B THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE SUGGESTIONS FOR THE APPLICATION OF PSYCHOLOGY TO EVERYDAY LIFE BY STANLEY M. BLIGH THIRD IMPRESSION HUMPHREY MILFORD OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS LONDON EDINBURGH GLASGOW NEW YORK TORONTO MELBOURNE BOMBAY OXFORD : HORACE HART PRINTKK lO THE UNIVKKSITV 3r ^f8 PREFACE This book makes no claim to be scientific in the strict sense of the word. It aims chiefly at suggesting new lines of inquiry with regard to the alteration of the tone of consciousness, where that is desired. It is hoped that it may be found useful by those who have no time or inclination for reading longer and more serious works on Psychology, but who at the same time have an interest, either for their own sake or for that of others, in investigating the possibilities of the human personality. The statements of psychological principles are- not intended to be regarded as in any sense authoritative. As far as possible any tendency to dogmatism has been avoided. Apologies are offered for the absence of qualifications and reserva- tions where they do not appear. They have only been omitted for the sake of clearness where it seemed that they would have complicated the general line of argument without being positively necessary. The main intention has been to give hints and suggestions to be used as a starting- point for personal observation and experiment. The object aimed at throughout has been to call iv PREFACE attention to the possible uses of what has been named ' directive ' Psychology. The facts upon which theories or principles in regard to the matters here discussed could be established with any high degree of probability have yet to be collected. Perhaps a hope may be entertained that this book may lead to their being more accurately ascer- tained. That such may prove to be the case is the most earnest wish of the author. The personal experiences of those who may feel any interest in attaining self-direction, and in recording their efforts with regard to it, would, if obtainable, form the basis for a more complete and useful study of various problems which have been so roughly outlined in these pages. Truer and more precise affirmations may be rendered possible by the discovery of errors in what is here provisionally put forward for con- sideration. S. M. B. April 16, 1910. CONTENTS CHAPTER I PAGE 1. Character considered as a complex of desires is not invariable, as has been suggested, but can be modified by the methods of directive psychology . 1 2. Directive psychology shows the advantages which may be derived by training the imagination to conceive the personality as it might become, and it suggests methods of training ..... 8 3. A desire for change of character may be due to admiration for strength and fineness of personality, and a wish to possess those qualities . . .14 4. Change of character may be desired on the ground that the satisfaction with existence is increased in proportion as our consciousness progresses towards eome end of which we approve . . . . .21 5. To arrive at a correct estimate of the personality, we have first of all to grasp the idea of ' objective introspection ' , and this is arrived at by making a summary of our main tendencies and interests . . 29 6. An analysis of the motive elements is also necessary, and this should be largely theoretical and specially designed to assist the mind in making an estimate of the personality . . . . .38 7. By conceiving in advance the possible effects of lines of thought on ourselves and others, we introduce new factors which gradually modify the force and direction of desires 45 8. The ideal picture of the personality has to be related to the pressures of daily life : not every ideal picture can be realized in every set of circumstances . 53 vi CONTENTS PAGE 9. The objections that many people would take to directive psychology are that in their opinion it develops undue egotism and morbid introspection on the one hand, and involves a sacrifice of the present to the future on the other . . . . . .61 10. It is almost essential to any personal application of directive psychology that there should be a species of self-confidence, or a kind of faith in oneself. This can be built up partly from the experiences of others and partly on the basis of small experiments on oneself 69 CHAPTER II 1. The tendencies of every personaUty are partly self-regarding and partly social or altruistic. Directive psychology aims at finding a line on which both can be developed. The method is that of selection from the immense variety of objects to which attention and interest may be directed ..... 76 2. Social pressures act by means of direct punish- ment, economic rewards, ostracism, excommunication, ridicule, the direction of the imitative tendencies, moral education, and religious sanctions . . .84 3. Those members of groups who bring social pres- sures to bear on individuals are generally only partially aware of the effects thereby produced. They usually desire to advance group interests, and are, in the main, indifferent to the interests of individuals . . .91 4. The family pressure tends to subordinate the interests of the individual to that of the family, and to promote the ends of the individual only as far as these subserve the aggrandizement of the family . . 99 5. Religious sects, whilst offering the advantages which may be derived from an organized as opposed to an individual religion, often exert an undue pressure in the direction of apparent conformity to sect opinion and custom 105 CONTENTS vii PAGE 6. Social cliques and some professions tend to strengthen themselves at the expense of their mem- bers, and especially of their least influential members 112 7. How far the State as a whole subordinates the individual depends on the national ideal, and hardly anything has varied more widely than this . .120 8. Formidable as these pressures may appear, they tend to neutralize one another; they can often be avoided, and a trained imagination can mostly elude them 128 CHAPTER m 1. The self-nourishing tendency is usually over- strong and misdirected. Social pressures in the form of conviviality increase these evils. The reasoning imagination should grasp the effect of various forms of nourishment and subordinate immediate inclinations where they conflict with the effects that are desired. Social pressures should be organized to assist in this subordination 136 2. The problem of the motor impulses is to ascertain how they can be made to contribute to the sum of pleasurable sensations and to the health of the indi- vidual, whilst subordinated to the welfare of the social organism and not allowed to predominate unduly in consciousness 141 3. Whilst the fear impulse when guided by reason- able appreciation of facts is necessary for the avoidance of dangers, the diffused sub-conscious forms of fear are a pure evil. These may generally be avoided by a proper training of the mind 146 4. Repulsions may occur in relation to persons, ideas, places, animals, occupations, tastes, or scents. Whilst the tendency to repulsion is sometimes innate, the particular instances of it are probably in most cases founded on unpleasant associations. Applied psycho- logy teaches how they may be partially created and dispelled as occasion requires 154 viii CONTENTS PAGE 5. The sympathetic element is that by which we tend to be affected by a state of feeling in another when it is brought to our notice. The main end of directive psychology is to make it result in fitting action, and not in mere inner emotion . . . 162 6. The gregarious tendency leads people to delight in thinking and acting in a mass and not as individuals. It has high social utility for certain purposes, but tends to prevent or check the growth of individuality . 170 7. Self-assertion, if accompanied by practical wisdom and self-criticism, is the basis of strength of personality. The problem of directive psychology is to cultivate it in a form fit for social uses . . . 178 8. The acquisitive tendency is either instinctive or based on the desire for material comfort in the future, and leads to the social virtue of thrift. Directive psychology has to suggest rules for deflecting it, where necessary, into channels which are consistent with consideration for others, and especially to make it the source of novel and useful ideas . . . 185 9. The constructive impulse, particularly in its more original forms, is of the greatest social value, and deserves fuller recognition and encouragement than it now obtains. Directive psychology can only make tentative suggestions as to the lines on which these might be given 193 10. Directive psychology, recognizing the great variety of opinion with regard to the emotions and passions having a sexual origin, can only make tenta- tive suggestions as to what forms of them should be classed as morbid or undesirable, and try to show how these may to some extent be avoided . . . 201 11. The problem of directive psychology with re- gard to the curiosity impulse is to elaborate principles for calling the desire to know into existence, in as per- fect a form as the cerebral mechanism will in each case allow 208 CONTENTS ix PAGE 12. Directive psychology treats of the religious impulse in relation to the qualities which go to make up what are known as saintliness or spiritual-minded- ness. It deals with conscience as a factor in the building up of an idealized personality . , .215 CHAPTER IV 1. The memory of feelings and emotions previously experienced, if properly organized in relation to the imagination, is one of the best methods of ensuring the ' voluntarily prepared reflex ' leading to any desired line of thought or action. Symbols and relics are particularly effective in calling this power into play 223 2. The power of holding pictures in the imagination, or of rehearsing the course of conduct intended to be followed, clears paths in the brain through which nervous energy can flow. This conduces to effective and appropriate action of the kind intended at the moment when it is needed ..... 230 3. Auto-suggestion is the process of giving to oneself verbal suggestions appropriate to the general aims. These are more effective if given just before sleeping or lapsing into semi-consciousness. This practice tends to re-enforce tastes and desires which are approved by the critical judgment and to lessen the force of those not so approved 23? 4. Thought and action may be inhibited — that is, deflected or altogether prevented — by a system of pre- paration by which the probable ill-consequences wliich will result from them are strongly and persistently held before the imagination ..... 245 5. The interchange of ideas and points of view in the ' affinity -relationship ' herein defined can be used for the improvement of the personality. A new stimulus to effort and new interests are thereby called into being 252 X CONTENTS PAGH 6. The self- regarding sentiment is the source of what are here considered as efforts of the will. Proper training increases the force of these efforts. They may be of use both in resisting the incitements of others and in overcoming apathetic tendencies .... 260 7. Unselfish interests have a considerable value for the personality, and their growth may be fostered by filling the mind with appropriate ideas in such a manner that the ' emotional glow ' leading to action or self- sacrifice is created ....... 267 8. Intellectual and emotional habits, if wisely formed, may control, partially at any rate, those affective states which it is desired to alter or improve. Atten- tion to the choice of impressions and stimuli, and to the power of re-enforcing those selected, are the methods which directive psychology suggests for the formation of proper mental and emotional habits . . . 275 9. Desire impulses may be sublimated — that is, made to take forms more in accordance with social requirements, or with the higher aspirations of the personality — by a process of selection from among the materials supplied by certain forms of Art, particularly the Drama and Literature 284 10. The tendency to imitate qualities of character admired in others should be utihzed to attain those qualities for oneself. The power to imitate is in- creased if the steps by which other persons have gained or improved those quaUties can be ascertained . 291 11. Influences arising from the aspirations and practices of social groups may be used by individuals for the stimulation of desirable qualities, and for the concentration of attention in certain directions. Directive psychology can make suggestions with regard to the selection of groups suitable for these purposes ......... 12. External conditions and bodily sensations pro- foundly affect the condition and direction of conscious- 298 CONTENTS xi PAGE ness. Each individual must select the special condi- tions most suitable to his own needs, but directive psychology can make a few provisional suggestions that will frequently be found useful ..... 306 CHAPTER V 1. It is possible to attain a high degree of satisfaction from reflection and meditation. The power to do this gives independence, and at the same time causes the personality to be a source of interest to others who have not acquired it 314 2. Influence, for the purposes of directive psycho- logy, is the power of altering ' standards of value ' — that is, the 'relish of right and wrong' — in others. A coherent practical belief about the main questions of life, based on a persistent emotional attitude towards them, and some lucidity of thought, are the essentials for gaining this kind of influence . .321 3. Groups tend to crystallize and become self- conscious when a number of individuals become aware that they have desires which can be promoted by common action. Whoever actively assists in the crystallization of a new group tends to gain influence over it. Groups having as their main object the alteration and improvement of habits and customs are those which have the most interest for directive psychology 329 4. Regular and systematic observation along the lines suggested by a study of directive psychology gives many results which, though perhaps worthless for scientific purposes, are of practical utility, both in judging the capacities of individuals and in forecasting the probable movements of public opinion . . 337 5. Psychological education merits more attention than it gets. It should include definite t&aching with regard to the effect of mental styatea on physical health, the recognition of aptitudes nocessafy for economic success, the proper use of leisure, the preparation foi xii CONTENTS PAGE self-direction in adult life, the development of the synthetic quality in the personality, the elimination of prejudice, and habitual concentration as opposed to indefiniteness of mind 345 6. Directive psychology is useful mainly to those in whom the self -regarding sentiment is well developed, who make the cultivation of their personality their chief concern, and who are convinced that they can mould their inclinations so as to increase their own happiness and that of those with whom they come in contact 353 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE I. 1 CHARACTER CONSIDERED AS A COMPLEX OF DESIRES IS NOT INVARIABLE, AS HAS BEEN SUGGESTED, BUT CAN BE MODIFIED BY THE METHODS OF DIRECTIVE PSYCHOLOGY. May we, as Nietzsche says, be the gardeners of our inchnations ? That is the question which must be asked at the very beginning of such a book as this. Can we, as he says : ' as richly and advantageously cultivate the germs of anger, pity, inquisitiveness, vanity, as we train a beautiful fruit along the wall ? ' The contrary theory is called by Nietzsche ' the doctrine of the invaria- bihty of character'. First of all then how should character be defined for the purposes of this discussion ? It will be used as meaning the desires and tendencies of the personahty, and the outward manifestations by means of speech, conduct, manners, and actions, by which those desires are evidenced. It will cover both the idea which each of us holds of himself, and the impression which he gives to others. Some of the outhnes of each character are clearly marked, the rest are vague and undecided. Character is created by the education and train- ing brought to bear on the congenital dispositions, that is, the innate qualities and tendencies which heredity gives each of us at birth. The general 2 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE opinion seems to be that character becomes fixed towards the end of adolescence and is afterwards incapable of being varied to any appreciable extent. It is true that at that age the general lines have declared themselves, and the predominant mental faculties have become evident to a trained observer. But is this any reason for assuming that no changes can afterwards be effected by the efforts of the person himself ? If this were so it would constitute a tragedy in many lives. It is only at about this age that the average person begins to reflect on the question of human personality generally, and on the potentiahties of his own. The fact that he has been up to then under authority of one sort or another, and has had but few opportunities of mixing with the world accounts for this. He has rarely formed a personal judgment about the value and relative importance of the various methods by which the desires may be directed. His mind is occupied rather with vague feelings than by clear thoughts. Actual experience, however, shows that character can be changed, even in adult life, by those who have confidence in themselves and take pains to follow the proper methods. The lines upon which this can be done have never received an adequate amount of discussion. This is partly because scientific material has been wanting for such discussion, partly because the prejudice in favour of invariability of character has been supported by philosophic authority, and partly because many practical people think that the everyday business of Ufe ought to absorb all the energies, and leave nothing over for the consideration of the future of the personahty. THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 3 Now, if there can be such a Science as directive psychology it would endeavour to alter all this. Following the lines of applied sociology it would seek to produce in the human personality artificial phenomena consciously and intentionally directed. The personahty would be studied not so much to understand the mechanism by which the sensa- tions are aroused, or the ways in which they are combined and worked up (all that being in the province of pure psychology), but to discover the causes of the inefficiencies and of the discontents, and to provide practical remedies for them. The materials of this possible Science of directive or applied psychology would be firstly the results attained by pure psychology, and secondly, obser- vations and experiments conducted for its own special purposes. At present directive psychology is so much in its infancy that it hardly know^s that it is born. It has to meet all sorts of criticisms and objections, and to meet them with but very httle material for replying to them. Perhaps the chief of these objections is the prejudice against self-experi- mentation in moral matters. The sacredness of the emotional life is held as a kind of dogma by many people with an intensity which is only equalled by its vagueness. The emotions and the passions are regarded as a kind of Ark of the Covenant, on which unsanctified hands must never be laid. Our emotional nature is half consciously regarded as sent us by Providence for its own purposes ; it is thought that we must not tamper with it lest we weaken it, that we must not even inspect its workings too closely lest we get morbidly introspective and our blood tiu-n to water. 4 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE Now directive psychology goes dead in the face of these old prejudices. It would set before itself for solution two main questions, how self- consciousness c^n be made a blessing to its pos- sessors, and how jieople can be enabled most easily to follow their own reasoned and sincere choice in matters of thought and conduct, with as little hindrance as possible from their lower passions and tendencies : no observations, no experiments which tended to help in the attain- ment of these ends would be considered either impious or dangerous, or derogatory to human dignity. It would impartially examine and test all suggestions coming from whatever sources which might enable it to formulate practical principles, even though in the present state of knowledge such principles should be merely pro- visional and should need early revision. It would realize that mistakes must be made at the begin- ning, and that considering the immense variety of personahty with which it would have to deal, methods which were highly valuable in some cases would be just as deleterious in others. In its present stage it would especially try to make its appeal in untechnical language to all those whose education, tastes and leisure gave them opportuni- ties of testing its principles by their own experi- ence, in the hope that it might get the benefit of their experience in the future. If it is to be practical it must not remain in a remote world of its own, occupied with laboratory experiments, but must fit itself for the needs of daily life, but at the same time it must not neglect to incorporate within itself all the best results which pure psychology of the orthodox kind has produced, or may produce. THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 5 Conduct, it has been well said, is the means by which we seek to gratify desire, and desire, with its higher form aspiration as evidenced by conduct, is one of the main subjects of directive psychology. The most primitive form of desire is that merely to exercise bodily activities and experience sensa- tions. It is common to animals and young children. This is what has been called ' The will to Hve '. After that comes the desire for know- ledge, for self-criticism, for such understanding of the universe as is possible. Finally, there is the wish to exercise power over, or exert influence on, other personahties, which is known as the ' Will to Power '. All these three vary in force according to age and circumstances. It is in the condition of plasticity caused by their variations that there is an opportunity for the direction of desire. Currents of desire start in the human personality as the Gulf Stream starts in the Ocean, though at present we know very much less about their causes : as a rule the Will to Live predominates in the child and young person. These mostly lead a semi-animal hfe in which the instinctive tendencies to nutrition and motion predominate in the consciousness. The personaUty is strongly open to suggestion. Impressions and opinions are taken in uncritically, though the action is some- times controlled by the blind desires which do not quite reach the field of clear consciousness. At or after adolescence the rational and critical faculties awaken, often causing a pronounced reaction from the former ways of hfe. It is the time of inward struggle, of scepticism, of discon- tent with the self. It may last well on into life, and whilst it lasts the consciousness is peculiarly 6 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE impressionable to pure ideas. It is a period of the search for truth, for principles, for abstraction ; of the proverbial cat's pilgrimage in search of knowledge and of a law by which to govern one's life. Lastly comes the period of maturity when the Will to Power develops its forces. The impulses to realize in action the opinions which have been formed, to influence other people, to react against those factors of the social environment which seem unsatisfactory, take possession of the personaHty and become dominant in one shape or another. It is not of course suggested that every personaUty always goes through these stages in regular order as a chrysalis develops into a butterfly. Some never emerge from the childish automatic instinc- tive stage ; some never get beyond being mere theorists, revolving ideas endlessly within the limits of their own consciousness ; some never have the courage to do an3rthing which would bring down on them even temporarily the unfavourable notice of those around them. Others go through all these stages in miniature because feehng so much predominates in their consciousness that it fails to be converted into action. These have an inner inability to will boldly, arising not out of fear but out of an undue awareness of their own processes, and of the conflicting values of pleasure and pain. But enough has been said to show that a process of change goes on in almost all normal human beings which can be taken advantage of to make new departures. Many people wonder why good resolutions so often come to nothing, and why hell is proverbially THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 7 paved with good intentions. The reason seems to he that such good resolutions were undertaken at inauspicious moments, under unfavourable circumstances, and with quite insufficient pre- paration. A good resolution to be effective in- volves a different direction of desires : it means setting up a new balance of forces within the personaHty. No amount of mere abstract ap- proval, or sense of future advantage taken barely and by itself, can be relied upon to overcome strong habitual impulses founded on the lower instincts. New and stronger impulses have to be built up, and the methods of impulse building, and the laws on wliich impulses work, so as to act in a trustworthy and efficient manner in the houi." of need, are the problems which directive psychology has to set itself to disentangle, and as far as possible to make clear. The phrase of St. Paul, ' The thing that I would I do not, and that which I would not that I do,' is true of nearly all of us, but it ought not to be beyond the power of directive psychology to render it possible for every person (wilHng to take pains and undergo the necessary discipline) to make a much larger proportion of successes and a smaller proportion of failures in following his dehberate choices as he goes through Hfe. This is an attempt, very hesitating and imperfect it is true, to outline some of the principles and methods which each person can for himself test in practice. It does not aim at being distinctly ethical, it leaves the question of right and wrong on one side whenever possible. It simply gives theories and practical hints to those who want to carry out their dehberate choice, as to how that / THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE __ derate choice may be realized. It is not in the least dogmatic ; it tries to lay the basis of self- experiment, and to encourage self-experimentation in every way. It starts on the basis that most people suffer, and make others sufier, unnecessarily, owing to an imperfect knowledge of, and an in- sufficient attention to, the laws of human conscious- ness, and is written in the hope that it may be of assistance to those who have to face certain difficulties with an equipment with which they are not satisfied. DIEECTIVE PSYCHOLOGY SHOWS THE ADVANTAGES WHICH MAY BE DEEIVED BY TRAINING THE IMAGINATION TO CONCEIVE THE PERSONALITY AS IT MIGHT BECOME, AND IT SUGGESTS METHODS OF TRAINING. It now becomes necessary to give some con- sideration to that side of the human personahty which is covered by the word ' imagination '. The common opinion seems to be that the imagina- tion is some power by which poems or novels may be written, or pictures may be painted, and which in one way or another leads to hterature or the fine arts. As an alternative it is treated as a troublesome quahty which has unfortunate social results, and in particular the epithet imagi- native is most frequently used in a sUghtly derogatory sense, and is apphed to those who have an insufficient grip on concrete reahties. For this view our present system of education is very largely to blame ; for it is very rare that any trouble is taken to explain the nature and laws THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 9 of action of the imagination to children or young persons, in whom it is almost always exceedingly active, or to give them any suggestion for its guidance along lines that would be advantageous to the personahty. Consequently, being untrained, it first runs riot in all sorts of wild fancies and reveries, and then getting no regular exercise, and becoming more and more out of touch with reahty, it decays, so that in middle life it very often ceases altogether. Now the real function of the imagination is to j create by combining facts of experience ; to asso- I ciate together, and make into new products, ideas / which at first sight may seem quite incongruous and incapable of any rational connexion. It is here treated of, not in its relation to literature and to the fine arts, but in its direct relation to life. It is the problem-putting and problem-answering side of the consciousness. It is by means of problems put in their clearest and most concise form that it is taught to function, and the object of its training is to make it give results which can be proved in practice just as a sum in arithmetic may be proved to be correct. All "young people have minds that tend to be ques- tioning: they want to understand the existence into which they have come. The questions they put are often insoluble and usually to the grown-up mind seem more or less absurd. No answers are given, no suggestions are made as to where they may be found, no explanation is given as to the preUminary inquiries and investigations which must be made before any solution is possible. On the other hand, all sorts of knowledge for which there is no appetite at all are thrown into the youthful mind. B 3 10 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE This is particularly true about the questions relative to the human personality with which psychology deals, and the consequence is that the dawning impulse to try to understand the self in its synthetic aspect is checked and discouraged. Further, the results of not understanding this synthetic aspect is to make the self appear a more or less disconnected bundle of inco-ordinated impulses, not guided from within but moulded casually by forces from without, over which the self can exercise httle or no control. The true end of psychological education should be just the contrary to all this. It should explain the synthetic quality as soon as there is any evidence of curiosity with regard to it, and it should state as clearly as possible that the person- ality is built up in one direction or another accord- ing to the force of the conceptions held in regard to it in the consciousness. Most young people make pictures to themselves of their ow^n noble or heroic conduct in all sorts of impossible circum- stances. That is part of what is called the ideahsm of youth. They are very rarely encouraged to hold in their thoughts the unified idea of the states of consciousness which they would prefer to predominate as they advance in Hfe. Most children fancy what they would hke to * be * when they grow up, but what they imagine is left to their own unguided notion, and it is generally objective — such as being a soldier and wearing a showy uniform. This of course is all that they are capable of at a certain age, but the trouble comes in when that age is passed and no image is put in its place. It is a notable fact that a large percentage of the people who have attained to THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 11 anything in the world have been those whose mothers have put before them in the clearest possible way some conception of what they ought to make for and the quahties needed to gain it. The reason of this is that the attention is directed to all the details wliich go to make up the desired picture, and a taste for and pleasure in those details is thus formed. The same process can be gone through, though perhaps with more difficulty, when people are old enough to form a proper synthetic conception of their own personaUty, and when they have sufficient psychological know- ledge to reahze their own potentialities, and what course of thought and conduct is Hkely to give them the deepest and most lasting satisfaction. The advantages of making what may be called a synthetic conception of the future of the person- ahty can be most clearly seen by the results of not making any, and unfortunately those results are so common that they offer themselves only too often to the most casual observer. The person without a synthetic picture of what he may become falls either into a dead routine pressed upon him by others, or in a still worse case becomes the common ' drifter ', that is, the type of being whose soul is full of ennui and dissatisfaction with hfe, and whose thought and conduct are dictated by the last strong personality with whom he happens to have been brought in contact. He lives in a state of perpetual regret because his impulses are at war with one another, and in one mood he is more or less remorseful for what he has done in another mood or under some past influence. Instead of directing his attention to t>he organization of the future, he allows it to 12 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE ; waste itself in deploring his circumstances and thinking what he might have done had they been different. Directive psychology aims at being a kind of preventive medicine of the mind which would stop such states of consciousness from ever coming into existence. The imagination trained along its Hues would only review the past in a positive and detached spirit, with the object of finding fitting materials for the organization of the future. The possibilities of interest always before the consciousness would be so intense and so varied that ennui, except in the case of definite disease, would be almost non-existent. y The essential function of the synthetic power in the personahty is to co-ordinate all the desires and ideas into one consistent scheme of Ufe. There may be any amount of variety in a proper scheme of life ; ! a man may play many parts either simul- taneously or one after the other, but there must be unity in the ^ense that the parts do not antago- nize each other. Thus a man may be a historian and a pohtician hke Thiers or M. Hanotaux, or a scientist and a pubhc controversialist like Huxley ; he may even be stern in public life and easy going to a fault in private life, but he cannot, without serious loss to his personality act incon- sistently, and pull down with the one hand what he builds up with the other. The imagination can also be used as the instru- ment by which a man can arrive at a knowledge of the degree of self- detachment which the quahties of his personahty render necessary and desirable, and these vary very widely in different people. Some interests are, so to speak, very personal, THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 13 even very seltish ; they may be indirectly of immense social benefit, but they have a very direct relation to the centre of the personahty. The desire to build up an immense personal fortune is perhaps the best instance of this. The man who does it may make useful inventions, he may reorganize business to the great advantage of his community, he may cheapen commodities to the poorest classes by a better system of dis- tribution, but his motive is to gain something for himself. Others, such as missionaries and a certain kind of philanthropists, of whom PHmsol would be an instance, attain a very high degree of detachment from personal ends. Sometimes in a long Hfe one can trace nothing but self-sacrifice and self-abnegation. Such people want nothing for themselves, they make no gains, they seek no honours ; the work itself and its progress give them the satisfaction. They are not necessarily more socially beneficial, but they exhibit a different direction of thought and conduct : they cannot work purely for themselves. Speaking broadly, women are perhaps less self-centred than men: they are poorer hands at making a purely personal bargain, they do not care so much for their own advantage, they focus their attention less sharply on their own commercial future. They will suppress themselves for a cause or more especially for a small group of persons, or one person on whom their affections have become set. They feel isolation even though it be splendid. On the other hand, their sympathies are not quite so wide as those of men who take an impersonal hne — such men as Dr. Barnardo for instance. They tend more to focus their impersonal efforts on a smaller U THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE number of people, and so perhaps to do the work more thoroughly. The essential for every personality is to foresee by means of the imagination how the forces within can best be stimulated and liberated. I. 3 A DESIRE FOR CHANGE OF CHARACTER MAY BE DUE TO ADMIRATION FOR STRENGTH AND FINENESS OF PERSONALITY, AND A WISH TO POSSESS THOSE QUALITIES. Just as a person may look into a shop window, see an article, admire it, and desire to possess it, so he can look at another, admire his personality, and desire that his own should possess the quahties admired. In both these cases a process of the imagination goes on, a process of comparison in which the personality as existing at the moment is mentally compared with what it might be if the article or the group of qualities were added to it. No general agreement has been reached as to the ultimate analysis of this inner comparison. Some say that it is a comparison of pleasure- producing effects. Others appear to think that admiration and desire for quahties of the per- sonahty are something rather different and spring from an innate moral consciousness, from what was formerly so much discussed under the name of conscience or inward monition of the moral law. For the present purposes either theory will suit equally well : all that is needed is the admission that qualities of the personality may be admired and desired as such. It is true that the untrained mind admires them quite uncritically, and usually THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 15 because they serve some material end, and desires them not according to knowledge but with the vaguest possible notion of how they may be brought into being. But once the admiration and desire are given, they may be educated, and it is the business of directive psychology to suggest methods of education. The quahties of the personaHty most generally admired are strength and fineness ; in popular language most people want to have what is called a ' strong will ', and many wish for what is usually spoken of as a ' fine nature '. We must now try to define more clearly what this strength and fineness really are, and why they are to be valued. This can be approached in two ways, by enumerating what are known as the efficiency qualities, and by noting the conditions which obtain in a personaHty which is affected by morbid instability. A clear and lucid conception of the main end to be attained, a faculty of decision as to the most appropriate ends^ by which it can be reached, a firm resolution which does not suffer itself to be deflected by opposition, a power of prolonged attention to detail and a moral perseverance which is the equivalent in the inward Hfe of physical endurance in the outward Hfe, seem to be the main characteristics going to make up strength. The aim may be social, or selfish and quite anti-social ; the possession of these qualities does not in themselves make a man socially admirable, but they make him personally admirable in that they enable him to carry through to a successful con- clusion anything he sets his mind to, which would be impossible to weaker spirits. Napoleon may THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE jgarded, and often has been regarded, as an ogii, and as the scourge of Europe, but even those who condemn him most strongly can hardly withhold their admiration of him for his singular combination of these efficiency qualities, and his training of them in the service of his personal ambition. More is known about the defects of these quahties than of the quahties themselves, because those suffering from the defects come more closely under the observation and control of doctors interested in psychology. The types of weakness or instabihty have been studied and classified, and they are worth noting as warnings. It is just as true that a consideration of them creates a desire to avoid them as it is that a consideration of the efficiency qualities creates a desire to become efficient. A tendency to instability or weakness no doubt exists in most personalities to a greater or less degree, in one direction or another, and it is very often allowed to increase till it gets to a point which unfits the persons for practical everyday fife involving any stress, because it has not been checked in time by some form of psychological training. First then there may be instabihty of the in- tellect, a condition which often begins with long reveries or day dreams, and passes into the con- dition known as distraction, in which the mind seems to be ' absent ', and to have no grip of the surrounding actualities. To the intellectually unstable it is pleasurable to live in a sort of unreal or dream world, because they have not mental force to master actuahties. A case has been known of a man who, being unstable intellectually, THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 17 and having at the same time an active imagina- tion, constructed a whole coherent fancy picture of an existence which was furnished with de- Ughtful houses, a charming wife and children, and every sort of accessory. This state tends to resemble hypnosis when the impressions from the dream consciousness force themselves into predominance and produce illusions, and a total incapacity to distinguish between the outer world of actuality and the inner world of imagination. In a mild form this state is commoner than is supposed, and is responsible for the failure to judge accurately and according to evidence about persons and situations. ^ ~-~ Next comes instabihty of the instinctive tenden- ^ cies, and these cause perversions of the moral impulses and morbid repulsions to things, persons and places. The instances include sudden and causeless hkes and dislikes, and changes and varia- tions of tastes, perhaps a wild and unreasonable incHnation for solitude, or a horror of being left alone. A morbid quarrelsomeness, a tendency to extravagance, or miserhness are not uncommon, f The distinguishing mark of this condition is that ■ the impulsion or repulsion is not to be accounted I ,for on any rational ground, it is not adapted to ) \gerve any true end of the personahty. — /"iSmotional instability comes next, and this is ^ distinguished from the one last mentioned because it is more a matter of feehng and is less liable to lead to action of any sort. In actual hfe, however, the two are often indistinguishable. The conmion forms are hatred of new ideas or things, morbid fears and want of pleasure in. occupations or amusements hitherto pleasurable. ) 18 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE (^ Shyness and timidity in the presence of strangers and extreme self-consciousness are the milder forms. Again the distinguishing mark is the disproportion between the possible consequences , which may reasonably be anticipated, and the ydread of them which may be present to the mind.) Lastly, there is instabiUty in respect to movements;' leading to useless fidgetings, sometimes to in- coherence of speech, and inability to write or to do certain special things which have hitherto been habitually and easily done. Now all of these four classes of instabiUty have ( been stated in their extremer forms in which they ' are not very often met with in ordinary hfe. But in their very mild forms in which they are not so easily noticeable, they are common enough, and they are in one way or another the causes of that general weakness of personaHty which is called a weak will. They lay the personality open to attack by others, they hinder it whenever it sets out to gain any end. The account of them is necessarily somewhat tedious and unpleasant, but it is necessary as a prehminary explanation of why some types of personality are admired and their quahties are desired ; they supply a sort of touchstone for the inquirer to aim at. Just as in war the general who makes fewest mistakes is the one who wins, so in personaUty it is often the one who has least drawbacks, rather than the one who has some showy quahty carried to extraordinary lengths, who attains to what he has aimed at in the battle of hfe.: There are, of course, various types of strength of personaUty, and any of these may form the THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 19 ideal of particular people and be peculiarly suitable to their particular circumstances. There is the resistant type, the individuals composing which are known in popular language as ' dogged '. Their peculiarity is that they can resist pressure from others. They are usually not very intellectual, and they are not changed by new ideas. Their instinctive impulsions are very unvary- ing, and their emotional tone changes very Httle. They do not become panic stricken, they keep their heads in times of difficulty. They know what they want and they cannot be scared. Of a somewhat dogmatic temper, they are exceed- ingly sceptical of anything which does not lend itself to their objects. The world can find but few 'weak points in their armour, and their course ■through Hfe is consequently untroubled. _- - Beyond these are the type which, as well as resisting others, can to some extent set up an imitative tendency in those with whom they are habitually brought into contact. They are usually slightly original without being open to the charge of eccentricity. The stability and rehability of their active tendencies, the force and certainty of their emotional reaction to any question, and often the lucidity of their intelligence, make them men of influence, and what the lesser provincial newspapers call ' prominent citizens '. In the highest class of all are men of the type of Dr. John- son, who slowly affect the opinion and attitude of their age often without doing anything very noteworthy or writing anything- particularly striking. They seem to act on the individuals with whom they are brought into immediate contact, to produce a marked change in their THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE (ok, and on the direction of their thought, e in turn influence others in ever widening circles. The real secret of this type of personality still remains mysterious ; all that can be said of it is that it exists as a fact. .-^ — Piiiefiess of personaUty is less easy to define jithan force of personahty. It can be felt, andj (when it is felt, it is a purifying force of the very; greatest importance. There are no objective tests/ such as outward success, by which it can be recog- nized. Some are themselves so finely attuned that they recognize almost instinctively or in- tuitively, and by methods which they cannot analyse, the fine quaUties in others. Fineness depends on the habitual direction of the mind, the objects which are most usually held before the consciousness. As a provisional definition of those objects, the contemplation of which makes for fineness of personahty, it may be said that first of all they should be predominantly/ non-material, that is, they should not be con*/ / cerned with objects of direct sensation, but witK ideas. The non-material objects of contemplation would be, for instance, the advancement of science (\ or philosophy, the deepening of the rehgious/ consciousness, artistic creation, or the theory of^/ _how to influence others for. their own welfare/^ These stand in strong contrast with more material desires to enjoy the pleasures of the table, to make money, to surround oneself with ostentatious luxury and so on. Further, to make for fineness of personahty, these objects of contemplation must be so held in the mind that the thinking of them out must be not laborious and conducted as a solemn but THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE ^3 somewhat unpleasant duty, but with delight and as the preferred occupation of the consciousness. In the problems which are considered, there must be some possibihty of utility to mankind, some reference to their effect outside the personahty. There must be no tendency to work something out for the purposes of mere undirected curiosity, and having satisfied that impulse to destroy the results. Finally, there must be some outlook oh to wider , and, if possible, ultimate issues ; there must be ; '^a recognition of Bacon's maxim, that the end oil j philosophy is the convenience of mankind. / / If for one reason or another, certain qualities of personality are not desired, apphed psychology has no motive force, it is an engine without any driving power. People will only come to it when they think it will get them what they want. They will not try to understand its principles if they , think it leads to nowhere in particular. It does ■ show the way to the attainment of these quahties : of strength and fineness of personahty, and who- \ ever wants them can be assisted in gaining them | by its principles. / I. 4 r' I CHANGE OF CHARACTER MAY BE DESIRED ON THE GROUND THAT THE SATISFACTION WITH EXISTENCE IS INCREASED IN PROPORTION AS OUR CONSCIOUS- NESS PROGRESSES TOWARDS SOME END OF WHICH WE APPROVE. People can ^e roughly divided, in respect of their satisfaction with the condition of their own consciousness, into the predominantly contented, the essentially discontented, and the resigned, who 22 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE as far as possible accept things as they come, and hold a kind of neutral or hopeless attitude towards existence. The condition of dissatisfac- tion coupled with a hope for, and a belief in, the possibiHties of greater satisfaction is that which supplies a motive for the study of directive psychology, and so it has to be considered here in conjunction, and to some extent in comparison, with the motive suppUed by admiration of, and desire for, the qualities observed in other people, which has already been dealt with. Useful and brilHant qualities stand out in an objective way, and carry with them some sort of worldly success, but the inner satisfaction which some people contrive to get out of existence carries with it no outward marks and is not very often made a topic for discussion. Thus, whilst a large proportion of the world assumes that the search for happiness constitutes the true end of Hfe, in point of fact very few people have ever tried to make any careful analysis of the factors on which happiness depends, and they very often end by vaguely and half consciously defining it to themselves as a sort of succession of pleasures. By pleasures they mostly mean the effective response to some exciting stimulus which they would wish to be continued or repeated. Happiness is, indeed, very often valued according to the intensity of the pleasurable excitement experienced; it is, as one hears said, ' the only thing worth Hving for.' In this sense happiness is a chance matter and not in any one's control. It depends on whether external circum- stances produce stimuli of sufficient intensity, and variety. Prudence may partially control, circumstances, and that is all that can be done. THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 23 There is, however, another type of happiness which is not produced by pleasant external scimuii, and is even to some extent independent of the evil efiect of painful or annojdng external stimuU. It is curious how Httle attention is paid by everyday people to this type of happiness. Its comparative neglect is due to its having no excitements, no glorious moments, and to its being usually worth- less as a means to other ends. Practically it must be an end in itself, or it is not an object of desire at all. As it achieves nothing, it comes to be looked upon by the more restless spirits of the world as a sort of inglorious pussy-cat mental comfort, and to be rather scorned by those whose tendency is to run about after some new thing. Just as a nomadic Arab, who lives by raiding, would despise the love of physical comfort which characterizes the luxury-loving inhabitants of some centre of civiUzation, so those who live by alarms and excursions, by adventures and excite- ments, despise the philosophically minded, who slowly build up a group of harmonious quahties and convergent interests, in the hope that thereby their consciousness may become more dehghtful to them. Yet there is nothing anti-social about the quiet-minded person who beUeves that happiness of a certain sort can be attained by the direction of thought and the gradual creation by the use of imagination of a group of tastes and tendencies '_ which are harmonious though varied, nor is there anything socially admirable in the passionate and excitable. These last, however, because they make the most noise and tumult, because their exploits and sorrows excite sympathy, and because they 24 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE form suitable heroes and heroines for romances, get imitated more frequently, often by those who are by nature really unfitted for their adventurous career. --- -- This section is only meant to deal with the cases 1 of those who believe in peace of mind as one of jthe most desirable of possessions, and who for its / sake would be moderate in seeking for excitements f and amusements coming from outside the person- 1 ality. These cases are perhaps rare, because there, is no financial gain to be made and no literary reputation to be secured by bringing them into prominence. The consequence is that no imitative tendency is set up in other persons whose happiness lies on those lines. Part of the fault, it must be owned, lies in the quiet-minded themselves. They are usually individuahsts ; they have no need for combination, and so they do not combine. It is not necessary for their enjoyment that they should gather into crowds and organizations and associations ; indeed, it would have the effect of diminishing their enjoyment. They are often sensitive, ahdrinore or less unfitted for making a good dialectical defence of their conduct, or even for giving a very adequate explanation of it. On the face of it they have nothing to offer which will compare with the more garish joys of the world. The religious Hfe of former days had at least this advantage, that it gave the quiet people their chance. It provided them with retreats where they could lead the simple and secluded life, and secure ataraxia or freedom from worry and care. These quiet people seem to live so much for them- selves and to themselves (as Hazlitt puts it) that their social utility is questioned. It is true they THE DIRECTION OF DE8IRE 25 are not celebrated for any active work, they are not the leaders and organizers of a hustling world ; but they have a social function all the same, and a function which has been perhaps unduly under- estimated, but is now forcing its way into a tardy recognition. They are a living protest against materialism and social struggle ; they realize, each in his own corner, a kind of representation of the kingdom of God which may be within us. They are often not actively rehgious : their disUke of grouping and movements keeps them away from what are known as the ' activities of the Churches ' ; but the best of them, at any rate, are object lessons in the possibilities of making the soul beautiful. They are monks of Thelema, living, not in a monas- tery together, buT as hermits in the desert of the world. Their method is to select their own better tendencies, and to cultivate them for their own inner satisfaction. Some day they will become the fashion (the rhythm of existence makes all types of character become fashionable one time or another), and when they become the fashion, they will be better understood. The fact that at present they are misunderstood, at any rate prevents their ranks from being over-filled with insincere and undesirable recruits, with those who are not temperamentally fitted to join them. Now the essence of the right temperament for the quiet-minded life is a love of meditation and a dislike of a high emotional tension, especially when produced by external excitements. The popular impression, especially in these days of large cities, and of a Press abounding in scares and headlines, is that a condition of low emotional tension is necessarily and inevitably dull. ' I want 26 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE to live,' ' you cannot live,' are the phrases which are always heard, and which are intended to give expression to the idea that one can only live interestingly when stimulated by a series of excite- ments. It is no doubt true that it takes less effort to live interestingly under these conditions, and for many the dangerous life ipso facto is the interesting hfe. Some personaHties need what Nietzsche says every true man longs for — 'danger and play', and if they are absent, they only exist, they do not become conscious of the throb of real life. But the quiet-minded find existence afT^~Best when their condition of emotional tension is com- paratively low, and when their trains of thought are not broken in upon too roughly by direct sensations. They have acquired the art of medi- tating, and they find in meditation the surest and most lasting pleasures. If directive psychology is to make its appeal to all types of personality, it must meet the demands of these quiet people, it cannot ignore their necessities. It must be prepared to show them the principles upon which the quiet life can best be led ; it must give them rules for lowering the emotional tension when they want to lower it, and it must teach them how to meditate. The chief enemy of the quiet hfe is the tumult of incongruous and incompatible desires, the inability to make the processes of consciousness progress towards some desired goal, the failure to get hold of any central idea which will weld the personality into one synthesized I whole and make it a source of joy to its possessor. [People of the quiet temperament suffer much from the pressure of the more active spirits around them, \but they suffer more because they are constitu- THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 27 ' -t tionally indisposed to external action, and because their emotions are accentuated by this inability to find an outlet for their desires. They have not the relief of achieving something remarkable, and they feel all the more in consequence. They get no pleasure from emotional tension, and yet it is ever present with them until they know how to get rid of it. Emotional tension has hitherto been used" without any special definition, but it is now necessary to examine it more closely. There are no words in the Enghsh language which are habitually used in everyday life to express the conditions of excitement with any accuracy. Passion is used to imply emotional violence Ukely to do harm to the person who is passionate, or cause him to be a nuisance to his neighbours. It is rarely u^ed as Professor Ribot uses the corresponding French word in his book on the passions, with the meaning of an organized and durable emotional state which so predominates that it permanently controls the whole personaUty in such a way as to be prejudicial to its main and true interests. We have no word to convey this sense of the French ' passion '. The least objec- tional phrase which conveys this meaning is * lasting emotional tension ' ; the best phrase to express the ordinary meaning attached to the EngUsh word passion is ' overmastering emotional tension '. The characteristic of these emotional tensions is that they tend to gain control of the personality for a longer or shorter period, and to substitute for its main and permanent interests, which would be recognized by the reason, a course of conduct or condition of consciousness which gives free play to the excited feelings. 