4 
 
 \ 
 
"STUDY ME.' 
 
 PART I. 
 
 lUTRITlVE APPAKATUS. 
 
 CHAP. I. 
 DIGESTIVE SYi- 
 
 TM, 
 
 CHAP. II. 
 
 RESPIRATORY 
 
 SYSTEM, 
 
 CHAP. III. 
 
 CIRCULATORY 
 
 
 P. S| 
 
 7 
 10 
 14 
 20 
 22 
 26 
 30 
 32 
 35 
 
 37 
 39 
 43 
 45 
 49 
 
 50 
 52 
 53 
 
 Introduction, . . . 
 General analysis, . . 
 Teeth 
 
 Salivary glands, . . 
 
 Small intestine, . . 
 
 Large intestine, . . 
 Synthetic review, . . 
 
 
 | Pulmonary vessels, . 
 Air . . . . 
 
 [Synthetic review, . . 
 r Heart 
 
 [ Pulmonic circulation,. 
 ) Svstflmir. circulation. . 
 
 " I am fearfully and 
 wonderfully made." 
 
 CHAP. IV. ( Vocal organs, 
 VOCAL SYSTEM, | Synthetic reviev 
 
 61 
 
 5j 
 
 v>n/\r. i. 
 CEREBRO SPINAL 
 
 Spinal cord and nerves, 
 
 72 
 
 
 SYSTEM, 
 
 Synthetic review, . . 
 
 77 
 
 \ < 
 
 1 
 
 Feeling, 
 
 78 
 78 
 
 Ti 
 
 CHAP. II. 
 
 Smell . . . 
 
 80 
 
 p 
 
 SENTIENT vt*-\ 
 
 
 81 
 
 
 
 TEM, 
 
 Hearing, 
 
 86 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 Synthetic review, . . 
 
 91 
 
 
 i . 
 
 'Head, 
 
 93 
 
 . 
 
 
 Trunk, 
 
 95 
 
 P 
 
 H 
 
 CHAP. I. 
 
 OSSEOUS SYS- < 
 
 Upper extremities, . . 
 Lower extiemities, . 
 
 98 
 102 
 
 M 
 
 TEM, 
 
 Composition of bones, 
 
 105 
 
 
 
 Joints, 
 
 108 
 
 
 
 
 ^Synthetic review, . . 
 
 111 
 
 . 
 
 CHAP. II. 
 
 ' Muscles, 
 
 ]]0 
 
 !> 
 
 MUSCULAR SYS- 
 
 1 Musrcles, continued, . 
 
 110 
 
 
 TEM, 
 
 Synthetic review, . . 
 
 119 
 
 
 
 CHAP. III. 
 
 
 121 
 
 g 
 
 CUTANEOUS SYS. 
 
 Cutis vera, .... 
 
 124 
 
 IS 
 
 CHAP. IV. 
 
 Animal heat, .... 
 Synthetic review, . . 
 
 128 
 130 
 
 
 * 
 
 General synthetic rev., 
 
 132 
 
(SCHOOL EDITION.) 
 
 HUMAN AND COMPARATIVE 
 
 ANATOMY, 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 BY 
 
 MRS. EUNICE P. CUTTER 
 
 
 
 WITH ONE HUNDRED ENGRAVINGS. 
 
 A NO STEREOTYPED. 
 
 NriW YORK: 
 CLARK, AUSTIN AND SMITH 
 
 CINCINNATI : W. B. SMITH & CO. 
 ST. LOUIS, MO.: KEITH <fc WOODS. 
 
Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1854, iy 
 
 CALVIN CUTTER, M D 
 In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the Disvct oi \ 
 
 STEREO TTPB DAT T 
 BOSTON STEHEOTYPK FO 
 
 GIFT 
 
C8 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 THIS small manual is designed for pupils of that maturity of 
 mind at which they can profitably pursue the study of primary 
 arithmetic, geography, or grammar. Indeed,^! can be used before 
 geography or grammar, as it is the simpler and more interesting 
 study. 
 
 Its object is twofold : 1. To teach the child something of the 
 general structure of man and animals, with the use of the dif- 
 ferent parts, and to suggest practical hints relative to the preserva- 
 tion of health. 2. To indicate a method of instruction. Instruc- 
 tion includes reading, study, and teaching. Since profitable read- 
 ing and study require the same analysis and method as clear and 
 efficient teaching, therefore text books should be so arranged as to 
 afford readers, pupils, and teachers an index to the unfolding and 
 the necessary aid to the understanding of the subject. 
 
 TO PUPILS. 
 
 Since methods of study and preparation for recitation are im- 
 portant, we would suggest the following : 1. Carefully read the 
 lesson, and commit to memory the definitions of important names 
 or terms. 2. Compare the text with illustrating diagrams, to 
 which reference is made. 3. Obtain and use appropriate mate- 
 rial for illustrations in connection with the text and diagrams. 
 4. Draw the illustrating diagrams upon paper, slate, or black- 
 board. 5. If able to write, commit to paper, plainly and con- 
 cisely, the ideas of the lesson in your own language, without the 
 aid of the book. 
 
 TO TEACHERS. 
 
 It is the office of the teacher to educate. This is done by reci- 
 tations and by general exercises. 
 
 1* (5) 
 
 210 
 
RECITATIONS. 
 
 The objects of a recitation are to review the previous lesson, to 
 determine if pupils comprehend the general principles of the 
 present lesson and its details, to correct errors, to suggest new 
 principles and their application, to communicate new facts, to 
 excite observation, to induce thought, to develop expression, to 
 cultivate the taste, to direct the imagination, to invigorate the 
 memory, to strengthen the judgment, and to expand the soul. 
 
 To accomplish these objects, we would suggest the following 
 method: 1. Have the previous lesson reviewed by concise oral 
 or written abstracts, aided by a synthetic tableau upon the black- 
 board. 2. Have the leading topics of the present lesson stated 7 
 using appropriate illustrating material. 3. Have other principles 
 and facts explained by the use of outline diagrams. 4. Have 
 the lesson still further elucidated by analytic tableaux of the text 
 upon the blackboard, and also by drawing the illustrating dia- 
 grams. 5. Examine the class in detail, and require each pupil 
 to propose pertinent questions. 6. Have the pupils present con- 
 cise oral synopses of the entire lesson and its illustrations. 1. 
 The teacher should give a genera) analysis or method for the 
 study of the next lesson r and also communicate to the class such 
 additional principles and facts as are essential to the understand- 
 ing of the subject. 
 
 GENERAL EXERCISES, 
 
 These are valuable once or twice each week. The whole 
 school should participate in them. The following is a method 
 for conducting a session : Let eaeh pupil have a text book, and 
 be required to carefully read the lesson previous to the exercise. 
 The teacher should analyze and explain the subject, and, in an 
 oral, familiar lecture, communicate additional principles, facts, 
 and illustrations. This may be followed by questions to the? 
 members of the school, and by oral synopses of the lesson and 
 lecture from the pupils, accompanied by questions. 
 
 To the candid examination of teachers and guardians <ji youtJ* 
 this work is respectfully submitted. 
 
 E. P. CUTTEB, 
 WAH.REN, MASSACHUSETTS, November 1, 1851, 
 
HUMAN AND COMPARATIVE 
 
 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND 
 HYGIENE. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 1. HOWEVER complete a machine of human inven- 
 tion, none can be more perfect in structure, beautiful in 
 appearance, or harmonious in action than the " house 
 we live in," which is framed and furnished by the Great 
 Architect, God. 
 
 Q. What is said of the machines made by man, compared with 
 the " house we live in n ? 
 
 . A watch contains beautiful wheels as well as deli- 
 cate springs, all of which are surrounded by well-fitted 
 cases. Yet the body contains parts more beautiful, 
 organs more delicate, enclosed in cases more perfect in 
 construction. 
 
 Q. How does a watch compare with the body, in beauty, deli- 
 cacy, and perfection l . 
 
 3. Look at a watch, how beautiful soever its, face, it 
 cannot compare in loveliness with the smile that plays 
 upon the infant's cheek. The hands of a watch tell the 
 hour of day ; but they have no sensation or feeling like 
 the hands of a child. 
 
 m 
 

 8 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Q. What 'a said of the face and hands of a watch and those 
 of a child ? 
 
 4. The wheels of a watch move regularly ; but the 
 click, click, is no more regular, nor more varied, than the 
 movements of the parts of the human body. 
 
 Q. What is said of the movements of a watch, compared with 
 those of the human body ? 
 
 5. The watch has not within itself the power of 
 making or applying the oil necessary for its movable 
 parts ; but God in his goodness has so made the parts of 
 the human body that they make and apply as they need 
 their own oily fluid. 
 
 Q. What is said of the oil needful for a watch ? How are the 
 joints of the body oiled ? 
 
 6. The form and size of a watch do not of them- 
 selves change ; but man varies in form and size from his 
 cradle to his grave. Growth and decay are constant in 
 the human frame. 
 
 Q. What is said of the form and size of a watch and that of 
 man ? What are constant in the human body ? 
 
 7. If a watch is injured, it has not power to repair or 
 mend itself. Not so with the human body : you may 
 bruise it, and the injured part possesses a power that is 
 generally able to heal it. 
 
 Q. Can a watch mend or heal itself ? How is the body repaired 
 when bruised ? 
 
 8. To understand the structure or use of a machine, 
 it is necessary to examine the different parts separately 
 as well as combined. The same is true of the body, 
 which is so "fearfully and wonderfully made." 
 
 Q. What is necessary in order to understand the structure and 
 use of a machine or the human body ? 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 9. For convenience, we shall divide the body into 
 ap-pa-ra'tus-es, systems, and or'gans. 
 
 Q. What are the general divisions of the body ? 
 
 10. An APPARATUS is an assemblage of parts pro- 
 vided as means to an end ; as, the furniture of a house. 
 
 Q. Define apparatus. Give an example. 
 
 11. A SYSTEM is an assemblage of organs or parts ad- 
 justed into a regular whole ; as, the railroads of a state 
 or country, or the organs of digestion. 
 
 Q. Define system. Give an example. 
 
 1. An ORGAN is a part or structure in which some 
 work or process is carried on ; as, a railroad locomotive 
 or the stomach of man. 
 
 Q. Define organ. Give an example. 
 
 13. A description of the structure of man, animals, 
 birds, or plants is called A-nat'o-my. 
 
 Q. What is anatomy ? 
 
 14. A description of the uses of the parts of man, 
 birds, fishes, &c. is called Phys-i-ol'o-gy. 
 
 Q. What is physiology ? 
 
 15. A statement of the conditions upon which the 
 health of man, animals, and plants depends is called 
 Hy-gi-ene'. 
 
 Q. What is hygiene ? 
 
 16. HUMAN Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene treat 
 of man: Comparative, of other animals than man, and 
 also of birds, fishes, and plants. 
 
 Q. What is human anatomy, physiology, and hygiene ? What 
 is comparative ? 
 
 Review. Give the comparisons and definitions of the 
 terms in this chapter. 
 
10 GENERAL ANALYSIS. 
 
 GENERAL ANALYSIS.* 
 
 17. The POSITION of the principal organs of '.he body 
 is as easily learned as the location of cities or towns. 
 The former is far more interesting and important than 
 the latter. 
 
 Q. What is said of learning the position of the parts of the 
 body ? 
 
 18. The BODY has two great cavities a lower and tin 
 upper. (Fig. 2.) 
 
 Q. Into how many great cavities is the body divided ? 
 
 19. The inferior animals, as the ox and horse, ilso 
 birds and fishes, have two cavities which enclose organs 
 similar to those in the human body. 
 
 Q. What is said of the cavities of birds, fishes, and the infe- 
 rior animals '\ 
 
 20. The LOWEII cavity comprises the mouth, the tho'rax, 
 (chest.) and the ab-do'men. (Figs. 2, 3.) 
 
 Q. What does the lower cavity contain '* 
 
 21. The MOUTH contains the teeth and sal'i-va-ry 
 glands. (Figs. 2, 3.) 
 
 Q. What does the mouth contain ? 
 
 22. The THORAX contains the lungs and heart. 
 (Figs. 2, 3.) 
 
 Q. What does the thorax contain ? 
 
 23. The ABDOMEN contains the stomach, liver, pan'- 
 cre-as, (sweetbread,) spleen, (milt,) small and large in- 
 testine, and kidneys. (Figs. 2, 3.) 
 
 Q. What does the abdomen contain 1 
 
 * Illustrate this lesson by fishes, diagrams, drawings, and analytical 
 tableaux on the blackboard. 
 
GENERAL ANALYSIS. 
 
 11 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 Fig. 3. 
 
 19 
 
 Fig. 2 represents the t\vo great cavities of the body and their organs. 1, 2, 3. The 
 lower cavity. 1. The mouth. 2. The thorax. 3. The abdomen. 6. A salivary 
 gland. 7. The esophagus. 8, 8. The trachea and lun^.-?. 9. The heart. 10. Tho 
 liver. 11. The stomach. 12. Tho colon. 13. The small intestine. 14. The lacteals. 
 15. The thoracic duct. 16. The diaphragm. 17, 18,20, 20. The Avails of the lower 
 cavity, composed of bones, muscles, and skin. 
 
 4, 5, 5. The upper cavity and iu organ?. 4. The brain. 5, 5. The spinal cord. 
 19, 20, 20. The walls of the upper cavity. 19. The cranium. 20, 20. The spinal 
 column. 
 
 Fig. 3 represents the position of the organs of the mouth, thorax, and abdomen. 
 1,2,3. Salivary glands. 4. The larynx and trachea. 5. The oesophagus. 6,6. The 
 rings. 7. The hcnrt. 8, 8. The liver. 9. The stomach. 19. The pancreas. 11. The 
 spieen. 10. The duodenum. 13, 13, 13. The small intestine. 14,14,14. The large 
 intestine 
 
IS REVIEW. 
 
 24. The UPPER cavity is formed by the cra'ni-um, 
 (skull,) and by the bones of the spi'nal col'umn, (back 
 bone.) Figs. 2, o.) 
 
 Q. What forms the upper cavity ? 
 
 25. The CRANIUM contains the brain ; the spinal col- 
 umn contains the spinal cord. (Fig. 2.) 
 
 Q. Where are the brain and spinal cord found ? 
 
 26. The walls, or outside of these cavities, are formed 
 by bones and muscles, (lean meat.) The whole is cov- 
 ered by the skin. (Figs. 2, 3.) 
 
 Q. What forms the walls of these cavities l What covers the 
 whole ? 
 
 REVIEW. 
 
 21. Teeth, > 
 
 Salivary Glands, \ In the MOUTH - 
 
 22. Lungs, 
 
 23. Stomach, 
 Liver, 
 Pancreas, 
 
 Intestines, 
 Kidneys 
 
 25. Brain, 
 Spinal Cord, 
 
 26. Bones, \ 
 
 Muscles, V 
 Skin, } 
 
 In the THORAX. 
 
 In the ABDOMEN. 
 
 In the SKULL and 
 
 SPINAL COLUMN. 
 
 Form the walls of 
 the CAVITIES. 
 
 LOWER CAVITY, 
 
 containing 
 NUTRITIVE APPARATUS. 
 
 UPPER CAVITY, 
 
 containing 
 SENSORIAL APPARATUS. 
 
 LOCOMOTIVE and 
 PROTECTIVE APPARATUS, 
 
 Review by Questions. What can you state of the cavities of the body of 
 man ? of animals ? of birds ? of fishes ? What do these cavities contain ? 
 What forms the walls of these cavities ? 
 
 REVIEW BY TOPICS. Give the general analysis of the human system, 
 and that of animals, birds, and fishes. (See outline anatomical. Plates V 
 and VIII.) 
 
PART I. 
 
 27. IN this part the NUTRITIVE APPARATUS will be 
 described. This embraces the di-ges'tive, re-spi'ra-to-ry, 
 and cir'cu-la-to-ry systems, or the "builders up" and 
 " pullers down " of the body. (Figs. 2, 3.) 
 
 Q. What systems are classed under the nutritive apparatus ? 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 28. The DIGESTIVE SYSTEM will be described in this 
 chapter. It embraces the teeth, sal'i-va-ry glands, 
 stom'ach, small in-tes'tine, liver, pan'cre-as, (sweetbread,) 
 lac'te-als, and large in-tes'tine. (Figs. 2, 3, 20.) 
 
 Q. How is the digestive system divided ? 
 
 LESSON I. 
 
 29. In a flouring mill there are burr stones. By the 
 rapid motion of one stone upon the other, wheat and 
 other grains are crushed and made fine ; so the teeth, by 
 the movement of the lower upon the upper jaw, cut, 
 crush, and make fine the solid part of the food. 
 
 Q. To what may the teeth be compared ? What is the use of 
 the teeth ? 
 
 2 (13) 
 
14 
 
 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 TEETH. * 
 
 30. The TEETH are connected with the jaw by the 
 sockets, (al-ve'o-lar processes.) 
 
 Q. How are the teeth connected with the jaw '? 
 
 31. The SOCKETS are covered, and the ne/k of the 
 teeth is surrounded, by a firm membrane called gum* 
 
 Q. What is the gum ? 
 
 Fig. 4. 
 
 
 Fig. 4 represents the milk teeth from the left side of the jaw. 1, 2 
 Cutting teeth, (incisors.) 3. Eye tooth, (cuspid.) 4, 5. Grinders, 
 (molars.) 
 
 32. Children have twenty teeth, which are called the 
 
 * To illustrate this lesson, use the jaws and teeth of different ani- 
 mals ; as the ox, horse, squirrel, as well as man, with drawings upon 
 the blackboard. (See Preface.) 
 
TEETH. 
 
 15 
 
 milk teeth. These are generally removed before the 
 child is eight years old. (Fig. 4.) 
 
 Q. How many teeth has the child? What are they called? 
 When are they removed l 
 
 Observation. Calves, lambs, and colts have milk 
 teeth, that are removed early like human teeth. 
 
 Q. What is said of the milk teeth of calves, lambs, &c. 
 
 33. The adult or fullgrown person hao thirty -two, 
 called permanent teeth. (Fig. 5.) 
 
 Q. How many teeth has a fullgrown person? What are 
 they called 1 
 
 Fig. 5. 
 
 Fig. 5 represents the adult teeth. 1, 2. The cutting teeth, (incisors.) 
 3. Eye tooth, (cuspid.) 4, 5. Small grinders, (bicuspids.) 6. 7. 8. 
 Grinders, (molars.) 9, 9. Neck of the tooth. 
 
 34. The front teeth that cut or divide the food are 
 called in-ci'sors, (cutting teeth.) Those that crush or 
 grind the food mo'lars, (grinding teeth.) (Fig. 5.) 
 
 Q. What are the front teeth called ? Those that crush the f.)o < 
 
16 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AXD HYGIENE. 
 
 35. The part of the tooth above the jaw is culled the 
 crown, the portion in the jaw the root. The neck of 
 the tooth is where the root and crown unite. (Fig. 5.) 
 
 Q. What part of the tooth is called the crown? The root? The 
 neck 1 
 
 36. The CROWN of the tooth contains i'vo-ry, or bone, 
 and a still harder substance, called en-am' el. The root 
 has no enamel. (Figs. 6, 7, 8.) 
 
 Q. What does the crown of the tooth contain 1 How does the 
 root differ from the crown ? 
 
 Fig, 7. Fig. 6. Fig. 8. 
 
 Fig. 6. A section of a molar tooth of man. 1. The enamel. 2. The 
 
 ivory. 3. The cavity containing blood vessels. 4, 5. Artery and nerve. 
 
 Fig. 7. Section of the molar tooth of a horse. 1. The enamel. 
 2. The ivory. 3. Canal for blood vessels. 
 
 Fig. 8. Section of molar tooth of a dog. 1. The enamel. 2. The 
 ivory. 3. Cavity for Blood vessels. 
 
 37. The ENAMEL iii man covers the entire crown of 
 the tooth. (Fig. 6.) In the horse, the enamel surrounds, 
 but does not cover, the upper surface of the crown, 
 while plates of it exist in the central parts of the tooth. 
 (Fig. 7.) In the teeth of animals that feed upon flesh, 
 
as the dog, cat, and lion, the enamel covers the cutting 
 edges of the crown. (Fig. 8.) In the gnawing or front 
 teeth of squirrels, rats, and rabbits, the enamel is only 
 upon the front surface. (Fig. 1 1.) 
 
 Q. Where is the enamel of the tooth in man ? The horse l 
 The dog ? The squirrel ? 
 
 Observation. By the arrangement of the enamel, the 
 grinding teeth of the horse and ox are always uneven, 
 like a millstone, while the front teeth of a squirrel are 
 sharp. For this reason he can chisel a hole so quickly 
 in his stolen nut, while the horse and ox easily grind 
 grains and grasses. The large teeth of animals that feed 
 on flesh, as the cat, dog, and lion, by the form of the 
 crown and arrangement of the enamel, are sharp, and cut 
 like the blades of shears. 
 
 Q. What is said of the teeth in different animals 1 
 
 Fig. 9 represents the teeth of a flesh-eating animal. 
 Fig. 10 represents the teeth of an insect-eating animal. 
 
 38. In animals that live on insects the molar teeth 
 are raised into conical points, which lock into depressions 
 in the teeth of the opposite jaw. (Fig. 10.) 
 
18 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 Q. H jw are the teeth arranged in animals that eat insects ? 
 
 39. The movement of the lower jaw varies in differ- 
 ent animals. In flesh-eating animals, as the cat and 
 lion, the movement is hingelike, and the molar teeth are 
 cutting instruments like shears. In the ox and horse 
 the movement is lateral, and the molar teeth are grind- 
 ing instruments like a millstone. In gnawing animals the 
 movement is backward and forward, with no lateral mo- 
 tion. In man we find a moderate degree of the three 
 movements cutting, grinding, and gnawing. 
 
 Q. What is the movement of the jaws in flesh-eating animals '\ 
 In grain eating? In gnawing? In man ? 
 
 Remark. Observe the movements of the lower jaw 
 in man, the cat, squirrel, and horse, to illustrate this 
 
 paragraph. 
 
 Fig. 11. 
 
 Fig. 11. Lower jaw of a squirrel. 1. The enamel of the gnawing 
 tooth. 2. The ivory. 3. The lateral furrows of the molar teeth. 
 
 40. The molar teeth of squirrels, rabbits, and rats 
 have lateral furrows upon the crown, so that the forward 
 and backward movement of the jaws grinds the food as 
 perfectly as the lateral motion of the jaws of a horse, 
 (Kg. 11.) 
 
 Q. How are the molar teeth of squirrels farrowed ? Wha is 
 the effect of this in grinding food ? 
 
TEETH 
 
 41. To prevent the teeth from decaying, they must 
 be kept clean. The teeth and gums should be cleaned 
 by using a soft brush and water after every meal ; also 
 Defore going to bed and after rising in the morning. 
 
 Q. Why must the teeth be kept clean ? How should they be 
 oieaned ? How often ? 
 
 42. The teeth should not be used to crack nuts, bite 
 shreads, or picked with pins. Ivory or quill tooth- 
 picks should be used. 
 
 Q. For what purposes should the teeth not be used ? 
 
 REVIEW. 
 
 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 40. Anatomy ) 
 
 29, 34, 37, 38, 39, 40 Physiology > of the TEETH. 
 
 41, 42 Hygiene ) 
 
 Review by Questions. What can you say of the structure of the human 
 teeth ? of the teeth of animals f What can you tell of the use of the teeth 
 in man ? in animals ? vVhat can you relate of the movement of the jaws 
 in animals ? in man ? How may the teeth he preserved ? 
 
 REVIEW BY TOPICS. Give the Anatomy of the teeth, human and com* 
 parative, the Physiology, the Hjgienc. 
 
 LESSON II. 
 
 43. To make a solid or dry substance soft, or pulpy, 
 as making flour into dough, it must be mixed with water 
 or some other fluid. So the solid food, as meat or dry 
 biscuit, when divided by the teeth, needs some fluid to 
 fit it for swallowing. Hence the Author of our being 
 has placed some little bodies about the mouth that sup- 
 ply a fluid. These bodies are called salivary glands. 
 
 Q. What is necessary after solid food is divided by the teeth / 
 What are the bodies called that supply this fluid 1 
 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AM) HYGIENE. 
 
 SALIVARY GLANDS.* 
 
 44. The SALIVARY GLANDS are six in number, three 
 on each side of the face. (Figs. 12, 13.) The fluid that 
 flows from them into the mouth is called sa-li'va. The 
 common name is spittle. 
 
 Q. How many salivary glands are there ? What is the name 
 of the fluid that flows from them ? 
 
 Fig. 12, 
 
 Fig. 13. 
 
 Fig. 12. The mouth laid open. 1. The teeth. 3, 4. Upper and 
 lower jaws. 5. The tongue. 7, 8. Salivary glands. 9. Trachea, (wind- 
 pipe.) 10, 11. (Esophagus, (gullet.) 12. Spinal Column, 
 
 Fig. 13. A side view of face. 1, 2. Trachea. 3, 4. (Esophagus. 
 7, 8. Salivary glands. 9. Duct from the parotid gland. 4, 5, 6. 
 Muscles. 
 
 Observation. The largest of these glands, (called 
 parotid,) which lies under the ear, is enlarged in the dis- 
 ease called mumps. (Figs. 12, 13.) 
 
 Q What gland is diseased in mumps ? 
 
 * Illustrate this lesson by using similar parts of animals, outline 
 plates, the blackboard, and experiments. 
 
SALIVARY GLANDS. 1 
 
 Experin int. To show the use of saliva, take half a 
 dry biscuit and reduce it to a powder ; break the remain- 
 ing half into small pieces, and let several pupils hold a 
 piece in the mouth until moist and soft ; and the effect 
 of saliva upon food will be shown by comparing the 
 pulp with the powdered biscuit. 
 
 Q. How can the effects of saliva upon solid food be shown ? 
 
 45. In health, we need not drink while eating or 
 while speaking. The flow of saliva is generally sufficient 
 to moisten both* the food and the mouth. We may drink 
 moderately after eating. 
 
 Q. Is it necessary to drink while eating or speaking? When 
 may we drink ? 
 
 46. It is not healthy to chew gums, tobacco, or any 
 hard substance, as they cause a great flow of saliva. The 
 habit of frequent spitting is also injurious to health. 
 
 Q. Is it healthy to chew gums or tobacco ? What is said of 
 frequent spitting 1 
 
 47. The food, after it is chewed and mixed with sa- 
 liva, is carried from the back side of the mouth through 
 a tube to the stomach. The name of this tube is ce-soph'- 
 a-gus, (gullet.) (Figs. 12, 13.) 
 
 Q. What becomes of the food after it is mixed with saliva \ 
 What is the name of this tube ? 
 
 Remark. Use the oesophagus of the sheep, calf, or 
 ox to illustrate this tube in man. 
 
 REVIEW. 
 
 44,47 Anatomy ) 
 
 43, 44, 47. . . . Physiology > of the SALITAET GLAND*. 
 45,46 Hygiene J 
 
 Review by Questions. What can you say of the salivary glands ? of the saliva? of 
 spitting? of chewing gums and tobacco? of drinking? of swallowing? 
 
 RBVIIW BY Tories. State the Anatomy of the salivary glands and oesophagus, 
 the Physiology, the Hygiene. (See outline anatomical, Plate V.) 
 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE 
 
 LESSON III. 
 
