. The great point in favor of the secret 
 ballot is that it helps to do away with bribery. Under the 
 Australian System it is of little use to give the voter 
 money to vote in a certain way, for there is no way to 
 follow him up and see if he votes as he promises. If the 
 secret ballot does prevent bribery, then every State ought 
 
LESSON X 53 
 
 to have it, for bribery is one of the worst evils in pohtics. 
 A man who gives a bribe to his fellow-citizen, not only 
 debases that citizen, but he debauches society. A bribe 
 giver is a public enemy. What shall we say of a bribe 
 taker ? Is he better or worse than a bribe giver ? 
 
 Counting the Vote ; Majority — Plurality. — Immedi- 
 ately after the polls are closed the counting of the votes 
 begins. The counting is done openly in the presence of 
 a number of people. The candidate who gets the largest 
 number of votes is declared elected. Sometimes a ina- 
 jority of the votes is required to elect. By a majority is 
 meant more than half of all the votes cast. It often hap- 
 pens when there are three or more candidates for the 
 same office that no one gets a majority of all the votes. 
 In such cases the one who gets the highest number of 
 votes is the successful candidate, although that number 
 is less than half. Election by the highest number of votes 
 is called *' Election hy plurality.'' In some States a candi- 
 date must get a majority of votes, or he cannot be declared 
 elected. Thus, in the State of Connecticut, the candidate 
 for governor must receive a majority of the votes cast. If 
 no one receives a majority, the election of a governor is 
 left to the legislature of the State. 
 
 The Right of holding Office. — Besides the right of choos- 
 ing officers to conduct government, it is the right of the 
 American citizen to hold office. The business of govern- 
 ment requires the service of a very large number of people. 
 In the counties there must be road commissioners, school 
 trustees, tax collectors, sheriffs. In a city there must be 
 a mayor and councilmen and a very long list of officials. 
 
54 LESSONS IN CIVICS 
 
 In the State there must be a governor with his secretaries, 
 and the legislature with its senators and delegates. In 
 the nation there is the President with his cabinet and 
 thousands of assistants. It would take many pages 
 merely to name the different offices of the different gov- 
 ernments. Now it is the boast of the American citizen 
 that, no matter what his rank may be, he has the right to 
 hold any of these offices. Any boy born in the United 
 States may hope to become President. It is true that 
 only four or five of the millions of young Americans now 
 living can ever be President, yet it is also true that those 
 boys who will be our future Presidents may come from 
 the lower walks of life. We have had as President of the 
 United States a man whose early occupation was that of a 
 tailor, and who did not learn to write until after he was 
 married. It is a great honor to be chosen to a position 
 of trust and power by one's fellow-citizens. The great 
 trouble is men often do mean and dishonest things to get 
 into office, and then after they are in the office they dis- 
 grace it by their selfishness and corruption. It should be 
 the ambition of every American youth to be worthy of 
 office. 
 
 QUESTIONS FOR ORIGINAL THOUGHT 
 
 1. Smith, Jones, and Brown are candidates for an office. Smith 
 gets 5000 votes, Jones 4000 votes, and Brown 3000 votes. Does Smith 
 get a majority or a plurality of votes? What is the smallest number 
 of votes that would elect in this case if a majority were required ? What 
 does the word minority mean? 
 
 2. Discuss the evil effects of bribery. 
 
 3. Who said " I would rather be right than be President"? 
 
 4. Should the office seek the man, or the man the office? 
 
LESSON X 55 
 
 5. Do you know any candidates for office ? Are they men well quali- 
 fied for the positions they are seeking? 
 
 6. " A weapon that comes down as still 
 
 As snowflakes fall upon the sod ; 
 But executes a freeman's will 
 As lightning does the will of God." 
 
 What is the "weapon"? Memorize the quotation. 
 
 7. Bound the election district or precinct in which you live. 
 
 8. Secure, if you can, a ballot used at an election, and mark it as 
 you would if you were going to vote. 
 
 9. Discuss methods of preventing bribery. Would you vote for a 
 man who would give bribes ? 
 
LESSON XI 
 CITIZENSHIP (Concluded) 
 
 DUTIES OF CITIZENS 
 
 " Do what conscience says is right, 
 Do what reason says is best, 
 Do with all your mind and might, 
 Do your duty and be blest." 
 
 A Few Words about Duty. — For several lessons we 
 have been discussing the rights of citizens ; in this lesson 
 we shall speak of a few of the duties of citizens. We are 
 all inclined to think too much of our rights and too little 
 of our duties. We should never forget that for every right 
 we enjoy there is a corresponding duty. A right has been 
 called the reward of a duty fulfilled, and this is the way 
 to regard duty. After we have done our duty, then we 
 may claim our rights ; after we have fulfilled the duties of 
 citizenship, we may in good conscience claim our rights as 
 citizens. Government cannot give to us more than we 
 give to it. If we are careless or selfish in respect to our 
 duties to our government, we may be sure that it will not 
 have so many blessings for us as it would have if we were 
 watchful and faithful in our duty. Let us now learn what 
 duty requires of all good citizens. 
 
 Obedience to the Law. — The first duty of a citizen is to 
 obey the laws of his country. Without obedience to law 
 
 56 
 
LESSON XI 57 
 
 ' there can be no such thing as good government. Whether 
 in the home, in the school, or in the State, the violation of 
 law is attended with some kind of punishment. When a 
 law of the State is broken, he who breaks it may be fined, 
 that is, he may be compelled to give up a sum of money, 
 or he may be imprisoned, or he may be both fined and im- 
 prisoned. In the case of murder, he who takes the life of 
 another may be compelled to give up his own life. But I 
 do not wish to hold up the punishments of the law before 
 you in order to frighten you. I do not want you to obey 
 the law simply because you are afraid of the punishment 
 that would follow if you should break it. People who 
 obey a law through the sense of fear are likely to break 
 it if they think they will not be discovered. Such people 
 are satisfied if they can keep out of jail. It is against the 
 law to give a man money for his vote ; yet how many citi- 
 zens violate this law simply because they run but little risk 
 of being detected and punished ! A bribe giver is no less 
 a criminal because he escapes punishment. Laws should 
 be obeyed because it is a duty to obey them. It is our 
 right to seek the protection of the law ; it is our duty to 
 do the bidding of the law. 
 
 Defense of One's Country. — A most serious duty of the 
 citizen to his government is to defend it against its ene- 
 mies. You boys may at some time in your life be called 
 upon to take up arms and fight for your country. If such 
 a time should come, you should not flinch, but should go 
 forth bravely to the battle field, prepared to lay down 
 your Hfe, if necessary. But you should not wish for war 
 or try to stir up strife. The good citizen will try to avoid 
 
58 LESSONS IN CIVICS 
 
 war. Men and nations should live at peace with each 
 other; war is never right unless it is waged for the pur- 
 pose of making the world better in the end. 
 
 Earning a Living. — Every citizen should try to earn an 
 honest living for himself and those dependent upon him. 
 A man who does not work is a burden upon the com- 
 munity. What he eats and wears is produced by the labor 
 of other people. Now, an able-bodied man who lives 
 upon the labor of others loses his own self-respect and 
 deserves to lose the respect of others. Hence, a good 
 citizen will refuse to eat bread that he has not earned, if it 
 is possible for him to earn bread for himself. Sometimes 
 men cannot earn their own living, they cannot find work 
 to do. When this is the case, there is something wrong 
 somewhere, and it is the duty of good citizens to try to 
 discover where the wrong is and to take measures to rem- 
 edy the wrong. In a land of plenty no strong-armed man, 
 willing to work, ought to be compelled to go hungry. 
 
 Attention to Public Affairs. — It is the duty of every citi- 
 zen to take an active part in public affairs. He should 
 not only vote for good men and good principles, but he 
 should try to get other people to vote for good men and 
 good principles. In some countries, as in China and 
 Russia, there are hereditary rulers who are above the 
 people, and who govern according to their own notions 
 of right and wrong. Such rulers command ; the people 
 obey. In our country, however, we have no such rulers. 
 Here the people must govern themselves. If we have 
 good government, the people are to be thanked for it ; if 
 we have bad government, it is the people's fault. This i3 
 
LESSON XI 59 
 
 why it is the duty of every citizen to do all he can to secure 
 good government. This is why every citizen should take 
 a part in politics. 
 
 Duty of studying Political Questions. — Before you enter 
 politics, however, you should make a careful study of politi- 
 cal questions. There are several great political parties in 
 this country. If you wish to cast your vote to the best 
 advantage, you must vote for the candidates and principles 
 of one of these great parties. But before you cast your 
 vote for a party, you should learn what that party wishes 
 to accomplish ; before you vote, you should know what 
 you are voting for. 
 
 While you are at school you may prepare yourselves to 
 vote in an intelligent manner when you come of age. You 
 may do this in two ways, — by reading and by disatssioji. 
 Read history. You cannot understand the present with- 
 out understanding the past. Read the lives of great men. 
 The founders of our government were unselfish men. 
 Read what they wrote about government and learn what 
 they did for their country. Read the history of political 
 parties and study their platforms. Read works upon gov- 
 ernment. Read good newspapers and inform yourselves 
 of the political questions of the day. 
 
 But reading is not enough. Along with reading must 
 go discussion. Our government is founded upon free and 
 open discussion. This is why citizens are guaranteed 
 freedom of speech. By talking over a question in a good- 
 natured way with friends we learn a number of things. 
 In the first place, we learn more about the question under 
 discussion. We almost always find that our friend knows 
 
6o LESSONS IN CIVICS 
 
 something about it that we did not know. Then we learn 
 to express our thoughts more clearly and forcibly. We 
 never know a thing well enough until we can tell it to 
 some one else. Discussion also teaches us to have respect 
 for the opinions of other people ; and this is very good for 
 us. Above all, discussion is good because it leads to the 
 truth. 
 
 When there are a number of people to take part, the 
 best way to conduct a discussion is through the debate. 
 
 QUESTIONS FOR ORIGINAL THOUGHT 
 
 1. Can you name a war that was a blessing to mankind? One that 
 was a curse ? 
 
 2. Would you fight for your country, even if you thought it was in 
 the wrong? 
 
 3. Should a citizen obey a bad law? Who shall judge whether a 
 law is bad or good ? 
 
 4. Explain how a single vote may decide the result of an election. 
 
 5. What are some of the things a politician must do? 
 
LESSON XII 
 
 TAXATION 
 
 " If we live in a country not wholly barbarous, we cannot escape tax, 
 and it is the fate of man to bear his proportion of its burdens in propor- 
 tion to his expense, property, and consumption." — D. A. Wells. 
 
 Government supported by Taxes. — In this lesson we 
 shall speak of a duty that all citizens must perform, — 
 the duty of paying taxes to the government. It requires 
 a vast amount of money to meet the expenses of govern- 
 ment. Salaries have to be paid to officials, large public 
 buildings have to be erected, fleets and armies have* to be 
 fitted out, charities have to be supported. The money 
 required for all this comes from the pockets of the citizens 
 whom the government protects. The government raises 
 money by means of a tax. A tax is a sum of money col- 
 lected from citizens for the support of the government. 
 It is plain that each citizen ought to be taxed according to 
 his means. A man who is very poor ought not to be com- 
 pelled to pay so much as a man who is very rich. Yet it 
 is not easy to lay taxes justly. The rule generally followed 
 in laying taxes is this : Taxes are laid on property, and the 
 more property a man owns, the greater must be his share 
 of the tax. Property is of two kinds, real property and 
 personal property. Real property consists of lands and 
 buildings and growing crops. Personal property is prop- 
 
 6i 
 
62 LESSONS IN CIVICS 
 
 erty that the owner can carry with him from place to 
 place ; as horses, furniture, money, bonds. 
 
 How each Taxpayer's Share is Determined. — A tax 
 collector presents to your father a tax bill, calling for, let 
 us say, $33.50. How was this bill made out .'^ How was 
 it determined that your father should pay to the support of 
 the government just $33.50, no more, no less ? Let us try 
 to get an answer to this question. 
 
 Let us suppose that you live in a town, and that it is 
 your town government that has sent the bill. The first 
 step taken is to determine how much money is needed. 
 It is found that the town needs 
 
 For its schools, police, streets, water works, and other ex- 
 penses of Town Government $40,000 
 
 For taxes due to the County Government 6,000 
 
 For taxes due to the State Government 4,000 
 
 Total amount of taxes to be raised $50,000 
 
 This $50,000 must be paid by the property owners of 
 the town. In order to distribute the burden fairly, officers 
 called Assessors visit all the houses and places of business 
 in the town, and place upon every man's property what 
 they think is a fair valuation. Thus they find that A has 
 a house worth $3000 and furniture worth $500, or prop- 
 erty worth in all $3500: B is found to own a factory 
 worth $75,000 and goods worth $25,000. He is, therefore, 
 assessed at $100,000. C owns building lots worth $2000 
 and horses and carriages worth $500. C's property, there- 
 fore, is put down on the Assessors' list at $2500. D owns 
 a little house which the Assessor thinks is worth $400; 
 
LESSON XII 63 
 
 his furniture is so scanty that no value is put upon it, 
 and it escapes taxation. Your father's property, we will 
 suppose, is placed on the Assessors' list at $167$. In 
 this way the value of the property of every taxpayer in 
 town is estimated by the Assessors and put upon the 
 assessment list. By adding together the fortunes of A, 
 B, C, D, etc., the entire value of all the property in the 
 town is found. Let us suppose that this amounts to 
 $2,500,000. You remember that the amount to be raised 
 by taxation is $50,000. Now if property worth $2,500,000 
 must pay $50,000 in taxes, property worth one dollar must 
 pay two cents in taxes. Every man in the town, there- 
 fore, must pay two cents in taxes for every dollar's worth 
 of property he owns. This two cents, or 2%, or .02 is 
 called the rate of taxation. 
 
 A will pay . . $3,500 x .02 . . $70.00 in taxes, 
 B will pay . . ico,ooo x .02 . . 2000.00 in taxes. 
 
 You now see why your father's tax bill is $33.50. 
 
 The Collection of Taxes. — After the Assessor comes the 
 Tax Collector, This officer collects the taxes from the 
 owners of property and turns it over to the treasury of 
 the town government. The Town Treasurer sends to 
 the County Treasurer the share that belongs to the 
 county, and to the State Treasurer the share that belongs 
 to the State, and retains what is left for the expenses of 
 the town government. When a man refuses or neglects 
 to pay his tax, the law will compel him to pay. The Tax 
 Collector must collect the taxes, even if he is obliged to 
 sell the property to get them. When land is sold for 
 
64 LESSONS IN CIVICS 
 
 taxes, the owner may regain the land by paying to the 
 purchaser within a specified time the amount of the taxes 
 with interest. 
 
 Exemption. — This word means " freedom from a bur- 
 den or charge." Certain kinds of property are free from 
 the burden of taxation. Thus, churches, cemeteries, school- 
 houses, free libraries, charitable institutions, and all pub- 
 lic buildings are exempt from taxation ; likewise a man's 
 household furniture when it is worth less than a hundred 
 dollars, in many States, is not taxed. The laws of some 
 States allow to soldiers who fought for the Union in the 
 Civil War an exemption on property to the amount of one 
 thousand dollars. 
 
 **Tax Dodgers." — Men sometimes avoid paying their 
 just taxes. They will hide such property as they can 
 hide; they will lie about the value of their property; 
 they will invest their money in such a way that the 
 Tax Collector cannot reach it. Such men are called *'tax 
 dodgers," and they are not good citizens. It is not the 
 part of good citizenship to defraud the government of its 
 taxes. Government protects men in the enjoyment of 
 their property, and they ought to be willing to give it 
 a hearty and ungrudging support. 
 
 QUESTIONS FOR ORIGINAL THOUGHT 
 
 I. When a property owner thinks his property has been assessed too 
 high, he may complain to the Assessors, and if these officers think his 
 complaint is just, they will reduce the assessment. Suppose the owner 
 thinks his property has been assessed too low; should he go to the 
 Assessors and request them to make the assessment larger? If a man 
 should send you a bill for three dollars when you know you owe him 
 
LESSON XII 65 
 
 five dollars, would you call his attention to the mistake? Should we 
 be as honest with the government as we are with our neighbors? 
 
 2. How is the money for the support of your school raised ? Who is 
 the largest taxpayer in your school district? Does he get more benefit 
 from the government than any other man in the district? 
 
 3. Name some of the returns taxpayers get for the money they pay 
 to the government. 
 
 4. Is wheat in a barn real property or personal property? 
 
 5. What is the tax rate in your town? In your county? In your 
 State? 
 
 6. Name the kinds of property in your State that are exempt from 
 taxation. 
 
 LESS. IN civ. — 5 
 
LESSON XIII 
 
 TAXATION (Continued) 
 
 " The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes, duties, 
 imposts, and excises.'' — Constitution of the United States. 
 
 Duties and Excises. — In our last lesson we learned how 
 taxes are raised for the support of the town, city, county, 
 and State governments. We learned that the expenses of 
 these governments for the most part are met by laying a 
 direct tax upon property. But the great government of the 
 United States, which requires nearly $500,000,000 a year 
 for expenses, is not supported by a direct property tax. It 
 is supported mostly by indirect taxation. What is meant 
 by indirect taxation will be explained presently. The in- 
 direct taxes collected by the government which has its 
 capital at Washington, are either duties or excises. A 
 duty is a tax or tariff laid upon goods that are imported 
 into this country from foreign countries. This tax is paid 
 to government officers by the merchant who imports the 
 goods. But the merchant does not bear the burden of the 
 tax. If he is compelled to pay a duty of 75 cents per 
 yard upon silk which he imports from France, this 75 
 cents is added to the first cost. If, withoiU a duty, he 
 could sell his customers French silk for ;^i.SO per yard at 
 a profit of 10%, ivith a duty of 75 cents, he sells them the 
 
 66 
 
I* 
 
 ^ilk fo 
 
 LESSON XIII 67 
 
 silk for ;f^2.32 per yard. It is, therefore, the customers 
 who pay this duty, or tax. Excises are taxes paid by man- 
 ufacturers upon goods made in this country. Thus the 
 taxes upon liquors, tobacco, and cigars are excises. An 
 excise tax, like a duty, is paid by one person, but the bur- 
 den is usually shifted to another. If a tobacco manufac- 
 turer is compelled to pay a tax of 50 cents upon every box 
 of cigars he makes, he counts this as a part of the cost, 
 and charges his customers accordingly. Duties and ex- 
 cises are called indirect taxes, because the real burden of 
 these taxes does not fall directly upon the people who pay 
 them, but indirectly upon some one else. Excises and 
 duties are laid upon such articles as beer, tobacco, sugar, 
 tea, coffee, woolen goods, cotton goods, leather, -iron, tin, 
 etc. From this we see that everybody who wears clothes 
 and consumes food, that, is, the whole population, contrib- 
 utes something to the support of the National Govern- 
 ment. 
 
 The Income Tax. — Besides the general property tax, 
 and duties and excises, there are several other kinds of 
 taxes that we must mention. Important among these is 
 the i7icoine tax. An income tax is laid upon a man's sal- 
 ary, or upon the profits of his business, without reference 
 to the amount of property he owns. A certain rate is de- 
 termined upon by the government, and every man must 
 pay according to his income. If the rate is 3%, and his 
 salary or the profit of his business is $3000, then he must 
 pay $90 as his income tax. A progressive income tax is 
 one where the rate grows larger with the income. Thus 
 the rate might be 3% for all incomes under 1^5000; 4% for 
 
6S LESSONS IN CIVICS 
 
 all incomes between ^5000 and $10,000; 5% for all in- 
 comes between ;^io,ooo and $50,000; S% for incomes 
 between $50,000 and $100,000; 10% for all incomes over 
 $100,000. Do you think a progressive income tax is just? 
 
 Licenses ; Fees. — Another way of raising money for the 
 support of government is by licenses and fees. A license 
 is a sum of money paid to the government for the privilege 
 of engaging in some occupation or of performing some act. 
 The liquor license permits the holder to sell liquor; the 
 merchant's license permits the sale of goods ; the marriage 
 license permits the marriage of the couple to whom it is 
 granted. A fee is a small sum paid to an officer of the 
 government for the performance of some public service. 
 Thus if you wish to get a deed to land properly recorded, 
 you will have to pay the recording officer a small fee. 
 
 Poll Tax. — This word poll means head ; a poll tax, 
 therefore, is a tax upon the man and not upon property. 
 It is usually a small sum, not exceeding three dollars for 
 each man. A male citizen above the age of twenty-one 
 must pay this tax, although he has no property at all. Not 
 all states do have a poll tax, yet where there is such a tax, 
 it must be paid before the citizen is allowed to vote. The 
 poll tax is not popular in the United States, and in some of 
 the States it is forbidden entirely. 
 
 Franchises. — A government sometimes adds to its reve- 
 nue by the sale of its franchises, h franchise is a particu- 
 lar right given to a person or a body of persons. Very 
 often governments have valuable franchises to dispose of. 
 For instance, the right to use the streets of a city for a 
 railway is very valuable ; the right to lay pipes for sup- 
 
LESSON XIII 69 
 
 plying a city with gas is a desirable franchise. In one 
 of our large cities every street car company is compelled to 
 pay 9% of its gross earnings into the city treasury. Gov- 
 ernments should watch their franchises with a jealous eye, 
 and should not part with them without making a good 
 bargain for the public. Too often when a franchise is 
 granted the bargain is made in the interest of private 
 parties. 
 
 Eminent Domain. — Closely related to the government's 
 right of taxation, is its right of "eminent domain." By 
 this is meant its right to take private property for public 
 uses. If the government wishes to use your house for a 
 post office, or if it desires to run a street through your 
 garden, or a road through your field, you have not the 
 power to prevent it. Yet the government must pay you a 
 fair price for your property, and it must not compel you to 
 part with it unless it can be shown that it is for the public 
 good that you should do so. 
 
 QUESTIONS FOR ORIGINAL THOUGHT 
 
 1. Do all citizens have to pay taxes? Think well before you 
 answer this question. 
 
 2. What kind of taxes are paid without those who pay them seem- 
 ing to know it ? 
 
 3. Has taxation ever been a cause of war? 
 
 4. How are churches supported? 
 
 5. Where are duties collected? 
 
 6. Is a poll tax a just tax? Is there a poll tax in your State? 
 
 7. What is meant by "smuggling"? 
 
 8. Is an income tax that exempts all incomes under $1000 just? 
 
 9. For what do people pay taxes most cheerfully? 
 10. How may a city acquire land for a park? 
 
LESSON XIV 
 SEVERAL TERMS EXPLAINED 
 
 " Self-government stimulates the interest of the people in the affairs 
 of their neighborhood, sustains local political life, educates the citizen 
 in the daily round of civic duty." — James Bryce. 
 
 " A representative government, made responsible at short periods of 
 election, produces the greatest sum of happiness to mankind." — Thoinas 
 Jefferson. 
 
 Self-Government. — In this lesson I wish you to learn 
 the meaning of several words that you often meet with 
 when reading of government. The first word discussed 
 shall be ''self-government." This word does not mean 
 exactly self-control or government of self. Let us see 
 what it does mean. 
 