28 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE This makes little difference to those who are intentionally passionate : they live for their excitements, they get their pleasures from them, they are willing to subordinate the rest of their personality for the sake of the gratification they get from the emotional tensions. This they call ' getting experience ' ; whether they are right or wrong is not a subject that can be dealt with here ; it must be assumed that they have a right to their opinions. But there are others who, though subject to passions, both in the English and French sense, wish for internal calm, and have just as great right to it if they can get it. The secret that these have to learn is how certain kinds of thought can break down emotional tensions till finally they tend not to appear. The phrase to * work oneself up into a passion ' has passed into current speech ; it could be wished that some equivalent phrase could be found for the reverse process. Thought tends to clear and modify feeling, muscular relaxation tends to diminish passion because muscular tension is a necessary accom- paniment of it. Using these two together, the emotional tension may be lowered, provided this is done in advance. If the circumstances and causes of the passion are impartially analysed, if its effects on the whole personality are recognized and mentally held in abhorrence, if the muscles are intentionally relaxed whilst it is being thought of, then it dies away of itself. The art of medi- tating in this connexion resolves itself into attaining a state of calm whilst thinking of matters naturally of an exciting nature, and it depends on setting over against causes of excitement, other and THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 29 ulterior considerations. Meditation is often used in the sense almost of reverie ; it should be used in this relation rather as a sort of contrivance for adapting means to ends for the benefit of the personality. It should be definite, it should be clear, it should be capable of being expressed lucidly in words. It is a power habitually exercised of talking reason to oneself. This, then, is the second and perhaps the lower reason for undertaking the study of applied psychology. It will increase the happiness of some classes of individuals, or, if that is too large an expression, it may at least be said to conduce to their internal comfort. If they are at ease with themselves and conscious of an internal harmony, they will present fewer edges to others, and they will radiate contentment. That is not a negligible factor in the general progress of humanity. 1.5 TO ARRIVE AT A CORRECT ESTIMATE OF THE PERSON- ALITY, WE HAVE FIRST OF ALL TO GRASP THE IDEA OF ' OBJECTIVE INTROSPECTION ', AND THIS IS ARRIVED AT BY MAKING A SUMMARY OF OUR MAIN TENDENCIES AND INTERESTS. Having explained why certain persons might consider it worth their while to apply their mind along the lines suggested by this particular variety of psychology, it is now possible to consider what those lines may be. The first necessity is to get as accurate an outline as possible of the personahty as it exists at the moment, and the instrument by which this outline is produced is ' objective ' THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE^ _^ .. /rospection '. It need hardly be said that intro- spection is defined as ' inspection inwardly of one's own thoughts and feeUngs *. Now what does the word ' objective ' add to this ? It adds the idea that, instead of looking directly inward, and so blurring the picture of what is within, we should, by a process of inductive reasoning, discover what must be in it by the character of what comes out. This way is the most rehable, because it enables a person to get something which extends over a considerable time, and which is not the result of a mere temporary mood of exaltation or depression. First one gets objective facts, such as how time and money are spent, what sort of people are associated with, and so on. That is the objective side. Then one asks oneself, Why have I been doing this, what are the forces in my nature which cause me to act like this, or the weaknesses which make me so act, although my natural preferences would cause me to act differently ? That is ,the introspective side of the question. It must be remembered that both sides are equally important for attaining useful results. The reason why the so-called introspection of untrained people is usually so futile, and even sometimes so harmful, is thc.s this rule is neglected. Either they do not get the facts accurately, because their investiga- tion is tinged by a disinclination to admit the full force of facts which are unfavourable, or they do not try honestly and sincerely to find out the causes of the facts. They get led away by the sentiment of self-pity, and they ascribe to ill- fortune or some unkindness facts which are in reality due to some deficiency, probably remediable if taken in time, in their own nature. THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 31 Now to deal with these objective tests in order. In the case of people who have a fair degree of leisure, the way time is expended is perhaps the most important objective test. It is useless as a test for the very over-worked professional man, or for the agricultural labourer, who is hardly free during any of his waking hours. The majority, however, have some leisure, and many of those who do not have it could get it if their interests were not so predominantly professional. When the employment of time is used as a test some allowance must be made for the degree of pleasure experienced, and to that extent the test is rather introspective than objective. It has to be coupled with a consideration — the amount of interest or ennui which the occupation of the time in a particular way gave to the consciousness. When people calculate their leisure time and how it has been spent, they are nearly always surprised. They find that they have not done the things which would really have excited their interest, but have been led almost insensibly by others, or else by habit, to occupy themselves in a way that has been rather boring than otherwise, and yet they have not been designedly philanthropic. This discovery nearly always comes with something of the shock of a revelation ; it usually shows them how little they know of their own nature and its capacities for being at its best ; it indicates how largely they are ruled by a thoughtless routine. Directly they are put to it to justify their own conduct, not mainly in its social relation, but from\ the point of view also of their responsibility to ' themselves for making the most of their own hves, they begin to see how little thought they \ :\ THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE _^ ,e hitherto given to the matter. Even though Tthey may have thought but Httle, the leisure time test is no less reliable as an indication of their impulses which, though not strong enough to be- come objects of reflection, are, unknown perhaps to themselves, the foundation of their actual conduct. The degree of vital interest, of pleasurable activity, is what will tell any one whether their time is being properly spent or not. If there is very much ennui it means that there is some- thing wrong which needs looking into. It may be due to bad health or over-strain, but it may also be due to the expenditure of time in wrong ways, and this again may indicate some defect in the tendencies of the personaUty which needs correcting. Where the income affords any considerable surplus of money over that which is required for the necessities, as judged by the standard of the group with which the particular individual asso- ciates, the expenditure of this surplus is am j objective test of some value, though perhaps not| ] of so much value as the leisure time test. Fori) ,■ certain specific purposes, however, it is perhaps an even better test. For instance, it almost invariablyj \ reveals the tendencies to ostentation ; it usually! vreyeals the aesthetic tastes./' Both of these come out very easily into the open, indeed by their very nature they are difficult to conceal. But by some curiosity of the human intelhgence, they are hke cards which are mistaken though face upwards on the table, and this is generally because it is suggested, in one way or another, the evidences of them are reallv evidences of something else. THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 33 A love of ostentation is represented as a proper desire to ' keep up a position ', or as a valuable social impulse to employ labour and circulate money. If any one is really desirous of applying the money test to himself or to any one else, whose accounts are open to his inspection, a convenient way to do it is to divide the average annual income into percentages. Needless to say, if the average annual income is exceeded, it indicates a predominance of the impulsions, generally those to pursue pleasure, but sometimes the philanthropic ones, over the prudential inhi- bitions. If there is a considerable annual saving beyond what is needed for reasonable contin- gencies, it means that the inchnation towards hoarding has become over developed. Rent, food, alcohohc stimulants, clothes, personal enjoyments, such as cigars, some hobby such as travel or private workshop, some semi-aesthetic taste such as the collection of pictures or rare books, are the most general headings. The whole can be worked out on the lines of those family budgets which have been published to show the condition of the Workmg classes. /""Ha^ng got the external facts, the elucidation of > [the expenditure of money is due in a greater or j \ less degree to ' what is expected of one '. Few / people have the strength of mind to set aside / a certain sum for purely social objects, and spend the rest in accordance with their own private inchnations. They always have one eye on what they want and the other on their neighbour's , ; opinion ; indeed, a good many spend most of their \ ! surplus on gaining some sort of social prestige. yThat is what they really want, and they think, j i THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE ^ sometimes correctly, that certain outward sliows are the best ways of getting it. In fact some sections of society do judge ahnost entirely by externals, and of all externals to do what is ex- pected of one is the most prominent. The choice of associates is the next objective test. In large towns where choice is almost^ unlimited, it is a very rehable one, in small towns] and country districts, where the field of possible \ associates is a very narrow one, it is hardly any I / test at all. As far as it is a test at all, it is usuajlyj (more a test of ability than of inchnation. f Most of us would prefer to mix with first-class interesting people, with celebrities if possible. The trouble Ues in the fact that we cannot always Uve up to their level. In their presence we become painfully aware of our own inadequacy. They go too fast, and their superior thoroughness makes them over- shadow us. This association test therefore partly brings out our intellectual capacity and partly our capacity for taking pains. An extremist in the times of the French Revolu- tion proposed that all citizens should produce to the State authorities yearly a list of associates, under penalties for failure to produce a satisfactory one. Even the most sociaUstic state would hardly suggest that as a practical measure nowadays, but for private purposes the drawing up of such a list has its useful points, and it has the sanction of the proverb ' A man is known by his friends'. But again it is the reasons for choosing the associates, more than the associates themselves, which form the most valuable part of the self- examination. They may be chosen because of accident, because they happen to have been THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 35 ^ known to the family, on the ground that they will advance business interests, for the sake of social advancement, or because they will flatter and speak smooth things. Those are the lower reasons, and where they predominate they are indications of a low grade of character. Again, they may be chosen for their moral or intellectual quahties which have been definitely ascertained, for their illuminating criticism or their stimulating power. Such a choice is evidence that they are selected in the true interests of a high type of v^ character. '^ ~^ Then there are the predominating objects of thought which may amount to some definite ambition, or may not. For some people this can hardly be classed as an objective test at all, it is a kind of memory introspection. Others keep a record of their thoughts in diaries and common- . place books, or they may be able to appeal to the evidence of self-expository letters written to trusted and intimate friends. It is astonishing how such documents elucidate the general direction of the mind, and it is to be regretted that the circumstances and habits of modern life make them rarer than they used to be. The personahty is always changing, and the changes are reflected in the predominating line of thought. When the changes are duly noted, the causes of them should be sought for. If the causes are understood, the life can be guided accordingly, and incidentally much becomes known of the real quahties of the personahty and especially of its weaknesses. All of us, like Achilles, have a vulnerable spot some- where about us, and it is well to understand how it can be protected. V THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE My, tlie habits have to be considered in reiaMun to the personahty. Habit is here used as an aotion or condition of mind, which, byj \ frequent repetition under given circumstances, I takes place under similar circumstances without any conscious effort of the will. Habits are largely acquired unconsciously in early youth, but there is nothing to prevent their being deliberately built up in adults; indeed the most valuable of the mental habits are aimed at and gained by practice. The general condition of the habits, therefore, gives clues first of all to the native propensities of the personality, then to early training, and lastly to its intentional acquisitions ; but to get at these clues, the time of life at which the various habits iirst become estabHshed must be ascertained. In their social bearing habits are spoken of as good and bad, according as they usually conduce to, or hinder some social aim, but they are to be considered here in their bearing on the individual character rather than on the social organism. And further, they are to be valued strictly in relation to the general /needs of the personahty, and in this relation hardly any of them can be classed as always good or always . bad. The habit of industry, for instance, would / ^ be an excellent one if acquired by a healthy but (idle youiig__mam; it might be quite the reverse in tlie case oFan over-worked person whose first necessity was a thorough rest. The chief habits which have to be considered are industry, sobriety, self-abnegation, regard for appearances, politeness, honesty, punctuaHty, activity, reticence, and the opposite habit in each case. It may seem that the names included in THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 37 this list apply rather to moral virtues than to habits strictly so called, and in a sense this is true. But if in this connexion they are regarded simply as habitual modes of conduct, the utility of the list for consideration will be :^ore^apparent. .,.,.,^^, f These habits, then, must be examined in relation to the circumstances which call them into action, \ the capacity to vary and adapt them to changing \ circumstances, and the accompanying feeling tones both when the habit can take its usual course and when it cannot. The feeUng tones do not create habit, but they greatly reinforce it, and the anticipation of them makes a kind of preparation for the exercise of the habit. For instance, some habitually punctual people have a very unpleasant feeling tone if they happen / to be unpunctual, and, knowing this, they take , great care beforehand that nothing shall interfere with their practising a precise punctuaHty. It is the same with those in whom strict integrity has become habitual. They are rendered uncomfort- able by the bare possibihty that they may not be able to fulfil their engagements with exactness. It is then these feeling tones with regard to the habits which merit the most minutely careful » examination. Not only do they afford endless \ information about the natural and acquired i qualities of the personaUty, but they make it ' possible to devise new and easy methods for forming or altering habits as occasion requires. 38 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE I. 6 AN ANALYSIS OF THE MOTIVE ELEMENTS IS ALSO NECESSARY, AND THIS SHOULD BE LARGELY THEORETICAL AND SPECIALLY DESIGNED TO ASSIST THE MIND IN MAKING AN ESTIMATE OF THE PERSONALITY. In continuing the examination of the personahty, a point is reached at last where the objective features become less marked, and where greater reliance must be placed on direct introspection. There are stiU landmarks by which to be guided, but they are not so frequent and not so obvious. This deficiericy has to be supplied by some kind of system. The mind, when examining the person- ality, must be guided by some sort of artificial contrivances. If a man goes to look for plover's eggs in a bare field, he sets up a stick and examines the ground all round it, then he sets it up some- where else, and examines that section, and so he makes sure that he has covered the whole field. In the same way the personahty must be divided for the purposes of examination, and the most convenient principle of division is that afforded by the well-marked natural impulsions or instincts, and the characteristic pleasure which results from the gratification of each of them. Not that in fact most of them are frequently found in their pure form any more than the chemical elements are so found. They are usually in combination with one another, as, for instance, the impulse to eat and the gratifica- 'j tion from eating are usually found in combination I with the impulse to good-fellowship and the ! gratification which results from it. In a later 3^ ,.^.^--. THE DIRECTION OP DESIRE 39 section these motive elements of the personality will be discussed much more fully and from an entirely different standpoint. They will then be treated as elements capable of being improved by processes of the imagination. ^ At present they are merely dealt with in their natural and un- purified form, and as forces which have to be reckoned with by any one who is beginning to take stock of his present character with the object of making it different on some sort of definite plan. Pleasure is derived from the free exercise of these instinctive tendencies or motive elements, and the problem here and now to be considered is simply m what proportion it is actually derived from each of these at the moment of stock-taking. There is a reason for ascertaining this proportion. It lies in the fact that effort is wasteful, if not impossible, unless it is accompanied by some pleasure or the near prospect of it. We may work without any exterior reward, but we cannot work without some internal reward, even if it is only the very spiritualized pleasure of feeHng that unpleasant duties have been conscientiously accomplished. The feeUng of pleasure may have been given us by Providence to use for our own improvement, or it may have been evolved in the struggle for life as an accompaniment of those processes which made for the survival of the individual or the race. The exact origin is not the question here, the question is how the pleasure sense, however we come to possess it, can be used as an instrument in ^ getting something done which we desire to have ' done. The Englishman is proverbially supposed to ' take his pleasures sadly '. It would perhaps be more exact to say that, having an innate horror 40 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE of analysing his pleasures, and being oppressed by the idea that they will take flight if exposed to too close an examination, he is usually profoundly ignorant of the sources from which they are derived. To dissipate this ignorance he would have to notice the circmnstances under which he was pleased with himself, and those under which he was not, and' he would have further to see what motive elements were called into action in each case. Some of these motive elements need a good deal of systematic training before their functioning gives any pleasure at all. In examining them for their pleasure or pain-producing quahties, one must make some allowance for this fact. There may be evidence that they will give pleasure although in actual fact they have not up to the moment of stock-taking resulted in it. There are twelve fairly distinct motive elements which must always be thought of with the qualifi- cation mentioned above — that they are not often found in isolation. It may be convenient now to set out these motive elements in a formal list as follows : — 1. Self -nourishing. 2. Motor. 3. Fear. 4. Repulsion. 5. Sympathetic. 6. Gregarious. 7. Self-assertive. 8. Acquisitive. 9. Constructive. 10. Sexual. 11. Inquisitive or know- ledge-seeking. 12. ReHgious. Now to make a few short notes on the above, in the order given, purely from the point of view of how they should be regarded by any one desiring to understand the condition of his personality. THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 41 Positive and external evidences of actual greediness are rebuked in the young, and treated as socially rather offensive in the adult, so that every one is more or less reserved about the part which the instinct for nourishment plays in his consciousness, and from not expressing his feeUngs he becomes ahnost unaware of them, though as a motive they may be strong. It is by the amount of interest taken in the discussion of details of cookery at restaurants, and by the amount of money spent relatively to the total income, that the force of this impulse can be tested. The impulse to movement for its own sake, which comes next on the list, is strongly encouraged by English pubhc opinion if it takes the form of regular sports and games ; skill, if at all above the average, is praised as a kind of virtue. It becomes an object of thought in relation to a species of am- bition. People spend time in talking about it and reading about it. It is therefore easy for any one to know how much thought he devotes to it. Fear is much more obscure, and so is repulsion. For the purpose of this section, they can be treated together. They are factors producing unhappi- ness in human Ufe, though necessary enough both for the individual and society. In a very conscious form they are perhaps imcommon, but as a sort of overshadowing presence they have an influence on conduct. They are the great inhibit- ing factors of the personality, and are to be detected by their indirect rather than by their direct effects, by the things that are left undone rather than by what is done. It is only by a pro- cess of contrasting the conscious desires with the actual life that most people have it brought home C 3 42 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE ^ to them how largely their consciousness has been dominated by fear or disUkes, many of which if subjected to examination would have proved quite . illusory. -- . The motive elements, related to the social aspects of the personahty, should be examined to show whether the personality is of the dominating, the solitary, or the sympathetic type. It is perhaps with regard to this group that people vary most widely ; in some, natm-al altruistic motives are almost unknown, in others, nearly the whole of the springs of conduct are based upon sympathy. It is essential that any one who aspires to self-examination should take the utmost pains to get as exact an estimate as he can of his own personahty. It is impossible to build charac- ter on illusions, whilst many excellent types may be built up on egotistic motives, and even on those lower gregarious impulses which lead to implicit obedience. The objective sign to look for in this group is the attitude towards one's neighbours. Is it contemptuous, revolutionary, kindly, or convention-accepting ? Does the sense of pleasure accompany the occasions when one is honoured, or brought into notice, or when one is left free to go one's own way ? Then as to the acquisitive and constructive motive elements, the question to be asked is what is one's sense of the future, especially about material things ? Has one the Ant temperament or the Cricket temperament, does one want to store up for the time of need, to make things secure against all possible contingencies, or is one's tendency to take no thought for the morrow? Again, does one's mind turn with pleasure to THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 43 physical contrivances for getting work done, does one find joy in exercising one's ingenuity on material problems ? The ways in which the sexual impulse affects consciousness and temperament are so various and so bound up in the particular experiences and circumstances of each individual that a definite line of self- questioning, which would be of general utihty, is hard to suggest. It must turn, however, fijst on the amount of attention which has hitherto been paid to love-afi;airs of all kinds, then on the quality of that attention, and finally on the general result expressed in terms of satisfaction or dis- satisfaction. There is a great difference between the amount and the depth of emotion, and the consequent state of the attention with regard to it in this connexion, although the distinction is too frequently slurred over. Quantity leads to light love-affairs, to passing intrigues, to the kind of relation which Louis XIV encouraged in his courtiers as amusing them without so far distract- ing them that they were unfit for his services. Depth of emotion affects the consciousness in the direction of romance ; it was v/hat Louis XIV thought dangerous as turning the mind away from everything but itself. The feehng of pleasure, or its contrary, relative to the experience, largely decides whether one is a burnt child who dreads the fire, or a person sharing Stendhal's opinion that love is the only thing worth living for. About the last group, one can ask oneself the question, ' Do I really care about my attitude to the Universe as a whole ? Do I want to understand it and get into the right relationship to it ? That is, would I merely copy the specu- 44 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE lations of others and accept some recognized authority, or would I be at any pains to find out for myself ? Have I any emotional longings to put myself in harmony with the world spirit ? ' The answers to these questions will show whether the impulses lead to an enhghtened and quite legitimate curiosity about the nature of the material universe, or to philosophic generalization, or to a deepening of the spiritual life, or to none of these. The test is not so much vague thought as a genuine craving whjch leads to some form of concentrated effort, /many people have a vague desire towards /these things, but it is not strong enough to over- come the natural laziness or tendency to inaction which is an essential quaUty in all personalities. All these^ Questions seem very obvious, and it may be suggested that they are so elementary as to be needless. That is quite true of them taken individually. They are Hke the bundle of sticks in the fable — each weak, but together strong. Most people must have at one time or another asked themselves nearly all of them. They are not in any sense original, they are quite hackneyed. But few people have inquired into them con- secutively and put the answers together, and it is perhaps on that account that there is so little knowledge, and that so many are so childishly dehghted when a chance phrenologist or palmist, in return for the usual fee, makes a fairly correct guess at the answers to them, and builds them up into a Httle system all in about half an hour. These questions will save the fee ; and the answers which can be given by a Httle reflection, aided by the opinions of friends where there is any doubt, will be much more reliable than those of the THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 45 acutest fortune-teller. They will almost build themselves up into a little system of the person- ahty, and when so built up they will give a fairly secure foundation from which progress can be made according to any plan that may be desired. I. 7 BY CONCEIVING IN ADVANCE THE POSSIBLE EFFECTSA OF LINES OF THOUGHT ON OURSELVES AND \ i OTHERS, WE INTRODUCE NEW FACTORS WHICH ) \ GRADUALLY MODIFY THE FORCE AND DIRECTION / N^OF DESIRES. _ ^.- ' ' It would be as well now to look back on the^, suggestions which have hitherto been made before I taking a further step. First, it was suggested I that character was not invariable, but could be ' changed. Then, that some people might desire to ' change it in order that it might include qualities \ that they admired and desired to possess, whilst other people might wish for an alteration on the I ground that it would increase their happiness, j ' their sense of satisfaction with existence, or their feeling of inner comfort. After that, the idea | was propounded that the existing personahty ' must be understood before it was wise to try to change it, and that the understanding could most conveniently be arrived at by a process which was called ' objective introspection ', and by a com- parative study of what were called the ' motive elements ' which made up the personality. Now we are in a position to embark on the consideration of how a change in the personahty can be pro- duced. It is not proposed to discuss this question i in detail in this section ; that discussion must come j 46 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE later. It is only intended to give here a very general and unspecific outline of the principles involved without mentioning any special methods. The central idea lying at the root of it all is that new factors may be introduced by thought pro- cesses, and that these new factors will modify the motive elements, cause them to form new com- binations, set up specially prepared reactions appropriate to circumstances which have to be faced, and thus gradually change the whole direction of the mind and scheme of values.^,. . I ^ The argument in support of this proposition, ' which may at first sight seem to some minds to be holding out hopes which can never be fulfilled, is based on the discoveries which have been made in the last half- century in the line of hypnotic suggestion, and on the facts which emerge from the study of the alterations of the personahties of those who have adopted those forms of belief which attach primary importance to building up what are called ' thought forces ', and who teach that thought can produce effects just as capable of being objectively observed as the effects of ordinary mechanical force can be. The lasting alterations of personality which have been brought about by post- hypnotic suggestion are more widely known and more readily admitted than the others, so it will be better to place the chief rehance upon them. Hypnotic Thera'peutics in Theory and Practice, by J. D. Quackenbos, maybe referred to. Tastes have been changed, morbid longings or impulsions have been prevented, mental concen- tration has been attained in numerous cases all over the civiHzed world. But at the same time certain objections are entertained against sub- THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 47 mission to hypnotic treatment, except in extreme cases where it cannot be avoided. First there is the common beHef, probably quite ill-founded, that the ability to be hypnotized itself indicates some weakness in the personahty. Then there is the difficulty of finding a hypnotist who combines the qualifications of a good technical method, of a sufficiently sympathetic insight into char- acter to discover and use the right suggestions, and of an unbending sense of rectitude which will never allow him under any circumstances to take any advantage of his enormous powers, even Jor experimental purposes .y The forms of beHef above' mentioned are not, it is true, open to any of j these objections, but they need for their adoption j a special quahty of faith which not every one has ' at his command, and they often demand an acceptance of speculative metaphysical opinions which not every one can give. If, then, hypnotic suggestion and special forms of belief are unavail- able in themselves for the present purpose, it remains to be seen whether their beneficial effects cannot be obtained in some other way, perhaps more indirect and sometimes more troublesome, but which may have advantages of its own in \ ' that it makes the individual more completely the ' j architect of his ovm character and destiny. ^" IfcSn'bestated as a kind of paradox that desires are based upon illusions and illusions on sugges- tions. This is, of course, an exaggeration, but there are people in whom it comes very near being true. It is true of most that to some extent their desires vary from day to day ; a perpetual change in desires and habits is caused by the season of the year, to take the simplest instance. Sugges- 48 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE tions act on desire whilst it is in the process of flux, and to a greater or less extent alter its direction. It is this process of suggestion in its most irrational form which we find appealed to by those who prepare advertisements calculated to cause fooUsh people to buy goods they do not really need. The advertisement is a subtle form of suggestion that we should be happier with than without the advertised article ; it introduces a new factor into the complex of our desires. We may have heard of the article repeatedly before, but we always thought we could get on quite com- fortably without it. A skilfully drawn advertise- ment makes us think that life without it is almost intolerable, that the man who does without it is deficient in taste and has an incorrect notion of what is really important. But this suggestion can be used rationally and for the true interests of the persoiia-lity just as_ well as it can be used commercially^ The rational ' method is to try to create new factors by consider- ing and comparing the results of a course of action or thought, by looking forward as far as possible and seeing how things are turning out, and what is likely to be the process of our own becoming. This sense of an interest in their own future and the process of their own becoming is highly developed in some people, so much so that they / ,may almost be said .to have a sort of religion of / their personality. ; Without necessarily having any definite behefs about the nature of the Divine, or of a life beyond this present one, they ' make their moral being their chief care ', and it is con- tinually in their thoughts. They cultivate their faculties with regard to it as persistently as the THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 49 connoisseur cultivates his towards his special study. Such a developed sense of the future as this makes progress in certain directions much easier, because the laws of cause and effect as regards character are noticed at an earUer stage. Instead of having to learn in the hard school of bitter experience, and by suffering for their mistakes, they get fairly early in Hfe a kind of intuition, which is derived from habitual observation and reflection, about their own personality. For such, life is rendered much more easy than for the rest, though very often they are the prudent rather than the truly wise or admirable ; anyhow they are the self-centred. But especially they have a kind of instinct for what will really please them ; they rarely make the mistake of taking immense trouble to get something and then finding it is dust and ashes at last. They base their virtue on ' safe low ground ' as Montaigne would say. They know the kind of virtue which brings happi- ness in its train. Now when we begin introducing new factors, a new combination into the personahty, it is the methods of these organizers of their own future which we ought to try to copy for this especial purpose, even though_we may not admire them on the whole. / Generally speaking, it may be said that one of the chief methods is to take one / desired quaUty at a time, and to pay special attention to it. The typical example of this , method is to be found fully explained with itsi results in the Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin, ' and is a truly amazing instance of what can be done by persistence in the face of obstacles and , difficulties which would be found by most to bey V 50 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE insurmountable. The arrangement and the whole ^ ' point of view in that remarkable book are both ^ very different from those now suggested, but the ] , exact methods need to be adapted to the pecu- | liarities of each personahty ; the main require- ' ment which is essential for every one is to have a conception, and to think out how it can be reahzed, and what its effects v/ill be when it is reaHzed. That conception will be an improve- ment on the existing personahty, the qualities will be finer and stronger ; there will be an inward harmony and no loss by friction, and as the conception becomes more clearly cut, more sharply outhned, it will have the effect of the advertisement above mentioned, it will create a felt want. Once the want is felt consciously, once the glow of enthusiastic desire is attached to some quahty of the personality, that quahty will grow up withj the vigour of Joiiah!s gourd. ._ _ . ^. -^ ' f The object of the conception should rather h& \to deflect or change the motive elements, or to recombine them in some improved way, than to prevent their growth altogether. The mistake of nearly all moral teaching is that it is too negative, that it contains too many prohibitions. So many objects of desire are put into an Index Expur- gatorius and classed as altogether unbecoming. Their present forms maybe objectionable, but in a shghtly altered form they may be highly beneficial. All that is generally required is a slight shifting of the outlook. Take any one of them at random, the acquisitive will serve as an instance as well as any other. To hear some people talk of it, one would think the desire for riches was the root of all evil. Yet really it is necessary to the country, THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 51 for wealth is the sinews of war ; it is necessary to civiHzation, for without it no new lands can \ be opened up ; it is necessary to the individual, who without it must become the servant of a capitalist. It only needs to be kept from be- coming too excessive, or from being combined with unscrupulous tendencies, or from being unregulated by social sentiments. It sometimes needs to be checked and it always needs to be sublimated, but there is no reason why it should be abolished instead of quahfied. And what is * •> true of this is true of the others also. ^ Inhibition of elements in excess, stimulation of elements that are defective, sublimation of elements which are too coarse, these are the three processes which are needful, and the judgment with regard to them must be trained and exercised in the introduction of new factors into the personality. f The method of inhibition is to turn away the \ attention from an over-developed motive element, / and so decrease its vital force and its grip on I the whole personahty. Just as a Hmb which is deprived of a due supply of blood, and remains unexercised, tends to atrophy, so a desire element tends to wither away when it is not allowed to function, when the stream of consciousness is directed away from it, when opportunities for its reahzation in action are not afforded it. This is the negative method, but it is not so much achieved by a direct struggle as by a process of judicious and wholesome neglect. The object should J)e to detach the mind from the overgrown desire, j The method of stimulation is to concentrate ^ten- tion, to hold the defective element before the v mind, to reinforce definite intentions, to create an J 52 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE expectation that the weak desire wiU grow in con- sciousness. It builds up instead of breaking down ; it is ever considering the advantages which would accrue to the personality from the increase of the particular motive force ; it is ingenious in finding small rewards which will galvanize it into activity. SubHmation is a process of combination. It aims at attaching the stronger and coarser desires to the weaker but more abstract and more ad- mirable — the acquisitive element to the purely scientific for instance, or to enhghtened philan- thropy. The combination of desires introduces all sorts of complexities and presents more difficulties than anything else in the study and improvement of the personality. The occasions of life call up the desires that have been treated for purposes of discussion as separate and distinct elements, not singly but in groups. This makes it hard some- times to directly inhibit any element which is in excess. A man, who in solitude might easily be able to restrain his gluttonous incHnations, finds that his laudable desire to encourage charities by attending dinners given in support of their various objects reinforces those inclinations. The theory of the sublimation of desires, at present un- fortunately very imperfectly understood, would enable people to recombine new groups of elements, or varying forms of the same elements, with intelhgently chosen occasions. It is one of those studies which is just emerging from obscurity, and of which the principles still remain unsettled. Perhaps it is all the more fascinating and attractive on that account, but after the first suggestion has been given everything else has to be left to the tact and insight of the individual. \ -THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 53 '"^ Sucli, then, in the barest outUne, is the theory ol ^ directing the desires, and of combining the person- i) ahty into a closely knit whole instead of leaving i' it in a state of disintegration. By following this | theory with its details and watching its effects 1 in practice, many will find their interest in Hfe 7 increased; they will find in it a sort of clue to./ the puzzles of existence.'"' It is not, however, in any way claimed that this will be the universal experience. To a considerable proportion — how large that proportion may be there are at present no means of discovering — the systematic projec- tion of their own future into a considered scheme would be so unpleasant as to be both useless and inadvisable. I. 8 THE IDEAL PICTURE OP THE PERSONALITY HAS TO BE RELATED TO THE PRESSURES OF DAILY LIFE I NOT EVERY IDEAL PICTURE CAN BE REALIZED IN EVERY SET OF CIRCUMSTANCES. In the last section, the personahty has been considered as a group of desire elements, but its relations with the outside world have been designedly omitted. Though this method of pro- cedure was considered the most convenient, in actual Hfe, each personality is continually in relation to others, and those relations so limit its freedom of action that they have to be allowed for in making any scheme about the future. For these relations with other personahties, the words 'social pressures', or, more shortly, 'pressures,' will be used, because they are for ever exercising influence of one sort or another and in one direction 54 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE _ or another, and moulding the personahty in accord- ance therewith. Some people are clever enough to avoid, more or less, these pressures, and some are strong enough to resist them without being hurt by so doing, but they have to be recognized and not ignored, even by those most inchned and most able to avoid or resist them. The pressures in the main come from organized groups which are so coherent that they have a sort of group consciousness of their own ; thus a family, a religious sect, a social cHque, or the State itself, becomes a sort of psychical entity, having interests of its own, interests to which it is prepared unhesitatingly to sacrifice the in- dividual. Group selfishness is as common as, if not more common than, individual selfishness, and is more dangerous, because it appears to be disinterested, and is more difficult to expose. At the same time, the capacity for forming a group consciousness and group interests is necessary and very advantageous. Those races who are without it never succeed in forming stable combinations, and never get the benefit of the strength which comes from union, either poHtically, commercially, or otherwise. They hve as miits, and as units are overwhelmed by those in whom the instinct for an enhghtened form of combination is more developed. These groups, in their efforts at self-realization, find out, mostly unconsciously, all the weaknesses of the individual which will enable them to bend him to their will. They appeal to loyalty and to vanity, they threaten with excommunication and ostracism. They lead where they cannot drive, THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 55 and they drive where they cannot lead. Direct resistance is mostly out of the question ; evasion, deceit, flight, or conversion of the group to another state of mind, is the only practical course if the social pressure is intolerable, but very often it is scarcely felt, and when felt is very beneficial to the individual. /""^^^Yri. this section the pressures are only considered '^ from the point of view of how they may affect 1 the scheme of character alteration which the / i individual may be cogitating. Directive psycho-/ logy has to keep close to the needs of practical life, or it is no good at all. It may deal with abstractions sometimes, but only in so far as these abstractions make for utihtarian ends, utihtarian, that is, in the very widest sense of I I enabUng the individual to gain some desired object, \ I to reahze some desired condition of consciousness. | \^It_aims at fitting the individual for everyday Ke,_ ' though it suggests that everyday life need not be exclusively absorbed in material aims. Now how do these social pressures control the scheme for the alteration of desires, or for the improvement of character ? It might be supposed that since thought is free, and, as it has been suggested, thought is a force, it could be used quite irrespective of pressures. Fortunately or unfortunately it cannot, except possibly in the cases of a few individuals whose thought forces have been trained by incessant practice. The ordinary person, especially the beginner at these things, cannot go on thinking effectively in the void. He must translate his thought into conduct, he must express himself in conversation, he must get some encouragement from like-minded people, he 56 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE must have some favourable occasions to stimulate his efforts. Very hostile pressures prevent any of these conditions from being realized. Fine aesthetic emotions could hardly force their way to perfection in New England in its most Puritan period, when the ' Blue Laws ' were in full opera- tion. The sterner variety of Scotch Calvinism could scarcely flourish in modern Naples. The odds against either of them would be too strong, the whole emotional atmosphere would be too unfavourable. All of us are taking in impressions at every moment, and we are made very largely by those impressions. It is a principle of directive psychology to encourage adherents to walk before they can run, and to make sure they can do the easy things before they attempt the difficult ones. They must learn to use the pressures that are in their favour before they begin to show open antagonism to the pressures which they consider hostile, and in beginning to use the favourable pressures they nearly always have something of a field to select from. The groups which exert the pressures have varying interests, just as individuals have, and their pressm'es are regulated by their interests. Almost any normal individual can therefore find some group interest with which to associate him- self, when it is needed to stimulate, inhibit, or sublimate some quaHty in his personality. This is, of course, much easier in a large town, where most grown-up people can join groups of their own selection, and this is probably one of the reasons why town fife is preferred to country life, though it is not one of the reasons most commonly men- tioned. Large towns afford, as well as facilities THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 57 for a variety of pleasures, opportunity for the rapid expansion of the personaUty in new direc- tions, by KnJdng oneself up with hke-niinded persons. They