 48. In preparing some articles for food, we add more 
 than one kind of fluid ; so the pulpy mass that has passed 
 from the mouth to the stomach needs another fluid to 
 make it soft enough to pass through the py-lor'ic orifice 
 (gatekeeper) of this organ. This fluid is supplied by 
 the stom'ach. (Fig. 14.) 
 
 Q. What is necessary to render the pulpy mass in the stomach 
 softer ? 
 
 THE STOMACH.* 
 
 49. The STOMACH is a curved, oblong sac, or pouch, 
 situated in the left side, below the heart. It has two 
 openings one connected with the oesophagus, and the 
 other connected with the small intestine. (Fig. 14.) 
 
 Q. Describe the stomach? How many openings has it? 
 With what are they connected 1 
 
 50. The stomach is made up of three coats, or mem- 
 branes. The outer coat (se'rous) is smooth and glisten- 
 ing. The middle coat (mus'cu-lar) resembles lean meat. 
 The inner coat (mu'cous) is soft like velvet. In health, 
 this coat is a delicate peach color. (Tig. 14.) 
 
 Q. Of what is the stomach composed ? What is the appear- 
 ance of the outer coat? The middle coat ! The inner coat .- 
 Its color '> 
 
 51. In the coats of the stomach are very small bodies, 
 called gas'tric glands. These supply the fluid called 
 gastric juice. (Fig. 14.) 
 
 * Illustrate the general structure of the stomach by using that of a 
 lam'n. call', fowl, or the article of food called tripe ; outline plates ami 
 the blackboard. 
 
THE STOMACH. %6 
 
 Jf 
 
 Q. Where are the gastric glands found? What do they 
 supply ? 
 
 5. By the action of the coats of the stomach, the 
 food is turned over and over and mixed with the gastric 
 juice, which changes it to a grayish paste called chyme. 
 This is passed into the small intestine. (Fig. 14.) 
 
 Q. How is the food mixed with the gastric juice ? What does 
 the food become ? Into what does it pass ? 
 
 Observation. The gastric juice is so powerful a sol- 
 vent that it will corrode or eat silver and hardened steel. 
 
 Fig. 14. Inner surface of the stomach and part of the small intes- 
 tine, (duodenum.) 1. Lower part of the resophagus. 3. The stomach 
 9. The opening into the small intestine. 10, 11, 14. The duodenum. 
 12. 1.3. Ducts from the liver and pancreas, a, 6, c. Three coats of the 
 stomach. 
 
 53. In flesh-eating animals (car-niv'o-rous) the stom- 
 ach is small. In grass-eating animals (her-biv'o-rous] 
 the stomach is large and divided into several sacs. (Fig. 
 15.) 
 
4 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 Q. What is said of the size of the stomach of flesh-eating 
 animals ? Of grass-eating animals ? 
 
 54. While man has but one stomach, the sheep and 
 ox have four. Birds have three stomachs. (Figs. 14, 
 U, 81.) 
 
 Q. How many stomachs have the ox and sheep ? How many 
 stomachs have birds ? 
 
 Fig. 15. 
 
 Fig. 15. The stomach of the sheep. 1. (Esophagus. 2. The first 
 stomach. 3. The second stomach. 4. The third stomach. 5. The 
 fourth stomach. 6. Intestine. 
 
 55. The first stomach of the sheep and ox receives the 
 food from the mouth ; and when moistened it is passed 
 into the second stomach, from which it is raised to the 
 mouth to be chewed. The food, or cud, is passed into 
 the third stomach, and there it is mixed with some othei 
 fluids. From the third it is carried into the fourth stom- 
 ach, and then into the intestine. (Fig. 15.) 
 
 Q. Describe the passage of food through the several stomachs 
 of the ox and sheep. 
 
 Remark. 1. Fluids, as water, are passed directly 
 into the second stomach of the ox and sheep. 2 Ren 
 
THE STOMACH. 25 
 
 that is used in making cheese, is the prepared stom- 
 ach of the calf. 
 
 Q. Whick stomach of tke ex do the fluids pass into ? Of 
 what practical use is the stomach of the calf ? 
 
 56. The food of birds is passed into the first stomach, 
 (crop ;) here it is moii>tened, and -thea passed into the 
 second stomach, and becomes mixed with the gastric 
 juice. From the second it is carried to the third stom- 
 ach, (gizzard,) where it is ground, thence into the intes- 
 tine, (Fig. 21.) 
 
 Q. Describe tke passage of food through the stomachs of a 
 fowl. 
 
 57. Food is needed for two objects one for the growth 
 of the body, the other for fuel to keep the body warm* 
 
 Q. For what two objects do we nee<l food ? 
 
 Observation. Adult persons, if their habits are in- 
 active, need much less food for the first object above 
 named than, is generally supposed. For the second 
 object, more food is required in cold than in warm 
 weather, 
 
 Q. What class of persons require but little food ? In what 
 weather do we need the most food ? Why ? 
 
 58. Food should be eaten at regular periods. The 
 time between meals should vary from four to six hours. 
 
 Q. When should food be eaten ? How often should we eat ? 
 
 Remark. The principles of the last-mentioned para- 
 graphs should be observed in feeding horses and other 
 animals, 
 
 Q. What care should we have in feeding domestic animals ? 
 
 59. The stomach, like other parts of the body, when 
 used, needs rest. For this reason, food should not be 
 
 
6 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE, 
 
 taken between meals, particularly " nice bits" and con- 
 fectionery. 
 
 Q. Why shcmld not food be taken between meals ? 
 
 60. To prevent dyspepsia, or indigestion of food, we 
 should eat slowly and chew well the food. We should 
 not eat when tired nor when we feel angry. Gentle 
 exercise before and after eating, together with pleasant 
 conversation, tends to prevent disease of the stomach. 
 
 Q. What are some of the means to prevent indigestion ? 
 
 REVIEW. 
 
 49 r 50, 51,53, 54 Anatomy ) 
 
 48, 51, 52, 55, 56, 57. . . . Physiology} of the STOMACH. 
 57, 58, 59, 60 Hygiene 5 
 
 Review by Questions. What can you tell of the structure of the human stomach f 
 of the stomach of animals ? of birds ? of the gastric juice ? What can you state of the 
 change of food in the stomach of man? in animals? in birds? For what is food need- 
 ed ? How should food be taken ? How can dyspepsia be prevented? 
 
 REVIEW BY TOPICS. Give the Anatomy of the stomach, human and comparative, 
 the Physiology, the Hygiene. (See outline anatomical, Plate V.) 
 
 LESSON IV. 
 
 61. To prepare some articles for diet, different pro- 
 cesses are necessary : in order that the food we eat may 
 nourish us, it must undergo one process or change in 
 the mouth, another in the stomach, and still another in 
 the small intestine. 
 
 Q. Are different processes necessary to fit the food to nour- 
 ish us % 
 
 SMALL INTESTINE, LIVER, AND PANCREAS.* 
 
 62. The SMALL INTESTINE is a tube about twenty feet 
 
 * As the liver, pancreas, and small intestine of domestic animals and 
 birds resemble these parts in man, obtain and use them to illustrate tbi-9 
 lesson in connection with charts and the blackboard. 
 
SMALL INTESTINE, LIVER, AND PANCREAS. 27 
 
 long and one inch in diameter. It is composed of coats, 
 or membranes, like the stomach. (Figs. 16, 20.) 
 
 Q. Describe the small intestine. 
 
 63. In flesh-eating animals, as the cat and lion, and 
 also in birds, the small intestine, compared with the 
 length of the animal, is much shorter than in man ; 
 while in grass-eating animals, as the sheep and ox, it is 
 much longer, compared with the length of the body, 
 than in man. 
 
 Q. What is said of the length of the small intestine in flesh- 
 eating animals 1 In grass-eating animals l 
 
 Fig. 16. 1, 2, 3. The small intestine. 5, 6, 7, 8, 9. The large intestine. 
 
 Observation. In some animals the small intestine is 
 not more than six feet long ; while in others, as the 
 sheep or ox, it is fifty or sixty feet. 
 
 Q. What is said in the observation in regard to the length of 
 the intestine ? 
 
 64. The upper part of the small intestine, that con- 
 
28 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 nects with the stomach, is called the du-o-de'num. Here 
 an important change of the food is effected. (Figs. 14, 
 16, 17, 20.) 
 
 Q. What is the upper portion of the small intestine called 1 ? 
 What is effected in this tube ? 
 
 65. The LIVER is a large organ, (gland,) situated above 
 the duodenum and in the right side of the body. It 
 supplies a sweetish, yellow fluid called bile. (Figs. 17, 
 20.) 
 
 Q. Describe the liver. What does it supply ? 
 
 66. The PANCREAS, (sweetbread,) is a long, flattened 
 organ, situated behind the stomach. It supplies a fluid 
 resembling saliva, (spittle.), (Figs. 17, 20.) 
 
 Q. Describe the pancreas. What does it supply ? 
 
 Fig. 17. 
 
 Fig. 17. 1,1. The liver turned up. 2. The stomach. 3. The duode- 
 num. 4. The pancreas. 5. The spleen. 6. The gall cyst. 7. The 
 bile duct. 8. Duct from the pancreas. 
 
 67. On the under side of the liver is a small sac, 
 (gall cyst,) that supplies a bitter, greenish fluid called 
 frail. The bile and gall enter the duodenum by the 
 
SMALL INTESTINE, LIVER, AND PANCREAS. 29 
 
 same duct. The pancreatic duct enters the duodenum 
 near the bile duct. (Figs. 17, 20.) 
 
 Q. What is found on the under side of the liver ? Name the 
 fluids that pass into the duodenum. 
 
 Observation. The bile flows into the duodenum, not 
 into the stomach ; hence emetics, pills, and bitters are 
 not needed to remove it from the stomach. (Figs. 17, 20.) 
 
 Q. Why do we not need emetics and bitters to remove bile 
 from the stomach ? 
 
 68. In the duodenum, the fluids from the liver and 
 pancreas unite with the grayish paste (chyme) and change 
 it into a fluid substance called chyle, and into re-sid'u-um, 
 (waste matter.) (Figs. 17, 20.) 
 
 Q. What effect have the fluids from the liver and pancreas 
 upon chyme in the duodenum ? Into what is it changed ? 
 
 69. When a person is sick of fever, inflammation, diar- 
 rhcea, or any acute disease, food should not be taken, as 
 it is not changed into chyme or chyle. 
 
 Q. When should a person abstain from food ? Why ? 
 
 Illustration. Often little children, when faint and 
 weak from sickness, ask for food ; and the kind mother, to 
 strengthen them, gives what she calls harmless diet. Too 
 frequently it increases the pain and disease, until finally 
 her cherished child passes from this world to its spirit 
 home. 
 
 Q. What is said, in the illustration, of taking food ? 
 
 70. When recovering from sickness, food should be 
 taken at regular intervals as in health. Care should be 
 taken that it is adapted to the present state of the diges- 
 tive organs, in quantity as well as quality. 
 
 Q. How should food be taken when recovering from sickness 1 
 What caution is necessary ? 
 
 3* 
 
30 A> ATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 REVIEW. 
 
 62, f.3, 04, 65, 66, 67. . Anatomy ) 
 
 61. f>4, 65,' GO, G7, 68. . Physiology} 
 
 67, 69, 70. .. . . . ILlgiene $ -m. r^u*^. 
 
 Review by Questions. Wliat can you say of the small intestine in man ? in flesh- 
 eating animals? in grass-eating animals ? What can. you relate of the liver? of the 
 bile? What ran you state of the pancreas? of the pancreatic fluid? What can you 
 tell of the change of food in the small intestine? How is this change produced? 
 What can you say of the food in sickness ? when recovering from sickness ? 
 
 REVIEW BY TOPICS. State the Anatomy of the small intestine, liver and pan- 
 creas, human and comparative, the Physiology, the Hygiene. (See outline anatomical, 
 Plate V.) 
 
 LESSON V. 
 
 71. In preparing crushed grain for bread, the meal is 
 sifted, for the purpose of separating the waste particles 
 (bran) from the flour. So in the human body, a set of 
 ducts, or vessels, called lac'te-als, act like sieves in sep- 
 arating the nourishing part of the food (chyle) from the 
 waste matter, (residuum.^ (Fig. 18.) 
 
 Q. How is flour separated from the bran ? How is the chyle 
 separated from the residuum ? What are these vessels called ? 
 
 THE LACTEALS AND THORACIC DUCT* 
 
 72. The LACTEALS commence in the internal coat of 
 the small intestine. These minute vessels pass through 
 small glands and unite and reunite with each other, un- 
 til one duct is formed, called tho-rac'ic. (Fig. 18.) 
 
 Q. Where do the lacteals commence ? Describe these vessels. 
 
 73. The THORACIC DUCT is about the size of a goose 
 
 * Illustrate this lesson by plates and the blackboard. 
 
THE LACTEALS AND THORACIC DUCT. O\ 
 
 quill. This tube commences below the pancreas, and 
 ascends behind the stomach, liver, and heart, between 
 these organs and the spinal column, and opens into a 
 vein behind the left collar bone. (Fig. 18.) 
 
 Q. What is the size of the thoracic duct ? Describe its counw 
 
 Fig. 18. 
 
 12 
 
 Fig. 18. 1. Small intestine. 2, 2, 2. Lacteals. 3, 3, 3. Thoracic 
 duct 4. Stomach. 5. Colon. 6. Pancreas. 7. Liver. 8, 8. Diaphragm. 
 Heart. 10, 10. Lungs. II. Large vein into which the thoracic duct 
 opens. 12, 12. Spinal column. 
 
 74. The chyle is taken up by the lacteals and con- 
 
3 ANATOMT, PHYSIOLOGY, Ai\T> HYGIENE- 
 
 veyed into the tharacic duct. The waste matter is carried 
 into the large intestine. (Figs. 18 > 20.) 
 
 Q. What becomes of the chyle ? Of the waste matter ? 
 
 75. The chyle is carried through the thoracic duct # 
 and is poured into a vein at the lower part of the neek, 
 where it mixes with the blood. (Fig. 18.) 
 
 Q. Through what duct does the chyle pass ? Into what is it 
 poured 1 With what does it mix ? 
 
 76. The lacteals take up only chyle or what has been 
 digested. For this reason, intoxicating drinks should 
 not be used, as they are not digested. 
 
 Q. Why should not intoxicating drinks be used ? 
 
 EEVIEW. 
 
 72, 7o. . . Anatomy \ 
 
 71, 74, 75. . Physiology > of the LACTEALS and THORACIC DUCT. 
 7& ... Hygiene / 
 
 Review by Qifestions. What can yon- tell of the structure of the lacteals ? 
 of the position of the thoracic duct ? What can you say of the use of each ? 
 REVIEW BY TOPICS. Give the Anatomy of the Jaeteals and thoracic 
 chict, the Physiology, the Hygiene-. (See utlirae anatomical, Plate V.) 
 
 LESSON VI. 
 
 77. As a cook collects from food many useless pieces, 
 so in the economy of the body the waste matter of the 
 food is collected in the large intestine called the 
 
 Q. Where is the waste matter collected ? What is- this 
 called? 
 
 THE LARGE INTESTINE* 
 
 78. The COLON connects with the small intestine above 
 
 * The large intestine can be illustrated hy rising the corresponding 
 part of a pig, or tripe. Outline anatomical, plates aud the 
 
THE LARGE INTESTINE. 06 
 
 the right hip bone. It ascends and crosses under the 
 liver and stomach, then turns downward to the left hip 
 bone. Here the colon takes another turn backward and 
 downward. This last portion is called the rectum. (Figs. 
 19, 20.) 
 
 Q. Describe the course of the colon. What is the last portion, 
 of the colon called ? 
 
 Fig. 19. 
 
 Fig. 19. Thy large intestine and a portion of the small intestine. 
 5 6, 7, 8, 9. The Colon. 10. The rectum. 2, 2, 2. Small intestine. 
 1, 1. The duodenum. 3 .' 
 
 79. The large intestine has sacs, or pouches. This 
 tube is shorter, though much larger in diameter, than the 
 small intestine. (Figs. 19, 20.) 
 
 Q. What is the form and size of the large intestine * 
 (See p. 36.) 
 
REVIEW LESSON. 
 
 Fig. 20. An ideal view of the organs of digestion, opened nearly the whole length. 
 1. The upper jaw. 2. The lower jaw. 3. The tongue. 4. The roof of the mouth. 
 5. The oesophagus. 6. The trachea. 7. The parotid gland. 8. The sublingual gland. 
 9. The stomach. 10, 10. The liver. 11. The gall cyst. 12. The duct that conveys 
 the bile to the duodenum, (13, 13.) 14. The pancreas. 15, 15, 15, 15. The small in- 
 testine. 16. The opening of *he small intestine into the large intestine. 17, 18, 19, 20 
 The large intestine. 21. The spleen. 22. The upper part of the spinal column. 
 
 (34) 
 
REVIEW OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 
 
 35 
 
 Fig. 21. Digestive apparatus of a fowJ. 1. The oesophagus. 2. The crop. 3. The 
 second stomach. 4. The gizzard. 5. The liver. 6. The gall bladder. 7. The bile 
 ducts. 8. The pancreas, 9. The duodenum. 10. Tlie large intestine. 11. The 
 two caeca. 
 
 SYNTHETIC REVIEW OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 
 
 30, 31, 32, 35, 54, Zo, 
 36, 37, 38, 40. . 
 
 44,47,43 
 
 49, 50, 51, 53, 54. . . 
 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67. 
 
 72,73 
 
 78, 79, 80 
 
 29, 34, 37, 38, 39, 40. 
 
 44,47,43 
 
 51, 52, 55, 56, 57, 48. 
 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 61. 
 
 74,75,71 
 
 81,77 
 
 41,42. 
 
 45,46 
 
 57, 58, 59, 60. . . . 
 67,69,70. . . . . 
 
 76 
 
 81, 82, 83 
 
 Teeth, 
 
 Salivary glands, 
 Stomach, 
 Small intestine, 
 Lacteals, 
 Lawe intestine, 
 Teeth, 
 
 Sa/irary glands, 
 Stomach, 
 Small intestine, 
 Lacteals, 
 Large intestine, 
 Teeth, 
 
 Salivary glands 
 Stomai-h, 
 Small intestine, 
 Lacteals, 
 Large intestine, 
 
 AXA.TOMY 
 
 1 of the DIGESTIVE 
 PHYSIOLOGY V SYSTEM. (Figs. 20, 
 21.) 
 
 HYGIENE 
 
 Review by Questions. What can you tell of the structure of the teeth 
 in man ? in animals ? What of the salivary glands ? What of the stom- 
 ach in man ? in animals ? in birds ? What of the small intestine in man ? 
 in animals ? What of the liver ? What of the pancreas ? What of the 
 lacteals ? of the thoracic duct ? What of the large intestine ? 
 
 What can you say of the use of each of the above-mentioned parts in 
 man ? in animals ? 
 
 What can you relate of the manner in which food should be taken ? 
 What can you state of the means for preserving health ? 
 
 REVIEW BY Topics. Give the Anatomy of the digestive organs, 
 human and comparative, the Physiology, the Hygiene. (Use outline 
 anatomical, Plate V.) 
 
36 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOOY, AND HYGIENE, 
 
 80. The colon has three coats, or membranes, like the 
 stomach and small intestine. (Figs. 19, 20.) 
 
 Q. How many coats has the colon ? 
 
 81. The waste matter in the small intestine is passed 
 into the colon, from which it should be discharged regu- 
 larly, as well as the fluid (urine) from the kidneys. 
 These two functions of the system should not be neglected 
 by children or adults. (Figs. 19, 20.) 
 
 Q. Should the removal of the waste matter of the body be 
 neglected ? 
 
 S2. To secure health and prevent disease, the food, 
 exercise, and habits should be such as to produce the 
 daily removal of waste matter from the intestine, (and it 
 is better that it be at particular hours.) 
 
 Q. What is necessary to secure health and prevent disease ? 
 
 83. "When, by accident or otherwise, poisons are taken, 
 they should be removed, or their action changed before 
 they pass out of the stomach. 
 
 Q. What is necessary when poisons are swal lowed ? 
 
 Remarlc. Let the teacher give oral instruction upon 
 the antidotes for poisons and the means to remove them 
 from the stomach. 
 
 (See First Book on Hygiene, page 170, and Anatomy, Physiology, and 
 Hygiene, page 439, by CALVIN CUTTER, M. B.) 
 
 REVIEW. 
 
 78, 79, 80. . Anatomy J 
 
 77, 81. . . Physiology > of the LARGE INTESTINE. 
 
 81, 82, 83. . Hygiene ) 
 
 Review by Questions. What will you say of the structure of the large 
 intestine ? What can you tell of the waste matter ? What can you state 
 of habits ? What can you relate of poisons ? 
 
 REVIEW BY TOPICS. Give the Anatomy of the large intestine, the 
 Physiology, the Hygiene. (See outline anatomical, Plate V.) (Review les 
 son, see p. 34.) 
 
THE THORAX. 37 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 84. IN this chapter we shall describe the second 
 division of the " Builders up " and " Pullers down " of 
 the body. These are the RESPIRATORY, or breathing or- 
 gans. They will be divided into four parts. 1. The 
 chest, that holds the other parts. 2. The lungs. 3. The 
 blood vessels of the lungs. 4. Air. 
 
 Q. Of what does the second chapter treat ? How is this chap- 
 ter divided T 
 
 LES SON VII. 
 
 85. The CHEST is formed of bones and muscles. 
 These parts are so arranged and connected that the size 
 of this cavity is varied by their movements. It also pro- 
 tects the lungs those delicate organs, so necessary to 
 life. Anatomists call it Tho'rax. (Fig. 32.) 
 
 Q. How is the chest formed ? What organs does it protect ? 
 
 THE THORAX* 
 
 86. The THORAX is formed of the ster'num, (breast 
 bone,) in front ; twelve bones of the spinal column, (back 
 bone,) behind ; twenty-four ribs, twelve on each side ; 
 and the di'a-phragm, (midriff,) below. (Figs. 22, 32.) 
 
 Q. What parts form the thorax, or chest ?- 
 
 87. The RIBS are united to the sternum in front and 
 
 * Use the ribs, bones of the spine, and sternum of animals, with out- 
 line plates and the blackboard, to illustrate this lesson. See Preface. 
 
 4 
 
SO ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY .ND HYGIENE. 
 
 to the bones of the spinal column behind. They curve 
 somewhat like hoops of a barrel. The front part, how 
 ever, is the lowest. (Fig. 22.) 
 
 Q. With what are the ribs united ? What is their form ? 
 
 Fig. 22. 
 
 Fig. 23. 
 
 Fig. 22. A natural and well-proportioned chest. 
 Fig. 23. A chest fashionably deformed. 
 
 88. The upper ribs are the shortest. This gives the 
 chest nearly the form of a sugar loaf. Hence the 
 lower part of the chest is broadest. (Fig. 22.) 
 
 Q. What is the form of the chest? What part of the chest is 
 the broadest ? 
 
 89. The DIAPHRAGM (midriff) forms the floor of the 
 chest. It separates the breathing organs from the stom- 
 ach and liver. In form, it resembles a saucer turned 
 bottom side up. (Figs. 26, 33, 50.) 
 
 Q. What forms the floor of the chest ? What organs does the 
 diaphragm separate 1 What is its form ? 
 
THE LUNGS. 39 
 
 90. The chest is enlarged by the movement of the 
 ribs outward and upward and by the movements of 
 the diaphragm downward. Hence the clothing about 
 the lower part of the chest should be worn loosely. 
 (Figs. 26, 27.) 
 
 Q. How is the chest enlarged? How should the clothing 
 about the chest be worn? 
 
 91. To have good formed chests, the yielding ribs of 
 the child should not be confined* by close bands or any 
 kind of tight clothing. 
 
 Q. Why should not the child wear close bands or tight 
 
 clothing "? 
 
 REVIEW. 
 
 85, 86, 87, 88, 89. . Anatomy \ 
 
 80, 89, 90 Physiology V of the THORAX. 
 
 90, 91 Hygiene ) 
 
 Review by Questions. What can you tell of the parts that form the 
 thorax ? What can you say of the ribs ? the diaphragm ? What can you 
 relate of the movements of these parts ? of the clothing ? 
 
 RKVIKW BY TOPICS. Give the Anatomy of the thorax, the Physi- 
 ology, the Hygiene. (See outline anatomical", Plates I. and V.) 
 
 LESSON VIII. 
 
 92. The blacksmith makes use of bellows to light and 
 increase the heat of the coals in his furnace. So, in the 
 human system, there are organs that act like bellows to 
 kindle the spark of life and produce warmth. These 
 organs are called Lungs. 
 
 Q. To what may the lungs be compared 1 How do the lungs 
 resemble a pair of bellows ? 
 
 THE LUNGS.* 
 93. The LUNGS are placed in the chest, and enclosed 
 
 * Illustrate this lesson by using the trachea and lungs of a pig, sheep, 
 calf, or beef, with outline plates and the blackboard. 
 
40 
 
 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE, 
 
 by a thin membrane called pleu'ra. This membrane 
 also lines the chest. (Fig. 24.) 
 
 Q. Where are the lungs situated ? What encloses the lungs 
 and also lines the chest '? 
 
 Remark. In pleurisy, this membrane is the part 
 diseased. 
 
 Q. What part of the chest is disease^ in pleurisy ? 
 
 94. The lungs are yielding, porous organs, and will 
 float on water. For this reason they are often called 
 lights. Their color is a pinkish gray. (Fig. 24.) 
 
 Q. What is the structure of the lungs ? What is their color l 
 
 Fig. 24. 
 
 Fig. 25. 
 
 Fig. 24. 3, 3, 3. The lobes of the right lung. 4, 4. The lobes of the 
 left lung. 5,6,7. The heart. 9, 10, 11. The large blood vessels. 12. 
 The trachea. 15, 15, 15. The diaphragm. 
 
 Fig. 25. 1. Outline of right lung. 2. Outline of left lung. 3, 4, 
 Larynx and trachea. 5, 6, 7, 8. Bronchial tubes. 9, 9. Air cells. 
 
 95. Each lung is divided into smaller portions called 
 lobes. The left lung has two, and th? right lung has 
 three, lobes. (Fig. 24.) 
 
 Q. How are the lungs divided ? 
 
THE LUNGS. 
 
 41 
 
 96. A large tube extends from the mouth to the 
 lungs. It is called Tra'che-a, (windpipe.) (Fig. 25.) 
 Q. What is the trachea ? 
 
 Fig. 26. 
 
 Fig. 27. 
 
 Fig. 26. A front view of the chest and abdomen in respiration. 1, 1. 
 The position of the walls of the chesj in inspiration. 2, 2, 2. The po- 
 sition of the diaphragm in inspiration. 3, 3. The position of the walls 
 of the chest in expiration. 4, 4, 4. The position of the diaphragm in 
 expiration. 5, 5. The position of the walls of the abdomen in inspira- 
 tion. 6, 6. The position of the abdominal walls in expiration. 
 