 In a family the father and mother govern, the other 
 members obey. The children in a family do not choose 
 their governors, and they do not take part in making the 
 rules of the household. And so it is in the schoolroom. 
 There the teacher governs and the pupils obey. The pu- 
 pils have no voice in the choice of the teacher, they take 
 no part in making the rules of the school, they cannot set 
 aside the school government. Government is given to 
 them by a power above them. Now, in the government of 
 the town, the city, the State, and the Nation, all this is 
 changed. In these governments the people obey no power 
 
 70 
 
I 
 
 LESSON XIV 71 
 
 outside of and above themselves ; they obey only the laws 
 that they themselves make and the officers of government 
 that they themselves choose. In other words, they govern 
 themselves. Where the whole number of adult male citi- 
 zens, then, take a part in government, where they make 
 their own laws, lay their own taxes, elect their own rulers, 
 there is self-government. And a dangerous and difficult 
 and precious thing it is. Self-government is the greatest 
 task ever undertaken by men. It was tried by the people 
 of Greece and Rome in ancient times, but through the sel- 
 fishness and ambition of men it failed. A little more than 
 a hundred years ago, our forefathers undertook the task. 
 By exercising wisdom and forbearance and courage, they 
 succeeded in forming a government that should rest upon 
 the will of the people. This government has come down 
 to us, and is to-day in our keeping. Thus far we have 
 proven ourselves worthy of the trust. We make mistakes, 
 but, take it all in all, we govern ourselves very well. In a 
 few years government will be in the hands of you who are 
 in school. Will you choose to govern yourselves, or will 
 you prefer to have a king, perhaps a tyrant, to rule over 
 you ? Could you now for one hour govern yourselves in 
 the schoolroom ? 
 
 Representative Government. — Where the people who 
 compose a government are few in number, as in some 
 of the cantons of Switzerland and towns of New Eng- 
 land, all can meet in a body and discuss public affairs, 
 enact laws, and elect officers. In such governments every 
 citizen has a direct voice in the management of public 
 affairs. Where all the people meet at one place for the 
 
72 LESSONS IN CIVICS 
 
 purpose of transacting the business of government, there 
 is said to be a pure democracy. The word democracy 
 means govermnent by the people. But you can see that a 
 large city or a State cannot be a pure democracy, for all 
 the citizens of a large city or of a State cannot meet at one 
 place. How, then, can all the people of a State have a 
 voice in the making of a law, or take part in the man- 
 agement of their government ? They cannot take part 
 directly, but they may indirectly in the following way : 
 
 A number of citizens may choose one of their number 
 to act in their stead ; the citizens of a town or of a county 
 may choose one or two of its citizens to meet with other 
 citizens chosen in the same way from other towns and 
 counties. If there are fifty counties in a State, and the 
 citizens of each county, instead of going themselves, elect 
 two of their number to go to the capital of the State for the 
 purpose of making laws, the lawmaking body of the State 
 will consist of one hundred men. This srnall body will act 
 in the name of several hundreds of thousands of people, 
 and the laws it passes will be as binding as if they had been 
 passed by all the people coming together in an immense 
 throng. A man who acts in the place of and with the 
 authority of other men represents those men, and is called 
 their representative ; and governments that are conducted 
 by a few people chosen to act in the name of all the peo- 
 ple are representative governments. 
 
 All the governments, with one exception, which we shall 
 study hereafter, are representative governments. Strictly 
 speaking, they are representative democracies, that is, they 
 are governments in which the people rule through their 
 
I 
 
 LESSON XIV 73 
 
 representatives. Citizens who stay at home, and send 
 others to represent them in public affairs, are called the 
 constiticents of those who are sent. This question is often 
 discussed : Should the representative act according to the 
 wishes of his constituents } 
 
 The Three Departments of Government. — In all good 
 and free governments there is a division of power ; or, to 
 state the fact in another way, the work of government 
 is distributed among different sets of men. There is one 
 set of men who have the right to make the laws. This is 
 called the legislative, or lawmaking branch of government. 
 There is another set of men who decide what the meaning 
 of the law is, who are guilty of breaking it, and what pun- 
 ishment shall follow. These men are called judges, and 
 they exercise tho, judicial power of government. After the 
 legislative department has made a law, and the judicial 
 department has made its decision, a third department en- 
 forces the law. This is the executive department. The 
 three departments of government, therefore, are, first, the 
 legislative, or lawmaking department ; second, X,\\q judicial 
 department ; and, third, the executive, or law-enforcing de- 
 partment. The government of the home and school have 
 not this division of powers. The teacher may make a 
 rule, decide who has broken it, and punish the offender, 
 thus exercising all three of the powers of government. 
 
 QUESTIONS FOR ORIGINAL THOUGHT 
 
 1. What countries in the world besides our own enjoy self-govern- 
 ment? 
 
 2. What is a monarchy? Name some of the great monarchs of the 
 world. 
 
74 LESSONS IN CIVICS 
 
 3. Do you think it would be wise to intrust the lawmaking power of 
 the school to pupils? The judicial power? The executive power? 
 
 4. What reason can you give for the division of the power of gov- 
 ernment? 
 
 5. Elect one of your schoolmates to represent the school in a spell- 
 ing contest. One to represent the school in a debate. 
 
 6. What is an aristocracy? 
 
 7. You will doubtless at some time find people who do not believe 
 in a democracy. What arguments will you advance in its favor? 
 
I 
 
 LESSON XV 
 
 TOWN GOVERNMENT 
 
 "The town governments of New England proved themselves the 
 wisest invention ever devised by the wit of man for the perfect exercise 
 of self-government and for its preservation." — Thomas Jefferson. 
 
 Early Town Government in New England. — In New 
 
 England, after you pass from the governments of the 
 home and of the school, the government that you meet 
 with first, if you do not live in a city, is that of the tow7i. 
 Town government is an interesting study even to those 
 who do not live in New England, for it is a very old form 
 of government, and it is one that is best fitted to train 
 men in the practice of citizenship. 
 
 If we trace our ancestors back to their homes in Eng- 
 land, or further back to their homes upon the continent of 
 Europe, where they first lived, we shall find that the town 
 was their unit of government. A town, or tun (toon), in 
 the earliest times was a cluster of farmers' dwellings, 
 barns, and cattle sheds, such as may be seen to-day in 
 many parts of Germany. Around the tOn was either a 
 wall of earth or a dense hedge, and outside, encircling the 
 mound or hedge, was a ditch. The tun was thus fortified 
 against its foes. In the center of the inclosure, usually 
 under a large tree, was held, the tun vioot^ or meeting of 
 
 75 
 
^6 LESSONS IN CIVICS 
 
 all the freemen of the tun. At this moot newcomers were 
 admitted to dwell within the tun, lands were granted to 
 freemen, *' strife of farmer and farmer was settled," laws 
 ior the government of the tun were passed, and officers 
 to execute those laws were elected. In the tun moot, 
 indeed, were done most of the things that any government 
 can rightly do, and these things were done by the people 
 themselves meeting in a body. Two thousand years ago 
 our forefathers governed themselves in the tun moot in 
 the wilds of Germany; when they settled in England 
 fifteen hundred years ago they carried the tun moot with 
 them ; and when, nearly three hundred years ago, the 
 Pilgrims landed at Plymouth, they at once came together 
 in tun moot, or town meeting, for the purpose of transact- 
 ing public affairs. 
 
 The Englishmen who first settled in New England were 
 a very religious people. One of the first things they did 
 in a new settlement was to build a church in some place 
 convenient for all to attend. This church was called a 
 meetinghouse, and this was a good name for it, for it was 
 a common meeting place for all in the settlement. The 
 congregation that met in it on the Sabbath as worshipers 
 would meet in it on a week day as citizens and transact 
 public affairs. Thus government in New England cen- 
 tered around a church. A congregation of churchgoers 
 was organized as a government, and this government was 
 called a town. When a town became so large in extent 
 that it was inconvenient for all to attend church, a new 
 church was built and a new town was organized. You 
 rarely find a town in New England so large that a person 
 
I 
 
 LESSON XV yy 
 
 cannot with convenience attend a church situated in its 
 center. Every male citizen above twenty-one years of age 
 who attended the church — and everybody was required 
 to go to church — had the right to go to the meeting- 
 house and take part in the town meetings. Voters are 
 no longer required to attend church, but in other respects 
 the town governments of New England to-day are almost 
 exactly like those of the early years of our history. 
 
 The Town Meeting. — The most important feature of 
 the town government is the town meeting. Once a year 
 all the qualified voters of the town meet together to dis- 
 cuss measures relating to town affairs, and to take action 
 thereon. The meeting is no longer held in a church, but 
 in the townhoicse, or townhall. When the people have 
 assembled, the town clerk calls them to order, and states 
 the purposes for which the meeting was called. A mod- 
 eratoi' is then chosen to preside over the meeting, and 
 business proceeds according to Parliamentary rules. In a 
 town meeting we see pure democracy at work. Instead 
 of sending men to conduct affairs for them, as in a repre- 
 sentative government, the people are there in person. 
 Young and old, rich and poor, take part in the proceed- 
 ings, and any citizen present may exert the full force 
 of his character and influence. Every measure that is 
 brought up is freely discussed and criticised. Those in 
 favor of the measure state their argument for it; those 
 opposed to it state their objections. When the discussion 
 is at an end a vote is taken, and whatever the result may 
 be all present feel that the will of the people has been 
 expressed. All matters relating to the public affairs of 
 
y8 LESSONS IN CIVICS 
 
 the town are settled. The most important things done 
 are these : 
 
 (i) The rate of taxation is fixed. Money is appropri- 
 ated for the schools, for the care of the roads, for the 
 support of the poor, for the salaries of officers, and for 
 other necessary expenses. 
 
 (2) By-laws are passed for the regulation of local mat- 
 ters. The word by originally meant town ; hence a by-law 
 is a town law. A law passed in town meeting forbidding 
 the use of the sidewalks of the town for bicycling is an 
 example of a by-law. 
 
 (3) Town officers are elected. It would be impossible 
 for all the people of a town to meet together every day 
 for the transaction of public business. For this reason at 
 the annual town meeting officers are elected to manage the 
 affairs of the town in the name of the people for one year. 
 
 Town Officers : 
 
 (i) The Selectmen. — The general management of town 
 affairs during the year is placed in the hands of three, or 
 five, or seven, or nine citizens, called Selectmen. These 
 officers carry into effect the measures passed at the town 
 meeting. They supervise the laying out of roads ; they 
 grant licenses; they care for the poor; they take meas- 
 ures to abate nuisances, check the advance of contagious 
 diseases, and otherwise preserve the health of the town ; 
 they listen to complaints against the management of 
 town affairs ; they represent the town in court when it is 
 sued; they make out the warrant when a special town 
 meeting is to be called. 
 
^/h- 
 
 LESSON XV 79 
 
 (2) The Town Clerk. — This officer has numerous duties. 
 We have seen that it is he who calls the town meeting to 
 order. He must always be present at a town meeting, 
 and keep a record of the proceedings. In addition to 
 this he keeps a record of the births, marriages, and deaths 
 in the town, and grants certificates to those wishing to 
 marry. In fact, most matters of town record are in his 
 keeping. 
 
 (3) Assessors. — The duty of these officers was spoken 
 of under the subject of taxation. They make out a list of 
 the taxpayers of the town, and place an estimate upon 
 value of their property. The selectmen themselves may 
 act as assessors, or they may appoint men to act in their 
 stead. 
 
 (4) Tax Collectors. — These officers also have been men- 
 tioned. They take the Hst made out by assessors and 
 gather the taxes from the people. 
 
 (5) Town Treasurer. — The duties of this officer have 
 been described in Lesson XII. The treasurer cannot pay 
 out any money from the treasury without an order from 
 the selectmen. 
 
 (6) Overseers of the Poor. — These officers have charge 
 of the town almshouse, and they give relief to the deserv- 
 ing poor. 
 
 (7) The School Committee. — The duties of this com- 
 mittee have been described in your study of the govern- 
 ment of the school. In large towns where there are a 
 number of schools the School Committee, or Board of 
 Education, appoints a Superintendent of Schools. This 
 officer devotes his time to "grading the schools properly, 
 
8o LESSONS IN CIVICS 
 
 and trying to improve them by giving aid and counsel to 
 the teachers. 
 
 (8) Constables. — These are peace officers, and every 
 town has one or more of them. They arrest for crime, 
 and assist the selectmen in executing the law. In some 
 towns the constables serve as tax collectors. 
 
 (9) Surveyors of Highways. — These officers inspect 
 roads and bridges, and are responsible for keeping them 
 in repair. 
 
 (10) Fence Vieivers. — These officers settle disputes that 
 may arise between neighbors about partition fences or walls. 
 
 (11) Field Drivers. — When cows, or horses, or other 
 animals are found wandering about the town the field 
 driver puts them into a pound, and keeps them until their 
 rightful owner is found. 
 
 This list of officers is not complete, yet it is long enough 
 to show that a great many people take part in the govern- 
 ment of a town. It is quite possible that there are towns 
 in which there is hardly one intelligent citizen who has 
 not sometime in his life held public office. This general 
 participation in the business of government does much 
 to make the people of New England a most wide-awake 
 and progressive body of citizens. 
 
 Nothing has been said in reference to the administra- 
 tion of justice in a New England town, for the reason that 
 justice is rather an affair of the State than of the town ; 
 and what you need to know on this point will be explained 
 when we come to describe the judicial department of the 
 State government. 
 
I 
 
 LESSON XV 8 1 
 
 One thing about town government not yet mentioned 
 deserves particular attention. In New England, towns 
 have the honor of being represented in the legislature of 
 the State. In the other States of the Union representa- 
 tives to the State legislature are sent by counties. 
 
 QUESTIONS AND DIRECTIONS FOR WORK 
 
 1. A special town meeting may be held upon a warrant from the 
 selectmen. Obtain from the town clerk a copy of such a warrant, and, 
 following the form used, make out a warrant for calling a meeting to 
 discuss the question of establishing a town library. Organize your 
 class as a town meeting. It would be wise to elect your teacher as 
 moderator. Discuss, as in a town meeting, the following topics : 
 
 (a) Advantages of a public library. 
 
 (d) A good location for a library building. 
 
 (c) The probable cost of the library. 
 (^) Whether public sentiment favors a library. 
 
 After a full discussion vote upon the question. 
 
 2. What kind of men make good selectmen? What should be the 
 qualifications of a good town clerk? 
 
 3. What are the boundaries of the town in which you live? When 
 was your town organized? Is there a church near its center? 
 
 4. Make out a Ust of the names of all who now hold town offices. 
 
 5. Should boys and girls be allowed to take part in town meetings? 
 Are they represented there? 
 
 6. In what things should a town try to excel? In what does your 
 town excel? 
 
 7. How much money is raised by taxation in your town? What is 
 the tax rate? Is this higher or lower than the rate in neighboring 
 towns? 
 
 LESS. IN CIV. — 6 
 
LESSON XVI 
 
 THE COUNTY 
 
 *'The Virginia county was the most perfect reprotiuction of the 
 English shire to be found in America." — Macy. 
 
 The Virginia County. — If you live on a farm, or in a 
 small village that has no government of its own, the gov- 
 ernment that you will take the most direct interest in will 
 be either that of the county, or that of the town, or that 
 of the township. If you live in a Southern State or in a 
 Western State, the government that will come closest to 
 you in your daily life will be that of the county. 
 
 County government, like town government, was brought 
 to America from England. In earliest times England con- 
 sisted of many independent kingdoms, each ruled by its 
 own king. When war arose between two kings, — and 
 war was constantly arising, — the conqueror took posses- 
 sion of the conquered kingdom and made of its ruler an 
 under king. In the course of time all the small kingdoms 
 were brought under the rule of one king — the king of 
 England. The under kings remained at the head of their 
 little governments, but their rank and their power were 
 gone. They were no longer kings but counts, or assistants 
 of the king, and the land they governed were counties. 
 The business of the county government, principally, was 
 to hold the county court and to collect taxes for the king. 
 
 83 
 
I 
 
 LESSON XVI 83 
 
 When the Virginia colonists settled at Jamestown, in 1607, 
 they found it convenient to organize new settlements as 
 counties, after the manner of those in the old country. In 
 the center of the county was held the County Court. The 
 place where the court was held became the county seat, or 
 capital of the county. In every county seat there was 
 a building known as the courthouse, where most of the 
 business of the county government was transacted. The 
 county government in Virginia and other Southern colo- 
 nies was quite different in olden times from what it is 
 to-day. But in several respects it was like the county 
 government of to-day. First, it was a representative gov- 
 ernment. The public business of the county was not man- 
 aged by the people directly, as in a New England town, 
 but by officers who acted in the name and in the place of 
 the people. Second, it was the county in Virginia that 
 sent representatives to the Colonial Legislature, just as 
 to-day, in Southern States, it is the county that sends 
 representatives to the State Legislature. Third, the 
 colonial county, like the county of our own time, had its 
 county seat and county courthouse. We shall now learn 
 something of the government of the county as it is found 
 in the Southern States. 
 
 County Officers : 
 
 (i) The County Commissioners, — Most of the public 
 business of the county is done by a Board of County 
 Commissioners. This Board consists of three men — 
 sometimes of a larger number — elected by the people of 
 the county to serve for a term of from one to four years. 
 
84 LESSONS IN CIVICS 
 
 The powers and duties of the County Commissioners are 
 regulated by the laws passed by the Legislature of the 
 State. The powers usually exercised by the Commission- 
 ers are these : 
 
 (i) They fix the rate of taxation for the county. 
 
 (2) They appoint assessors, tax collectors, road super- 
 visors. 
 
 (3) They make contracts for repairing old roads and 
 opening new ones, and also for building and repairing 
 bridges. 
 
 (4) They make contracts for building and repairing pub- 
 lic buildings, such as courthouses, jails, and almshouses. 
 
 (5) They appropriate money for the support of schools, 
 for the payment of salaries of county officers, and for all 
 necessary expenses of county government. 
 
 (6) They represent the county in the courts when it is 
 sued for damages. 
 
 (2) The Sheriff. — In England a long time ago the 
 sheriff was the most powerful officer in the county. In 
 modern times, however, his power is not so great either 
 in England or in this country. Nevertheless, the sheriff 
 is still an important officer of the county. He has been 
 called the "arm of the judge." This means that he car- 
 ries out the orders of the judge. If the judge orders a 
 man to be taken to prison, the sheriff takes him ; if he 
 orders property to be sold, the sheriff sells it ; if he sen- 
 tences a man to be hung, the sheriff hangs him. It is the 
 duty also of the sheriff to preserve peace and order. If 
 there is a riot, it is the duty of the sheriff to quell it. 
 
LESSON XVI 85 
 
 p helpers. In times of great danger or disturbance, the 
 sheriff may call to his aid the posse comitatiis, that is, 
 every able-bodied man in the county. The sheriff lives 
 at the county seat and has charge of the county jail and 
 of its prisoners. 
 
 (3) The Clerk of the County Court. — Any court above 
 a police court, or above that of a justice of the peace, is 
 a '* court of record" ; that is, its proceedings are enrolled 
 in permanent form. The county court is a court of 
 record, and the man who keeps its records is called the 
 Clerk of the Court. This officer is a kind of secretary to 
 the judge. He writes out an account of trials and keeps 
 a record of the judgments of the court. Besides this, 
 he keeps a record of deeds and mortgages given in the 
 county, issues marriage certificates, and records all births 
 and deaths. He is elected by the people. 
 
 (4) The Orphans' Court. — It is usual for a county to 
 elect three men 'di^ Judges of the Orpharis' Court. It is 
 the business of these officers to examine the wills of 
 deceased persons and decide whether they have been 
 made as wills by law ought to be made. When a person 
 dies without having made a will, and leaves no one to take 
 charge of his estate, the Orphans' Court will appoint an 
 Administrator to take charge of it. When a child is left 
 without father or mother, the Orphans' Court will appoint 
 a guardian who will manage the estate until the child 
 comes of age. In general, the business of the Orphans* 
 Court is to see that the property of the dead falls into 
 rightful hands. 
 
86 LESSONS IN CIVICS 
 
 (5) Register of Wills, — Closely connected with the 
 work of the Orphans' Court is the work of the Register of 
 
 Wills. This officer keeps copies of all wills approved of 
 by the Orphans' Court. 
 
 (6) Tax Collectors. — A county is divided into districts 
 of convenient size for the purpose of holding elections, 
 registering voters, and collecting taxes. For each district 
 a collector of taxes is appointed. 
 
 (7) The County Treasicrer. — The several collectors of 
 taxes send the money which they collect to the County 
 Treasurer. The treasurer pays out as well as receives 
 all money raised by taxation. He must give bond for 
 the faithful and honest performance of his duties. If he 
 steals any of the public money, his bondsmen are bound 
 to make good the loss. 
 
 (8) The Auditor. — Sometimes the county elects an 
 Auditory whose duty it is to examine the books of the 
 treasurer and other officers, and report whether the pub- 
 lic accounts are properly and honestly kept. 
 
 (9) The Coroner. — When a person is murdered, or is 
 found dead, or dies mysteriously, there ought to be some 
 officer to take charge of the body of the dead person, and 
 to inquire at once into the cause of the death. Such an 
 officer is the Coroner — usually a physician. If you should 
 ever come upon a dead body do not disturb it, but notify 
 the coroner as quickly as possible. If he thinks that there 
 has been foul play, he will summon six or twelve men to 
 act as a coroner's jury, and an examination will be made. 
 Witnesses will be summoned, and the jury, after hearing 
 evidence, will state in writing what they think has been 
 
I 
 
 LESSON XVI Sy 
 
 the cause of the death. This is called holding a ** Coro- 
 ner's Inquest." 
 
 (lo) T/ie State* s Attorney, — This officer, elected by the 
 people, is a lawyer whose duty is to give legal advice to 
 county officers, and to appear in the County Court at the 
 trial of one who is charged with crime and present the side 
 of the State. If the evidence goes to show that the 
 accused is guilty, it is the business of the State's Attorney 
 to do all in his power to secure the conviction of the 
 offender. A faithful State's attorney is a terror to crimi- 
 nals. This officer is sometimes called a District Attorney, 
 or Prosecuting Attorney. 
 
 (i i) The School Board. — When we were studying about 
 schools we learned that each school was governed by its 
 Committee, or Board of School Trustees. Above these 
 committees, and in some degree governing them, is the 
 Cotinty School Board. This body sometimes appointed, 
 sometimes elected, has the general management of the 
 schools of the county. It regulates in whole or in part the 
 salaries of teachers ; it grants certificates to those who are 
 competent to teach ; it sometimes makes out the course of 
 studies that pupils are to pursue ; it provides for the health 
 and comfort of teachers and pupils. 
 
 (12) The Stiperintendeiit of Schools. — The executive 
 officer of the school board is the County Supermtcjident 
 of Schools, or Examiner. He sets the examinations for 
 teachers, visits the different schools of the county, and 
 reports their work to the school board ; he grades the 
 work of the schools and devotes his time to improving them 
 in every way he can. 
 
LESSONS IN CIVICS 
 
 QUESTIONS FOR ORIGINAL THOUGHT 
 
 1. Bound accurately the county in which you live. When was it 
 organized? How came it by its name? What is its area? Its popu- 
 lation? Its county seat? What are its largest villages? Is there a 
 city situated in it? 
 
 2. There are a few other county officers besides those named in the 
 lesson. Name them and describe the duties of each. 
 
 3. Explain the difference between the words elected and appointed. 
 Make out a list of county officers who are elected, and a list of those 
 who are appointed. 
 
 4. A sheriff of a county and his deputies fired upon and killed twenty 
 men. Under what circumstances would you think the sheriff did right? 
 
 5. What qualifications should a sheriff possess? A register of 
 wills? A State's attorney? A county treasurer? A superintendent 
 of schools? As far as you know, are the officers of your county chosen 
 on account of \\\€\x fitness for office ? 
 
 6. Are you proud of your county ? If so, for what reasons ? 
 
 7. Which is likely to have the better government, a New England 
 town or a Southern county? 
 
 8. Draw a map of your county, locating its county seat, and its chief 
 towns and villages. 
 
I 
 
 LESSON XVII 
 THE TOWNSHIP 
 
 "The Western township has sprung out of the school as the New 
 England township has sprung out of the church." — VVoodrow Wilson. 
 