diminish family control, and free the individual from that constant supervision of all his actions, and that constant habit of super- vising every one else's actions, which is the distress- ing part of Hving in locaUties where population is scattered, and interest in the doings of others is over developed. The details with regard to all these pressures will be dealt with in the various sections of Chapter II, and something will be said about their special uses in Chapter IV ; only the caution which is necessary with regard to them in respect of framing plans is what we are at present concerned with. It is really only as the personahty becomes aware of these pressures that it attains full con- sciousness and forms a conception of itself. Children are imitative, and take things for granted; they may want their own way, but they do not question or criticize the authority of their elders in general terms. They may complain of individual acts of injustice, but they do not cast doubts upon the competence of the court which tries them for their youthful errors. But some, when they begin to emerge from adolescence, show anarchical tendencies socially if not poHtically. They alto- gether question the moral authority of the family or the rehgious organization. They no longer feel they are bound to obey, though they may think that in practice it is safest to do so. At this stage their whole attitude towards pressures changes, they look on them as something backed 58 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE by a kind of force which they, personally, are unable to resist, but to which they do not feel bound to give a whole-hearted and cheerful obedience. In arriving at this point their eyes become opened to social injustices of all kinds. The scheme of the social world around them shows itself as ill-arranged and inequitable. The spirit of revolt breaks loose, and it is this spirit of revolt which causes all those who make any claim to intellectual lucidity to inquire into the nature of, and the reasons for, these social pressures, and to try to formulate principles upon which their claims to override the inclinations of the individual can be justly supported, and the limits within which they may be rightly exercised can be settled. Just as the student of poUtical theory reads Spencer's Man versus the State, and tries to form, opinions as to the rights and duties of the individual and the poHtically organized community respec- tively, so he makes up for himself a private theory on the subject of Man versus the Social Group, and he may extend his inquiries far enough to read the rather rare books which are written on this question, as, for instance, G. Pallante's Combat four rindividu. Anyhow, he begins to know how far his individual proclivities, or his sense of justice, are out of harmony with the maxims and observances and requirements of the various groups with which he is brought into touch. He begins to find out whether he lives in a world which is out of joint, and whether he feels himself born to set it right. Probably the first thing that strikes him is that at the same time and in the same places, social pressures deal very differently with individuals according as they are men or THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 59 women, rich or poor, and so on. The weak and the non-resisting have a very small measure of the individual liberty granted to them, the strong, the independent, and especially the circumspectly defiant, have a very generous measure. So-called social duties are heaped upon a submissive young woman so freely that she has hardly a moment to call her own ; the very idea that she might have legitimate inchnations that she could justly follow, that there is a preparation she might wish to make for Hving her own way, is hardly so much as considered. A man who is over thirty, who has a certain measure of resolution in his composition, who has not got into any obvious scrapes or acquired a bad character, and who has inherited or otherwise acquired a fixed income irrespective of his exertions, sufiers hardly more restraints from social pressures than a rogue elephant. It is not the business of any one in particular to break him in, unless some woman with whom he is incHned to be in love voluntarily sets herself that task. He can go from place to place and from set to set : his family have no hold on him. These are extreme cases, but from them can to some extent be learnt how far and in what way the individual may safely lay his plans in the face of the pressures with which those plans may be met. The first point to be considered' is the inward attitude towards the pressure, and the authority attempting to impose it. Habit and a disUke of hurting the feelings of those in authority have, in some cases, created a sense of obligation where a critical inquiry would perhaps find no ground for it. Habit may even cause a kind of reflex action, and produce a semi-automatic obedience, 60 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE as in the case of the ex-soldier, who dropped some one's dinner which he was carrying, when a practical joker called out ' Attention ! ' in a commanding voice. In such cases it is very little use making plans which will involve strong opposition to the pressure, but it is otherwise when the habit has been formed, or is in process of dissolution, especially where the critical faculty has at the same time destroyed the moral obliga- tion to obedience. But there are pressures which act by external forces, and perhaps the best instance of these, for the present purpose, is the economic pressure. Few people escape it, because even the rich are often afraid of losing money, or of missing oppor- tunities of gaining it. It is perhaps the worst feature of a materialistic age that the desire for money, or the actual need for money, plays so large a part in the direction of consciousness. It is a very subtle force, and those on whom it presses are often least fully aware of it. It gets hold of them when they are young, and it grows with their growth. They get insensibly into the way of pleasing those who directly or indirectly, control it. "The only way of avoiding it is to reduce j the material desires whilst maintaining economic} efficiency, to an extent sufficient to satisfy them. ■ Thoreau is a great example, and his W olden is the ' great classic on the subject. His wants were few and very inexpensive. He was happy Hving in the woods in a shanty bought from a labourer on a ' railway line. He could earn enough by working about twenty days in the year at surveying io obtain those necessities which had to be boughu Few people are as capable as he was, or as naturally THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 61 suited to the simple life. Even he probably injured his health in the process. But most people could Ughten immensely the ejsonomic pressure by a simplification of life, and more particularly young people may easily prevent the desire for luxury aiid material possessions grow- ing up with them. Women, perhaps, need to be careful in this respect more than men. They are, on the average, less efficient Economically ; custom and perhaps other causes make their remuneration less than that of men for the same work. They are more encouraged in the love of display. In consequence they feel the economic pressure more acutely, and it weighs upon their tenderest sus- ceptibilities. It controls, through marriage, even the disposal of their own persons. It would seem that their very first care should be to keep them- selves free from it by every possible means. I. 9 THE OBJECTIONS THAT MANY PEOPLE WOULD TAKE TO DIRECTIVE PSYCHOLOGY AEE THAT IN THEIR OPINION IT DEVELOPS UNDUE EGOTISM AND MORBID INTROSPECTION ON THE ONE HAND, AND INVOLVES A SACRIFICE OF THE PRESENT TO THE FUTURE ON THE OTHER. Now that a prima facie case has been made out for the study of directive psychology, the objec- tions which may be made to it must receive some consideration. The first and nlost usual of these is that it tends to a morbid introspection, and thereby leads to the development of an unpleasant form of egoistic self-consciousness, that it kills what is so much valued under the name of ' natural- 62 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE ness', and puts affectation in its place.,' The scintilla of truth that lies in all this is that it does to some extent interfere with the purely instinctive reactions and tries to put reason, order, and forethought in their place. We have seen in the earlier sections that the introspection which is advocated is of the objective kind, and much pain has been taken to suggest tests that do not lend themselves to illusions and golden dreams. The question therefore arises whether even this type of introspection has harm- ful results, and if so, what they are. Even though it be admitted that there may be some bad results, the benefits which come from systematic self- knowledge have to be balanced against them before the issue is finally decided. What, then, is the evidence which is brought against introspection when it is arraigned ? It is said to make people too much aware of their own personahty, and at the same time to increase their awkwardness and timidity, or else their aggressiveness in deaUng with others. They are supposed, once embarked in a dangerous inquiry into the quahties of their own personahty, to think themselves too much the centre of the Universe, to over or under- estimate their own importance according to the predominating fault in their temperament, to become less amenable to the ordinary conventions of life, and to become almost impossible to hve with. Some of all this may be admitted with regard to some cases, and in relation to a portion of their career. It must be owned that the introspective, even the objectively introspective, do tend to be a social nuisance during the early stages of their THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 63 inquiries, both to themselves and to othets, more especially to the others. They may temporarily lose some of their charm, and the freshness of youth ; they undoubtedly become less innocent, and shed some of their illusions. They acquire a questioning spirit which does not usually find favour in the sight of estabUshed authority. They suffer from acute growing pains, and in consequence they become both irrita^ble and irritating. Should they be encouraged in all this ? Would it not be much better to leave them undisturbed in the tranquillity of semi-consciousness, where they are likely to be kept out of mischief ? The answer which is suggested to these questions is that they ought not to be awakened horn their dream too early, and that, generally speaking, they should be allowed to awake at their own time, but that when that time comes they should be assisted to find their fuU self -consciousness. This full seK- consciousness is, apart from genius, the only method of producing marked individuaUty, and in a world cursed by over-sameness, and an exaggerated tendency to copy and to go about in herds, marked individuality is the great and crying need. There are so many good copyists and such a deficiency of models that even a doubt- j ful originaHty is better than none at all. Progress i^gnly comes from variations from accepted types,, and any country which stereotypes its citizens falls into evils of formaUsm and routine. It is better for it to face a few discomforts, even a few shocks, than to suffer from a dead monotony. The great point about introspection is that it leads to the discovery of potentiahties, and pro- duces a longing for expansion along new lines. 64 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE It is true that many of these new hnes lead to nowhere in particular, and many to old errors which the wise men of former days have exposed. But a few new lines are genuinely valuable, and they lead to reforms. For their sake alone, a certain measure of experimentation with the personality should be encouraged, in order that leaders of thought may spring up, or even that new fashions in emotion^ should be rendered possible. The dead hand of the past lies too heavily rather than too lightly upon the present. Extravagances and eccentricities are generally quite harmless, even though occasionally weari- some, and it is mostly to these that introspection gives rise. The wear and tear of Hfe will round them off and produce uniformity of pattern quite soon enough — only too soon, it may be thought. Self-knowledge along with self-reverence and self- control, has received from the days of the Greek oracles down to Tennyson almost official recog- nition as a source of power, but by a curious anomaly the self-examination on which it is founded, and which necessarily includes some introspection, is commonly viewed with disfavour and suspicion. It is supposed to produce melan- choly, irresolution, and a sense of impotence. ; This is probably due to the fact that there is a/ greater tendency to introspection in times of depression, and that consequently it often takes on rather sombre colours. People, when in good spirits, take them for granted as part of the bene- ficent ordering of the world ; they do not analyse the conditions which have produced their happi- ness. Those who are sad or discontented, on the other hand, especially when there is no obvious _^ THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 65 reason for the sadness and discontent, often begin to question the vahie of their own per- sonahty, and to examine it rather critically and in a fault-finding humour. They thus gradually associate all introspection with a sort of self -hatred, and they draw the conclusion, which is quite unwarrantable, that the former is the cause of the latter. Introspection, if properly conducted, and fairly portioned out between the good moods and the bad, would never be thought of as associated /with melancholy any more than with pride or" self-satisfaction. It would particularly escape these evils because it would avoid the common error of regarding the personality as something fixed and final, a sort of fate fastened upon one by Heaven, and with regard to which one was powerless. It is really the sense of hopelessness, the want of confidence in the latent potentialities of the personaUty, which has made introspection such a bugbear, and given it such an evil reputation. / The essence of it, when properly managed, is~a I cheerful inquiry into what may be reasonably \ hoped for, and a forecasting of all the methods 1 by which those desires, critically approved by the ' judgment, can be realized. The details of life ' seem to fit into their own places in the puzzle, and to become more interesting when they are seen to affect inner nature, and when their manipulation in its interests begins to be under- stood. Whatever faults it may have, objective introspection at least puts an end to dullness and apathy, by awakening the tendencies to interest in the Self and giving them continual exercise. There is a joy of lining which comes from progress in self-realization, just as there is a BLIGH D 66 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE directly sensual joy of living, and the first is often in the power of people to whom the second is impossible. Here the Second objection which^is made to directive psychology is reached. It "is, stated shortly, that it recommends the sacrifice of the joys of the present, of which alone we are sure, for the benefit of the future of a personality which is subject to innumerable risks, and may perish or find itself in entirely altered circumstances before the results of the sacrifice can be realized. We have, therefore, to discuss that system of living which is its rival in popular favour. Personalities can be divided into three types, according to the direction of their mind in respect of time : those who Uve predominantly in the past, the present, and the future respectively. There seems to be no theory which satisfactorily explains why any given individual should belong to one of these types rather than another, except that those who have passed middle life have the more dramatic part of their Hfe behind them, and tend to turn their attention to it for this reason, and because they often have nothing very interesting to look forward to. For the present purpose, however, these need not be noticed ; it is only necessary to study and compare those who live from moment to moment and from hour to hour with those whose minds project themselves into the future and find their happiness in schemes and plans. The tendency to do either the one or the other is called temperamental, a convenient word with which to cover up a lack of real understanding of the ultimate reason. ?he quahties of tempera- ment which make any one live in and for the THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 67 moment are intensity of sensations on the one hand, and a lack of a certain sort of imaginative hopefuhiess on the other. Momentary sensations can be so intense that they always, or almost always, occupy the whole field of consciousness. It does not matter for this purpose whether the sensations are coarse or fine, tending to gaiety or melancholy, to selfishness or disinterested enthu- siasm. The point is that they are all-absorbing, they leave no surplus power of the mind to flow into imaginative channels respecting the future. The imagination may be exercised, even in its highest form, it may be engaged in expressing its emotions in the most wonderful sonnets, but all the same it is not the planning or the organizing imagination. It is engaged in voicing the present, not in arranging the future. Individuals who are by disposition dwellers in the immediate present are by no means un- common, and for them directive psychology is a perfectly useless and fruitless study. With the best will in the world they could not do anything with it. They would be unable to act upon its suggestions even though they knew them. In contrast with them are the dwellers in the future. These may be no less happy, but the sources of their happiness are utterly different. They con- sist of ideas rather than of direct sensations, their interest in existence depends upon how they can so arrange themselves and their surroundings as to make little private Utopias according to their own choice. Most people are neither exclusively dwellers in the present, nor dwellers in the future. Sometimes various causes make the forecasting of the future undesirable or impossible. At other 68 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE times when the present is offering no particular attractions, they set themselves to jwprk to see what can be made of the future. They do not need to make a sacrifice of the future, at least during the process ; indeed, the organization of the future becomes one of the greatest pleasures of the present. But once their Utopia is conceived, some sort of sacrifice is undoubtedly necessary, in most cases, for its realization. The very essence of a personal Utopia is that it is a change from present conditions, and it is only in the happiest circumstances that change can come without effort j and even without temporary hardship. The only J/ advice that can be given is to adopt a cautious an(^ moderate attitude. It is not wise to give up well- ', tried pleasures for misty and hypothetical delights. The~new conceptions, if merely allowed to grow in the mind, will, of themselves, gradually oust the former and less desirable tastes. The process of comparison will go on sub-consciously, if it is not forced too hurriedly into consciousness, and the question of sacrifice will be solved insensibly as one goes on. j-. It would therefore seem that the main objections to the study of directive psychology have been disposed of as far as certain natures are concerned. It is not a study for every one, and those whom it might harm are little likely to have any inclinatioD to concern themselves with it. THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 69 L 10 IT IS ALMOST ESSENTIAL TO ANY PERSONAL APPLI- CATION OF DIRECTIVE PSYCHOLOGY THAT THERE SHOULD BE A SPECIES OF SELF-CONFIDENCE, OR A KIND OF FAITH IN ONESELF. THIS CAN BE BUILT UP PARTLY FROM THE EXPERIENCES OF OTHERS AND PARTLY ON THE BASIS OF SMALL EXPERIMENTS ON ONESELF. Directive psychology is a subject that hardly any one would be likely to study, except with some thought of applying its principles to his own personahty. The factors which make for and against its successful application must therefore be considered, and these factors may be summed up under self-confidence to express the favour- able, and diffidence or self- distrust to express the unfavourable. The causes of these various atti- tudes towards the self must be analysed, and the methods by which they can be respectively increased and diminished must be to some extent explained. It will not be necessary to examine diffidence and self-confidence in all their varieties, but only in those which have some bearing on the appHcation of directive psychology to practical Hfe. There are strains of self-confidence and difiidence in most natures existing simultaneously, but in respect to different objects. A man may, for instance, be very self-confident professionally, but very diffident in regard to love-making or vice versa. It is, however, peculiarly the attitude towards the development of the personahty which ulti- 70 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE mately makes all the difference, and this again depends largely, if not entirely, on the subjective religious outlook as defined in Baldwin's Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology as ' the experience which rises out of man's conscious relation to some transcendent agent or agents, upon whose attitude towards him his welfare is beheved in some measure to depend '. In the case of those whose scepticism prevents their having a subjective religion as above defined, the philosophic outlook on the Universe, if one has been elaborated, is generally the deciding factor, or again, faiUng this, the sum of impressions about the world at large, which are the result of observation and reflective common sense. The self-confident look upon the world as an oyster to be opened, and have no serious doubts about their power of opening it if they really try to do so. , The reason why this subjec- tive religion, philosophic outlook, or reflective common sense, as the case may be, has such an effect on the belief of the self about the self depends on the undoubted fact that the self does not exist in isolation, but is always being acted on by forces either personal or impersonal, and it is the nature and direction of those forces which decide what the self can or cannot do. Most people, even those who have no behef in any revealed religion, acquire, consciously or unconsciously, a subjective rehgion in the sense of the definition given above, and those who would repudiate it have a kind of faith in a working hypothesis, which is for the purposes of the present section indistinguishable from it. The question of self-confidence, or its opposite, can therefore be discussed in relation to subjective rehgion taken in this extended sense. THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 71 For practical purposes the presence or absence of the faith that will move mountains depends upon the presence or absence of the inner certitude that the ' transcendent agent or agents ' or the im- personal forces, as the case may be, can be made to come over and be helpful to one's ends. Few- people can stand up self-confidently against a universe which they beUeve to be substantially hostile to them : the strain put upon them by so doing soon becomes too great. Those who acquire the maximum of self-confidence are they who grow into the belief that they are forwarding the true purposes of the Universal Will, and that in return for this the Universal Will backs their efforts on the whole, even though it may sometimga. handle them somewhat roughly^- 'The essential feeUng upon which self-confidence is built is that of support from outside, whether it is derived from the answers to prayer, such as John Wesley thought that he received, or from the belief in the potency of the star of his destiny which Napoleon cherished. Those to whom a kind of grace is given easily suppose themselves to be or to be rapidly becoming in tune with the Infinite, and consequently they do not doubt that to receive they only have to ask. This happy position is not entirely obtainable by merely desiring it; on the contrary, it depends upon factors of which at present practically nothing is known. But one thing seems to emerge from the obscurity that surrounds it all, and that is that meditation upon and aspiration towards spiritual, or at least non-material, qualities obtains a readier answer than do desires for more concrete things. It seems as though the psychical side of the Universe responds more readily to thought-forces 72 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE . than does the purely physical. Those who desire self-confidence should therefore concentrate them- selves on the non-material side of existence in the first place, and try to gain the faith which is like the grain of mustard seed. The peculiarity of this sort of faith is that it seems to hang in the moral atmosphere, and to communicate itself from person to person. No one can meet in famiUar inter- course those who have it without being affected by it, and usually even reading what has been written by those who have had it in an eminent degree produces a conscious or unconscious change of outlook. Few can read Cromwell's letters and speeches as edited by Carlyle without becoming aware of the difference which a sense of mission, of having a special ' call ' to do some particular work, makes on a personality. Its development can be followed and its effects traced. It is the secret of the overcoming of difficulties, of a firm resolution in the most hopeless circumstances. Many readers of this book must have longed to have this sense of vocation, and some, no doubt, found a vocation as a result of that longing. It is a curious pecuHarity of our system of education that so little attention is paid to this point. Edu- cation, as we know it, aims at cultivating the intelligence and the moral sense, at making citizens. It devotes a very small proportion of its efforts, even if it devotes any at all, to awaken- ing any sense of self-confident individuahty Kvith a specialization of function. There do not seem even to be any great searchings of heart in educa- tional circles about possible methods of encouraging the germs of a sense of vocation. The authorities seem quite contented with producing a high THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 73 average of commonplace excellence all on the same pattern. They do not seem anxious to make provision for the extraordinary, probably on the supposition that it needs no looking after. The golden rule for those who want to gain a reasonable degree of self-confidence is to look out for hopeful instances resembhng their own as much as possible with regard to both circum- stances and temperament, and^then to experimejat cautiously on their lines. , It is Unwise to under- take too many or too ambitious experiments at \ the beginning, because it is on the basis of the success in the earher experiments that the elements of self-confidence have to be built. They should also be so arranged that the pleasure which accom- •, panics success should be as considerable as possible. j It would be a mistake to set oneself, in the first i instance, the problem of acquiring some moral virtue involving the mortification of very pre- dominant desires and offering but little reward. Most rehgious people advise this course, which may have something to recommend it from their special standpoint, but does not seem in any other respect to be in accordance with wisdom. It is probably accountable for a good deal of the backshding which goes on after a rehgious revival. The Safest course is to exercise the inventive / ingenuity in discovering some quality capable of ^ development without much trouble, which has hitherto from oversight remained neglected. This budding quality should be associated with every sort of pleasant thought, and should be watched ^ with every sort of expectant attention. As it grows it will exercise a sort of fascination, if that is uot too extreme a phrase to apply to such a thing. D3 74 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE I It will ill any case tend to become an absorbing \ I pre -occupation of the mind. Presently it will j^ become fixed as a habit and need no longer be j , J cultivated. The expectant attention can then^be^ [focussed on sorne thing else.\ TTTs as welljHSy'way of warning, to glance at a result which usually springs from a deficiency of self-confidence in respect of self- direction. This result may be called subjective pessimism, and is a mood or prevaiHng habit of mind which produces very ill consequences. It is a view with regard to one's o^vn personality corresponding to general pessimism as a world theory, but it is sometimes found in those whose world theory is anything but pessimistic. These unfortunates seem to take the view that the world is admirably suited to every one but themselves, but that something in their own disposition, or in what they call their luck, prevents them from taking advantage of the opportunities which bring joy to every one else. They are the envious who think that others have been invariably better favoured than they themselves have been, both by nature and fortune. They are mostly to be found crushed down by rather narrow circumstances, and have an unfortunate inabihty to get pleasure from those occupations or amusements which all their associates find so dehglitful. Subjective pessimism has been a passing mood with most people, at some time of their hves, and is curable in all natures which are not fundamentally morbid, but it often persists all through fife if it does not receive definite attention. The cure for it is an utterly new departure, and some sort of success therein. Perhaps it is for the subjective pessimists that THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 75 directive psychology is more useful than it is for any one else. The wholly cheerful optimist, who sees everything in a rose-coloured light, and, above all, sees himself in that Hght, who has an unmixed satisfaction in the diffused bodily self-feeUng that springs from a perfectly healthy physical organism, is very unlikely even to trouble himself much about the problems of self-direction. His desires in their unaltered condition give him all he needs. But the subjective pessimist has to take some thought in order to make life worth living at all. He has to inquire into the reasons for his condition, he is bound under heavy penalties to set about altering it. Something must be wrong with his consciousness, or he would not be where he is. There must be an explanation of why the burdens of Hfe seem to press more heavily upon him than upon others ; he has to discover how they can most easily be carried, and why it is that others do not groan under them as he does. It is to be hoped that directive psychology may help him to solve his problems, if not now, then in the near future. II. 1 THE TENDENCIES OF EVERY PERSONALITY ARE PARTLY SELF-REGARDING AND PARTLY SOCIAL OR ALTRUISTIC. DIRECTIVE PSYCHOLOGY AIMS AT FINDING A LINE ON WHICH BOTH CAN BE DEVELOPED. THE METHOD IS THAT OF SELEC- TION FROM THE IMMENSE VARIETY OP OBJECTS TO WHICH ATTENTION AND INTEREST MAY BE DIRECTED. It has been explained that directive psychology makes no pretence to being, or to laying down rules for the formation of, an ethical system. At the same time it has a kind of relationship, even a kind of alUance, with certain ethical systems. This relationship or alliance is based on the fact that directive psychology aims at subhmating and recombining the elementary tendencies of the personahty to the end that it may become har- monious and stable, and that harmony and stabihty are to some extent ethical quahties. It has also to take account of the fact that some of the most powerful elements have a social aspect, and relate to the conduct of man as a social being. They cannot, therefore, be discussed without the consideration of some ethical theories. This is the distinctively social aspect of directive psychology, and in tliis aspect it aims at showing how a reconciHation may be effected between the interests of the personality considered as a self- contained individuality, and the same personahty considered as part of the social organism. THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 77 What ethical systems usually lack is driving force. They are mostly elaborated by those who take insufficient account of the self-regarding factors in personality. They have, therefore, but little effect on the ordinary man, and, as compared with the forms of rehgion which supply a strong motive in the rewards and punishments in a future life they remain comparatively ineffective. They have not gone right down to the foundations, and they start building up on a set of first principles which only gain theoretical assent, and which tend to go to pieces when exposed to stress. It is only for certain people, those whose altruistic tendencies have flourished to such an extent that they predominate in the personaHty, that it is sufficient to prove intellectually that a certain course of thought and conduct is for the benefit of society at large. The naturally unethical admit that the evidence of social advantage is overwhelming, but they fail to see why they should subordinate their own incHnations to this social advantage. In consequence, they give it plenty of Up service and such outward appearance of observance as they can manage to produce without undue inconvenience, and at that point they stop as far as their own action is concerned. They exhort others to follow the line of ethical conduct ; but the exhortation is mostly recognized for the sort of hypocrisy that it is, and carries with it no particular weight. Hence the number of people who sing the praises of virtue without practising it, and hence the reaction towards cynicism which is the inevitable result. Directive psychology tries to start on such safe low ground that no illusions can find their way into its first principles. It 78 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE ceases to advocate high sounding ethical principles unless and until it has first created tastes and impulsions which will make those principles operative, and it can only make them operative when it has shown that in relation to particular types of personaUty they may be objects of desire. Until the desire is present they remain bare principles hanging, like Mahomet's coffin, between Heaven and Earth. On the positive side, then, directive psychology keeps a sort of middle line between extreme individuaUsm and extreme altruism, and in that middle line it aims at being a really honest broker. When it has reason to believe that the true interests of the individual, taking into consideration his habitual motives and tastes, may be forwarded by his practice of altruistic ethics it says so. Where, on the other hand, it is of a contrary opinion, it waits until the progress of time and new groups of causes change the motives and tastes, before it presses for a too subhmated standard of conduct. But though cautious it is always ideahstic, and never loses sight of the fact that in almost every tem- perament, short of the morally insane, there are potentiaHties which, when properly developed, Avill make the satisfactions derived from non- material aims seem deeper and more lasting than those which can be derived from any form of worldliness. To the gradual but certain develop- ment of those potentialities it devotes its main attention. But there is a negative as well as a positive side, and this is, at the beginning, if not ultimately, of almost greater importance. The negative side has for its function the uprooting of the tares THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 79 wldch have been sown among the wheat ; it is the weed-killing function applied to the personality. In an age when distinctively religious education is falhng gradually out of fashion, and when nothing has grown up to take its place, the natural tendencies and impulsions get wrongly directed from want of sufficient attention. The old Puritan and Evangelical training was too other- worldly and unscientific, both in its aims and methods, but it was perhaps better than nothing at all. Directive psychology aims at improving upon it, and it does so by showing that so long as a motive impulse is not crushed, but given room to expand, it can get just as much satisfaction from the expansion in one form as another, whilst to expand in one direction conduces to social advantage and in another to social detriment. The old methods were too repressive, and they were felt as obstacles to the joy of living in all its most spontaneous forms. The mistake must not be repeated. The denials of the right to do a thing not absolutely forbidden by law must be accompanied by the suggestion that there are excellent substitutes upon which the same kinds of energy can be expended. Directive psychology could quite well have for its motto the old adage : ' It takes all sorts to make a world,' of which the more modern counter- part is that in our present state of knowledge social utiHty cannot be exactly defined. Of course it can be proved that certain courses of action are socially useful, but it is impossible to say that other courses which seem to \\e the result of pure and unmixed selfishness are not. Social causes have such far-reaching effects that we are only 80 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE at tlie beginning of the task of disentangling them, and of this some examples have been given in earlier sections. Directive psychology, there- fore, eschews all dogmatism and aims at preserving a certain fluidity of expression. It does not admit of any absolute rules — it only makes suggestions, and tentative ones at that, of what may in individual cases prove beneficial. Its suggestions mostly take the form of combining disinterested- ness with self-development, and of showing that these two ideas are not in any way inconsistent, though they may at first sight seem to be so. In the attempt to show that the ideas are compatible, and indeed mutually helpful, both these terms have to be defined and analysed. Self-develop- ment is used with the meaning of working the native impulses and tendencies up to their highest pitch, without any repression, interior friction, or waste. Disinterestedness is used in a sense which perhaps sHghtly deflects it from its usual meaning, as not primarily seeking any material reward. In its earher stages self-development will set before itself every sort of material reward ; it needs them, as has been explained, as an encouragement to effort. When a person first becomes conscious of himself and of his powers, he longs to give every impulse a chance to realize itself and to expand in every conceivable direction of which he feels himself capable. In the popular phrase he wants 'to get his own way', which is both healthy and necessary. This is the process outlined in the ApostoHc precept of ' trying all things '. Only wh^ n they have been tried is it possible to hold fast to those which are good. It is the holding fast to what is good which is the THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 81 second stage of sell -development, and with it comes the critical faculty, followed by the theory of disinterestedness. This theory is perhaps not quite as high as spiritual-mindedness in the religious sense, though it may in some cases be a preparation for it. It is a this-world theory based on the observation in regard to the human personahty that material rewards and satisfactions do not permanently satisfy. That they satisfy nearly all natures for a time, that they satisfy some natures throughout early life, is undoubted ; but it cannot be said that they satisfy any nature altogether. Directive psychology suggests that they should be hved through, and perhaps Hved down, rather than hved for. It suggests, further, that the disinterested satisfactions should be examined and meditated upon, and experimented with, but that they should not be forced upon the consciousness or regarded as Heaven- dictated duties. They should be cultivated as tastes or incHnations, and the results which they give should be noted. Just as the wise farmer sets aside certain plots for the trial of seeds or manures before embarking on extravagant expenditure on novelties, so the wise director of personahty seeks opportunities for testing the values of those more disinterested quahties which have been eulogized by philosophers and scientists, and by the dis- tinctively rehgious and philanthropic. He takes nothing for granted; he just watches how things turn out in his own case. As he finds this par- ticular department yielding good returns, so he pays more attention to it and puts more of his capital and enterprise into it. It does not pay every one equally: some it pays almost extra va- 82 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE gantly, others very sparingly ; but on the whole it pays so well that it ought not to be neglected. It rarely pays very quickly. It is difficult to attempt an explanation of the way in which disinterestedness may be attained ; but it is better to try to do so in order that its nature may be more clearly understood. To do this it is necessary to show how the attention may be directed with regard to the possible objects of consciousness. At the lowest it can be directed to the means of obtaining some immediate sensation, something unusually nice to eat, for instance, or a fast motor-car to give the kind of pleasure that comes from rapid motion. Just above this, considered from this point of view, would be the satisfaction which would come, not from a relatively simple pleasure derived from one of the five senses, but from the feehng of satisfied vanity or self-importance. This feeUng at least depends on ideas or groups of ideas. It needs a certain exercise of the imagination. It could be produced by using the motor-car mentioned above for purposes of pomp or osten- tation, or giving the eatables away in the form of entertainment to the class of people who would be impressed by one's abihty to do so. Above that again would come a type of gratification which has nothing to do with any sensation or any idea of self-aggrandizement. The motor-car could, for instance, be sold, and the proceeds given anonymously to further cancer research. There is not the least reason to think that the amount of gratification which could be got in any of these three instances would be very different. It is true that they are not hke kinds of gratification THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 83 or satisfaction, and they cannot be properly com- pared ; but judging on what external evidences we have, different types of people seem to be about equally pleased with each of them, according to their respective tastes. The difference does seem to arise from the durabiUty of the satisfaction. The more ideas predominate the more durable the satisfaction tends to be. The reason for this appears to be in the nature of sensations and ideas respectively, or, at least, in the way they affect the tone of consciousness. Sensory pleasures rapidly pale and become wearisome. Sensations become weaker by repetition, the freshness goes off them, and the pleasure is produced only whilst the freshness is there. Frequent change is needed. Any one can satisfy himself of this by eating very frequently some dish of which he is particularly fond, or even by dining repeatedly at some restaurant where the cooking is peculiarly suited to his taste. A habit may be created in that way which may give a certain sense of satisfaction of its own, but the direct sensation which was once a source of so much pleasure ceases to be so when once it has become a matter of course. Even the epicure knows that it is wise for him to practise temperance. Disinterestedness, then, as the word is used here, comes to this, that pleasures from thoughts, from ideal aims, should be developed in preference to those derived from direct sensations or from self-importance. The comparatively impersonal pleasures derived from the furtherance of objects which transcend the self are those most to be relied upon, those which are most imperishable, though usually also the hardest to acquire. This is brought out in 84 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE dramatic form in the second part of Faust, It is only when Faust looks round on the prosperity which has been produced by his administration that he is ready to say to the passing moment, ' Stay.' II. 2 SOCIAL PRESSURES ACT BY MEANS OF DIRECT PUNISHMENT, ECONOMIC REWARDS, OSTRACISM, EXCOMMUNICATION, RIDICULE, THE DIRECTION OF THE IMITATIVE TENDENCIES, MORAL EDUCA- TION AND RELIGIOUS SANCTIONS. Social pressures have been touched upon in Chapter I, in so far as they had to be considered in making a personal scheme of life, and their methods of action are enumerated in the heading of this section. Now these must be discussed in detail, and particularly as to how far they act efficiently, and what types of people are most affected by them. It is the subtler forms of pressure which have the most interest for directive psychology; the more direct and obvious forms do not need any elucidation. Penal discipHne, which is society's most stringent form of pressure, has in recent times been viewed quite differently by different schools of opinion. To one it is mainly retahatory, to a second it is either exem- plary or protective, its chief purposes being to put the criminal where he can do no harm, and at the same time make his fate such that others will take warning from it. To a third it is intended for the reformation of the individual and the reconstruction of his character before anything else. It now seems to be thought that the best THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 86 course is to combine the reformation and rehabili- tation of younger criminals "with indefinite but not very severe confinement for habituals, so that society can be at rest from their depredations. The classification of criminals is beginning to be studied according to the causes which have brought them to a hfe of crime, but this need not be dealt with here. The method of deaHng with all criminals is physical restraint of some kind, even when it is accompanied by some degree of encour- agement in leading an honest Hfe. The criminal is thought of, and to some extent thinks of him- self, as at war with society. The weapon which society uses against him is fear, and, as it has been long ago pointed out, this fear is proportioned more to the certainty of detection than to the severity of the punishment. Directive psychology has not much to say about this fear-pressure, but it must deal to some extent with one very interest- ing type of criminal, if in the strict sense they can be called criminals at all, and that is the impul- sives. These unfortunates are in their normal moments as honest and law-abiding as any one else, but just for one fatal moment their impulses to act in some unlawful way are too strong, or one might say too quick for their inhibitions. It seems hkely that the active side of their nature functions much sooner than the reflective — they do something as quick as a flash of hghtning ; the thought of all its consequences causes rumbling after the action hke distant thunder. Legally these impulsives are held responsible, but about their entire moral responsibility there seems to be some doubt, unless they can be held accountable for not having acquired habits of deliberation, or 86 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE for not having trained their inhibitory centres to act more rapidly. They are the most to be pitied of all classes of criminals, and they are very largely made up of the somewhat unbalanced. They merge into that very much larger class of highly unstable individuals who are kept by their circum- stances, or owing to the fact that temptation never came at a moment when they were par* ticularly unbalanced, just outside the boundaries ol the criminal law. It does seem as though a kind of preventive pressure is wanted for these unfortu- nates. Our civiUzation has, as yet, hardly evolved the conception of such a thing, but when it is elaborated it will perhaps take the form of some thing Hke a psychological Sandow exercise specially designed for curing instability of character and for reinforcing the inhibitory forces. In the matter of psychological education we probably make the mistake of dividing people too sharply into categories — sane or insane, criminals or persona entitled to their full hberty. It is not as yet sufficiently recognized that a person may be neither insane nor exactly feeble-minded, may never have done a criminal act nor even dehber- ately cherished a criminal intent, and yet that he may not be quite fitted to be classed as a fully autonomous moral being. He may need a good deal of strengthening before he can be trusted into the world without great risk. These cases fall within the province of directive psychology, and should be subjected to its treatment. No discredit should be attached to them any more than it is to a man who goes in for systematic physical training, in order that he may be fitted to take up a commission in the Army. Probably THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 87 there is as good an opening for institutions for psychological training as there has recently been for the corresponding schools for physical training. It seems fairly clear that the moral quaUties can be exercised and improved by exercise just as the physical powers can be developed on corresponding lines. The trouble is that no proper system has yet been invented in relation to the former hke that which has been so successfully worked out in the case of the latter. Individual variations are no wider in one case than the other, the kinds of evils to be warded off are just as numerous, the advantages to be gained are just as marked. But, unfortunately, less attention has been paid to the emotion and impulse than has been directed to the physical organism, and so it is more difficult for the morally weak and impulsive to cure them- selves than it is for the physically defective to attain the same end, and when society does set itself to cure the impulsives which trouble its peace it has no body of principles resting on scientific observation and experiment to fall back upon. The social pressure which most nearly resembles that exercised by the fear of physical force is the economic. This acts primarily on the hunger sense and then on the general desire for comfort. In a country where wide areas of land He open for occupation by whoever will take them, and when the nomadic spirit is developed in the population, as was the case in South Africa a generation or more ago, there is hardly any social pressure from the mere necessity of satisfying the primary needs of hfe. In a closely settled civiHzed country where all the land belongs to some private owner, 88 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE the mere need of earning a living constitutes a social pressure of the most effective kind : indeed it is the one which most often forces those upon whom it is exercised to do things and think of questions which they dishke. It pervades the very atmosphere, and only those who are fortunate enough to inherit enough property to hve on are free from it. The shapes which it takes and the directions in which it is exercised are so numerous and varied that it is better to leave them over for consideration in later sections when the particular groups which make use of it for their own purposes are dealt with. The pressure which is exercised for social purposes by what are knowTi as ' reUgious sanctions ', and which mainly depend upon a behef in rewards and punishments after death, had also better be left over to a later section, when the actions of religious sects are dealt with. The remainder of the ways in which pressures can be exercised may be considered in relation to the tendency in the personahty which enables them to operate, and that is expressed most forcibly in the eastern phrase ' to save face '. Owing to the human race having been gregarious for an unknown number of generations, all men are born with an inherent disposition to be affected by the proximity of neighbours, and the attitude of those neighbours towards them. There is a kind of special sensitiveness to the opinions of others, which is almost Hke. a sixth sense in some people. They cannot realize that they are worth anything unless they see that worth reflected back in the consciousness of others. In places where the neighbour-watching habit has become liighly developed the dread of what may be said THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 89 becomes an almost general obsession. Every action is regulated not by the desire of the individual pure and simple, but by the desire as influenced by an estimate of the comment which will be the result of the action. In these circum- stances one ambition, if ambition it can be called, becomes dominant, and that is to be blameless, to do nothing that even the most mahgnant invention can misconstrue. Life under these conditions becomes a bitter sort of slavery, only alleviated, if at all, by a perverse dehght in making others suffer from the same evils as oneself. The imitative tendencies so useful in their right place become over-developed, and all the energies of the personaHty are bent on becoming ' Hke every one else ', or doing nothing which could be thought of as original, still less as eccentric. This pressure towards the common- place becomes almost a species of disease of the social organism, combining, as it does, a maximum of discomfort to the most individual spirits with the minimum of advantage to the community. It puts the highest premium on stupidity and weakness of character, it stamps out most of the joy of existence, it comes as near being an unmixed evil as anything can be. The aim of directive psychology is to teach people how it can be over- come and altogether abohshed. For the understanding of the way social pressures work in their subtlest forms, the sense of honour and the sense of being an object of ridicule have to