 Fig. 27. A side view of the chest and abdomen in respiration. 1. The 
 cavity of the chest. 2. The cavity of the abdomen. 3. The line of di- 
 rection for the diaphragm when relaxed in expiration. 4. The line of 
 direction for the diaphragm when contracted in inspiration. 5, 6. The 
 position of the front walls of the chest and abdomen in inspiration. 7, 8. 
 The position of the front walls of the abdomen and chest in expiration. 
 
42 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 97. The TRACHEA divides and subdivides in the lungs 
 until the tubes are no larger than small hairs. These 
 divisions are called Bronch'i-ce, or bronchial tubes. 
 (Fig. 25.) 
 
 Q. What is said of the trachea ? Bronchia; ? 
 
 98. The BRONCHIJE terminate in small sacs called 
 air cells. (Fig. 25.) 
 
 Q. What is said of the air cells ? 
 
 Remark. The trachea may be compared to the 
 trunk of a tree, the bronchia? to the branches, and the 
 air cells to the leaf buds. 
 
 Q. To what may the tubes and air cells of the lungs be com- 
 pared ? 
 
 99. When we breathe, the air rushes into the air cells 
 through the mouth, trachea, and bronchial tubes. This 
 is called inspiration. The air also passes out of the air 
 cells through the same tubes and the mouth. This is 
 called expiration. (Figs. 26, 27.) 
 
 Q. Define and explain inspiration ? Define and explain 
 expiration ? 
 
 100. When air passes into the lungs, the ribs are 
 raised and the diaphragm sinks ; consequently the chest 
 becomes larger. When the air passes from the lungs, the 
 diaphragm is raised and the ribs are depressed ; this les- 
 sens the size of the chest. These two movements united 
 are called respiration, or breathing. (Figs. 26, 27.) 
 
 Q. Define and explain respiration ? 
 
 REVIEW. 
 
 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98. Anatomy - 
 
 92, 99, 100 Physiology \ of the LUNGS. 
 
 Hygiene } 
 
 Renew by Questions. What will you state of the position and structure 
 of the lungs ? What will you say of the trachea ? of the bronchia; ? of the 
 air cells ? What will you tell of the movement and use of these parts ? 
 
 REVIEW BY TOPICS. Give the Anatomy of the lungs, the Physiology, 
 che Hygiene. (See outline anatomical, Plate V.) 
 
PULMONIC CIRCULATION. 43 
 
 LESSON IX. 
 
 101. To preserve the life of mail and other animals, a 
 fluid called blood flows through their bodies. As good 
 blood only gives health and vigor, we find that the Cre- 
 ator has made organs to keep pure. this lifegiving fluid. 
 In the insect, it is purified in the skin ; in the fish, in 
 the gills ; in the inferior animals and man, in the blood 
 vessels of the lungs. (Figs. 34, A, B, p. 48.) 
 
 Q. What is necessary to preserve the life of man and animals ? 
 Name how the blood is purified in the insect, in the fish ; in the 
 inferior animals, and man. 
 
 PULMONIC CIRCULATION* 
 
 102. Through the body generally there are three sets 
 of tubes, or blood vessels, called ar'te-ries, veins, and 
 cap'il-la-ries. (Figs. 28, 29, 31, 39, 40, 41.; 
 
 Q. What are the blood vessels of the body called ? 
 
 103. ARTERIES are the tubes that convey the blood 
 from the heart to all parts of the body. (Figs. 28, 39.) 
 
 Q. Describe arteries ? 
 
 104. VEINS are the tubes that convey the blood to 
 the heart from all parts of the body. (Figs. 29, 40.) 
 
 Q. Describe veins. 
 
 105. The PULMONARY ARTERY proceeds from the right 
 side of the heart. It divides into two branches, which 
 are spread through the right and left lung. Through this 
 artery and its branches, the blood from the heart flows 
 to the lungs. (Fig. 28.) 
 
 Q. Describe the pulmonary artery. What is its use ? 
 
 * Illustrate this lesson by using the heart of domestic animals, 01^ 
 line plates, and the blackl>o:i;vl. 
 
44 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 106. The PULMONARY VEINS commence in the capilla- 
 ries of the lungs. They unite and reunite until one 
 vein is formed in each lung, these open into the left 
 side of the heart. (Fig. 29.) Through these veins the 
 blood from the lungs flows to the heart. 
 
 Q. Describe the pulmonary veins. What are their use? 
 
 107. CAPILLARIES are haiiiike vessels, placed between 
 the arteries and veins. In the lungs, they form a net- 
 work over the air cells. In these tubes the blood is pu- 
 rified. (Figs. 30, 31.) 
 
 Q. What are the capillaries'? What do they form in the 
 lungs ? Where is the blood purified ? 
 
 Fig. 28. Fig. 29. 
 
 Fig. 28. 1. Left auricle. 2. Eight auricle. 3. Left ventricle. 4. 
 Right ventricle. 5, 5. Pulmonary artery. 6. Trachea. 
 
 Fig. 29. 1. Right auricle. 2. Left auricle. 3. Right A'entricle. 4. 
 Left ventricle. 5, 5. Right and left pulmonary veins. 6. 6. Right and 
 left lung. 
 
 REVIEW. 
 
 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107. Anatomy ^ 
 
 101, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107. Physiology > of the PULMONIC CIRCULATION. 
 Hygiene j 
 
 Review by Questions. What can you say of arteries, veins, and capil- 
 laries ? What can you tell of the pulmonic artery ? of the pulmonic vein ? 
 of the pulmonic capillaries ? 
 
 REVIEW BY TOPICS. State the Anatomy of the pulmonic circulation, 
 the Physiology, the Hygiene. (See outline anatomical, Plate VII.) 
 
AIR. 
 
 45 
 
 LESSON X. 
 
 108. For man to live, it is necessary that the blood 
 which is carried to the lungs be changed. For this 
 purpose, we find the before-described, simple, and beau- 
 tiful arrangement. This change is directly effected by 
 a fluid called air. 
 
 AIR.* 
 
 109. Pure AIR, or the invisible substance that we 
 breathe, contains one part of ox'y-gen to nearly four parts 
 of ni'tro-gen. This is suited to our wants. It was 
 provided by our Creator when he breathed into us the 
 "breath of life." 
 
 Q. Of what is pure air composed ? 
 
 Fig. 30. 
 
 Fig. 31 
 
 Fig. 30. 1. A bronchial tube, divided into three branches. 2, 2, 2. Air 
 cells. 3. Branches of the pulmonary artery that spread over the air cells. 
 Through the pulmonary artery, the dark, impure blood is carried to the 
 air cells of the lungs. 4. Branches of the pulmonary vein, that com- 
 mence at the minute terminations of the pulmonary artery. Through 
 the pulmonary vein the red blood is returned to the heart. 
 
 Fig. 31. Capillary blood vessels represented, magnified, as they are 
 spread over the air cells. 
 
 * Illustrate this lesson by outline diagrams and by performing the 
 experiments. 
 
46 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 110. The impure blood, while in the capillary vessels 
 of the lungs, receives oxygen from the air in the air 
 cells ; and the air in the air cells receives carbonic acid 
 from the blood in the capillary vessels. (Figs. 30, 31.) 
 
 Q. How does the blood receive oxygen from the air ? What 
 is received in the air cells of the lungs'? 
 
 Observation. In hemorrhage, or bleeding of the 
 lungs, it is rarely that a blood vessel is broken ; but the 
 blood oozes through the thin walls of the capillary ves- 
 sels into the air cells passes into the bronchial tubes, 
 trachea, and mouth. 
 
 Q. What is said of bleeding of the lungs '? 
 
 111. When the blood parts with carbonic acid gas 
 and receives oxygen, its color is changed from a bluish 
 /me to a scarlet red, and its properties are also altered. 
 (Fig. 30.) 
 
 Q. What changes the color and properties of the blood ? 
 
 Experiment. To show that carbonic acid exists in 
 the air expelled from the lungs, put a small piece of 
 lime into a cup of water ; let a pupil breathe into it, and 
 soon the water will become whitish, because the carbonic 
 acid in the breath has united with the lime dissolved in 
 the water and formed carbonate of lime, (chalk.) 
 
 Q. How can it be shown that carbonic acid exists in the ex- 
 pired air ? 
 
 112. AIR, that has lost a portion of its oxygen and 
 contains carbonic acid, injures the health, because it does 
 not purify the blood in the lungs, by removing the worn- 
 out atoms of the body, in the capillary blood vessels. 
 
 Q. Explain how impure air injures the health. 
 
 Remark. Pure air is as necessary to domestic ani- 
 mals as to man. Sheep confined in impure air become 
 diseased of what is called " the rot." 
 
AIR. 47 
 
 Q. What is said of pure air for domestic animals ? 
 
 Experiment. Breathe into a glass jar until the pure 
 air is displaced by the air from the lungs.; then sink a 
 lighted candle into the vessel, and it will be extinguished. 
 
 Q. Ho\v can you show the presence of carbonic acid in the 
 breath ? 
 
 Observation. It is not safe to enter a well, or vault, 
 where a lighted candle will not burn. 
 Q. What observation in this connection ? 
 
 113. All rooms should be ventilated, particularly 
 school houses and sleeping rooms. Those persons that 
 breathe the purest air are the most free from coughs, 
 colds, scrofula, and consumption. 
 
 Q. Why should rooms be ventilated ? What persons are most 
 free from coughs, c. ? 
 
 1 14. When persons are apparently drowned, they can 
 be recovered by forcing air into the lungs and pressing 
 it out again, thus imitating natural breathing. 
 
 Q. How should persons apparently drowned be treated ? 
 
 Remark. Let the teacher instruct every pupil how 
 to recover asphyxiated persons. (See CUTTER'S Anat- 
 omy, Physiology, and Hygiene, page 249.) 
 
 REVIEW. 
 
 Anatomy ~\ 
 
 108, 109, 110, 111. . Physiology of the Am. 
 108, 112, 113, 114. . Hygiene > 
 
 Review by Questions. What can you say of the air ? How is the blood 
 changed, and where ? What can you tell of oxygen ? What is the effect 
 of carbonic acid ? How can you show this ? What can you state of the 
 effects of impure air ? What can you tell of ventilation ? How should 
 persons apparently drowned be treated ? 
 
 REVIEW BY TOPICS. Give the Physiology of Lesson X., the Hygiene. 
 
Fig. 34. 
 
 Fig. A. 
 
 Fig. 32 represents the thorax, enclosing the lungs and heart. S. The sternun.. 
 C, C. The two clavicles. T. The trachea. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10. The ribs. H. 
 The heart. L, L. The right and left lung. 
 
 Fig. 33. 1. The larynx. 2. The trachea. 3, 3, 3. The right lung. 4. The right 
 bronchia. 5. The left bronchia. 6. 6, C. The air cells. 15, 15, 15. The diaphragm. 
 
 Fig. 34. An ideal view of the pulmonic circulation. 1, 1. The right lung. 2, 2. 
 The left lung. 3. The trachea. 4. The right bronchial tube. 5. The left bronchial 
 tube. 6, 6, 6, 6 Air cells. 7. The right auricle. 8. The right ventricle. 9. Th 
 tricuspid valves. 10. The pulmonic artery. 11. The branch to the right lung. 12. 
 The branch to tho left lung. 13. The right pulmonic vein. 14. The left pulmoniv 
 vein. 15. The left auricle. 16. The left ventricle. 17. The mitral valve*. 
 
* XSVIEW OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM. 49 
 
 *1g. A. An ideal plan of the pulmonic circulation of a frog. 1. The pericardium. 
 "2 The single ventricle, from which blood passes to both the lungs and body. 3. The 
 Tight auricle that receives blood from the body. 4. The left auricle that receives blood 
 from the lungs. The arrows indicate the direction of the blood. 
 
 Fig. B. An ideal plan of the pulmonic (gill) circulation of a fish. 1. The pericar- 
 dium. 2. The single auricle. 3. Tb single ventricle. 4. The vessel that conveys 
 the blood from the ventricle to tke gills. 5. The vessel tlutt conveys the blood from tbe 
 gills to the body of the Ash. 
 
 SYNTHETIC REVIEW OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM. 
 
 86,87,88,89,85, , . . Thorax, 
 
 93,94,95,96,97,98. . . Lungs, 
 
 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107- Pulmonic -circulation, 
 
 89,90,80. ..... 
 
 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 101. Pulmonic circulation, f ** * ' 
 
 109, 110, 111, 108. . . . Air, 
 
 90,91 ....... Thorax, ~ 
 
 Pulmonic circulation, 
 112, 113, 114, 108, .,. Air, 
 
 Review by Questions. What can you say of the parts of the thorax ? 
 What can you tell of the structure of the ribs ? of the diaphragm ? What 
 can you state of the anatomy of the lungs ? of the trachea ? of the bronchiae ? 
 of the air cells ? What can be said of the structure and distribution of the 
 pulmonic artery ? of the pulmonic vein ? of the pulmonic capillary vessels ? 
 
 What can yon tell of the use of each of the above-named parts ? What 
 can you say of the air ? 
 
 How is health preserved ? How may apparently drowned persons be 
 recovered ? 
 
 REVIEW BY TOPICS. Give the Anatomy of the respiratory system, the 
 Physiology, the Hygiene. (Use outline anatomical, Plates I., V., VII.) 
 
 5 
 
50 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM embraces the heart, the ai> 
 teries, and veins of the lungs, together with the arteries 
 and veins of the general system. (Fig. C, p. 64.) 
 
 Q. What does the circulatory system embrace 1 
 
 LESSON XI. 
 
 115. In many cities pipes are laid under the streets, 
 through which water runs to every house from a large 
 cistern, or reservoir. When the water has supplied the 
 wants of the people, another set of pipes carries it away. 
 So in the body there are two sets of tubes (veins and 
 arteries) that carry blood to and from the organ called 
 the heart. (Figs. 28, 29, 39, 40.) 
 
 Q. How is the human body supplied with blood ? 
 
 THE HEART.* 
 
 116. The HEART inclines to the left side of the chest, 
 and is placed between the lungs. The point of the 
 heart is directed downward, and rests on the diaphragm, 
 (Fig. 50.) 
 
 Q. Where is the heart placed ? Upon what does it rest ? 
 
 117. The heart is enclosed in a firm membrane called 
 per-i-car'di-um, (heart case.) (Fig. 35.) 
 
 Q. What encloses the heart ? 
 
 118. The substance of the heart is a mass of flesh, 
 
 * Illustrate this lesson by using the hearts of animals, birds, and fishes, 
 with outline diagrams and the blackboard. (See Preface.) 
 
THE HEART. 
 
 51 
 
 so arranged as to form two sides and four cavities. 
 (Fig. 36.) 
 
 Q. Of what is the heart composed ! How is it arranged ? 
 
 119. The two upper cavities are called au'ri-chs^ 
 (deaf ears.) The two lower cavities are called ventri- 
 cles. Thus we have a right and left auricle, and a right 
 and left ventricle. (Fig. 36.) 
 
 Q. What are the cavities of the heart called ? Describe them. 
 
 Fig. 35. 
 
 Fig. 36. 
 
 Fig. 35. 1,1. Right and left auricle. 2, 2. Right and left ventricle. 
 3, 4. The pericardium. 5, 6. Large blood vessels, (arteries.) 
 
 Fig. 36. Ideal heart. 1. Right auricle. 2. Right ventricle. 9. Left 
 auricle. 10. Left ventricle. 17. Tri-cuspid valves. 19. Mitral valves. 
 
 120. The AURICLES receive blood from the body and 
 from the lungs. The VENTRICLES send blood to the body 
 and lungs. (Figs. 28, 29, 39, 40.) 
 
 Q. What is the use of the auricles ? Of the ventricles 1 
 
 121. In the MAMMALIA, as the horse, ox, &c., the 
 heart has four cavities, two auricles, two ventricles, and 
 valves, as in man. (Fig. 36.) 
 
 Q. Describe the heart of the mammalia, as the horse. 
 
52 AN ATOM Y, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE, 
 
 122. In the AMPHIBIA and perfect reptiles, as the frog 
 and snake, the heart has three cavities, two auricles, and 
 one ventricle. One auricle receives blood from the sys- 
 tem, the other from the lungs. The ventricle sends 
 blood both to the system and the lungs. (Figs. 37, 44.) 
 
 Q. Describe the circulation of frogs and snakes. 
 
 123. FISHES have a distinct heart, with but one au- 
 ricle and one ventricle. The auricle receives blood from 
 the body. The ventricle sends it to the gills. From 
 the gills it is carried to the body. (Figs. 38, 45.) 
 
 Q. Describe the circulation of fishes ? 
 
 Fig. 37. Fig. 38. 
 
 Fig. 37. Ideal plan of the heart of a frog. 1. The pericardium, (heart 
 case.) 2. The single ventricle. 3. The auricle that receives blood from 
 the lungs. 4. The auricle that receives blood from the body. The 
 arrows show the direction of the blood. 
 
 Fig. 38. Ideal plan of the heart of the fish. 1. The pericardium. 
 2. The ventricle that receives blood from the body. 3. The ventricle 
 that sends blood to the gills. 
 
 124. INSECTS have no heart ; but they have a central 
 pulsating vessel. 
 
 Q. Describe the circulation of insects. 
 
 125. The size of the heart varies in different persons. 
 It weighs about eight and a half ounces. Each cavity 
 in an adult holds about half a gill of blood. 
 
 Q. What is the size of the heart ? 
 
SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION. 53 
 
 126. Between the cavities of each side of the heart 
 there are thin membranes called valves. Those in the 
 right side are called tri-cus'pid valves ; those in the 
 left side, mi'tral valves. These valves allow the blood 
 to pass only in one direction from the auricles into 
 the ventricles. (Fig. 36.) 
 
 Q. What is placed between the cavities of the heart ? What 
 is the name of those in the right side of the heart ? la the left 
 side ? What is the use of these valves ? 
 
 REVIEW. 
 
 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 121, 122, 123, 124, 125. . Anatomy 
 
 119,120,122,123,126 Physiology [ of the HEABT. 
 
 Hygiene J 
 
 Review by Questions. What can you say of the position and substance of the 
 human heart? What of the auricles ? of the ventricles? of the valves? What can 
 you state of the heart of animals? of reptiles? of fishes? of insects? What can you 
 tell of the use of the auricle? of the ventricle? of the valves? What can you state 
 of the use of the different parts of the heart in animals ? in reptiles? in fishes ? 
 
 REVIEW BY Tories. Give the Anatomy of the heart, human and comparative, 
 the Physiology, the Hygiene. (See outline anatomical, Plate VI.) 
 
 LESSON XII. 
 
 127. In those cities that receive their supply of water 
 from a reservoir, care is taken that every family may 
 have its needful quantity. Thus in the human body, 
 every organ receives its due supply of blood ; and the 
 distribution of the lifegiving fluid is called the systemic 
 circulation. (Figs. 39, 40, 41, 42.) 
 
 Q. What is the distribution of blood throughout the body 
 called? 
 
 SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION* 
 
 128. The SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION consists of the a-ort'n 
 and branches, ve'na ca'va and branches, capillaries. 
 
 * Illustrate this lesson by using the heart and blood vessels of domes- 
 tic animals, outline diagrams, and blackboard. 
 
 5* 
 
54 
 
 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 ve'na por'ta, lac'te-als, and ab-sorb'ents. (Figs. 39, 40 
 41, 42.) 
 
 Q. Name the vessels which comprise the systemic circulation 
 
 Fig. 39. Fig. 40. 
 
 Fig. 39. 1. Left ventricle of the heart. 2, 3. Aorta. 5, 5. Arteries 
 that extend to the lower extremities. 6, 6. Arteries of the neck. 7, 7. Ar- 
 teries of the arms. 
 
 Fig. 40. 1. Right auricle of the heart. 2, 3. Large veins that open 
 into the right auricle. 4, 4. Veins of the lower extremities. 5, 5. Veins 
 of the arms. 6. Veins of the neck. The arrows show the direction that 
 the blood flows. 
 
SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION. 55 
 
 129. The AORTA, or large artery, arises from the left 
 ventricle of the heart, and its branches extend to every 
 part of the body. Through these vessels the purified 
 blood flows to the systemic capillaries. (Fig. 39.) 
 
 Q. Through what vessels does the blood flow to every part ol 
 the body ? 
 
 130. At the commencement of the aorta are three 
 valves, called sem-i-lu'nar These prevent the blood 
 returning to the heart. (Fig. 39.) 
 
 Q. Where are the semilunar valves, and what is their use I 
 
 131. The SYSTEMIC VEINS commence in the capillaries 
 of the body. They unite and reunite until two large 
 veins are formed, (called vena cava, ascending and de- 
 scending.) These open into the right auricle of the 
 heart. The blood from all parts of the body flows to 
 the heart through these veins. (Fig. 40.) 
 
 Q. Describe the systemic veins. What is their use 1 
 
 132. The CAPILLARY VESSELS of the body resettible 
 in structure the capillaries of the lungs. They also 
 connect the minute arteries and veins. They receive 
 red blood from the arteries and impart dark blood to the 
 veins. (Fig. 41.) 
 
 Q. Describe the capillary vessels. What do they connect 1 
 What do they receive ? What do they impart to the veins ? 
 
 133. The VENA PORTA is formed of veins from the 
 stomach, spleen, pancreas, small and large intestine. 
 By this vein the blood is conveyed into and distributed 
 through the liver. This is called the portal circulation. 
 
 Q. Of what is the vena porta composed ? What is the use 
 of this vessel 1 What is this circulation called? 
 
 134. The LACTEAL VESSELS commence in the small 
 intestine. They open into the thoracic duct. This 
 
56 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE, 
 
 opens into a systemic vein. The chyle, or the nourish- 
 ing part of the food, is conveyed into the veins by these 
 vessels. (Fig. 4.) 
 
 Q. Where do the lacteal vessels commence, and into what do 
 they open 1 Into what does the thoracic duct open ? Where is 
 the chyle conveyed 1 
 
 Fig. 41. 
 
 Pig. 41. Ideal plan of capillary vessels. I. An artery. 2. A veib, 
 3, 3. Capillary vessels. The arrows show the direction of the blood. 
 
 135. The ABSORBENTS are minute vessels that open 
 into the thoracic duct and into veins directly. They are 
 found in every part of the body except the brain. They 
 convey lymph and waste matter into the systemic veins. 
 (Fig. 42.) 
 
 Q. What is said of the absorbents ? What is their use ? 
 
 136. The blood that is carried by the veins into the 
 right auricle of the heart is composed of materials re- 
 ceived from the capillaries, the lacteals, and the absorb- 
 ents. (Figs. 40, 41, 42.) 
 
 Q. Of what is the blood in the veins composed 1 
 
SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION. 
 
 57 
 
 Pig. 42. 1, 1. The absorbents of the lower extremities. 2. The small intestine 
 3. The lacteals. 4, 4. The thoracic duct 5, 5, 5. Absorbent ducts. 6, 6. Absorb- 
 ents of the arms. 7. Absorbents of the neck. 8. A large vein that opens into the 
 right auricle of the heart. 9. The right auricle. 10, 10. The diaphragm. (See p. 60.; 
 
 
58 
 
 REVIEW LESSON. 
 Fig. 43. Fig. 44. 
 
 Fig. 43. An ideal view of the circulation in the lungs and system. From the right 
 ventricle of the heart, (2,) the dark, impure blood is forced into the pulmonary artery, 
 (3,) and its branches (4, 5) carry the blcod to the left and right lung. In the capil- 
 lary vessels (fi, 6) of the lungs the blood becomes pure, or of a red color, and in 
 returned to the left auricle of the heart (9) by the veins, (7, 8.) From the left auricle 
 the pure blood passes into the left ventricle, (10.) By a forcible contraction of the 
 left ventricle of the heart, the blood is thrown into the aorta, (II.) Its branches (12, 
 1H, 13) carry the pure blood to every organ or part of the body. The divisions^ and 
 subdivisions of the aorta terminate in capillary vessels, represented by 14, 14. In 
 these hairlike vessels the blood becomes dark colored, and is returned to the right 
 auricle of the heart (1) by the vena cava descendens, (15,) and vena cava ascendens 
 (16.) The tricuspid valves (17) prevent the reflow of the blood from the right ven- 
 tricle to the right auricle. The semilunar valves (18) prevent the blood flowing from 
 
REVIEW OF THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM. 
 
 59 
 
 Hie pulmonary artery to the right ventricle. The mitral valves (19) prevent the reflow 
 of olood from the left ventricle to the left auricle. The semilunar valves (20) prevent 
 the reflow of blood from the aorta to the left ventricle. The left ventricle, aorta and 
 branches, vena cavas and branches, capillaries, lacteals, and absorbents, with the right 
 auricle, compose the systemic circulation. (Figs 36,39,40,41,42,43.) The rightven- 
 tricle, pulmonary artery and branches, capillaries, pulmonary veins, and left auricle, 
 compose the pulmonic circulation. (Figs. 28. 29, 30, 43.) 
 
 Fig. 44 An ideal plan of the circulation of a frog. 1. The pericardium. 2. The 
 single ventricle, from which blood passes to both the lungs and body. 3. The right 
 auricle that receives blood from the body. 4. The left auricle that receives blood from 
 the lungs. The arrows indicate the direction of the blood. 
 
 Fig. 45. An ideal plan of the circulation of a fish. 1. The pericardium. 2. Tho 
 single auricle. 3. The single ventricle. 4. The vessel that conveys the blood from 
 the ventricle to the gills. 5. The vessel that conveys the blood from the gills to the 
 body of the fish. 6. The vessel that conveys the blood from the body to the heart. 
 The arrows show the direction of the blood. 
 
 SYNTHETIC REVIEW OF THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM 
 
 115, 
 121, 
 127, 
 132, 
 102, 
 107. 
 119, 
 124, 
 127, 
 133. 
 103, 
 
 139. 
 
 116, 117, 118, 119. 
 122, 123, 124. 12o. 
 
 Heart, 
 
 128,' 129,' 130, 131, ) I 
 
 133 134 13-" ) Sy stentic circulation, ^AKATOMT 
 
 l()3i 104,' 105, 106, ; 
 
 ^ Pulmonic circulation, j 
 
 120, 121, 122, 123, ) ) 
 
 126 $ Heart, 
 
 129, 130, 131, 132, > >pHY8ioi,oor 
 
 i Q4 IQ^ i Q i^7i7fi\ Systcnitc circulation^ \ 
 
 lO'ijIOOjlODjiO/^XOO. J 
 
 104, 105, 106, 107. Pulmonic circulation,) 
 Heart, i 
 
 Systemic circulation, > HTOIEKK 
 
 Pulmonic circulation, } 
 
 of the CIRCU 
 LATORY SYS- 
 TEM. (Figs. 43, 
 44,45.) 
 
 Review by Questions. What are the parts of the heart in man ? in/animals? in 
 perfect reptiles ? in fishes ? What can you tell of the auricle ? of the ventricle? of the 
 valves ? What are the parts of the systemic circulation ? What can you say of the 
 structure of the aorta and branches ? of the vena cava and branches ? of the systemic 
 capillaries? of the vena porta ? of the lacteals and thoracic duct? of the absorbents? 
 What are the parts of the pulmonic circulation? What can you say of the pulmonic 
 artery? of the pulmonic veins? of the pulmonic capillaries? What parts of the heart 
 are connected with the pulmonic circulation ? with the systemic circulation ? 
 