 The Nature of Township Government. — In the Middle 
 Atlantic States and in those great Western States that 
 have been settled by emigrants from the Middle States, 
 such as Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, the government that comes 
 closest to the door of the citizen is that of the township. 
 A tozvnship is -a small portion of a county in which the 
 people exercise some of those powers of government which 
 are exercised by the town in New England and the county 
 in the Southern States. Township government, therefore, 
 lies halfway between town government and county gov- 
 ernment. In New England the people of a town (by 
 which we mean the people of a small neighborhood) have 
 nearly all the powers of government in their hands, and 
 very little is left for the county to do. In a Southern 
 county the people of a small community exercise almost 
 none of the powers of government ; everything is done by 
 the county. Now in a township a few of the powers of 
 government are taken from the county and given to the 
 people of a small neighborhood. The things done by the 
 township government are usually three : it supports pub- 
 lic schools, it cares for the roads, and it helps the poor. 
 
 89 
 
90 LESSONS IN CIVICS 
 
 Of course it collects taxes with which to pay for these 
 things. 
 
 Officers of the Township. — Township government is not 
 the same in all States. In New York and Michigan 
 the township is almost a pure democracy ; it has its yearly 
 meeting of all the citizens, at which all officers are elected 
 and by-laws passed. As a rule, however, the township is 
 a representative government. It derives its powers from 
 laws passed by the Legislature of the State. The officials 
 chosen by the people for the government of a township 
 are as follows : 
 
 (i) Supervisors (sometimes called Trustees). — These 
 officers, two or three in number, are elected every year. 
 Their duty is to take care of the roads and bridges, erect 
 and keep in repair guide-posts and watering troughs, and 
 plant shade trees along the roadside. They may build and 
 keep in repair a townhouse, in which elections may be held 
 and officers of the town may transact the public business. 
 
 (2) School Directors. — Every township has its Board 
 of School Directors, or School Trustees. These officers, 
 elected annually by the voters of the town, have control of 
 the public schools within the township. Their powers and 
 duties have been stated in a previous lesson. (Pages 30, 
 31.) In some States the Directors of all the townships 
 in a county meet every second or third year and elect a 
 Superintendent of Schools for the county. 
 
 (3) The Tozvuship Clerk. — This officer is a secretary for 
 the supervisors. He keeps the records and accounts of 
 the township. When stray animals come into the town- 
 ship, the clerk writes out a description of them and assists 
 
LESSON XVII 91 
 
 in restoring them to the rightful owner. Very often the 
 clerk is not an important officer. 
 
 (4) TJie Assessors, — The duty of these officers as assess- 
 ors of taxes has already been explained. (Page 62.) Some- 
 times the assessors of the township act as registrars of 
 voters ; that is, they make out a list of the names of all 
 citizens having the right to vote and present it to the 
 judges of elections. They also keep a record of all births 
 and deaths in the township. 
 
 (5) The Tax Collector. — This officer collects the road 
 and school taxes of the township and places them in the 
 hands of the proper officer, the supervisors getting the 
 road tax, and the school directors getting the school tax. 
 (For powers and duties of a tax collector, see page 63.) 
 
 (6) The Ajiditors. — These officers examine the accounts 
 of other officers of the township to see that all money 
 
 • has been properly and honestly expended. 
 
 (7) The Justice of the Peace. — We shall speak of this 
 officer several times in our study of government. It is 
 sufficient here to say that he holds court on a small 
 scale ; he acts as a peacemaker between his neighbors 
 in their petty disputes ; he administers oaths ; he performs 
 the marriage ceremony ; he issues search warrants. He is 
 usually appointed by the Governor of the State. A justice 
 of the peace may hold court in any township of a county. 
 
 (8) The Constable acts as a policeman or peace officer 
 of the town. When a disturbance arises, it is his duty to 
 suppress it. ** The most common duty of a constable is to 
 serve writs and warrants as directed by a justice of the 
 peace. A writ is a notice in a civil case to the defend- 
 
92 LESSONS IN CIVICS 
 
 ant to appear before the justice for a hearing. It must 
 be served by reading ii to the defendant, or by leaving 
 it with his lawyer or some adult member of the family. 
 A warrant is an order for the arrest of one accused 
 of a crime. When a warrant is placed in a constable's 
 hands, he must arrest the accused person and take him 
 before the justice ; if the accused is committed to jail 
 the constable must take him there." ^ 
 
 (9) Overseers of the Poor. — These officers attend to 
 the needs of the poor. When there is no poorhouse in 
 the county, the township supports the poor by sending 
 them provisions to their homes or paying some one to 
 provide for them. The overseers may lay a tax for the 
 support of the poor of the township. 
 
 (10) Election Officers. — These are judges of elections 
 and clerks. Their, duties have been explained in Les- 
 son X. 
 
 QUESTIONS FOR ORIGINAL WORK 
 
 1. How many townships in the county in which you live? Name 
 them. 
 
 2. Bound the township in which you live. What is its population ? 
 Draw a map of it, locating the townhouse. Locate any villages that it 
 may contain. 
 
 3. What is the rate of taxation in your township? How does this 
 compare with the rate of adjoining townships? 
 
 4. Are the officers of your township elected by ballot, or by the peo- 
 ple assembled in town meeting? 
 
 5. In some States the supervisors of all the different townships of a 
 county act as a board of county commissioners for the management of 
 county affairs. Is this the case in your State ? 
 
 6. Are women allowed to vote for school directors in your township? 
 
 1 Shimmell's "Pennsylvania Citizen," p. 18. 
 
I 
 
 LESSON XVIII 
 
 VILLAGE AND CITY GOVERNMENT 
 
 "Cities have preserved human liberties." — F. A/". Thorpe. 
 
 Importance of the Subject. — In this lesson and in the 
 next we shall speak of village and city government. The 
 subjects of village (or borough) government and city gov- 
 ernment will be carried along together, for villages and 
 cities are governed in very much the same manner. A 
 village is simply a small city, and a city is a large village. 
 If you Hve in a city, it is of special importance that you 
 learn all you can about city government, for you will 
 sooner or later discover that much of the comfort and 
 happiness of your life depends upon the ways the affairs 
 of your city are managed. A well-governed city is one 
 of the best places in the world for one to live in, while a 
 badly governed city is one of the worst places. If when 
 you are grown you will try to make the government of 
 your city better, your efforts may be richly rewarded, for 
 you may be the cause of making the lives of thousands of 
 people happier. 
 
 The Beginning of a City. — There is an old saying that 
 " Rome was not built in a day." This is true of all cities. 
 The miles of streets and the grand buildings you see 
 around you in a city were not built in a day. A city 
 
 93 
 
94 LESSONS IN CIVICS 
 
 begins with one building, perhaps a flourmill, or a saw- 
 mill, or a farmhouse, or a rude shed for cattle. Let us 
 try to follow in our imagination the growth of a city. Let 
 us suppose the first building is a sawmill built in a forest 
 of fine timber. Soon after the mill is built its manager 
 builds a home for himself and family. In a short time 
 rows of houses are built as dwellings for the men who 
 work in the mill and for those who cut down the trees. 
 These rows of houses are the beginnings of streets. The 
 families who dwell in these houses must be supplied with 
 groceries and other necessaries; hence it is not long be- 
 fore a merchant comes and erects a building for a store. 
 The horses that haul the logs must be shod and the 
 wagons repaired; hence a blacksmith shop and a wheel- 
 wright shop must be built. A railroad is built near the 
 settlement, and this brings a station and a station master. 
 The place must now have a name. A natural name for 
 it would be Millville. Let us call it that. Millville is 
 prosperous, and many who wash to join in its prosperity 
 are attracted to it. The doctor and the druggist, the 
 shoemaker and the carpenter, with their families, come 
 to try their fortunes. Soon a schoolhouse is built, and 
 a church and a house for the preacher. Another mill is 
 built. This means more workmen and more merchants. 
 Now come the tailor, the seamstress, the music teacher, 
 the barber, and baker, and many others. Millville has 
 a thousand inhabitants. But it has no separate govern- 
 ment. It is governed precisely as the more thinly settled 
 region around it is governed. It pays a large share of the 
 taxes of the county in which it is situated, yet it gets but 
 
LESSON XVIII 95 
 
 little return for the money. In the spending of the taxes 
 but little attention is given to its needs. It needs street 
 lamps, sidewalks, sewers, waterworks, policemen, firemen. 
 It also needs certain powers of government that are nec- 
 essary wherever a large number of people live together. 
 As it is, in Millville each person acts in reference to his 
 neighbor's comfort pretty much as he pleases. He paves 
 the sidewalk in front of his house, or does not pave it, as 
 best suits him ; he helps to buy oil for the street lamps, 
 or he refuses ; if he sees fit, he may throw garbage into 
 the street, and commit other offenses against the health 
 of the town : there are no officers and no laws to hinder 
 him. When there is a drunken row, there are no officers 
 to arrest the offenders. 
 
 In order to change this state of things, and make Mill- 
 ville a safer, cleaner, and more beautiful place in which 
 to live, its inhabitants get for it a special government. 
 The people of the settlement organize as a lillage^ (or 
 borough). They apply to the Legislature of the State or 
 to the judge of some court, and get a charter^ which gives 
 them the right to village officers and village laws and 
 privileges. What these officers are called and what are 
 their powers it is not necessary to state here. If you live 
 in a chartered village, get a copy of your village charter 
 and study it. You can learn from the charter all you 
 need to know about your village government. It is 
 enough to say here, that under their charter the citizens 
 of Millville begin the business of governing a village. 
 
 1 What is spoken of in this lesson as a village is in the Southern States 
 usually called a town. 
 
g6 LESSONS IN CIVICS 
 
 A police officer is employed, a fire engine is bought, 
 sewers are laid, streets are paved, a better schoolhouse 
 is built. To pay for all these things village or borough 
 taxes are levied upon the property holders. 
 
 Under its new government Millville is stirred with new 
 life. More mills are built; large factories employing 
 hundreds of people are set in operation. The population 
 rapidly and steadily increases. In the course of time, 
 instead of having a thousand inhabitants, it has come to 
 have many thousands. It is now found that the village 
 form of government does not suit such a large place. 
 The powers that are granted to the village by its charter 
 are too few and too small. Millville has become a city, 
 and it must have a government suitable to a city. 
 
 Charters. — We have seen that when a community 
 wishes to organize as a village, or borough, the citizens 
 secure a charter which gives them the right of establish- 
 ing for themselves a village government. In much the 
 same way, when a village grows to be a city in size, the 
 citizens secure from the State a charter which gives them 
 the right of forming a city government. In some States, 
 when a village reaches a certain population, the law gives 
 it a charter, and it becomes a city simply by reason of its 
 size. It will be well for you at this point to get a clear 
 notion of what a charter is. The word charter comes 
 from the Latin carta, which means paper. A charter is 
 a written or printed document, conferring certain rights 
 and privileges upon the persons to whom it is granted. 
 Thus a charter may be granted to a company of men, 
 giving them the privilege of building and operating a 
 
LESSON XVIII 97 
 
 railroad; or one may be granted, giving the right of 
 founding a college. Both the railroad company and the 
 college will conduct their business under their charter. 
 The charter will tell them just what they may do, and 
 they must not do more than this. A city also, as has 
 been said, is governed under a charter granted by the 
 State. The parties to whom the charter is granted are 
 all the male citizens of the city above twenty-one years 
 of age. In our next lesson we shall see what kind of 
 government a city usually enjoys under its charter. If 
 you wish to understand the government of a. city, by all 
 means get a copy of its charter and read it. 
 
 QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 
 
 1 . Obtain a copy of your village (or borough) charter, and examine 
 it for answer to the following questions : 
 
 a. When was the charter granted? 
 
 b. By what authority was it granted? 
 
 c. What is the title of the executive officer of the village? 
 
 d. What is the governing body called ? What are the powers of this 
 
 body? How often does it meet? 
 
 e. Are the officers of the village elected or appointed? 
 
 f. What powers of taxation does the charter grant? Could the people 
 
 of the village be taxed to build a bridge costing $50,000? One 
 costing $5000? 
 
 g. Who are entitled to vote at village elections ? 
 h. What are the boundaries of the village ? 
 
 2. What improvements are needed in your village? Can they be 
 secured under the terms of the charter? 
 
 3. Have you seen villages much more attractive than the one in 
 which you live ? What makes a village attractive ? 
 
 4. Are the officers of your village slow and old-fashioned, or pro- 
 gressive and modern, in their ideas? 
 
 LESS. IN CIV. — 7 
 
LESSON XIX 
 
 CITY GOVERNMENT (Continued) 
 
 " The modern city has come to be a huge corporation for carrying on 
 a huge business with many branches." — John Fiske. 
 
 The City Council. — You find that the charter of your 
 city provides for a government with a division of powers 
 such as was described in a previous lesson. It provides 
 for a legislative or lawmaking department, for a judicial 
 department, and for an executive department. The laws 
 of a city are made by a body usually called the City 
 Council ; sometimes this body is called the Board of 
 Aldermen. The city is divided into wards, and the voters 
 of each ward elect one or more councilmen to represent 
 them in the City Council. If there are twenty wards in 
 the city, the Council will consist of twenty, or forty, or sixty 
 members, according as there are one, two, or three mem- 
 bers from each ward. These councilmen meet in the City 
 Hall, and make laws for the government of the city. 
 The laws that a City Council makes are called ordinances 
 An ordinance, then, is a city law. These ordinances of 
 the Council relate to almost everything that concerns life 
 in a city. There is not room here to speak of all the 
 things done by a City Council ; a few of the things done 
 by it, however, may be mentioned. 
 
 When you are born, the City Council requires that your 
 
 98 
 
I 
 
 LESSON XIX 99 
 
 name be registered in the book of births ; when you are 
 old enough to go to school, it provides for you schools and 
 teachers and, sometimes, books ; if your parents are too 
 poor to support you, it will help you with food and cloth- 
 ing; when you go out from your home, you walk upon 
 streets paved and cleaned and lighted by the Council ; if 
 you should be attacked, its policemen will arrest your 
 assailant ; if you wish to engage in some business, it will 
 probably demand of you a license ; if you wish to build a 
 home, you must first get from it permission to build ; if your 
 house takes fire, its firemen come rushing to put the fire out. 
 The Council provides for the removal of garbage from your 
 yard ; it employs men to inspect the quality of your food 
 and drink ; it provides parks and open squares where you 
 may get a breath of fresh air and a glimpse of nature ; it 
 causes to be brought into your house a supply of fresh 
 water, and it provides sewers to carry impure water away 
 from your house ; if in your old age you shall be infirm 
 and poor, the Council will care for you in its asylums ; at 
 last, when you shall die, it will grant a permit for your 
 burial, and the fact of your death will have to be registered 
 in its book of deaths. 
 
 Thus from birth to death the acts of the City Council 
 affect your lives. How important then it is that that body 
 should be composed of honest and intelligent men ! How 
 tireless should be the efforts of voters to secure the elec- 
 tion of such men ! Remember this : If you succeed in 
 getting honorable, wide-awake men in your City Council, 
 you will have a well-governed city. As far as you know, 
 have you such men now in your City Council ? 
 
lOO LESSONS IN CIVICS 
 
 The Mayor. — The executive power of the government 
 of a city is given to an officer called the Mayor. The 
 Mayor is elected by the votes of the people for a term 
 varying from one to four years. His duty is to carry into 
 effect the ordinances of the City Council. In most cities 
 the Mayor can veto an ordinance of the Council. This 
 means that he can forbid the passage of such an ordinance 
 — veto meaning I forbid. When an ordinance is vetoed, it 
 is generally sent back to the Council and voted upon again, 
 and if it is passed again by a -two-thirds vote, it is a lawful 
 ordinance and must be enforced, notwithstanding the 
 Mayor's objection. Another duty of the Mayor is to 
 appoint many of the officers who conduct the business of 
 the city. The business of a city is very great, much greater 
 than that of any government that has been yet studied, and 
 it takes almost an army of men to transact it. The work 
 of the city is done by departments. These are : The 
 department of police, the department of health, the depart- 
 ment of taxes, the fire department, the department of 
 streets, the department of education, the department of 
 elections, and other departments. In many cities the 
 heads of these departments are appointed by the Mayor, 
 but the appointment has usually to be approved by the 
 City Council. Many people believe that the Mayor ought 
 to have the right to appoint the heads of the departments 
 without submitting his choice to the City Council. They 
 think this would give the Mayor an opportunity to choose 
 better men. Unless he has this full power of appointment, 
 he is compelled to appoint only such men as are acceptable 
 to the Council, 'and when a bad appointment is made, the 
 
I 
 
 LESSON XIX lOI 
 
 Mayor excuses himself by saying k, 'vsfa^; the be:$c the 
 Council would allow him to make. \yh^t, J3 4^^>^. m .'Cach 
 department is summed up in a written, repidrt arid^ls ^ent't'o 
 the Mayor and City Council. If you wish to study city 
 government thoroughly, you must study these reports of 
 the departments as well as the city charter. 
 
 City Courts. — If the City Council should pass an ordi- 
 nance forbidding the explosion of firecrackers upon the 
 street, it would be the duty of the Mayor to enforce it. 
 This he would do through the policemen, but not through 
 the police alone. Any one accused of violating the ordi- 
 nance would first be taken to a police court, and there be 
 tried before a police justice for the offense. If the accused 
 person was found guilty, he would then be handed over to 
 the executive department for punishment. When a person 
 is accused of some very grave offense, as of arson, or mur- 
 der, his trial is conducted in the Criminal Court of the city. 
 Here he may have a trial by jury. What is meant by a 
 "trial by jury" will be explained hereafter. Besides the 
 police court and criminal court, there is in a large city, 
 another court, usually called the Court of Common Pleas. 
 This court tries cases when the dispute is concerning 
 property or money, or where a question of damages is 
 involved. These courts — the Police Courts, the Criminal 
 Court, and the Court of Common Pleas — are the judicial 
 department of the government of a city. 
 
 What a City Government should Do. — We have described 
 briefly the three parts of a city government, and have 
 spoken of a few of the things a city government does. 
 Should the city attempt to do more than it usually does? 
 
I02 LESSONS IN CIVICS 
 
 It supplies the- -people with water; should it supply them 
 with ^R^also K • Should it own and operate the electric cars ? 
 It provides children -with an education; should it provide 
 them with a midday lunch also ? Should it furnish the 
 music for the parks ? Should it own and operate the tele- 
 phone ? Should it lay pipes and supply heat to families '? 
 These are a few of the questions you will be called upon to 
 answer when you become voters. You cannot answer them 
 intelligently now ; but if you will begin to study them now, 
 when the time comes for you to vote and act, you will not 
 vote and act like blind men. 
 
 QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 
 
 (For Pupils who live in Cities) 
 
 1 . In what county is the city in which you live situated ? When was 
 it organized? What are its boundaries? What is its population? 
 What are its industries? Can a city be situated in a town? 
 
 2. How many wards in your city? In which ward do you live? 
 Bound the ward in which you live. How many councilmen or alder- 
 men does each ward in your city send to the City Council ? What are 
 the qualifications of a good councilman? Name the councilmen who 
 represent your ward. 
 
 3. Let a pupil obtain a copy of the report of the police department 
 and describe its work. The report will show how many policemen are 
 employed, what are their salaries, the number of arrests made, the 
 causes for which the arrests were made, and other interesting facts. 
 Reports of other departments may be similarly studied. 
 
 4. How does the rate of taxation in your city compare with that of 
 other cities of equal size? 
 
 5. What is the amount of the debt of your city? 
 
 6. Does your city own its gas and electric light plants ? 
 
 7. Has your city the reputation of being well governed? 
 
 8. What are the qualifications of a good Mayor? 
 
 9. How may children help the cause of good city government? 
 
I 
 
 LESSON XX 
 
 THE STATE 
 
 " States make up the mass, the body, the organic stuff of the govern- 
 ment of the country. To them is intrusted our daily welfare." 
 
 — Woodrow Wilson. 
 
 The Thirteen Colonies. — In speaking of the government 
 of the city and town and county, we have now and then 
 spoken of a larger government that is above these and 
 that holds these together. This larger government is the 
 State, and it is the State we are now going to study. We 
 may best begin the study of the State by glancing at the 
 history of State government in the United States. 
 
 At the outbreak of the Revolutionary War, the three 
 million Englishmen who lived along the coast of the 
 Atlantic occupied thirteen distinct and separate colonies, 
 — Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, Con- 
 necticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, 
 Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and 
 Georgia. These colonies were all dependent upon the 
 English government; their inhabitants were subjects of 
 the English king. But England was three thousand miles 
 away, and it took, in those times, many weeks for a vessel 
 to cross the Atlantic. As a result of this wide separation, 
 England could not govern an American colony in the 
 same way that she governed one of her counties at home. 
 
 103 
 
104 LESSONS IN CIVICS 
 
 A colony in many things was allowed to govern itself. It 
 elected its own lawmakers, it appointed its own judges. 
 Rhode Island and Connecticut even elected their own Gov- 
 ernors, and thus exercised the three powers of government, 
 — the legislative, the executive, and the judicial. Aside 
 from the tie that bound it to England, a colony had no 
 other ties. Each colony was independent of all the other 
 colonies. Pennsylvania had no more to do in the way 
 of government with its neighbor Maryland than it had 
 with Prussia. Likewise each colony had a different his- 
 tory. Virginia had grown by joining to herself, from time 
 to time, the counties that were formed as new tracts of 
 land were brought under cultivation. The county, there- 
 fore, was of great importance in Virginia. Massachusetts 
 had been formed by joining together two colonies that had 
 consisted each of a number of towns. For this reason the 
 town was the most important feature in the colonial gov- 
 ernment of Massachusetts. Maryland had been developed 
 in much the way a wise landlord would develop an im- 
 mense tract of farming land. Connecticut and Rhode 
 Island, as we have seen, were so free that they were almost 
 independent republics. Thus it came about that at the 
 time of the Revolution the thirteen colonies were not only 
 independent of each other, but they differed from each 
 other in the character of their governments. 
 
 The Thirteen Original States. — After the Revolutionary 
 War had brought victory to the Americans, each colony 
 found itself a free and independent nation, — a State. 
 Instead of thirteen English colonies, there were thirteen 
 American States. We shall see hereafter, how, after 
 
I 
 
 LESSON XX I OS 
 
 much trouble, the thirteen States joined and formed the 
 United States. At present let us try to grasp the idea 
 that when the colonies had gained their freedom, each 
 colony was then free to govern itself. Indeed, each colony 
 was compelled to govern itself, for there was no longer 
 any king or parliament for it to look up to. As quickly 
 as possible after the Declaration of Independence, the 
 people of each colony took up the difficult task of self- 
 government. The first thing to be done was to change 
 the colonial government into a State government. This 
 was done by representatives of the people of a State 
 coming together in convention and agreeing on a plan 
 as to just how the State was to be governed. This plan 
 was written out and submitted to the people for ratification, 
 and was called the Constitution of the State. Each colony 
 made for itself a constitution that suited best its own 
 wishes and its own needs. The constitution of Virginia 
 differed from that of Massachusetts, because the needs 
 of Virginia were different from those of Massachusetts. 
 You must not suppose that the new State government that 
 was formed differed very much from the old colonial gov- 
 ernment. The people of a colony, after many years of 
 hard experience, had built up the kind of government they 
 liked best, and they had become used to obeying certain 
 laws and observing certain customs. Now it is not pos- 
 sible — and you should think of this when you hear new 
 schemes of government proposed — it is not possible for 
 a people suddenly to make a complete change in their 
 laws, customs, and habits. So the new State governments 
 were necessarily very much like the old colonial govern- 
 
I06 LESSONS IN CIVICS 
 
 ments. The colonies of Connecticut and Rhode Island 
 did not form a new government at all. The old charters 
 granted to them by England were taken as Constitutions 
 for these two States. 
 