be considered. They are the methods of pressure which affect the fairly strong and indi- vidual natures. The sense of honour is a special form of the desire for social recognition mixed 90 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE with a certain element of purely personal self- respect. It is a sort of sublimated vanity. It is the great method for deflecting the character almost unknown to the person whose character is deflected. Once a standard of honour has been set up it forms an obligation which very few can resist. Numberless people have faced almost certain death on the duelUng ground for its sake for reasons which now seem to us to be absurd in the extreme. They did not seem absurd at the time. Probably many of the honour obHga- tions, using the word in the widest sense, of what is expected of a ' gentleman ', the absurdity of which we are now unable to recognize, will here- after be looked at as we now look upon dueUing. The obhgations to go through certain social rituals and to expend money in certain ways are instances. The fear that one may be ridiculed, or, anyhow, that one may strike others as ridiculous, is the converse of the sense of honour, but is much more widely spread as regards classes. The sense of honour is found most strongly developed in the more educated and leisured classes, and perhaps more especially in the fighting classes. The dread of being thought ridiculous is felt among the less well-to-do quite as strongly as elsewhere, and is accentuated by the fact that uneducated people and those who have seen but little of the world tend to regard all deviations from the customs amongst which they have been brought up as in themselves ridiculous. Directive psychology would bring destructive criticism to bear on much that is now included in the sense of honour ; it would alter the outlook THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 91 on the ridiculous ; it would lead people to under- stand that something may be funny and even may be laughed at without being a proper object for the ridicule which has in it an element of scorn or contempt. To take an every-day instance, it is considered by some that a person is rendered ridiculous by wearing elastic-sided shoes. These may cause a smile, but there is nothing about them which should cause their wearer to be treated or thought of with ridicule. II. 3 THOSE MEMBERS OF GROUPS WHO BRING SOCIAL PRESSURES TO BEAR ON INDIVIDUALS ARE GENERALLY ONLY PARTIALLY AWARE OF THE EFFECTS THEREBY PRODUCED. THEY USUALLY DESIRE TO ADVANCE GROUP INTERESTS, AND ARE, IN THE MAIN, INDIFFERENT TO THE INTERESTS OF INDIVIDUALS. Directive psychology has a mediating function between the interests of groups and of individuals. It has to try and explain how group pressures act on the individual, and how they may be made to act effectively. It has also to try to explain how they can be resisted and avoided. Thus it is forced into a position of criticism and decision. It is bound, in making its suggestions, to bear in mind to some extent the relative values and importance of the group interests as compared with the individual interests. Mankind lives in groups, and so groups must be preserved, but it does not therefore follow that all means for their preservation are equally legitimate. On the other hand, each individual has desires which conflict 92 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE with the stability of groups, but sometimes it seems that these desires when impartially viewed ought to be subordinated to the larger interests of the group. A struggle is constantly in progress between the two, and it is this struggle which largely makes up the drama of hfe. The question always is — which has the superior claim on the energies of the individual, his own incHnations to self-reahzation, or the tendencies of the group to keep to its existing form and to sacrifice to that form the wishes of its members. The more stable groups, which are alone considered here, of which the family or the religious sect are the best instances, are much longer Hved than the individual, and perhaps in consequence of this they change much more gradually and slowly. The stable groups are always behind the times, and are always living on their reputations and on the past. They are not so flexible as the individual ; they stand for the conservative element in a world of flux. In the East, where the caste system obtains, this can be seen more obviously than in the Western world. The pressure on the individual is much more thorough and detailed, and he finds it almost impossible to get away from the system. That is one reason why the East is so unchanging and why what we regard as progress seems so slow. The whole mass must move together or it cannot move at all. Western civiUzation, by giving greater freedom to individual initiative, has set free social forces which in "the East are never allowed to operate at all. It is by observing the contrast of East and West that we arrive at the conclusion that subordination of the individual to the group, the cultivation of the spirit of bending THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 93 eacli to the service of all, or anyhow to the service of some section, is not ultimately beneficial to the community, or even to those sections of it in favour of which the individual is made to subordinate himself. The units become like standardized interchangeable bits of machinery, and society consequently stagnates. We start therefore in the West mth the proposition which seems to be well founded, that some kinds of personal self-reaUzation make for the benefit of the social organism, and what we really have to do is to pick out those kinds from the harmful ones. Directive psychology is greatly concerned with this process of picking out. At the beginning of this selective process it has to take note of the fact that many of the social pressures are blind and strike at random. They are unconscious and instinctive ; they have never been rationaUzed or explained. They are exer- cised by people who have no very clear idea of their end or purpose, and who have never thought out how the means which they employ can be directed so as to accomplish just the object desired without producing at the same time a great many other effects which are more or less pre- judicial, both to the social groups themselves and to the individuals composing them. They are exercised, on the whole, by the old rather than the comparatively young, and the old tend to stand upon the ancient ways even though those ways have been riddled with criticism. Take as an instance the cohesiveness of the family as a social unit, especially in relation to the female part of it. In the eighteenth and early nineteenth century there were practically no careers open to women 94 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE other than marriage. Women were then hardly thought of as individuals at all : they were members of their own family until they were called upon to assist in the formation of a new family. It was considered that they needed protection all through their lives; they were never given the status of independent and autonomous moral beings. Gradually, towards the latter part of the nineteenth century individuals groped oi ^broke their way out of this family serfdom. Only exceptional women with remarkable talents could at first do this, and when they did it they had to meet ridicule and disapprobation. Now it has become comparatively common for women of certain classes to stand alone, and their abiUty to do so has been recognized as advantageous, at any rate theoretically, both as far as they are them- selves concerned, and as reheving their family of the obhgation to maintain them if unmarried. But in spite of this theoretical recognition of advantage, the social pressure exercised by the average family on its female members to remain within its boundaries until they marry is still maintained. It is a prejudice, and it can only be supported by evidence in the case of more or less feeble-minded women ; but it persists, and as the family, as represented by its heads, has generally the economic whip-hand, and the power to give or abstain from giving a suitable training, a very large number of young women who would gladly be independent members of society have to remain in a position something between that of a pensioned-ofE servant and a prisoner of war on parole, with the additional hardship of having to give a more or less unwilUng obedience to casual THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 95 and arbitrary orders. This unfortunate position may protect them from some temptations, indeed it ahnost certainly does, and it makes them learn how to submit with some show of cheerfulness to a kind of irregular discipline ; but it tends more often than not to make them into idle pur- poseless beings whose lives are made up of petty discontents, frivoHties, and triviaUties. It gives no opportunity for them to bring out the real quahties of character which are in them. This is, perhaps, an extreme and one-sided statement of a condition of things which is rapidly passing away, but the point of it is to show that in the very recent past, and even in the present, these social pressures have been brought to bear in a singularly prejudiced and unintelhgent way, that they have destroyed the happiness of indi- viduals without achieving any very useful ends. It was necessary to put things in a somewhat strong hght, because an odour of sanctity has hngered round some of these pressures even in their worst forms. The ' sacredness of the family ' has been spoken and written about in the same way that the divine right of kings was treated in Stuart times, as something which it would be almost impious to discuss, so much so that a stranger to it all would almost gain the impression that individuals existed in order that famihes might the more abound and be glorified. The tendency of directive psychology is to shift the burden of proof. Instead of compelHng the individual to show cause why he is justified in resisting or avoiding some pressure, it would call upon those who undertook the advocacy of the pressure to explain why they considered it was 96 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE necessary for the greater good of the whole social organism, and to give assurances that it was only exercised in those ways and by those means which were strictly necessary, and which did not in any way tend to bring about something by underhand means which could not be defended openly. Exposed to free examination, to criticism, and pubUc discussion, the selfish side of group activities would tend to disappear. The weak and timid who now have such an unfortunate fate would be encouraged in resistance. At the same time the process would be a healthy one for the groups concerned. They would attain a clearer self -consciousness ; they would realize to a greater extent what were their essential aims and functions, and what were merely secondary and unimportant. They would become more far-sighted ; they would cease to defend abuses because they were of some advantage to their more influential members. The same forces which have largely abohshed the system of privilege from poHtical Ufe would be allowed to operate socially. Pressures have so far been treated in this sec- tion from a critical, almost from a destructively critical point of view. They have been spoken of as ignoring the rights of the indi\adual and as checking his self-development. They need a great deal of criticism, and they are often used care- lessly and arbitrarily, but that is not the whole truth about them. They are often of the greatest benefit to the individual, especially if he is influen- tial and ingenious in turning them to his own ends, and they have also their uses in keeping weak people away from temptation, and from the THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 97 oppression of stronger individuals. The best side of them is perhaps to be seen most clearly where their origin is fairly recent, where their aims are clearly defined, and where they have to take pains to keep their reputation from being affected by misrepresentations. The Trade Union move- ment is an instance of such conditions. It is to the interest of a trade union movement to include within itself all the members of a given trade, or the part of a trade whose interests it is designed to secure. It is prevented by this interest from being unduly severe on individuals, unless they offend very grossly against the standard of conduct generally accepted. They only deal with the business side of a man's Hfe, and they have usually no inducement to interfere with his more intimate concerns. They are very democratic in constitu- tion, and it is consequently impossible to stifle criticism. Hence their enormous and increasing success. They really confer genuine and obvious benefits on their members which greatly outweigh their occasional inconveniences. Of course, group selfishness plays a large part, some think an undue part, in their activities ; but this is counterbalanced and neutrahzed by the fact that they are faced by combinations of employers also actuated by the same sort of spirit. The opposing forces thus set over against one another usually contrive to find a line of action which is for their mutual benefit. Trade unions, like all other social groups, exercise a pressure often salutary, but often very minute on the tendencies of those who form their units. This is mostly directed to controlUng those whose actions might compromise the union as a whole. It not only deals with hours and BLIGH E 98 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE wages, but even advertises the names of those who have not paid for their lodgings, so that the good name of the union may not be tarnished by those who contract debts without intending to pay them. In all the ways above mentioned, trade unionism, as an essentially modern movement, is a sort of forecast of the group organization of the future, and the type of pressure by means of which it works is typical of that which will be more general later on, though perhaps with an increase of the general standard of education it may become more stable in its methods. The older groups who exercised an irregular pressure on those who happened to be born into them, with a sort of blind instinct for group preservation, and with a very imperfect consent from the individual, seem to be tending to break up, at least as far as their present form is concerned. This process has been traced with regard to the family, and it can be observed in the case of the rehgious sect also, to which people are beginning to give a looser and more casual adherence. The newer groups will depend more on the free choice of the indi- viduals composing them, and will each specialize on some department of Hfe, and only exercise pressure in what concerns that department. The rest of existence they will leave free. Their rules will be more definite and will depend less on individual caprice ; they will be less unchanging because there will be a sort of private legislature, which can alter them as occasions and circumstances require. In this way they will become more adapted to the true needs of their members, and more anxious to confer real advantage. They will not be so exclusively set on merely surviving THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 99 and reproducing the past without being of any service in the present, and without making any wise preparation for the future. This change, if it comes about, as seems hkely,, will add not only to material convenience, but will set free spiritual energies in individuals which have hitherto been confined. Thought will become more free, and the freedom will carry with it as its consequence possibilities for self- development on new hues which are at present almost unimaginable. II. 4 THE FAMILY PRESSURE TENDS TO SUBORDINATE THE INTERESTS OF THE INDIVIDUAL TO THAT OF THE FAMILY, AND TO PROMOTE THE ENDS OF THE INDIVIDUAL ONLY AS FAR AS THESE SUB- SERVE THE AGGRANDIZEMENT OF THE FAMILY. The pressure exercised by the family as a unit of social organization on its members has been noticed by way of illustration in the last section, but it is necessary to consider it rather more closely. It has been, and — when its head or those who practically direct its pohcy are resolute, self-willed, and inchned to interference — is even to-day, a grinding tyranny. This is partly due to the circumstance that the family can exercise a closer supervision over its members than any other group, and also because, having seen them from their youth upwards, it knows more about their weaknesses and defects. But partly also it is due to the belief that obedi- ence is due to the head of the family. Originally, no doubt, this duty to be obedient was capable of being justified on grounds of practical necessity. 100 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE even in the case of adults. The family was once a sort of little State in itself, and had a certain measure of self-government. It conducted its own blood feuds to avenge the wrongs of its members. It was a sort of association for mutual protection of Ufe and property. In many countries there was 'no individual ownership of land : the family or the tribe held their portion more or less by force, and each member had certain ill-defined rights over it. Under such circumstances it was necessary that the head of the family should have a large measure of authority, and that obedience to him should be taught as an almost rehgious duty. Indeed, among the Romans there was a distinct family rehgion with household gods, Lares and Penates, which belonged to the family alone and had regard to its interests. The State was a group of famihes ; sometimes admission to citizenship was conditional on reception into a family. The duty of obedience to the head thus recog- nized found its way into the Old Testament as a part of Jewish law, and in this form became estabhshed as a part of ordinary morahty. For the most part it has remained uncriticized and unexamined, and so has outhved the causes which originally brought it into existence. It has never been formally repudiated, but modern economic conditions have modified it in practice where the children can attain independence by going off and earning their own hving. In Latin countries it is more strongly supported by positive law than in Anglo-Saxon communities, a family council having, for instance, under the French Code, considerable powers of preventing the waste of what are considered as family possessions THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 101 Directive psycliology, in its task of inquiring into the development of individual personality under the pressure of groups, has to criticize the family as a pressure-exerting unit, and to see what the sphere of its operations is under present day conditions, and what the attitude of the individual towards it may be. This again raises the whole question of the principles upon which these pressure -exerting units ought to be judged, and how far they can be called upon to justify their existence. Is it enough to say that they have prescriptive rights and vested interests which should remain undisturbed unless they can be shown to be guilty of gross abuses ? or must they be called upon to give an account of their steward- ship in detail and be liable to censure and dis- missal for comparatively trifling errors ? Do they deserve to be treated with loyalty almost to the limit of human endurance, or to be regarded as to some extent hostile forces, that may be eluded when it is possible for this to be done without undue danger ? If obedience is given must it be ready, cheerful, and thorough, or need it only be gTudging and unwilhng ? Must individuals look upon themselves in relation to these social organisms as volunteers or as pressed men ? In attempting to answer these last questions we should perhaps get outside the province of diiective psychology altogether and get lost in metaphysical speculations. The best course, therefore, is to take a merely provisional hne without attempting any very deep philosophic justification for it. Provisionally then, and subject to correction, the individuaUstic attitude will be chosen and adhered to. If on the whole and generally the pressure- 102 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE exerting unit confers more benefit than disadvan- tages on its members, then they will be considered as owing it a qualified duty and loyalty. In so far as they have a sincere belief that the group unit is sacrificing its members, either to its own bhnd will to exist or to the interests of those who have acquired a predominating influence in its management, they will be justified in offering resist- ance,' and may indeed have a positive duty to resist. The principle adopted here will be that as long as the social group seeks the welfare of its members by justifiable means it is worthy of trust and confidence, but not otherwise, and this must be taken with the qualification that one main factor in the welfare of the individual is the right to control liis own inner consciousness mthout inter- ference and without interrogation. Social groups may interfere with outward action without doing much harm, but they can rarely be justified in trying to influence opinion. They are properly subject to a much stricter criticism when their members are in any way bound to remain such, than when they are free to come and go as they please. Now if these provisional principles are apphed to the family, the first question to be asked is what are its real functions, what are the services which in present conditions it is supposed to render to its members ? It no longer protects their Hfe or property ; that is the concern of the State, which has taken over the rights and duties arising from this particular relation. The family is, however, supposed to look after their moral training, though their education, as far as the quickening of their intelligence is concerned, is becoming more and more an afiair of the State. The family still con- THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 103 tinues to act as a sort of mutual insurance society, at least as far as certain classes are concerned, though even here special organizations, and in some countries the State itself, are taking over this work. It is perhaps as a temptation preventer that the family functions most actively and most admirably, and it is in this capacity that it has claimed and still claims a right of supervision over the course of reading, the associates, and even the private opinions of its members. It sets a sort of tone, and it keeps off what is supposed to be in- jurious to that tone in the outside world. In so far as it does this eflectively, especially where the very young are concerned, it can certainly claim a sort of loyalty and obedience ; but in practice it very often tries to keep antiquated and exploded prejudices too high in the scale of estimation, and it often prevents the material on which sounder opinions could be based from reaching the minds of those who would be qualified to form a judgment. The family is most open to unfavourable criti- cism in its relation to the modern individual, on the ground that it is the great stifler of original and personal activities. It preaches a doctrine of 'unselfishness' which is often only a high- sounding name for a course of conduct which ends in stagnation, and a negation of self-reaUza- tion in its best sense. The reason of this is that older people are hardly awake to the inner needs ^ of younger ones. No generation fully understands its successor ; it tends to think that conditions through which it has lived are good enough. The individual, therefore, who is bent on directing his own desires into new channels seems to have plenty of justification for developing 104 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE himself on his own hnes, and the only question is how he can do so. The usual difficulties in the way are family loyalty, a sense of obhgation for many kindnesses received, and the more material one of want of money or opportunities in some cases. How can these be overcome ? The first necessity is to have a very clearly thought out scheme as well adapted as possible to existing circumstances, and conducing, if possible, to some sort of family advantage. The next step is to cautiously and tentatively explain it to the family authorities, taking care that it is kept continuously but not too obtrusively before their minds, and to see that an educational process is kept insensibly but continually in operation. Older people tend to be constitutionally nervous, and the great point is to reassure them that no ill-result will be prodi'ced by the scheme of action, which seems in their eyes to be so new-fangled as to be highly dangerous. Their timidity generally reaches its culminating point where their women- folk are concerned, and these have to take pains to acquire a gravity of demeanour which creates the im- pression that they are essentially ' safe ' and trustworthy. A reputation for resoluteness of disposition free from aggressiveness is the great point to aim at, and with some an appeal to accom- plished facts is the most potent of arguments. If all these means fail, and if family Hfe is causing a dwarfing and stunting of the personality, it is better to make a bold bid for freedom than to remain where the whole life force will be crushed. There are circumstances under which all sense of loyalty to family authority must yield to the higher interests of the individual. THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 105 11. 5 RELIGIOUS SECTS, WHILST OFFERING THE ADVAN- TAGES WHICH MAY BE DERIVED FROM AN ORGANIZED AS OPPOSED TO AN INDIVIDUAL RELIGION, OFTEN EXERT AN UNDUE PRESSURE IN THE DIRECTION OP APPARENT CONFORMITY TO SECT OPINION AND CUSTOM. In this section an attempt will be made to deal with the pressure on the individual of the group opinion of the religious sect to which he belongs. It is obvious that this is something absolutely different from the rehgious emotions which spring up within him, and from the feeling of the personal relationship and duties which he may have towards the Deity. Though these two are theoretically so distinct and separate it may not always be easy to say which of them is the cause of a particular line of conduct — there may be confusion in the flux of actual life when an attempt is made to assign motives for a particular action or opinion, and the individual himself feels very hazy and doubtful about the factors which have predisposed him to a certain condition of consciousness. As far as possible in this section, sect pressure only will be treated of, and anything which may be considered as personal rehgion will not be discussed. In a subject which is as full of obscurity as this is, and which has been so little elucidated by the analysis of other people, it can hardly be hoped that mistakes will not be made, and for these almost inevitable mistakes apologies must be offered in advance. It is, however, intended that sects shall, as far as possible, be treated in their E 3 106 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE social or political aspect, and, as far as they display- social and political activities, their specifically rehgious aspects will only be mentioned inci- dentally, and as far as is necessary to throw light on how they regard the affairs of this world. The word sect is not intended to be used in any dero- gatory sense, but only to mean an organization whose primary end is to unite those who share certain opinions and standards of value, especially in relation to the dealings of superior powers of all sorts with mankind here and hereafter. The truth or error of those opinions is left out of the question altogether. The organizations are accepted as data, and the sole matter for consideration is how they affect the tendencies of self-development of those who compose them. The attitude of the Western world towards sects, as we find it nowadays, presents a striking contrast to that of the ancient world and of the Middle Ages — it somewhat resembles that which existed at the beginning of the Roman Empire. At the dawn of civiHzation it was the duty of the citizen to worship and pay reverence to the gods of the State. He could have private family gods as well in some states, but it was a matter for a pubhc prosecution, as we find it actually was in the case of Socrates, if a citizen was suspected of teaching disrespect of the accepted gods who were supposed to be the protectors of the State as a whole. In the Middle Ages, when Catholicism had over- spread the Western world, there was again no toleration of sectarian rehgions, because it was supposed that the Church had the monopoly of the truth, and the consequent duty to persecute and burn all those who deviated from it, lest their THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 107 errors should prove contagious and endanger souls. After the Reformation there was a temporary reversion to the notion that all the citizens of the same State should share the same religion. Since then toleration has become a matter of course, and consequently we find all sorts of sects, new and old, most of them having international interests, because their adherents are scattered all over the world, and all of them competing with the greatest activity to add to their membership, and in the course of that competition making known the advantages of belonging to them by methods which, in some ways, almost resemble those of commercial advertisement. As the importance of each relatively to the others is immensely increased as it becomes more numerous, the sect tendency is to try to lose as few adherents as possible, and to gain as many. The inner convictions of the members are of less importance than their activity in relation to the ends of the sect, and so there is not now the same insistence on minute points of doctrine that there was formerly, and private opinion on abstruse questions of theology is not inquired into, though overt preaching of what is considered to be unorthodox is put down when possible. The sects usually do not show an un- bounded confidence in their power to attract adults, but they do attach the greatest importance to controUing the education of the young, and in order to attain this control many of them throw themselves into pohtical struggles, and all of them spend much of their energy in teaching in one form or another. In proportion as the mind is plastic it can be turned in one direction or another, par- ticularly in regard to rehgion which depends on 108 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE an internal sense of certitude rather than on any objective evidence. It is thus mainly in pursuit of these political and social endeavours that sects bring pressure to bear on their members, the great object being to create a sense of loyalty to the sect organization, and to make the individual a credit- able object lesson of what the sect can produce, rather than to influence speculative opinions. What the sects dread above all things is indif- ferentism, the attitude of mind, whether rehgious or otherwise, which stands clear of them all, and proposes to conduct Hfe without the assistance of any religious organization whatsoever. Hence the insistent stress which they lay on public worship, and often on ritual, and the teaching that there must be an intermediary in the shape of a priest or other official between the individual human soul and its Creator. Now what directive psychology has to consider is the utility or the reverse of all this sect organ- ization to the various types of individuals who compose the sects. It has to express an opinion on how far it is to the interest of the individual to afiihate himself with one or other of these rehgious groups, and devote himself to its objects. This is a wholly different question from that of the need of the individual for an inner and personal rehgion. Any one who wants that can have it for himself, and by himself, or with only the loosest possible adhesion to any sect, or by occasionally joining in the public worship, first of one sect and then of another, as has become quite a common practice in recent times. He can keep himself quite clear of all religious organizations and be just as sincerely reverential, perhaps more so; and unless he has THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 109 the need of the stimulus of a crowd all more or less swayed by the same type of rehgious emotion, his rehgious emotion may be all the more intimate and heartfelt. What then do men find in these sects to make them become members ? As far as religious emotion is concerned they get a certain benefit from the fact that the emotions of any one in a crowd are increased by the joint emotion of the crowd as a whole — that is, the concentration of the emotions of each in the same direction accentuates them in every separate consciousness. But this is only a special side of the matter having to do with pubhc worship, and its advantages might be attained, though not so readily, by a casual attendance at a variety of places of worship having the same general characteristics. The benefit which is most widely recognized is perhaps that of the unified effort of many towards some common endeavour, and in many sects this is as much social as distinctively religious. There is also the support which the whole body gives to each of its members in the Hving of the kind of life which they all agree is to be aimed at, and in maintaining that attitude towards the spiritual side of the universe, of v^hich they all approve. When the members of the sect have all joined it from inner and personal conviction, these advantages are overwhelming. The sect-forming tendency is a strong one, and gives very real satisfactions. Those in whom it is active feel themselves only half aUve, and deprived of most of what makes fife worth living, if it is checked, as it has been, by political action at various times. For the very weak and imitative the sect is both a protection and an encouragement. The work of 110 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE organization is managed by the stronger spirits, and the feeble get the benefit of their energy. It is on those who are just strong enough to be able to stand alone and conduct their own hves, yet not quite strong enough to make a break with the past and cut themselves loose from the rehgious group amongst which they have grown up, that the limitations imposed by the sect are most severely felt. These have not the enthusiasm of converts who have joined from personal conviction ; they feel that they have never been allowed to make an impartial examination of sect tenets. They are not quite in harmony with the sect valuation of existence ; indeed, they have a secret hankering to transvaluate its values. But they have derived so many benefits from the sect, and they have so many friends within it, that life with- out it seems almost inconceivable. Consequently they are torn between the desire to go and the desire to stay, and the end is often a compromise of luke- warm adherence, which is bad enough for them, though it keeps up the official numbers of the sect and saves the evidence of loss of membership from becoming known to its rivals. There is every reason for this compromise in the case of those sensitive to pubhc opinion. Something of the flavour of apostasy still cHngs to those who openly leave the sect in which they have been educated. A spiritual pilgrimage through various sects, in order to find the one which really satisfies the longings of the rehgious side of the temperament, is still regarded as a sign of instabihty of character rather than of wisdom. Sect-leaders are well aware of these facts, and press them home with emphasis on the wavering. So it comes to pass THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 111 that many find themselves exposed to sect- pressures because they are out of harmony with sect-vahiations, but do not find it advisable to repudiate them openly and altogether. This occurs most frequently in country districts and small towns, most rarely in large centres where it is possible to lapse almost insensibly from any group and to join a new one. The most obvious, but by no means the worst, effect of the pressure of the sect on the individual who is out of harmony with it is the encouragement of a tendency to hypocrisy ; but the worst effect is a dwarfing or warping of the personaHty, which is brought about by being obhged to pretend to have one set of feehngs whilst really having another. Hypocrisy, pure and simple, seems to consist in paying a Hp service to virtue whilst being in taste either lax or vicious ; but it is not ordinarily used to include having one set of intellectual convic- tions and pretending to have another. A man, for instance, would be a hypocrite who was of the opinion that it was his duty to keep Sunday in the Puritan form, who pretended so to keep it, but actually spent it in revelry ; but the man is some- thing beyond, or at least different from, a hypocrite who, having come to the conclusion that he and every one else is justified in spending that day in amusement, by his conduct and speech leads others to believe that any deviation from the Puritan observance is worthy of severe condemnation. His consciousness of his own rectitude is inevitably injured, and so -is his confidence in his own power to have what Montaigne calls the right ' relish of right and wrong '. Yet examples of this are by no means uncommon, and they axe due to the 112 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE belief that the character of the sect and its homo- geneity of opinion must be preserved at all costs. The sect is exposed to carping comment from with- out, and sometimes to disruptive forces from within. It is thought that it must be held together and kept free from misrepresentation by rivals. The cost of achieving these ends is usually paid by the sacrifice to its interests of the younger, more promising, more original, but less courageous and self-centred members. II. 6 SOCIAL CLIQUES AND SOME PROFESSIONS TEND TO STRENGTHEN THEMSELVES AT THE EXPENSE OP THEIR MEMBERS, AND ESPECIALLY OP THEIR LEAST INFLUENTIAL MEMBERS. Broadly speaking, the great distinction between the pressures exercised by social chques and pro- fessions is that the former tend to control the whole outward Hfe, the way time is spent, the associates that one chooses, whilst the latter only attempt to control conduct in a special aspect. There are, it is true, some professions such as the Army, in which it is considered necessary that almost every hour of the day should be spent in ways which meet with professional approval. A young officer is often expected not only to do those things which are necessary for military efficiency, but to leave undone those tilings which regimental public opinion condemns, even when hardly any evidence could be produced that they would even remotely affect his personal capacities for com- mand either in peace or war. The reason given for this is that it is necessary for the attainment of THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 113 esfvit de corps that the officers should have a very intimate connexion with each other, and that only by their habitual sharing of the same pursuits can this intimacy come about. Whether this is so or not is too technical and special a question to be settled here. It is only possible to note its effects on the individuals exposed to it, and leave the matter there. There is abundant evidence that they tend to become somewhat commonplace, un- original, and devoid of ideas, inclined to adopt unthinkingly the opinions of their class and to treat any variations from estabhshed custom as a species of minor wickedness. What is spoken of here is a tendency only, and nothing more; many contrive to possess their own souls even under the pressure of this exaggeration of group life. But it shows how the human personality can be deflected by depriving it of a free initiative in the management of its own concerns, and how interests, if stifled at the time of life at which they would naturally have grown, are unable to re- assert themselves later in Hfe. Most of the liberal professions, however, do not find that their in- terests require that they should interfere with the private lives of their members, and so they do not in this respect require any discussion. Profes- sional habits of course give a certain direction to the mind, but they are caused rather by the nature of the business which is undertaken than by any action of the profession regarded as an instance of group consciousness. Social cHques, on the other hand, seem to exist both for and by means of the setting up of group customs, habits, and fashions for their members to follow. They take advantage of two qualities of 114 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE the human personality, its imitativeness and its desire for social distinction, and they play on them until they create the suggestion in many minds that ' correctness ' is, in and for itself, the great object to be attained. This correctness need not be virtue of any kind — indeed, it may be vicious, foolish, or indifferent ; it need not be peculiarly suited for the development of the individual per- sonality; its one claim to recognition is that it makes life easier and more smooth when all the members of a group do the same thing at the same time and in the same way, so that each can reckon on what the others will do. Directive psychology does not deny, indeed it is bound to recognize, this principle of convenience, and it cannot claim to be a judge of the desirability or otherwise of group customs, habits, or fashions. This is purely a matter for the consideration of those who think of joining a particular social cHque, which has a defined group consciousness, and imposes its requirements as far as it can on all its members. But directive psychology may legitimately point out how certain of these customs, habits, or fashions may act upon individual development, and then leave it to each person to see how his interests may be affected thereby. In short, its function is not to criticize the workings of the spirit of this sort of group consciousness in them- selves, but in their particular relation to the direc- tion of desire and aspiration in the minds of separate human beings. In order to study this action of cKques or social sets on their individual members, it is necessary to take instances where the power of the group is most considerable, and where the tendency to THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 115 cohesion is marked. These conditions are mostly to be found in country districts and country towns, because there the social clique is also a social class cut off from those above and below it by a sort of pride. Entrance into such sets as these is hardly a matter of individual choice or merit. It is true that very exceptional people, whose social standing is unexceptionable, or who have some special kind of distinction, may occasionally pass freely from one set to another, but for the ordinary run of mankind a great gulf is fixed between set and set. Nothing is so much dreaded by a member of a set considered to be superior, as the possibihty of being identified with the set immediately below. The boundary of the set, which is at the same time almost a small social class, is fixed more by profession or occupation than anything else, some ways of making a living being esteemed more ' genteel ' (to use an objection- able word, but the only one which fully expresses the meaning) than others. A young person grow- ing up in a country town finds him or herself identified with one of these sets, and whilst he remains can no more change it than he can the colour of his eyes. Much the same is true of a new-comer to the locality : he comes hall- marked with his occupation ; if he tries to rise above the social sphere marked out for those to whom he is supposed to belong, it is imputed to him for that form of social unrighteousness known as ' setting himself up ' ; if he is indifferent to keeping up the position assigned to him he is supposed to be ' lowering himself ', and is then reckoned to have naturally base tastes. There is no practical way of escape from all this, unless It 116 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE be removal to a large town, where there is a greater variety of choice, and a man's associates are selected more according to his tastes and ideas than according to his method of earning his living. Whilst he remains in a country town he must associate mainly, if not altogether, with those whom the local Social Providence has indicated as proper for him, and he must make their interests his interests, and their jealousies and squabbles must not be treated with entire indifference. They largely dictate to him how he shall spend his time, his energies, and his money : if he refuses to sub- mit to the dictation he falls into the outer dark- ness of social ostracism. There are certain tilings that are ' done ' and certain things which are ' impossible *, and a great deal of energy is ex- pended on distinguishing the doubtful cases which come up for settlement. The bare idea that one too audacious individual should settle his own line of thought and action, and at the same time remain unpunished, is considered to be so revolu- tionary as to be almost blasphemous. Is it possible to find any ray of brightness to relieve the gloom of such a picture as this ? The answer lies in the fact that most of the members of these social groups are perfectly contented with the system, and would struggle to maintain it. Most of them have never known anything else, or, if they have known it, have found it productive of too much mental effort to suit their taste. They do not want to be continually called upon to justify their position, they prefer not to have to exert their energies to make people associate with them because they are charming. The existing system makes their social calHng and election sure, unless THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 117 they are guilty of definite offences against well recognized laws. They have a sense of sitting securely under their own social vine and fig-tree. But for the more enterprising individuals, especially when young and having ambitions with regard to full self- directivity, the system is open to every sort of objection. The air is full of social suggestions, which the very strong may repel, but to which the weaker fall a helpless prey. The in- tellectual atmosphere is very heavy and very dense. Discussion on the points that seem of the most vital interest is condemned or stifled in some way. The whole troop has to regulate its pace by that of the slowest horse, and some of the horses are very slow indeed. There is not that social ' career open to talents ' which might produce the same effect on society that its Napoleonic prototype had on national efficiency. The result is a condition of ennui, boredom, and lassitude, which breeds con- tinual discontent; a supervision and criticism of every action and speech, which reproduces all the evils said to exist in the worst form of unreformed French schools. There is a system of delation, of repeating of confidences out of their context, which leads to the most bitter misunderstandings, and the result is often a thoroughgoing suspicion of all by each. After, and perhaps in consequence of, the decay of all intellectual interests, it is perhaps on the relations between the sexes that this hard and fast sectional system has the worst effect. This operates in two ways. Every social group desires above all things to be as respectable as those above and below it, and respectable in their sense means not so much being worthy of en- lightened and critical respect as being so common- 118 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE place as to give no opening of any sort for comment or remark. The group go on the principle which was once apphed to women, that that one is the best who is least talked about. Again, the groups are anxiously sensitive of any suspicion that they may be adopting customs or fashions from those ' below ' them. It is an unchanging command- ment of the Social Code that customs may work downwards from above, but never upwards from below. The consequence of all this is that a rigid pro- priety of demeanour between the sexes is more and more insisted upon. Once people are married it is held that they have no occasion to associate freely with any one of the opposite sex, except the other party to the marital contract. Before they are married any association between those not of the same sex is considered as tending only to matrimony, and having only that as its justifica- tion and excuse, and it is commented on accord- ingly. The result is an icy stiffness of social relations, or some sort of underhanded intrigue. Young people have none of those opportunities for moral and intellectual stimulation which a per- fectly frank and open friendship with some one of the opposite sex affords. Conversation is stilted and artificial, and games are regarded as a resource for staving off its horrors. The result of it all is that the more intellectual, the more individual, finding any sort of moral liberty impossible in such circumstances, make a dash for the large towns, where they get the liberty — and a good deal of temptation into the bargain. At least there they can possess their own souls, and Hve life according to their own THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 119 tastes and ideas, without comment or inquiry. The more commonplace men take to haunting pubUc-houses, hotel bars, or clubs ; for drinking, curiously enough, as long as it does not lead to open intoxication, and sometimes when it does, is regarded by many of these groups as so estab- hshed by nature and custom that it is useless to straggle against it. Assuming a case of a person obliged to remain under these group conditions, and wishing at the same time to direct his personaHty on psycho- logical hues, he would be somewhat in the same position as an early Christian isolated in a pagan environment. He might be persecuted, he might be ignored, anyhow he would need to combine the wihness of the serpent with the harmlessness of the dove in his own person. His most hopeful course would perhaps be to withdraw himself a good deal from social intercom-se, until he could make a few converts. Then very cautiously he might, in the face of the hostility that would surround him, build up a Uttle chque of his own, vowed to better things, and to principles of reform. It is just conceivable that such a small group might leaven the whole lump, and introduce some of that toleration, freedom, and estimation of culture and intelligence which characterizes the better part of the larger centres. If such a move- ment were successful, one cause of the present flocldng to the great towns would have ceased to operate. 