 What can you say of the use of the before-mentioned parts ? Where and in what 
 vessels is the blood purified ? Where and by what vessels is the system built up ? 
 How is it pulled down ? 
 
 What ran you say of the preservation of health ? of the prevention of disease ? of 
 the treatment of asphyxia? of bleeding from divided arteries? 
 
 REVIEW BT TOPICS. Give the Anatomy of the circulatory system, the Physiology 
 the Hygiene. (Use outline anatomical, Plate* V., VL, VII.) 
 
60 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE, 
 
 137. The different parts of the body, as fat, 
 muscle, brain, bone, &c., are made from the blood by the 
 action of the systemic capillary vessels. 
 
 Q. What is the use of the systemic capillary vessels ? 
 
 138. The waste, wornout atoms are removed from the 
 body by the skin, lungs, liver, kidneys, pancreas, and 
 salivary glands. These are the " pullers down " of the 
 system. 
 
 Q. How are the waste atoms removed 1 
 
 139. If a large artery is cut and the blood flows fast, 
 pressure should be made by the finger or a compress 
 on the wounded artery until a physician can be called.* 
 
 Q. How should bleeding be treated ? 
 
 (For PULMONARY CIRCULATION, see Lesson IX.) 
 
 REVIEW. 
 
 127, 128, 129, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135. . . . Anatomy } of the SYS- 
 127, 129, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136,137, 138. Physiology V TEMIC Cm- 
 139 ................. Hygiene j CULATION. 
 
 Review by Questions. What are the parts of the systemic circulation ? 
 What is the anatomy of the aorta and branches ? of the vena cava and 
 branches ? of the systemic capillaries ? of the vena porta ? of the lacteals ? 
 of the absorbents ? What is the use of the aorta and branches ? of the vena 
 cava and branches ? of the vena porta ? of the lacteals ? of the absorbents ? 
 What can you tell of the building up of the system ? of the pulling doAvn 
 of the body ? How should bleeding from a divided artery be treated ? 
 
 REVIEW BY TOPICS. Give the Anatomy of the systemic circulation, 
 the Physiology, the Hygiene. (See outline anatomical, Plate VI.) 
 JLissox. (See p. 58.) 
 
 * Let pupils be instructed in the treatment of wounds and stoppage 
 of blood. (See CUTTER'S Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene, page 
 175.) 
 
VOCAL ORGANS. 61 
 
 LESSON XIII. 
 
 140. Many kinds of musical instruments have been 
 made ; but none compare in simplicity of structure to 
 the organs of speech. No instrument can produce sounds 
 so varied and sweet as the human voice. These ever- 
 varying notes are the result of the training of small 
 muscles, over which the reader, orator, and singer should 
 have a quick as well as perfect control. A knowledge 
 of the Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene of the vocal 
 organs is necessary to correct instruction in reading and 
 singing. 
 
 VOCAL ORGANS.* 
 
 141. The VOCAL ORGANS may be divided into the lar 1 - 
 ynx, the mouth, and. the respiratory organs. (Figs. 12,50.) 
 
 Q. How may the vocal organs be divided ? 
 
 142. The LARYNX consists of five pieces of cartilage, 
 (gristle,) forming a kind of box, open at each end. It 
 is situated at the upper part of the trachea, (windpipe,) 
 below the chin. (Figs. 46, 47.) 
 
 Q. Describe the larynx. Where is it situated ? 
 Remark. It is this part of the " windpipe," so prom- 
 inent in man, that is called the " apple of Adam." 
 
 143. There are stretched across the larynx four bands, 
 (called ligaments, or cords,) two on each side of the tube. 
 These vocal ligaments are so arranged as to form an 
 
 * Illustrate this lesson by using the corresponding organs of domes- 
 tic animals, with outline diagrams and the blackboard. 
 
 6 
 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 opening, (ri'ma glot-ti'dis,} through which the air may 
 pass. (Fig. 47.) 
 
 Q. Describe the vocal ligaments ? What is said of the rima 
 glottidis ? 
 
 Fig. 46. 
 
 Fig. 47. 
 
 Fig. 46. A side view of the larynx. 1. Bone at base of tongue, (os 
 hyoides.) 3, 4, 5, 6. Larynx. 7. Trachea. 
 
 Fig. 47. An ideal section of the larynx. 1. The trachea. 2, 2. The 
 lower vocal cords. 3, 3. The upper vocal cords. 4, 4. Rima glottidis. 
 5, 5. Cavities between upper and lower vocal cords. 
 
 144. The air, in passing from the lungs, causes the 
 vocal ligaments to vibrate, and produces the first, or 
 basement tone, as touching the strings of a harp or violin 
 causes a vibratory motion, attended with sound. (Fig. 47.) 
 
 Q. How is the basement tone produced ? What illustration is 
 given ? 
 
 145. The MOUTH contains the tongue, teeth, lips, and 
 palate. These parts, with the passages of the nose, vary 
 or articulate the basement tone. (Fig. 12.) 
 
 Q. What parts of the mouth are used in articulation ? 
 
VOCAL 
 
 146. The ORGANS OF RESPIRATION (breathing) sup- 
 ply the current of air that produces the movements of 
 the vocal ligaments. 
 
 Q. What is the use of the organs of respiration in speaking 1 
 
 Fier. 48. 
 
 Fig. 49. 
 
 Fig. 48. An improper position : but one not un frequently seen in 
 some of our common schools and in some of our public speakers. 
 Fig. 49. The proper position for reading, speaking, and singing. 
 
 147. But few, if any, of the reptiles, as the snake, can 
 produce any other sound than a hiss ; while most of the 
 (See p. 66.) 
 
64 
 
 REVIEW LESSON. 
 
 Pig. 50. 
 
 Fig C. 
 
 Fig. 50. 1, 2, 3. The salivary glands. 4. The 
 trachea. 5. The oesophagus. 6,6. The left lung. 
 
 7, 7, 7. The bronchia and air cells of riaht lung. 
 
 8. The heart. 9. The stomach. 10, 10. The liver. 
 11,11,11. The small intestine. 12, 1:_M2. The 
 large intestine. 13,18. The diaphragm. 14,15, 
 10. Blood vessels connected with the henrt. 
 
 Fig. C. 1. The left auricle. 2. The riaht auri- 
 cle. 3. The left ventricle. 4. The riht ventricle. 
 5,0. The aorta. 7,7. The femoral (leg) arteries. 
 8,8. The brachial (arm) arteries. 9, 9. The carotid 
 arteries. 10, 10. The jugular veins 11, 11. The 
 brachial veins. 12. The femoral veins. 13, 14. 
 The vena cavas. 15. The pulmonary artery. 16, 16. The right and left pulrnonarv arteries. 17, 
 17. The pulmonary veins. 18. Thelacteals. 19,19. The thoracic duct. L'O, 20. The absorbents 
 of the lower extremities. 21, 21. The absorbents of the upper extremities. 22 The small intestine. 
 
 Review by Questions. What can you say of the Anatomy of the digestive organs ? of the 
 respiratory organs ? of the circulatory organs ? of the vocal forgans ? What can you tell of 
 the use of the digestive system? of the respiratory system ? of the circulatory system ? of the TO- 
 cal system ? What can you state of food ? of air ? of blood ? of building up the system ? of pull- 
 ing down the system ? What will you say of means to prevent disease ? to preserve health ? 
 Hw should accidents be treated, as poisoning ? drowning ? bleeding from divided arteries ? 
 
 
SYNTHETIC REVIEW OF NUTRITIVE APPARATUS 
 
 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 
 36, 37, 38, 40. . 
 
 44,47 ...... 
 
 49,50,51,53,54. . 
 
 62, 63. 64, 65, 66, 67. 
 
 72, 73. ...... ' Lacteals, 
 
 "8,79,80 
 
 Teeth, 
 
 Salivary 
 if lands t 
 
 Stomach, 
 
 Small intes- 
 tine, 
 
 DIGESTIVE 
 
 SYSTEM, 
 
 86,87,88,89. 
 
 Thorax, 
 
 \ 
 
 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98. . Lun<r s , 
 
 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, ) Pulmonic cir- I RESPI 
 
 107 ........ J culation, | 
 
 Air, 
 
 115, 116, 117, 118, 120, > . 
 121, 122, 123, 124. . . { Heart > 
 
 127, 128, 129, 130, 131, \ Systemic cir- I CIRCULATORY 
 132, 133, 134, 135. . . j dilution, f SYSTEM, 
 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, Pulmonic cir- 
 
 141, 142, 143, J45. 
 
 , , , . . . c 
 29, 34, 37, 38, 39, 40. . Teeth, 
 
 ) dilation, 
 Vocal organs, 
 
 51,52,55,56,57. 
 64, 65, 66, 67, 68. 
 
 Stomach, 
 Sm l *- 
 
 74,75 ....... Lacteals, 
 
 R1 I Large nites- 
 
 81 ........ \ tine, 
 
 89, 90. . . . . . . Thorax, 
 
 99,100. . . ". . . Lungs, 
 
 103, 104, 105, 106, 107. j "ulattin *" 
 109, 110, 111. . . . J9ir, 
 
 119, 120, 121, 122, 123, 
 124, 126 ...... 
 
 127, 129, 130, 131, 132, 
 133, 134, 135, 136, 137. 
 
 103, 104, 105, 106, 107. 
 143, 144, 145, 146, 147. 
 
 Heart, 
 
 Systemic cir- 
 culation, 
 
 Pulmonic cir- 
 culation, 
 
 Vocal organs, 
 
 41, 42. Teeth, 
 
 AH AR I Salivary 
 
 45 > 46 { gland!, 
 
 VOCAL STST., 
 
 DlGESTIV] 
 SYSTEM, 
 
 RESPIRATO'RY 
 
 SYSTEM, 
 
 CIRCULATORY 
 
 SYSTEM, 
 
 VOCAL SYST., 
 
 ANATOMT 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY 
 
 57, 58, 59 60. 
 67,69,70.. . 
 
 76 
 
 81, 82, 83. . 
 90, 91. . . . 
 
 112, 113, 114. 
 
 139. 
 
 148, 149, 150. 
 
 Stomach, 
 I Small intes- 
 $ tine, 
 
 Lacteals, 
 
 ! Large intes- 
 tine, 
 
 TJioraz, "j 
 Lungs, 
 Pulmonic cir- 
 culation, 
 JJir, 
 Heart, 
 
 ) Systemic cir- 
 | culation, 
 Pulmonic cir- 
 culation, 
 Vocal organs, 
 
 DlGESTIYl 
 SYSTEM, 
 
 RESPIRATORY 
 
 SYSTEM, 
 
 CIRCULATORY 
 SYSTEM, 
 
 I 
 
 HYQIENB 
 
 VOCAL SYST., 
 
 REVIEW BY TOPICS. Give the Anatomy of the Nutritive Apparatus, 
 the Physiology, the Hygiene. (Use outline anatomical, PJates I., III., V., 
 VI., VII.) (65) 
 
 6* 
 
66 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 mam-ma'li-a, as the ox, horse, dog, and cat, can make 
 vocal sounds. 
 
 Q. What is said of reptiles ? Of the mammalia ? 
 
 148. To read, speak, and sing, distinctly and with 
 taste, the head should be held easily erect, so that the 
 movements of the vocal organs may be gentle and 
 effectual. The book, also, should be held at a proper 
 distance from the face. (Figs. 48, 49.) 
 
 Q. What should be the position of the head in reading or sing- 
 ing? Why? How should the book be held ? 
 
 149. Good and elegant reading, speaking, and sing- 
 ing, require that the shoulders be thrown back and the 
 body held easily erect, so that there may be a free move- 
 ment of the organs of the chest. (Fig. 49.) 
 
 Q. What should be the position of the shoulders in reading? 
 Of the body ? Why ? 
 
 150. Singing and reading aloud, in a correct position, 
 strengthen and improve the vocal organs, as well as pre- 
 vent disease of the throat and lungs. 
 
 Q. What is said of the effects of singing and reading ? 
 
 Remark. Repetition is necessary in learning to read. 
 It is better that a child read a sentence again and again, 
 until it is understood and read correctly, than to read 
 pages poorly and know nothing of what they have been 
 reading. 
 
 REVIEW. 
 
 140, 141, 142, 143, 145. . Anatomy ) 
 143, 144, 145, 146, 147. . Pkysioloi 
 148, 149, 150 Hygiene 
 
 Review by Questions. What parts are employed in speech ? What can you say 
 (if the structure of the larynx ? of the mouth ? of the lungs ? What can you tell of the 
 use of the larynx? of the mouth end its parts? of the lungs? What will you state of 
 position in reading? in speaking? in singing? 
 
 REVIEW BY TOPICS. Give the Anatomy of the vocal organs, the Physiology, the 
 Hygiene. (See outline anatomical, Plates I., III., and V.) (Review lesson, see p.64.) 
 
 143, 144, 145, 146, 147. . Physiology > of the VOCAL ORGANS 
 
PART II. 
 
 151. IN this part the NERVOUS APPARATUS will be 
 
 described. It embraces the Brain and Spi'nal Cord, 
 
 (cer^e-bro-spinal axis,) and the organs or instruments of 
 
 special sensation as the eye, ear, &c. (Figs. 59, 60, 
 
 61, 62, 65, see p. 90.) 
 
 Q. What is the subject of Part II. I What does the nervous 
 apparatus embrace 1 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 152. In this chapter we shall treat of the brain and 
 spinal cord organs that exercise an important influ- 
 ence upon every part of the body. (Fig. 59.) 
 
 Q. What is the subject of Chapter I. Part II. ? 
 
 LESSON XIV. 
 
 153. In large hotels, it would not be convenient for 
 boarders occupying rooms to ascend and descend several 
 nights of stairs to make known their wants ; therefore, 
 from a room called the office, wires or tubes pass to all 
 the apartments of the house, by which messages are sent. 
 So in the human system we find a beautiful dome-shaped 
 office, where a great deal of work is done. This busy 
 workshop is the brain, and its errands are carried through- 
 
 (67) 
 
68 
 
 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 out the l( house we live in " by means of its bell wires 
 the spinal cord and nerves. (Fig. 59.) 
 
 Q. What is said of the dome-shaped office and bell wires of 
 the body ? 
 
 BRAIN.* 
 
 154. The BRAIN is a soft, pulpy mass within the skull 
 bones. It is divided into two portions, called the cer'e 
 brum (large brain) and cer-e-bel'lum, (small brain.) (Figs. 
 51, 52.) 
 
 Q. How is the brain divided ? What are the parts called ? 
 
 Fig. 61. 
 
 Fig. 5. Side view of the brain. 1,1,1. The bones of the skull. 2. The 
 large brain. 3. The small brain. 4. The spinal cord. 
 
 * Illustrate this lesson by using the brain of domestic animals, with 
 diagrams and the blackboard. (See Preface.) 
 
BRAIN. 69 
 
 155. The CEREBRUM is the upper and front portion. 
 The outside is irregular, like a peach stone. These irreg- 
 ularities are called con-vo-lu'tions. (Fig. 51.) 
 
 Q. Where is the cerebrum situated ? What is its appearance 1 
 What are the irregularities called ? 
 
 j Fig. 52. 
 
 Fig. 52. Back view of the brain. 1. The large brain, covered with itJ 
 membranes. 2. The brain without the membranes, exhibiting their 
 irregularities. 3, 4. The small brain. 5. The spinal cord. 6. The fis- 
 sure between the two sides. 
 
 156. The CEREBELLUM is placed at the lower and back 
 part of the skull. It is smaller than the cerebrum, and 
 has a smooth surface. (Figs. 51, 52.) 
 
 Q. Where is the cerebellum situated ? Describe it. 
 
 157. The brain, both large and small, is divided into 
 two sides, or hemispheres. The whole is surrounded by 
 membranes as well as bones. (Fig. 52.) 
 
 Remark. The brain is quite soft in childhood, and 
 blows upon the skull bones may produce disease, and 
 
70 
 
 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 even death. Hence no child should ever be struck 
 upon the head. 
 
 Q. Why should not a child be struck upon the head ? 
 
 158. In BIRDS, the large and small brain are nearly 
 of the same size ; but the small brain is not divided into 
 two parts. Where the nerves of the legs and wings 
 originate, the spinal cord is enlarged. (Fig. 53.) 
 
 Q. What is said of the brain, nerves, and spinal cord of a 
 bird? 
 
 Fig. 53. 
 
 Fig. 54. 
 
 Fig. 55. 
 
 Fig. ^3. Brain of a bird. 1. The large brain. 2. The optic ganglia. 
 3. The small brain. 4. The spinal cord. 
 
 Fig!o4. Brain of a fish. 1. The ganglia of smell. 2. The large 
 brain. 3. The ganglia of sight. 4. The small brain. 5. The spinal 
 cord. 
 
 Fig. 55. Nervous system of an insect. 1,1. Central ganglia. 2, 2, 
 2. Nerves that connect the ganglia. 
 
 159. In FISHES, the brain is much smaller than the 
 points from which the nerve of sight proceeds. The 
 spinal cord is large, and divided at its commencement 
 
BRAIN. 7 1 
 
 into two parts. The vision of a fish is very acute. 
 (Fig. 54.) 
 
 Q. What is said of the brain and spinal cord of a fish ? Of 
 the vision of a fish ? 
 
 160. In INSECTS there are gan'gli-a, or central points, 
 in the head and at each section of the body. These 
 points are united by a double cord. The nerves proceed 
 from these central points. (Fig. 55.) 
 
 Q. What is said of .the nervous system of insects ? 
 
 161. The human brain is an instrument or organ of 
 the mind and centre of sensation. Its size, health, and 
 activity generally measure the amount of mental power 
 anft acuteness of sensation. 
 
 Q. What is the use of the brain ? What generally measures 
 the amount of mental power? 
 
 162. The brain is largely supplied with blood. The 
 health of the organ and the power of the mind require 
 that the blood that flows to this organ be pure. 
 
 Q. With what is the brain supplied? What should be the 
 quality of the blood that flows to the brain? Why? 
 
 163. To educate the mind or train the brain, there 
 must be repeated effort, as in learning to use the vocal 
 organs. 
 
 Q. What is necessary to educate the nynd or train the brain ? 
 
 164. The brain may be overworked ; but, where sleep 
 is regular and refreshing, there is but little danger of 
 disease. 
 
 Q. What is needful to prevent disease of the brain ? 
 
 165. In illness, the brain is more sensitive than in 
 health. Sick rooms, particularly those of children, should 
 not be thronged with visitors. 
 
 Q. What is said of the brain when we are ill ? Of sick room* ? 
 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 REVIEW. 
 
 151, 152) 154, 155, 156, 157, 158, 159, 160. . Anatomy > 
 
 188,161,169 Physiology} of the BRAIN. 
 
 162, 163, 164, 165. . Hygiene ) 
 
 Review by Questions. How is the nervous apparatus divided? How is the brain 
 divided? What can you state of the cerebrum? of ihe cerebellum? How are both 
 divided ? What invests them ? What can you say of the nervous system of birds ? 
 of fishes? of insects? What can you tell of the use of the brain? of the blood of the 
 brain? of sleep? of sickness? 
 
 RBTIEW BY TOPICS. Give the Anatomy of the brain, the Physiology, the Hygiene. 
 (See outline anatomical, Plates I. and VIII.) 
 
 LESSON XV. 
 
 166. In this lesson we shall treat of the little senti- 
 nels that keep such strict watch over the " house we live 
 in." These body guards warn us instantly of danger, 
 and tell by their sensitiveness when the house is crum- 
 bling or needs repairing; and some of them increase 
 our happiness by conveying impressions of the life and 
 light of this beautiful world. These useful instruments, 
 or organs, are the nerves that pass from the brain and 
 spinal cord. (Figs. 56, 57, 58.) 
 
 Q. To what are the nerves compared I 
 
 SPINAL CORD AND NERVES.* 
 
 167. The SPINAL CORD (pith of the back bone) con- 
 nects with the brain. It is placed in the canal formed 
 by the bones of the spinal column. (Fig. 57.) 
 
 Q. Where is the spinal cord situated ? 
 
 * Illustrate this lesson by using the bones of the spinal column, the 
 spinal cord and nerves of domestic animals, with outline diagi-ams and 
 blackboard. 
 
SPINAL CORD AM) KERNES. 
 
 73 
 
 168. The NERVES are small white cords, that are 
 spread through every part of the body. They are com- 
 posed of matter similar to the brain and spinal cord. 
 Like the brain, they are enclosed in a delicate sheath, or 
 membrane. (Figs. 56, 59.) 
 
 Q. Describe the nerves. 
 
 169. The nerves that pass from the brain are named 
 vra'ni-al nerves. (Fig. 56.) Those that proceed from 
 the spinal cord are called spinal nerves, (Fig. 59.) 
 
 Q. What are the nerves called that pass from the brain* 
 Of the spinal cord ? 
 
 Fig. 56 
 
 "Fig. 56. A vertical section of the large and small brain and spinal 
 1. The large brain. 2. The small brain. 3, 4. The spinal cord. 
 *6. Nerve of smell. 7, 8. The eye and nerve of sight 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 
 14 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20. Nerves of the face and head. 
 
 170. The CRANIAL, or brain nerves are divided into 
 twelve pairs. These pass to the eye, ear, nose, tongue, 
 teeth, and parts about the face. (Fig. 56.) 
 7 
 
74 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE, 
 
 Q. How many pairs of cranial nerves ? How are they dis 
 tributed ? 
 
 Fig. 57. Fig. 58. 
 
 Fig. 57. A section of the brain and spinal column. 1. The cerebrum, 
 (large brain.) 2, The cerebellum, (small brain.) 3, 4, 4. The spinal covd 
 in its canal. 
 
 Pig. 58. Anterior view of the brain and spinal cord. 1, 1. The two> 
 hemispheres of the t-evobrum. 3, 3. The cerebellum. 7, 10, 11, 11. The 
 spinal cord. 12. 12. Spinal nerves. 13, 13. The brachial plexus. 14,14. 
 The lumber and sacral plexus. 
 
 171. The SPINAL nerves are divided into thirty pairs. 
 These proceed from the spinal cord. Each spinal nerve 
 has two roots. (Figs. 58. 59.) 
 
SPINAL CORD AND NERVES. 75 
 
 Q. How many pairs of nerves proceed from the spinal cord 1 
 How many roots have the spinal nerves ? 
 
 172. The spinal nerves are distributed to the muscles 
 of the body, upper and lower extremities, and the skin. 
 
 Q. How are the spinal nerves distributed ? 
 
 173. One root of the nerve gives sensation or feeling 
 to the part to which it is distributed. The other root 
 gives the power of motion. 
 
 Q. What are the different functions of the roots of the spinal 
 nerves ? 
 
 174. In PARALYSIS, (palsy,) where feeling is destroyed, 
 one root (the posterior) of the nerve is affected. Where 
 motion alone is lost, the anterior root of the nerve is 
 diseased. 
 
 Q. What effect has disease upon the roots of the spinal nerves ^ 
 
 Remark. In the lower cavity of the body, (U 20,) 
 upon each side of the spinal column, are situated small 
 masses of nervous matter, called gan'gli-ons. These 
 are connected with each other and with the spinal nerves. 
 They likewise send multitudes of minute threads to the 
 blood vessels of every part of the body. This is called 
 the gan-gli-on'ic, or sym-pa-theftc nerve, (Fig. D, p. 76.) 
 
 Q. What nerve is named in the remark ? Describe it. 
 
 REVIEW. 
 
 174 ......... Hygiene 
 
 Review by Questions. What can you state of the spinal cord ? How 
 are the nerves divided ? What can you tell of the cranial nerves ? What 
 is said of paralysis ? What can you say of the sympathetic nerve ? 
 
 REVIEW BY TOPICS. Give the Anatomy of the spinal cord and nerves, 
 the Physiology, the Hygiene. (See outline anatomical, Plate VIII.) 
 
76 
 
 REVIEW LESSON. 
 
 Pig. 59. 
 
 Fig. D. 
 
 Fig. 59. A back view of the brain and spinal cord. 1. The cerebrum. 2. The 
 cerebellum. 3. The spinal cord. 4. Nerves of the face. 5. The brachial plexus of 
 nerves. 6, 7, 8, 9. Nerves of the arm. 10. Nerves that pass under the ribs. 11. Th 
 lumbar plexus of nerves. 12. The sacral plexus of nerves. 13, 14, 15, 16. Nerves 
 of the lower limbs. 
 
REVIEW OF THE CEREBRO-SP1NAL AXIS. 
 
 77 
 
 Fig. D. A beautiful represemtation of the sympathetic ganglia and their connection 
 with other nerves. It is from the grand engraving of Manec, reduced in size. A, A, 
 A. The semilunar ganglion and solar plexus, situated below the diaphragm and behind 
 the stomach. This ganglion is situated in the region (pit of the stomach) where a 
 blow gives severe suffering. D, D, D. The thoracic (chest) ganglia, ten or eleven in 
 number. E, E. The external and internal branches of the thoracic ganglia. 6, H. 
 The right and left coronary plexus, situated upon the heart. I, N, Q,. The inferior, 
 middle, and superior cervical (neck) ganglia. 1. The renal plexus of nerves that sur- 
 rounds the kidneys. 2. The lumbar (loin) ganglion. 3. Their internal branches. 4. 
 Their external branches. 5. The aortic plexus of nerves that lies upon the aorta. The 
 other letters and figures represent nerves that connect important organs and nerves 
 with the sympathetic ganglia. 
 
 SYNTHETIC REVIEW OF THE CEREBRO-SPINAL AXIS. 
 
 154, 155, 156, 157, 
 158, 159, 160, 154. 
 167, 168, 169, 170, 
 171,174. . . . 
 
 153, 161, 162. . . 
 
 172.173. . . . 
 
 162, 163, 165. . . 
 
 173.174. . . . 
 
 Brain, 
 
 AXATOMT 
 
 Brain, , 
 
 Spinal cord and nerves, PHTIIOLOQT 
 
 Brain, 
 
 Spinal cord and nerves, 
 
 HTQM 
 
 of the CEBEBRO 
 SPINAL Axis. 
 (Fig. 59.) 
 
 Review by Questions. What analysis can you give of the nervous appa- 
 ratus ? How is the brain divided ? What can you say of the structure of 
 the cerebrum ? of the cerebellum ? What can you tell of the anatomy of 
 the spinal cord ? of the cranial nerves ? of the spinal nerves ? What can 
 you state of the nervous system of birds ? of fishes ? of insects ? What 
 can you say of the sympathetic nerve ? 
 
 What can you tell of the physiology or use of the above-named parts ? 
 
 How can these parts be developed ? What can you say of the blood of 
 the nervous system ? of the education of the brain ? of sleep ? of sick rooms ? 
 
 REVIEW BY TOPICS. Give the Anatomy of the cerebro-spinal axis, the 
 Physiology, the Hygiene. (Use outline anatomical, Plates I. and VIII.) 
 
 7* 
 
78 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 175. THE Creator, in placing us in this world of so 
 much beauty and grandeur, gave us organs to enjoy it. 
 These works of God are perceived through the senses. 
 
 LESSON XVI. 
 
 176. There are FIVE SENSES feeling, or touch, taste, 
 smell, vision, or sight, and hearing. 
 
 Q. How many senses ? What are they ? 
 
 FEELING, OR TOUCH. 
 