 The State governments differed from each other in 
 many respects, yet they were alike in many respects. 
 Thus every State elected a Governor for a short term of 
 years. I suppose if a State had so desired, it could have 
 chosen some one as its king. But none of them did this. 
 They had had enough of kings. Again, in every State 
 the powers of government were divided into the legislative, 
 executive, and judicial departments. The common law of 
 England was also declared in all the States to be the law 
 under the new order of things. It was natural that the 
 governments of the different States should bear a strong 
 resemblance to each other. The people of the colonies, 
 from New Hampshire to Georgia, were nearly all the same 
 in blood and speech ; they were nearly all Englishmen, 
 and had English notions of government and law. 
 
 The Admitted States. — In 1 788-1 790 the thirteen origi- 
 nal States united under the Constitution. It was not long 
 before other communities outside of the present bounda- 
 ries of the original States wished to join the Union. Each 
 was allowed to do this as soon as it had grown large 
 enough in population and after it had adopted for itself 
 a constitution that was acceptable to Congress. When 
 these requirements were fulfilled, the new community was 
 admitted to the Union as a State. Vermont was the first 
 new State admitted. This was in 1791. The next year 
 Kentucky was admitted; and so on from time to time 
 
I 
 
 LESSON XX 107 
 
 until thirty-two new States have been admitted into the 
 Union, making forty-five in all. The last to be admitted 
 was Utah (1896). 
 
 The governments of the admitted States were modeled 
 after those of the older States. 
 
 It is plain that the younger States have had an advan- 
 tage over the older ones in the matter of making laws for 
 themselves, for they have been able to select those laws 
 of the older States that experience has shown to be good, 
 and they have been able to avoid making those laws that 
 experience has shown to be bad. 
 
 SUGGESTIONS FOR ORIGINAL WORK 
 
 1. Bound the State 4n which you live. Is it one of the original 
 States? If it is not, when was it admitted into the Union? 
 
 2. What is the origin of the name of your State ? What is its nick- 
 name? What is the origin of its nickname? What is the population 
 of your State ? 
 
 3. How many States have a greater population than your State? 
 What is the area of your State? How many States have a greater area? 
 How many States as large as the smallest State in the Union could be 
 made out of the largest State in the Union? 
 
 4. If you live in one of the admitted States, learn from what State 
 the first settlers in your State came and compare your State with the 
 parent State, in reference to (a) government, (I?) religion, (c) occupation, 
 (d) political parties. 
 
 5. Name the territories. Which of these do you think will become 
 a State first ? 
 
LESSON XXI 
 
 THE STATE CONSTITUTION 
 
 " In the American State the legislature is not supreme, but has limits 
 to its authority prescribed by a written document known as the Consti- 
 tution." — Joh7i Fiske. 
 
 Meaning of the Word *^ Constitution." — You have met 
 with the word Constitution several times already, and, 
 since you will meet with it many times hereafter, you 
 ought to try to understand clearly what it means. The 
 word comes from constituo^ a Latin word which means 
 fix, establish, settle. The constitution of a debating society 
 is a set of fixed rules by which the society is to be per- 
 manently governed, and from which it cannot rightfully 
 depart. The constitution of a State is a document con- 
 taining those fixed principles and rules by which a State 
 must be governed, and from which neither the Governor, 
 the lawmaker, nor the judge may depart. The consti- 
 tution may be called the fundamental law of the State, 
 because it is the foundation upon which all laws are built, 
 just as the foundation of a house is the part upon which 
 all the other parts rest. Think of a constitution as the 
 foundation plan upon which a system of laws may be built. 
 
 Description of a State Constitution. — I have before me 
 the constitution of the State in which I live, and I will 
 attempt to describe it to you very briefly : It begins with 
 
 io8 
 
LESSON XXI 109 
 
 a Declaration of Rights. It declares that a people have 
 the right to govern themselves ; that all citizens have a 
 right to a trial by jury; that the Governor, the judges, 
 and the lawmakers are responsible to the people for their 
 actions ; that all male adult citizens have the right to 
 vote; that the legislative, executive, and judicial powers 
 of government shall be separate; that there shall be 
 freedom of speech and debate ; that no one shall be 
 compelled to give evidence against himself in a court of 
 law ; that the press shall be free ; that no title of nobility 
 shall be granted ; that a man's religion shall not be made 
 a test for holding office; that the people have in them- 
 selves the right to form a new government. After declar- 
 ing these and some other rights, the constitution takes up 
 the executive department of government. It states who 
 may be elected Governor, how and when he may be 
 elected, how long he shall serve, and what are his powers 
 and duties. The powers and duties of other executive 
 officers are also defined. After the executive we come 
 to the legislative department. We are told what shall 
 be the name of the Legislature, how it shall be composed, 
 who may be its members, where it shall meet, how a law 
 shall be passed, and, in a general way, what kind of laws 
 shall be passed, and what kind may not be passed. (Thus 
 it states that the Legislature shall pass no law suspending 
 the writ of habeas corpus. See p. 42.) After the legisla- 
 tive comes the judicial department. The qualifications, 
 duties, and powers of judges are explained, and the 
 boundaries of the different judicial circuits are defined. 
 Last of all come the miscellaneous provisions. ThesQ 
 
no LESSONS IN CIVICS 
 
 relate to education, corporations, public debts, taxation, 
 and amendments. The constitution altogether would 
 make about forty pages of this book. There are forty- 
 five States, and each State has its own constitution and 
 no two constitutions are alike, but all the State constitu- 
 tions have a strong resemblance to the one that has been 
 described. 
 
 How the Constitution of a State is Made. — The consti- 
 tution of a State is made by a body of men who are 
 chosen to make a constitution and to do nothing else. 
 This body is called the Constitutional Convention. This 
 Convention is composed of delegates elected by the people 
 of the counties and cities of the State. In this Constitu- 
 tional Convention the needs and wishes of the people of 
 the State are discussed, and a constitution is carefully 
 drawn up. After a constitution is agreed upon by the 
 Convention, it is submitted to the people to be voted 
 upon. If a majority of the popular vote is cast for it, 
 it stands as the constitution — the fixed plan of govern- 
 ment. If it does not receive a majority of the votes, no 
 further attention is paid to it ; the work of the Convention 
 was in vain. If the people reject a proposed constitution, 
 they must live under the old constitution until another 
 Convention is called, and a constitution is framed that 
 will suit them. In recent years there have been Constitu- 
 tional Conventions that have not submitted the constitu- 
 tion to the people to be voted upon. In nearly all the 
 States, however, a constitution must be voted upon and 
 adopted by the people before it is the law. Is it best to 
 let the people vote upon the constitution of their State ? 
 
I 
 
 LESSON XXI III 
 
 How a Constitution is Changed. — We have called the 
 constitution the fixed, unchanging plan of government. 
 But it would not do for a constitution to remain unchanged 
 and unchangeable forever. It sometimes happens that a 
 plan is good at one time and yet bad at another time ; and 
 a constitution that might have been good and wise in the 
 year 1800, may, by the year 1900, have become foolish or 
 harmful. If, then, there is something in a constitution that 
 ought not to be there, or if something ought to be there that 
 is not there, how shall a change be made ? The answer 
 is: By amendment ; the constitution is mended ^htvQ it is 
 weak. This is done as follows : The Legislature of the 
 State passes the amendment, which it thinks ought to be 
 inserted in the constitution, and then submits the amend- 
 ment to the people to be voted upon, for or against. If 
 it gets the requisite number of the votes of the electors, 
 the amendment becomes a part of the constitution. In 
 some States, it is difficult to secure an amendment to the 
 constitution on account of the difficulty of getting it 
 passed by the Legislature. Thus, in California before 
 an amendment can be submitted to the people it must 
 first pass in the Legislature by a vote of two thirds of all 
 the members. In Georgia an amendment must pass in 
 two successive legislatures, both times by a two-thirds 
 vote, before it can be submitted to the people. Is it wise 
 to make it difficult to have the constitution changed .^ 
 
 When an entirely new constitution is desired, a new 
 Constitutional Convention must be called. This is usu- 
 ally done as follows : The Legislature submits to the 
 people the question, whether they wish a new Constitu- 
 
112 LESSONS IN CIVICS 
 
 tional Convention or not. If the people vote yes^ the 
 Legislature provides for the election of the delegates to 
 the Convention. The election is then held and the elected 
 delegates meet in convention, make a new constitution, 
 and submit it to the people to be voted upon, as has been 
 explained. You see that a constitution is adopted directly 
 by the votes of the people. It is not adopted by the 
 representatives of the people : it is very nearly the work 
 of a pure democracy. 
 
 ** Constitutional '' and ** Unconstitutional." — You will 
 often meet with these words in your reading. What do 
 they mean "^ Constitutional means in accordance with the 
 constitution. If an act of an individual, or of an officer 
 of government, or a law of the Legislature, does not con- 
 flict with anything that is found in the constitution, that 
 act or law is constitutional. "Unconstitutional" means, 
 of course, not constitutional. This seems at first sight 
 very easy and hardly worth mentioning, but in reality it 
 is sometimes very difficult to tell whether an act or a law 
 is constitutional or unconstitutional. Whether it is or not, 
 must be decided by the judges of the State. 
 
 QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 
 
 I . Get a copy of the constitution of your State, and examine it for 
 answers to the following questions : 
 
 (a) When was the constitution adopted by the people ? 
 (h) About how many pages of this book would it make? 
 
 (c) What are the principal rights declared? 
 
 (d ) Are there any amendments to the constitution as it now stands ? 
 
 If so, when and why were they adopted? 
 (i) What provision of the constitution seems to be the most important? 
 
LESSON XXI 113 
 
 (/) Do you find anything in the constitution that you would like, to 
 
 see changed? 
 (g) How would you proceed to get the constitution changed? 
 
 2. Elect a committee consisting of classmates to draw up a constitu- 
 tion for the government of a debating society. Provide in the consti- 
 tution for election of officers, time and place of holding meetings, 
 qualifications for membership, dues, fines, etc. The committee cannot 
 do good work unless it takes as a model some suitable constitution 
 already drawn up. The constitution drawn up should be submitted to 
 the whole class for approval. 
 
 3. Suppose you think a certain law is unconstitutional, have you a 
 right to disobey it? 
 
 4. How many constitutions has your State had during its entire 
 history ? 
 
 5. Would it be wise for Maine and Louisiana to exchange constitu- 
 tions? 
 
 LESS. IN CIV. — 8 
 
LESSON XXII 
 
 THE STATE LEGISLATURE 
 
 "While acting as the representative of the people I shall be governed 
 by their will on all subjects upon which I have the means of knowing 
 what their will is, and upon all others I shall do what my own judgment 
 teaches me will best advance their interests." — Abraham Lincoln. 
 
 When and where the State Legislature Meets. — Each 
 State has its capital^ or the city in which the business of 
 the State government is transacted. If you have ever been 
 in the capital of your State, you have doubtless visited the 
 capitoly or Statehoitse, This is usually a handsome build- 
 ing, containing many halls, galleries, and ofhces. In this 
 building is done the most important work of the State gov- 
 ernment. Here the Governor of the State and his assist- 
 ants have their offices ; here the highest judges of the 
 State hold their courts ; here every two years the Legis- 
 lature of the State meets to make laws. If your visit to 
 the Statehouse is made upon the day a newly elected Leg- 
 islature meets for the first time, you can learn much about 
 the making of laws. 
 
 The Two Branches of the Legislature. — Let us suppose 
 that you are in the Statehouse on the morning a Legis- 
 lature assembles for the first time. When the hour for 
 meeting comes, the lawmakers, who have been moving 
 busily about in the corridors, talking with each other, divide 
 
 114 
 
LESSON XXII 115 
 
 into two bodies. The smaller number meet in a room at 
 one end of the Statehouse. The men who meet in this 
 room are somewhat advanced in years ; they move about 
 in a quiet and dignified manner. Some of them seem to 
 be familiar with the place and to know how to begin with 
 the business. These men are senators, this is the Senate 
 chamber, and this branch of the Legislature is the Senate. 
 
 The larger number of lawmakers assemble in a large 
 hall at the opposite end of the Statehouse. This body, as 
 we look upon it from a gallery, differs much in appearance 
 from the Senate. The men are of all ages, from the young 
 man of two and twenty to the gray-haired man of seventy. 
 Some of them are dignified and of pleasing and intelligent 
 appearance ; others appear to be very ordinary men. A 
 few of them are self-possessed, but most of them act as if 
 they were in a strange place. These men are represefita- 
 tiveSy and this is the Honse of Representatives, The Legis- 
 lature of a State, therefore, is divided into two branches, — 
 an upper house, or Senate, and a lower house, or House of 
 Representatives. In some States the lower house is called 
 the Assembly, in others it is called the House of Dele- 
 gates. In North Carolina it is called the House of 
 Commons. 
 
 Election of Members of the Legislature. — Both the 
 lower house and the Senate are representative bodies, that 
 is, the members of both are sent to the capital to act in the 
 place of the people. The counties (or towns) and cities 
 are represented in the House of Representatives, according 
 to population. A county (or town), if it is small, may have 
 but one representative, while a county with a large popu- 
 
Il6 LESSONS IN CIVICS 
 
 lation may have two, or three, or four. In the same way 
 a city is represented by one, two, or more representatives, 
 according as it is small or large. How is the number of 
 representatives for a county, or town, or city determined.'' 
 Every ten years a census of the people is taken, and from 
 this census it can be determined how many representatives 
 a county or city is entitled to. If it is the law that there 
 should be at least one representative for 10,000 people, 
 then a county with a population of 10,000 or under would 
 be entitled to one representative ; a county with a popula- 
 tion of more than 10,000 and less than 20,000 would get 
 two representatives ; a city of 50,000 people, according to 
 this rule, would get five representatives. But a lawmaking 
 body should not be so large as to make it difficult to trans- 
 act business in a quiet and deliberate manner. A State 
 with 1,000,000 of inhabitants, represented by one repre- 
 sentative for every 10,000 people, would have a House of 
 Representatives consisting of 100 members. If the popu- 
 lation of the State increases to 2,000,000, how would the 
 law have to be changed so that the number of representa- 
 tives would still be loo.'^ 
 
 A senator represents a larger number of people than is 
 represented by a member of the House. The State is 
 divided into senatorial districts, and from each of these dis- 
 tricts one senator is elected. A senatorial district may in- 
 clude several counties, or several senators may represent, 
 one county. It is generally provided by law that senators 
 shall be older than representatives, and for this reason 
 they are supposed to be wiser than members of the lower 
 house. They are elected to serve for longer terms than 
 
. LESSON XXII 117 
 
 representatives, and they usually are men who have had 
 more experience in matters of government. 
 
 Organization. — After a roll call of the members, the 
 first thing that is done in the newly elected House of 
 Representatives is to choose a presiding officer, called a 
 Speaker. The Speaker takes the chair, and then the 
 House proceeds to .elect some one who is not a member, 
 as its Clerk or Secretary. The duty of this official is to 
 write out in a large book, called thQ Jotirnal, a full account 
 of everything that takes place in the House. The House 
 next elects a Sergeant-at-Aiins, an officer whose duty it 
 is to keep order in the House, and to bring absent mem- 
 bers to their seats when their presence is needed to make 
 a quorum. 
 
 When the Clerk and Sergeant-at-Arms, and such minor 
 officials as messengers and doorkeepers, are chosen by 
 the vote of the House, the Speaker announces the Co^n- 
 mi t tees of the House. 
 
 A Committee of the House consists of a small number 
 of members — three, or five, or seven, or nine — who have 
 charge of some particular branch of legislative business. 
 Thus if the Speaker appoints five members as the Com- 
 mittee on Education, all matters coming up in the House 
 relating to education are first referred to this committee. 
 There are a great many committees. The most important 
 are those on Finance, Corporations, the Judiciary, Elec- 
 tions, Appropriations, Education, Labor, Manufactures, 
 Agriculture, Public Buildings. 
 
 If we had remained in the Senate during its opening 
 hour, we should have seen almost the same things that we 
 
Il8 LESSONS IN CIVICS 
 
 saw in the House. There might have been some differ- 
 ence in the matter of the presiding officer. Some States 
 have a Lieutenant GovernoTy and when this is the case, this 
 officer, by virtue of his office, acts as Chairman or Presi- 
 dent of the Senate. Yet even where there is a Lieutenant 
 Governor, the Senate elects a President pro tempore^ who 
 serves in the absence of that officer. So we may say that 
 the Senate is organized in the same way that we saw the 
 House of Representatives organized. It elects its Clerk, 
 its Sergeant-at-Arms, its messengers and doorkeepers, and 
 the President announces just such committees as are an- 
 nounced in the House. After the two houses have been 
 organized as described, the Legislature is ready to begin 
 its work, — to make laws for the welfare of the. people. 
 
 QUESTIONS FOR ORIGINAL WORK 
 
 (Answers to a number of these questions can be found in the consti- 
 tution of the State.) 
 
 1. Is the capital of your State situated in the most suitable place? 
 Are the citizens of the State proud of their Statehouse? 
 
 2. What is the name of the lower house of the Legislature of your 
 State? What is the name of the Legislature taken as a whole? When 
 does the Legislature meet? How long may it continue in session? 
 
 3. What are the qualifications for a senator in your State? For a 
 representative ? Do you know the name of the senator that represents 
 you in the Senate ? 
 
 4. What is the method of representation in your State? Is it gen- 
 erally regarded as a just method? 
 
 5. Is there a Lieutenant Governor in your State? 
 
 6. What is the compensation of a senator? Of a representative? 
 Lawmakers in England receive no pay for their services. Is that a 
 good rule? 
 
 7. What is "mileage"? What is meant by "a quorum"? What 
 is regarded as a quorum in the Legislature of your State ? 
 
LESSON XXIII 
 
 THE STATE LEGISLATURE (Continued) 
 
 •*The convention, the campaign, the election, the division of the 
 powers of government, the exercise of political rights, are merely for 
 the purpose of making a law." — F, N. Thorpe. 
 
 How a Law is Made. — Let us now see how a law is 
 
 passed in the Legislature. We will suppose that many 
 people in the State wish a law to be passed, compelling 
 railroad companies to run their tracks wherever there is a 
 road or street-crossing, either above or below the road or 
 street, so that the lives of pedestrians or those riding in 
 vehicles may not be endangered. How will they get the 
 law passed } They will get one of their representatives in 
 the Legislature to take up their cause for them. A mem- 
 ber, let us say, of the House, will prepare a bill, that is, 
 the draft of a law, which compels railroads to lay their 
 tracks either above or below grade at all public crossings. 
 The member first gives notice to the Speaker that at a 
 convenient time he will introduce into the House a bill 
 " To compel railroad companies to lay their tracks either 
 above or below grade at all public crossings." When the 
 day arrives for introducing the bill, the member gives it 
 to the Clerk of the House to read. This is called \\^^ first 
 reading. The Speaker immediately after it is read refers 
 the bill to its proper committee, which, in this case, is the 
 
 119 
 
120 LESSONS IN CIVICS 
 
 Committee on Railroads. In a few days the Committee 
 in its private room will give attention to the bill. Friends 
 of the bill will appear before the Committee and speak in 
 its favor ; opponents of it will also be present to speak 
 against it. After hearing both sides of the question, the 
 Committee makes its report to the House. If the Com- 
 mittee thinks there is no reason for such a law, it reports 
 " unfavorably," and there the matter will probably end : 
 the bill is ''killed in Committee." But if the Committee 
 thinks well of the bill, it reports ** favorably." This 
 means that in the opinion of the Committee the bill ought 
 to become a law. The title of the bill is again read in the 
 House, and if no objection is raised, it is allowed to pass 
 upon its second reading. In its regular order the Bill is 
 taken up for its third and last reading. It is now read in 
 full by the Clerk, and a discussion of it begins. Speeches 
 are made in favor of it, and those who are opposed to it, 
 speak against it. If a member wishes to change a par- 
 ticular part of the bill, he offers an amendment to it. The 
 amendment is voted upon, and if it receives a majority of 
 the votes, the amendment becomes a part of the bill ; if 
 the amendment is voted down, the bill remains as it was 
 before. After a full discussion and debate, the measure 
 comes to a final vote. The Speaker asks the House, 
 ''Shall the bill pass.?" The House answers the question 
 by taking a vote. If a majority vote aye (yes), the bill 
 passes ; if a majority vote no, or if the noes equal the ayes, 
 the bill is lost ; it is " killed in the House." Let us sup- 
 pose it passes in the House. It is then taken by the mes- 
 senger of the House to the Senate. Here it has the same 
 
I 
 
 LESSON XXIII 12 V 
 
 history that it had in the House. It is referred by the 
 President of the Senate to its proper committee, is read 
 three times upon three different days, is fully discussed 
 upon its last reading, is possibly amended, and is then 
 voted upon. If it passes in the Senate with amendments, 
 it must then go back to the House in order that a vote 
 may be taken upon it as amended by the Senate. If it 
 passes in the House with the amendment, the bill has 
 passed, and, as far as the Legislature is concerned, it is a 
 law. 
 
 In nearly all the States, however, a bill that has passed 
 both houses of the Legislature is not yet a law, but must 
 be sent to the Governor of the State for his approval. If 
 the Governor signs it, or if he takes no action upon it 
 within a fixed number of days, it becomes a law. The 
 Governor may, however, veto the bill, that is, he may send 
 it back with his objections stated in writing to that branch 
 of the Legislature that sent it to him. The Legislature 
 may then take another vote upon the bill, and if it again 
 passes both Houses, it becomes a law in spite of the Gov- 
 ernor's veto. But in order to pass it over the Governor's 
 veto, it must, as a rule, get more than a bare majority of 
 votes. In some States it must receive the votes of two 
 thirds of the members present ; in others it must receive a 
 majority of the votes of all the members elected. 
 
 After a bill has gone through all the stages mentioned, 
 after it has been passed by both Houses and has been 
 signed by the Governor, it is assumed to be a law, and an 
 attempt is made to enforce it. It is liable, however, to be 
 declared to be unconstitutional. If, when the bill relating 
 
122 LESSONS IN CIVICS 
 
 to railroad crossings has been passed, the railroad officials 
 should object to laying their tracks as ordered, on the 
 ground that the Legislature had no right to pass such a 
 law, and should take the matter into court and the judge 
 should decide that the Legislature had no such right 
 under the constitution, then the law would be null and 
 void, and the railroad companies would not be compelled 
 to obey it. 
 
 What the Legislature of a State may Do. — The best 
 way to learn what the Legislature of a State may do, is to 
 learn first what it may not do. First, it may not pass a 
 law that is contrary to the constitution of the State. This 
 point was illustrated in the last paragraph. Second, it 
 may not pass a law contrary to the Constitution of the 
 United States. When we come to study this Constitution, 
 we shall learn that there are certain powers of government 
 granted to Congress, the body that makes laws for the 
 United States. For instance, one of the powers granted 
 to Congress is to manage the post offices of the country. 
 A State Legislature, therefore, has no right to make laws 
 relating to post offices. Again, in the Constitution of the 
 United States, certain things are mentioned which a State 
 must not do. For example, a State must not coin money. 
 Hence, a State Legislature has no right to establish a 
 mint. Members of a State Legislature, then, should keep 
 these two things in mind : First, they may not make laws 
 contrary to the constitution of their own State ; and, 
 second, they may not make laws contrary to the Constitu- 
 tion of the United States. So long as it does not violate 
 either of these two rules, a State Legislature is free to 
 
LESSON XXIII 123 
 
 pass almost any law it pleases. It would take too long to 
 name all the laws that can be passed, and that are passed, 
 in the Legislature of a State. Sometimes at one session 
 more than a thousand laws are passed. The following is 
 a list of a few of the things done by a State Legislature : 
 
 (i) It grants charters for the government of cities, 
 boroughs, and villages ; it also grants charters to railroads, 
 banks, colleges, and to many other institutions, public and 
 private. 
 
 (2) It makes laws regulating taxation, licenses, fees. 
 
 (3) It defines the boundaries of counties and towns. 
 
 (4) It makes laws for the punishment of crime, such 
 as treason, murder, arson, theft, bribery, forgery, fraud, 
 perjury. 
 