120 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE II. 7 HOW FAR THE STATE AS A WHOLE SUBORDINATES THE INDIVIDUAL DEPENDS ON THE NATIONAL IDEAL, AND HARDLY ANYTHING HAS VARIED MORE WIDELY THAN THIS. The State is the most comprehensive of all the groups which exert pressure on the individual, and includes most of the others, with the exception of reHgious sects having a world-wide membership. Where it chooses to exert its pressure, it is of course the most powerful of them all, but modern States are very tolerant of individual variation — much more tolerant, indeed, than are the other groups which have been mentioned. It is this impersonal non-interfering attitude of the State with regard to the details of private life, which is responsible for the formation and spread of the opinion that its authority could well be extended, and that it might well undertake functions which have hitherto been held to belong to the family or the religious sect. To take two instances only, the State has taken over and dealt, on the whole satisfactorily, with elementary education, which was once the exclusive affair of the family ; it has instituted marriage as a purely civil contract, whereas it was formerly entirely a rite of the Church. The State can afford to be more disinterested than any other group, because it has not the same necessity to hold its members as other groups have. It is true a man may renounce his British birth- right and become a citizen of the United States, but his loss to the State is not felt in such a way THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 121 as to make it take action to discourage him in his choice. The pressure which a modern civihzed State brings to bear on those subject to it, as well as being disinterested, is usually fairly enlightened. Both the legislation and the administration are discussed and criticized, and on the whole the tendency is to interfere only in relation to quite material things, such as housing, sanitation, or the obtaining of better external conditions of life for the poorer classes. With these directive psycho- logy has no direct concern, though it recognizes the advantages which must come from improve- ments of this kind to the physical side of the personaUty, and so eventually in some degree to its power of self-direction. The chief ways that the modern State interferes for good or evil, more or less directly with the consciousness of its citizens, is in relation to sexual morals, and in relation to the moral or religious education of the young. State interfer- ence with regard to sexual morals dates from the rise of Puritanism, though before that ecclesiastical courts could and did punish moral offences. It was, however, in proportion as the Puritans became more powerful that laws supposed to tend to the support of what was deemed to be a pure morahty were enacted, or principles to the same effect found their way into the common law. The principle which has probably been of the greatest practical importance, though its impor- tance has not been usually noted, is that which makes void any agreement made for what is called an immoral consideration. Marriage is a good consideration ; that is, an undertaking to pay money can be enforced, if on the faith of it two people 122 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE have married one another. If, for instance, a father entered into a covenant to charge his estate with a yearly payment on his child's marriage, he could be made to perform that covenant, and the same would of course be true of one of the parties to the marriage. But if a man entered into a covenant to pay a yearly sum to two people on the ground that they should cohabit without marrying, he could not be made to perform it, nor would an agreement by a man to pay a yearly sum for life or for a fixed period to a woman in consideration of her agreeing to cohabit with him without being married be held binding on him. The result of this is that much financial uncertainty is intro- duced into any sexual relationship other than marriage, and this is a great encouragement to marriage as compared with any of the experimental or temporary schemes which have been from time to time advocated. The law does everything it can to discourage experimentation in this direction, short of making it a punishable offence, and not only does it render the position of the parties more financially insecure than they might both desire to make it, but it penaHzes them through their children. Now it is in no way the business of directive psychology to criticize this policy, but it has to point out how it affects the direction of desires, and how that in its turn affects the per- sonahty of individuals. It is obvious that in this respect some citizens are not left free to manage a very important part of their own lives, and to satisfy what they think are the needs of their con- sciousness in their own way ; they have to yield to what are considered to be reasons of public policy, or it is more accurate to say that some of THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 123 them may see fit to yield to them, for it is the peculiarity of the State in these matters, which are partly held to be private and partly public concerns, to discourage rather than directly forbid. The individual has to take account of this sort of vague pressure, and to make his arrangements accordingly : he is not faced with a positive pro- vision of law, as he would be, for instance, if he drove a motor-car which was not properlynumbered, or faster than the speed limit. The fact is, that in regard to these semi-personal, semi-social matters the State is not very sure of its ground : there are conflicting currents of opinion, which it has to take account of. Probably there is more than a suspicion that if these questions came up for settlement for the first time they might be settled on a different basis from the present one. Here, then, the individual seems to have, in some sort, a right to get round these indirect discouragements by any means that he can devise. If the State will not commit itself to treating a course of conduct as so wrong in itself — that is, so harmful to the community at large — that it can be for- bidden under penalties, but will only refuse to recognize it, many private citizens mil come to the very natural conclusion that they are perfectly in their rights, as far as the State is concerned, if they follow that course, in so far as it has the approval of their conscience, since the State will not have the courage of its opinions, and officially brand it as worthy of condemnation, though some social or reUgious groups will do so. It may, indeed, be necessary for the purposes of these groups that it should be condemned, but quite unnecessary from the point of view of the State, 124 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE which is an organization directed mainly to con- sohdating its strength against other States, and providing for the material progress and security of its citizens. The modern State makes little serious claim nowadays to control the private opinions of its subjects, or such of their actions as do not have a recognizable effect on its admitted spheres of activity, but there are always cases near the hne, on which doubts can be entertained. If, for instance, the State recognizes and enforces through its courts of law a regulation such as is reported, perhaps accurately, to have been made in the city of New York, that women should not smoke in pubUc restaurants, how should its action be characterized ? Is it to be thought of as a reasonable provision for pubUc health, such as our own law against the smoking of cigarettes by children ? Or is it an attempt to interfere with the freedom of a special class of grown-up people, not on any grounds which can be scientifically upheld as having to do with health, but merely in pursuance of some kind of ignorant prejudice ? The individual voter has to consider such prob- lems as these vrhen he is asked to support can- didates who take one line or the other about them. It is one of the political problems that demand the clearest thinking, and perhaps get too little of it. It is mixed up with the question of Socialism, though strictly it has nothing at all to do with it. Those who are opposed to SociaUsm as a political arrangement find fault with it on the ground, amongst others, that they believe a SociaHstic State would interfere too minutely with private concerns. Socialists, on the other hand, allege that it is only by a large amount of State regulation in THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 125 the externals of life, and especially with regard to the facilities for the acquisition and control of wealth by private citizens, that any real freedom of the individual in purely personal matters can be attained. They say that the tyranny of the rich, who more or less enforce their own opinions and ways on the poor, is worse for individual freedom than any State interference can possibly be. Directive psychology fortunately has no need to decide between these conflicting contentions. It has only to point out, to those whose main aim is to be allowed to direct their own life and con- sciousness, that the question of principle should be disentangled from questions of machinery and dis- cussed separately. It has only to say that all methods are to their advantage which make the outward mechanism of life run smoothly, and allow them to direct their own thoughts according to their own dehberate choice, and to take action in pursuance of that choice which cannot be clearly proved to be prejudicial to others. On the other hand it has to say that the tendencies of a State which has a very perfect mechanism at its com- mand may become corrupted partly by the very perfection of that mechanism, and the State may set itself out to become a sort of spiritual director of consciences, feehng that it must be better informed and wiser than any of its constituent individuals. This corruption of the tendencies of a State, whether it be an autocracy or an entirely socialistic democracy, will seem objectionable to those wiio, from a psychological point of view, are individualists, whatever political creed they may profess, and when they influence politics they will try to see that all action which can be fairly classed 126 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE as private, is left unregulated, and that where there is a doubt the burden is cast on the State of proving that any regulation which is proposed is clearly necessary for the public benefit. That it is so necessary will, of course, always be alleged by its supporters, and they will manage to make out a more or less good case, if they do not meet with criticism and opposition. Probably even those who wished to make it illegal for grown-up women to do as they liked about smoking in public restaurants, when no objection was offered by the restaurant keeper, could produce some sort of an argument in support of their proposal ; they can always fall back on the notion that severe disci- pline is good in itself, when they have no other ground to stand on. The critical party have, on the other hand, to accustom the public mind to act only on evidence in this relation, and to train it to have the requisites for judging on the best current psychological principles, even though they cannot be accepted as final. It is possible, of course, that the actions or expressed thoughts of individuals are open to condemnation on those principles. They may be harmful, and they may spread with great rapidity. Vicious habits may be just as catching as some physical diseases are, and quite as mischievous. On the other hand, they may be new, and cause great comment, although perfectly harmless to any normal per- sonality. Directive psychology is, or ought to be when more fully developed, the proper depart- ment for the study of these habits and customs, and it should be the duty of its specialists to report upon them after detailed observation of particular cases, and to sum up the evidence for THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 127 and against them. Only after a conclusively un- favourable report should they be condemned, and legislated against. The moral and rehgious education of the young, which is the other way mentioned before in which the State chiefly interferes with the self-direction of its citizens, is so involved in the mists of pubHc controversy that it can hardly be touched with- out the appearance of poHtical partisanship. One school of opinion asserts that morals cannot be taught without reUgion, another that they can. Moral education is one of those duties which the State has taken over from the family, and, whilst the family was presumably agreed about the particular tone which should be given to it, there are very various currents of thought on the matter within the boundaries of the State — hence a con- stant disagreement. It is to be hoped that with the progress of psychological knowledge, more certainty may be arrived at with regard to the specific enect of certain ideas and public valua- tions and estimations of conduct on the growing mind. When this point has been reached, it would seem to be possible to teach those ideas and valuations which are agreed upon as con- ducive to good citizenship in its widest meaning, which is, after all, the sole matter with which the State has any need to concern itself, and to leave all the rest to be settled privately, taking the utmost care, however, that no suggestions recognized as, or even strongly suspected of being, socially harmful, should be allowed to be impressed on the immature. 128 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE II. 8 FORMIDABLE AS THESE PRESSURES MAY APPEAR, THEY TEND TO NEUTRALIZE ONE ANOTHER ; THEY CAN OFTEN BE AVOIDED, AND A TRAINED IMAGINATION CAN MOSTLY ELUDE THEM. With all these group pressures exerted upon him, what chance has the individual of directing his own life in his own way, and of occupying his consciousness with the things that really belong to his peace ? Many authorities go so far as to say that he has practically no chance at all. He starts with hereditary predispositions, and these different forces act on them. He is supposed to be the product of the two, and is simply regarded as clay in the hands of the potter. His family bends his youthful mind in accordance with its own habits and traditions, and fits him not so much to be an individual, as one of its members. His rehgious sect turns his thoughts to glorifying its particular conception of the Divine, and inci- dentally to being a burning and a shining Hght, as an example of what its training can produce. His social chque ridicules his individual pecuHari ties, until he becomes a copy of its virtues and vices. The State encourages some courses of con- duct, and discourages others, in order that every citizen should be a source of strength to itself. What can be left over when all these forces have done their work ? That is decided by the amount of ingenuity which the individual has shown in what may be called colloquially ' the dodging of pressures ', in other words, his capacity of selec- tion, and his power of, so to speak, taking cover THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 129 under fire. The groups which exert the pressures mostly fail to do so as efficiently as they might, because the group consciousness is rarely so widely awake as is the individual consciousness, and then the groups want different things, and so fall out among themselves, at which time the wary indi- vidual has a chance of coming by his own. A. great part of EngHsh history for instance, is made up of the struggle between the State and the Church for jurisdiction, and for the obedience of those who were in one aspect citizens of the State, and in another were adherents of a Church which was international in its activities. Each of these two authorities was continually struggling to en- large the department of human life with which it was supposed to be concerned. The murder of Thomas a Becket, and the privilege of clergy, are well-known points which stand out in this con- troversy. Later on the sects fell out among them- selves, the EstabUshed Church first persecuting the Free Churches, and they in turn attacking its special position with regard to the State. Tin more modern days many a social clique has become a sort of Cave of Adullam, in which those at war with their family, or with the religious sect in wliich^hey^ were brought up, can take refuge. Jit is onlyj I in those pecuHarly unfortunate circumstances, of which, however, there have been instances in ' history, where the family, the sect, the social group, and the State, have worked harmoniously towards clearly understood ends, that the individual has been entirely submerged, and rendered utterly help- less. Early Puritan New England seems to have realized these conditions, and any one who stayed there had to develop on the lines which were P "BLIGH -p ' • 1?0 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE /approved, or had to do without any individual ) (development whatever. ^ Directive psychology need not consider such ex- ceptional cases as these. It has fortunately to do with a world where there is at least a healthy variety of sects and social groups, amongst which the individual can choose with a reasonable degree of freedom, where the pressure of the family breaks down, or is not exerted as soon as the individual can become economically independent, and where the State is, on the whole, reasonably tolerant of private opinion and peculiarities of private life, even when it sees fit to deplore them officially, as in the proclamation at Assizes against vice and immoraUty. The task of the individual under these conditions is essentially to try to get as wide a field of choice as he can, and to exercise that choice with all the wisdom of which he is capable. The trouble with a good many indi- viduals is that they do not reahze that they have any choice, nor when they are aware of exercising it have they more than the very vaguest idea of how far it extends for practical purposes. The reason of this is that they have made attempts at a choice when young, the attempts have been baffled, and they think from that experience that this would invariably happen whenever new ones \vere made. This discouragement from failures can be traced in almost the lowest forms of conscious life. If you take a pike and put him in an aquarium along with smaller fish on which he preys, but divided from them by a glass partition, he will make furious attempts to get at them, and always be prevented from so doing by the glass partition. In this way he gets semething corresponding to THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 131 what we know as disappointment, with probably some physical discomfort into the bargain. Con- sequently, after a time he no longer dashes at the smaller fish ; he thinks he cannot get them, or else his kind of consciousness arrives without a reflective act at a condition which is for practical purposes to the same effect, and the curious fact is that he will go on acting in just the same way, even though the glass partition be withdrawn. He has asso- ciated in some way his fruitless efforts to get those particular little fish with pain and failure, and he desists even when he might succeed. Now the fighter against group pressures is often like this pike : his early failures have taught him his own 'i mpo tence, and his self-confidence has disappeared... The right way to deal with group pressures is not/ j to make wild rushes Uke those of the pike, but to| / take stock of all the circumstances, and to see whyj \ it is that the pressure is so strong. Its strength/ ' may be due to several causes, and it is essential to [ understand clearly what they are. One set qi fcauses is inherent in the character of the grou|) itself, and the other set is in closer relation to the qualities and tendencies of the particulajindiy^dual^ These two sets of causes of course act and react'bn and with one another, but for purposes of clearness itjs_as well to consider them separately. ^Oosej Cohesion and unfaihng watchfulness are the charac-l !^tfixistics of groups which make them strong,/as against a given individual, though these wifh the strictness which they produce may end by causing narrowness, stagnation, and decay, eventually in the group consciousness. A good instance of these characteristics is the CathoUc Church in Spain in the palmy days of the Inquisition. The least 132 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE deviation from strict orthodoxy, even though oniy^ expressed in casual conversation, and having no relation to anything of a pubUc nature, was con- demned. This meant that the whole group had to think the same thoughts : it compelled a rigid adherence to estabUshed opinion. Beyond that a constant watch was kept in an organized and systematic way upon everything that was said and done. No one could be certain that he was ever free from denunciation, and if denounced he had the greatest difficulty in clearing himself from sus- picion. The result was that any tendency to in- dependence of character was stamped out. Fear was used so scientifically that it strangled all originaUty as soon as it showed itself. A con- dition equivalent to this does not exist in modern times, but that it has ever occurred shows what may happen if group pressure is allowed to become too predominant. Most groups are at present both less cohesive and less watchful; it is therefore usually possible to conceal mere opinions till they are capable of being persuasively formulated, and , then to take advantage of them to break up the ' "^osoliesion of the group on particular questions. / p- It is the peculiar weaknesses of individuals whicfi| Inow mostly give the group a chance to absorb their Whole personahty and deflect their energies. The /chief of these weaknesses are the lack of the quali- ties which enable any one to be economically in- j dependent, disHke of moral isolation, dread of [ ridicule, and a tendency to be unduly imitative. Directive psychology has to consider each of these, and show how they can be overcome. Economic dependence on others may be caused by a want of ^ the quality of intelligence necessary for earning THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE a living, or by the want of training of that quaUty, if it exists in an undeveloped form. The chief effect it has in this respect is that it hinders free, movement away from the group pressure. If, for/ instance, a girl finds herself being stunted by the conditions of family life, and by uncongenial sur- roundings, her first impulse is to get away from them. But she is met at the outset by the fact that no one will give her food, lodging, and clothing in exchange for her services, because, from an economic point of view, they are worthless. There is perhaps nothing she can do that any one would pay to have done. This dependence is greatly in- creased by the high standard of Uving to which she has become accustomed. To satisfy, without undue discomfort, the tastes and habits she has formed, she would need, for instance, to earn £100 a year; in point of fact her market value is not 155. a week. The remedy for this, then, is to try incessantly to develop those powers for which there is a constant demand, and to get rid of those tastes which are expensive to satisfy. In short, the aim should be industrial or professional efficiency, and a love of the simple life. These are quite uninteresting and commonplace, but they are the necessary basis of anything else. "T^Erislike of moral isolation, a dread of appearing singular or ridiculous, and an undue tendency to imitate others may be taken together as presenting in practice much the same class of difficulty. They all spring from the sympathetic, gregarious im- pulses, combined with an inabihty to make an unbiassed valuation of the personality without con- stant reference to the opinions of others. They can only be overcome by systematic self-training, by a ^nstant use of the imagination to counteract them, 134 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE and by doing something daily to mitigate them. By these means, however, they certainly can be overcome, but the pity of it is that so few people will face the discomforts of the necessary self- discipline. Rather than that they will put up with almost any amount of the evils to which they have become accustomed. Take the dread of ridicule, or of being thought singular, which is perhaps the simplest instance. It is experienced by many, but few will take any trouble to accustom themselves to it deliberately. Yet directly 1^ faced it more of terf\ than not quite disappears, and a rather pleasant ' sensation of moral superiority, and a sense of the freedom which has been won, takes its place. Even those who have been the originators of the ridicule are dimly aware of the alteration, and their attitude of mind changes into either a sort of qualified ap-. proval or into indifference. -1I'orce'"orpers"onaIity is largely derived from^ tttep^wer to bear ridicule or appear singular without undue strain, but the power must be frequently exercised, or it becomes lost. That is why no opportunity should be lost of taking one's own line when it can be done without harm to others, without mere eccentricity, and with i the_approval of one's considered j udgment. _/ ughout this chapter group pressurelias15een treated as though it were something to be avoided, eluded, or repelled, but this is of course not the only point of view from which it can be regarded. Very often it is largely valuable to the individual, and may be used to promote his scheme of self -direction. This aspect of it will be treated in a later chapter, but at the present stage it seemed necessary to explain the difficulties which might arise from social pressures, and their possible inconveniences to the individual. III. 1 THE SELF-NOURISHING TENDENCY IS USUALLY OVER- STRONG, AND MISDIRECTED. SOCIAL PRESSURES IN THE FORM OF CONVIVIALITY INCREASE THESE EVILS. THE REASONING IMAGINATION SHOULD GRASP THE EFFECT OF VARIOUS FORMS OF NOURISHMENT, AND SUBORDINATE IMMEDIATE INCLINATIONS WHERE THEY CONFLICT WITH THE EFFECTS THAT ARE DESIRED. SOCIAL PRESSURES SHOULD BE ORGANIZED TO ASSIST IN THIS SUB- ORDINATION. y This chapter deals with the motive elements of \ ^ the personality, and it has already been explained that the term ' motive element ' is used more as | one which has a certain convenience for the prac- tical purpose of understanding how states of consciousness can be produced and altered, than as one which represents any actual quality found acting in isolation. The desires and the emotions which sweep through the mind present an inexv^f \ tricable tangle and a hopeless puzzle unless some / plue is given by which they may be analysed. It is not for a moment suggested that the present division into twelve elements is ideal ; probably when more study has been given to the matter a much better principle of analysis will be dis- covered, but it seems advisable to make a beginning now even though the instrument may be com- paratively inefficient, in the hope that its defects may be discovered and remedied as they become better knowELj When Benjamin Franklin conceivedX Hs welTEnown ' project of arriving at moral per- / (!' / 136 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE . ^. fection ', which was ' to live without committing ) any fault at any time ', and to ' conquer all that / either natural inclination, custom, or companyy ^igh^rteaHTiim into^"he"made an enumeration of thirteen moral virtues, temperance, silence, order, resolution, frugality, industry, sincerity, justice, moderation, cleanliness, tranquilHty, chastity, and humility. Some such arrangement as this has generally been made the basis of any scheme of seK-improvement. The personality obviously needs detailed attention under any project of the sort ; it is impossible to correct it all at once. The only question is whether it is better to focus the atten- . tion on its various parts as they appear in relation \ to virtues such as these, or on the i nstinctive / ^tepjigncies^which may be developed into virtues^ — The present arrangement has been chosen because it seems to lend its^f to a greater degree of fliexibilit;^, and because (the aun of directive "psycEology is not so much to cultivate the moral virtues directly, as to enable those who follow it to become fully autonomous moral beings, capable of developing themselves^m' accordance with any ethical system they may select for themse lves ^oTa^e as an mstance the subject of this section, the self-nourishing tendency. The virtue which corresponds to it on Franklin's list is the first, temperance, to which he attaches the precept : ' Eat not to dullness, drink not to elevation.' As a means of attaining temperance as an isolated moral virtue the precept is admirable, but it by no means covers all the ground which is necessary in dealing with the self-nourishing instinctive tendency. This may be defective as well as exces- sive, it may be wrongly directed though not THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 137 immoderate)! The question with regard to it^ ] fhow may it be so developed that it most co nduces 1 I toj ^he benefit of the personality as a whole^ jA very penurious person, whose gustatory sense is rela- tively undeveloped, may at the same time be inclined to be misanthropical. A certain degree of conviviality might be a great improvement to his personality. His health might be improved and his^ energies increased if he were better nour- jshedx-fDirective psychology has to take account! lof the management of the body as a means of I increasing the general vitalit y, an d consequently / ^\t he p owers of the mi nd. [AT certain excess, even ' drmking to elevation ', may in certain cases turn out to be beneficial. | Every~mstinctive tendency,! (therefore ,~Eas to be considered, not by what it isf in itself, but in its relation to and in its effe ct upon\ jbhe wh ole, /^his then is the reason for the provi-\ ^sional adoption of the present ' scheme of analysis '. A It is almost childish in its simplicity, and unfor- / tunately it leaves gaps, but any other known / \^ scheme is also open to this objection. /"^rom the point of view of directive psychology! the self -nourishing tendency mainly needs to be I '-_j:aiionalized and adapted to definite end^^fTdsT^ generally speaking, active enough, and more in need of restraint and conscious direction than of stimula- tion. Eating and drinking come in for a good deal of casual discussion, but it is largely from the point of view of how they may be made directly pro- ductive of pleasurable sensations. Tliat is hardly going far enough into the question. (The real point^ I to be arrived at is how what is taken into the body ) I will ultimately afEect consciousness, and the circum- stances under which it is consumed, and the mental / "^^--^ i'S ' 138 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE states accompanying the process must be given ^^^ajEulLstare of consideration. \ The?actor which has to be thougSt^oF^Sfi^iS' / the economic condition of the individual, because until this is known it is useless to make schemes about the others. A large proportion of the popu- lation have no spare money to devote to luxuries in eating and drinking, and even those who could find means to gratify their inclinations in these directions prefer to devote them to some other purposes. The first question, therefore, is what amount and kind of nourishment is, on the average, necessary to maintain the vital and especially the mental energies, and how may this be most economi- cally procured. To answer this question would need a treatise in itself, and a book on directive psychology is not the place for discussing it in any detail. It is only necessary to refer to such books as Scientific Nutrition Simplified, by Goodwin Brown (Heinemann), and to mention that recent discoveries seem to prove that health and energy can be maintained at a much smaller cost than was previously considered possible. If this economic nutrition can be made practicable and fairly pleasant for those who have any reason for wishing , to lower the cost of their living, it will mean that 1 a large class being rendered comparatively free from material cares will be better able to develop 1 their personalities, if they wish to do so. Directive i psychology can only assist in this good work by ( showing what a large part the mind plays in fixing \ the amount of nutriment that seems necessary. Most people eat so much according to the custom family and of their class that they barely THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 139 conceive the idea of inquiring what is physio logically necessary. If they have not taken as\ much food, and especially as much flesh food, as it is usual to eat in the society amongst which they move, a feeling of weakness is experienced which is, in reality, more due to suggestion than to any- thing else. The converse effect happens when something is taken which is supposed to be specially strengthening, though in fact it may not be an energy producer. The energy which it seems to produce is really due to an increase of confidence in the power to work — that is, to a sort of faith cure. Just as a bread pill or coloured water, when administered in place of a drug whose effects are known, produces by the action of the mind the results that the drug would actually have pro- duced, so certain foods or drinks having gained a reputation can live on it, and be approved accordingly, though their effects are produced rather by suggestion on the mind than by anything they may directly do to strengthen the body. In nutrition, then, opinion counts for a great deal, not that a person could be permanently kept in health or even alive by food which was only thought to be nutritious, but was not really so, but because the imagination plays an active part in deciding how much of the energy that food is capable of giving can be actually extracted from it. To take an extreme instance, few people could effectively digest food which they suspected of being poisoned even though in reality it was per- Lf gctly goi>d. __,.^-^ What directive psychology advises with regard to this self- nourishing tendency is that each person should note the effect of food on himself as impar- THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE tially as possible, with reference to the particular effects on consciousness that are desired, and that i any suggestions which he allows to influence him / with regard to it should be in accordance with the best scientific opinion of the day, and not with self-interested statements in advertisements. Jt further points out the disadvantages to the person- ality of allowing the tendency to occupy too predominant a place in consciousness as a whole. It is good to take note of the effects, but it is quite the contrary to allow the imagination to fix itself on the sensations. Some people have an over- developed memory for tastes, that is, they recall them with almost their original force and vividness, whenever they think of the eatable which produces them. These people are tempted to live to eat rather than to eat to live. They injure their personality as a whole, because they are attracted \ too strongly by these sensations and sensory \ pleasures. The remedy is probably that wiser and \ more far-sighted Epicureanism, which recognizes that the very finest of the gustatory sensations are only produced when hunger is fairly acute, by / ,yery..5imple dishes and by prolonged masticatiom ./ As social pressures in the direction of con- viviality and elaboration of hospitality are the main sources of all the errors in the development of this tendency, some attention must be paid to reforming them. Most people are so imitative with regard to matters of this kind that they eat and enjoy what they see others eat and enjoy, and are not happy when they have to set themselves apart and risk getting the reputation of being ' food-cranks '. Fortunately social convention does not now make it a necessary part of politeness THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 141 for a host to press great quantities of food on his guest, or for a guest to consume more than he requires, as was once the practice. A good deal, however, remains to be done in the direction of establishing the merits of greater simplicity of hfe in regard to food, and in allowing a greater degree of variation without comment. III. 2 THE PROBLEM OF THE MOTOR IMPULSES IS TO ASCERTAIN HOW THEY CAN BE MADE TO CONTRI- BUTE TO THE SUM OF PLEASURABLE SENSATIONS AND TO THE HEALTH OF THE INDIVIDUAL, WHILST SUBORDINATED TO THE WELFARE OF THE SOCIAL ORGANISM AND NOT ALLOWED TO PREDOMINATE UNDULY IN CONSCIOUSNESS. The very large part that the satisfaction of motor impulses plays in modern English life has already been mentioned : now they have to be considered as they affect the personality and especially with regard to the degree to which they occupy the mind. Man being originally a hunting animal, and having been evolved as a fighting animal, excellence in regard to co-ordination and direction of the motor impulses, and the degree of attention paid to them, has played a large part in determining the races which have survived. In the sedentary life of the professions and of business there is usually no direct necessity for the employment of these impulses, and an outlet has been found for them in games and sports of all kinds, with great benefit to the national health. Directive psychology regards them as valuable for its purposes, as a dis- traction of the mind from worries and troubles, as 142 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE conditions for renewing mental energies, and as fitting the youth of the country for the purposes of national defence. These impulses can be trained to act independently of the intelligence or in very close relation to it, and, broadly speaking, the more they take a form which involves the working of the intelligence the better it is for the personality. An instance of the impulses acting almost without the need of any intelligence is long distance running. Success in this simply depends upon physical endurance, with perhaps, in some cases, the exercise of that kind of judgment which tells the runner when it is best for him to make the decisive effort. This only needs that sort of power of mind which would be found in homing pigeons ; it does not call for any of the distinctively human faculties. The stage above that may be illustrated by a game such as football, which involves calcula- tion of distances, quick decision as to occasions, and a good deal of co-operation amongst the players. It needs the lower functions of the human intelli- gence, and very fine muscular co-ordination. Jtis, therefore, in its way, excellent trainings PTIie I highest stage is thafm whicir"^e"Best powers of I the intellect are called into play in calculating I chances, drawing rapid inferences, and acting upon I them courageously on the spur of the moment. /^Scouting fulfils all these conditions in the most / admirable way possible. ' Now it is obvious enough that for the develop- | ment of the personaUty this highest stage is far ] better than either of the others, and so it is advo- \ cated by directive psychology. The general \ tendency in relation to the selection of games for ; \ young people is to encourage those which are \ THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 143 supposed to produce physical pluck and stamina ; those which at the same time exercise the judg- ment are only beginning to be recognized at their true comparative worth, though the popularity of the book called Scouting for Boys is fast gaining them recognition. Games and sports are not only played, but they are much watched and discussed, and those which call into play the better powers of the mind lend themselves much more readily to interesting and useful discussion. They are also infinitely more valuable as a training for war, in case the individual should think it his duty, or be called upon, to act in defence of his country. For all these reasons it is to be hoped that there may be a change in public estimation of sports, and that those on the lines of scouting may become fashion- able. They do not, however, lend themselves so readily to commercial enterprise in the way of gate money, and they need more space. This makes it all the more incumbent on those who wish to develop themselves, and at the same time to fit themselves for the service of their country, to throw their influence and the force of their example in the direction of extending the popu- larity of sports of this description. The delight in, and the desire for, the exercise of the muscles is nearly always found in combina- tion with a social element such as emulation. It is true that a busy man may, for his health, do certain exercises and not disHke them, but they have very little effect on his mind. All games and most field sports have to be undertaken by several people at the same time and place, and consequently the individual cannot make a very personal choice, he can only select from those that 144 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE happen at the time, to be fashionable and also _^i^n his means. S, Directive psychology is con^, j cerned primarily with the self-development of^thej l_in^vidual personalityjjand the fixed and traS^ tional forms of nearlyall games do not give very much scope for varied methods of development. It is not therefore necessary that this motive element should be noticed at any great length ; but there is one point about it to which attention should be called and which is of the utmost impor- tances/This is with regard to the effect of muscular\ \exertion on the activity of the higher brain centres./ /' Presumably the majority of those who are\ / prepared to give any time to the study of directive ] j psychology would wish to get just that amount \ I of physical exercise, and no more, which would .' \ make their minds work in the most free and; \efficient manner.) It is true that the average man or woman und^ present day conditions takes physical exercise as an end in itself, as one of the main pleasures of life, and as much of it as his leisure time allows, but the class who subordinate it to other interests is considerable enough to have their special interest considered. For them the question is what is the effect on their individual constitutions of a good deal of exercise in the open air. They have to judge whether it is wise for their purposes to accustom themselves to a good deal or to very little. Constitutions seem to vary so much that no very certain answer can be given to this question. It seems to depend on the amount of energy which can be produced. Some minds are more active when on horseback, as Montaigne's was ; some become utterly dulled when moving about in the open air. There does not seem THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 145 to be much accurate knowledge at present about tbe best method of producing and conserving nervous or mental energy. It is even open to some doubt whether they come from one source or from different sources. Assuming them to be from different sources some people seem to be able to convert one into the other at will, whilst others, having great muscular or nervous energy, seem incapable of transforming it into mental processes, perhaps from want of the habit of so doing, perhaps from some congenital inability. Many men, for instance, who can stand a hard day's shooting, become fatigued if they have to pay prolonged attention to any intellectual discussion. What light there is on this question is to be found in such books as Forel's Hygiene of Nerves and Mind, and it is a matter for physiology rather than for direc- tive psychology. It seems that some constitutions, when fatigued by mental exertions, recuperate much more quickly if free play is given to the motor impulses; others, on the contrary, need complete physical rest. Perhaps the safest opinion is that the tendency in modern times is to be rather over violent in taking exercise when the main object is the repair of the waste due to mental exertions. All that directive psychology can recommend is that a clear scheme shall be made of the effect which the physical exercise which is taken shall be designed to produce, and that as exact observations as possible shall be made as to the way various plans of life in regard to motor impulses seem to affect the scheme. In some, physical restlessness, due to a state of muscular tension, seems to lead to mental restlessness and discomfort : in others the trouble does not arise. 146 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE The essential is to watch and experiment, to draw the right inferences and act upon them. It is the lack of due reflection and impartial judgment on matters of this kind, the blind following of the example of others who may be both differently- constituted and pursuing quite opposite aims, which is responsible for most of the troubles which come from the bad regulation of the motor impulses. III. 3 WHILST THE FEAR IMPULSE WHEN GUIDED BY REASONABLE APPRECIATION OP FACTS IS NECES- SARY FOR THE AVOIDANCE OF DANGERS, THE DIFFUSED SUBCONSCIOUS FORMS OF FEAR ARE A PURE EVIL. THESE MAY GENERALLY BE AVOIDED BY A PROPER TRAINING OF THE MIND. The fear impulse in its various forms of direct physical fear, timidity, shyness, anxiety, and worry, is probably responsible for a greater proportion of human misery than all the other impulses put together. It is the great pain-avoiding instinct, and it is, of course, necessary for the preservation of life. That is why in the course of evolution it has become so overmasteringly strong. It has been used as a method of social discipUne and necessarily so, because it is only by its means that the powers of inhibition could be strengthened so as to control the very violent anti-social impulses of mankind. Directive psychology, therefore, studies fear primarily as a factor in inhibition, and secondarily as in its vague and diffuse forms a quahty of the human consciousness, which should be converted into something more useful, or else abolished alto- THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 147 gether. Its value as a factor in inhibition chiefly depends first on the clearness of knowledge about the exact nature of the impulse to be inhibited and the circumstances under which inhi- bition is most necessary, and secondly, on the efficiency with which the fear impulse can be used for this end without producing any troublesome by- products or leaving any ill-effects. Children have been in the past and still to some extent are ruled by fear, and this is necessary as long as their reasoning faculties are not sufficiently developed to guide them; but the danger is that a habit of fear or anxiety is set up which destroys self-confidence in after fife. A great deal has been written about fear both in animals and mankind, and it appears to be proved that fear may be instructive and independent of individual experience. For instance, young pheasants will hide themselves on the approach of a hawk, when only a few days old, and before they could possibly have gained any per- sonal experience of the hawk's game -destroying procHvities. It seems also that in mankind fear of particular objects may exist even when the reason is satisfied that they are not likely to cause any harm. James I of England was thus always in fear of bare steel, possibly from the effects of the murder of Rizzio in his mother's presence. On the other hand, it is more normally the effect of knowledge and reflection. Thus a person unacquainted with the death-dealing powers of a revolver would not be frightened at having one pointed at his head. Indeed, most young people who have had no personal experience of an accident with firearms seem to be quite fearless, even when they are handled in such a way as to cause the 148 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE utmost danger, and it is most difficult to teach them caution. On the other hand, any one who has been injured or greatly alarmed in this way will be unduly anxious without reasonable cause. From all these cases it will be seen that the first problem that directive psychology has to solve is how the fear impulse may, by habit and association, be trained to act appropriately. It has to connect the emotional feeling first with the right idea, and then with the fitting action, and this is often a very complex business. Take for instance a village which is in a highly insanitary condition. The inhabitants are used to its state and have not the least fear that it will produce disease. They look upon any attempt to make it less dangerous as some sort of fad, probably due to the desire to get the better of them in some way. Then comes an epidemic and with it only too much fear, but generally of a kind which begins and ends in a feehng of anxiety and unhappiness, and does not lead to any wise action. In past ages it led to a fataUstic feehng that the Gods were punishing them, or to the burning of an old woman or two for witchcraft. Nowadays it would lead to the unpopularity of some members of the sanitary authority for not seeing after their duties, though they would have been bitterly blamed for undue interference if they had insisted on proper reforms before the epidemic broke out. If some psycho- logist or scientist were to write a little popular handbook on ' What to Fear and How to Fear it ', he would probably be doing a service to mankind. The emotion of fear should be made to function when anything is mismanaged, but self-confidence should be restored when the errors are corrected. THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 149 Fear should not be allowed to become a habit. It should especially not be allowed to be diffused, vague and unrelated to any definite assignable cause. The imagination should be impressed with the thought that fear is to be utiHzed to produce either an effort or an inhibition, and the particular effect which it is designed to produce should be always thought of in relation to it. It should never be allowed to exist independently of some plan of action. In the untrained imagination the emotion of fear is stronger in proportion as the danger is nearer. In the trained imagination a proper pro- portion of attention instigated by fear is paid to dangers which are more remote, but certain, or highly likely, to do mischief if a wrong course of conduct is followed, and directive psychology would focus it more especially on bad habits which would tend in the end to the destruction of the_ per sonaUty. Many people, for instance, have too Httletear of an increased consumption of alcohol, though perfectly aware of its bad effects on others. They should be taught to set the fear of conse- quences over against the immediate pleasures of drinking. It is the way that the fear impulse acts more than the strength of it which is important. It should be so guided that it acts automatically at the proper time. An agony of fear in the middle of the night is destructive of the nervous forces, and productive only of good resolutions or remorse. A small percentage of the same force of emotion when the occasion demands it would be infinitely more beneficial. It would seem that this poUcy is easy to advocate but impossible to follow, and to some extent this objection is well founded. The answer to it, as far as there is one, lies in the theory 150 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE / that it is possible to build up what is known as\ i a ' voluntarily prepared reflex ', by means of the ) association of ideas. This ' voluntarily prepared \ reflex ' may be defined as the tendency to react / \ almost automatically to a given ' stimulus ', as ( a_soldier does at the word of command. It has / ^nany analogies with a post-hypnotic suggestioj].;', ^Now it is well known that if a subject under \ hypnosis is told that at a given signal, or after the , elapse of a certain interval of time, he is to perform / a certain act he will do so more or less unconsciously, j and not knowing why he does it. He generally I I seeks about for motives afterwards which may 1 explain his conduct if it seems strange, but the \ point is that he really acts in pursuance of the I suggestion which has been given him in the \ hypnotic state. This is a ' prepared reflex ', but ^ it has not been prepared by his will but by that 'of another persorj^But it is possible for many^ . dndeed for almost all, to prepare their own reflexesl ' if they care to take the trouble to set about doing \ so. There must, however, be some motive, some \ real desire ; they cannotdo it merely arbitrarily, as can be done with regard to the hypnotized subject. Fear supplies the motive. The other essential is association. The reflex must be timed to go ofE on a given occasion when the impulse would other- wise be to do something else. Say, for instance, a man is afraid that he is becoming a drunkard, and he wishes to refuse an offer to be treated when it is made to him. He can do two things. He can go to a hypnotist and ask to have the suggestion made to him in hypnosis that he will refuse, or that he will pass a public-house without entering it, or an)rthing of the kind. Or he may prepare his THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 151 /"" .^— . / own reflex. He may, for example, call up in' liis\ ! mind an imaginary scene in which some one offers ' I him a drink, he may realize to himself his fear of j the effects of his drink habit and its probable consequence, he may think out the form of excuse ' in which he will express his refusal so that he may not be further importuned, and finally he may impress the whole picture on his consciousness as strongly as possible, and several times over. When the actual thing happens it is nine chances out of ten that he will find himself automatically doing \^what he has imagined and without any sense of effort of any sort. .^-^^ iPMs is only one of numerous ways in which the A fear impulse can be turned to useful account. J Others will readily suggest themselves to any one / who interests himself in becoming self-dir ective, J but the motive can only be used with any^effec^/ when theresults to be dreaded. ,aj^&^clea:rly appre-' Vl;iended,\an9~tiris'clear apprehension is not alwaysj j easy"rrfattainment. Either because of the uncer-l I tainty of Kfe, or from want of reasoning power, \ or from a bad condition of the nervous system, very many people suffer from one of the forms of / diffused fear which are so common and, far from j being capable of being turned to any account, act as a hindrance to every effort, and are the cause of unending misery. Directive psychology has to deal with such of these as are not due to physical causes, and especially with those which are reme- , ^jiable by a proper trainjngjofjjiej^md. ' Ji^xclu3ing tKose which are merely symptoms of diseases of the nervous system necessitating regular medical treatment, it is usually the case that when closely analysed they will be found to be caused by 152 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE a defective working of the imagination, and this defect can often be traced back to some shock or early association of ideas. It is important to trace them to their origin, if possible, because when this is discovered it is much easier to apply remedies. Some people, more especially women, are afraid to remain alone in an unlighted room. This is usually due to a fright in childhood. Some are unusually timid when brought in contact with other human beings, especially those who are powerful or distinguished. This is often due to their having been bullied or made to feel foolish. General worry or anxiety about the progress of one's affairs, a kind of foreboding that things will not go well, or that one will prove a failure, is the most indefinite of all the fear forces and the effect of it is to weaken the personality so much that very ^9ftenJihe_fears are realized^,. ,- — — ^ j These troubles oTTEe^ imagination are to some! I extent curable, whenever the stream of conscious-' \ ness can be turned away into some other channel. jWhen a certain amount of nervous energy is stored in the brain it begins to work, and, if it has nothing of interest to work upon, the nervous energy tends to flow out along the most worn channels, and if these happen to be what one may roughly caU fear or anxiety channels the results are lamentable. New channels must be provided by every possible exercise of ingenuity, and it is especially here that the theory of what is called the ' canalization ' of nervous energies proves vso valuable. The suggestion is that it is possible to make new paths or courses for the outflow of tke nervous energy, so that it will find its way along them instead of along its old courses, where it is THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 153 riial&Te to do damage. This is the equivalent mthe f neural world of what cutting an additional and artificial bed for a river would be in the physical world. It is intended to serve the double purpose I of preventing damage by floods and of irrigating some other part which needs it. The difficulty and trouble come in the process of channel cutting, but when this is done the results are wonderful. There can be no very precise rules for the process. All directive psychology can do is to emphasize the possibility and the advantages and leave it to the individualto invent methods suitj/blefor application f _johis own personality.] Jtie'Ki^ study^^S'cifcum^ " stances aiidroccasions on which he is obsessed with fears, timidities, and anxieties. He ha s to con- sider"wliat~are the" Strongest and mos'E'^five fenSe ncies of his nature which can be called into play~on those occasion's an d u nd er "tht^se' cifcumr- sTahces.