 177. FEELING resides in the skin generally ; but it is 
 most acute in the ends of the fingers, palms of the hands, 
 and particularly the lips. 
 
 Q. Where does feeling reside ? Where is it most acute ? 
 
 178. By use, this sense becomes more acute. For 
 this reason, blind persons learn to know so accurately 
 different objects. 
 
 Q. What effect has use upon feeling ? Is this sense of great 
 use to blind persons'? 
 
 TASTE. 
 
 179. TASTE not only gives us physical pleasure, but 
 has an influence upon our health ; for upon it we con- 
 siderably depend in distinguishing proper food. 
 
 Q. What is the use of taste ? 
 
THE SENSES. 79 
 
 1 
 
 Remark. The camel trusts to this sense alone to 
 distinguish its food. 
 
 Q. Of what use is taste to the camel ? 
 
 180. The tongue is the seat of taste. A particular 
 nerve called the gust'a-to-ry, or nerve of taste, is the 
 agent of this sense. (Fig. 61.) 
 
 Q. Where is taste situated ? What is the name of the nerye 
 of taste? 
 
 Fig. 60. 
 
 Fig. 60. Distribution of the fifth pair of nerves. 1. The eye. 2. The 
 upper jaw. 3. The tongue. 4. The lower jaw. 5. The fifth pair of 
 nerves. 6. Branch to the eye. 7. Branch to the upper jaw. 8. Branch 
 to the tongue and lower jaw. This is the nerve of taste. 
 
 181. Taste, though intended to give us pleasure., is 
 often abused by tobacco, intoxicating drinks, and food 
 spice 1 to excess. 
 
 Q. For what was taste intended ? How is it abused ? 
 
80 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE, 
 
 SMELL. 
 
 182. SMELL has Its seat in the passages of the nose, 
 (Fig. 61.) 
 
 Q. Where is the seat of smell ? 
 
 183. The NOSE is formed of bone, cartilage, (gristle,,; 
 and lined with a very delicate membrane. (Fig. 61.) 
 
 Q. Describe the nose. 
 
 184. Upon this membrane is spread the 
 or nerve of smell. (Fig. 61.) 
 
 Q.. What is the name of the nerve of smell 1 
 
 Fig. 6.1. 
 
 Fig. 61. A side view of the passage of the nostrils and the distiibt?- 
 tion of the nerve of smell. 4. The nerve of smell. 5. The fine and 
 curious divisions of this nerve on the membrane of the nse. 6. A 
 branch of the fifth pair of nerves. 
 
 185. Smelling increases our enjoyment, though it is 
 not essential to our existence. It aids us in distinguish- 
 ing useful from hurtful food. 
 
 Q. Is the sense of smell esvsentiai to life ? Wherein does it 
 aid us 1 ? 
 
THE EYES. 81 
 
 Remark. Some of the lower order of animals, as 
 the hound, has this sense more acute than man. 
 
 Q. Name the inferior animals that have this sense more acute 
 than man ? 
 
 REVIEW. 
 
 177, 180, 183, 184. . Anatomy of organs of touch, taste, 1 
 
 and smell. 
 176, 177, 179, 182. . Physiology of organs of touch, taste, I SENSB 
 
 and smell. 
 
 178, 181, 185. . . . Hygiene of organs of touch, taste, 
 and smell. j 
 
 Review by Questions. How many senses are there? Can you name 
 them ? What can you say of feeling ? What of taste ? What of smell ? 
 
 REVIEW BY TOPICS. Give the Anatomy of the organs of touch, taste, 
 and smell, the Physiology, the Hygiene. 
 
 LESSON XVII. 
 
 186. Of the senses, none is more useful and adds more 
 to our happiness than vision, or sight. The organs from 
 which we receive so much pleasure are the eyes. 
 
 THE EYES* 
 
 187. The eye is composed of many parts as the 
 coats, hu'mors, mus'cles, &c. (Fig. 62.) 
 
 Q. Of what is the eye composed ? 
 
 188. The COATS are three in number the corn'e-a and 
 scle-rot'ic, the cho'roid, and the ret'i-na. (Fig. 62.) 
 
 Q. How many coats has the eye ? What are they "? 
 
 * Illustrate this lesson by using the eyes of animals, diagrams, and 
 the blackboard. 
 
82 ANATOMY, PHYSTOLOC.Y, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 189. The CORNEA is the outer front part of the eye. 
 In health, this coat is covered with a fluid that gives the 
 eye its sparkling brilliancy. (Fig. 62.) 
 
 Q. Describe the cornea. With what is it covered "? 
 
 190. The SCLEROTIC is the external and principal 
 coat. It gives form to the eye. It is sometimes called 
 the "white of the eye," from its chalky appearance. 
 (Fig. 62.) 
 
 Q. Describe the sclerotic coat. What gives form to the eye ? 
 What is it sometimes called ? 
 
 Fig. 62. 
 
 Fig. 62. A section of the globe of the eye. 1. The sclerotic coat. 
 2. The cornea. (This connects with the sclerotic coat by a bevelled 
 edge.) 3. The choroid coat. 6, 6. The iris. 7. The pupil. 8. The 
 retina. 10, 11, 11. Chambers of the eye that contain the aqueous hu- 
 mor. 12. The crystalline lens. 13. The vitreous humor. 15. The op- 
 tic nerve. 16. The central artery of the eye. 
 
 Remark. In the shark, that lives at great depths in 
 the ocean, the sclerotic coat is bone. This provision is 
 to resist the great pressure of the water. 
 
 Q. What is said'of the eye of the shark ? 
 
 191. The CHOROID coat is very thin. It is a net of 
 
THE EYES. 83 
 
 blood vessels. Its inner surface is cl ^^orcd. (Fig. 
 
 62.) % 
 
 Q. Describe the choroid coat. 9 
 
 Remark. In the cat this coat is light colored, which 
 
 gives a wild and yellow glare to pussy's eyes when seen 
 
 in the dark. 
 
 Q. What causes the wild appearance of the eye of a cat in 
 the dark ? 
 
 192. The RETIXA is the expansion of the optic nerve, 
 (nerve of vision.) It is the immediate seat of sight. 
 The impression made by objects upon the retina is con- 
 veyed to the brain. (Fig. 62.) 
 
 Q. Describe the retina and its use. 
 
 193. There are three humors within the coats of the 
 eye a'que-ous, crys'tal-lim, and vit're-ous. (Fig. 62.) 
 
 Q. How many humors has the eye ? What are their names ? 
 
 194. The AQUEOUS humor is fluid. It occupies the 
 fore part of the eye, behind the cornea. (Fig. 62.) 
 
 Q. What is the aqueous humor ? Where is it situated ? 
 
 195. The CRYSTALLINE humor lies in the central part 
 of the eye. It is oval, dense, and composed of layers 
 like an onion. (Fig. 62.) 
 
 Q. Describe the crystalline humor. 
 
 196. The VITREOUS humor occupies the larger and 
 back portion of the eye. (Fig. 62.) 
 
 Q. What is said of the vitreous humor ? 
 
 197. The IRIS is a curtain across the eye, before the 
 crystalline humor. It has an opening in the centre, 
 called the pu'pil. The iris gives the blue, black, or 
 gray color to the eye. (Fig. 62.) 
 
 Q. Where is the iris situated ? What is the opening m th 
 centre called ? What does the iris give ? 
 
84 
 
 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE, 
 
 198. Th|M K>f a bee or fly is composed of many 
 thousand ^pWr^^ach of which has a nerve, so that it is 
 an independent eye. Hence a bee or fly can see in all 
 directions without turning the head. (Fig. 63.) 
 
 Q. What is said of the eye of a bee or fly ? 
 
 Fig. 63, 
 
 
 Fig. 63. The compound eye of a fly or bee. 1. The facets, or lenses, 
 without hairs. 2. The same with hairs. 3. The conical form of the 
 facets shown. 
 
 199. The coats give form to the eye; the humors 
 change the direction of the rays of light that pass to the 
 retina ; the iris regulates the quantity of light that enters 
 the eye. (Fig. 62.) 
 
 Q. What is the use of the coats of the eye ? The humors ? 
 The iris ? 
 
 200. The MUSCLES of the eye are six in number. 
 They are small, and produce the movements of this organ. 
 
 Q. How many muscles has the eye, and what is their use ? 
 
 201. The eye is protected from too great light, particles 
 
THE EYES. 85 
 
 of dust, and other substances by the eyebrows, eyelids, 
 and eyelashes. 
 
 Q. What parts protect the eye ? 
 
 202. The tears also afford protection by keeping the eye 
 moist, as well as aiding the removal of particles of matter. 
 
 Q. What is the use of tears ? 
 
 203. Vision is improved by practice, like the other 
 senses ; but it requires care not to overtask the eye. 
 
 Q. How is sight improved ? What care should be used ? 
 
 204. The eye should be used in viewing objects at 
 different distances, as nearsightedness may be caused by 
 repeatedly, and for a long time, viewing small objects 
 very near the eye. 
 
 Q. How should the eye be used ? How may nearsightedness 
 be produced ? 
 
 205. The eye should be used in a moderate light, and 
 should be frequently rested. 
 
 Q. What is said of light and rest to the eyes ? 
 
 REVIEW. 
 
 187, 188, 189, 190, 191, 192, 193, 194, 195, 196, 197, 198, 200. Anatomy 
 
 Review by Questions. What are the parts that compose the eye ? What 
 can you say of the structure and use of the coats of the eye ? What of the 
 humors ? What of the muscles ? How is the eye protected ? How should 
 it be used ? 
 
 REVIEW BY TOPICS. Give the Anatomy of the eye, the Physiology, the 
 Hygiene. (See outline anatomical, Plate X.) 
 
 LESSON XVIII. 
 
 206. HEARING, in utility, is scarcely inferior to that 
 of sight. While we can see in only one direction at a 
 8 
 
86 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 time, we can hear from all directions. While the eye is 
 useless in the dark, and veiled by its own curtains during 
 sleep, the ear is ever a faithful sentinel, warning us 
 against danger. 
 
 Q. What is said of hearing'? 
 
 THE EAR. 
 
 07. The EAR is composed of three parts the exter- 
 nal, the middle, and the internal ear. (Figs. 64, 65.) 
 
 Q. Of how many parts is the ear composed ? What are they 1 
 
 08. The EXTERNAL EAR is formed by cartilage, or 
 gristle. This is covered by a delicate membrane, or 
 skin. (Figs. 64, 65.) 
 
 Q. Describe the external ear. 
 
 09. A tube, or channel, leads from the external to the 
 middle ear. This tube is always open. Its only pro- 
 tection against the entrance of insects is a very bitter 
 wax, (ce-ru'men,} formed at the roots of fine hairs, with 
 which it is lined. (Figs. 64, 65.) 
 
 Q. What is said of the tube between the external and middle 
 ear ' l . Where is the earwax formed, and what is one of its uses ? 
 
 10. The MIDDLE EAR is a cavity called the tym'pa- 
 num, (drum.) (Fig. 65.) 
 
 Q. What is the middle ear ? 
 
 11. The external part of the middle ear is formed 
 by a membrane called the drum, (mem'bra-na tym'pa-ni.) 
 It is the bottom of the tube leading from the external to 
 the middle ear, and forms a division between them. 
 (Fig. 65.) 
 
 Q. Where is the drum, or membranatympani, situated ? What 
 is its use 1 
 
THE EAR. 87 
 
 Remark. A small nerve crosses this membrane, 
 which connects with a nerve that is distributed to the 
 teeth. This is the cause of the unpleasant sensation of 
 the teeth when a file is drawn across iron or steel. 
 
 Q. What causes the unpleasant sensation of the teeth when 
 filing iron ? 
 
 .64. 
 
 "Fig. 64. External and middle ear. a. The external ear. c. The 
 channel from the external to the middle ear. g. The drum of the ear. k. 
 The middle ear. e. The bones of the middle ear. i. The tube from the 
 throat to the middle ear. b,f, h. The internal ear. d. The auditory 
 nerve. 
 
 212. In the MIDDLE EAR are four of the smallest bones 
 of the body. They form a chain of connection between 
 the external and internal ear. (Fig. 65.) 
 
 Q. What is said of the small bones in the middle ear 1 
 
 213. A tube leads from the middle ear to the throat. 
 Hence, when we wish to hear distant or faint sounds, we 
 usually open the mouth. (Figs. 64, 65.) 
 
88 ANATOMY ; PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 Q. Why do we open the mouth to hear a distant or faint 
 sound I 
 
 Remark. The closing of this tube by enlarged ton- 
 sils and sore throat causes difficulty of hearing. 
 
 Q. What is one cause of defective hearing ? 
 
 14. The INTERNAL ear, from its windings, is called 
 the lab'y-rintJi. Here we find the auditory, or nerve of 
 hearing. (Fig. 65.) 
 
 Q. What is said of the internal ear ? 
 
 Fig. 65. 
 
 Fig. 65. A view of all the parts of the ear. 1. The tube that leads 
 to the internal ear. 2. The drum of the ear. 3, 4, 5. The bones of the 
 ear. 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12. The internal ear. 13. The auditory nerve. 14. 
 The channel from the middle ear to the throat, (Eustachian tube.) 
 
 215. Waves or vibrations of air are collected by the 
 external ear and conveyed to the middle ear, and across 
 it, by the chain of bones, to the internal ear. An im- 
 pression is made on the nerve of hearing in so delicate a 
 
THE EAB. 89 
 
 manner as to enable us to perceive minute variations of 
 sound. (Fig. 65.) 
 
 Q. How are the waves of air or sound conveyed to the middle 
 ear? 
 
 216. This sense can be improved by culture or train- 
 ing ; and, in order to hear perfectly, all the parts that 
 aid in hearing should be healthy. 
 
 Q. What is necessary to perfect hearing ? 
 
 Remark. 1. It is wrong to put the heads of pins 
 into the ear, as they may cause inflammation. The wax 
 can be softened by dropping into the tube some oil ; and 
 in a few hours remove it by ejecting warm soapsuds 
 into the ear. 
 
 2. When worms and insects find their way into the 
 tube of the external ear, they can usually be driven out 
 by dropping in warm olive oil. 
 
 Q. What is said in the first remark ? in the second * 
 
 REVIEW. 
 
 207, 208, 209, 210, 211, 212, 213, 214. . Anatomy } 
 
 211,212,213,215 Physiology \ of the EAR. 
 
 216 Hygiene } 
 
 Review by Questions. Can you name the parts of the ear ? What can 
 you say of the structure of the external ear ? What can you state of the 
 anatomy of the middle ear ? What of the internal ear ? Can you tell the 
 uses of the external, middle, and internal ear ? How is sound produced ? 
 How are we able to perceive sound ? What can you say of the cultivation 
 of this sense ? How can disease of the ear be prevented ? 
 
 REVIEW BY TOPICS. Give the Anatomy of the ear, the Physiology, 
 the Hygiene. (See outline anatomical, Plate X.) 
 
 8* 
 
 
90 REVIEW LESSON. 
 
 Fig. 66. Fig. 67. Fig. 68. 
 
REVIEW OF THE NERVOUS APPARATUS. 
 
 91 
 
 Fig. 66. A representation of the nose. 1 The olfactory nerve. 2. The ramifica- 
 tion of the olfactory nerve. 3. A nerve of feeling. 
 
 Fig. 67. A representation of the brain, spinal cord, and spinal nerves. 1. The 
 large brain, (cerebrum.) 2. The small brain, (cerebellum.) 3, 3. The spinal cord. 
 4. The sciatic nerve. 
 
 Fig. 68. Section of the eye. 1, 2, 3. The coats of the eye. 4. The cornea. 6, 6. 
 The iris. 7. The pupil. 10, 11. The aqueous humor. 12. The crystalline humor. 
 13. The vitreous humor. 15. The optic nerve. 
 
 Fig. C9 represents the nerves of sensation of the face. 1. The nerve of sensation. 
 
 2. The branch to the eye. 3. The branch to the upper jaw. 4. The branch to the 
 lower jaw. 5. The tongue. 6. The nerve of taste. 7. The branch to the lower jaw. 
 
 Fig. A. The ear. 1. The external opening of the ear. 2. The drum of the ear. 
 
 3, 4, 5, 6. The small bones of the ear. 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12. The internal ear. 13. The 
 nerve of hearing. 14. The Eustachian tube. 
 
 SYNTHETIC REVIEW OF THE NERVOUS APPARATUS 
 
 154, 155, 156, 157, 158, 159, 
 160 
 
 167, 168, 169, 170, 171. . 
 
 177, 180, 183, 184. . . 
 187, 188, 189, 190, 191, 192, 
 
 Brain, / CEREBRO-SPIWAL 
 
 Spinal cord and f SYSTEM, 
 
 nerves, 
 Feeling, Taate, 
 
 and Smell, 
 
 j/, lee, Jt<y, jyu, iyj, iy, ) 
 193, 194, 195, 19o, 197, 198, J Eye, 
 
 207, 208, 209, aio/311. 212, ) ,, 
 213, 214. . . . . . . ! J JBlir 
 
 153, 161, 162 Brah 
 
 172, 173. . 
 
 SENTIENT 
 
 TEM, 
 
 TIM, 
 
 m .'." s - MS**, 
 
 169, 190, 192, 197, 198, 199, j \ 
 
 200,201,202, {**** 
 
 211,212,213,215. . . . Ear, 
 
 162, 163, 165 Brain, \ 
 
 ,- 4 I Spinal cord and > 
 
 ' J nerves, > 
 
 i- ii MVi I Feeling, Taste, ) 
 
 1 ' 8 ' 181 ' 185 1 and Smell, (SENTIENT 
 
 203, 204, 205. Eye, ( TEM, 
 
 216 Ear, \ 
 
 AXIS, 
 
 {.PHYSIOLOGY 
 9YS . 
 j 
 
 HYGIENE 
 
 - < 
 
 S O 
 
 5 
 
 Review by Questions. How is the nervous apparatus divided ? What can you say 
 of the anatomy of the brain ? of the spinal cord ? of the cranial nerves ? of the spinal 
 nerves ? of the sympathetic nerve? What can you tell us of the nervous system of 
 nirds ? of fishes ? of insects ? What can you state of the structure of the organs o 
 touch? of taste? of smell? of seeing? of hearing: 
 
 What can you say of the physiology or use of each of the above-named parts of the 
 nervous system ? 
 
 What can you say of the education of these parts? of the preservation of health of 
 each part ? 
 
 REVIEW BT TOPICS. Give the Anatomy, human and comparative, of the nervoiu 
 apparatus, the Physiology, the Hygiene. (Use outline anatomical, Plates I., VIII . 
 and X.) 
 
PART III. 
 
 217. IN this part the LOCOMOTIVE and PROTECTIVE 
 APPARATUS will be described. This includes the bones, 
 muscles, and skin, or the systems that form the walls that 
 enclose the organs described in Parts I. and II. (Figs. 2,3.) 
 
 Q. What apparatus will be described in Part III.? What 
 systems under this apparatus ? 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 218. The OSSEOUS or bony system will be described 
 in this chapter. In man and the inferior animals, the 
 bones are covered by muscles and skin ; while in lob- 
 sters, crabs, &c., their bony framework is on the outside. 
 
 Q. What system is described in Chapter I. How are the 
 bones arranged in man ? In lobsters ? 
 
 LESSON XIX. 
 
 219. There are two hundred and eight bones in the 
 human body besides the teeth. These, for convenience, 
 are divided into the bones of the head, trunk, upper and 
 lower extremities. (Figs. 85, 98.) 
 
 Q. How many bones in the human body ? How divided ** 
 
 (92) 
 
BONES OF THE HEAD. 93 
 
 BONES OF THE HEAD.* 
 
 220. The bones of the HEAD include those of the 
 cra'ni-um, (skull,) ear, and /ace, or all the bones above 
 the neck. Figs. 65, 70.) 
 
 Q. What do the bones of the head include ? 
 
 221. The CRANIUM has eight bones. These interlock 
 like the teeth of two saws brought together. This 
 union is called a sut'ure. (Fig. 70.) 
 
 Q. How many bones in the cranium ? How are they united t 
 What is this union called ? 
 
 Fi-. TO. 
 
 Fig. 70. The bones of the head. 1. Frontal bone. 2. The rarietal 
 bone. 3. The temporal bone. 4. The occipital bone. 5. The nasal 
 bone. 6. The malar bone. 7. The upper jaw. 8. The os unguis. 9. 
 The lower jaw. 
 
 222. The upper part of the head is an arch, or dome. 
 
 * Let the skull bones of animals be used to illustrate this lesson, 
 In connection with plates and the blackboard. (See Preface.} 
 
94 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, ANE HYGIENE. 
 
 This form gives great security to the parts within this 
 cavity. (Fig. 70.) 
 
 Q. What is the form of the cranium ? What is the use of 
 this form ? 
 
 223. The bones of the cranium are thin, and very 
 easily broken ; for this reason, children should never be 
 struck upon the head. (Fig. 70.) 
 
 Q. Why should children never be struck upon the head 1 
 
 224. The FACE is composed of fourteen bones two 
 single, the other twelve in pairs. (Fig. 70.) 
 
 Q. How many bones in the face ? How arranged ? 
 
 225. These bones give form to the face, and also pro- 
 tection to the parts that are placed in and about the 
 lower part of the head. (Fig. 70.) 
 
 Q. What is the use of the bones of the face ? 
 
 226. The EAR has four very small bones. They are 
 enclosed in a cavity formed by the bones of the cranium. 
 (Figs. 65, 70.) 
 
 Q. How many bones in the ear ? Where are they placed ? 
 
 227. At the base of the tongue is a small bone shaped 
 like the letter U, called the hy'oid. (Fig. 46.) 
 
 Q. What is said of the bone at the base of the tongue ? 
 
 REVIEW. 
 
 218, 219, 220, 221, 223, 224, 226, 227. Anatomy } 
 
 222, 22-5 Physiology > of the HEAD. 
 
 223 Hygiene j 
 
 Review by Questions. How is the protective apparatus divided ? How 
 is the osseous system divided ? How are the bones of the head divided \ 
 What can you say of the bones of the cranium ? of the ear ? of the face : 
 
 REVIEW BY TOPICS. Give the Anatomy of the bones of the head, the 
 Physiology, the Hygiene. (See outline anatomical, Plates I. and II.) 
 
BONES OP THE TRUNK. 95 
 
 LESSON XX . 
 
 228. While the arrangement of the bones of the 
 skull is a proof of the beautiful economy of Nature in 
 giving great strength with a small amount of material, 
 other bones, as those of the trunk, protect lifegiving 
 organs and also possess freedom of motion. 
 
 Q. What is said of the bones of the head ? Of the trunk ? 
 
 BONES OF THE TRUNK* 
 
 229. The bones of the TRUNK include those of the 
 spi'nal col'umn, (back bone,) the tho'rax, (chest,) and the 
 pel'vis, (basin.) (Figs.85, 98.) 
 
 Q. Name the bones of the trunk. 
 
 230. The SPINAL COLUMN is composed of twenty-four 
 bones. These are so arranged that a tube or canal is 
 formed through the whole column (Figs. 2, 71,85,98.) 
 
 Q. How many bones in the spinal column ? How are they 
 arranged 1 
 
 231. Seven of these are called cer'vi-cal (neck) bones, 
 twelve dor'sal (back) bones, five lum'bar (loin) bones. 
 
 Q. How are the bones of the spinal column divided ? 
 
 232. Among the inferior animals, as the lion, we find 
 an increased number of dorsal bones. Among birds, the 
 number of neck bones is increased and the number of 
 dorsal bones are diminished, while there are no loin 
 bones. Among most reptiles, as the snake, there are no 
 
 * Use the ribs and spinal bones of animals to illustrate the bones of 
 the trunk, in connection with outline diagrams and the blackboard. 
 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND 
 
 neck or loin bones, while the dorsal bones are very much 
 increased in number. The same is true with most fishes. 
 
 Q. What is said of the spinal bones of the inferior animals ! 
 Of birds ? Of snakes ? Of fishes ? 
 
 33. Between each bone of the spinal column is a 
 substance called cartilage, (gristle.) By the yielding of 
 these cartilages, the body, to a certain, extent, can be bent 
 in all directions. (Fig. 71.) 
 
 Q. What is found between the bones of the spinal column ? 
 What is its use 1 
 
 Fig. 71. 
 
 Fig. 72. 
 
 Fig. 71. 1, 2> 3. The spinal column. 4, 5. The sacrum and coccyx 
 bones of the pelvis. 
 
 Fig. 72. The chest and pelvis, 
 
 Observation. Persons whose business requires them 
 to stand during the day are shorter at night, by com- 
 
THE TRUNK. 97 
 
 pression of the cartilages, than in the morning ; but 
 during sleep, the cartilages, by elasticity, regain their 
 thickness. 
 
 Q. Why are persons that stand during the day shorter at night 
 than in the morning ? 
 
 234. To prevent distorted or curved spines, children 
 should walk and sit erect ; also frequently change their 
 position. If their school desks require the spine to be 
 bent, they should alter their position often by standing 
 erect. 
 
 Q. What should children frequently do to prevent distorted 
 pines * 
 
 235. The THORAX is composed of the ster'num, (breast 
 bone,) twenty-four ribs, and twelve bones of the spine. 
 
 (See Lesson VII.) 
 
 f 
 Q. Of what is the thorax composed ? 
 
 236. The PELVIS is composed of four large bones. 
 The back part of this basin is formed of two bones, which 
 terminate the spinal column. (Figs. 71, 72, 85, 98.) 
 
 Q. How many bones in the pelvis'? What bones form the 
 back part of the pelvis ? 
 
 237. Among reptiles and fishes, the number of pieces 
 in the terminating bone of the spine is much increased, 
 forming the tail. (Figs. 71, 87.) 
 
 Q. What is said of the terminal bones of the spine of reptiles ? 
 
 238. The pelvis gives support to the spinal column 
 and digestive organs. It also furnishes the means of 
 attachment of the lower extremities. (Figs. 72, 85, 98.) 
 
 Q. What supports the spine and digestive organs ? To what 
 are the lower extremities attached ? 
 9 
 
98 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE, 
 
 REVIEW. 
 
 229,230,231,232,233,235,238,237. Anatomy } 
 
 228, 233, 238 Physiology > of the TRUNK, 
 
 228, 234 Hygiene J 
 
 Review by Questions. How are the bones of tlie trunk divided ? Wha* 
 can you say of the spinal column in man ? in birds ? in reptiles ? How are 
 distorted spines produced ? how prevented ? "What can you tell of the 
 thorax ? How is the pelvis formed ? What is its use ? 
 
 REVIEW BY TOPICS. Give the Anatomy of the trunk, the Physiology? 
 the Hygiene. (See outline anatomical, Plates I. and II.) 
 
 LESSON XXI. 
 
 39. While the bones of the head, chest, and spine- 
 are of importance to the safety of life, the bones of the 
 upper extremities exceed all others or any instrument of 
 art in the variety of motion and uses to which they cars 
 be put. (Figs. 85, 98.) 
 
 Q. What is said of the bones of the upper extremities ? 
 
 THE UPPER EXTREMITIES.* 
 
 40. The bones of the TIPPER EXTREMITIES comprise 
 the shoulder, the arm, the wrist, and hand. (Figs. 75, 
 74, 75, 76, 85, 98.) 
 