 (5) It makes laws concerning properfy, such as relate 
 to the sale of lands, the giving of mortgages, the granting 
 of deeds, the making of wills, the settlement of the estates 
 of bankrupts, the management of the estates of the dead. 
 
 (6) It makes laws concerning education, charity, health, 
 marriage, divorce. 
 
 (7) It makes laws concerning the qualifications of 
 voters and the time and manner of holding elections. 
 
 (8) It makes laws governing railroads, steamboats, ca- 
 nals, telegraph companies, telephone companies. 
 
 (9) It makes laws regulating hunting, fishing, mining, 
 manufacturing, trading. 
 
 It is plain that most of the laws that regulate us in our 
 daily conduct, and in our daily pursuits, are made by rfie 
 State. 
 
124 LESSONS IN CIVICS 
 
 Honest Men for the Legislature. — Since the duties of 
 the State lawmaker are so many and his powers are so 
 great, citizens should make every effort to elect only 
 honest and intelligent men to the Legislature. There is 
 good reason to believe that in some States bad men get 
 laws passed for their own private benefit. They do this 
 through bribery. They offer members of the Legislature 
 some inducement to vote for a bill that is against the 
 interests or the comfort of the great mass of people, and 
 in the interest of their own selfish schemes. The voter on 
 election day should think of this and try to prevent it. 
 He should not vote to send to the Legislature a man who 
 he believes can be bribed. Just as the happiness of the 
 people of a city depends, in a great measure, upon the kind 
 of men they send to the City Council, so the happiness of 
 the people of a State depends, in a large measure, upon 
 the kind of men they send to represent them in the State 
 Legislature. If we can get good laws through the Legis- 
 lature of our State, we have advanced a long way on the 
 road to good government. 
 
 QUESTIONS FOR ORIGINAL WORK 
 
 1. Why are there two branches of the Legislature ? Why should 
 a bill be passed in both Houses before it becomes a law? Why should 
 there be three readings of a bill? 
 
 2. Has a Governor of your State the veto power? What is the 
 "pocket veto"? When a Governor vetoes a bill, does he act as a leg- 
 islative or as an executive officer of government? 
 
 3. If the Legislature of your State is in session, find out what im- 
 portant measures are before it. Are you prepared to speak intelli- 
 gently about any of these measures? Have you in mind any law you 
 would like to see passed? How would you go about getting it passed? 
 
LESSON XXIII 125 
 
 What is the name of the senator who represents you in the Legisla- 
 ture? 
 
 4. With what two documents should a member of the Legislature 
 be familiar? 
 
 5. What difference do you observe in the powers of the Legisla- 
 ture and those of the City Council ? 
 
 6. What is meant by ^^ sumptuary laws " ? 
 
 7. What is meant by the "lobby"? 
 
 8. In what way may men be bribed without actually giving them 
 money ? 
 
 9. If a Legislature consists of a body of rascals, whose fault is it? 
 
LESSON XXIV 
 
 THE GOVERNOR AND HIS ASSISTANTS 
 
 " Strictly speaking, the Governor is not the head of the executive 
 department, but a member of it. The executive department is par- 
 celed out in several pieces, and his is one of the pieces." — John Fiske. 
 
 The Governor. — As soon as the lawmakers have passed 
 all the laws that seem desirable, they leave the capital and 
 go to their homes. It is left to the officers of the execu- 
 tive department to see that the laws are obeyed. At the 
 head of this department stands the Governor, — the pilot of 
 the ship of State. The Governor is elected by the votes of 
 the people. His term of office in some States is for one 
 year ; in others, it is for two years ; in others, it is for four 
 years. In the constitutions of most States it is required 
 that the Governor be at least thirty years of age, and that 
 he shall have been a resident of the State for five years 
 before his election. His powers are great, but they are 
 granted to him by the people, and if he abuses his power, . 
 he may be impeached. What are his powers and duties } 
 
 The first duty of a Governor is to see that the laws are 
 faithfully executed. If he learns that the law is being vio- 
 lated either by public officers or private persons, he must 
 take steps to have the laws obeyed. To secure obedience 
 he may call to his assistance judges and sheriffs and even 
 
 126 
 
LESSON XXIV 127 
 
 the soldiers of the State, for he is the commander in chief 
 of the land and naval forces within the State. Sometimes 
 when a mob is bent on destroying life and property, the 
 Governor calls out the troops and sends them against the 
 mob. When public business is to be conducted between 
 one State and another, the Governor acts in the name of 
 the State. It is the Governor's duty to send to the Legis- 
 lature at the opening of the session a message. This 
 message informs the Legislature of the condition of affairs 
 throughout the State, and recommends the passage of such 
 laws as the Governor thinks ought to be passed. The 
 Legislature, however, is not bound to pass, or even to con- 
 sider, the laws recommended in a message. In time of 
 danger or pressing need, if the Legislature is not in ses- 
 sion, the Governor may call it in extra session, so that it 
 may at once pass such laws as the moment requires. The 
 Governor, in many States, has the power to pardon crimi- 
 nals. He may forgive the offense entirely and restore the 
 criminals to freedom, or he may cormnute the punishment, 
 that is, he may make it less severe. Sometimes, when a 
 person is sentenced to be hanged, the Governor commutes 
 the punishment to imprisonment for life. For a good 
 reason he will reprieve or postpone the execution of the 
 death sentence. In some States this matter of pardon, 
 commutation, and reprieve is not left to the Governor, 
 but is intrusted to a special body of officers, known as the 
 Board of Pardons. 
 
 Another power of the Governor is that of appointment. 
 In all the States there are many officers who are not elected 
 directly by the people, but receive their positions by ap- 
 
128 LESSONS IN CIVICS 
 
 pointment. Many of these appointments are made by the 
 Governor. In some States he has the appointment of the 
 judges of the State courts, — a great responsibility. In 
 nearly all the States he appoints the justices of the peace. 
 When an elective official dies or resigns before his term 
 ends, the Governor fills the vacancy by appointing some 
 one to serve until another election is held. When an 
 officer is guilty of misconduct in office, the Governor in 
 most States may remove him and put a better man in his 
 place. 
 
 The above are a few of the powers of the Governor. In 
 some States his power is much greater than in others. The 
 question of the " power of the executive " is too difficult 
 for you to discuss now, but when you grow up to be voters, 
 you may have to decide whether it is better to give the 
 Governor much power or to give him little. 
 
 Other Executive Officers. — The Governor cannot attend 
 to all the public affairs of a State. . He must have assist- 
 ants, just as the Mayor of a city has heads of departments 
 to assist him. These assistants of the Governor are high 
 executive officers of the State, and they are generally 
 elected by the people. Below, you will find the names of 
 most of them, with a short explanation of their duties : 
 
 (i) The Lieutenant Governor. — A lieutenant is an officer 
 who takes the place of a higher officer, when that officer 
 is absent or cannot attend to his duties. Some States elect 
 a Lieutenant Governor to serve when the Governor is out 
 of the State or is unable to be at his post. The duties of 
 the Lieutenant Governor are very few. We have seen 
 that he has the right to act as the President of the State 
 
LESSON XXIV 129 
 
 Senate ; but he has no vote in that body except when there 
 is a tie, that is, when there is an equal number of votes for 
 and against a measure. When there is a tie, the Lieuten- 
 ant Governor decides the question by voting on one side or 
 on the other. In such a case he is said to have the casting 
 vote. 
 
 (2) The Secretary of State. — This officer, sometimes 
 elected, sometimes appointed by the Governor, is the 
 highest clerk of the executive department. He has 
 charge of State papers, of the Journals of the Legisla- 
 ture, and of historical documents, statuary, paintings, 
 relics, etc., owned by the State. If you will visit his 
 office in the Statehouse, you may find some very inter- 
 esting things there. 
 
 (3) The State Comptroller. — A comptroller is a manager 
 of accounts. The Comptroller of a State manages the 
 financial business of the State government. He attends 
 to business relating to the debt, the property, the claims, 
 the revenue of the State. He superintends the collection 
 of taxes due to the State, and examines the claims of those 
 to whom the State owes money. When a debt of the 
 State is to be paid, the Comptroller orders the- State 
 Treasurer to pay it. 
 
 (4) The State Treasurer. — We have learned that when 
 a town or a county collects money' by taxation, a certain 
 portion of the money must be given over to the State gov- 
 ernment. This money is sent to the State Treasurer. He 
 either keeps it in a large iron safe at the capitol or gives 
 it to some reliable bank to keep. He cannot pay a dollar 
 of it out without an order from the Comptroller. Like 
 
 LESS. IN CIV. — 
 
130 LESSONS IN CIVICS 
 
 the other treasurers of whom we have spoken, the State 
 Treasurer must give bond for the honest performance of 
 his duties. 
 
 (5) The Attorney-General. — This is the law officer of the 
 State, corresponding to the prosecuting attorney of the 
 county. When the State needs the services of a lawyer, 
 he appears for it in the courts. When any executive 
 officer of the State needs legal advice, the Attorney- 
 General is called upon for an opinion. 
 
 (6) The Superintendent of Public Instruction. — This is 
 the highest school officer of the State. He stands in the 
 same relation to the counties of the State as the County 
 Superintendent stands to the school districts of the county. 
 The officers of the school district report to the County 
 Superintendent and the County Superintendents report to 
 the State Superintendent. In this way the State Superin- 
 tendent keeps informed of the condition of all the schools. 
 He prepares a report and sends it to the Legislature. In 
 this report he states the needs of the schools and suggests 
 how they may be improved. He presides at the meeting 
 of County Superintendents and at teachers' institutes, and 
 furthers the cause of education in whatever way he can. 
 
 Impeachment. — If it is charged that a high officer of 
 the State is guilty of misconduct in office, if, for example, 
 the Governor is accused of having accepted a bribe for 
 signing or for not signing a bill ; or if a judge is accused 
 of trying cases while he is drunk, the House of Represent- 
 atives inquires into the charges, and if it finds that there is 
 truth in them, it impeaches the offender, that is, it accuses 
 
LESSON XXIV 131 
 
 him of official misconduct. The trial of the officer thus 
 impeached is conducted by the Senate. That body listens 
 to the evidence against the impeached officer, and if it 
 regards him guilty, it pronounces judgment against him. 
 An officer who has been found guilty under impeachment, 
 can no longer hold an office of honor, trust, or profit in 
 the State. 
 
 QUESTIONS FOR ORIGINAL WORK 
 
 1. What is the name of the chief executive officer of your State. 
 
 2. Examine the constitution of your State for answers to the follow- 
 ing questions : 
 
 (a) What are the qualifications of the Governor? 
 
 (d ) What is the length of his term of office ? 
 
 (c) What is his salary? 
 
 (d) Has he the power of veto? 
 
 (e) Has he the pardoning power? 
 
 (/) May he remove an inefficient officer? 
 (£") What officers does he appoint? 
 
 (^) If there is no Lieutenant Governor, who will fill the vacancy if 
 the Governor should die or resign ? 
 
 3. Ought the Lieutenant Governor to preside in the Senate at the 
 trial of a Governor, whom the House has impeached ? 
 
 4. When the Senate tries an impeachment case, does it act as a 
 legislative or judicial body ? 
 
 5. What are some of the qualifications of a good Governor? A good 
 Comptroller? A good Attorney-General? A good State Superin- 
 tendent of Instruction? 
 
 6. Have you read a Governor's message? What is a Governor's 
 "proclamation"? 
 
 7. Does the constitution of your State provide for other executive 
 officers not mentioned in the lesson? 
 
LESSON XXV 
 
 JUDGES, JURIES, AND COURTS OF LAW 
 
 "No man's property is safe, and no man's welfare is assured where 
 justice is denied to the poor, or where crime goes unpunished : no State 
 can prosper where human rights are not respected." — David A. Wells. 
 
 The Judicial Department. — You have learned how a 
 law is made, and you have learned the names and duties of 
 those officers who compel obedience to the laws. But 
 before an officer can punish a person for disobeying the 
 law, it must first have been decided that the one accused 
 is actually guilty. You will remember that the decision of 
 this question is left neither to those who make the laws, 
 nor to those who are to enforce them, but to a third body 
 of men, the judicial officers or judges of the State. Every 
 State has a complete judicial system by which citizens 
 may defend their rights and secure justice. It is this judi- 
 cial system that we are now to study. We will begin with 
 the lowest part of the system and proceed to the highest. 
 
 The Justice of the Peace. — Let us suppose that a house 
 has been burned in your neighborhood, and that a man 
 named X is suspected of having burned it. Some citizen 
 who is interested, perhaps the owner of the house, will file 
 a complaint against X before a justice of the peace. This 
 officer is usually appointed by the Governor, but is some- 
 times elected by the people. In either case he is an officer, 
 
 132 
 
LESSON XXV 133 
 
 not of the town or city or county, but of the State, and he 
 acts in the name of the State. He renders decisions only 
 in small and unimportant cases. Thus, if a man is sued for 
 a few dollars, or if he is arrested for drunkenness, or fast 
 driving, his case could be decided before a justice of the 
 peace. Returning to the case of house burning : When 
 the complaint is filed against X, the justice of the peace 
 gives a constable, or policeman, a warrant for the arrest of 
 the accused, who is brought into the justice's court. Since 
 X is charged with having committed an awful crime, — the 
 crime of arson, — the justice cannot try his case. But he 
 can do this : He can listen to witnesses for and against X, 
 and if he believes that the accused is probably guilty, he 
 may send him to jail to await trial in a higher court. But 
 this trial may not come up in a higher court for several 
 months, and if X is an innocent man, — and the law sup- 
 poses he is innocent until he is proven guilty, — it would be 
 a great hardship for him to have to He in jail for so long. 
 This he need not do if he can get bail. To give bail, he 
 must get one or more of his friends to sign an agreement 
 to pay the State a certain sum of money if he should fail 
 to appear in court for trial when he is wanted. This 
 agreement is a bond, and those who sign it are bondsmen. 
 If X runs away before trial, he is said to ''jump bail." 
 Let us suppose he is able to give bail, and that he awaits 
 his trial like a man. 
 
 The Circuit Court. — The trial of X will take place be- 
 fore the judges of the Circuit Court — in some States 
 called the District Court, in others the Superior Court.^ 
 
 ^ In a large city X would be tried before the Criminal Court. 
 
134 LESSONS IN CIVICS 
 
 The judges of this court, usually three in number, hold 
 court in the courthouse of the county seat two or three 
 times in a year. The same judges may serve in several 
 counties, going from one county to another. It is for this 
 reason they are sometimes called circuit judges. They are 
 generally elected by the people, although in some States 
 they are appointed by the Governor. In all cases, like 
 justices of the peace, they act in the name of the State. 
 
 Into this Circuit Court X is brought for trial. The 
 crime that he is accused of is supposed to have been com- 
 mitted not against the person whose house was burned, but 
 against society, against the whole body of people, against 
 the State. It is the State, therefore, that brings him to 
 trial. The State's Attorney brings the case before the 
 grand jury, a body consisting of not less than twelve nor 
 more than twenty-three citizens, whose business it is to 
 find violators of the law and to present them to the court 
 for trial. These grand jurymen summon the witnesses 
 who will testify against X, but not those who will testify in 
 his favor. If it is the opinion of at least twelve of the 
 grand jury that X ought to be tried for the burning of the 
 house, the State's Attorney will draw up an indictmenty 
 containing the charges against him, and the foreman of the 
 grand jury will write across the back of the indictment the 
 words, ''A true bill." This means that X must stand a 
 trial in court. 
 
 The examination by the grand jury was secret ; but the 
 trial in court, is open to the public. When X is brought 
 into court, the indictment is read to him, and he is asked 
 whether he is "guilty" or ''not guilty." His reply is 
 
LESSON XXV 135 
 
 called 2i plea. If his plea is "guilty," the judge sentences 
 him to be punished according to law. If his plea is " not 
 guilty," the judge appoints a time for his trial. The trial 
 begins by the selection of twelve men to act as a jury to 
 decide whether he is guilty or not. This is called the petit 
 jioy, or small jury, to distinguish it from the grand jury. 
 The members of the petit jury, like those of the grand jury, 
 are chosen from among the citizens of the neighborhood, 
 — from farmers, mechanics, merchants. Some of them 
 may be neighbors of X. Before they are allowed to serve, 
 they must swear that they have not formed an opinion 
 upon the guilt or innocence of the prisoner, and that they 
 will decide the case according to the evidence that is pre- 
 sented to them. After they have taken this oath, the jury- 
 men sit in the "jury box" and listen to the. testimony of 
 witnesses. In a trial, there are always two parties, one 
 called the plaintiff, who brings the complaint or suit into 
 court, and another, called the defendant, or the one against 
 whom the complaint is brought. In the case before us the 
 State is the plaintiff, and X is the defendant. The State's 
 Attorney, in behalf of the plaintiff, presents the case 
 against the defendant and examines witnesses for the 
 State. Another lawyer speaks in behalf of X and examines 
 witnesses who have testimony in his favor. After the evi- 
 dence on both sides has been heard, and after the judge 
 has given his charge to the jury, directing them on some 
 points of their duty, the jury retires to a private room to 
 talk the matter over and come to a decision. If they can 
 all agree, they return to the courtroom with their verdict. 
 If the verdict is " guilty," the judge will pronounce sen- 
 
136 LESSONS IN CIVICS 
 
 tence upon the prisoner in open court and give him over 
 to the sheriff for punishment ; if the verdict is " not 
 guilty," X is set free, and he cannot be tried again for 
 the same offense. 
 
 The Supreme Court. — If after X is sentenced, his law- 
 yer can show that strict justice has not been secured, he 
 may take the case to a higher court, usually called the 
 Supreme Court, or Court of Appeals, — the highest court of 
 the State. The judges of this court meet at the capital of 
 the State and hear cases that have been tried in the court 
 of law. The Supreme Court will not try the case of X 
 over again, but it will listen to his appeal, and if it is shown 
 that the judges in the court below did not try the case ac- 
 cording to law, it will order a new trial and thus give X 
 another chance for his freedom ; if it finds that the trial 
 was properly conducted in the lower court, X will have to 
 bear his punishment. 
 
 Civil and Criminal Cases. — Cases that involve crime, 
 like the case of X, are called criminal. Most of the cases, 
 however, that are tried in courts do not relate to crime, 
 but to the ownership of property. Such cases are called 
 civil. The chief difference between a criminal and a civil 
 case, is that in a criminal case the plaintiff is the State ; 
 while in a civil case, the plaintiff is a private person or a 
 corporation. The history of a civil case in the courts is 
 quite like that of a criminal case. If the amount of prop- 
 erty at stake is small, it may be tried before a justice of 
 the peace. If the amount is large, the case is tried in 
 the Circuit Court (or District Court), and if satisfaction is 
 not obtained, then it may be taken to the Supreme Court. 
 
LESSON XXV 137 
 
 QUESTIONS FOR ORIGINAL WORK 
 
 1 . Examine the constitution of your State for answer to the follow- 
 ing questions. 
 
 (a) Are judges of the court elected or appointed? 
 
 (d) What are the qualifications of a judge? 
 (c) How long do they hold office? 
 
 (^) What salaries are given to the different judges? 
 
 (e) Name the different courts of the State. 
 
 (/") How may a judge be removed from his office? 
 (g) Are justices of the peace elected or appointed? 
 
 2. Can the people choose by their votes a better judge than the 
 Governor can select? 
 
 3. Why should the term of office of a judge be longer than that of 
 other officers ? 
 
 4. In what court would you sue a man for a debt of two dollars? 
 For a debt of ten thousand dollars? In what court would a man 
 accused of murder be tried? A boy accused of disorderly conduct? 
 
 5. A man has been kept in jail awaiting trial. The trial proves him 
 to be innocent. Has he any redress ? 
 
 6. Which are the most important, good lawmakers, good executive 
 officers, or good judges ? 
 
 7. What are some of the unpleasant things a judge is called upon 
 to do? 
 
 8. Write a description of the kind of a man you think would make a 
 good judge. 
 
 9. What are the advantages of trial by jury? 
 
LESSON XXVI 
 
 THE NATIONAL GOVERNMENT 
 
 " Great were the hearts and strong the minds 
 Of those who framed, in high debate, 
 The immortal league of love, that binds 
 Our fair broad Empire, State with State." — Bryant. 
 
 Importance of State Government. — We have now studied 
 the leading facts connected with several of the govern- 
 ments by which we are controlled. We have studied the 
 government of the family and learned the rights and du- 
 ties of parents and children; we have studied the gov- 
 ernment of the school and learned the rights and duties 
 of pupils and teachers ; we have studied the government 
 of the city, county, and town, and have learned what are 
 the powers and duties of the officers of these govern- 
 ments; we have studied the government of the State, 
 and have learned how State laws are made and enforced. 
 We shall now take up the study of another government ; 
 but, before we do this, I wish to say a few more words 
 about the State government. 
 
 Of all the governments we have studied, that of the 
 State is by far the most important. Indeed, all the 
 smaller governments depend upon the State government. 
 The affairs of the home, the school, the county, the town, 
 the township, the city, are all influenced greatly by the 
 
 138 
 
LESSON XXVI 139 
 
 government of the State. Think how much this means. 
 It means that the State gives us nearly all the laws 
 under which we live. It means, too, that everywhere 
 in the different parts of this great country the people 
 may have in a large measure just such laws as they like 
 best. The people of Maine are not compelled to live 
 under the same laws as the people of Mississippi. There 
 are forty-five States, and each State may have a consti- 
 tution and laws to suit its particular case. Thus the 
 people of each State have the right of local self-government. 
 Just as in New England the people of each town manage 
 their local affairs in their own way, so the people of each 
 State conduct the public affairs of the State in their own 
 way. It will help you to think clearly upon some important 
 questions, to remember that a State, for most of the pur- 
 poses of government, is a self-governing community. But 
 it is not entirely independent. There is a government 
 above it, — the government of the United States. 
 
 The Articles of Confederation. — You know that after the 
 thirteen colonies declared themselves independent of Great 
 Britain, each colony was left a free and independent State. 
 But the colonies could not get their independence without 
 fighting for it, and they could not fight successfully unless 
 they all fought together. They understood this perfectly 
 well, and during the seven years of war with England they 
 joined hands and kept them joined until the enemy was 
 conquered. But when the war was over, and England had 
 acknowledged their independence, each State began to 
 think more of its own interests and to care very little for 
 union. In 1783 the thirteen States were held together by 
 
140 LESSONS IN CIVICS 
 
 the Articles of Confederation, a form of government that 
 had been adopted during the war. Whatever may have 
 been the value of these Articles in times of danger from a 
 foreign foe, in times of peace they served no useful pur- 
 pose. They gave Congress a right to make certain useful 
 laws, but they gave it no power to enforce those laws ; 
 they gave it the right to declare war, but they did not give 
 it the right to compel men to serve in the army ; they gave 
 it the right to borrow money, but they did not give it the 
 right to raise money by taxation in order to pay the debt. 
 In other words, the government of the United States un- 
 der the Articles of Confederation was a legislature only : 
 it lacked the executive and judicial powers. It was like a 
 three-legged stool with two legs gone. Of course, such a 
 government could not be respected. Yet the people of the 
 States felt there ought to be union, and that there ought 
 to be a general government that would have power enough 
 to make itself respected. What prevented such a union ? 
 It was the pride and jealousy of the States. Each State 
 was free to do just as it chose, and if a strong union was 
 formed, some of the freedom would have to be surrendered. 
 Things went from bad to worse under the Confederation. 
 Congress was mobbed at one time by a crowd of drunken 
 men ; soldiers who had served in the war clamored for 
 their pay, but there was no way to raise money for them. 
 One State quarreled with another.^ Washington and 
 
 1 The condition of affairs under the Confederation has been described by 
 Mr. Fiske in his "Critical Period of American History." You should read 
 this book and learn what would be the danger and evils if each State were 
 allowed to do entirely as it pleased. 
 