~^He hasTo see that they are stimulated, pre^aT^d, a,ndrs^red'up ready to be released when ^^gijuired^ and he has to arrange thai ~tKe volun- tarily prepared reflex mentioned above is ready to s^TTr^lhe tendencies a^t the right flioliientr WitE aTittie'prarctice he will probably find thathis mind is^in;%is" way so fully occupied with happier tEoughts ttiat iris fears arid an'xieties will vanisJL 154 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE III. 4 REPULSIONS MAY OCCUR IN RELATION TO PERSONS, IDEAS, PLACES, ANIMALS, OCCUPATIONS, TASTES, OR SCENTS. WHILST THE TENDENCY TO REPUL- SION IS SOMETIMES INNATE, THE PARTICULAR INSTANCES OF IT ARE PROBABLY IN MOST CASES FOUNDED ON UNPLEASANT ASSOCIATIONS. APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY TEACHES HOW THEY MAY BE PARTIALLY CREATED AND DISPELLED AS OCCASION REQUIRES. f The motive element connected with repulsion?' pr repugnance, though very strong and accountind pr a great many actions and trains of thought,' is very subtle, has been very little studied, and is very imperfectly understood. It is the most obscure and mysterious of all the motive elements. Very little is known about its causes, and it probably produces many more effects than are commonly assigned to it. Directive psychology, with the slight information at present possessed with regard to it, has to deal very cautiously with it, and must especially forbear to dogmatize. It must not for that reason leave the whole question un- noticed, for one of its main objects is to stimulate that curiosity about, and observation of, the personality which will lead to increased knowledge. Repulsion or repugnance differs in its essence from fear, because it has an utterly different characteristic feeling tone. What is feared is accounted terrible, that is, likely to be too powerful to withstand; that to which repugnance is felt may be despised and held in scorn. The central point of fear, at any rate in adults, is the antici- THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 155 pation of future ill-effects; that of repugnance, something immediately distressing to the senses. One would feel repugnance at having to stay in a very dirty ill-smelling room with people whose habits were uncleanly, even though there were no fear of contracting any actual disease. Repugnance, then, is first displayed towards certain kinds of sensations ; young children will, for instance, manifest it towards their own clothes or hands when they have become soiled by some accident. They often have an apparently inex- pHcable objection to a taste or smell. On the other hand, some tastes and smells seem to pro- duce an unpleasant reaction in nearly all people, although the results of the objects causing them may be positively beneficial to health ; Gregory's powder is a case in point. But beyond the imme- diate reaction there is an association reaction due to one sensation having been connected with another to which a purely instinctive repugnance was experienced. The common instance is a life- long dislike to some sort of preserve which has been associated with the administration of powders in childhood. This association repugnance is of immense importance, and, if properly studied and understood, would form one of the most valuable factors in psychological education, but it is a sub- ject which has not hitherto met with its due share of recognition. It is, of course, true that praise and appreciation are always used in this way, and their influence is powerful as far as it goes, but it does not cover nearly all the ground. The larger group of repugnances are only accidentally and incidentally trained, but even in this way they make the basis of class distinctions. The richer 156 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE classes can afford to bring up their children in such a way that they do not become habituated by custom and by the early memories to any sort of squalor, and the result is that their tastes are trained in a different direction, and produce results accordingly in later life. Some attempts, generally rather crude ones, are also made to create a repug- nance to some moral shortcomings, such as lying or dishonesty ; indeed, public school morality is largely, though unconsciously, built up on repug- nances to certain courses of action which are compendiously described as ' not playing the game ', and are thus associated with unfairness in regard to sports, which is supposed to be, and in the main is, essentially repugnant to the Enghsh temperament. Excellent though this is, it has the weakness of relying on tradition and a sort of arbitrary rule, in contradistinction to personal reflection, and so perhaps it is a system that may break down when the critical faculties become by any chance over-developed. The ideal psycho- logical education would, of course, continue to associate repugnance with a knowledge of the evil consequences to the social environment, or to the individual, of the course of conduct which it was intended should be made repulsive. As the senti- ment of repugnance plays a large part in the more conscious idea of what is due to one's self-respect, the importance of a proper training in this regard can hardly be over-estimated. In adult life repugnance is created by that part of rhetoric known as invective, by fashion, and by deliberate self-training. Invective is designed to make a person seem odious, and, of course, for this end other motives may be called into play besides THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 157 tliat of repugnance, but where nothing definite is known to the discredit of any. one the course usually adopted is first to find out the instinctive prejudices of the person whose mind is to be affected, and then to suggest that the man or woman who is under attack offends against them. For instance, the imputation may be made that he is not ' quite a gentleman ' or lady, as the case may be. The coarse caricatures published in the eighteenth century are an example of this method of bringing persons or ideas into disrepute. The repugnances due to fashion and imitation are very numerous and are often quite contrary to reason and good sense. Groups encourage them for their own purposes, and they are a most powerful regulative factor in conduct. Very few people, however strong their own convictions may be, will dare to act against a group repugnance. They have played a very large part in the sub- jection of women, who have been, and still are under some conditions, led by them into courses which can be proved to have a prejudicial effect on the health, as wearing tight corsets, or which needlessly increase the dangers to life and limb, as the use of a side-saddle in the hunting-field. Even when it is clearly recognized as an intellectual proposition that personal advantage points one way, this feeling of aversion due to fashion sugges- tion causes many, even of those who have plenty of moral courage, to act in a contrary sense. Instances of feelings of repugnance due to deliberate self-training are mostly to be found in the semi-aesthetic sides of life — that is, in what is known as the cultivation of taste. A person will, for example, set himself to find out what he 158 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE believes to be good in pictorial art, in literary style, or in political thought. Some minds never seem to satisfy themselves that they have found what is good, but they are quite sure their feelings enable them to detect what is bad, and they evince a shrinking from it and a scorn of it when found. They have accustomed themselves, perhaps rightly, to avoid certain tendencies or methods, and they have created their own repugnances, which are hardly to be justified on any grounds which can be clearly explained, but which are, as is said, a ' matter of feeling '. Most condemnation of what is known as ' bad art ' is thus arrived at by a pro- cess of comparison with what is considered good art. This production of a feeling by comparison can be carried into- morals and be made to give rise to a ' sense of sin ', a kind of self -disapproval. This in its more vague and diffuse form may cause great unhappiness. It explains why some cannot bear to be alone with their own thoughts. They must have society or absorbing occupation to prevent them from dwelling with dissatisfaction on their own imperfections. They wish, in a way, that they could avoid the evidences of their own personality being what it is. In its more specific and consciously realized form it is very often the motive force for self-improvement, and for the attainment of self-direction. It is then subli- mated by the processes of the creative imagina- tion, and linked up in an efficient way with those positive factors which lead to the reform of conduct and which give a new direction to the whole system of desires. It is this form which directive psycho- logy more especially values and strives to encourage and train. XHE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 159 Sudden, arbitrary, and unusual repugnances are f one of the signs of an unstable temperament, and in their extreme form are pathological and show ithat the whole mechanism of sensation is out pfj Jorder. .The remedy foFthese extreme cases musF" De~sought at the hands of the physician, the duly qualified hypnotic practitioner, or the psychiatrist. They are outside the range of action of directive psychology, which only deals with the nbrmal. But a group of cases exists, larger perhaps than is generally supposed, where the repugnances, whilst remaining within the limits of the normal, are still the cause of much distress, and as these are curable by training of the imagination they need to be considered. The most common of them is what may be called satiety repugnance. It is the cause of most of the boredom and ennui amongst the well-to-do. It is generally found amongst those whose interests are few and narrow, because they were not stimulated in youth, or because their expansion has been checked by unfavourable circumstances. This scarcity and narrowness of interest renders it necessary that there should be a great deal of repetition and sameness in the course of life. The whole personality suffers in consequence, and the general outlook on life becomes gloomy. When any attempt is made to introduce a change, that too is painful at first, because all the elements of it are strange and have to be painfully acquired, so that that is also a cause of repugnance. People who have allowed them- selves to get into this state have almost more need of directive psychology than any others, because without definite causes for unhappinesa theyare the most thoroughly wretched. \ The only remedy is?* 160 THE DIKECTION OF DESIRE jsuggestion, a use of the imagination to break up j I their stiffened and hardened mental habits, and the j j deliberate acquisition of new interests, whether j } initially repugnant or not, by a stern discipline I j imposed by themselves or on them by others. \ \ The curative effect of this discipline is sometimes \ seen in those who, having lost their fortune, have I to apply themselves to some occupation in order I to earn their living, and in so doing gain some fresh intereaJLin life^^^ ■ — — -,.„_— — ^ i The repugnance caused by acute and repeated irritation is another type which needs to be shortly noticed. It is mostly directed against people, but [inay be felt in relation to ideas, sights, or sounds. J 'Thrcommon instancTis that of tiusband and wife who are afflicted with what is known as ' incom- patibility of temper ', and in this case the smallest actions of either seem to irritate the other almost to madness, and the irritation is the source of the deepest repugnance. It probably begins with the noting of some unpleasant characteristic, and this causes the other personality to be watched rather critically for some similar faults in other directions, and these, when looked for, are usually found. The reason, of course, is that the imagination partly creates them by transforming into a cause of offence what in another person would pass unnoticed. This action of the imagination is greatly strengthened when the persons are very much together, and under circumstances of great intimacy and unreserve. Although this is the typical instance of irritation repugnance, there are many others wholly or partly connected with ideas, as in the case of the famous individual who voted for the exile of Aristides, although he knew nothing THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 161 against him personally, because he was tired of ^^JbsKa^s^hearingJiim called ' the Just '. The most likely method of cure for this repug- ' nance due to irritation is first of all to remove the cause, if possible, and then to use some form of suggestion to prevent the recurrence of the irri- tation, or, anyhow, to prevent new causes of it being noticed. The main point is to know how to direct the attention to something else as one may deliber- ately choose, and not to allow it to be attracted in a particular way without one's conscious ap- proval. This is a very important and useful lesson for many purposes, and the power will be found well worth acquiring. The discipline involved is keeping the mind more or less continually on the stretch, noticing and recording other matters than those which are the cause of irritation. The result is that these causes of irritation cannot make their way to the centre or focus of conscious- ness, but remain ' marginal ' — that is, on the extreme outer edge. This straining of the atten- tion cannot be continued for very long at first, but this becomes easier with practice, and if per- sisted in will mostly cure irritation repugnance, unless it is deeply seated in some pathological condition of the nervous system, t 162 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE III. 5 THE SYMPATHETIC ELEMENT IS THAT BY WHICH WE TEND TO BE AFFECTED BY A STATE OF FEELING IN ANOTHER WHEN IT IS BROUGHT TO OUR NOTICE. THE MAIN END OP DIRECTIVE PSYCHO- LOGY IS TO MAKE IT RESULT IN FITTING ACTION, AND NOT IN MERE INNER EMOTION. It is said that the sympathetic impulse or tendency had its origin in the feelings of parents for their helpless offspring. Directive psychology, however, has no reason for trying to probe very deeply into this question of origins. It accepts the sympathetic impulse as it finds it in activity, irrespective of the causes by which it was brought into existence. In its simplest form it is just the reaction of the sensitive personality to the feelings of another person. Normally, it is a pain reaction when the other person is suffering, and a pleasure reaction when the other person is happy, but both of these have been, and are, perverted. The naturally cruel person may get a pleasure reaction from the sight of torture, and the thoroughly envious person may feel acute discomfort when witnessing another's good fortune. The main point, however, is that few persons are so insensi- tive as to have no reaction of any sort when acute suffering or very violent pleasure is experienced by some one else in their presence. They may gloat over suffering if they are inclined to a species of emotional perversion, they may feel depression by comparison with another's happiness, but they can hardly prevent themselves from feeling some- thing. THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 163 This motive element is one of the mainsprings of conduct, and this point needs some emphasis, for the others which have been noticed primarily lead rather to states of feeling than to positive action of any sort, though, of comrse, no motive element is without some efiect on conduct. The degree to which sympathy leads to conduct depends upon the training of the imagination, on the outlet which is found for the energies in some form of activity, and on the functioning of the counter- balancing inhibitory forces which set up a tendency to caution or delay. The imagination may act in two ways. It may cause a more intense realiza- tion of actual suffering which is actually perceived, or it may produce an awareness of suffering which is not directly perceived. For instance, one man will feel deeply moved by the sight of a physical injury which he sees and will do almost anything to relieve, but he may never be moved at all by the much greater aggregate of suffering which he knows perfectly well goes on all round him in a great city, but which he does not happen to meet with in any concrete case. Such factors as distance and nationality have a good deal to do with this sympathy feeling. A personal anecdote may illus- trate this. A man was moved to great pity for a poor woman not known to him, but believed to reside in a neighbouring parish, whose child was alleged to have been injured by a pig. When it was discovered that, although the facts of the case were exactly as reported, the accident had happened in America, the pity disappeared ; indeed the man then saw no reason for any sympathetic emotion at all. The problem of definitely training the sympa- 164 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE the tic exercise of the imagination is a difficult one. Some have it in excess, but in more it is defective ; in nearly all it is casually and not scientifically directed. Public School education does something for it in the way of keeping up special ' missions * connected with each school, but in these the religious or evangelizing motive often predominates over the purely philanthropic. The ideal to be aimed at is fairly well understood. It is to make the motive act regularly and not sporadically or casually, and to link it up with reliable information and sound judgment. The trouble often is that the most sympathetic people are often the least judicious. They feel so acutely, that they imme- diately relieve symptoms without waiting to inquire into causes, or failing to relieve them they become pessimists grieving over the sorrows of the world. The right use of the sympathetic imagination is as a stimulus to the inquiry into causes. When these have been ascertained, and usually only then, can right action follow. From the point of view of self-interest only, the function of the sympathetic impulse is to prevent a too great self-centredness and the consequent hardening and narrowing of the personality, and on that ground alone there is an advantage in exercising it regularly. The most hopeful line for training the imagination to this end seems to be the careful study of individual cases, and where the imagination is inactive it is more likely to be stimulated by those which are in some way similar to the troubles which have been personally experienced. American sociologists lay great stress on what they call the ' consciousness of kind ', and it seems to be an established fact that a sense of similarity does THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 165 enlist sympathy in an unusual degree. This fact probably explains why unimaginative people can- not work successfully among those of a class very difierent from their own, and whose troubles are beyond their powers of conception. Where the sympathy is easily aroused this limitation does not apply, and the work can be done where it is most needed, but those who are b(5und by it do better to assist those they can, than make vain efforts at alleviating suffering which they are incapable of understanding. This brings us to the subject of intimacy, which is the form that sympathy takes when it is strongly developed between any two personalities. It is the basis of that feeling of affinity which will be more fully discussed in the next chapter, but which may be defined in passing as essentially an intense and comparatively stable interaction of a pleasure-giving kind between two personalities. Ordinary intimacy falls very far short of true affinity. It is a reaction of one personality on another, but it is not so considerable and not so deeply seated ; it is more casual and more under the control of the consciousness. True affinity has a large element of spontaneousness. It depends on the essences of the two temperaments, though of course it can be increased by suitable treatment, and may be spoilt by carelessness or unfavourable circumstances. Just as there is a ' will to believe ' so there is a ' will to be intimate ', and it depends on an intention to share the feelings, the hopes, and the aspirations of others, not out of curiosity, or patronage, or the desire to manage, but in order to be a valuable factor in their existence and to make them a valuable factor in one's own. The 166 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE way towards it is by the special effort of the imagination necessary to put oneself in another person's place, and to try to realize just how the world seems to him. Psychological knowledge will not of itself produce this working of the imagina- tion, but it may assist it in explaining phenomena which would otherwise remain obscure. In the development of the personality this sympathetic intimacy is of the greatest value, especially where it amounts to true affinity. It is far better in most cases than the more widely spread out philanthropic sympathy, because it is concentrated on particular individuals, and is consequently more warm and heartfelt. Sympathetic intimacy may be formed on a community of feelings, of desires, or of ideas, or of a mixture of all three. Whatever its basis, it is the antithesis of that surface companionship which is so much too common in social life. It involves an interchange, not necessarily by means of words, of the prevailing tone of consciousness. One of the two will usually be always the predominant partner in this inter- change, settling, so to speak, what transactions shall take place. Directive psychology dwells on the advantages of making these transactions appear clearly in consciousness, and not allowing them to remain too vague, as they often tend to do. One reason of this is that as a rule the more clearly they are understood the more accurately they are valued, and the relationship is consequently less subjected to the changes and chances of this mortal life. Another is, that spurious intimacies are thereby avoided, and one learns by practice to know how much reliance to place on sympathies which, though apparently wide and deep, prove on THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 167 analysis to be worth very little. The danger of these spurious intimacies is that they break up confidence in the goodness and genuineness of human nature and create a sense of betrayal by one's associates, especially when confidences given to untrustworthy persons have been revealed. Intimacy based on feeling, even if quite sincere, is like the proverbial fiddler's money, easily gained, and as easily lost. A common instance is that of invalids whose main interest lies in the discussion of their pain and symptoms. Desire intimacy is relatively more durable, especially when the desire rises to the height of an aspiration. Professional success is a case of this kind. The highest and best sort of intimacy, however, is that based on a community of ideas. It is purer and not exposed to rivalries and jealousies, because ideas cannot be exclusively held ; it is more lasting because ideas, once made an absorbing pre-occupation of the consciusness, tend to remain and increase. The best kinds of friendship are founded on these sympathetic intimacies, and the wider the range of things held in common and the higher the tone of thought about them the more the friendship is worth. The cultivation of this sort of relationship should be one of the chief ends of any one who is making a scheme for full self-directivity. Having dealt with the methods by which sympathy may be cultivated through the imagina- tion, the next point to be dealt with, as mentioned above, is its regular organization for social purposes — that is, its conversion into practical altruism. Sympathy, like any other mode of consciousness, may be felt merely and not acted upon, and usually it is felt more keenly if it can find no outlet or 168 THE DIRECrriON OF DESIRE satisfaction in action ; but in such a case it tends to become somewhat painful in tone. It then leads to an over-acute realization of the misery of the world, or of particular individuals, and to some variety of pessimism. This is one of the chief causes of unhappiness, so from motives of self- interest, if from no others, directive psychology teaches that some sort of action, even if only investigation, should be made the immediate result and outcome of any sympathetic feeling. As a theory this is easy to understand, but in practice there is always the ' law of minimum effort ', popularly known as laziness or disinclina- tion for mental exertion, which bars the path. The common experience in the face of suffering is a sort of helplessness, or sometimes a tendency to run aimlessly to and fro. If one watches a crowd at a street accident, one can see a genuine sorrow on all the countenances, but it is only a few who can actually do anything helpful. This is because the majority have never accustomed themselves to think in a helpful way. This is again one of the points upon which psychological education is defective. The training of boy scouts to do what are known as ' good turns ' will gradually remedy this defect, but the principle is capable of a wider application especially to the kind of ' good turn ' which is mental rather than physical. Any one who aims at acquiring full self- directivity could not do better than take the ideas which are set out about ' good turns ' in Scouting for Boys, and transform them to suit the purposes of his own actual life, but mainly in relation to the mental or pyschical needs of his associates . He would soon discover that numerous THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 169 opportunities presented themselves for doing valu- able services of this kind, and his own nature would be benefited thereby. He would also reap the advantage of being looked up to as a sort of power, and he would get a kind of influence which he would sooner or later find exceedingly valuable. Discretion and impartiality are the mental quali- ties which he would need more especially to cultivate ; otherwise he might degenerate into a good-natured busybody. Finally the inhibitory tendencies which posi- tively counteract those of sympathy must be noticed. Fear has this effect. Cases have been known of people who have found a man who has hanged himself but is still alive, and have refrained from cutting him down, although doing so at once might have saved him, because they were in terror that to do so might involve them in some vaguely apprehended criminal proceedings. The acquisi- tive or hoarding impulse is perhaps the worst offender, because it creates a strain of meanness and excessive caution in the character which kills every generous impulse. It is probably partly on account of this impulse that the rich are, in proportion to their means, less altruistic and service rendering than the poor. The remedy here lies in training these predominantly selfish interests to act in a more social direction. It is not neces- sary that they should be altogether abolished ; within their own proper limits they are necessary enough, but they should, in Bacon's phrase, be made to ' keep quarter ', and then undue development should be noted and checked in time. G3 170 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE III. 6 THE GREGARIOUS TENDENCY LEADS PEOPLE TO DELIGHT IN THINKING AND ACTING IN A MASS AND NOT AS INDIVIDUALS. IT HAS HIGH SOCIAL UTILITY FOR CERTAIN PURPOSES, BUT TENDS TO PREVENT OR CHECK THE GROWTH OF INDI- VIDUALITY. It may be necessary to explain the difference between the sympathetic and the gregarious impulses. The distinction between them is per- fectly clear, but it may not be obvious to those who have not thought much about such matters. The gregarious impulse, as its name implies, is that which causes people or animals to herd together for the mere purpose of being together, and to have a sense of pleasure in the society of their kind. This tendency was undoubtedly necessary for the survival of some species because of the power which their numbers gave them over their prey or their enemies ; but it has long ago become an end in itself, apart from any necessities for self- protection. It is usually found in combination with the sympathetic impulse, but not invariably. Wolves, for instance, which go about in packs, do not seem to have any feehng of sympathy with their kind, even in its most rudimentary form. They are said to devour wounded members of the pack with the greatest indifference. Whether primitive man was organized mainly in families as some assert, or in promiscuous hordes as others maintain, it is certain that he was not a solitary animal, but always tended to associate himself with others of his kind in as large masses as his means THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 171 of subsistence allowed. When the soil was rich and could support a larger population, these social units, whether tribal families or hordes, tended to increase in size, and from them civilization has its origins. The herd instinct in man does not differ from that in animals, except that it is, of course, gradu- ally modified by the increase of intelligence as the individuals become more developed mentally. The same discomfort is experienced by a member of the herd when he is excluded from it, there is the same tendency to panics and stampedes, the same acceptance of leadership by the stronger individuals, and the same organization to protect the females and the young. A kind of herd consciousness comes into being which reflects and exaggerates the feelings of the units, but which does not equally reflect, but rather under-represents, their average intelligence. This is due to the fact that ideas are less readily communicable than the feelings or desires, partly because communication of ideas requires a more complicated cerebral development, and partly because to be shared it is necessary that a great majority of the herd should be capable of sharing them. In early mankind superstition enters very largely into the herd con- sciousness, and causes fear of danger to herd interests to be unduly developed. The belief in angry spirits, who punish the whole herd for any oSence by one of its members, causes great severity to be shown in case of any infringement of custom or ritual, and this naturally prevents any growth of individuality. Apparently, however, the great need of primitive or savage man is discipline ; so this unifying factor is beneficial rather than other- wise, and on the whole makes for civilization. 172 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE This account of the early development of the gregarious impulse belongs rather to anthropology than to directive psychology, but some account of it is necessary to explain the workings of the impulse as it is now found. With the immense aggregate of people in a modern civilized com- munity it is obvious that it is only on rare occasions that the whole can act as one mass. It would do so, however, in moments of extreme national emergency in the case of a political unit which was closely knit together by historical associations, and the individuals of which were of the same racial origin. That is why countries like France, which are very homogeneous from a racial point of view, are stronger, othier things being equal, than nations like Italy, for instance, where racial divergencies are well marked. There are, however, more frequent occasions for the functioning of this gregarious impulse amongst individuals drawn together by particular interests, than there are for the citizens of a State to act together as a whole, and it is these occasions and their results on the individual which directive psychology has to study. People may be asso- ciated in crowds or groups, and both these have to be noticed. A crowd from the psycho- logical standpoint is formed when a number of individuals are collected at the same time and in the same place, and are either actuated by a common purpose or played upon by the same influences. A political meeting is an instance of this in the good sense of the word, a riotous assembly in the bad. Crowds viewed psycho- logically are very different from the individuals composing them, being both more suggestible and THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 173 more impulsive. Once excited they will in the mass do things which none of those who make them up would do of or by themselves. Their mere weight of numbers gives a sense of power, of exhilaration, of hberation from the ordinary restraints of life. The confusion and noise, and the consequent inability to know exactly what is going forward, tend to deprive each single person of any sense of responsibility, and to create the feeling of being merely an instrument of a greater whole. The initiative usually comes from the more impulsive spirits and rapidly gains an enormous momentimi from the mass behind it. All these crowd characteristics have been made the subjects of detailed psychological studies. The events of ' Maf eking night ' are an instance of crowd acti\dties which were deplored by some, but which was harmless enough compared with what has often taken place in the past under somewhat similar circumstances. The classic instances of the doings of positively criminal crowds are mostly drawn from the history of the French Revolution. Groups form another case of the working of the gregarious impulse. Their action has been to some extent dealt with in the last chapter. Their essential characteristic is that the members are conscious of each other's support, though they may not know one another personally, or even meet all together. Instances of groups and their workings have previously been given, and the strong suggestive effects which they have on the members composing them have been mentioned. Finally there is that something between a crowd and the consciously organized group to which no exact name has ever been applied. Among the 174 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE poorer classes in the less reputable part of large towns the ' street ' or ' buildings ' are an instance of this. They have no common endeavour, but they have a sort of unity of feeling on certain matters, what may be called a common standard of valuation in regard to conduct, to which indi- viduals have to conform. They have a meeting ground in the roadway or the courtyard on to which their windows look, and they pay consider- able attention to the supervision of their neigh- bours' concerns. Particular individuals may come and go, but a certain attitude of mind remains. The same thing is true to some extent in the upper classes of the more exclusive social clubs, and in the Indian service of. the 'station'. All these bring into play the imitative tendencies, and they gradually create a need for the propinquity of other human beings, and for gossip about them, which is usually rather unfavourable to the development of higher interests and of marked individuality. To escape this some people prefer to live in entire isolation, which in its way is equally harmful. Now what has directive psychology to teach the individual with regard to these phenomena of consciousness ? It has to explain how the gre- garious impulse can be consciously used and regulated by him partly for his own purposes and partly to strengthen those groups to which he gives his considered approval, or to weaken those to which he does not. To begin with, he has to know his own feelings and temperamental tendencies in this regard. To some the sole fact of being in a crowd is unpleasant, to others pleasant. Some can watch its motions with calm curiosity and with THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 175 unmoved feelings, though these are rare. More commonly people are infected Ly the crowd spirit, and are swayed by its suggestions. A proper psychological education would teach each one how he stood in this respect, would explain the pheno- mena which would be met with under normal circumstances, and would help those who were interested in the management of masses of people to discover the secrets of so doing. Those who are naturally very open to suggestion and easily swayed should be particularly careful how they allow them- selves to be brought in contact even with small crowds, the objects and character of which are disreputable, particularly where the influence is repeated. The little knots of potential hooligans which gather at the corners and round the doors of public-houses rapidly create semi-criminal ten- dencies, not so much by the dehberate opinions of the separate members as by the pooling of them all together. They cause a spirit of recklessness. Every young person should be told that suggestion under these circumstances is more than usually potent, and be led to notice the efiect on his own consciousness. This tends greatly to diminish the force of the influence, and if strong counter-sugges- tions are made beforehand, and an entirely critical spirit of observation can be maintained, the result may be a valuable addition to the knowledge of the weaknesses of human nature. A habit of going over again in the mind the sequence of what has happened, and of analysing its causes, is of great value in this connexion. It gradually establishes a power of connecting cause and effect, of select- ing the individuals who have a preponderating influence, and of knowing the causes of their pre- 176 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE dominance. This leads up to the very fascinating subject of the management of crowds. Those who have had considerable experience of this are practical adepts at it, but they act so intuitively on the spur of the moment that they can rarely formulate the principles upon which their very effective action is based. The general idea seems to be to keep the crowd amused, and never to allow suggestions unfavourable to the object to be attained to begin to become operative. The way to do this apparently is to be quick and ingenious at turning the crowd's disapproval against any new influence. Mark Antony would never have been allowed to deliver his famous oration over Caesar's body if Brutus and Cassius had known more of crowd psychology. They had the people with them, and they ought never to have allowed him to have the opportunity of gaining a hearing. The troublesome factors in the management of modern crowds are those who remain hidden in the mass and yet contrive to make effective inter- ruptions. The proper plan for dealing with these seems to be to single them out as quickly as possible, to fasten attention upon them by the somewhat coarse method of pointing out their peculiarities of dress or appearance, and then to turn the laugh against them. It may be mentioned in this relation that very refined methods, espe- cially of an intellectual kind, are rarely successful with crowds. A broad appeal to the emotional nature, or to the sense of the ridiculous, is, on the contrary, almost invariably useful. Apart from relations with crowds, great or small, every one should study his own imitative ten- dencies, both as to strength and direction, for it is THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 177 in accordance with these that he must regulate his gregarious impulses. Very imitative persons must exercise the same sort of special care with regard to the groups that they join as very suggestible persons have to use in relation to the crowds in which they mix. The right sorts of these imitative tendencies can be passed over lightly here because they will be more fully dealt with later on. Finally there is the social aspect of the gregarious tendency — that is, its use to strengthen the groups which have received critical approval, apart from the purely personal interest of the individual in the matter. This verges rather too closely on ethical practice to be discussed here. But with- out entering into questions of social obligation of a controversial nature, applied psychology can point out the necessity of each individual direct- ing his attention as far as possible to the social value of the various groups in an impartial way, and can emphasize the importance of giving adhesion only to those which can be rationally approved. It is the blind following of any mass opinion just because it has the weight and prestige of numbers behind it, irrespective of its actual effect, that makes self-direction so difficult, and for that reason alone those with the stronger personalities should try to preserve a certain aloof- ness from groups which are backed by popular opinion, and to encourage where possible new lines of initiative which seem hopeful. 178 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE III. 7 SELF-ASSERTION, IF ACCOMPANIED BY PRACTICAL WISDOM AND SELF-CRITICISM, IS THE BASIS OF STRENGTH OF PERSONALITY. THE PROBLEM OP DIRECTIVE PSYCHOLOGY IS TO CULTIVATE IT IN A FORM FIT FOR SOCIAL USES. The self-assertive impulse is one which has a special importance for directive psychology, because it forms the main basis of all attempts to improve the personality. It is the source of ambition and especially of that form of it which has to do with self-realization. It is the great motive for almost every kind of action, and when it works steadily and not irregularly it produces great firmness of character and self-confidence. It seems to depend very largely on readiness of reaction to stimuli. If a person in whom it is strong is wronged or insulted he will not ' take it lying down ' ; he reacts vigorously, and tends to become a leader of revolt. It has many forms according to what aspect of the personahty is chiefly thought about. Self-respect, self-confi- dence, self-esteem, and a desire for influence are the better ones ; pride, selfishness, and an exagger- ated sense of personal dignity are the worse. It is comparatively easy to convert one form into another, and social suggestions of all kinds are particularly powerful in doing this. Directive psychology has to deal with the relative values of the different forms, and with the methods and processes of the conversion of the less desirable into the more desirable. The strength of the impulse in the personality THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 179 varies very much. Temperaments may be roughly divided into the maniacal and melancholic, accord- ing as their predominating tendencies would, if exposed to too great stress, lead them to become over-active, with delusions of power and grandeur, or unduly depressed and utterly apathetic. There is a third class who alternate between one state and the other according to a more or less regular rhythm. All sense of power, of being able to overcome opposition and dispose of obstacles, is in its origin derived from self -feeling. It may, of course, be criticized, and the evidences for it may gradually be brought into systematic form, but more often this is never done. The world frequently takes a man at his own valuation, and if he has faith in himself his faith is more often than not justified, unless it is so obviously contra- dicted by facts that it gains the reputation of mere boastfulness. Negative self-feeling, on the other hand, in its forms of submissiveness, humility, despondency, causes all the obstacles to success to seem more formidable than they really are, and any one who gives way to them does actually find himself pushed aside, if not trodden under foot, by those whose fund of self-assertiveness happens to be greater. The ideal condition, therefore, is to have a rather favourable opinion of oneself, at any rate in certain directions, and to make one's life run on the lines which are favoured by the parti- cular type of self-confidence possessed. There is a great deal of good common sense in the Scots prayer : ' Lord give us a good conceit of ourselves,' and it must have helped many a Scotsman to success in life. There is a vein of self-confidence in every person who is not so depressed as to be 180 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE morbid, and the great object should be to dis- cover and cultivate it. Aristocratic people with hereditary aptitude for ruling have it by nature, and they are inestimably benefited by the absence of all fear of taking responsibility. Apart from heredity it is given by a succession of small triumphs when young, and is liable to be utterly broken up by a severe defeat on an issue, failure in which is sufficiently important to a person to produce a serious shock. In building up the sense of self-confidence it is necessary to try to so manage affairs that there is a gradual progress and a sense of satisfaction in it. It is necessary to look ahead and to organize so that nerve -breaking catastrophes are remote contingencies. Many of the nerveless failures which abound in life are due to a defective psychological education in this respect. Those who realize in time that their self-confidence is defective, either generally or in some particular respect, should avoid gamblers' risks whenever it is possible — they should so con- duct life that they effect the equivalent of an insurance when this can possibly be managed. They should avoid becoming unduly dependent on stronger personalities, for if they do they run the risk of being utterly enslaved. They should seek the life of peaceful routine for which they are naturally suited. They should try by every means to discover any efficient qualities in themselves, and should seek to surround themselves with those who will praise and appreciate those qualities. In short, the unduly diffident must realize that they are the hothouse plants of life, that they necessarily depend more or less on the kindness of the more active spirits, and that they must repay THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 181 this kindness by being in some way useful. They must avoid scenes of turbulence and seek quietude ; only so will they be happy. The greatest service that directive psychology can do for them is to lead them to recognize their own limitations and to remain within these. If they are fortunate enough to feel themselves guarded and cared for by some higher power, that is a source of greatly increased happiness to them. With regard to those who either have a great natural fund of self-assertiveness or self-confidence, or have by a series of propitious circumstances gained an equivalent of it, the problem of directive psychology is how to direct it in the right channels. Without going into remote questions of ethics, it may be assumed on purely utilitarian grounds that those channels are the best which contribute to the stability and harmony of the personality, and consequently to its lasting happiness, without doing so at the expense of others. A sense of the future, and a projection of the conception of the personality into the future, make for stability and harmony; a desire for influence rather than for the domination of others by fear makes for social harmlessness, or possibly social advantage. The suggestion is, therefore, that the main end of the self-confident person, as far as self-direction is con- cerned, should be to think of himself not as he is now, but as he might be. The advantages are two- fold. First, he will not be so proud or so selfish in the present, because he will see that those forms of self-assertion deflect his energies from his own scheme of self-realization. Secondly, he will be able to turn to good account the faith in his own powers and the general activities with regard to 182 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE others which are partly the causes and partly the results of his self-confident temperament. Thirdly, he will have a greater interest in life, because it will become a continual progress towards the attain- ment of his conceptions. For the purposes of directive psychology it is no matter whether the picture he makes of his own future is objective or subjective — that is, whether it is concerned with the attainment of worldly success, with its accompanying honours and rewards ; or whether it is concerned with a condition of consciousness regarded as an end in itself. Worldly success usually appeals more strongly to the self-confident, because they are inclined to value pubUc recogni- tion and prefer the feeling of power over others to that of power over themselves. Ambition of this kind naturally involves more risks and more bending of the immediate inclinations, but it has its rewards in the shape of pomp and circum- stance for those who get pleasure from such things. The desire for the harmonious inner life, for the triumph over inner difficulties, for success in all those ways which are unknown to any but the in- dividual himself and his closest intimates, probably leads to a more secure and permanent happiness for those who appreciate the possibilities which result therefrom. It is easier to outline the advantages of a sense of the future for the self-assertive type of person- ality than it is to explain how it may be attained. The essential point seems to be the focussing of the imagination on what are the true elements of grandeur of personality, and what are merely shows and appearances. Untrained self-assertive- ness tends to desire small immediate triumphs not THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 183 founded on any merit whicli is estimable, such, for instance, as the possession of particularly smart clothes, or being the owner of a winning horse. These are not to be despised as first steps in building up the type of consciousness which is capable of better things, but are not representative of the final stage of personal evolution. They produce that attitude of others towards oneself, a sort of admiration and tendency to copy or submit, which true self-assertiveness demands, but they do not affect the best people at all, nor do they affect any one as regards the highest functions of his mind. Now it is just these two possi- bilities w^hich should be aimed at and kept before the imagination. The typical self-assertive person abounding in self-confidence has a certain surplus of power; to some extent he realizes the Nietzschean conception of the ' laughing lion ' ; he can afford to hold some of his poAvers in check, and he usually gains by doing so. He can leave the smaller suc- cesses to weaker people, and allow them to have the trappings whilst himself seeking for the inner realities. What these inner realities may be is perhaps a matter upon which opinions may differ, but provisionally and as a suggestion it seems that they must lie in affecting the highest activities of the most admirable people. This may seem a somewhat vague principle, but it is clear enough to rule out certain of the lower, easier, and more commonplace forms of ambition, and if it does that something is gained. A more accurate con- ception of the people, and the aspects of their consciousness which it is really worth while to influence, will probably be evolved by reflection as time goes on, and it is very proper that every one 184 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE should, as regards this, take a personal line rather than one laid down by any sort of authority. It may in this relation be suggested that the reality of influence — that is, of the action of a per- sonality on others — lies in the power to transvaluate existing values and to create new values. This must be done with the full consent of those whose consciousness is affected, and not by any deceit or fraud. The seK-confident person is sure that the values which he puts upon the various elements of existence are true for him, and for all those whose temperaments resemble his own. To gain influence in the true sense of the word he has to be conscious of the grounds of his valuation, not for all the world perhaps, but in relation to all like-minded people. He has to show that they are capable of application to practical life, if not by every one, at least by those who have his powers and his desires. He has to show that they do not conflict with any recognized social ends, and that they tend to make his corner of the world more capable of giving satisfaction than other corners managed on different principles. He is essentially a pioneer and a setter of group fashions, and he has to make up his mind to accept the responsibility of those positions. The way he organizes in his immediate environment will, if it meets with any sort of acceptance, become the stereotyped formula among the ' herd people ' of his acquaintance, until some stronger influence comes along and puts something else in its place. It is this sense of responsibiUty, this pride in building up customs, in being in a small way the creator of social laws, which is, or should be, the great steadying factor in the career of the self-assertive. It will make him despise THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 185 outward ostentation when it is not strictly neces- sary for his purpose, it will make him seek to rule the inner hearts of men rather than cause their outward demeanour to be respectful. It will make him seek remote but sure effects on their nature rather than immediate popularity. It will make him see his life as the production of a series of potentialities for transcending his own earthly existence, and by this conception it will cause almost a transfiguration of his personality. III. 8 THE ACQUISITIVE TENDENCY IS EITHER INSTINCTIVE OR BASED ON THE DESIRE FOR MATERIAL COMFORT IN THE FUTURE, AND LEADS TO THE SOCIAL VIRTUE OF THRIFT. DIRECTIVE PSYCHOLOGY HAS TO SUGGEST RULES FOR DEFLECTING IT, WHERE NECESSARY, INTO CHANNELS WHICH ARE CONSISTENT WITH CONSIDERATION FOR OTHERS, AND ESPECIALLY TO MAKE IT THE SOURCE OF NOVEL AND USEFUL IDEAS. It is perhaps somewhat difficult to discuss the acquisitive tendency with entire impartiality, because the highly polemical and controversial subject of socialism necessarily obtrudes itself into the question. It is, however, at least possible to recognize this frankly at the beginning and to admit that the discussion is complicated thereby. The whole socialistic position rests on the assumption that in a commercial age the acquisitive tendency, having become too active in some people, owing to the conditions prevailing, needs to be sternly regulated by the State in the public interest. Some 186 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE Socialists would advocate a greater degree of regulation and some a lesser, but they are all at one in contending that the old laissez-faire doctrine has been proved impossible by the course of events. The justification for their contention, they allege, lies in the facts of human nature. Some people, by heredity, have the acquisitive tendency to a much