 Q. Name the bones of the upper extremities. 
 
 41. The SHOULDER embraces the scap'u-la, (shoul- 
 der blade,) and clav'i-cle, (collar bone.) (Fig. 85.) 
 
 Q. What bones are embraced in the shoulder 1 
 
 4. The SCAPULA is a broad, thin bone, and lies em- 
 bedded in the fleshy part of the back. It can be moved 
 in all directions. (Fig. 85.) 
 
 * Illustrate this lesson by using the bones of animals, outline platefc 
 an i the blackboard. 
 
THE UPPER EXTREMITIES. 
 
 99 
 
 Q. Describe the scapuli. Are its movements lira ed ? 
 
 243. The CLAVICL* s united to the sterm n (breast 
 bone) and scapula. It acts as a brace in keeping back 
 the shoulders. (Figs. 72, 85, 98.) 
 
 Q. Describe the clavicle. What is its use 1 
 
 Fig. 73. 
 
 Fig. 74. 
 
 mm 
 
 Fig. 73. The shaft of the humerus. 
 
 Fig. 74. 1. The body of the ulna. 2. The shaft of the radius, 
 
 244. In birds the clavicle is large and strong ; while 
 in fourfooted animals, as the horse, it is wanting. (Fig.86.) 
 
 Q. What is said of the clavicle in birds ? In the horse and 
 other fourfooted animals 1 
 
 245. The ARM is composed of three bones the hu,'- 
 
100 
 
 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 me-rus, above the elbow, and the ra'di-us and ul'na, below 
 the elbow. By a nice adaptation of the bones below the 
 elbow, they can rotate or twist upon each other. (FigSv 
 73, 74, 85, 98.) 
 
 Q. What is said of the bone above the elbow"? Of the bones 
 below the elbow ? 
 
 246. In the lower animals, as the horse and ox, there 
 is but one bone that corresponds with the radius and 
 ulna ; this is large and firm. (Fig. 88.) 
 
 Q. What is said of the bones that correspond with the ulna 
 and radius in the lower an 
 
 Fig. 75. 
 
 Fig. 76. 
 
 F..g. 75. u. The ulna. u. The r Jius. s, L, c, P, T. T, M, u. The 
 carpal bones. 1, 1, 1, 1, I. The metacarpal bones of the thumb and 
 fingers, 
 
 Fig. 76. 10, 10, 10. The metacarpal bones of the hand. 11, 11. First 
 range of finger bores. 12, 12. Second range of ringer bones. 13, 13- 
 Third raa^e of f.nger bones. 14, 15. Bones of the thumb. 
 
 247. The V/RIST (carpus) consists of eight irregular 
 bones. They are closely bound together, and have but 
 little mution. (Figs.75. 85, 98.) 
 
THE UPPER EXTREMITIES. 101 
 
 Q. What is said of the wrist ? 
 
 248. The HAND (metacarpus) has five bones. To 
 these are united the fourteen bones of the fingers and 
 thumbs, (pha-lan'ges.} (Figs. 75, 76, 85, 98.) 
 
 Q. Describe the hand. 
 
 249. In the inferior animals there are but one, or at 
 most two bones that correspond with the fingers of man. 
 These are only used to support the animals. 
 
 Q. What is said of the finger bones in animals ? 
 
 250. The bones of the fingers and thumb are so ar- 
 ranged that we can grasp a body of any shape with great 
 firmness. Owing to the different length of the fingers, 
 we can grasp with greater ease a round body. (Fig. 76.) 
 
 Q. What is said of the use of the thumb and fingers * 
 
 REVIEW. 
 
 240, 241, 242, 243, 244, 245, 246, S17, 248, 249. Anatomy ) f , -, 
 239,242,243,245,247,249,250 
 
 Review by Questions. What do the upper extremities comprise ? What 
 can you say of the shoulder ? of the scapula ? of the clavicle ? What can 
 you tell of the arm ? What can you relate of the wrist ? What can you 
 state of the hand ? 
 
 REVIEW BY TOPICS. Give the Anatomy of the upper extremities, the 
 Physiology, the Hygiene. (See outline anatomical, Plates I. and II.) 
 
 LESSON XXII. 
 
 51. The bones of the lower are larger th*n those of 
 the upper extremities. Their motion is not so varied ; 
 yet they support the body ; and by them we are able to 
 ramble the fields and forests. (Figs. 85, 98.) 
 
 Q. What is said of the bones of the lower extremities ? 
 9* 
 
102 
 
 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 THE LOWER EXTREMITIES.* 
 
 252. The bones of the LOWER EXTREMITIES comprise 
 those of the leg and those of the foot. (Figs. 77,78,79.) 
 Q. Name the bones of the lower extremities ? 
 
 Fig. 77. 
 
 Fig. 78. 
 
 Fig. 77. 1. The shaft of the femur, (thigh bone.) 
 Fig. 78. 1. The tibia. 5. The fibula, 
 
 253. The LEG contains the fe'mur, (thigh bone,) the 
 
 * Illustrate this lesson by using the bones of animals and birds, with 
 outline diagrams and the blackboard. 
 
THE LOWER EXTREMITIES. 103 
 
 tib'i-n and fib'u-la, (shin bones,) and pa-tel'la, (knee 
 pan.) (Figs. 77, 78, 98.) 
 Q. Name the bones of the leg. 
 
 254. The bones of the leg, with the exception of the 
 patella, are round, and larger at the extremities than at 
 the centre. (Figs. 77, 78, 85, 98.) 
 
 Q. What is said of the shape of the bones of the leg ? 
 Remark. The bones of the leg correspond with 
 those of the arm. 
 
 Q. Do the bones of the leg and arm correspond ? 
 
 255. The FOOT contains the tar'sus, met-a-tar'sm, and 
 pha-lan'ges, (toes.) (Figs, 79, 80.) 
 
 Fig. 79. 
 
 Fig. 79. A representation of the upper surface of the bones of the 
 foot. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8. The bones of the tarsus. 9, 9, 9. The meta- 
 tarsal bones. 10. The first bone of the great toe. 11. The second bone. 
 12, 13, U. Three ranges of bones, forming the small too?. 
 
 256. The TARSUS (ankle bones) are seven in number. 
 They are bound together like those of the wrist, and 
 have but little motion. (Figs. 79, 80.) 
 
 Q. What is said of the tarsus ? 
 
 257. The METATARSUS contains five bones. These, 
 with the tarsal bones, form the arch of the foot. By the 
 form of the foot, jars or concussions of the brain are 
 prevented in running and leaping. (Figs. 79, 80.) 
 
104 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 Q. How many metatarsal bones ? What is the form of ih& 
 foot ? What does this form prevent ? 
 
 258. The PHALANGES (bones of the toes) are fourteen 
 in number. These bones are smaller than those of the 
 fingers, and their motion is more limited ; yet persons 
 with no hands have been able to use scissors, pencil, and 
 knife with the toes. (Figs. 79, 80.) 
 
 Q. How many toes are there? What is said of their size? 
 Their motion ? Their use 1 
 
 Fig. 8<X 
 
 Fig. 80. A side view of the bones of the foot, showing its arched 
 form. The arch rests upon the heel behind, and the ball of the toes in- 
 front. 1. The lower part of the tibia. 2, 3, 4, 5. Bones of the tarsus. 
 6. The metatarsal bone. 7, 8, The bones of the great toe. These bones- 
 are so united as to secure a great degree of elasticity, or spring. 
 
 KEVIEW, 
 
 252, 253, 254, 255, 256, 257, 258. Anatomy ^ of the L(mEK 
 
 251,258 Physiology *> ExTKEMITIE8 . 
 
 257 Hygiene j 
 
 Review by Questions. What bones do the lower extremities comprise ? 
 What can you say of the bones of the leg ? What can you tell of the- 
 foot ? of the tarsus ? of the metatarsus ? of the phalanges ? 
 
 Rr.viEW BY TOPICS. Give the Anatomy of the lower extremities, HLQ 
 Physiology, the Hygiene. (See outline anatomical, Plates I. and 114 
 
COMPOSITION OF BONES. 105 
 
 LESSON XXIII. 
 
 259. The bones, like other parts of the body, are 
 composed of solids acd fluids, as well as of different ele- 
 ments, or atoms of matter. The relative proportions of 
 solids and fluids vary at different periods of life, and so 
 do the chemical elements that enter into their composition. 
 
 Q. What is said of the composition of bones ? 
 
 COMPOSITION OF BONES.* 
 
 260. The bones are surrounded by a thin, firm mem- 
 brane, called per-i-os'te-um. 
 
 Q. With what are the bones surrounded ? 
 
 Remark. In felon and fever sore, the disease com- 
 mences in the periosteum. An early opening is the 
 best treatment. 
 
 Q. What is the best treatment of felon and fever sore ? 
 
 261. The bones are composed of cartilage and salts 
 of lime. 
 
 Q. Of what are the bones composed ? 
 
 Remark. The cartilage contains gel'a-tin, ("jelly,") 
 while the salts are the carbonate and phosphate of lime. 
 
 Q. What does cartilage contain ? What salts exist in the 
 bones ? 
 
 Experiments. 1. To show the materials that enter 
 into the composition of bones, take one and lay it upon 
 the fire. The heat will destroy the gelatin, and the 
 bone will become white and brittle. 
 
 * Illustrate this lesson by performing the experiments and using the 
 dry and fresh bones of animals. 
 
106 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 2. Take another bone and put it into a weak solution 
 of chloric acid, and in a few days the salts of lime will 
 be removed, and the cartilage that remains can be knotted 
 or twisted at pleasure. 
 
 Q. Give the experiments in reference to the composition of 
 bones. What do these experiments snow ? 
 
 Fig. 81. Fig. 82. 
 
 Fig. 81. The position assumed when the seat is of proper height and 
 the feet supported. 
 
 Fig. 82. The position a child naturally assumes when the seat is so 
 high that the feet are not supported. 
 
 In early life the cartilage, or soft parts of the 
 bone, exists in great quantity. In old age, the salts of 
 lime are most abundant. In children, the bones are 
 therefore more easily bent or distorted than in old age, 
 while in old age they are easily broken. 
 
 Q. At what period of life is gelatin most abundant ? Why do 
 
COMPOSITION OF BONES. 107 
 
 the bones of children bend more easily than aged persons ? Why 
 are the bones of the aged easily broken ? 
 
 Remarks. 1. Young children should not stand a 
 long time, as the bones of the leg bend easily, producing 
 crooked limbs. 
 
 . Their clothing should be loose about the chest, as 
 the ribs are not only small, but soft and yielding, in 
 childhood. 
 
 3. The seats of small children should be low, so that 
 their feet may be supported. (Fig. 81.) 
 
 4. The back of their seats should be convex or curved 
 towards the body, and reach no higher than the shoulder 
 blades, so as to support the loins, or ce small of the back." 
 (Fig. 81.) 
 
 Q. What is the first remark relating to the bones of children 1 
 The second ? The third ? The fourth ? 
 
 REVIEW. 
 
 260. . Anatomy } 
 
 261. . Physiology > of the COMPOSITION OF BONES. 
 
 262. . 'Hygiene ) 
 
 Rcvieic by Questions. What can you say of the periosteum ? of felons 
 and fever sores ? What can you tell of the composition of the bones ? 
 State the experiments. What can you say of the clothing and seats for 
 children ? 
 
 REVIEW BY TOPICS. Give the composition of the bones, their Physi- 
 ology, their Hygiene. 
 
 LESSON XXIV. 
 
 263. To secure freedom of motion, the divine Framer 
 of our body made it of several pieces instead of one 
 solid bone. The union of these pieces is called a 
 joint. 
 
108 
 
 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 THE JOINTS* 
 
 64. The JOINTS are of two kinds immovable and 
 movable. 
 
 Q. How many kinds of joints ? What are they? 
 
 65. In an IMMOVABLE joint there is a direct union 
 of the bones, as in the skull, face, &c. (Fig. 70.) 
 
 Q. Describe an immovable joint. 
 
 Fig. 84. 
 
 Fig. 83. The relative position of the bones, cartilages, and synovial 
 membrane in a joint. 1, 1. The extremities of two bones that concur to 
 form a joint. 2, 2. The cartilages that cover the end of the bones. 3, 3, 
 3, 3. The synovial membrane, which covers the cartilage of both bones, 
 and is then doubled back from one to the other. It is represented by the 
 dotted lines. 
 
 Fig. 84. A vertical section of the knee joint. 1. The femur. 3. The 
 patella. 5. The tibia. 2, 4. The ligaments of the patella. 6. The car- 
 tilage of the tibia. 12. The cartilage of the femur. * ***. The syno- 
 vial membrane. 
 
 66. In MOVABLE joints, the surfaces of the bones do 
 not come in contact ; but the ends of the bones are 
 
 * Illustrate this lesson by using the joints of animals, by diagrams 
 and the blackboard. 
 
THE JOINTS. 109 
 
 tipped with cartilage, (gristle,) and they are bound to- 
 gether by bands called lig'a-ments. (Figs. 85, 98.) 
 
 Q. Describe the union of a movable joint 
 
 267. Covering the cartilages and lining the ligaments 
 is a closed sac called syn-o'm-almem'brane, which con- 
 tains a glairy fluid called syn-o'vi-a, (joint water.) This 
 fluid lessens the friction of the joints as oil does in ma- 
 chinery. (Figs. 83, 84.) 
 
 Q. What is said of the synovial membrane ? Of the synovia ? 
 
 Remark. 1. The synovial membrane, as a closed 
 sac, can - be illustrated by the lining membrane of an 
 egg shell. 
 
 2. When joints are sprained or inflamed, the "best 
 healing salve " is rest. This should be applied as soon 
 as the joint is injured, and should be continued until the 
 injured part recovers. 
 
 3. When the joints of animals are injured, they should 
 be permitted to rest until restored. 
 
 Q. How can, the synovial membrane be illustrated ? What is 
 necessary when a joint is sprained ? How should the injured 
 joints of animals be treated I 
 
 REVIEW. 
 
 264,265,266,267. . Anatomy ) 
 
 263, 266, 267. . . Physiology > of the JOINTS. 
 
 267 Hygiene ) 
 
 Review by Questions. How many kinds of joints ? What can you tell 
 of immovable joints ? of movable joints ? "What can you say of sprained 
 joints in man ? in animals ? 
 
 REVIEW BY TOPICS. Give the Anatomy of the joints, the Physiology 
 the Hygiene. (See outline anatomical, Plates I. and II.) 
 
 10 
 
110 
 
 REVIEW LESSON. 
 
 Fig. 85. 
 
 Fig. 85. Back view of human skeleton. 1. The head. 2, 2. The spinal column 
 3. The ribs. 4. The sacrum. 5. The pelvis. 6. The scapula. 7. The humerus. 8 
 The radius. 9. The ulna. 10. The carpus. 11. The femur. 12. The tibia. 13. The 
 fibula. 14. The tarsus. 
 
 Fig. 86. Skeleton of the vulture. 
 
 Fig. 87. Skeleton of the perch. 
 
REVIEW OF THE OSSEOUS SYSTEM. 
 Fig. 88. 
 
 Ill 
 
 Fig. 88. Skeleton of the camel 
 
 SYNTHETIC REVIEW OF THE OSSEOUS SYSTEM. 
 
 218, 219, 220, 221, 223, ) 
 224,226,227. . . . j 
 229, 230, 231, 232, 233, J 
 235, 236, 237. . . . \ 
 240, 241, 242, 243, 244, ) 
 245, 246, 247, 248, 249. \ 
 252, 253, 254, 255, 256, 1 
 257,258. . . ... .) 
 260 ...".... 
 
 Head, 
 Trunk, 
 
 Upper extremities, 
 
 Lower extremities, 
 Composition of bones, 
 
 2fi4, 2f>5, 266, 267. . . 
 200 225 . . . 
 
 Joints. 
 Head, \ 
 
 233' 238 
 
 Trunk, 
 
 242', 243, 244, 245, 2-16, ( 
 247,249,250. . . .' 
 251 258 . . . 
 
 Upper extremities. 
 Lower extremities, 
 
 261 
 
 Composition of bones, 
 
 263,266,267. ... 
 221 . . . 
 
 Joints, 
 Head, 
 
 228 234 . . . 
 
 Trunk, 
 
 257 258 
 
 Upper extremities, 
 Lower extremities, 
 
 262 
 
 Composition of bones, 
 
 267. . 
 
 Joints, 
 
 PHTSIOLOQT 
 
 of the OSSEOUS SYS- 
 TEM. (Figs. 85, 86, 
 87, 88.) 
 
 Review by Questions. What can you say of the anatomy of the bones of the heir! r 
 of the trunk : of the upper extremities ? of the lower extremities ? What can you t*tl 
 of the composition of the bones ? What can you state of the joints ? 
 
 What can you tell of the use of the above-named parts ? 
 
 What can you state of the means to preserve the health of the osseous system : 
 
 RCTIXW BT TOPICS. Give the Anatomy of the osseous system, the Physiology, 
 the Hygiene. (Use outline anatomical, Plates I. and II.) 
 
112 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 CHAPTEE II. 
 
 268. THE sailor boy would tell you that the masts and 
 yards of his "floating house" are kept in place, and 
 their position changed, by means of ropes. So the frame- 
 work of the "house we live in" is kept in place, and 
 the position changed, by means of elastic or springing 
 organs called mus'des. (Figs. 94, E.) 
 
 Q. To what are the muscles compared ? % 
 
 LESSON XXV. 
 
 269. The mind directs some movements, as those of 
 the arm. Other movements, as those of the heart and 
 stomach, are not subject to the mind. Both, however, 
 are produced by the action of muscles. (Figs. 94, E.) 
 
 Q. How are the movements directed ? What produces all 
 movements l . 
 
 MUSCLES* 
 
 270. The MUSCLES are composed of fi'lres, fas'ci-cE, 
 and ten'dons. (Fig. 89.) 
 
 Q. Of what are the muscles composed ? 
 
 271. FIBRES are the small threads that compose the 
 muscle. These form the swell, or belly, of the muscle. 
 (Fig. 89.) 
 
 Q. Define fibre. What do they form 1 
 
 * Illustrate this lesson by using lean pork, boiled, or the drumstick 
 of a fowl, with outline diagrams and the blackboard. (See Preface.) 
 
MUSCLES. 113 
 
 272. The FASCIA is a thin, white membrane that sur- 
 rounds the body, limbs, muscles, and also every fibre of 
 all the muscles. (Figs. 89, 94, E, 100.) 
 
 Q. Describe the fascia. 
 
 273. The TENDON, or cord, at each extremity of the 
 muscle is formed by a union of the fasciae that surrounds 
 the fibres as well as the muscle. These tendons are 
 attached to the periosteum, or covering of the bone. 
 (Kg. 89.) 
 
 Q. How are the tendons formed ? To what are they attached 1 
 Fig. 89. 
 
 Fig. 89. A representation of the manner in which all the joints of 
 the body are moved. 1. The bone of the arm above the elbow. 2. One 
 of the bones below the elbow. 3. The muscle that bends the elbow. 
 This muscle is united, by a tendon, to the bone below the elbow, (4;) at 
 the other extremity, to the bone above the elbow, (5.) 6. The muscle 
 that extends the elbow. 7. Its attachment to the point of the elbow. 
 8. A weight in the hand to be raised. The central part of the muscle, (3,) 
 contracts, and its two ends are brought nearer together. The bones be- 
 low the elbow are brought to the lines shown by 9, 10, 11. The weight 
 is raised in*the direction of the curved line. "When the muscle 6 con- 
 tracts, the muscle 3 relaxes and the fore arm is extended. 
 
 274. The tendon at one end of a muscle is attached to 
 10* 
 
114 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 the covering of a bone, while the tendon of the opposite 
 
 Fig. 90. Fig. 91. 
 
 Fig. 90. 1. A perpendicular line from the centre of the feet to the up 
 per extremity of the spinal column, where the head rests. 2, 2, 2. The 
 spinal column, with its three natural curves. Here the head and body 
 are balanced upon the spinal column and joints of the lower extrem- 
 ities, so that the muscles are not kept in a state of tension. This erect 
 position of the body and head is always accompanied with straight 
 lower limbs. 
 
 Fig. 91. 1. A perpendicular line from the centre of the feet. 2 Rep- 
 resents the unnatural curved spinal column and its relative position to 
 the perpendicular, (1.) The lower limbs are curved at the knee, and the 
 body is stooping forward. "While standing in this position, the muscles 
 of the lower limbs and back are in continued tension, which exhausts 
 itnd weakens them. 
 
ES. 115 
 
 end is fixed to the covering of another bone. (Fig. 
 89.) 
 
 Q. How are the tendons attached to bones ? 
 
 275. By the contraction of the fibres of the muscle, 
 the position of one of the bones is changed. (Fig. 89.) 
 
 Q. How is the position jof bones changed ? 
 
 76: All the movements of the body are made by the 
 muscles contracting. 
 
 Q. How are the movements of the body made ? 
 
 277. The INVOLUNTARY movements are those we can- 
 not control as of the ribs when we breathe. 
 
 Q. What are involuntary movements "? 
 
 278. The VOLUNTARY movements are under the con- 
 trol of the will as walking, nodding the head, swing- 
 ing the arms, and others done at our pleasure. 
 
 Q. What are voluntary movements ? 
 
 279. In standing, walking, or sitting, the erect po- 
 sition is the best, as well as the easiest. Care should be 
 taken that the position is frequently varied, particularly 
 in children. (Figs. 90, 91.) 
 
 What r x dition is best I What care should be exercised? 
 
 REVIEW. 
 
 270,271,272,273,274. . . Anatomy ) 
 
 268, 269, 275, 276, 277, 278. Physiology > of the MUSCLES. 
 
 279 Hygiene } 
 
 Review by Questions. Of what are muscles composed ? What can you 
 
 say of 1he fibres ? of the fasciae ? of the tendons ? of the contraction and 
 
 relaxation of muscles ? of the movements of the body ? of involuntary 
 
 movements ? of voluntary movements ? What is said of position in stand- 
 
 ijr, writing, and sitting ? 
 
 REVIEW BY TOPICS. Give the Anatomy of the muscles, the Physiol 
 ogy, the Hygiene. (See outline anatomical, Plates III. and IV.) 
 
116 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 LESSON XXVI. 
 
 280. When muscles are used certain conditions should 
 exist, so that their action may not only be energetic and 
 controllable, but healthy. Some of these conditions will 
 be suggested in this lesson. 
 
 Q. What is the subject of this lesson ? 
 
 MUSCLES, (CONTINUED.) 
 
 281. "When MUSCLES have been used they become 
 tired or exhausted, and need rest or relaxation. The 
 recesses in school rest the muscles of the pupil, because 
 the position is, or should be, changed. 
 
 Q. Why do the used muscles need rest ? What is said of re- 
 cesses in schools 1 
 
 Remark. Young and feeble persons require more 
 frequent change of position than old and strong per- 
 sons. This is particularly true with children, if growing 
 rapidly. 
 
 Q. What persons need the most frequent change of position ? 
 
 282. The COLOR of a muscle depends upon the color 
 of the blood. If that is white, the color of the muscle 
 is white. If it is red, the color of the muscle is red. 
 
 Q. Upon what does the color of a muscle depend ? 
 
 283. PURE BLOOD is essential to the health and strength 
 of a muscle. If the air of a room is impure, the blood 
 becomes impure ; consequently the muscles are soon ex- 
 hausted, and we feel restless. 
 
 Q. What is necessary to the health and strength of a muscle ? 
 What condition of the blood causes exhaustion and restlessness ' 
 
MUSCLES. 
 
 117 
 
 Remark. -^ The restlessness of children in a school 
 room may be diminished or removed by ventilating the 
 room. 
 
 Q. How can the restlessness of children in the school room be 
 diminished ? 
 
 Fig. 92. 
 
 Fig. 93. 
 
 Fig. 92. An improper, but not an unusual, position when writing. 
 Fig. 93. A proper position when writing. 
 
 284. The muscles should be gradually called into 
 use, if we do not wish to weary them too soon. This 
 remark should not be forgotten in driving horses and 
 other animals. 
 
 Q. How should we use the muscles ? What remark in refer 
 ence to driving animals '? 
 
 285. After hard work or severe exercise, the muscles 
 should be rested gradually and the skin thoroughly 
 washed or rubbed. This principle also applies to horses. 
 
 (Seep. 120.) 
 
118 
 
 REVIEW LESSON. 
 
 Fig. 94. 
 
 Fig. E. 
 
 fis 94 A front view of the muscles. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8. Muscles of the head 
 and face! 9. Muscles of the neck. 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20. Milled 
 of upper extremities. 22. Muscles of the body. 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 30, 
 Muscles of lower extremities. 
 

 REVIEW OF THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM. 119 
 
 Fig. E. A back view of the muscles of the body. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7. Muscles of the 
 head and neck. 8, 10, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 43. Muscles of the upper 
 extremities. 9, 11, 12, 24, 25, 26. Muscles of the body. 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33. Mufr 
 cles of the lower extremities. 
 
 Practical Explanation. The muscle 1, fig. 94, by its contraction, raises the eyebrows. 
 The muscle 2, fig. 94, closes the eyelids The muscle 3, fig. 94, elevates the upper lip. 
 The muscles 4, 5, fig. 94, elevate the angles of the mouth. The muscles 6, fig. 94, 
 and 5, fig. E, bring the teeth together. The muscles 7, fig. 94, closes the mouth. The 
 muscle 8, fig. 94, depresses the lower lip. The muscles 9, fig. 94, and 6, fig. E, bend 
 the neck forward. The muscles 3, 4, fig. E, elevate the head and chin. The muscle 
 22, fig. 94, bends the body forward, and draws the ribs downward. The muscle 11, 
 fig. 94, brings the shoulder forward. The muscle 7, fig. E, draws the shoulder back. 
 The muscles 10, fig. 94, and 8, fig. E, elevate the arm. The muscles 11, fig. 94, and 24, 
 fig. E, bring the arm to the side. The muscle 14, fig. 94, bends the arm at the elbow. 
 The muscle 10, fig. E, extends the arm at the elbow. The muscles 16, 18, fig. 94, 
 bend the wrist and fingers. The muscle 19 bends the fingers. The muscles 18,21,23, 
 fig. E, extend the wrist. The muscle 23, fig. E, extends the fingers. The muscles 26, 
 27, 28, fig. 94, bend the lower limbs on the body, at the hip. The muscle 28, fig. 94, 
 draws one leg over the other, (the position of a tailor when sewing.) The muscles 
 27, 28, fig. E, extend the lower limbs on the body, at the hip. The muscles 29, 30, 31 f 
 fig. 94, extend the leg at the knee. The muscles 29, 30, fig. E, bend the leg at the 
 knee. The muscles 34, 36, fig. 94, bend the foot at the ankle, and extend the to. 
 The muscles 31, 32, 33, fig. E, extend the foot at the ankle. 
 
 SYNTHETIC KEVIEW OF THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM. 
 
 270,271,272,273,274. Muscles, 
 
 Muscles, continued, 
 
 268, 269, 275, 276, 277, ) Mua des, } 
 
 278 ........ ) C PHTSIOLOGT 
 
 281, 282, 283. . . . Muscles, continued, ) 
 
 279 ........ Muscles, 
 
 of the MtJscrLAH 
 SYSTEM. (Fig. 
 94.) 
 