LESSON XXVI 141 
 
 Madison and Hamilton and other statesmen saw these 
 evils and took steps to remedy them before it was too late. 
 
 The Constitutional Convention of 1787. — It was one of 
 the evils under the Confederation that the people of the 
 different States could not trade freely with each other. 
 The New Jersey farmer could not carry his produce into 
 New York without first paying a tax upon it. Each State 
 had its own customhouse, and collected taxes upon goods 
 brought from foreign countries and turned the money into 
 its own treasury. This made the burden of taxation un- 
 equal in the different States. With the purpose of remedy- 
 ing this state of things, and taking measures to make the 
 laws of trade uniform, a convention was called to meet at 
 Annapolis in 1786. But, as only five of the thirteen States 
 responded to the call, the delegates thought it unwise to 
 proceed further with the business. They did, however, 
 make a report, requesting the States to send delegates to 
 another convention that should meet in the following year. 
 With this request all the States, excepting Rhode Island, 
 complied. 
 
 In May, 1787, delegates from twelve States met in Phila- 
 delphia for the purpose of amending the Articles of Confed- 
 eration in such a manner as to correct the evils of which 
 we have spoken. In this convention were some of the ablest 
 men our country has produced. There w^ere Washington 
 and Madison and Hamilton and Franklin. These men 
 did not work for their own selfish interests, or even for the 
 advantage of a particular State, but for the advantage of 
 all the States. The sessions of the convention were 
 secret, but we know most of the things that were said 
 
142 LESSONS IN CIVICS 
 
 and done in it. It soon agreed that the government un- 
 der the Confederation was weak and worthless, and that 
 an entirely new form of government was necessary. It 
 saw that, instead of a Confederation of the States, there 
 ought to be a union of the people. How was this to be 
 accomplished ? It could not be accomplished without the 
 States giving up some of their rights, and would they 
 be willing to do this ? Most of the members thought 
 the States would. For six months the subject was de- 
 bated, and at last a Constitution for the government of 
 the United States was agreed upon. Probably no one in 
 the Convention thought the proposed Constitution was 
 perfect. The words of the aged Franklin, who had worked 
 all his long life for union, will give us an idea of the spirit 
 in which the work of the Convention was done. When 
 the labors of the Convention were over, and the members 
 were about to adjourn and go home, Franklin arose and 
 said : " I consent to this Constitution because I expect no 
 better, and because I am not sure it is not the best. I 
 hope, therefore, that for our own sakes, as part of the peo- 
 ple, we shall act heartily and unanimously in recommend- 
 ing it wherever our influence may extend, and turn our 
 future thoughts and endeavors to means of having it well 
 administered." 
 
 The Constitution proposed by the Convention was sent 
 to the several States for their approval. In almost every 
 State it met with fierce opposition. The new government, 
 it was claimed, would crush out the rights of the States, 
 and destroy the freedom of individuals. But the Consti- 
 tution had strong supporters, and one by one the States 
 
LESSON XXVI 143 
 
 voted to accept it. It was provided that when nine States 
 approved of it, it should go into effect. By July, 1788, it 
 had been approved by nine States, and it, therefore, be- 
 came a law of the land. Two States, North Carolina and 
 Rhode Island, refused to accept it, and remained out of the 
 Union for some time. If these States had so desired, they 
 could have remained out until this day, and they would 
 now be foreign countries. In 1789, however. North Caro- 
 lina joined the Union, and in 1791 Rhode Island did like- 
 wise. The government under the new Constitution began 
 to transact business in New York in April, 1789. In 1790 
 the seat of government was removed to Philadelphia, and 
 in 1800 to Washington, which has remained the capital of 
 the United States. The Constitution framed by the Con- 
 vention of 1787 is the Constitution under which we live 
 to-day. We shall now study this important document. 
 You will find a copy of it in almost any school history of 
 the United States. 
 
LESSON XXVII 
 
 THE NATIONAL LEGISLATURE 
 
 "The American Constitution is, so far as I can see, the most won- 
 derful work ever struck off at a given time by the brain and purpose of 
 man." — VVilliain E. Gladstone, 
 
 The Preamble to the Constitution. — The Constitution of 
 the United States will remind you of your State Consti- 
 tution. It provides for a government of three depart- 
 ments, the legislative, the executive, and the judicial, and 
 it contains a Bill of Rights., It begins with a few words 
 called the preainbley which state the reasons for forming 
 a national government. The words of the preamble 
 are : 
 
 *' We, the people of the United States, in order to form 
 a more perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic 
 tranquillity, provide for the common defense, promote the 
 general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to 
 ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this 
 Constitution for the United States of America." 
 
 If you have studied the last lesson carefully, you will 
 understand the preamble. The States were disunited, 
 were jealous of each other and quarreled with each other ; 
 the Constitution proposed to form a "more perfect union." 
 When quarrels arose between a State and a citizen of 
 another State, or between citizens living in different States, 
 
 144 
 
LESSON XXVII 145 
 
 there was no good way of settling the dispute ; the Con- 
 stitution proposed to " establish justice," by organizing a 
 system of courts in which such disputes might be settled. 
 There had been rebellion and serious uprisings in some 
 of the States ; the Constitution proposed to have '* do- 
 mestic tranquillity " — peace at home. Under the Articles 
 of Confederation, the defense against the attacks of In- 
 dians, or even against a foreign foe, depended largely 
 upon the resistance of the particular State that suffered ; 
 the Constitution provided for a '* common defense," that 
 is, it proposed to support a national army, which should 
 be ready at any time to defend a single State or all the 
 States against an enemy. Before 1787 each State made 
 laws to suit its own local interests, without regard to the 
 interests of other States ; the Constitution proposed to 
 make laws that would ''promote the general welfare" — 
 the welfare of all the States. In the words of the pream- 
 ble are wrapped up all the purposes and objects of the 
 government that meets at Washington. You should learn 
 the preamble by heart. 
 
 Congress. — The most important department of a gov- 
 ernment is its lawmaking body. For this the Constitu- 
 tion provides first. It provides that laws of the national 
 government shall be made by a body called a Congress, 
 and that the Congress shall have two branches, a Senate 
 and a House of Representatives, just like the Legislature 
 of a State. This Congress every year, on the first Mon- 
 day in December, meets in the magnificent Capitol at 
 Washington ; the Senate at one end of the building, the 
 House of Representatives at the other end. 
 
 LESS. IN CIV. — 10 
 
146 LESSONS IN CIVICS 
 
 You should try to visit Washington when Congress is 
 in session, for it is an impressive sight to see a body of 
 men making laws for a great nation. 
 
 The House of Representatives. — It is the purpose of the 
 Constitution that the will of the people shall be expressed 
 in the House of Representatives. Hence, members of 
 this branch of Congress are elected by a direct popular 
 vote, and each State is represented according to its popu- 
 lation. During the first years of national government 
 a State was allowed one representative for every 30,000 
 inhabitants. If this number had remained unchanged, the 
 House of Representatives would now consist of nearly 
 2500 members, and would be a body much too large for 
 the transaction of business in a deliberate way. But it 
 has not remained unchanged ; as population has increased, 
 the number of inhabitants for each representative has 
 been made larger. At the present time each State is 
 allowed to send one representative for every 173,901 
 inhabitants. This gives Delaware one member in the 
 House, and New York thirty-four members. The repre- 
 sentatives from all the States number 357. Each State 
 is divided by its Legislature into a number of Congres- 
 sional Districts, each district containing, as near as may . 
 be, 173,901 inhabitants, so that it may be entitled to one 
 representative. Thus Iowa, with 1,911,896 inhabitants, 
 is divided into eleven Congressional Districts,, and is 
 entitled to eleven members in the House of Representa- 
 tives. 
 
 The House of Representatives, upon meeting, organizes 
 in very much the same way that the lower house in a 
 
LESSON XXVII 147 
 
 State Legislature is organized. A Speaker, a Clerk, a 
 Sergeant-at-Arms, and Messengers are elected, and Com- 
 mittees are appointed by the Speaker. 
 
 The Senate. — The States are represented in Congress 
 by senators. It was the purpose of those who framed the 
 Constitution to preserve the power and dignity of the 
 State as far as possible. For this reason one State is as 
 well represented in the Senate as another; each State, 
 whether great or small, being entitled to two senators. 
 Nevada, which has a population of 45,000, has as much 
 power in the Senate as has New York, with a population 
 of 7,000,000. This, at first sight, may seem to you to be 
 unjust, but the more you study the subject the more reason 
 you will see for the law. Probably the only way to enable 
 the smaller States to preserve their rights is to give them 
 equal power with the larger States in the Senate. Sena- 
 tors are not elected by the people but by the Legislatures 
 of the different States. The election is so arranged that 
 when a new Congress meets only one third of the Senate 
 can consist of new members. As there are now forty-five 
 States, the Senate consists of ninety members; and sixty 
 of these are experienced lawmakers. 
 
 How a Law is passed in Congress. — A law is passed in 
 Congress in almost the same way that one is passed in 
 the Legislature of a State. A bill is introduced into one 
 of the Houses, is referred to its proper Committee, is 
 reported upon, is read three times upon three different 
 days, is voted upon, and if it receives a majority of votes, 
 is sent to the other House, where it has almost the same 
 history. If it passes in this House, also, it is sent to the 
 
148 LESSONS IN CIVICS 
 
 President for his approval. If he approves the bill, he 
 signs it and it becomes a law. If he does not approve it, 
 he vetoes it ; that is, he returns it to the House without 
 his signature and with his objections. If two thirds of the 
 members of each House still vote for the bill, notwith- 
 standing the objections of the President, it becomes a law 
 without his approval. 
 
 EXERCISE 
 
 (By examining the second and third sections of the first Articles of 
 the Constitution you will be enabled to fill the blanks properly.) 
 
 A member of the House of Representatives is elected to serve for 
 years. No person can be elected in this branch of Congress un- 
 less he is at least years of age and has been a of the 
 
 for at least years. He must also reside in the in v^hich he 
 
 is elected. A senator of the United States is elected by the of 
 
 a to serve for years. He must be at least years of 
 
 age, and must at the time of his election have been a of the 
 
 in which he is elected. Both senators and representatives are privileged 
 from while in attendance upon . 
 
 QUESTIONS 
 
 1. What is the salary of a representative? Of a senator? How 
 are these salaries paid? 
 
 2. What are the names of the senators who represent your State in 
 Congress ? 
 
 3. How many representatives does your State send to Congress? 
 In what Congressional District do you live? What is the name of your 
 representative? 
 
 4. Should senators be elected by the direct vote of the people ? 
 
LESSON XXVIII 
 
 WHAT CONGRESS MAY DO 
 
 The Power of Congress Limited. — What are the powers 
 of the national lawmaking body described in your last 
 lesson ? A glance at history will help you to understand 
 this question. You remember that after the Declaration 
 of Independence each State was practically a free and 
 independent republic, and had in itself all the power of 
 government. There was nothing that a government can 
 wisely do that the government of a State could not do. 
 The States were proud of this great power. Like indi- 
 viduals they loved their pride and their will. Now, when 
 the Union was formed, in 1787, it was necessary to give 
 up some of this power. But the States were careful to 
 give up as little power as possible, and they were ex- 
 tremely careful to have it understood just what powers 
 they meant to give up, and to reserve for themselves all 
 powers that they did not give up. Therefore, certain 
 definite powers of the new government were plainly 
 stated. These powers it might exercise, and no others. 
 All powers not granted to the general government were 
 reserved to the States. The answer to the question, 
 "What can Congress do .'^ " is this: It can do what it 
 is written in the Constitution it can do, and it can do no 
 more. The answer to the question, "What can the Legis- 
 
 149 
 
ISO LESSONS IN CIVICS 
 
 lature of a State do ? " is this : It can do anything that is 
 not contrary to the constitution of the State, or to the 
 Constitution of the United States. In other words, Con- 
 gress is a lawmaking body with limited powers. 
 
 The Powers of Congress. — You will find most of the 
 powers of Congress stated in the eighth section of the 
 first article of the Constitution. This section says that 
 Congress shall have power : 
 
 (i) " To collect taxes,'' for the support of the national 
 government. It takes an immense sum of money to sup- 
 port the national government. The salaries of nearly 
 sixty thousand officials and the pensions of nearly a 
 million of old soldiers, and soldiers' widows, must be 
 paid ; costly public buildings in Washington and custom- 
 houses and post-offices in large cities must be built; ex- 
 pensive war ships and fortifications must be maintained ; 
 an army and a navy must be supported. To do all this 
 requires nearly ^500,000,000 per year. Congress raises 
 most of this enormous sum in two ways : First, it levies 
 a tax called a duty, or tariff, upon goods brought into this 
 country from foreign countries. This duty is collected 
 at customhouses situated in the great cities. Second, it 
 levies a tax, called the internal revenue tax, upon liquors 
 and tobacco manufactured within the United States. 
 
 (2) *' To borrozv money ^' when the government is pressed 
 for cash. When an individual borrows money he gives 
 the lender a note stating the amount loaned, the time of 
 payment, and the rate of interest that is to be paid. In 
 the same way, when a government borrows money it gives 
 
LESSON XXVIII 151 
 
 to the lender its printed notes. The notes thus issued by 
 a government are called bonds. The United States has 
 borrowed in this way vast sums of money. When the 
 Civil War was over, its debt was nearly $3,ooo,cx)0,ooo. 
 This has been reduced to somewhat less than ;^2,ooo,- 
 000,000. 
 
 (3) " To regulate commerced — Under this power Con- 
 gress places heavy duties upon certain classes of imported 
 goods so that our own goods of the same kind may be 
 protected against the competition of the foreign market: 
 People who believe in keeping out foreign goods in this 
 way are called "protectionists." Those who believe in 
 allowing foreign goods to come in without being taxed, 
 are called *'free traders." When you become voters you 
 will probably be called upon to decide either for protection 
 or for free trade. Congress further regulates commerce 
 by registering American vessels, providing for lighthouses 
 and life-saving stations along the coast, and improving 
 harbors and opening rivers to navigation. 
 
 (4) ** To establish a imiform rule of naturalizatio7t'' — In 
 a former lesson you learned what is meant by naturaliza- 
 tion. The laws relating to this subject must be made by 
 Congress. 
 
 (5) '^ To establish uniform laws on the subject of bank- 
 ruptcies throughout the United States ^ — When a person 
 owes more money than his property is worth, he is a 
 bankrupt. The creditors of a bankrupt have a right to 
 take such property as he has, and divide it fairly among 
 themselves. If Congress so chooses it has the right to 
 make the laws regulating bankruptcies. 
 
152 LESSONS IN CIVICS 
 
 (6) " To coin moneys — Before the Constitution was 
 adopted there was great confusion in the kind of money 
 in use. No two States had coins of the same size and 
 value. They used foreign money chiefly. Few States 
 had mint's. The Constitution took the right of coining 
 money away from the States and gave it to Congress. 
 Under this power Congress has established in different 
 parts of the country mints where gold, silver, nickel, and 
 copper coins are made. Since a coin of a given denomi- 
 nation is always of the same weight and fineness, it circu- 
 lates freely in any part of the Union. 
 
 (7) '' To fix the standard of weights and measures ^ — A 
 yardstick should be just as long, and a pound weight just 
 as heavy in Pennsylvania, as the one or the other is in 
 California, and Congress has the right to require that this 
 shall be the case. In point of fact, however, Congress 
 has not exercised this right very fully. The national 
 government presents a full set of weights and measures 
 to the government of each State, and the State adopts 
 these as correct. Thus throughout all the States mer- 
 chants use standard weights and measures. 
 
 (8) " To provide for the punishment of coiinteifeiting the 
 securities and ciLri'ent coin of the United States T — A per- 
 son convicted of counterfeiting the money of the United 
 States may be fined five thousand dollars, and imprisoned 
 for ten years. 
 
LESSON XXIX 
 WHAT CONGRESS MAY DO (Continued) 
 
 Congress has power : 
 
 (9) ** To establish post offices and post roads'' — It is 
 through the post office that the national government meets 
 the citizen in his daily life. Letter carriers and post- 
 masters are officers of the United States. It is plain that 
 the States could not attend to the carrying of the mails. 
 The government of the State of Maine could not well fol- 
 low a letter addressed to a town in Oregon. 
 
 (10) ^* To promote the progress of science and useful arts 
 by sectoring for limited times to authors and inventors the 
 exclusive right to their respective writings a7id discoveries '' 
 — Authors are encouraged to write good books by giving 
 them a copyright upon their works. The person who has 
 a copyright upon a book is the only one who can print 
 and sell it. A copyright lasts for twenty-eight years. It 
 is secured by entering the title and sending two copies of 
 the printed book to the Librarian of Congress in Wash- 
 ington. Congress encourages useful inventions by grant- 
 ing /^to^/i- to inventors. A patent upon a machine gives 
 the one who holds the patent the exclusive right to make 
 and sell or use the machine. Rights under a patent last 
 for seventeen years. The inventor sends drawings and a 
 
 153 
 
154 LESSONS IN CIVICS 
 
 model of his invention to the Commissioner of Patents at 
 Washington, and if it is found that he has invented some- 
 thing really new a patent will be granted. 
 
 (ii) ^^ To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme 
 Court.'' — This will be explained when we come to the 
 judicial department of the national government. 
 
 (12) ^^ To define and punish piracies and felonies corn- 
 knitted on the high seas, afid offenses against the law of 
 nations^ — Piracy, is robbery upon the sea. The national 
 government punishes pirates because their crime is com- 
 mitted outside of the boundary of a State. When a 
 citizen commits an offense against a foreign nation the 
 injured nation regards the offender as a citizen of the 
 United States, and not as a citizen of a State. It is 
 the national government, therefore, that must punish pira- 
 cies and offenses against the laws of nations. 
 
 (13) ^^ To declare war, grant letters of marque and repri- 
 sal, and make rules concerfiing captures on land and water'' 
 — As the evils of war would fall on many States, it is not 
 right that a single State should be allowed to declare war. 
 War, therefore, can only be declared by Congress, and 
 conducted by the national government. Sometimes Con- 
 gress grants to private persons the right to go and seize 
 certain property belonging to a foreign country. Such a 
 commission, called a letter of marque and reprisal, cannot 
 be granted by a State. When in times of war valuable 
 property is captured, the prize must be divided among the 
 captors according to the direction of the national govern- 
 ment. 
 
 (14) ^^ To raise and stipport armies," 
 
LESSON XXIX 155 
 
 (15) " To provide and maintahi a navy'' 
 
 (16) ^^ To make rules for the regulation of the land and 
 naval forces.'' 
 
 (17) ** To pfwide for calling forth the militia to execute 
 the lazvs of the Union . . . and repel invasion." — The 
 regular or standing army of the United States consists of 
 about 60,000 soldiers. In times of peace this number is 
 large enough, but in times of war, it is, of course, too 
 small. When the national government needs a large 
 army for the defense of the country. Congress may call 
 out the militia of the States. The militia of a State con- 
 sists of all its able-bodied male citizens between the ages 
 of eighteen and forty-five. The law usually excuses the 
 civil officers of government, clergymen, teachers, physi- 
 cians, and firemen from military service. With these ex- 
 ceptions, every strong man in the country is a member of 
 the militia, and may be called upon to serve in the army. 
 Thus it is in the power of Congress to raise an immense 
 army for the support of the national government and for 
 the defense of the nation against a foreign enemy. 
 
 (18) " To provide for organizing^ arming and disciplin- 
 ing the militia^ and for governing such part of them as may 
 be employed in the service of the Uftited States." 
 
 (19) ^^ To exercise exclusive legislation" over the Dis- 
 trict of Columbia. Under this rule the people of the Dis- 
 trict of Columbia, which includes the city of Washington, 
 have no voice in the government of their city. Congress 
 acts as a kind of City Council for the government of 
 Washington. It appoints three Commissioners who con- 
 duct the public business of the District. 
 
156 LESSONS IN CIVICS 
 
 (20) " The Congress may determine the time of choosing 
 the electors for President and Vice President of the United 
 States'' — This will be explained when we come to speak 
 of the election of the President. 
 
 (21) ** The Congress may by law provide for the case of 
 removal, death, resignatiofi, or inability, both of the Presi- 
 dent and Vice Presidents — Under this power, in 1886, 
 Congress passed a law providing that if both President 
 and Vice President die, the Secretary of State shall act as 
 President ; if the Secretary of State dies, the Secretary of 
 the Treasury shall act as President ; and so on down 
 through the Cabinet, the Secretary of War coming third, 
 the Attorney-General fourth, the Postmaster-General fifth, 
 the Secretary of the Navy sixth, the Secretary of the In- 
 terior seventh. 
 
 (22) '' New States may be admitted by the Congress into 
 this UniojiS — Under this power Congress has admitted 
 thirty-two States since the formation of the Union. 
 
 (23) " The Congress shall have power to . . . make all 
 needful rules and regulations respecting'' Territories. — A 
 Territory is governed under a Territorial Law, passed by 
 Congress. Its Governor, judges, and other chief officers 
 are appointed by the President of the United States. It 
 is entitled to send to Congress a delegate, who may speak 
 upon questions relating to his Territory, but may not vote. 
 When the people of a Territory desire to be admitted into 
 the Union as a State, a petition is sent by the Territorial 
 Legislature to Congress. If Congress thinks that the 
 Territory has a sufficient number of people and are capa- 
 ble of governing themselves as a State, it passes a law 
 
LESSON XXIX 157 
 
 giving to the voters of the Territory the right to elect 
 members to a Constitutional Convention. The members 
 of this convention meet and frame a constitution for the 
 new State, and submit it to the voters of the Territory for 
 their approval. If the proposed constitution receives a 
 majority of the votes, it is sent to the President of the 
 United States, who, if he finds in it nothing contrary to 
 the spirit of our institutions or to the Constitution or laws 
 of the land, issues a proclamation admitting the Territory 
 into the Union as a State. Under their new State con- 
 stitution the people have more of the rights of self-govern- 
 ment than they had when they were a Territory. As a 
 member of the Union, the new State shares in the election 
 of a President, it sends two senators to the United States 
 Senate and it is entitled to representation in the House 
 of Representatives according to its population. Besides 
 Alaska and the Indian Territory, the only Territories that 
 now remain to be admitted are Arizona, New Mexico, and 
 Oklahoma. Hawaii is governed by a special commission. 
 (24) ** The Congress shall have pozver to make all laws 
 zvhich shall he necessary and proper for carrying into execu- 
 tion the foregoing powers . . . '* — This has been called 
 the '* elastic clause " of the Constitution, because the 
 words " necessary and proper " may be stretched to 
 mean almost anything. Under this power Congress has 
 passed laws that many people think it had no right to 
 pass. The intention of the clause was to give Congress 
 the right to pass such laws as were necessary to accom- 
 plish the objects for which the Constitution was framed. 
 
LESSON XXX 
 
 WHAT THE CONSTITUTION FORBIDS 
 
 What Congress may not Do. — In order to guard the 
 interests of the States, the framers of the Constitution 
 were careful to mention certain things that the national 
 government may not do. What these things are may 
 be found in the ninth section of the first article of the 
 Constitution. 
 
 (i) Slavery, — The first prohibition refers to the impor- 
 tation of slaves, but as slavery has been abolished we may 
 pass this subject by. (See Article XIII. of the Amend- 
 ments.) 
 
 (2) The writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended. 
 
 (3) a. No bill of attainder sh3\\ be passed. This means 
 that Congress may not condemn a person to death, or to 
 outlawry and banishment, without opportunity for defend- 
 ing himself in a court of law. 
 
 b. No ex post facto law shall be passed. An ex post 
 facto law establishes or increases the penalty of an act 
 after it has been committed. For example, if Congress 
 should pass a law establishing the penalty of death upon 
 a man found guilty of counterfeiting money a year ago, 
 such a law would be ex post facto, for at the time when 
 the crime was committed the penalty for counterfeiting 
 
 158 
 
LESSON XXX 159 
 
 was only fine and imprisonment. Let your teacher pass 
 an ex post facto law, and you will readily see the wisdom 
 of forbidding such laws. 
 