greater extent than others ; it is those very people who on the whole are trained to exercise it and have all the advantages of capital for the purpose. It is said that the consequence is that an immense amount of practical injustice prevails, and that those who do the hardest and least pleasant work have the smallest reward and the greatest hardships. The old economists invented the ' economic man ', a purely imaginary figure, supposed for the purposes of their science to be actuated by the acquisitive tendency and by no other. His delight and his occupation was to create wealth, and save it as far as it was not necessary for subsistence : it was his pride to know how to buy in the cheapest market and sell in the dearest. Such men have existed no doubt, or at any rate men have existed who resembled this figment of the imagination with great exact- ness. But unfortunately for the orthodox econo- mists they were few, not many, and their scarcity prevented political economy from being recognized as a true science. The average man insisted on being guided by custom and by his personal predilections, even in the face of considerations of gain. Labour would not flow as readily as it was supposed to do towards the places where wages were highest. Indeed, in agricultural districts, there was a marked difference in the wages of farm THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 187 labourers in places less than 100 miles apart. Such ' economic men ' as existed made abundance of hay whilst the sun shone, and they and their families became ' men of property ' with all the traditions and tastes that the possession of property brings with it. They caused much suffering to the non-economic men, and some of these turned to the State for aid. It is a pity that there was not a school of writers to explain the position and aspirations of these non-economic men with the same fullness and particularity that was given to the economic men, for they really deserve very full consideration. After all, it is the lot of all of us to be non-economic in childhood and old age : it is only when vitality is at its full force that we can face the economic battle with any success. The substance of the answer to the socialistic plea, that matters as they stand lead to gross injustice, is an appeal to expediency. When set forth by the more competent and less rhetorical writers who are opposed to socialism, it emphasizes the fact that very stern economic pressure on non- acquisitive individuals is necessary for the avoid- ance of national poverty, and that only great encouragement, in the shape of allowing those who can create wealth to hold it absolutely when created, will develop the wealth-producing elements in the intelHgence. It points out that in modern days the power of a nation largely depends upon its ability to finance a big war, that success in war more and more depends on ships and guns and material of all sorts that cannot be created off hand, that war camiot be made self-supporting as it was in the earlier days of Napoleon, though the system of war indemnities may render it possible to recover 188 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE most of the cost afterwards if victory is once gained. In short, the contention is that, though it might perhaps be possible to organize the whole world on socialistic principles, any particular nation which attempted so to organize itself would become the prey of the richer nations which maintained an existing economic system. This is not the whole of their contention, for they dwell on many alleged ill-results which would spring from socialism. For the present purpose, however, it is not necessary to enumerate all of these, because the risk which would be run by any State allowing itself to be led too far in a socialistic direction is sufficient by itself to prevent any very marked adoption of socialistic principles in the near future. It need hardly be said that the aim of these remarks is not to attempt to settle the very com- plicated questions involved in socialism, or even to try to state fully the arguments on each side. They are only intended to clear the ground for the con- sideration of the acquisitive impulse, which is so deeply seated in man, and so necessary for the purposes of humanity, that it must be allowed to function under any system. The real question, which seems to go deeper than any mere debate about the ownership of capital or the organization of labour, is how this impulse should be trained and guided. At present we have no system of psycho- logical education with regard to it. Where it is weak it is allowed to remain undeveloped. Where it is strong it is allowed to run riot. Probably most of the advantages claimed for the socialistic State and all the advantages inherent in the present system might be combined by a scientific and systematic training of the impulse, and a due THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 189 encouragement of those of its workings which could gain a reasoned social approval from com- petent judges. It at least cannot be said of the present system that it fails to afford a career open to the talents, though the contention that masses of capital in few hands do tend to prevent the rise of the poor to wealth is frequently heard. In point of fact the richest men in the world to-day have, as often as not, started in life entirely without capital. Mr. Carnegie is the leading instance. What the present system does do is to put a premium on the talent and desire for acquisition, and to make life somewhat difficult for those whose social value may be from certain standpoints very considerable, but whose tastes and intelligence do not tend in the direction of money making. There is, in other words, a defect in their acquisitive impulse — they prefer other and perhaps nobler aims to that of becoming rich or even securely established. Direc- tive psychology has to study how this defect can be cured, partially at any rate, and further, has to consider how the acquisitive impulse, when once aroused, can be directed into socially advantageous channels. The floating opinion about the acquisitive impulse is curiously inconsequent and self-contra- dictory. It teaches the young that the love of money is the root of all evil and it praises generosity and disinterestedness. Yet the young man who takes the world at its word, parts with his posses- sions, and does not trouble to acquire more, finds his lines are laid for him in particularly unpleasant places, and discovers that wealth is everywhere honoured, even though the methods by which it 190 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE has been made will not stand a very close inspec- tion. The result is frequently great bitterness of heart. The definite teaching which is given is mainly in two directions, the technique of some trade or profession and a general exhortation to what is known as thrift or ' self-help '. There are interminable discussions on how nations may become prosperous, but very little information is published about the type of mind which tends to make the individual become wealthy or the mental short- comings which result in his ending as an economic derelict. There are four main ways by which a secure economic position may be attained : they are, toil coupled with thrift, organizing at a profit the labour of others, gambling or taking risks, and the elaboration of really novel and useful ideas. Hard work and strictly saving propensities, taken together, are characteristic of some of the better of the agricultural population. Cases are known of men who have saved enough to stock a small farm out of incredibly low wages. This is a matter rather of native disposition than of training, but certain social conditions are very helpful, notably savings banks, and the encouragement to thrift that the prospect of a small holding affords in agricultural districts. Organizing the labour of others at a profit seems to be something which can partially be taught, but the difiiculty is to humanize it. Of all the varieties of the acquisitive impulse it is the one which has done most to bring it into discredit. It easily causes great incon- siderateness, and sometimes produces the system known as ' Sweating '. It is the worst manifesta- tion of the strictly economic disposition . Probably the cure for it, as far as it cannot be regulated by THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 191 State inspection, is the organization of those liable to be sweated into some sort of unions for self- protection. Our system of education, in trying to avoid controversial questions, seems here to err on the side of doing less than its duty. It does not teach the principles of combination or explain how the more economically helpless should organize their lives so that they need not be at the mercy of the capitalist, as, for instance, by some form of co-operation. Whilst there is an unending con- tention amongst the religious sects for the control of the schools, and through them of religious training, those who are pre-occupied with the abolition of economic horrors hardly seem to have grasped with any fullness how much could be done by youthful training to make the position of the economically weak more defensible. The taking of great business risks frequently makes for the prosperity of individuals, and consequently of the country to which they belong. It prevents routine and encourages enterprise. Its danger is that it degenerates into gambling and fraud. The training in respect of it is more a matter of ethics or morals than of directive psychology. It is in the matter of the elaboration of novel and useful ideas in their economic aspect that our present educational system is so inexcusably defective. Here is a way of making money highly advantageous both to the individual and the community, and yet nothing is done to train the youthful imagination with regard to it. High mechanical ingenuity, such as would be necessary for the introduction of improve- ments with complicated processes, is not what is aimed at here. That, of course, can only come after an elaborate training. What is meant is 192 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE a keen eye for possibilities, for articles which would be in demand but are not conveniently supplied, for new methods of selling, for services needed but not yet rendered, which if rendered would be economically profitable. Defoe's Essay on Projects would be a far more useful book than Euclid in all schools where the scholars would have to earn their own living in after life. Not, of course, that the projects therein mentioned could be immediately turned into money, but that some insight into the ' art of projecting ' would be gained, and the imagination, so active in youth, would have something to attach itself to. Young people are encouraged to study the piano, which they rarely succeed in playing so as to give pleasure to themselves and others, and natural history, of which but few get even a competent knowledge ; whilst it is considered unsuitable, if not degrading, for them to concern themselves with money-making projects. For those entering a definite profession this is, perhaps, well enough, but for the others, and especially for girls, who are taught no regular money-earning craft, it is <^uite otherwise. The intuitive powers and natural shrewdness of girls ought to be encouraged to take a money-earning direction, so that the women into whom the girls will grow may be independent if need be. The prejudice which causes the present state of affairs is that all money making is supposed to lower and deteriorate the character. Undoubtedly this is true of certain forms of it, such as working long hours at mechanical occupations, or trying to get it by outwitting others. But the elaboration of money-making ideas which may be of real service to humanity, even if in humble ways, the polishing THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 193 of those ideas to perfection, so that they become easy of application, are as beneficial to the per- sonality as dealing with any other class of ideas, and should be recognized as being so. An immense amount of human energy is now allowed to run to waste which could be utilized for the general benefit if it were made to run in channels which were commercially profitable. It is to be hoped that at some future time training this capacity for ' projecting ' may seem less fantastic than it does at present, and that when trained it may do something to redeem the character of this much abused acquisitive tendency. III. 9. THE CONSTRUCTIVE IMPULSE, PARTICULARLY IN ITS MORE ORIGINAL FORMS, IS OF THE GREATEST SOCIAL VALUE, AND DESERVES FULLER RECOG- NITION AND ENCOURAGEMENT THAN IT NOW OBTAINS. DIRECTIVE PSYCHOLOGY CAN ONLY MAKE TENTATIVE SUGGESTIONS AS TO THE LINES ON WHICH THESE MIGHT BE GIVEN. The constructive impulse is less well defined than any of the others, and consequently its study presents unusual difficulties. On the one side it is utility seeking and is productive of contrivances and inventions to meet the needs of ordinary life. In this form it finds satisfaction in combinations of material objects which, when combined, add to the physical conveniences of life. On the other side it merges into the aesthetic impulsion, and becomes Art working through intuitions of the beautiful. Its one essential characteristic is the BLIGH u 194 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE production of something new, which in one way or another is expressive of the personality which originates it. It may express the solution of a mechanical or engineering problem, a sense of beauty rhythm or literary form. What can directive psychology do for this impulse ? The problem is entirely one of encour- agement and assistance. There need be no question of inhibition. It is difficult to imagine circumstances under which this creative or con- structive impulse can work any mischief. It is true that if thwarted or discouraged it may cause some discomfort, but the most common reason for its discouragement is that some of its forms are economically unremunerative. Those who have control over the lives of young persons are unwilling that they should embark on a career which is hazardous from i a monetary point of view. Where the constructive impulse is of a kind which is unlikely to bring in any financial return it can only be made the main occupation of those who have independent means on which to Hve. This is, however, no reason for inhibiting it entirely : the right course in such circumstances is the simul- taneous development of some more profitable form of ability. The problem, therefore, being one of stimulation, the question of the most suitable stimuli has to be considered. In some individuals the desire is very strong and constant, but the technical ability is very weak ; in others laziness or apathy counter- acts the desire, but when it can be aroused the technical ability is considerable. These two classes require different treatment. In the first the tendency is either to fantasy or incompleteness, THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 195 very often to both. The half mad inventor whose ideas are only partially worked out is the typical representative of this class, as is also the theorist whose ideas cannot be reduced to order or brought into any relation with actuality. The enthusiasm which is generated by the force of the impulse makes these people impatient of reality. Their true need is great severity of discipline, but this they can only occasionally be induced to undergo. Directive psychology would try to impress on them the value of self-criticism and of the habit of comparing their productions with those of others. They usually have the inestimable advantage of an almost unquenchable ardour in the pursuit of their aims. They are undaunted by the most tremendous difficulties, and the opposition of others proves rather an incitement to further efforts than a deterrent. Their belief in themselves is unbounded. Their main trouble is that they are unwilling to learn, or in some cases unable to do so. Collaboration with those whose excitability is less intense, and who will give due attention to detail, is likely to prove most valuable. The other class, in whom the ability is greater whilst the desire is fainter or more easily dis- couraged, needs much more consideration. It is difficult to discuss their case without going beyond the proper limits of directive psychology, because questions having a sociological bearing are involved. Society at present pays too little attention to the encouragement of unusual forms of ingenuity and invention, at any rate in this country. The principles upon which special forms of this talent could be discovered, and on which a career could 196 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE be opened out to tliem, are at present hardly at all understood. Before an understanding would be possible some systematic form of inquiry would be necessary. In the first place, originality of thought would have to be prized as something of the very highest social value, and then those who had charge of the young would have to be trained in its recognition. It appears to be often accom- panied by a somewhat abnormal sensitiveness which causes it to shrink and wither in the face of opposition and neglect. Perhaps one of the most valuable openings for social effort would be a perfectly impartial and disinterested, but at the same time sympathetic, organization for the con- sideration and criticism of novel ideas having possibilities of mechanical utility or artistic value. This organization should welcome every kind of suggestion, even though at first sight it might appear to be unworkable. It should treat all communications made to it as confidential. It should aim at bringing people into touch with each other in cases where it seemed likely that their ideas, if blended, would give valuable results. It should give laboratory facilities of a simple kind for experiments, and afford information with regard to more elaborate and expensive facilities where these were needed and obtainable. Its staff should be able to direct those who wished to develop some artistic faculty to the centre where the most suitable training could be got. In cases where the ideas, whether artistic or mechanical, seemed to be capable of being worked at a profit, the organization should undertake the business of introducing them to capitalists or manufacturers, protecting the interests of those who originated THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 197 them, and taking a commission for the services rendered. Such an organization as this may seem a fan- tastic dream. There would, no doubt, be many difficulties in its actual working which are not at first sight apparent. The initial expense alone would be an obstacle not likely to be immediately overcome. But the value of it from the standpoint of directive psychology would be beyond all doubt. It would supply machinery more flexible than at present exists, and more capable of adaptation to the changing needs of the age. It would be a centre to which originality of all kinds would be attracted, and from which it could be again given out in a more workable form. It would be a meet- ing place for those who had ideas fermenting in their brains. Above all, it would be a means of detecting valuable minds which might otherwise remain unnoticed, and of providing them with a suitable outlet for their talents and energies. Gradually, by continued practice, the heads of it would learn to recognize easily, and help effec- tively, those most worthy of assistance. Cranks and faddists would be painlessly, eliminated if they made undue demands on the time of the staff or the space at the disposal of experimenters. As, however, no such ideal organization exists, those who have the constructive impulse must do what they can to develop it privately and with their own resources. They must seek what encouragement they can get from their more sympathetic friends. The need for sympathy and appreciation seems commonly to be bound up inextricably with the constructive impulse, even if it cannot be regarded as an essential part of it. 198 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE A man will invent a design to please himself, but the pleasure soon disappears, or is even converted into actual disappointment, if no interest is aroused in the minds of others. A search for sympathizers is therefore almost a necessity for any one who wishes to develop any form of creative imagination. This is often undertaken blindly and unconsciously, and is, for that reason, frequently ineffective. The pains taken to focus attention and arouse interest are not adequate or well directed. It would be better if it were more generally and fully recognized that sympathetic interest, and even some degree of admiration, are stimuli which it is worth taking almost any trouble to secure. Without them the impulse is apt to be overcome by apathy and to perish altogether. Perhaps something ought to be said on another aspect of the matter, the relation of fashion to the working of the creative imagination. Inventions of direct commercial utility, as, for instance, those bearing on a manufacturing process, are not affected by fashion. On the other hand, almost all arts and designs are so affected. Those, there- fore, who have any original bent have to take into consideration the formation of a taste for those productions to which their special capabilities are related. They frequently ignore this altogether. In their own case the originating faculty and the taste for its results have grown together by one process of consciousness. They do not realize that the very fact that they are original involves the necessity for the growth of a new appreciative faculty on the part of others. They are impatient at the want of recognition, they cannot wait for the slow formation of a new taste. They need THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 199 some one who can and will explain them to the world, or at least to that part of it which they desire to attract. If this preparation of the minds of others for their efforts is wanting, they run the risk of supplying something for which there is no demand. To avoid this they should spare some time for the education of sympathizers who, in their turn, can be relied upon to enlighten a wider public. There is one variety of the constructive impulse which necessarily has special importance for those interested in directive psychology, and that is its appHcation to those purposes which conduce to self-improvement or to the growth or control of personality. Some minds are extraordinarily fertile in expedients of this kind. Those who have this form of talent are the born builders of circumstances. They sometimes seem to have a perfect genius for controlling events. They contrive that, within the limits of their personal environment, only those things shall come to pass which are in harmony with their own purposes. Remarkable instances of this faculty may be observed among managing mothers of families, and occasionally among the organizers of the smaller kinds of public movements. What, then, is the secret of this success ? It appears to depend upon a particular use of the imaginative faculty, by which the states of mind of all those concerned, likely to lead up to actual situations or occurrences are vividly realized by a special kind of foresight. An instinctive know- ledge of character is, of course, an essential factor. In many ways this power resembles that required for writing plays, with the difference that the 200 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE personalities and their possible interactions are actual, and have not to be created by the imagina- tion. If possessed by an individual whose higher nature is undeveloped, it causes a love of intrigue and mystification. As far as its principles can be learnt from a book they may be drawn from Machiavelli's Prince. A leading instance of its exercise is that given with regard to Ferdinand of Spain, who ' kept the minds of the barons of Castile occupied in the enterprise of assailing Granada, so that, thinking only of that war, they did not think of making innovations, and he thus acquired reputation and power over them without their being aware of it '. This power may be utiUzed in two ways, by those who possess it, for the purposes of directive psychology. First, it may be of service for the elimination of difficulties which might otherwise arise from people or circumstances, such, for instance, as those resulting from social pressures unfavourable to the development of the personality. Second, it may be used for the control of weaker or younger people, who, without it, might be tempted beyond their powers of resistance, or for various sorts of social experimentation. This is the social or altruistic side of its utility, which, if disinterestedly and sympathetically directed, may be of the highest value. THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 201 III. 10 DIRECTIVE PSYCHOLOGY, RECOGNIZING THE GREAT VARIETY OF OPINION WITH REGARD TO THE EMOTIONS AND PASSIONS HAVING A SEXUAL ORIGIN, CAN ONLY MAKE TENTATIVE SUGGESTIONS AS TO WHAT FORMS OF THEM SHOULD BE CLASSED AS MORBID OR UNDESIRABLE, AND TRY TO SHOW HOW THESE MAY TO SOME EXTENT BE AVOIDED. Many will doubt whether directive psychology ought to have anything to say about the emotions and passions of a sexual origin. A certain school of thought regards them as something almost sacred, as having a semi-divine origin. To discuss them in an impartial manner, and to try to investi- gate the causes which contribute towards making them take one form rather than another seems to these people as an impudent desecration of noble things. Yet morbid and semi-morbid variations of the sexual impulse are frequently the source of very real troubles, both to those afflicted with them and others. Directive psychology has to try to make a working definition of morbidity in relation to this impulse, whilst avoiding, as far as possible, all incursions into what is properly the sphere of ethical theory. It is obvious that no definition could be framed which would meet with anything like universal acceptance, because upon hardly any question do such wide differences of opinion exist as on the part which the sexual impulse and its derivatives should play in the life of individuals. There are the ascetics, who say that it is a temptation and should be reduced to the narrowest limits possible. There are the H3 202 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE followers of Stendhal, who contend that it is the aspect of consciousness which it is worth while to take most seriously. Widely differing tests have been suggested for its appreciation and condemna- tion, some, for instance, as making constancy and fidehty of first-rate importance, and others the intensity of the moment. Again, there are those who, regarding human society from the standpoint of a ' succession of births ', make scientific eugenics the important consideration. Directive psychology cannot decide between these rival theories. The individual must make his selection for himself in accordance with the philosophy of life which he has adopted. As a provisional definition, mor- bidity is to be regarded as some emotional condition at variance with the conception of the interests of the whole personality in relation to life, as thought out philosophically by each individual. Where the true interests have been entirely mis- conceived, or the interests of society as a whole have been disregarded, and the psychological results in either case are very evident, directive psychology may call attention to them, but its main purpose is to presuppose some definite attitude of mind on the part of every one in relation to this impulse, and then to attempt to explain how it may be regulated in accordance therewith. If it is so strong or so misdirected that it is incapable of regulation as far as is necessary for this purpose, then it may be justly regarded as morbid, because the interests of the personality, as a whole, or of society, are sacrificed to those of one too powerful tendency. The primitive physical form of the sexual impulse is rather a subject for personal hygiene than for directive psychology. It is only when THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 203 the imagination is touched that it has to be here considered. When this is affected the impulse may be either concentrated upon one object at a time, or diffused amongst many objects at the same time. The concentrated type of impulse may be taken first, and it again has to be sub- divided according as it is lasting or evanescent. The best theory of how the sexual impulse and the imagination interact to form the love passion is that of crystallization set out in Stendhal's book, De V Amour, and is sufficiently well known to all who are interested in this subject. When the process of crystallization is complete, the beloved object tends to fill the whole consciousness. Union is so passionately desired that no trouble and no risk seem too great for its attainment. Life in isolation, which has hitherto seemed normal and pleasant, becomes almost unendurable. All sorts of illusions are cherished about the one who is loved. If the love thus established takes a morbid form it tends to obscure the whole con- sciousness : it may lead to suicide or to insanity, when the affair does not run smoothly. It is the cause of crimes of passion, especially those due to jealousy. An abundance of cases of this kind are given in Laurent's U Amour morhide. The gist of them all is that no proportion is preserved between the feehngs of the moment and the sense of the future of the personality as a whole. This latter is entirely submerged by the intensity of the passion. Neither honour, nor self-interest of any kind, nor habit, nor the ordinary motives which have been habitually operative, serves to exercise any control. This is a pathological condition of the personality which, in some cases, so far 204 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE resembles insanity that, in Laurent's view, it may require physical restraint. Most of these cases occur in very ill-balanced and unstable persons, who would, in any case, be unable to resist very violent stresses. Where the personality is not entirely overbalanced there is the condition called by Stendhal ' amour passion'. The characteristic of this is that it supplies an almost superhuman energy, both physical and mental. It results in a heightening of all the powers of the personality, and a development of those which have hitherto remained latent. It is the most powerful of all stimulants, as is shown in the cases given in Metchnikoff's book, The Prolongation of Life. It is because of its power to shed a temporary lustre over even a common- place personality that it has excited such perennial interest, and is by far the most common theme of poetry, literature, and drama. The object of every one who aims at full self- directivity, and whose imagination is potentially capable of being moved in this way, should be to discover where, in his own case, ' amour passion ' verges on ' amour morbide ', and to use all his powers to prevent it from bending in this direction. The criterion seems to lie in whether the ordinary standards of value hitherto held are so entirely changed, and in such a direction, as to indicate an undue subversion of his personaUty. A great alteration in ideas and conduct there must be. The point is whether the change, if carried to its logical conclusion, would work practical evils, and whether the intellect is clear enough to appreciate and compare them with the alleged pleasures or good results. If the analysis points to the love THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 205 being of the morbid variety every effort should be used to alter its course in the early stages by bringing new considerations before the imagination. The ordinary social suggestions with which most of us are surrounded tend to emphasize the importance of intensity of love as compared with quality. Directive psychology would, on the con- trary, make quality the dominant consideration. It is, perhaps, not possible to define this word * quality ' used in this relation very precisely, beyond saying that it has to do with effects partly on the personality of the person loving, partly on the person beloved. Assuming some sort of ethical standard already existing in the minds of both parties, that variety of love passion would be deemed to be of a good quality which made it easier to live up to that standard. That type which caused the ethical standard to be lowered or rendered it more difficult of attainment would be considered bad. In our psychological education the effect of love on the personality and the ways in which it can be made better and worse, as defined above, are very largely ignored. Constancy or endurance, which may, from certain points of view, be considered as marking a high quality of the love passion, is highly praised ; it has perhaps been even somewhat disproportionately estimated. It is obviously valuable as generating a superior family and parental feeling, and as conserving much emotional force for useful purposes which might otherwise run to waste. The glorification of constancy has, however, had a curious indirect effect in that it has been a considerable factor in accentuating jealousy, or perhaps it would be more accurate to say in 206 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE producing a particular variety of jealousy. The central idea of constancy is that when once a promise to love has been made, an obligation to continue to do so is thereby created, and if broken involves disgrace. The plea that it is incapable of being performed is seldom accepted, though more often than not it is a perfectly truthful one. The result of this notion of obligation is to give one person a kind of right of control over the doings, sayings, looks, and even thoughts, of another, the- idea being that if any one is bound by a promise ' to be true ' he or she is obliged to adopt every conceivable precaution which will conduce to the fulfilment of it. Hence springs a sense of quasi- ownership by one over another, and jealousy is the consequence if any symptoms of independence are exhibited, and still more if there are any evidences that any fresh person is becoming the object of passion or even of affection. AVhether this result is on the whole desirable is a question for personal ethics or for sociological research, but it certainly has a tendency to limit the free action of the individual, and it is often the cause of great un- happiness to both parties. When it takes a morbid form, as is frequently the case, it is a common cause of crimes of passion. If any one is anxious to avoid it, the method is to check the sense of ownership at the beginning, and to keep before the mind the fact that some people are no more able to carry out a promise to continue to love than they would be to fulfil one to live a hundred years. The diffused form of the sexual impulse is con- sidered by many people to be in the nature of a perversion, because it very frequently does not subserve what is held to be the only proper end THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 207 of the impulse, the continuation of the species. It is true that it is a kind of love play, and neither a wholly serious matter nor a whole-hearted devotion to one particular person. It does not call out the entire energies of the individual as much as ' amour passion ', it does not lead to the foundation of a family, and it is probable that in many cases it may lead to a certain amount of mischief. For all these reasons it may merit condemnation according to certain codes of ethics, especially when it takes the form of promiscuous sensuaUty. From a psychological point of view, however, it undoubtedly has its uses, and particu- larly in its more purified and sublimated forms. It is a source of both inspiration and happiness. It satisfies the cravings of some natures as nothing else will, and, accompanied by due safeguards, it is not necessarily productive of any ill results. It is, however, at variance with the sense of ownership mentioned above, and for this reason it will always be opposed by those in whom this sense is very fully developed. It is chiefly sought for by those whose nature is many-sided, and at the same time sympathy demanding. These reahze that it is impossible to discover any one person sympa- thetic in every respect, and capable of stimulating them in all ways. Some personalities seem to feel the need of meeting fresh minds on terms of intimacy at frequent intervals, in order to bring out what is best in them, and if they prefer the society of the other sex to their own a diffused condition of the love impulse results . If the animal side of their nature is not predominant, it does not seem that they injure their personality by this course of conduct, nor does it appear that they are 208 THE DIKECTION OF DESIRE socially harmful from the psychological standpoint. It is perhaps probable that this will be more fully recognized in the future than it has been in the past ; at any rate, the present tendency is to give the system a trial. The requisites for success in such an experiment seem to be a concentration of the mind on the intellectual and psychical aspects of the personality rather than on the physical, and a genuine community of ideas with regard to the higher interests of the personality. It is possible that many, if not all, varieties of the aesthetic sense have their origin in the sexual impulse, and are what may be termed an ultra- sublimated form of it. From the point of view of directive psychology these may be either an accentuating factor of sex emotion, or an alter- native outlet for it, according to the temperament of the individual. It is not possible in the present state of knowledge to say anything very definite on this question. Every one, however, should note what happens in this respect in his own case, and should use the information as occasion requires to produce the results which may be desired. III. 11 THE PROBLEM OF DIRECTIVE PSYCHOLOGY WITH REGARD TO THE CURIOSITY IMPULSE IS TO ELABORATE PRINCIPLES FOR CALLING THE DESIRE TO KNOW INTO EXISTENCE, IN AS PERFECT A FORM AS THE CEREBRAL MECHANISM WILL IN EACH CASE ALLOW. Directive psychology has to deal with curiosity in two ways — to show how it may be stimulated if unaroused, and how it may be rightly directed. THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 209 It is only rarely that it is naturally wanting, and when this is the case it is mostly due to defective health. Children nearly always have inquiring minds, but as their questions seem to older per- sons to be ill-judged, inconvenient, and difficult to answer in such a way as will be comprehended, the zeal for free inquiry is too often discouraged. On the other hand, young people are made to acquire a mass of information which they can- not hold in their minds for any length of time, still less use for any practical purpose. The result of this process is that their minds become stagnant, and very often they evince a positive disinclination to acquire knowledge. They seem as if they knew that they would be better without it, and that it may harm them rather than otherwise. Very often they are right. From the point of view of mental discipline, and for the creation of habits of industry and continuous application, it is highly necessary that every one should be able to concentrate attention on mastering subjects not in themselves at all interesting. The purposes of life require this power, and those who are without it are very apt to prove failures. It seems that the true education should consist of two processes, possibly carried on at the same period of life, but kept quite distinct, pursued by different methods, and explained to the child as having different objects. One would be a sort of mental gymnas- tics meant to train the attention, the memory, and the powers of reasoning. It would be essen- tially disciplinary, and would have, in the main, to be taken on trust by any one submitting to it. The other would have in view the sole object of stimulating curiosity, of making knowledge seem 210 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE to be worth while, even when needing a good deal of personal effort for its attainment. The method would be to say to the child : ' Do you want to know so and so ? If you do, this is the way to set about finding out.' Now knowledge is usually desired in the first place to satisfy what seems to be the mere wondering tendency of the mind, and only later on for power and for the attainment of conveniences of life. The succeeding stages in nearly every one, and all its stages in some people, have a personal bearing. They want to find out some one else's business, or how they may attain some end which they have in view. This personal curiosity is an unlovely manifestation of con- sciousness, and it is quite rightly, though often most hypocritically, condemned. Grown-up people whose real interest in knowledge is usually related in the main to the affairs of their neighbours will blame the same tendency in the young. But the almost universal delight in detective stories proves that this sort of curiosity is something which can be sublimated to the extent of making it find delight in disentangling some mystery which has nothing to do with any actual person, but has only been conceived in some imagination for the purpose of being unravelled. The elucidation of such problems has the advantage of teaching inductive reasoning from many particulars to some general conclusion, and it could probably be made much more useful as a method of teaching than it is at present. The kind of information needed for scouting seems to be an admirable method for awakening the personal interest without arousing a prying disposition. Nature study taken by itself, though better than anything else for those THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 211 whose tastes lie in that direction, is probably some- what cold and impersonalfor many untrained minds. All young people, and many older ones, seem to be unconscious pragmatists. They instinctively ask when they are given or acquire any new bit of information, ' What difference is this going to make to me or any one ? ' This does not mean that they are materially minded and desire any worldly advantage, but they seem to feel that knowledge must have some use, either personal or prospective, or else there is no good in trying to obtain it. It is for this reason that the main factor in stimu- lating the curiosity is a clear explanation of what actually can be done with what is acquired. There is a genuine impulse to know, but it is not wholly unrelated to the conveniences of existence. It has been evolved during ages when the struggle for existence made it impossible to develop the pure scientific curiosity which makes knowledge an end in itself. Mental discipline which gives certain recognizable powers of mind may be sought for its own sake, but only the few can get so far as to seek knowledge in this way. In adult life the chief result of the stunting or dwarfing of the curiosity impulse, which is too frequently produced by our system of education, is ennui and lack of interest in life. Ennui may, of course, spring from other sources, such as emotional troubles, or an existence which is too narrowly circumscribed by social conventions, but the want of the spirit of intellectual inquiry is always a factor of importance. If the desire to understand has really been awakened, it will more often than not prove a remedy for ennui arising from these causes. On the other hand, an apathetic resig- 212 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE nation to living in a wholly incomprehensible world will greatly increase it. The motive, there- fore, for stimulating the curiosity impulse is clearly to increase the sense of joy in living, and the question that arises is as to the best practical method. The answer to this may, at first sight, seem to be paradoxical. The best method of stimulating curiosity is a continual process of partially satisfying it by intellectual effort. Those who never try to gain any knowledge, or to attain a more complete understanding, soon cease to wish to know. A sense of the hopelessness of it comes over them. Those, on the contrary, who take pains to work up some information, and to found a judgment upon it, have a small personal triumph in having proposed to themselves a kind of theory, and they are insensibly led on to test, and if possible to verify, that theory. More than this, their sub -conscious activities are set to work to digest the facts which their conscious intelligence collects ; they are incessantly thinking ' at the back of their mind ' as the popular phrase has it. It* is probably the richness or poverty of these sub -conscious processes which makes all the difference between an alert active-minded person and a dull one. The habit of constantly proposing to oneself questions in writing, even though no particular effort is made to collect facts wherewith to answer them, has a beneficial effect on the tone of the consciousness, provided that they really are questions which have been personally thought of, and not merely copied from some other mind. The function of other minds is to suggest fresh subjects for speculation, but not particular ques- tions about them. In this connexion it may THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 213 be mentioned that the habit of discussion by means of informal dialogues dealing with some definite subjects is at present much under- valued. It has all the advantages which more set debates have, and none of their disadvantages. It lends itself less to turgid rhetoric and more to a sincere attempt to arrive at what is actually thought about the matter at issue. Yet we have hundreds of small debating societies and practically no dialogue clubs. The real purpose of the curiosity impulse is to get a clear understanding of a matter from all sides, and in all its bearings, and to have what the Collect so aptly calls ' a right judgment in all things '. It is, however, only too apt to remain on a low level, and to concern itself with details about the affairs of other people. As has been explained, this is probably its primitive form, and it has its uses in stimulating the mind to action of some sort. When it has served this primary purpose it should be replaced by one of the higher forms, and it is this process of replacing which has to be dealt with by directive psychology. First of all, how may the lower forms be most clearly distinguished from the higher ? Mainly by the criterion that the lower do not result in any real insight into causes, but only give a pseudo -know- ledge of mere externals. They are of the character of the gossip of the women in a village . They do not touch essentials or go to the heart of the matter. The remedy for this defect is to introduce some element of theory or speculation which will throw a new light on what goes on. Hasty generalization on too few particulars has its disadvantages, but it is, perhaps, a lesser evil than a mere chaotic heaping up of the details themselves, and anyhow 214 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE it makes for some degree of detachment, for an impersonal attitude, and sometimes even for tolerance and charity. The essence of the better type of curiosity is the attempt to discover the ' Why ' of phenomena, the chain of causation which makes them happen as they do. By this attempt that which is in its origin mere personal inquisi- tiveness becomes transformed into elementary psychology or sociology, and, if the transformation happens to take place in a mind v/hich combines native power with altruistic tendencies, a very valuable helpfulness may result therefrom. The difficulty that is usually experienced in following out this line, interesting as it may be, is due to the natural laziness of the mind, to its disinclination to follow long or involved trains of thought — in short, to the tendency to minimize effort. This defect of the mind, which has received the name of the ' law of minimum effort ', is, in many respects besides this one, the bugbear of directive psychology. It is a sort of tiredness which makes any really interesting mental life seem hopeless, and causes a person's opinions to be a mass of disordered and disconnected snippets of informa- tion with no principle of integration to bind them together. Is there any remedy for it ? Perhaps there is not one for every one, but there is for some, and it lies in acquiring the habit of steady reflection on the phenomena of life as held in the memory. This process requires a certain degree of physical rest and quiet, which in themselves are very beneficial, and to which too little attention is attached. The object should be to try and evolve some sort of order out of the chaos of existence, and to recognize that it is a mistake to be for ever THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 215 collecting experiences without any attempt to deal with them mentally. The answer of the ordinary person to this suggestion mostly is that ' he has no time ' ; but this really means that, according to his standard of values, reflection is unimportant as compared with other activities. From the point of view of directive psychology it is one of the most important of all the activities, because it is the co-ordinating factor. If properly carried out, avoiding undue strenuousness and a forcing of the mind on the one side, and a too vague reverie on the other, it will, in the first place, give rest and peace to the consciousness, and, as a result of that, an understanding of phenomena hitherto inex- plicable, which is the satisfaction really sought by the higher types of the curiosity impulse. III. 12 DIRECTIVE PSYCHOLOGY TREATS OF THE RELIGIOUS IMPULSE IN RELATION TO THE QUALITIES WHICH GO TO MAKE UP WHAT ARE KNOWN AS SAINTLI- NESS OR SPIRITUAL-MINDEDNESS. IT DEALS WITH CONSCIENCE AS A FACTOR IN THE BUILDING UP OF AN IDEALIZED PERSONALITY. It is perhaps necessary to offer something of an apology for, and an explanation of, the way in which religion is treated in this section. It is for the present purposes regarded not as something which transcends in importance all human interests, and is revealed by supernatural agencies, but as a mere impulse of the human mind. The intention is not irreverent, and no opinion is expressed or implied with regard to revelation. The religious need or tendency, which apparently 216 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE exists in the human personality even when no religion, claiming to be revealed, has been heard of, is the sole subject for discussion, and it is considered in relation to the phenomena known as saintliness or spiritual-mindedness. All religions which rise above the level of the superstitions of savages have produced saints and spiritually-minded persons, and it is the process by which their essential qualities spring up in the personaHty which is of interest for directive psychology. To begin with, what are these essential qualities ? They seem, in the main, to be easily recognized, even by the uncultured, but they are somewhat difficult to define with accuracy. First there is an aloofness from the ordinary passions and desires for worldly things, and then there is a yearning for union with the Divine, however it may be conceived. Asceticism and the mortification of the flesh, though means commonly adopted for the attainment of saint- liness, are not an essential, nor is a standard of conduct which would be considered perfectly ' moral ' from a conventional or utilitarian stand- point. Indeed, many of the most saintly have so far transcended the codes of custom-morality prevalent in their time that they have been regarded, and treated, as evil-doers. On the other hand, they have all had an idea of personal righteousness, and uncompromisingly carried it into action. The striking thing about them is their transvaluation of accepted values ; their power to appreciate claims on them which the ordinary man ignores, and to fulfil the obligations to which those claims give rise, irrespective of risks and temptations. They have a peculiar and almost THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 217 indefinable effect upon those who are brought in contact with them, and especially upon their immediate followers. They set up an imitative tendency and create a feeling of reverence. They seem to be touched with the spirit of another w^orld. It is scarcely necessary to say that saints are born, and not made by studying the principles of directive psychology. The qualities, however, which exist in them to a remarkable degree, exist also in an imperfect and latent form in the ordinary person. Some people want to develop them, not that they have any hopes of attaining a very advanced condition of spiritual-mindedness, but rather because they wish to avoid the condition which St. Paul characterizes as ' carnal-minded '. It is for these humble people only that directive psychology can make tentative suggestions. Those who have already had deep spiritual experiences, and have travelled some distance on the path to saintliness, are the most fascinating subjects for the student of the psychology of religions, but they have the gift of ' grace ' which is denied to more commonplace people. They can be used as examples, they can be copied as far as externals are concerned, but there is in them something special and elusive which defies perfect imitation. The average man must begin on a much lower level and confine himself to more modest efforts. He starts with the mere vague feeling that the material universe about which his senses give him information is not enough to satisfy all the longings of his nature. He has a kind of certitude which transcends all proofs that there is something more, and that he needs to come in touch with that something. He has no means of discovering 218 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE with any certainty what it is. He is inquiring about a matter where the evidence is not the same as that which he is accustomed to expect in worldly affairs. Scientific evidence rests on observation and experiment — that is, ultimately, on the fact that external phenomena affect all trained and com- petent observers in the same way. Legal evidence rests upon human testimony as creating probability which