 Review by Questions. What can you tell of a muscle ? of its fascia ? oi 
 its fibres ? of its tendons ? of the attachment of tendons to bones ? 
 
 What can you state of the contraction of a muscle ? of its relaxation ? 
 What are voluntary movements ? involuntary movements ? 
 
 What can you say of position ? of rest : What should be the quality of 
 the blood in muscles ? How should muscles be called into action ? ho* 
 rested ? How used to prevent disease ? How is skilful motion attained ? 
 
 REVIEW BT TOPICS. Give the Anatomy of the muscles, the Physiology, 
 the Hygiene. (Use outline anatomical, Plates III. and IV.) 
 
120 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 Q. How should the muscles be rested and skin treated after 
 severe exercise 1 How with horses ? 
 
 Remark. - Rheumatism and other painful diseases of 
 the fasciee and tendons of the muscles, as well as the 
 periosteum and ligaments of bones, are caused by sitting 
 in a current of air after severe exercise of the muscles* 
 
 Q. What will cause rheumatism ? 
 
 286. SKILFUL MOTION is attained by the proper train- 
 ing or education of the muscles. The more correct the 
 training of the muscles in childhood, the more graceful 
 are the movements in adult age. 
 
 Q. How is skilful motion acquired? How are graceful 
 movements in adults attained ? 
 
 287. In teaching writing, not only the position of the 
 pen and the form of the letter should be noticed, but 
 the position of the body, head, and arm should be cor- 
 rect. (Figs. 92, 93.) 
 
 Q. What is said relative to writing 1 
 
 288. There is a constant change in the substance of 
 muscle when used. The wornout atoms of matter are 
 removed and returned to the heart in the blood, while 
 new atoms are supplied through the blood as it comes 
 from the heart. (Figs. 28, 29, 39, 40, 42.) 
 
 Q. What is said of the change of muscles when used I How 
 is the wornout matter removed ? How is new matter supplied l 
 
 REVIEW. 
 
 Anatomy ~\ 
 
 281,282,283. > , Physiology V of the MUSCLES. 
 
 281, 282, 283, 284, 285, 286, 287, 288. . Hygiene ) 
 
 Review by Questions. How should muscles be used ? Upon what does 
 the color of a muscle depend ? What is said of the blood of a muscle ? 
 How should muscles be called into action ? How should muscles be rested : 
 How is skilful motion attained ? What is said of writing ? 
 
 REVIEW BY TOPICS. Give the Anatomy of this lesson, the Physiology 
 the Hygiene. (See anatomical Plates III. and IV.) KEVIEW LESSON, 
 page 118. 
 
THE CUTICLE. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 
 
 289. IN this chapter we shall treat of the part that 
 is, in a striking manner, a " puller down " of the body. 
 The human system is in a state of constant decay and 
 renovation, and the membrane that covers the animal 
 frame forms one of the principal outlets, or drains, by 
 which the old, altered, or useless atoms of matter escape 
 from the body. 
 
 Q. What is said of the membrane that covers the human 
 frame! 
 
 LESSON XXVII. 
 
 290. The means of defence in man do not consist in 
 a thick or scaly covering, but in a delicate and sensitive 
 membrane that envelops the body. This is called the 
 cu'tis, or skin. It is divided into two layers the out- 
 ermost, called the cu/ti-de, (scarf skin ;) the inner, called 
 the cu'tis ve'ra, (true skin.) (Fig. 95.) 
 
 Q. Of how many layers is the skin composed? What are 
 they called ? 
 
 THE CUTICLE.* 
 
 291. The CUTICLE is a thin membrane. It has no 
 blood vessels or nerves. For this reason, when it is cut 
 
 * Illustrate this lesson by experiments, outline plates, and the black- 
 hoard. 
 
 11 
 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 it neither bleeds, nor is there pain felt. It is the layer 
 of the skin that is raised in blisters. (Fig. 95.) 
 
 Q. Describe the cuticle. Which layer of the skin is raised 
 in blisters ? 
 
 Experiment. To show that the cuticle has no nerves 
 or blood vessels, pass a pin though the portion that skirts 
 the nails, or shave a thin piece from the palm of the 
 hand. 
 
 Q. How can you show that the cuticle has no blood vessels 
 or nerves ? 
 
 Fig. 95. 
 
 Fig. 95. 1,1. The cuticle. 2, 2. The colored layer of the cuticle. 
 4, 4. The network of nerves. 5, 5. The true skin. 6, 6, 6. Three nerves 
 that divide to form the network. 
 
 292. The cuticle contains a chemical substance called 
 al'Lu-men. It exists nearly pure in the white of an egg. 
 
 Q. What chemical substance does the cuticle contain 1 Where 
 does it exist nearly pure ? 
 
 293. Dried albumen is softened by alkali, as soda 
 and soap, but hardened by alcohol or vinegar. Hence 
 
THE CUTICLE. 123 
 
 in fevers, or when the skin is dry and inactive, bathe 
 with pure water, or water that contains a small amount 
 of alkali. 
 
 Q. How is dried albumen softened ? How hardened 1 What 
 should we bathe with in fevers ? 
 
 294. The under surface of the cuticle contains the 
 coloring matter of the skin. In the African it is black ; 
 in the Indian it is copper colored ; in the European it 
 varies with the race. (Fig. 95.) 
 
 Q. Where is the coloring matter found that gives the skin its 
 different hues ? 
 
 295. The cuticle varies in thickness in different parts 
 of the body, from the delicate skin upon the lips to the 
 thick and almost horny covering of the palms of the 
 hands and soles of the feet. 
 
 Q. Does the cuticle vary in thickness in different parts of thft 
 body? 
 
 296. The cuticle is thickened by gradual exercise. 
 This is a kind provision of the Creator, as it affords in- 
 creased protection to those persons engaged in manual 
 employments, 
 
 Q. How is the cuticle thickened '? Wherein is the result a 
 kind provision of the Creator ? 
 
 297. The cuticle, when removed, is formed again by 
 atoms of matter from the blood vessels of the inner layer 
 of the skin. This material is at first quite soft, but 
 gradually hardens so as to shield the highly sensitive 
 layer of the skin. 
 
 Q. When the cuticle is removed, how is it reproduced ? 
 
 Illustration. The inner bark of a tree is much softer 
 than the outer. In spring the inner parts are nearly 
 fluid. 
 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE, 
 
 298. When the cuticle the natural covering of the 
 nerves of the skin is removed by burns or scalds, the 
 smarting nerves should be quickly covered with flour 
 or any simple dressing. 
 
 Q. What is the natural covering of the nerves of the skin ? 
 How should burns be dressed ? 
 
 299. As God, in his great goodness, has provided 
 agents and material to renew the cuticle when destroyed, 
 there is no need of " healing salves " and " ointment '* 
 to produce " new skin," 
 
 Q. Why do we not need healing salves and ointments ? 
 
 EEVIEW. 
 
 291,292,293,294,295.296,297.. . . Anatomy > 
 
 290, 291, 292, 293, 294,' 295, 296, 297. . Pkynolotnj } of the CUTZCLZ. 
 
 293,293,299 Hygiene* V 
 
 Review by Questions. How is the skin divided ? What can you say of the cuticle ? 
 of its chemical composition ? of its coloring matter? of its thicftness? of the means liy 
 which it is thickened ? How is it renewed when removed? How should burns bo 
 treated ? 
 
 REVIEW BY TOPICS. Give the Anatomy of the cuticle, the Physiology, the Hy- 
 giene. (See outline anatomical, Plate IX.) 
 
 LESSON XXVIII. 
 
 300. "While the structure of the cuticle is in harmony 
 with its use, placed as an insensible covering between 
 external objects and the delicately organized subjacent 
 parts, the inner layer of the skin, on the other hand, is- 
 highly sensitive, and the seat of many functions. From 
 the importance of its structure and use it is called cu'tia 
 ve'ra, (true skin.) 
 
 Q. Give the comparison between the cuticle and cutis vera. 
 
 ' 
 THE CUTIS VERA.* 
 
 301. The CUTIS VERA is more dense than the cuticle. 
 * Illustrate this lesson by experiments, outline diagrams, and th 
 
THE CUTIS VERA. 125 
 
 It contains nerves, blo&d vessels, per-spi'ra-to-ry glands, 
 and ducts, and oil glands and ducts. (Figs. 95, 96, 97.) 
 
 Q. Describe the cutis. What does it contain ? 
 
 302. The ner ;e* are small, and very abundant, in every 
 part of the skin. Hence we cannot wound the skin in 
 any part without causing pain. (Figs, 95, 96.) 
 
 Q, Describe the nerves of the skin. 
 
 Remark. The skin is the most sensitive part of the 
 body. The muscles {lean meat) have but little feeling ; 
 while the ligaments, (cords,) bones, and marrow have 
 still less sensibility. Consequently the greatest pain to 
 the -patient in surgical operations is in cutting the skin. 
 
 Q. What is said in the remark about the sensibility of differ- 
 ent parts of the body ? 
 
 Fig. 96. 
 
 fig. 96. An ideal representation of the papillae. 1,1. The cutis vera. 
 2, 2. The papillary layer. 3, 3. The arteries of the papillae. 4, 4. The 
 veins of the papillae. 5, 5. The nerves of the papilla;. 
 
 303. The BLOOD VESSELS are the arteries and veins 
 11* 
 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE, 
 
 through which the blood flows to and from the skin. 
 These vessels, as well as the nerves, are very abundant, 
 (Fig. 96.) 
 
 Q. What is said of the blood vessels of the skin 1 
 304:. The PERSPIRATORY GLANDS consist of very small 
 tubes, coiled up in the deeper parts of the true skin. A 
 small duct from each opens upon the external surface of 
 the cuticle. (Figs. 97, 99.) 
 
 Q. Of what does the perspiratory glands consist l What \ 
 said of the ducts ? I 
 
 121 
 Fig. 97. 
 
 13 
 
 Fig. 97. 1,1. The lines or ridges of the cuticle, cut perpendicularly, 
 3. The cuticle. 4, 4, 4. The colored, layer of the cuticle. 5, 5. Tlit? 
 cutis vera. 9, 9. Cells filled with fat. 10, 10, 10. The adipose layer, 
 with numerous fat vesicles. 11, II, 11. Cellular fibres of the adipose 
 tissue. 12. Two hairs. 13. A perspiratory gland, with its spiral duct. 
 14. Another perspiratory gland, with a duct less spiral. 15, 15. OiJ 
 glands, with duct opening into the sheath of the hair, (12.) 
 
 305. These glands separate from the blood, and coi> 
 vey from the system, daily, from twenty to forty ounces 
 of waste matter. This refuse material passes from the 
 skin in the form of perspiration, or sweat. (Figs. 97,99. } 
 
THE CUTIS VERA. 2 
 
 Q. What is the ust .f the perspiratory glands ? In what form 
 does the waste matter ;ass from the skin ? 
 
 Experiment. Place the hand in an inverted cold 
 glass jar ; in a little time the inner surface of the jar 
 will be covered with moisture. This is the insensible 
 perspiration, condensed by coming in contact with the 
 cold jar. 
 
 Q. What experiment shows that the skin is constantly per- 
 mitting waste matter to escape from the body. 
 
 306. The OIL GLANDS are small bodies in the deeper 
 parts of the true skin, from which ducts proceed, that 
 open into the sheath of the hairs and upon the surface 
 of the skin. They separate an oily matter that lodges 
 upon the hair and skin. (Figs. 97, 99.) 
 
 Q. Describe the oil glands. What is their use ? 
 
 307. The waste matter, separated by the perspiratory 
 and oil glands, is composed of water, oil, salt, rust of 
 iron, &c. The water will dry off or evaporate ; but the 
 other products of the waste atoms of matter remain upon 
 the skin, forming a kind of varnish. (Figs. 97, 99.) 
 
 Q. Of what does the waste matter from the body consist ? 
 What becomes of the water? Of the other products of *he 
 waste matter ? 
 
 308. BATHING is necessary to remove the refuse mat- 
 ter from the whole surface of the body. This should 
 be done daily, to secure perfect health of the skin. 
 
 Q. Why is bathing necessary ? How often should we bathe ? 
 
 309. The waste matter adheres to the clothing, and 
 also to the bedclothes. Hence, when worn or usea, 
 they should be aired daily and frequently changed. 
 
 Q. What is said of clothing and bedclothes ? 
 
 310. The garments, particularly of children, should 
 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 be loosely worn, and the quantity should be sufficient to 
 prevent chills. 
 
 Q. How should children be clothed ? 
 
 311. In the morning, and when the body is not tired, 
 we need less clothing than when fatigued or in the 
 evening. At all times wear enough clothing, so that 
 there shall not be felt the slightest chill. 
 
 Q. When does the body need the greatest amount of clothing l 
 What general rule in regard to clothing 1 
 
 REVIEW. 
 
 301,302,303,304,306. . Anatomy ) 
 
 302, 303, 305, 306, 307. . Physiology [ of the CUTIS VEKA. 
 
 307, 308, 309, 310, 311. . Hygiene ) 
 
 Review by Questions. What does the cutis vera contain ? What can you 
 say of its nerves ? of its blood vessels ? of its perspiratory glands ? of its oil 
 glands ? Of what is the waste matter composed ? How is it separated from 
 the body ? What is said of bathing ? of bed clothing ? of garments for 
 children and others ? When should clothing be changed ? 
 
 REVIEW BY TOPICS. Give the Anatomy of the cutis yera, the Physi- 
 ology, the Hygiene. (See outline, Plate IX.) 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 IN this chapter we shall tell you something of 
 the most curious operation of the human system. It is the 
 wonderful function by which the warmth of the living 
 body is kept nearly uniform. It is called animal heat. 
 Q. What doe's Chapter IV., Part III., treat of? 
 
 ANIMAL HEAT. 
 
 313. The HEAT of the human flesh at all seasons of 
 the year, and in all parts of the globe, is nearly the &ame. 
 
ANIKAL HEAT. 129 
 
 From the River Amazon to the Polar Sea the temi 
 ture of the body is about 98. 
 
 Q. What is said of animal heat ? What is the avei 
 perature of the body ? 
 
 314. The heat of the body depends, not upon tne air 
 that surrounds it, or the clothing that covers it, but 
 upon the change of atoms of matter that is constantly 
 taking place in the capillary vessels of the human frame. 
 
 Q. Upon what does animal heat depend I 
 
 315. The wornout atoms of the body are composed, 
 mainly, of carbon and hydrogen. These, when they 
 unite with the oxygen in the blood of the capillary ves- 
 sels in all parts of the system, produce heat.* 
 
 Q. How is heat produced in the body ? 
 
 Remark. The burning or combustion of the atoms 
 of matter in the living body is on the same principle as 
 the burning of coal or wood. 
 
 Q. What is stated in the remark ? 
 
 316. The quantity of heat produced in the system is 
 influenced by the state of the mind, the health of the 
 body, the quantity and kind of food, the air we breathe, 
 the amount of exercise, and the kind of clothing. 
 
 Q. V/hat influences the quantity of animal heat ? 
 
 REVIEW. 
 
 Anatomy } 
 
 312, 313, 314, 315. . Physiology > of ANIMAL HEAT. 
 316 Hygiene ) 
 
 Review by Questions. What is said of the heat of the body ? How is 
 animal heat produced ? What modifies the amount of animal heat ? 
 REVIEW BY TOPICS. Give the Physiology of animal heat, the Hygiene. 
 
 * Let the teacher explain the composition of air, water, food, and 
 blood, and how the three before-mentioned elements enter into the 
 blood vessels of the body. 
 
130 REVIEW LESSON. 
 
 Fig. 98. Fig. 99. Fig. 100. 
 
 Fig. 98. 1, 1. The spinal column. 2. The skull. 4. The sternum. 5. The ribs. 
 7. The clavicle. 8. The humerus. 10. The radius. 11. The ulna. 13. The wrist. 
 14. The hand. 15. The haunch bone. 16. The sacrum. 18. The thigh bone. 19. 
 The patella. 21. The fibula. 22. The tibia. 23. The ankle joint. 24. The foot 
 25, 25. The ligaments of the clavicle, sternum, and ribs. 27, 28, 29. The ligaments 
 of the shoulder, elbow, and wrist. 31. The ligaments of the hip joint. 34, 35. 3fi. 
 The ligaments of the patella, knee, and ankle. 
 
 Fig. 99. 1. The cuticle. 2. The cutis vera. 3. The fat below the skin. 4. 4 
 Perspiratory' glands and ducts. f>. Oil glands. 6. A hair 
 
REVIEW OF THE PROTECTIVE 
 
 131 
 
 Fig. 100. A front view of the muscles. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, C, 7, 8. Muscles of the head 
 and face. 9. Muscles of the neck. 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 1C, 17, 18, 19, 20. Muscles 
 of upper extremities. 22. Muscles of the body. 26, 27, 26, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 36. 
 Musdes of lower extremities. 
 
 SYNTHETIC REVIEW OF PROTECTIVE APPARATUS. 
 
 218, 219, 220, 221, 223, J , 
 224, 226, 227. ... Heai > 
 
 264, 265, 266, 267. . . Composition, of 
 
 260. ....... J; > ANATOMY 
 
 270, 271, 272, 273, 274. Muscles, ) MUSCULA 
 
 Muscles, continued, \ SYSTEM, 
 291, 292, 293, 294, 295, j ^ j CUTANEOUS 
 
 ii*), *WI ...... ) > svsTEJ 
 
 301, 302, 303, 304, 306. Cu 
 222,225 ...... Head, 
 
 233,238 ...... Tr*nk, 
 
 U-' 2?9' SJ' 245> 246 ' i 
 ^4<, <i-jy, ^ou. . . . ) 
 
 251, 258 ..... Lower extremities, 
 
 263,266,267. . . . j ^*- "/ g 
 
 261 ........ ./owta, J IPHTSIOLOGY I " 
 
 268, 269, 275, 276, 277, j Muscl ^ 1 MUSCULAR [ j g 
 
 28 1* 282/283. .' .' '. Mtudu, continued, ) ST8TEM ' 
 
 290, 291, 292, 293, 294, j c j Cur*oc. P 
 
 ^yn, ^y? ...... ) > SVSTEM, ^"^ ^rf 
 
 302, 303, 305, 306, 307. Cutis vera, J HH 
 223 ........ Head, \ 
 
 2^8,234. ..... Trunk, 
 
 Upper extremities, [OSSEOUS 
 257, 258. ..... Lower extremities, } JYSTEM> 
 
 jvy. ) Composition of 
 
 '} ftoiiw, 
 
 262 ........ Joints, ) 
 
 ftn |- y . 
 
 ^ ; Sr 2 : & !"* !"i ! *-*M-i* I TSS 
 
 298,299 ...... Cutic/e, j CUTANEO 
 
 307, 308, 309, 310, 311. Cutis vera, \ SYSTEM, 
 
 Review by Questions. How is the osseous system divided ? What can you say of 
 the anatomy of the head } of the trunk? of the upper extremities? of the lower ex- 
 tremities? of the joints ? What can you state of the structure of muscles? How is 
 tlio skin divided ? What can you relate of the cuticle ? of the cutis vera ? 
 
 What <-an you tell of the use of each of the above-named pans? What can you 
 say of animal he.it? 
 
 What can you relate of the means to prevent disease, and to preserve health in the 
 GSXOOUS, muscular, and cutaneous systems? 
 
 RETIEW FY TOPICS. Give the Anatomy of the protective apparatus, the Physiol- 
 ogy, the Hygiene. (U*e outline anatomical, Plates L, II., III., IV., and IX.) 
 
REVIEW OF THE HUMAN SYSTEM. 
 
 SYNTHETIC REVIEW OE THE HUMAN SYSTEM 
 
 Preface, 
 
 Introduction, . . . 
 General analysis, . . 
 Teeth,. . . . . . 
 
 Salivary glands, . . 
 Stomach, .... 
 
 Small intestine, 
 
 Lacteals, 
 
 Large intestine, . . 
 Synthetic review, . . 
 
 Thorax, 
 
 Lungs, 
 
 Pulmonary vessels, . 
 
 Air, 
 
 Synthetic review, . . 
 
 Heart, 
 
 Pulmonic circulation, . 
 Systemic circulation, . 
 Synthetic review, . . 
 
 Vocal organs, . . . 
 Synthetic review, . . 
 
 DIGESTIVE SYS 
 
 TEM, 
 
 RESPIRATORS 
 SYSTEM, 
 
 CIRCULATORY 
 
 VOCAL SYSTEM, 
 
 Brain, -\ 
 
 Spinal cord and nerves, > 
 Synthetic review, . . ) 
 
 CEREBRO SPINAL 
 
 SYSTEM, 
 
 Feeling, - 
 Taste 
 
 
 - > 
 
 Smell, 
 
 
 
 Seeing, 
 
 ! TEM 
 
 
 
 TEM, 
 
 
 Synthetic review, . . 
 Head, . . 
 
 . 
 
 1 
 
 Trunk 
 
 
 
 Upper extremities, . . 
 Lower extremities, . 
 Composition of bones, 
 
 OSSEOUS SYS- 
 TEM, 
 
 | 
 
 Synthetic review, . . 
 
 Muscles, 
 Muscles, continued, . 
 Synthetic review, . . 
 
 Cuticle, 1 
 
 MUSCULAR YS- 
 
 TEM, 
 
 [VE Al'PABAI 
 
 Cutis vera 
 Animal heat, . . . 
 
 Synthetic review, . . 
 General synthetic rev., 
 
 .CUTANEOUS SYS- 
 TEM, 
 
 cj 
 5 
 
 HARP 
 
 OV A THOUSAND STEINCrS^ 
 
 GENERAL REVIEW BY TOPICS. Give the Anatomy, Physiology, and 
 Hygiene of the organs, systems, and apparatuses of man. Use outline 
 anatomical plates, make tableaux, end draw illustrating figures upon the 
 blackboard. (See pages 58, 59, 90, 91, 130, 131.) 
 
KEY TO ANATOMICAL OUTLINE PLATES. 
 
 KEY TO ANATOMICAL OUTLINE PLATES. 
 
 SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. 
 
 IN using these plates, we would suggest that the pupil carefully examine 
 the illustrating cuts interspersed with the text in connection with the 
 .esson to be recited. The similarity between these and the plates will 
 enable the pupil to recite, and the teacher to conduct, his recitation from 
 the latter. 
 
 Let a pupil show the situation of an organ, or part, on an anatomical 
 outline plate, and also give its structure, while other members of the class 
 note all omissions and misstatements. Another pupil may give the use of 
 that organ ; and, if necessary, others may give an extended explanation. 
 The third may explain the laws on which the health of the part depends, 
 while other members of the class supply what has been omitted. After 
 thus presenting the subject in the form of topics, questions may be pro- 
 posed promiscuously from each paragraph ; and where examples occur in 
 the text, let other analogous ones be given. 
 
 PLATE I. 
 A FRONT VIEW OF THE SKELETON. 
 
 Bones of the Head. 7, The sphenoid bone. 8, The frontal bone. 10, The 
 parietal bone. 11, The os unguis. 12, The superior maxillary bone, (up- 
 per jaw.) 13, The nasal bone. 14, The ethmoid bone. 15, The malar 
 bone, (cheek bone.) 16, The vomer. 17, The inferior maxillary bone, (the 
 lower jaw.) a, Its body, b, Its ramus, or branch. 18, The teeth. 
 
 Bone* of the Trunk. 1, 1, The spinal column. 2, The sternum. 3, 3, The 
 ribs. 4, The sacrum. 5, The innominatum. 
 
 Bones of the Upper Extremities. 19, The clavicle, (collar bone.) 20, The 
 scapula, (shoulder blade.) 21, The humerus. 22, The ulna. 23, The 
 rrdius. 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, The bones of the carpus, (wrist.) 
 
 32, 32, 32, The five bones of the metacarpus, (the palm of the hand.) 33, 
 
 33, 33, The first range of finger bones. 34, 34, The second range of finger 
 bones. 35, 35, 35, The third range of finger bones. 
 
 Bones of the Lower Extremities. 36, The femur, (thigh bone.) 37, The 
 patella, (knee pan.) 38, The tibia, (shin bone.) 39, The fibula. 40,40, 
 40, The bones of the tarsus, (instep.) 41, 41, The bones of the metatar- 
 sus, (middle of the foot.) 42, 42, The bones of the toes. 
 
KEY TO ANATOMICAL OUTLINE PLATES. 
 
 ARTICULATIONS. (Left side of the plate.) 
 
 Ligaments of the Trunk. 1. 1, The common spinal ligament. 2, 2, The 
 intervertebral ligament, (cartilage between the vertebra.) 9, 10, 11, 12, Ar- 
 ticulations of the ribs with the spinal column. 13, 13, 14, 15, 16, Liga- 
 ments that connect the cartilages of the ribs with the sternum. 
 
 Ligaments of the Upper Extremities. 25, The ligament that connects the 
 clavicle and sternum. 27, The ligament that connects the upper rib and 
 clavicle. 28, 29, 30, Ligaments that connect the clavicle and scapula. 81, 
 
 32, 33, 34, Ligaments of the shoulder joint. 35, 35, 36, Ligaments of the 
 elbow joint. 37, 38, 39, 40, Ligaments of the wrist. 41, 42, 43, 44, Liga- 
 ments of the fingers. 
 
 Ligaments of the Lower Extremities. 49, 49, Ligaments of the hip joint. 
 50, 6.0, Ligaments of the patella. 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, Ligaments of the knee 
 joint. .56, A large bursa mucosa. 57, The ligament of the tibia and fibula. 
 58, 58, The interosseous ligament. 59, 59, Ligaments of the ankle joint. 
 60, 61, 62, Ligaments of the metatarsus. 63, 64, Ligaments of the toes. 
 
 A, The brachial artery. B, The brachial vein. C, The radial artery. 
 D, The femoral artery. E, The femoral vein. F, G, The anterior tibia! 
 artery. 
 
 PLATE II. 
 A BACK VIEW OF THE SKELETON. 
 
 Bones of the Head. 5, The occipital bone. 6, Ine parietal bone. 7, The 
 temporal bone. 8, The frontal bone. 9, The sphenoid bone. 15, The 
 malar bone. 16, The nasal bone. 17, The superior maxillary bone, (upper 
 jaw.) 18, The inferior maxillary bone, (lower jaw.) 19, The teeth. 
 
 Bones of the Trunk. 1,1, The spinal column. 2, The sacrum. 3, The 
 coccyx. 20, The innominatum. 4, 4, The ribs. 
 
 Bones of the Upper Extremities. 21, The clavicle, (collar bone.) 22, 
 The scapula, (shoulder blade.) 23, The humerus. 24, The ulna. 25, The 
 radius. 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, The bones of the carpus, (wrist.) 33, 33, 
 
 33, The bones of the metacarpus, (palm of the hand.) 34, 34, 34, The 
 first range of finger bones. 35, 35, The second range of finger bones. 36, 
 36, 36, The third range of finger bones. 
 
 Bones of the Lower Extremities. 37, The femur, (thigh bone.) 38, The 
 patella, (knee pan.) 39, The tibia, (shin bone.) 40, The fibula. 41, 42, 
 43, 44, 45, The bones of the tarsus, (instep.) 46, 46, The bones of the 
 metatarsus, (middle of the foot.) 47, 47, Bones of the toes. 
 