 (4) ^^ No capitation or other direct tax shall be laid 
 unless in proportion to the census or emirneration herein- 
 before directed to be taken'' — This means that if Congress 
 should pass a capitation, or poll tax, it must be the same 
 in all States. If a direct tax on property should be laid 
 by Congress, it would have to be apportioned among the 
 States in proportion to their populations. Thus, if the 
 United States Government should raise $35,000,000 by 
 a direct tax, the property holders of Georgia would pay 
 about $1,000,000 of the sum, for the population of this 
 State is about one thirty-fifth of the entire population of 
 the Union. 
 
 (5) ''No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported 
 from any State, No preference shall be given by any regii- 
 lation of commerce or revenue to the ports of one State over 
 those of another'' — This clause compels Congress to treat 
 all the States alike in the matter of indirect taxes. 
 
 (6) " No money shall be drawn from the treasury but in 
 C07isequence of appropriations made by law, and a regular 
 statement and account of the receipts and expejtditures of all 
 public money shall be published from time to time." — Not 
 one dollar can be taken from the treasury until Congress 
 has passed a law stating the uses to which it is to be put. 
 
 (7) ''No title of nobility shall be granted by the United 
 States." — Such titles as Prince, Duke, Earl, etc., are not 
 in keeping with democratic government, and very properly 
 they cannot be conferred by Congress. 
 
l6o LESSONS IN CIVICS 
 
 (8) ^^ No person Jiolding any office of profit or trust . . . 
 shall^ zvithoiU the consent of Congress, accept of any present y 
 emolument, office , or title of any kind whatever, from a7iy 
 king, prince, or foreign state.'' 
 
 What a State may not Do. — The makers of the Con- 
 stitution took the greatest pains to make clear the powers 
 of the national government, and to define its relations 
 to the State government. In section eight, of the first 
 article, the Constitution tells what Congress may do; in 
 section nine it states what Congress may not do ; in sec- 
 tion ten it tells what a State may not do. You will notice 
 that the things a State is forbidden to do are either the 
 things that the national government is given the right to 
 do, or they are those things that Congress is forbidden to 
 do because it is not right that any government should do 
 them. Thus, no State shall coin money, for it is the busi- 
 ness of the United States to coin money; no State shall 
 pass any ex post facto law, because such a law should not 
 be passed by any government. 
 
 The Fifteen Amendments. — Some of the most important 
 provisions respecting the powers of the national govern- 
 ment are to be found in the Amendments to the Constitu- 
 tion. (In Article V. you may learn how the Constitution 
 is amended.) The people of the States in the early years 
 of our history were fearful lest the national government 
 should have too much power, and they hastened to secure 
 amendments that would preserve all needful rights to the 
 States, and that would bind the hands of Congress if it 
 attempted to encroach upon their rights. Of the fifteen 
 
LESSON XXX l6l 
 
 amendments that have been made since 1789, ten were 
 added within three years after the Constitution was 
 adopted. These amendments should be studied care- 
 fully, for they are really our national " Bill of Rights." 
 The first amendment alone guarantees to citizens rights 
 that are enjoyed fully in very few countries of the world. 
 As you read these amendments and learn what are your 
 rights under the Constitution, do not forget your duties. 
 If it is your right to worship as you please, it is your duty 
 not to persecute in any way those whose religion is differ- 
 ent from your own; if it is your right to express your 
 opinion freely, it is your duty to allow your neighbor to 
 express his opinion without attempting to punish him for 
 so doing. 
 
 QUESTIONS FOR ORIGINAL WORK 
 
 1. Find authority in the Constitution for the following things that 
 Congress has done : 
 
 (a) It supports a National Museum. 
 
 (d) It maintains a Naval Academy at Annapolis. 
 
 (c) It appropriates money for the support of agricultural colleges. 
 ((/) It supports life-saving stations along the seacoast. 
 
 (e) It bought Louisiana of France and Alaska of Russia. 
 
 (/) It appropriates money for the relief of sufferers in flooded districts. 
 
 2. Name some of the things Congress can do under the following 
 powers : 
 
 (a) Its power to declare war. 
 
 (d) Its power to maintain a navy. 
 (c) Its power to borrow money. 
 (^) Its power to coin money. 
 
 (e) Its power to admit Territories as States. 
 
 (/) Its power to regulate commerce with foreign nations. 
 (g) Its power to provide for the general welfare. 
 
 LESS. IN CIV. — I I 
 
LESSON XXXI 
 
 HOW THE PRESIDENT IS ELECTED 
 
 ^' Sir, I would rather be right than be President.'" — Henry Clay. 
 
 The Nomination of a President. — Article II. of the 
 Constitution refers to the qualifications, election, and pow- 
 ers of the President, the head of the executive department 
 of the national government. How is this great official 
 chosen } How do the 70,000,000 people of our great Re- 
 public select one of their number as a ruler } As an 
 intelligent citizen you should be able to give a clear an- 
 swer to this question. 
 
 The election of a President is conducted by political 
 parties. Before a man can hope to be President, he must 
 be named as the candidate of a great party. Among the 
 millions of voters in a great political party, there are many 
 public men who are eager to be its candidate for President. 
 The first question to be answered then is : How is the 
 presidential candidate of a political party elected } How, 
 for illustration, does the Democratic party select its candi- 
 date t The first step is taken several months before the 
 election in November. In April or in May, the party 
 holds its (i) Primary, or first election. At this election the 
 Democratic voters of a township or of an election district, 
 choose three or four or five of their number to go as dele- 
 
 162 
 
LESSON XXXI 163 
 
 gates to a county Democratic convention. These delegates 
 may go instructed to act in the interest of a certain man as 
 the party candidate for President, or they may go free to 
 act as their judgments direct. In a few days after the 
 primary election the delegates from all the election districts 
 of the county assemble (usually at the county seat) as the 
 (2) Democratic County Convention, This body, consisting 
 of thirty or forty men^ elects three or four or five delegates 
 to go to a State Convention.^ If the majority of the dele- 
 gates in the County Convention were in favor of a certain 
 man for president, it is likely that the delegates of the 
 State Convention will be in favor of the same man. A few 
 weeks after the holding of the County Convention, dele- 
 gates from all the counties assemble at some convenient 
 place, as (3) Democratic State Convention. This body, 
 consisting sometimes of several hundred men, passes reso- 
 lutions expressing the political views of the party in the 
 State, names its choice for presidential candidate — if it 
 happens to have a choice — and elects delegates to the 
 Democratic National Convention. The number of dele- 
 gates sent to represent a State in the Democratic National 
 Convention, is twice the number of the representatives of 
 the State in the National Congress. For example, Cali- 
 fornia, having seven members in the House of Representa- 
 tives, and two members in the Senate, or nine in all, is 
 entitled to eighteen delegates in the Democratic National 
 Convention. By July or August all the State Conven- 
 tions have been held, and delegates have been elected to 
 
 ^ In a city each ward sends delegates to a city convention, and this body 
 elects delegates to the State Convention. 
 
1 64 LESSONS IN CIVICS 
 
 the great (4) Democratic Natio7ial Convention. This body, 
 consisting of nearly a thousand men, representing all parts 
 of the country, meets in some convenient city in the cen- 
 tral part of the United States. After several days of 
 discussion, and after adopting a platform expressing the 
 views of the party upon public questions, it elects the 
 Democratic candidate for President and for Vice President. 
 In almost the same way, beginning with the primary elec- 
 tion, and advancing to the County, State, and National 
 Conventions, the Republican Party and People's Party 
 and Prohibition Party select their presidential candi- 
 dates. 
 
 Election of President. — After all the political parties 
 have named their respective candidates, the campaign be- 
 gins. Political meetings are held, at which orators set 
 forth the claims of their candidates and defend the platform 
 of their party ; in the cities processions march through the 
 streets with great display of banners, torches, and fireworks, 
 while bands of music play spirited airs ; everything that 
 can be done to influence voters is done. The campaign 
 continues until election day, the first Tuesday after the 
 first Monday in November. On this day every fourth 
 year about fifteen millions of citizens go to the polls to 
 express their choice for President. But they do not vote 
 for a President directly ; they vote for a set of men called 
 Electors^ whose duty is to vote for a President and Vice 
 President. Each State is entitled to a number of electors 
 equal to the number of its senators and representatives 
 in Congress. Delaware, having one representative and 
 two senators, is entitled to three electors; New York, 
 
LESSON XXXI 165 
 
 having thirty-four representatives and two senators, is 
 entitled to thirty-six electors. There are in all the States 
 four hundred and forty-seven presidential electors. The 
 names of the State electors of each party are printed on 
 the ballot under the party name, and those who receive the 
 highest number of votes are elected and are morally bound to 
 vote for the candidate of the party that elected them. The 
 successful electors of each State meet on the first Wednes- 
 day in December following the election, and vote for 
 President and Vice President. The result of this vote is 
 sent in a sealed envelope to the President of the Senate at 
 Washington. On the second Wednesday of the following 
 February, the President of the Senate, in the presence of 
 both Houses of Congress, opens the envelopes containing 
 the electoral vote of the different States, and the votes are 
 counted. The person who has a majority (224 or more) of 
 the votes cast for President, is declared to be elected Pres- 
 ident of the United States, and the person who has a 
 majority of the votes cast for Vice President is declared to 
 be elected Vice President of the United States. (See Con- 
 stitution, Article XII. of Amendments.) It has happened 
 twice in our history that no candidate had a majority of all 
 the electoral votes. When this is the case the House of 
 Representatives chooses a President and the Senate a 
 Vice President. When electing a President, the House 
 must choose from the three highest on the list of the per- 
 sons voted for by the electors, and it must vote by States, 
 the majority of representatives from each State casting 
 one vote for their State, and the representatives of two 
 thirds of the States must take part in the election. The 
 
1 66 LESSONS IN CIVICS 
 
 successful candidate must receive a majority of the votes 
 of all the States. When the Senate is obliged to elect a 
 Vice President, it proceeds on the same principles. 
 
 Inauguration. — On the fourth of March the newly 
 elected President and Vice President begin their duties. 
 In the presence of a vast throng of citizens the Chief Jus- 
 tice of the United States administers to the President- 
 elect the following oath : " I do solemnly swear (or affirm) 
 that I will faithfully execute the office of President of the 
 United States, and will, to the best of my ability, preserve, 
 protect, and defend the Constitution of the United States." 
 The President then delivers his inaugural address, from 
 the eastern steps of the Capitol, outlining his policy and 
 stating his ideas upon public questions. After this inaugu- 
 ration he is driven to the executive mansion, generally 
 known as the ''White House," where he resides during 
 his term of office, and where you may some day see him 
 and shake hands with him. 
 
 EXERCISE 
 
 (By examining Article II. of the Constitution, the pupil may learn how 
 to fill the blanks properly.) 
 
 Both President and Vice President hold their position for years. 
 
 No person may be President who was not born in the , and who is 
 
 not years of age at the time of his , and who has not been a 
 
 resident within the for years. If a President should be re- 
 moved from his office or should or or be to discharge 
 
 the powers and duties of his , the position of shall be filled by 
 
 the . The President receives a salary for his , but this • 
 
 must not be or during his term of . He must not re- 
 ceive any other compensation than his either from the j or 
 
 any . 
 
LESSON XXXI 167 
 
 QUESTIONS FOR ORIGINAL WORK 
 
 1. What is the salary of the President? Of the Vice President? 
 
 2. Ought the President to be elected directly by the people? 
 
 3. How many Presidents have been elected a second time? What 
 are the objections to electing a President for a third term ? 
 
 4. How many votes were cast for presidential electors at the last 
 election? 
 
 5. Is it possible for a man to be elected president without receiving 
 a majority of the votes of the people ? 
 
 6. What are the qualifications for the office of Vice President? 
 
LESSON XXXII 
 
 THE PRESIDENT AND HIS CABINET 
 
 "The President is strong because he represents the people." 
 
 — Bryce. 
 
 The Powers and Duties of the President. — The President 
 does for the United States what a Governor does for one 
 of the States — he takes care that the laws are faithfully- 
 executed. His powers and duties are stated in the second 
 and third sections of Article II. of the Constitution. He 
 is commander in chief of all the troops in the service of the 
 United States, although in times of war he may not appear 
 personally upon the field of battle. He may pardon crimi- 
 nals convicted for offenses committed against the United 
 States. He may make a treaty with a foreign country 
 providing two thirds of the members of the Senate vote for 
 it. A treaty is an agreement between two nations to do or 
 to refrain from doing certain things. It may be to make 
 war upon a third nation, or to maintain peace, or to regu- 
 late commerce or the carrying of mails, or for any other 
 purpose. It is through treaties that the different nations 
 of the world attempt to secure the good will of each other, 
 and the responsibility of making them rests with the Presi- 
 dent and the Senate. A most important duty of the Presi- 
 dent is to select proper men to fill the many offices under 
 the national government. However, as you see in the 
 
 1 68 
 
LESSON XXXII 169 
 
 Constitution, many of the appointments made by the 
 President must secure the consent of the Senate. When 
 the Senate is not in session the President may fill a va- 
 cancy without waiting for its consent. At the beginning 
 of a session of Congress the President sends to that body 
 a message^ in which he calls attention to the needs of the 
 country and suggests such legislation as seems to him 
 necessary. Congress is not obliged to follow the sugges- 
 tions of the President's message any more than the Legis- 
 lature of a State is obliged to follow the suggestions 
 contained in a message from the Governor. When Con- 
 gress is not in session and it seems necessary that certain 
 laws should be passed as quickly as possible, the President 
 may call an extra session, just as the Governor of a State 
 may call an extra session of the Legislature. 
 
 The Cabinet. — The President is responsible for the 
 management of the entire business of the executive de- 
 partment. This means that he is responsible for the man- 
 agement of foreign affairs, which includes the making of 
 treaties, the appointing of ministers and consuls to serve in 
 foreign countries and instructing them in their duties, the 
 reception of foreign ministers in Washington, the giving of 
 passports to those who wish to travel abroad, the protec- 
 tion of American citizens in other lands, and all other 
 business that arises between our government and other 
 governments. He is responsible for the collection of taxes 
 and the expenditure of money appropriated by Congress 
 and the management of the public debt ; for the manage- 
 ment of the Indians, the sale of public lands, the payment of 
 pensions, the taking of the census, the granting of patents; 
 
I/O LESSONS IN CIVICS 
 
 for the management of the army with its officers and 
 troops and forts and equipments and miUtary schools ; for 
 the management of the navy with its fleets and forts and 
 training schools ; for the management of the national 
 courts with their marshals and attorneys ; for the man- 
 agement of the vast business of the post office with its post 
 office buildings and postmasters, letter carriers and clerks. 
 Of course, the President cannot superintend all this busi- 
 ness in person. Like the executive of any large govern- 
 ment, like the Governor of a State or the Mayor of a city, 
 he must have a body of able assistants. This business of 
 the national government is divided into eight departments, 
 and at the head of each department the President places a 
 man who he thinks is competent to manage its affairs. 
 The eight officers placed at the head of the great depart- 
 ments are known as the Cabinet. The Cabinet is responsi- 
 ble to the President, and whenever he wishes to confer with 
 it or to get its advice, he summons it to the White House, 
 where its meetings are held. No record is kept of the 
 Cabinet meetings, and the public does not know what takes 
 place at them. The President is not bound to act accord- 
 ing to the wishes of the Cabinet, but it is not probable that 
 he often acts contrary to its decision. The names of the 
 departments with the titles of the Cabinet officers, are : 
 
 (i) The Department of State, under the management 
 of the Secretary of State, who is at the head of foreign 
 affairs. 
 
 (2) The Treasury Department, under the management 
 of the Secretary of the Treasury. 
 
LESSON XXXII 171 
 
 (3) The Department of War, under the management of 
 the Secretary of War. 
 
 (4) The Post Office Department, under the management 
 of the Postmaster-General. 
 
 (5) The Department of the Navy, under the manage- 
 ment of the Secretary of the Navy. 
 
 (6) The Department of the Interior, under the manage- 
 ment of the Secretary of the Interior, who has charge of 
 Indian affairs, pensions, the census, patents, copyrights, 
 the sale of public lands. 
 
 (7) The Department of Justice, under the management 
 of the Attorney-General, who gives the government written 
 opinions upon questions of law and represents it in the 
 national courts. His office is like that of the Attorney- 
 General of a State. 
 
 (8) The Department of Agriculture, under the manage- 
 ment of the Secretary of Agriculture, whose duty is to 
 promote the interest of farmers. 
 
 The Civil Service. — In all the departments mentioned 
 above, there are employed many assistants. In the 
 Post office Department alone there are more than eighty 
 thousand people employed in collecting, carrying, and dis- 
 tributing the mail. All servants of the national govern- 
 ment, except members of Congress, army and navy officers, 
 and soldiers and sailors (in the naval service) belong to the 
 Civil Service. The officials of a city or of a State are also 
 members of the Civil Service. One of the questions you 
 will have to decide when you become a voter is : How 
 long shall an employee of the government hold his posi- 
 
1/2 LESSONS IN CIVICS 
 
 tion ? Shall he hold it as long as he performs his duties 
 properly, or, shall he be removed when a new party or a 
 new administration comes into power ? 
 
 QUESTIONS FOR ORIGINAL WORK 
 
 1. Study sections two and three of the second article of the Con- 
 stitution, and make out a list of the powers and duties of the President. 
 
 2. What is the salary of a Cabinet officer? 
 
 3. To what department of the national government would you take 
 the following matters : 
 
 (a) A claim for a pension. 
 
 (d) A complaint against the post office. ' 
 
 (c ) A request for a passport in foreign countries. 
 
 (d) An application for admission to West Point. 
 
 (e) An application for a patent. 
 (/) A theft of United States bonds. 
 
 {g) A request for information regarding the best method of curing 
 a disease in cattle. 
 
 4. How would you proceed if you wished to get a position as a 
 clerk in the customhouse? 
 
 5. What is meant by the words : " To the victors belong the 
 spoils " ? 
 
 6. What is meant by " Civil Service Reform " ? 
 
 7. Are the people whom you know generally in favor of the merit 
 system? 
 
LESSON XXXIII 
 
 THE NATIONAL COURTS 
 
 " The Supreme Court is the living voice of the Constitution, that is, 
 of the will of the people expressed in the fundamental law they have 
 enacted. It is the conscience of the people who have resolved to re- 
 strain themselves from hasty or unjust action by placing their repre- 
 sentatives under the restriction of a permanent law." — /^///^^ Bryce. 
 
 The Kind of Cases tried in the National Courts. — The 
 
 third article of the Constitution describes the powers and 
 the nature of the judicial department of the national 
 government. The courts of a State try those cases that 
 arise under the laws and constitution of the State, while 
 the courts of the general government try those cases that 
 arise under the Constitution of the United States, and the 
 laws passed by Congress. A man charged with the crime 
 of burglary would be tried in one of the courts of the State 
 in which the crime was committed ; for the laws against 
 burglary are passed by the legislatures of the States. A 
 man charged with counterfeiting money would be tried in 
 one of the national courts ; for the laws against counter- 
 feiting are passed by Congress. A person charged with 
 breaking a street lamp would be tried in a State court, for 
 his offense concerns a State ; but a person charged with 
 robbing a letter box attached to a lamp-post, would be 
 tried in a court, of the United States, for his offense con- 
 
 173 
 
174 LESSONS IN CIVICS 
 
 cerns the national government. Again, the national 
 courts may try those cases that arise between citizens of 
 different States, if either party to the case so desires. 
 Also when a dispute arises between two States, it is settled, 
 not in a State court, but in the national court. If such 
 a case were left to the courts of one of the States to be 
 decided, the other State, if the decision went against it, 
 would in all probability be dissatisfied. Still another class 
 of cases tried in the national courts consists of those in 
 which one of the parties is a foreigner. If a foreign 
 country has a grievance against one of the States it must 
 try its case in the courts of the United States, for the 
 nation and not the State is responsible to foreign gov- 
 ernments. Likewise, if a citizen of another country has a 
 grievance against a State, or against one of its citizens, he 
 may bring suit in a national court. In the case of am- 
 bassadors and their families and attendants, when any 
 trouble arises, the matter must be taken directly to the 
 Supreme Court of the United States. Under this rule, if 
 a servant of an ambassador should steal a pound of sugar 
 or should be charged with disorderly conduct, his case 
 would have to be tried before the highest court of the 
 United States. This great respect is shown to foreign 
 ministers in order to avoid giving offense to the govern- 
 ments which they represent. 
 
 The Four Grades of National Courts. — For the trial of 
 such cases as have just been mentioned, the government 
 of the United States supports a system of courts somewhat 
 similar to those supported by a State. The judges of all 
 these courts are appointed by the President. The lowest 
 
LESSON XXXIII 17s 
 
 court of the system is the (i) District Court, presided 
 over by a District Judge. In every state there is at least 
 one District Court. The larger States have two District 
 Courts ; New York, Alabama, and Texas, have three each. 
 Altogether there are sixty-seven District Courts in the 
 United States. These lowest courts try all crimes com- 
 mitted against the United States, except those punishable 
 by death, and they try such civil cases as may properly be 
 tried in national courts. When a case has been tried in 
 the District Court and either of the parties to the case is 
 not satisfied with the result, it may be taken, that is, ap- 
 pealed, to either the Supreme Court of the United States, 
 or to the Circuit Court of Appeals, a court established in 
 1 89 1 to relieve the heavy work of the Supreme Court. 
 An appealed case is carried {a) to the Supreme Court, 
 when it involves a question of jurisdiction, that is, a ques- 
 tion as to what court the case ought to be tried in ; 
 (b) when it involves the construction of the Constitution of 
 the United States ; (6) when it involves a question of the con- 
 stitutionality of a law, whether State or national ; {d) when 
 it is a case of conviction for some great crime ; {e) when it 
 involves the construction of a treaty. In other cases than 
 those mentioned, an appeal must be taken from the Dis- 
 trict Court to the Circuit Court of Appeals. Next to the 
 District Court is the (2) Circuit Court. There are nine 
 Circuit Courts in the United States, and for each circuit 
 there is a Circuit Judge. Each circuit in which a Circuit 
 Court is estabUshed consists of several States. A justice 
 of the Supreme Court, or a District Judge may be associ- 
 ated with a Circuit Judge in holding court. Circuit Courts 
 
176 LESSONS IN CIVICS 
 
 try those civil cases where a sum of money greater than 
 jJSsoo is involved. They also try those suits that arise 
 under patent and copyright laws. An appeal from a de- 
 cision in a Circuit Court is governed by the rules that are 
 followed in an appeal from the District Court ; sometimes 
 it will be taken to the Supreme Court, sometimes to the 
 Circuit Court of Appeals. The Circuit Court itself never 
 hears appeals. 
 
 In each of the circuits in which a Circuit Court is held 
 there is a (3) Circuit Court of Appeals. This court consists 
 of three judges, one appointed expressly for the Appeal 
 Court, one of the justices of the Supreme Court, and one of 
 the judges of the District Court within the circuit. A dis- 
 trict judge, however, who has tried a case in the District 
 Court cannot sit at the trial of the same case in the Cir- 
 cuit Court of Appeals. It is a general rule of justice that 
 a judge who has taken part at the trial of a case in a lower 
 court cannot take part in the trial of the same case in an 
 upper court. The Circuit Court of Appeals tries only 
 those cases that are brought to it upon appeal from the 
 District Court and the Circuit Court. 
 