 ARTICULATIONS. (Left side of the plate.) 
 Ligaments of the Trunk. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, Ligaments of the 
 
 spinal column. 14, 14, 15, 15, Ligaments that connect the ribs and spinal 
 
 column. 11, 11, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, Ligaments that connect the sacrum 
 
 and innominatum. 
 
 Ligaments of the Upper Extremities. 27, 28, Ligaments that connect 
 
 the clavicle and scapula. 29, The capsular ligament of the shoulder joint. 
 
KEY TO ANATOMICAL OUTLINE PLATES. 3 
 
 30, 30, Ligaments of the elbow. 31, 32, 33, 34, Ligaments of the carpus, 
 (wrist.) 
 
 Ligaments of the Lower Extremities. 9, Tendon of the gluteus muscle. 
 35, The capsular ligament of the hip joint. 36, 36, Ligaments of the knee 
 joint. 37, The ligament that connects the tibia and fibula. 38, The inter- 
 osseous ligament. 39, 40, Ligaments of the ancle joint. 
 
 PLATE III. 
 A FRONT VIEW OF THE MUSCLES. 
 
 Muscles of the Head and Neck. 7, The sterno-mastoideus muscle. 
 8, The sterno-hyoideus muscle. 9, The omo-hyoideus muscle. 10, The 
 trapezius muscle. 11, The orbicularis oculi muscle. 12, The frontal 
 muscle. 14, The orbicularis oris muscle. 15, The elevator muscle of the 
 nostrils. 16, The zygomatic muscle. 17, The depressor of the lower 
 lip. 18, The depressor anguli oris muscle. 19, The triangular muscle of 
 the nose. 20, 21, The aural muscles. 22, The masseter muscle. 
 
 Muscles of the Trunk. 2, 3, The external oblique muscles. 
 
 Muscles of the Upper Extremities. 1, The grand pectoral muscle. 
 3, 4, The serratus muscle. 23, The deltoid muscle. 24, The biceps bra- 
 chialis muscle. 25, The coraco-brachialis muscle. 26, The anterior bra- 
 chial muscle. 27, The triceps brachialis muscle. 28, The long supinator 
 muscle. 29, The external radial muscle. 30, The pronator teres muscle. 
 
 31, The anterior radial muscle. 32, The palinaris brevis muscle. 33, The 
 anterior ulnar muscle. 35, The palmar muscle. 36, The abductor muscle 
 of the thumb. 37, The adductor muscle of the thumb. 38, 39, Small 
 flexor muscles of the thumb. 40, The abductor muscle of the little finger. 
 41, 41, The lumbricales muscles. 61, 61, The bifurcation of the tendons of 
 the superficial flexor muscle in the fingers. 
 
 Muscles of the Lower Extremities. 42, The fascia lata muscle. 43, The 
 sartorius muscle. 44, The rectus femoris muscle. 45, The vastus externus 
 muscle. 46, The vastus interims muscle. 47, The internal straight mus- 
 cle. 48, The pectineus muscle. 49, The adductor muscle. 50, The psoas 
 muscle. 51, The tibialis anticus muscle. 52, The long extensor muscle 
 of the great toe. 53, The long extensor muscle of the toes. 54, The ante- 
 rior peroneal muscle. 55, The long lateral peroneal muscle. 56, 57, The 
 gastrocnemii muscles. 58, The long flexor muscle of the great toe. 59, 
 The short extensor muscles of the toes. 60, The abductor muscle of the 
 great toe. 
 
 The figures and letters on the left side of the plate indicate the position 
 of important fasciae that cover the muscles and enclose the tendons. 
 
 PLATE IV. 
 
 A BACK VIEW OF THE MUSCLES. 
 Muscles of the Head and Neck. 4, The sterno-mastoideus muscle. 5, The 
 
KEY TO ANATOMICAL OUTLINE PLATK?. 
 
 complexus muscle. 6, The mylo-hyoideus muscle. 7, 8, The oocipito 
 froutalis muscle. 9, The masseter muscle. 10, 11, 12, The anterior, mid- 
 dle, and posterior aural muscles. 13, The temporal muscle. 
 
 Muscles of the Trunk. 1,1, The trapezius muscle. 2, The latissimus 
 dorsi muscle. 3, The rhomboideus muscle. 4, The external oblique muscle. 
 
 Muscles of the Upper Extremities. 5, The deltoid muscle. 6, 7, The 
 infra-spinatus muscle. 9, The triceps extensor muscle. 10, The internal 
 brachial muscle. 11, The long supinator muscle. 12, The external radial 
 muscle. 13, The second external radial muscle. 14, The anconeus muscle. 
 15, 16, The extensor digitorum communis muscle. 17, The extensor carpi 
 ulnaris muscle. 18, The liexor carpi ulnaris. 19, 20, The extensor ossfe 
 metacarpi pollicis muscles. 21, An extensor muscle of the thumb. 22, 28, 
 Interossii muscles. 
 
 Mvisclcs of the Lower Extremities. 29, The gluteus maximus muscle. 
 30, The gluteus medius muscle. 31, The biceps flexor cruris muscle. 32, 
 The semi-tendinosus muscle. 33, The semi-membranosis muscle. 34, The 
 gracilis muscle. 35, The adductor muscle. 36, The vastus externus mus- 
 cle. 37, The sartorius muscle. 38, 39, The gastrocnemii muscles. 40, The 
 long peroneal muscle. 41, The external peroneal muscle. 42, The long 
 flexor muscle of the great toe. 43, The long extensor muscle of the toes. 
 44, The short extensor muscle of the toes. 47, The short flexor muscle of 
 the toes. 
 
 The figures and letters on the left side of the plate indicate the position 
 of membranous fasciae which envelop the muscles and tendons. 
 
 PLATE V. 
 ORGANS OF THE THORAX AND ABDOMEN. 
 
 Fig. 1. The Mouth and Neck. (A side view.) 1, The upper lip. 2, The 
 lower lip. 3, The upper jaw. 4, The lower jaw. 5, The tongue. 6, The 
 hard palate, (roof of the mouth.) 7, The parotid gland. 8, The sublingual 
 gland. T, The larynx. 10, The pharynx. 11, The oesophagus. 12, The 
 upper portion of the spinal column. C, The spinal cord. 
 
 The Chest and its Organs. 9, 9, The trachea. R, The right auricle of 
 the heart. L, The left auricle. 13, The left ventricle of the heart. 14, 
 The right ventricle. 15, The aorta. 16, The pulmonary artery. 17, The 
 Tena cava descendens. 18, The right subclavian vein. 19, The left subcla- 
 vian vein. 20, The right jugular vein. 21, The left jugular vein. 22, 
 The right carotid artery. 23, The left carotid artery. 24, 25, 26, The up- 
 per, middle, and lower lobes of the right lung. 27, 28, The upper and low- 
 er lobes of the left lung. 29, 29, 29, The diaphragm. P, P, P, P, The 
 pleura, that lines the cavity of the chest. S, S, The clavicles. O, O, O, 
 O, The ribs. M, M, M, M, Muscles of the chest. 40, The thoracic duct, 
 opening into the left subclavian vein. 
 
 The Abdomen and its Organs. 30, The stomach. 31, 32, The right and 
 left lobe of the liver. F, The fissure that separates the two lobes. 33, 
 
TO ANATOMICAL OUTLINE PLATES. 5 
 
 The gall bladder. 34, 34, The duodenum. 35, The ascending colon. 36, 
 The transverse colon. 37, The descending colon. 38, 38, 38, 38, The small 
 intestine. 39, 39, The walls of the abdominal cavity turned down. 41, 
 The spleen. 
 
 Fig. 2. The Relation of the Lacteals and Thoracic Duct. 1, 1, A section 
 of the small intestine. 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, Mesenteric glands, through 
 which the lacteals from the intestine pass. 3, Several lacteal vessels enter- 
 ing the enlarged portion and commencement of the thoracic duct. 5, o, 5, 
 The thoracic duct. 6, The thoracic duct opening into the left subclavian 
 vein. 7, (See 40, Fig. 1.) 8, The right subclavian vein. 9, The vena ca- 
 va descendens. 10, 11, 11, The aorta. 12, The carotid arteries. 13, 13, The 
 jugular veins. 14, The vena azagos. 15, 15, The spinal column. 16, The 
 diaphragm. 
 
 Fig. 3. The Relation of the Larynx, Trachea, Bronchia, and Air Cells. 
 1, 1, 1, An outline of the right lung. 2, 2, 2, An outline of the left lung. 
 3, The larynx. 4, The trachea. 5, The right bronchia. 6, The left bron- 
 chia. 7, 7, 7, 7, Divisions of the right bronchia. 8, 8, 8, 8, Divisions of 
 the left bronchia. 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, Air cells. 
 
 Fig. 4. An ideal View of a lateral and vertical Section of the Larynx. 
 1, 1, The superior vocal cords, (ligaments.) 2, 2, The inferior vocal cords. 
 3, 3, The glottis. 4, 4, The ventricles of the larynx. 
 
 PLATE VI. 
 HEART, ARTERIES, AND VEINS. 
 
 Fig. 1. The Heart and large Arteries. 1, The right auricle of the heart. 
 2, The right ventricle of the heart. 3, The left auricle. 4, The left ventri- 
 cle. 5, The pulmonary artery. 6, the aorta. 7, 7, The descending aorta. 
 8, The arteria innominata. 9, The left carotid artery. 10, The left subcla- 
 vian artery. 56, The right subclavian artery. 
 
 Arteries of the Neck and Head. 15, The right carotid artery. 16, The 
 left carotid artery. 17, The right temporal artery. 50, The right facial 
 artery. 54, The left temporal artery. 
 
 Arteries of the Upper Extremities. 11, 11, The left brachial artery. 12, 
 The left radial artery. 13, 13, The right brachial artery. 14, The right 
 radial artery. 51, The right ulnar artery. 
 
 Arteries of the Lower Extremities. 18, The left iliac artery. 19, The 
 right iliac artery. 20, The left femoral artery. 21, The right femoral arte- 
 ry. 22, The peroneal artery. 23, The left anterior tibial artery. 24, The 
 muscular artery. 25, 25, The right and left arteria profunda. 26. The 
 right anterior tibial artery. 27, The right peroneal artery. 
 
 The Veins of the Neck and Head. 28, The vena cava descendens. 29, 
 The left subclavian vein. 30, The right subclavian vein. 31, The right 
 jugular vein. 32, The left jugular vein. 53, The right temporal vein. 55, 
 The left temporal vein. 49, the right facial vein. 
 
 Veins of (he Upper Extremities. 33, The left brachial vein. 34, The left 
 
6 KEY TO ANATOMICAL OUTLINE PLATES. 
 
 radial vein. 35, The right brachial vein. 36, The right radial vein. 51, 
 The right ulnar vein. 
 
 Veins of the Lower Extremities. 37, The vena cava ascendens. 38, The 
 left iliac vein. 39, The right iliac vein. 40, The left femoral vein. 41, 
 The right femoral vein. 42, The left anterior tibial vein. 43, The left pe- 
 roneal vein. 44, The right anterior tibial vein. 45, The right peroneal 
 vein. 46, 46, The profunda veins. 47, The muscular veins. 48, 48, 48, 48, 
 48, 48, Intercostal arteries and veins. 
 
 Fig. 2. The Relation of the Cavities of the Heart to the large Blood Ves- 
 sels. 1, The vena cava descendens. 2, The vena cava ascendens. 3, The 
 right auricle of the heart. 4, The opening between the right auricle and 
 right ventricle. 5, The right ventricle. 6, The tricuspid valves. 7, The 
 pulmonary artery. 8, 8, The branches of the pulmonary artery that pass to 
 the right and left lung. 9, The semilunar valves of the pulmonary artery. 
 10, The left pulmonary veins. 11, The right pulmonary veins. 12, The 
 left auricle. 13, The opening between the left auricle and left ventricle. 
 14, The left ventricle. 15, The mitral valves. 16, 16, The aorta. 17, The 
 semilunar valves of the aorta. 18, The septum between the right and left 
 ventricle. 
 
 Fig. 3. An ideal View of the Heart, Arteries, and Veins. A, The right 
 auricle. B, The right ventricle. C, The tricuspid valves. D, The open- 
 ing between the right auricle and right ventricle. E, the left auricle. 
 F, The left ventricle. G, The mitral valves. H, The opening between 
 the left auricle and left ventricle. I, The septum between the right and 
 left ventricle. K, The pulmonary artery. L, The semilunar valves of the 
 pulmonary artery. M, M, The right pulmonary artery. N, N, The left 
 pulmonary artery. O, 0, O, O, 0, O, The capillary vessels of the lungs. 
 P, P, P, The right pulmonary vein. Q, Q, The left pulmonary vein. 
 R, R, The aorta. S, The semilunar valves of the aorta. T, T, A branch 
 of the aorta to the upper extremities. U, U, U, U, A branch to the lower 
 extremities. V, V, V, V, V, V, The capillary vessels at the extremity 
 of the branches of the aorta. W, W, The descending vena cava. X, X, X, 
 The ascending vena cava. 
 
 In Figs. 1, 2, 3, the course of the blood through the circulatory vessels is 
 indicated by arrows. 
 
 PLATE VII. 
 THE PULMONARY CIRCULATION. 
 
 Fig. 1. 1, The right auricle of the heart. 2, The left auricle. 3, The 
 right ventricle of the heart. 4, The left ventricle. 5, The pulmonary 
 artery. 6, The branch of the pulmonary artery to the left lung. 7, The 
 branch of the pulmonary artery to the right lung. 8, 8, 8, 8, 8, 8, 8, 8, 8, 8, 
 Branches of the pulmonary artery in the right and left lung. 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 
 Air cells. 10, 10, 10, 10, 10, 10, 10, Small pulmonary veins in the right 
 and left lung. 11, The left pulmonr.ry vein. 12, 12, The right pulmonary 
 
KEY TO ANATOMICAL OUTLINE PLATKS. 7 
 
 Fig 2. An ideal View of the Pttlmonary Circulation. 1,1, The right 
 lung. 2, 2, The left lung. 3, The trachea. 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, The right bron- 
 chia. 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, The left bronchia. 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, Air cells, with arteries 
 and veins passing around them. 7, The right auricle of the heart. 8, The 
 right ventricle of the heart. 9, The tricuspid valves. 10, The pulmonary 
 artery. 11, 11, 11, 11, The right pulmonary artery. 12, 12, 12, 12, 12, The 
 left pulmonary artery. 13, 13, 13, 13, The right pulmonary vein. 14, 14, 
 14, 14, The left pulmonary vein. 15, The left auricle. 16, The left ven- 
 tricle. 17 The mitral valves. 18, The septum between the right and left 
 ventricles. 
 
 Fig. 3. An ideal Vieic of the Capillaries. 1, 1, A branch of the pul- 
 monary artery. 2, 2, A branch of the pulmonary vein. 3, 3, Capillary 
 vessels between the artery and vein. 
 
 Fig. 4. An ideal View of the Relations of the Bronchia, Air Cells, Pul- 
 monary Arteries, and Veins. 1, A bronchial tube. 2, 2, 2, Air cells. 3, A 
 branch of the pulmonary artery. 4, A branch of the pulmonary vein. 
 
 PLATE VIII. 
 
 THE CEREBRUM, CEREBELLUM, SPINAL CORD, AND 
 NERVES. 
 
 I, The cerebrum. 2, The cerebellum. 3, 3, The spinal cord. 4, The 
 brachial plexus of nerves. 5, The lumbar plexus of nerves. 6, The sacral 
 plexus of nerves. 7, The facial nerve. 8, 17, The radial nerve. 9, 9, 16, 
 The ulnar nerve. 10, The median nerve. G, The circumflex nerve of the 
 shoulder. 
 
 II, 11, The great sciatic nerve. 12, The external popliteal, or peroneal, 
 nerve. 13, 13, The posterior tibial nerve. 14, Th* external tibial nerve. 
 15, The muscular branch of the external peroneal nerve. 18, The muscular 
 branch of the sciatic nerve. P, Q, The posterior tibial nerve. 
 
 The letters and other figures indicate minor nervous filaments distrib- 
 uted to the various muscles and the skin. 
 
 PLATE IX. 
 
 THE SKIN. 
 
 Fig. 1. A perspiratory Tube and Gland. 1, 1, The contorted portion of 
 she tube that forms the gland. 2, 2, Two branches which unite to form 
 the main duct of the gland. 3, 3, The perspiratory tube. 4, The cuticle. 
 6, Its colored portion. 6, The cutis vcra, (true skin.) 7, 7, Fat vesicles, 
 in which the gland is embedded. 
 
 Fig. 2. A Papilla of the Skin. 1, 1, Two papillae, formed of an artery, 
 vein, and nerve. 2, 2, 2, 2, Nerves forming a loop in the papillae. 3, 3, 
 Arteries of the papillae. 4, 4, Veins of the papillae. 5, 5, A network of 
 
KEY TO ANATOMICAL OUTLINE PLATES. 
 
 arteries, veins, and nerves. 6, 6, Nerves of the skin. 8, 8, Arteries of the 
 skin. 7, 7, Veins of the skin. 
 
 Fig. 3. A Hair, and its Oil Glands, 1,1, The hair. 2, 2, The sheatl 
 of the hair. 3, Oil glands that surround the bulb of the hixir, the ducts 
 of which open into the sheath of the hair, (2, 2.) 
 
 Fig. 4. A Section of the Skin. 1, 1, The cuticle. 2, 2, Its colored por- 
 tion. 3, 3, The papillary layer. 4, 4, A network of arteries, veins, and 
 nerves upon the upper surface of the cutis vera. 5, 5, 5, 5, The cutis 
 vera, (true skin.) 6, 6, 6, Hairs that originate in the cutis vera. 7, 7, 7, 
 Oil glands, the ducts of which connect with the sheath of the hair. 8, 8, 8, 
 8, 8, S, 8, 8, Perspiratory glands and their ducts. 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, Nerves of 
 the skin. 10, 10, 10, 10, 10, Arteries of the skin. 11, 11, 11, 11, 11, Veins 
 of the skin. 12, 12, 12, 12, Papillae, or ridges of the skin. 
 
 PLATE X. 
 AN ANTERO-POSTERIOR SECTION OF THE EYE. 
 
 Fig. 1. 1, 1, The sclerotic coat. 2, 2, The cornea. 3, 3, The choroid 
 coat. 4, 4, The retina. 5, 5, The iris. 6, 6, The posterior chamber of the 
 eye that contains the aqueous humor. 7, 7> The anterior chamber. 8, 8, 
 The pupil. 9, The crystalline humor. 10, 10, The vitreous humor. 11, 
 The optic nerve. 12, A representation of a pen. 13, An inverted image 
 of the pen (12) on the retina. 14, 14, A canal surrounding the crystalline 
 humor. 15, 15, The bevelled junction of the cornea and sclerotic coats 
 A, A perpendicular ray of light from the pen. B, B, Oblique rays that are 
 refracted in passing through the humors of the eye. 
 
 Fig. 2. A View of the External, Middle, and Internal Ear. 1, 1, The 
 external ear. 2, The meatus auditorius externus, (the tube that connects 
 with the middle ear.)* 3, The membrana tympani, (drum of the ear.) 8 
 8, The tympanum, (middle ear.) 4, The malleus. 5, The incus. 6, The 
 orbicularis. 7, The stapes, (stirrup bone,) that connects with the vestibule 
 of the internal ear. 9, 9, (4, 5, 6, 7, The small bones of the middle ear,) 
 10, 11, 12, The semicircular canals. 13, 13, The cochlea. 14, The auditory 
 nerve. 15, The division of the auditory nerve to the semicircular canals. 
 16, The division to the cochlea. 17, 17, The Eustachian tube. 18, The 
 chorda tympani nerve. 19, The seventh pair (facial) nerve. 20, The sty- 
 loid process of the temporal bone. 21, 21, 21, 21, 21, The petrous, or hard 
 portion of the temporal bone, in which the parts of the middle and internal 
 ear are situated. 
 
TEXT BOOKS 
 
 UPON 
 
 &natomy, Physiology, and Hygiene. 
 
 lecommended by the Hon. N. W. EDWARDS, School Sup't, IU. 
 
 [UMAX AND COMPARATIVE ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AXD 
 HYGIENE. For District Schools. With 100 Engravings. 132 pages. 
 By MRS. EUNICE P. CUTTER. Price 33 cts. 
 
 This work contains full directions for ihe study and teaching of Anatomy, Physiology, 
 nd Hygiene. This is a new feature. Every teacher would profit by it. The plan of 
 he wurk can be gathered from the following fac-simile of the table of contents : 
 
 Preface, 6 
 
 Introduction, 8 
 
 General Analysis,.... 10 
 
 Teeth, 13 
 
 CHAP. I. | Salivary Glands, 19 
 
 Stomach, 22 
 
 Small Intestine, 26 
 
 'STUDY .UE. 
 
 DIGESTIVE 
 SYSTEM. 
 
 CHAP. II. 
 
 RESPIRATORY 
 
 SYSTEM. 
 
 CHAP. III. 
 
 CIRCULATORY 
 SYSTEM. 
 
 CHAP. IV. 
 
 VOCAL SYSTEM. 
 
 CHAP. I. 
 
 CEREBRO-8PIXAL 
 
 SYSTEM. 
 
 Lacteals, 30 
 
 Large Intestine, 32 
 
 Synthetic Review,... 35 
 
 ( Thorax, 3G 
 
 j Lungs, 39 
 
 < Pulmonary Vessels,.. 43 
 
 Air, . 45 
 
 |^ Synthetic Review^.. . 48 
 
 Heart, 50 
 
 Pulmonic Circulation, 53 
 
 Systemic Circulation, 56 
 
 Synthetic Review,.... 58 
 
 ,. 61 
 
 Vocal organs 
 
 Synthetic Review,.... 64 
 
 1 1 am fearfully and 
 uronderfully made." 
 
 CHAP. II. 
 
 SENTIENT 
 SYSTEM. 
 
 CHAP. I. 
 
 OSSBOU8 
 SYSTEM. 
 
 CHAP. II. 
 
 MUSCULAR 
 
 SYSTEM. 
 
 CHAP. III. 
 
 CUTANEOUS 
 
 SYSTEM. 
 
 Brain, 67 
 
 Spin'l Cord & Nerves, 70 
 Synthetic Review,.... 72 
 
 Peeling, 73 
 
 Taste, 74 
 
 Smell, 75 
 
 Seeing, 76 
 
 Hearing, 80 
 
 Synthetic Review,... 84 
 
 Head, 86 
 
 Trunk,. 89 
 
 Upper Extremities, . . 93 
 Lower Extremities,.. 97 
 
 Joints, 101 
 
 Composit'n of Bones, 105 
 Synthetic Review,.... 108 
 
 C Muscles, 110 
 
 < Muscles, continued,.. 114 
 Synthetic Review,... 1-20 
 
 C Cuticle, 122 
 
 CntiM Vera, 126 
 
 { Animal Heat, 129 
 
 j Synthetic Review,... 130 
 I General Syn. Review, 132 
 
CUTTER'S REVISED 
 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE, 
 
 1. ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE, for Colleges, Academies, High 
 Schools, and Families. 458 pages, 150 illustrating engravings. By CALVIN CUTTKR 
 'M. D. Price $1.00. 
 
 2. FIRST BOOK IN ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE, for Grammar 
 and Select Schools. 180 pages, 83 illustrating engravings. By CALVIN CUTTER, M D. 
 Price 45 cents. 
 
 3. CUTTER'S LARGE OUTLINE ANATOMICAL PLATES, (10 in a set, three feet 
 by two,) beautifully colored and mounted, for Colleges, Academies, and High Schools. 
 Price $10.00. 
 
 4. THE SAME, colored but not mounted. Price $5.00. 
 
 5. CUTTER'S DISTRICT SCHOOL OUTLINE ANATOMICAL PLATES, (8 in a set,) 
 beautifully colored and mounted, for Grammar and District Schools. Price $6.00. 
 
 6 THE SAME, colored but not mounted. Price $3.00. 
 
 EEAD THE FOLLOWING. 
 
 Mission Schools. 
 Cutter'H Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene has been introduced as a text book into 
 the Mission Schools of China, Burrnah, Ceylon, Sandwich Islands, and the Cherokee 
 Indians. It also has been translated into the Tamil language by the Missionaries! of India. 
 
 Normal Schools. 
 
 These works are used in the three State Normal Schools of Massachusetts, the State 
 Normal School of Michigan, and the State Normal School of New York. 
 
 " I hereby certify that Cutter's Physiology, the last edition, (1852,) has been adopted 
 as the text book in that science by the Executive Committee of the Stale Normal 
 School. T. ROMEYN BECK, Secretary. 
 
 "Albany, JV. Y., October 19, 1852." 
 
 Colleges^ Academies, and Seminaries. 
 
 In the report of the Colleges, Academies, and Seminaries of the State of New York, 
 to the Regents of the University of the State, 140 report the study of Physiology ; of 
 these, 127 now use Cutter's Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene, with Cutter's Ana- 
 tomical Platos. 
 
 In every State of the Union Cutter's works are as extensively used in Colleges, 
 Academies, and Seminaries as in the State of New York. 
 
 State Recommendations. 
 
 EVERV STATE BOARD OF EDUCATION that has recommended text books upon Anat- 
 omy, Physiology, and Hygiene, has adopted Cutter's. To this there are no exceptions. 
 They have been recommended in MAINE, NEW HAMPSHIRE, VERMONT, MICHIGAN, 
 INDIANA, and ILLINOIS. 
 
 Illinois. 
 
 The Colleges, Seminaries, Academies, and Public Schools of the following places in 
 Illinois have adopted Cutler's works as text books upon Physiology : Chicago, Spring- 
 fiek', Jacksonville, Alton, Bloomington, Waukegaii, Woodstock, Belvidere, Elgin, St. 
 Charles, Rock ford, Freeport, Galena, Mt. Morris, Joliet, Morris, Ottawa, Peru, Aurora, 
 Princeton, Rork Island, Henry, Lacon, Peoria, Galeshurg, Moiimuiitli, Maromb, Kusli- 
 ville, Lebanon, Hillsboro', Greenfield, Chesterfield, Paris, Marshall, Quincy. 
 
 S3" COPIES FOR EXAMINATION. =C5 
 
 For examination, single copies will be sent by mail, postage paid by me, at folloxvinj 
 
 rates, PAYMENT in post office stamps sent iw advance : 
 
 Human and Comparative Jinatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene, by Mrs. E. P. CUTTER, 21 cts. 
 Anatomy, Physiology, and flt/gienc, by CALVIN CUTTER, M. D., ... 63 
 First Book on Jlnatnmy, Physiology, and Hyyiene, by CALVIN CUTTER, M. D., 27 
 Books for examination, and Books and ANATOMICAL PLATES for introduction, can he 
 
 obtained of JOHNSON & BRADFORD, Springfield , of S C. GRIGOS & Co., Chicago ; of S. 
 
 H. & G. BURNETT, Peoria ; of CLARK, AUSTIN, &, SMITH, New York City ; and of 
 
 CALVIN CUTTER, M. D., Warren, Mass 
 

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