 The highest court in the United States system is the (4) 
 Supreme Court, which sits at Washington. It consists of 
 a chief justice and eight associate justices. In cases affect- 
 ing ambassadors and consuls, and those in which a State is 
 a party, it has original jurisdiction. This means that these 
 cases must be tried for the first time in the Supreme 
 Court. The chief business of this great court, however, 
 is to try the cases that are appealed to it from the lower 
 courts. The Supreme Court is the most exalted and in 
 
LESSON XXXIII 177 
 
 some respects the most powerful body in the United 
 States. It acts as the guardian of the Constitution. If 
 Congress or the Legislature of a State passes a law that is 
 unconstitutional, it declares that law null and void. If a 
 State Court renders a decision that conflicts with the Con- 
 stitution or with a law of the United States, the Supreme 
 Court may overrule the decision. It may pass judgment 
 upon all questions of law or of fact that are appealed to it 
 and that it chooses to consider. 
 
 Note. — The salaries of the principal officers of the National Gov- 
 ernment are as follows : 
 
 President $50,000 
 
 Vice President • 8,000 
 
 Members of the Cabinet 8,000 
 
 Chief Justice of Supreme Court 10,500 
 
 Associate Justices of Supreme Court .... 10,000 
 
 Judges of Circuit Courts 6,000 
 
 Judges of District Courts 5,000 
 
 Representatives 5,000 
 
 Senators 5,000 
 
 QUESTIONS 
 
 1. Name three of the most important decisions that have been made 
 by tlie Supreme Court in the history of our country. 
 
 2. Name two of the most celebrated men who have served as Chief 
 Justices of the Supreme Court. 
 
 3. Study the third article of the Constitution for answers to the 
 following questions : 
 
 (a) How long does a judge of a federal court hold office? 
 (<^) Can Congress reduce the salaries of the present judges? 
 
 (c) In what court would a charge against a consul of a foreign coun- 
 
 try be brought ? 
 
 (d) In what court would a man be tried for robbing a post office? 
 
 LESS. IN CIV. — 12 
 
178 LESSONS IN CIVICS 
 
 (e) In what court would a suit between a State and a citizen of a 
 foreign country be tried? 
 
 4. Use the words "State" and "federal" properly in the following 
 passage : 
 
 "There are less than a hundred judges, and there are many 
 
 thousands of judicial officers. A large majority of the cases at law 
 
 are tried in courts. If only laws are involved in the case, the 
 
 courts can have nothing to do with it. Ordinary crimes, such as 
 
 assault, theft, and murder, can be tried only in courts. In like 
 
 manner nearly all cases arising in the administration of school laws, 
 laws concerning paupers, highways, taxation, the laws for the gov- 
 ernment of cities and the holding of elections, are triable in the 
 
 courts alone. It is only when some provision of the constitution, 
 
 or some act of the United States Government is involved that a 
 
 court can act." — Macy. 
 
LESSON XXXIV 
 
 POLITICAL PARTIES 
 
 "A political party is a body of men united for promoting by their 
 joint endeavors the national interest upon some particular principle in 
 which they are all agreed. Party division, whether in the whole oper- 
 ating for good or evil, are things inseparable from free government." — 
 Edmtuid Biirke, 
 
 What Political Parties are for. — In the lesson about the 
 election of a President, it was said that no one can hope to 
 be chosen to that high office unless he is first the choice 
 of a great political party. What is true of the highest 
 officer is for the most part true of the lowest. If a man 
 wishes to be elected to an office, whether of the city or 
 county, or State, or nation, he must secure his election 
 through a party. Moreover, if a citizen, or a large num- 
 ber of citizens, wish certain laws to be passed, or desire 
 the government to adopt a certain policy, they must rely 
 upon a party to bring about what they wish. If there is 
 no party in existence that will aid them in securing what 
 they wish, they must form a party of their own. How 
 may they do this '^. Let us, for illustration, suppose that a 
 large number of people believe that war is always wrong, 
 and that our government should make no further prepara- 
 tion for war, that the land forces should be disbanded, 
 that the ships of the navy should be disarmed, and that 
 
 179 
 
l8o LESSONS IN CIVICS 
 
 the military and naval schools should be closed. At pres- 
 ent there is no party that looks with favor upon such 
 views. Our peace-loving citizens, if they wish the govern- 
 ment to adopt their policy, must form a party of their own 
 and through this party get control of the machinery of 
 government. In order to do this they will have to organ- 
 ise, that is, they will have to form in bodies, elect officers, 
 and agree upon certain lines of action, and appoint com- 
 mittees to do certain things. All great parties are thor- 
 oughly organized. In every township, ward, county, and 
 State, there are regularly chosen permanent committees 
 to whom certain party work is given to be done, and by 
 whom the life of the party is sustained from election to 
 election. We have seen how the great task of nominating 
 a President is accomplished through party organization. 
 The citizens of a city or of a State, then, who are most 
 enthusiastic for peace will organize. They will meet and 
 form a peace society, electing officers, enrolling members, 
 and taking measures to secure new members. Similar 
 societies will soon be formed in other States. If the peace 
 sentiment in the country is quite strong, and these peace 
 societies are quite numerous, it will not be long before the 
 different societies will send delegates or representatives to 
 a general association or convention. This convention 
 may decide to enter politics. If so, it will state its politi- 
 cal principles in a declaration called a platform, and will 
 nominate candidates for office who are favorable to a 
 policy of peace. In this way a new political party, a 
 peace party, will be formed. Everybody who believes 
 that government should pursue a policy of peace will now 
 
LESSON XXXI V l8l 
 
 have an opportunity to express his views by voting for the 
 candidates of the new party. If these candidates shall 
 receive a number of votes sufficient to elect them, they 
 will become a part of the government, and they will be 
 morally bound to carry out, as far as they are able, the 
 principles of the party that elected them. Thus, it is 
 through party organization that the will of the people is 
 expressed, and thus far no other way of expressing that 
 will has been discovered. 
 
 The Choice of a Party. — Every young man upon com- 
 ing of age is called upon to vote for one of the great 
 parties. Of course he will wish to vote for the best party. 
 How shall he decide which is the best.? He should not 
 vote for a party merely because his father votes for it, or 
 because he hopes to secure an office at its hands, but 
 should vote for the one that he thinks will act for the best 
 interest of the country. He should make a careful study 
 of the history and principles of all the great political 
 parties, and learn what each has already done for the 
 country, and what each proposes to do, and then decide 
 for himself which one he will vote for. The principles of 
 party may be found in its platform. A very good way for 
 a young man to choose his party would be for him to 
 decide (without having the party name before him) which 
 of the platforms of the great political parties contains the 
 best principles, and choose the party that declares for 
 those principles, no matter what may be its name. 
 
 Loyalty to Party. — After a man has voted for and 
 worked with the same political party for some years he 
 becomes attached to it, and it is difficult, sometimes, for 
 
1 82 LESSONS IN CIVICS 
 
 him to vote for any other party. He becomes a party 
 man — a partisan. If he leaves his party he is pretty 
 sure to offend his party associates, who call him traitor or 
 mugwump, or some other harsh name. Yet there are 
 times when it is the duty of a good citizen to vote against 
 his party. When he believes the principles of his party 
 are no longer good for his country, or when he is asked 
 by it to vote for dishonest or dangerous or incompetent 
 men, it is his plain duty to refuse to do so. In such a 
 case he is called upon to decide, not between one party 
 and another, but between a party and his country. It is a 
 question of patriotism, or love of country. In times of 
 war a man's love for his country is tested by his willing- 
 ness to fight and die for it, but in times of peace his pa- 
 triotism is tested by his willingness to vote right, whatever 
 may be his interests or prejudices, or party ties.^ 
 
 1 An excellent history of parties is Johnston's " American Politics.'' 
 
INDEX 
 
INDEX 
 
 Administrator, 85 
 Admission of States, 156 
 Admitted States, 106 
 Age of Voters, 45 
 Agriculture, Department of, 171 
 Aldermen, 98 
 Aliens, 39 
 
 Naturalization of, 40, 47 
 Amendments to Constitution, 160 
 
 to State Constitution, ill 
 
 to a Bill, 120 
 Appeal of Cases, 136 
 Appeals, Circuit Court of, 175, 176 
 
 Court of, 136 
 Apportionment to House of Represen- 
 tatives, 146 
 
 to State Legislature, 116 
 Appropriations, 159 
 Armies, Power of Congress to raise, 154 
 Articles of Confederation, 139 
 Assembly, 115 
 Assessors, 62 
 
 of Town, 79 
 
 of Township, 91 
 Assistance of Parents, 24 
 Attendance of Pupils, 34 
 Attorney-General, 130 
 Attorney, State's, 87 
 
 Auditor of County, 86 
 
 of Township, 91 
 Australian System, 51, 52 
 
 B 
 
 Bail, 133 
 
 Ballot, 51 
 
 Bankruptcy, 151 
 
 Bill, Amendment to, 120 
 of Rights, 109, i6l 
 Passage of, 1 19-122 
 Readings of, 120 
 
 Board of Aldermen, 98 
 of Education, 30 
 
 Borough, 95 
 
 Bribery, 52, 57 
 
 By-laws, 78 
 
 Cabinet, 169 
 Campaign, Political, 164 
 Capital, 114 
 Capitol, 114 
 Capitation Tax, 159 
 Cases, Civil, 136 
 
 Criminal, 136 
 Census, 116 
 
 Chairman of Senate, 118 
 Charter, Definition of, 96 
 
 Village, 95 
 
 185 
 
1 86 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Children, Support of, 22 
 Circuit Court, 133 
 
 of Appeals, 175,176 
 
 United States, 175 
 Cities, Growth of, 93 
 Citizen, Meaning of, 39 
 Citizens, Rights of, 41-60 
 Citizenship, 38 
 City Council, 98, 99 
 
 Courts, loi 
 
 Government, 98-101, 102 
 
 Hall, 98 
 Civil Cases, 136 
 
 Rights, 41 
 
 Service, 171 
 Clerk of County Court, 85 
 
 Town, 79 
 
 Township, 90 
 Collector of Taxes, 63, 86, 91 
 Colonies, Government of, 104 
 Columbia, District of, 155 
 Commerce regulated by Congress, 151 
 Commissioners, County, 83 
 
 District of Columbia, 155 
 Committee of Legislature, 117 
 
 of School, 30 
 Common Pleas, Court of, loi 
 Commutation, Power of, 127 
 Comptroller, 129 
 Conduct of Pupils, 33 
 Confederation, Articles of, 139 
 
 Weakness of, 140 
 Congressional District, 146 
 Congress, 145-161 
 
 Branches of, 145 
 
 Election of President by, 165 
 
 Extra Session of, 169 
 
 Power of, 145-157 
 
 to admit New States, 156 
 
 to constitute Courts, 154 
 
 Congress, to call forth Militia, 155 
 to discipline Militia, 155 
 to establish Post Office, 153 
 to establish Post Roads, 153 
 to govern Territories, 156 
 to punish Piracy, 154 
 to regulate Election of President, 
 
 156 
 
 Time and Place of Meeting, 145 
 Constables, 80, 91 
 Constitution, Meaning of word, 108 
 
 Amendment to State, in 
 
 Amendment to, 160 
 
 Adoption of, 142 
 
 Description of, 109 
 
 of the State, 108-112 
 
 United States, 144-176 
 
 Formation of, 144 
 Constitutional Convention, 1 10 
 Constitutional Convention of 1787, 
 
 141 
 Constitutional, the word discussed, 
 
 112 
 Control of Self, 1 7 
 Convention, Constitutional, 1 10 
 
 County, 163 
 
 National, 163 
 
 of 1787, 141 
 
 State, 163 
 Copyright, 153 
 Coroner of County, 86 
 Counterfeiting, Punishment of, 152 
 County Government, 82-87 
 
 Auditor, 86 
 
 Commissioners, 83 
 
 Convention, 163 
 
 Coroner, 86 
 
 Officers, 83-87 
 
 School Board, 87 
 
 Seat, 83 
 
INDEX 
 
 187 
 
 County Treasurer, 86 
 
 of Virginia, 82 
 Court of Appeals, 136 
 
 Circuit, 133 
 
 City, 1 01 
 
 Common Pleas, loi 
 
 Criminal, loi 
 
 Justice of Peace, 132 
 
 National, 173-176 
 
 Orphans', 85 
 
 Police, loi 
 
 Supreme, of State, 136 
 
 United States District, 175 
 
 United States Circuit, 175 
 
 United States Circuit, of Appeals, 
 176 
 
 United States Supreme, 176 
 Criminals, 48 
 Criminal Courts, loi 
 
 D 
 
 Declaration of Rights, 109 
 Defendant, 135 
 Defense of Country, 57 
 
 of Self, 42 
 Delegates, House of, 115 
 Democracy, 72 
 
 Democracy, Representative, 72 
 Departments of Agriculture, 171 
 
 City, 100 
 
 Government, 73 
 
 Interior, 171 
 
 Judiciary, 132 
 
 Justice, 171 
 
 Navy, 171 
 
 State, 170 
 
 War, 171 
 District, Congressional, 146 
 District Court, 133 
 
 District Court of United States, 175 
 
 School, 29 
 Divorce, 25 
 Domain, Eminent, 69 
 Duties and Excises, 66 
 Duties of Parent, 22 
 
 Pupils, 35, 36 
 
 School Officers, 31 
 
 Teachers, 31, 35, 36 
 Duty, 56 
 
 Education of Children, 23 
 
 a Qualification of Voting, 47 
 "Elastic Clause," 157 
 Election by Plurality, 53 
 
 how conducted, 50 
 
 of Members of Legislature, 115 
 
 Primary, 162 
 
 of President, 162 
 
 of President by Congress, 165 
 Election, Officers of Township, 92 
 Electors, 45 
 Eminent Domain, 69 
 Examiners of Schools, 87 
 Excises, 66 
 Executive Department of Government, 
 
 73 
 Officers of State, 128-130 
 Attorney-General, 130 
 Comptroller, 129 
 Treasurer, 129 
 
 Superintendent of Schools, 130 
 Exemption, 64 
 Exports, Tax on, 159 
 Ex post facto Law, 158 
 Extra Session 
 
 of Congress, 169 
 
 of State Legislature, 127 
 
1 88 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Family, 21-28 
 
 Government, 22, 28 
 
 in Ancient Times, 21 
 Father, Power of, 21 
 Fees, 68 
 
 Fence Viewers, 80 
 Field Drivers, 80 
 Franchises, 68 
 Functions of City Government, loi 
 
 Government 
 
 City, 98-102 
 
 Colonial, 104 
 
 County, 82-87 
 
 Departments of, 73 
 
 Family, 22-28 
 
 Local, 139 
 
 Meaning of word, 13 
 
 Necessity of, 15 
 
 Representative, 71 
 
 of Self, 17, 19 
 
 of Schools, 29-37 
 
 of the State, 103-136 
 
 Study of, 13 
 
 Town, 75-81 
 
 Township, 89-92 
 Governor of a State, 126-128 
 
 Extent of Power of, 128 
 
 Message of, 127 
 
 Powers of, 126 
 
 Veto, 121 
 Grand Jury, 134 
 
 H 
 
 Habeas Corpus, 43, 158 
 Suspension of, 43 
 
 Honesty in Public Office, 99, 124 
 House of Delegates, 115 
 House of Representatives, 115, 146 
 Husband, 25 
 
 I 
 
 Idiots, 48 
 
 Impeachment, 130 
 
 Inauguration of President, 166 
 
 Income Tax, 67 
 
 Indictment, 134 
 
 Interior, Department of, 171 
 
 J 
 
 Journal of House of Representatives, 
 
 117 
 Judge, Circuit, 134 
 
 of Elections, 50 
 Judicial Department, 73 
 
 of State, 132 
 
 of Nation, 173-177 
 Jurisdiction, Original, 176 
 Jury, Grand, 134 
 Jury, Petit, 135 
 Justice, Department of, 171 
 
 of Peace, 132 
 
 Law, how made, 119-122 
 
 How passed in Congress, 147 
 Made by State Legislature, 123 
 Nature of, 15 
 Obedience to, 56 
 
 Legislative Department, 73 
 
 Legislature of State, 1 14-124 
 Election of Members, 115 
 Organization of, 117 
 
 Liberty, Personal, 42 
 
INDEX 
 
 189 
 
 Licenses, 68 
 
 Lieutenant Governor, 118, 128 
 Living, Earning a, 58 
 Local Self-government, 139 
 Loyalty to Party, 181 
 
 M 
 
 Majority, 53 
 
 Marque and Reprisal, 154 
 
 Marriage, 25 
 
 Mayor, Duties of, 100 
 
 Message of Governor, 127 
 
 of President, 169 
 Militia of a State, 155 
 
 Power of Congress to call forth, 155 
 Mistress and Servant, 27 
 Money, Povv^er of Congress to coin and 
 to borrow, 152 
 
 N 
 
 National Convention, 164 
 National Courts, Cases tried in, 173 
 
 Four Grades of, 174 
 National Government, 138 
 Naturalization of Aliens, 40, 47 
 
 Regulated by Congress, 151 
 Navy, Department of, 171 
 
 Maintained by Congress, 155 
 Nobility, Title of, 159 
 Nomination of President, 162 
 
 Obedience to Law, 56 
 
 of Children, 23 
 Office, Right of holding, 53 
 Officers, County, 83-87 
 
 State, 126-130 
 
 Officers, Town, 78-80 
 
 Township, 90-92 
 Ordinance, 98 
 Organization of Parties, 180 
 
 of State Legislature, 117 
 Original Jurisdiction, 176 
 Orphans' Court, 85 
 Overseers of Poor 
 
 of Town, 79 
 
 of Township, 92 
 
 Pardon, Power of, 127 
 Parents, Duties of, 22 
 
 Rights of, 23 
 Parties, Organization of, 180 
 
 Political, 179-182 
 Partizanship, 182 
 Party, Choice of, 181 
 Loyalty to, i8i. 
 Patents, 153 
 Paupers, 48 
 Personal Security, 41 
 Petit Jury, 135 
 
 Piracy, punished by Congress, 154 
 Plaintiff, 135 
 Platform, Party, 180 
 
 Political, 164 
 Plea of Prisoner, 135 
 Pleas, Court of Common, loi 
 Plurality, 53 
 Police Courts, loi 
 Police Justices, loi 
 Political Campaign, 164 
 
 Parties, 179-182 
 
 Questions, 59 
 
 Rights, 41 
 Polling Booth, 51 
 Polls, 50 
 
I go 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Poll Tax, 46, 68, 159 
 
 Posse Comitatus, 85 
 
 Post Office Department, 171 
 
 Post Roads, 153 
 
 Powers of Congress, 149-157 
 
 of Governor, 126 
 
 of State Legislature, 123 
 Preamble to Constitution, 144 
 Presents from Foreign Sources, 160 
 President, how elected, 162-166 
 President, Inauguration of, 166 
 
 Message of, 169 
 
 Nomination of, 162 
 
 Powers and Duties of, 168 
 
 Veto, Power of, 148 
 
 Who succeeds, 156 
 Primary Election, 162 
 Progressive Income Tax, 67 
 Property, Personal, 61 
 
 Private, 44 
 
 Qualification of Voting, 46 
 
 Real, 61 
 Pupils, Attendance of, 34 
 
 Conduct of, 33 
 
 Duties of, 35, 36 
 
 Rules for, 33 
 
 Qualifications of U. S. Senator, 148 
 
 of Voters, 45 
 Quorum, 117 
 
 R 
 
 Reading of a Bill, 120 
 Registration of Wills, 86 
 Registrars, 48 
 Registration, 48 
 Representation, 72 
 
 Representation, Method of, 116 
 
 in National Congress, 146 
 
 of Towns, 81 
 Reprieve, Power of, 127 
 Reputation, 42 
 Residence of Voters, 46 
 Rights, Civil, 41 
 
 of Holding Office, 53 
 
 Political, 41 
 
 Private Property, 44 
 
 S 
 
 School Board, 87 
 
 Committee, 30, 31 
 
 Directors, 30 
 
 Directors, Township, 90 
 
 District, 29 
 
 Government of, 29 
 
 Officers, 30 
 
 Superintendents, 87 
 
 Trustees, 30 
 
 Visitors, 30 
 Secretary of State, 129 
 Security of Person, 41 
 Selectmen, 78 
 Self-control, 17 
 
 Cultivation of, 18 
 Self-government, 70, 71 
 Self-respect, 19 
 Senate of State, 115 
 
 of United States, 147 
 Senator, State, 115 
 
 of United States, 147 
 Sergeant-at-Arms, 117 
 Servants and Mistress, 27 
 Servants, Rights of, 26 
 
 Treatment of, 26 
 Service of Children, 23 
 Service, The Civil, 171 
 
INDEX 
 
 191 
 
 Session, Extra, 127 
 
 Sex of Voters, 46 
 
 Share of Taxes, 62 
 
 Sheriff, 84 
 
 Slander, 42 
 
 Slavery, 158 
 
 Speaker of House of Representatives, 
 
 "7. 147 
 State, Beginnings of the, 105 
 
 Constitution of, described, 109 
 
 Government, Importance of, 138 
 State Legislature, 1 14-124 
 
 Honesty in, 124 
 
 Powers of, 123 
 
 Two Branches of, 114 
 
 What forbidden to do, 160 
 State Senate, 115 
 State Senators, 115 
 States admitted, 106 
 States, Thirteen original, 104 
 State's Attorney, 87 
 Studies, Course of, 34 
 Suffrage, Right of, 45 
 Superior Court, 133 
 Superintendent of Public School, 87, 
 
 130 
 Supervisors of Townships, 90 
 Supreme Court of State, 136 
 
 of United States, 176 
 Surveyors of Highways, 80 
 Suspension of Habeas Corpus, 43 
 
 Tardiness, 33 
 Taxation, 61-69 
 
 Indirect, 66 
 
 Property, Exempt from, 64 
 Tax, Assessor, 62 
 
 Capitation, 159 
 
 Tax Collector, 63 
 
 Collector of Township, 91 
 
 Defined, 61 
 
 Direct, 159 
 
 Dodgers, 64 
 Taxes, Power of Congress to Collect, 
 
 150 
 Taxpayer's Share, 62 
 Teacher, Duties of, 31, 35, 36. 
 Territories, How governed, 157 
 Town, 75-81, 95 n. 
 
 Clerk, 79 
 
 Constables, 80 
 
 Government, 75 
 
 Hall, 77 
 
 House, 77 
 
 Meeting, 77 
 
 Officers, 78-80 
 
 School Committee, 79 
 
 Selectmen, 78 
 
 Support of Schools, 79 
 Township, 89-92 
 
 Assessors, 91 
 
 Auditor, 91 
 
 Clerk, 90 
 
 Election Officers, 92 
 
 Government, 89 
 
 Justice of the Peace, 91 
 
 Officers, 90-92 
 
 Overseers of Poor, 92 
 
 School Directors, 90 
 Treasurer of County, 86 
 
 of State, 129 
 
 of Town, 79 
 Treasury Department, 170 
 Treaties, 168 
 Truancy, 34 
 Trustees of the School, 30 
 
 of Township, 90 
 Tun Moot, 75 
 
192 
 
 INDEX 
 
 U 
 
 United States, Begkinings of, 138-143 
 
 Congress, 144-157 
 
 Senator, 147 
 " Unconstitutional," Meaning of the 
 word, 112 
 
 Verdict, 135 
 
 Veto of Governor, 121 
 of Mayor, 100 
 of President, 148 
 
 Village Charter, 95 
 Government, 93 
 
 Virginia, the County, 82 
 
 Visitors of School, 30 
 
 Voters, Qualifications of, 45 
 
 Residence of, 46 
 
 Sex of, 46 
 
 Who are, 45 
 Voting, Methods of, 52 
 
 W 
 War, 57 
 
 Declared by Congress, 154 
 
 Department of, 171 
 Warrant, Definition of, 92 
 Washington, Government of, 155 
 Weights and Measures, 152 
 Wife, 25 
 
 Rights of, 26 
 Wills, Register of, 86 
 Writ, 91 
 
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