amounts to certitude. It may be circum- stantial, but before it is accepted it must be of such a nature that it will convince either a judge or a jury — that is, ultimately, it must rest on the fact that the immense majority of reasonable minds will come to a particular conclusion from a mass of particulars. The legal test of truth is general agreement. If a judge and twelve jury- men are all of the opinion that one man murdered another, the law assumes that there is no practical injustice in hanging that man as the murderer, in spite of the fact that judicial errors are possible and have occurred. In daily life the test of truth comes near to the legal one, though it is more flexible and less rigorous, and usually leaves more openings for mistakes. In cases of doubt, however, most men, in dealing with practical affairs, would not rely on their own unsupported conclusions, but would first see whether they commended themselves to the judgment of others in whom they had confidence. What, then, is to be the test of truth in relation to what may be called the psychical side of the universe ? The difficulty is that there is not the same agreement between what would be called in relation to everyday matters ' all reasonable minds \ The sense of the unseen varies so much, and is so much mixed up with delusions of all THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 219 sorts, that every individual has a different opinion with regard to it. There are those who claim to be inspired, or to communicate with spirits. Are they to be believed ? Some of them, Socrates is an instance, seem to be able to draw information and encouragement from sources which are closed to common humanity. Others produce what appears to the ordinary intelligence to be a mass of nonsense without any conceivable possibihty of being utilized. The materialistic school of thought sweeps away the whole of this evidence as too unrehable to act upon. Very credulous people go to the other extreme and swallow all they come across as long as it is not obviously tainted by fraudulent motives on the part of those putting it forward. What should be the position adopted by any one who wishes to direct himself wisely ? First of all it seems that he must frankly accept a subjective test — that is, he must be contented with an inner certitude which he cannot convey to other minds. He must not hope to be able to demonstrate the truth of his con- clusions to all those who are as competent as he is himself in regard to these matters. He must recognize that minds differ enormously in this power of what may be called psychical vision, and that what may seem undeniably true to one may appear as utterly unproved to another. For his own purpose he must be a pragmatist, and a cautious one at that. He must test his conclusions by how they work in his own case. Suppose, for instance, a kind of faith grows up in him that he is called to be the apostle of some idea, that a power of whatever nature operating in the psychical universe has destined him for the accomplishment 220 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE of some work. How is he to distinguish truth from delusion ? He may know that many of the insane are obsessed by voices seeming to give commands which now and then take a homicidal direction. May not his particular faith be an instance of this kind ? It will anyhow almost certainly involve coming into conflict with many worldly interests, not only his own, but those of other people. It will often bring, not peace, but a sword. The answer seems to be that though faith of this kind may be held to be somewhat in the nature of a revelation, though it tells us something which we seem unable to arrive at by the conscious workings of our own intelligences, it must, before it is put into practice, be criticized from a wholly rationalistic point of view in relation to its probable effects. No rule more specific than this seems as yet to have been elaborated. The right method seems to be to keep part of the consciousness in a condition in which it may be readily attuned to spiritual considerations, to devote a certain amount of time, in a systematic manner, to reflection on w^hat are held to be the Eternal Verities, and to try to render the result in as fully conscious a form as possible. Many people have aptitudes for the recognition of relations and duties which would pass unnoticed in the struggle of practical life. In this condition the worldly interests lose their passionate intensity, and are appraised according to a different scale of values. In the old-fashioned phrase, ' the voice of con- science speaks in the silence.' It is not necessary for the present purpose to assign any particular origin to this ' voice of conscience '. It may be that it is only due to the predominance of a different THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 221 set of factors in the personality ; it may be that the true explanation lies in the possibility of com- munication with higher modes of consciousness than we possess. The undoubted fact is that in many, though not all, natures a certain result does follow from spiritual reflection, and that this result may have, though it does not invariably have, beneficial effects upon thought, conduct, and human happiness. ' Conscience ' is a pheno- menon of the mind which seems to be powerfully affected by suggestion, and under unfavourable suggestions it is capable of the most strange vagaries. Religious people of most sects, and in nearly all ages, have been led by it to believe most firmly that it was their duty to persecute those who differed from them. Indeed, there seems to be a natural tendency in the conscientious to hold their view of truth with such fervour that it interferes with the liberty of others. That is their danger or besetting weakness. They do not suffi- ciently encourage the working of the critical faculty which is its mental corrective. Whoever aims at becoming a truly autonomous moral being must take account of lying spirits, whether they come from inside him.self or from the ' powers of the air '. As long as he lives in the world he must take account of the world, even though he may not in his own person desire to live by worldly standards. If his true conviction is that he should retire from the world that may be a wise decision. Many natures seem to be better suited to mysticism and spiritual meditation than to anything else. But those who elect to remain in the world, though they may manage their own personal life in their own way, and though they are entitled to take all 222 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE fair means to persuade others to follow them, have to see to it that they do not pursue spiritual ends by using material pressures. This is not merely a matter of ethics, it is essentially within the limits of directive psychology, though it is not easy to explain exactly why this is so. Each personality seems, in these matters, to be a law to itself, and no one can make his own law binding on another by force or by inducements other than psychical. Indeed the probability is that any attempt to do so will lead to a reaction and a repug- nance. It is the neglect of this psychological prin- ciple which often causes to the spiritual-minded such a bitterness of disappointment. They can- not understand how others who in worldly affairs submit to their control can prove so stili- necked in relation to spiritual matters, forgetting that the conditions are altogether different. Those who develop the spiritual side of their nature should recognize from the beginning that their journey must be a solitary one, except in so far as they may be fortunate enough to meet those who are by nature like-minded. Taking it for granted that each conscience is binding only on its possessor and on no one else, how are its claims on the individual to be tested ? Only by experiment, is the answer given by directive psychology. Let every one work out the probable effect of its dictates and judge them impartially, accepting the good and rejecting the bad, as far as this can be done in theory. The rest is a matter of actual trial and error. Assuming that there is a conception of the idealized per- sonality and of the aim to be attained, the test is whether the suggestions of conscience conduce to this attainment. THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 223 IV. 1 THE MEMORY OF FEELINGS AND EMOTIONS PRE- VIOUSLY EXPERIENCED, IF PROPERLY ORGANIZED IN RELATION TO THE IMAGINATION, IS ONE OF THE BEST METHODS OP ENSURING THE ' VOLUN- TARILY PREPARED REFLEX ' LEADING TO ANY DESIRED LINE OF THOUGHT OR ACTION. SYMBOLS AND RELICS ARE PARTICULARLY EFFECTIVE IN CALLING THIS POWER INTO PLAY. The subject of the last chapter was the chief motive impulses or tendencies which go to form the personahty, and their various forms. In dis- cussing each of them these forms or variations were noted, and occasionally some suggestions were made for altering them. The general methods by which the larger changes in the personality may be effected are to be dealt with in this chapter. The object of all these methods is to make the personality approximate more closely to the idealized conception of it, which it is assumed has been formed by the individual who aims at self- direction. The various motive impulses change their strength, their direction, their relative predominance in consciousness, from moment to moment, from year to year. The methods now to be suggested are intended to take advantage of these natural changes, and to shape them to preconceived ends. The methods are distinct from one another, and each is founded on some general law of personality. It does not, however, follow that all methods will be of use to every person. They depend upon using some peculiarity 224 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE of character, and these vary greatly in strength according to individual idiosyncrasy. It should be noted, therefore, that it is not suggested that they can all be put in practice by every one. On the contrary, most people will only find a few of them useful, and will neglect the rest. It is, however, necessary to elaborate them all at some length, in case they may be useful. Some of them may be more beneficially employed at one time of life, and others at another. Their limitations have been pointed out, whenever it is possible to do so, and it is hoped that this will prevent the waste of effort which would result from their use in inappropriate cases. How far they help to solve one's own special difficulties, and in what combina- tions they can be used, are, of course, questions which can only be answered by the individual who has made a trial of them. They are set out in a spirit of suggestion which is as far as possible from any dogmatism; they are deliberately intended to be varied and adapted as required. Directive psychology is admittedly only at its very begin- nings, and it is but fitting that it should walk humbly and speak in tentative tones. The great hope is that some of these methods may be sub- mitted to trial by a variety of individuals, and that useful and reliable information may result from their endeavours to use them. The nature of the voluntarily prepared reflex has been partially explained in an earlier chapter, but the memory of feelings and emotions previously experienced, mentioned in this heading, has not been as yet dealt with. Perhaps many people who do not happen to have studied psychology have paid but little attention to this, so it may be THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 225 convenient to say a few preliminary words about it. The ordinary memory known to every one is about facts or relations — for instance, that a man having a certain appearance resides in a particular house and is known by the name of Jones. The affective or emotional memory is widely different from this. It is the power of recalling to the consciousness states of feeling that have been lived through and actually experienced, and of recalling them, not as bare concepts, but accom- panied with the revival of the specific feeling tone which was part of the original experience. Now this power of recalling specific feeling tones varies enormously in different individuals, and also in the same individuals under different circum- stances. It is much less under the control of the conscious will than the memory of facts is. Take as an instance a proposal of marriage which has been made under conditions of tense emotion. Every person in the possession of his proper faculties would remember it as something which had occurred in his own Hfe; to some it would recur with the accompaniment of almost the same tensity of emotion which characterized it originally. The excitement, the anxiety, the tremor, the sense of the vital importance of the decision, would all be felt again with something of their former force . Emotional memory of this very vivid kind is rare, though cases of it may be met with. As a rule, special circumstances, or the actual perception of objects associated with the original occurrence, are needed for a revival of all the emotional factors, as, for instance, visiting the scene, or looking at some love-token which was given on the occasion. In the methods of criminal BLIQH I 226 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE investigation of some foreign countries the awaken- ing of this emotional memory is utilized as a means of convicting those who are suspected. The details of the crimes are ' reconstituted ' in the presence of the alleged offender, with the intent that his emotion at the sight of them may betray his guilt. This procedure may be condemned on the ground that it is a form of mental torture, and it is also open to the objections that a very callous person would remain unaffected by the reconstitution of a crime he had committed, whilst the sight of it might agitate the most innocent. It affords, however, an illustration of the working of the emotional memory in the average case. Every one aiming at self- direction should experiment on and try to understand the Hmita- tions of his own emotional and affective memory. He should discover, first of all, his feelings when reviving, by a mere effort of the attention, the events of his life which made the deepest impression on him, and were accompanied by the strongest emotion. Then he should compare that with what takes place in his consciousness when the original emotion happens to be most strongly revived by association, caused by objects, places, and particu- larly by scents, for these, for some reason appa- rently not understood, are peculiarly potent as revival factors of the emotional memory. Having acquired this information about himself, he may then proceed to use it for any purpose he may think fit. If the emotional memory is exceedingly weak it obviously cannot be useful for any psycho- logical purpose, and the methods outlined in this section are wholly inapplicable. There are, how- ever, occasions in almost every life in relation to THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 227 which it is active ; the main difficulty is to dis- cover these, and to understand the associations which cause it to function. For those in whom it is fairly strong it can be made to act as a guide, as a stimulus, or as an inhibiting factor, according to the requirements of the personality. In its guiding capacity it becomes a sort of chart of the possible pleasures and pains which have been experienced, and points to those which are worth repeating. It constitutes a record, differing entirely in kind from that supplied by the memory of concepts and ideas. It gives a colour and glow to the past. The danger, indeed, is that those in whom it is over-strong can so easily recall the past, when pleasurable, in all its original intensity, that they tend to live in it and to take no care for the future. Those whose past has been full of distressing emotions may be unable to rid themselves of them. They will recur in spite of every effort to put them away. If, in addition to this, there have been avoidable mistakes, and the imagination is active, the con- dition known as remorse is the result. In order to use the emotional memory as a guide it is necessary to train the imagination to bring it into relation with the organization of the future. If it is not so used, it begets, in favourable circumstances, mere emotional reminiscence, in unfavourable ones, pessimism. But if made the basis for new enterprises and schemes, it may be one of the surest means to the attainment either of happiness or virtue, because it provides a key with which the real inner secrets of the personality can be unlocked. The occasions of the greatest satis- faction, and of the most perfect joy, often pass 228 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE almost unnoticed at the time. The emotion when present escapes analysis. When revived by the emotional memory it can be compared with similar experiences and placed in due relation and proportion to the history of the consciousness. The accidents can be separated from the essentials, and the causes of the latter can be analysed and understood. This again enables them to be repeated, as far as the alterations which time insensibly effects on the personality will permit. A scheme of emotional values is thus created which has most far-reaching advantages. Those who have consciously or unconsciously organized their emotional memory in this way are those who are said to have learnt by experience in the most effective way. In the end they train their intelligence to adopt means likely to result in the required emotions, so that they can foretell, with an accuracy much above the common, how they may attain any condition of consciousness which they may desire. The emotional memory is stimulating, and if used in relation to the energy-creating factors it leads to appropriate action. It overcomes laziness and apathy, by bringing before the mind the scheme of rewards and punishments which existence seems to hold in store for each one of us. It will revive drooping spirits and make difficulties seem less formidable. On the other hand, it will positively aid in the process of inhibit- ing some undesirable tendency. Not only will it bring to mind the painful result of gratifying that tendency in some past instance, but it will, to some extent, diminish the impulse to yield to it again. It enables the past and the future to be compared THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 229 in their feeling tones, and it influences the present action by the comparison. Great, however, as are its advantages when it can be brought into play, it is apt to remain quiescent just when it is most needed, and to become active at a time when it is useless. The remedy for these inconveniences lies partly in a regular training, and partly in the assistance which is given by the laws of association. It is because relics and symbols have this power of re -awakening the emotional memory that they have been valued throughout the history of man- kind. It does not seem that the best ways of using them have ever been scientifically worked out with any completeness, though all the more mystical schools of thought have gained considerable practical experience in their operation. The first step is to find a natural mood or emotion of considerable intensity, or, failing this, to create one by more or less artificial means, as by fasting, watching, and expectant attention. Whilst this mood is at its height attention is concentrated upon some object which thus becomes associated with the mood and acts as a symbol. If this process is frequently repeated the association becomes very strong as well as lasting, and eventually it may operate almost automatically. In countries where rehgious symbolism has been impressed upon the plastic consciousness of childhood, it seems to continue to have power long after the doctrinal beliefs on which it was founded have passed away. Any one aiming at self- direction would do well to create his own symbolism, and to know the association which will stir his emotional memory. He can then partially control his moods and feel- 230 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE iiig tones as he may think advisable. He will be able to create in himself a devotion to his ideals comparable to that which the soldiers of Napoleon paid to the Eagles which he had given them. IV. 2 THE POWER OF HOLDING PICTURES IN THE IMAG- INATION, OR OF REHEARSING THE COURSE OF CONDUCT INTENDED TO BE FOLLOWED, CLEARS PATHS IN THE BRAIN THROUGH WHICH NERVOUS ENERGY CAN FLOW. THIS CONDUCES TO EFFEC- TIVE AND APPROPRIATE ACTION OF THE KIND INTENDED AT THE MOMENT WHEN IT IS NEEDED. The idea of a mental picture of the personality as a whole has already been mentioned. Now the question of a series of smaller and more detailed pictures, suited to particular needs and emer- gencies, has to be considered. The use of visual images, or mental pictures, as they are called, has been popularized by ' Mental Science ', and more especially by the books dealing with what is called ' New Thought '. ' New Thought ' views are not, however, for the purposes of this discussion, accepted as proved. It will only be necessary to investigate, from a psychological standpoint, the peculiar powers of the mind with regard to the formation of mental images, and to see how these powers can be used for the pur- poses of self-direction. First then, what are the powers of the mind in this respect ? They of course vary immensely from person to person, but almost every one has the germs of an imag- ination, which are capable of being developed. They are not necessarily visual, although the THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 231 common terminology by the use of the word * picture ' would suggest that they were. They may be either visual or auditive, or a mixture of both. Perhaps it may be useful for those who have no previous knowledge of psychology to give an account of them in their simplest forms. The visual memory is an instance of this. A good visualizer can recall with great exactness an ordinary scene, say a dinner party, at which he has been a guest. He can recall the pattern on the plates, the table decorations, the appearance of the food, and the faces of those seated round the table. Again, if he goes to a picture gallery he can re-see in his mind's eye the relative positions of the pictures, and the outlines and colours of those which made the greatest impression on him. The auditive memory is the same power of mind applied to sounds. Those in whom it is specially developed can remember the tones of a speaker's voice and his exact phrases. If they have the power of repro- ducing what they have heard with exactness, they are good mimics. Visual or auditive imagination goes one step further than visual or auditive memory. It can not only call up in the conscious- ness scenes which have actually been observed, or phrases which have actually been spoken, but can recompose past experiences into new forms, and create imaginary scenes or conversations. Beyond these there is what is known as the motor- memory and the motor-imagination. The motor- memory recalls what has been done or said by the person himself. In some it is much stronger than either the visual or auditive memory — that is, some can recall and repeat to others much more of what they themselves did or said on a 232 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE certain occasion than of what was said or done by others. The motor-imagination is, of course, the corresponding power of creating in the mind a representation of what might be done. It is an image of a somewhat more vague and diffuse variety than the auditive and visual ones. Every one who is studying self-direction should try to discover how his consciousness normally func- tions in respect of these types of memory and imagination, and he should train it as far as he can to act in the way that he deems most advan- tageous for his special purposes. The ordinary books on the subject of what is known as ' picture making ' seem as a rule to lay undue stress on the merely visualizing capacity, probably because it is rather more common and the writers happen to have it strongly in their own cases. For prac- tical use, however, the motor-imagination seems capable of being more beneficially employed where it happens to exist in a comparatively active form, but it has the disadvantage of being more difficult to realize and train. Visual pictures are generally the easiest to create, but they tend to remain static and fixed, and so they do not lend themselves so easily to the ends of self- direction. They have, however, their special uses when the object is to preserve an unchanging attitude. The primitive form of all these functions of the imagination is one variety of what is known as ' reverie ' — that is, the condition midway between dream and waking consciousness. The limitations of practical life, the harsh realities of the objective world, disappear, and their place is taken by a world of fancy corresponding to the desires of the individual. The special deficiencies of the THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 233 character are in this state of reverie often made good, the timid person fancying himself as bold as a lion, the irresolute thinking of himself as capable of rapid and easy decision. Every one in reverie builds his own castles in the air. The danger of it all begins when it is too freely indulged in, and when it becomes more and more divorced from prac- tical life. The right use of it is for the ultimate realization of actualities, and the problem with regard to it is how it can be trained to do its proper work. The first rule is to make all the little pictures support, and be synthesized with, the main picture of what the personality is intended to become. Let us take, for instance, the common case of an idle, rather self-indulgent, pleasure-loving, some- what ineffective person, who desires to become comparatively strenuous, and to turn his faculties to some end of which he approves. His main picture will be of his reformed personality, which will work regularly and avoid the sHp-shod habits which formerly limited its energies. He has now to fill in the details, and he takes his daily life point by point. His visual, auditive, and motor-memories enable him to call up the scenes amongst which he lives, and to trace his behaviour in them. Then his imagination steps in, not as a mere reverie transporting him to a realm where idleness is bliss, but as a definite creative function, showing how he might act in just those very circum- stances. He then sees his personaHty as it would be if actuated by somewhat idealized desires. He recognizes himself in a slightly glorified form. Where he has hitherto been apathetic and avoided exertion, he now sees hiinself cheerfully undertak- 13 234 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE ing work ; where he has followed the pleasure of the moment to the loss of more serious interests, he imagines himself coming to a different decision. Where he has weakly yielded to pressures, and followed the line of the least resistance, he thinks of himself as able to hold on to the course which his deliberate judgment has approved. It is, perhaps, particularly in relation to other personalities and their influence that this picture- making power does its most useful work. Of two people at an interview, other things being equal, it is the one who has the clearest picture who always wins. The other, whose views and desires are indeterminate or obscure, always goes down in the struggle for predominance. That is what gives those who have the ' single eye ', the focussed desire for something definite, a practical influence, even when their intellectual faculties are not of the first order. To them something matters, to the others nothing matters very much. The rehearsing habit (using the phrase in the sense of going over mentally beforehand the trains of thought, the words, the actions, which in all probability will be brought into actual use) would be more expressive of the real central idea under- lying this method of self- direction, than the words * picture making'. But the latter has, to some extent, been sanctified by common acceptance and approval, whilst the former has not, and so for the time being it has to be adhered to. The chief difficulty about this mental rehearsing lies in the fact that in real life it is proverbially the unexpected which always happens. Things do not go as smoothly in actuality as they do in the imagination. That is the trap into which the THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 235 unwary always fall. They do not take the trouble which is necessary to provide for all the con- tingencies which may reasonably happen. It is mostly in this respect that their imagination needs a careful training. First the untrained mind tends to assume that events will fall out somewhat favourably to its own wishes. In the result they fall out differently, and the whole rehearsal is useless or even worse, because the element of sur- prise upsets all the preconceived scheme, and leaves nothing in its stead. How, then, can this mishap be avoided ? Usually by some method which does not employ a static picture, but something more resembling the series which is shown by a cinematograph. The personality will be con- ceived always as the central figure controlling events which move. The variations will be fore- seen, and the best reactions to them will be considered, in the same way as a chess-player thinks out the possible moves of his adversary, and uses his ingenuity to invent appropriate counter- moves. Now the psychological mechanism of all this needs explanation, for no one can put a scheme into operation with the maximum of efficiency unless he understands the principles upon which it works. Rehearsing is the great economizer of energy, because, the main decisions having been taken under the most favourable circumstances, the action can follow in the moment of emergency with almost automatic precision. The best theory seems to be that paths must be opened up in the brain before the motor energies can flow out along them, just as roads have to be opened up in a new country before goods can be easily transported. 236 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE The rehearsing process corresponds to pioneer work. Once it is done the natural energies are set free for action, and, what is even more important, they tend to take the Hne which has been prepared for them. It is true they also tend to continue to find their outlet in those directions in which they have hitherto found it, and that constitutes the power of habit. Which they will actually follow depends on the thoroughness with which the imagination has cleared the new paths, and' the ingenuity with which they are directed into them. In the earlier stages of this rehearsal system, before the ingenuity which foresees possibiHties and devises answers to them has developed by practice, it is better to attempt it only in the simplest cases. A meeting with one person, where one issue alone can be raised, and where it is intended to refuse a request which it is entirely in one's own power to grant or not, as one pleases, is a good instance. One sole thing has to be kept in mind, and that is to resist soHcitations, per- suasions, or threats, as the case may be. Firm- ness in adhering to a decision already arrived at is the only quality needed. Success in such a case as this will give a certain measure of self- confidence, and more difficult tasks can then be attempted. THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 237 IV. 3 AUTO-SUGGESTION IS THE PROCESS OF GIVING TO ONESELF VERBAL SUGGESTIONS APPROPRIATE TO THE GENERAL AIMS. THESE ARE MORE EFFECTIVE IF GIVEN JUST BEFORE SLEEPING OR LAPSING INTO SEMI-CONSCIOUSNESS. THIS PRACTICE TENDS TO RE-ENFORCE TASTES AND DESIRES WHICH ARE APPROVED BY THE CRITICAL JUDGMENT AND TO LESSEN THE FORCE OF THOSE NOT SO APPROVED. For the benefit of those unacquainted with psychological terms it may be well to explain what is meant by ' auto-suggestion '. First, it is necessary to understand how the word ' suggestion ' is used in relation to hypnotism. It' may be shortly defined as something said to a person under hypnosis with intent that he shall beheve it and be guided by it. In suggestible people it may create illusions of sense ; for instance, a man may be made to eat a raw potato under the impression that it is an apple, and may have the gustatory sensations which ordinarily accompany the eating of apples. The importance of hypnotic suggestion for directive psychology is, first, that it may alter 'tastes', and, secondly, that it may continue to alter them after the hypnosis has ceased, because the personahty is acted on by what is known as post-hypnotic suggestions — that is, those which continue in the waking state. Now auto-sugges- tion is merely this process of suggestion appHed by a person himself, to himself, and for his own purposes. It differs to some extent from true suggestion in hypnosis, because the conditions under which it can be applied differ. The hypnotist 238 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE has his subject en rapport with him, under his control, and in a state of comparatively deep hypnosis. The suggestions have, therefore, every chance to take a deep hold on the consciousness. Any one practising auto-suggestion has not these advantages. Natural sleep, or at most a sort of coma somewhat resembling very light hypnosis, is the only condition which he has at his dis- posal. Even this he cannot control completely, because as he goes more deeply to sleep his dream- consciousness follows its own lines. But in spite of all these shortcomings auto-suggestion is the best known means of creating or altering what may be classed as tastes and inclinations generally. It cannot, of course, act as suddenly and dramati- cally as a post-hypnotic suggestion ; it is a gradual, but for that very reason perhaps a surer, process. It needs constant repetition, and it cannot work wonders all at once. It differs from the rehearsal or picture-making method mentioned in the last section, in not being so conveniently adaptable to particular circumstances it is more general in its workings. It will be well to mention in more detail its chief uses, then to see how it can best be applied to them, and, finally, to note the sort of changes which it more commonly effects in the personaUty, for it sometimes produces results which are unexpected, and go beyond the original intentions of those who use it. Now the essential point to remark in relation to auto-suggestion is that the desire factors in the personaUty vary generally from time to time. Every one who examines with impartiality the conditions that have occurred in his own con- sciousness must admit that he can remember THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 239 moments when he was keyed up to heroism and high endeavour, and other moments when he was swept off his feet by the force of his lower inclina- tions, or what is known as the carnal side of his nature. Between these two extremes come the intermediate states, some capable of a greater degree of reasoned approbation, some of a less. There may be periods of considerable length in a man's lifetime when he has lived up to his own best standards of conduct ; there are nearly always times when, owing to a variety of circumstances, he has failed to do so. Auto-suggestion is the great regulative factor. It should be made to perform the same function with regard to the control of consciousness which the governor performs in a steam-engine. It keeps him, or should be trained to keep him, on the level of performance which he has deliberately fixed for himself. It should enable him to do the good that he deliberately desires, and to avoid the evil that at his better moments he wishes to avoid. It is the great instrument at the command of the synthetic power within the personality, the great preventer of disharmony and want of balance. It enables any one who has taken a bird's-eye view of his own personality, who has conceived potentialities and noted defects, to realize the one and correct the other. Though it is the instrument of the synthetic power it must not be thought of as a substitute for it. The synthetic power itself is something wholly different : it is the capacity to understand the self, and to project an idealized conception of it, by means of the imagination acting on that objective intro- spection which has already been described. How- ever active this may be it can produce little 240 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE or no change by itself. It registers a sort of high- water mark of the personality : it gains an under- standing of the best that the person is theoretically capable of. There it stops unless assisted, and where it stops auto-suggestion can go on. The ever-shifting balance of forces struggling for supremacy within the personality is thought of as inclining one way; auto-suggestion makes it actually so incline. It re -enforces certain elements which are approved ; it inhibits the play of others which are condemned. It is not the only means which can be used for this process of selection, but in many natures it is by far the most powerful. It may be made the great creator of faith ; it pro- duces its own evidence as it goes along. This, at first sight, seems a paradoxical statement, and it may need some elucidation. It only creates one special form of faith, that in the powers of the personality in respect of self- direction. The evidences it produces are actual achievements. It causes the certitude to grow up that some forces are acting as assistants in the general scheme. The nature of those forces is at present doubtful. They may be due to the harmonious co-ordination of the sub-conscious side of the personality. They may spring from powers altogether outside of it. The essential thing is that, whatever their origin may be, they operate, and may, within certain limits, be controlled. It is this operation and the possibility of control which create the faith, and once it has a beginning it supplies a constant encouragement, and its results are almost endless. A great many of the evils of life, both personal and social, are due to the occasional lowering of the vital energies, which causes the condition THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 241 known as depression of spirits. It is a weakness of humanity from which only exceptional people are entirely free. When it comes on, the whole tone of consciousness is altered for the worse. Things which formerly seemed interesting become wearisome, conduct which was regarded as feasible appears to require impossible efforts. This condition is mostly the consequence of nervous exhaustion brought on by physical or mental overstrain. Auto-suggestion is one of the most valuable remedies of it if rightly applied. It will not discover the causes, but once they have been understood it will help to remove them. It can be made a rest-giving power, preventing either physical restlessness or mental worry. It will inhibit thoughts which are disturbing, it will create a peaceful attitude of mind, and it will alter the character of what is called the ' sub- liminal up-rush '. This last phrase perhaps needs a few words of explanation, but it is not necessary to restate here all the theories on the subject. For the present purpose it will perhaps be suffi- cient to say that it is something which forces its way into the full consciousness from the depths of the personality. It may be a preoccupation of the mind, which recurs when not in the least wanted — regret, for instance, for a lost oppor- tmiity, or remorse for an act of unkindness. It may be a word we have been unable to remember which suddenly presents itself, or the solution of a problem which we have long been puzzling over. Its characteristics are suddenness and apparent disconnexion with our deUberate train of thought. It is more apt to occur when the conscious mind is comparatively unoccupied, but 242 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE sometimes it will break in abruptly when the attention seems to be fixed on something else. This ' subliminal up-rush ' is of great importance for practical purposes. Its quality makes all the difference between a predominantly happy and an unhappy nature, between a person who seems almost inspired, and one who is considered dull and unresponsive. How it is altered by auto- suggestion has never been fully explained, but it is certain that it is more or less affected by it, especially in the direction of its problem-solving capacities. Having outlined what may be done by means of auto-suggestion, it now remains to outline some provisional rules for its practice. The first and most important is always to make use of some desire, impulse, or tendency, w^hich is capable of functioning with vigour, though it may not always function regularly. A wish or aspiration which is used for the purposes of auto-suggestion must be deeply and sincerely felt. It is useless to put forward a mere pious expression of admiration for some ideal quality. To do this will have no effect at all. The admiration may be genuine enough in an abstract sense, but if there be no heartfelt desire for the possession of the quality as a part of the personahty it cannot be effec- tively used. The early and thorough recognition of this fact will save much disappointment. The first necessity, then, is an accurate analysis of the character, with the intent to discover what are the true longings in respect of self-improvement, and how far they are believed to be conducive to happiness, advantage, or the attainment of some desired ideal. Take, for instance, the altruistic THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 243 or philanthropic tendency or impulse. It may work irregularly and be frequently liable to inter- missions due to apathy, caprice, or sudden resent- ments. On a review of the personality, as a whole, it is realized that there would be an increase of happiness and efficiency if this impulse were made more stable and more regular. That would be a fitting case for the use of auto-suggestion. The second rule is to do one thing at a time, and to complete the process before passing on to some- thing else. Auto-suggestion creates what may be called habitual directions of consciousness, and these cannot be effectively formed simultaneously. It is true that a group of somewhat similar qualities involving one main direction of consciousness may be so acquired, but care must always be taken that the suggestions are not too numerous or too complicated. Clearness and simplicity are the great essentials, and so the adoption of a short easily remembered comprehensive formula, which can be frequently repeated, and which stamps itself upon the sub-conscious side of the personality, is a great advantage. The third rule is that the process of auto-sugges- tion should be regular and constant, and should never be omitted on the occasions which are appropriate to it. These occasions occur just before going to sleep or lapsing into any sort of reverie or condition of semi-consciousness, but particularly the first-named of these. At least as early as the time of Plato the importance of clearing the mind of passions, hatreds, cares, and worries, and of focussing it on high and worthy aims, just before sleeping, was recognized and emphasized. The explanation of its importance 244 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE is that it frequently, if not invariably, sets a tone which is likely to be retained during the whole period that the sleep lasts. It seems to liberate the desired energies, and to inhibit the action of those undesired. The process itself is not always very easy at the beginning. Like every other control of consciousness it needs some practice. It is for this reason it should be done regularly and systematically. It will almost invariably more than repay by its advantages the trouble and effort originally involved, and in the end will become almost automatic The fourth and last rule is, it is better to be positive than negative — that is, if something that has to be done, and done in a certain tone of feeling, say with cheerfulness, is held before the mind, it is more likely to act effectively than would a mere desire to avoid an action or bad mood. It some- times happens, of course, that the main interest of the personality for the time being lies in avoiding something or merely inhibiting an un- desired tendency, but even in such cases the best way seems to be to think of an activity which will indirectly have the result aimed at, and to fix the thoughts on that. The effects of a course of auto-suggestion should be carefully watched. The thoughts which are held in the mind, though based on existing desires, are often the parents of new ones. Fresh vistas seem to open up to view, and fresh possibilities, hitherto unforeseen, appear. Suppose, for instance, that an idle man has been gradually attaining the habit of industry. That renders him able to begin and carry through many undertakings which it would have been useless for him to think of in his THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 245 unreformed condition. He can enlarge the plan of his auto-suggestions accordingly. Occasionally also he may find indirect results which are un- favourable to his general purposes, and these he must meet by specially devised counter-suggestion as the occasion seems to require. IV. 4 THOUGHT AND ACTION MAY BE INHIBITED — THAT IS, DEFLECTED OR ALTOGETHER PREVENTED — BY A SYSTEM OF PREPARATION BY WHICH THE PROBABLE ILL-CONSEQUENCES WHICH WILL RESULT FROM THEM ARE STRONGLY AND PER- SISTENTLY HELD BEFORE THE IMAGINATION. Inhibition is of as great importance in directive psychology, as in morals, but its functions in the one must be clearly distinguished from those in the other. Their spheres often overlap, and both would sometimes advocate inhibition of the same tendency in a particular personality, but there are other occasions when, owing to their different standpoints, they would speak with different voices. They would also not appeal to the same motives in building up the system of inhibition. Morals are in the main concerned with thoughts or actions in their social bearing, especially with controlling those likely to have an anti-social effect. Directive psychology is primarily interested in enabling a man to become what he aims at becoming, and to attain to that habitual tone of consciousness which he has set before him as his ideal. Consideration for others is the dominating motive in morals, forethought about the future of the personality takes the primary 246 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE position in directive psychology, which is thus a more elementary stage of what may later on evolve into a finished moral system. The function, then, of inhibitions in directive psychology is to enable a man to steer the course through life which he has determined upon, and to avoid those unnecessary deflections due to casual impulses which may for the moment become unduly strong. These inhibitions act either as breaks when the pace becomes too fast, or as guides when the direction of thought or conduct needs to be corrected. They may, of course, be appHed so as to ensure a distinctively moral line of reflection or action, or they may be used for purposes which have no moral bearing, but only contribute to the self-preservation or welfare of the individual. The first requisite for forming a connected scheme of inhibitions is to know clearly what impulses should be inhibited, and this needs systematic self-examination, which should be directed to the discovery of those thoughts and actions which are sincerely and whole-heartedly regretted. This is the equivalent in the sphere of directive psychology of what is known in religious terminology as repentance. It is, of course, not due to the same causes, and it leaves out of account the more purely spiritual factors which go to make up true repentance. But it resembles it in the fact that there is a genuine change of mind, and a conscious wish that some- thing which has occurred in the past shall not recur in the future. This change of mind may be due, and will in most cases be due, to a recognition of the fact that some definite disadvantage has THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 247 been experienced owing to the yielding to tem- porary impulses, as, for instance, to anger or some other emotional excess. Sincerity is of the very essence of this change of mind. No reUable system of inhibitions can be built up without it. The reason of this is that the inventive ingenuity which is necessary for the discovery and arrange- ment of inhibitions is only the servant and minister of the actually dominant desires, and when these are in a chronic state of division it will not work satisfactorily in any constant direction. Indeed, in such a case it tends to occupy itself in finding excuses for what has gone before, and so it contrives to create the impression that any lasting change is impossible. The basis, then, of any useful system of inhibitions is the power ' to see Hfe steadily and see it whole '. Real subjects for regret have to be distinguished from imaginary ones, and attention concentrated on the realities to the exclusion of the others. In this connexion the fact may be emphasized that it is better to proceed slowly and step by step, with regard to the inhibition building scheme, rather than to attempt too much at once. The practical philosophy of Benjamin Frankhn, already referred to, can again be consulted with advantage. Possibly the period of a week which he devoted to each particular question is somewhat too short. To many temperaments a longer devotion to the cure of something unusually difficult to eradicate would give better results. No very certain rule can be laid down on this point : it must be left for individual study according to special needs. It is certain, however, that any serious inco- herences in the line of thought and conduct should 248 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE be noted and examined, and particularly those which seem to be tending to a duplication of the personality. In some natures divergent tendencies are very marked, and are the cause of great in- consistency and much trouble. These persons do not know what they can expect of themselves, still less can any one else reckon with any certainty on their future action. They are the unstable 'spoils of opportunity'. Others, who are aware of their weakness, can influence them against their own interest by waiting for the mood in which their lower tendencies predominate. When these harmful vagaries of thought and conduct have been brought to full consciousness, the primary method of inhibiting them is to see that the occasions, circumstances, and states of mind which are their predisposing causes are avoided. This in directive psychology corresponds to keeping out of the way of temptation in morals and religion. Actual inhibition of an impulse which has been aroused and is clamouring for its characteristic satisfaction is always most difficult. In many natures the impulse moves much more quickly than the corresponding inhibition can ever be trained to do. Something which is afterwards intensely regretted takes place before self-restraint is possible. The great majority of crimes of passion are instances of this. But, as well as acting very swiftly, certain instinctive desires, being deeply rooted in the emotional and affective nature, tond, whilst they are at their full strength, to blur the rational judgment. Many types of mind seem only able to be aware of one desire at a time. All the other factors, except the one temporarily dominant, seem THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 249 'to become marginal, that is, they are exiled to the very outside edge of consciousness, where they can exercise no important influence on the decision. The result resembles the verdict of a packed jury, whose prejudices prevent their giving a proper hearing to all the evidence. The processes by which inhibitions can be built up involve some labour and a good deal of atten- tion to method. Having first arrived at what it is desired to avoid, and having discovered the causes, occasions, circumstances, and lines of thought which favour its growth, the next step is to frame mental regulations for avoiding all these. The habit of keeping notes, however rough, is especially valuable in this relation. The general opinion seems to be that to write down anything about oneself is an evidence of morbidity. In reality it is only a necessary precaution as far as many natures are concerned. No business could be successfully conducted without proper accounts, and some persons stand in just as great need of what may be called psychological accounts as a commercial concern does of a proper balance- sheet. Unless there is a periodical stock-taking, the whole nature insensibly drifts from bad to worse. When new dangers and temptations arise, no provision is made for meeting them. Instances of this can frequently be seen in the lives of those whose worldly circumstances have improved without any adaptation of the personality having been made to suit them. What, then, should a psychological summary include, and what may be expected as a return for the trouble of making it ? The answer to this must necessarily be tentative and provisional, 250 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE because it cannot as yet be put on an experiential basis. Perhaps, in the future, if more attention is paid to directive psychology, and the experiences of many personalities are collected and arranged, something much more definite will be formulated. The main point to aim at is a ready recognition of the occasions which present difficulty, and in which errors or mistakes have happened in the past. The reason of this is that the recognition puts the person on his guard and causes him to assume a defensive or negative attitude. It prevents that emotional expansion which is the usual condition precedent to an explosion of impulse. People, circumstances, and trains of thought are the most common of these occasions, and any new ones need unusual care and watch- fulness, because the way in which the personaHty will react towards them cannot be accurately anticipated. These may be divided, for con- venience, into the avoidable and the unavoidable, and treated accordingly. The avoidable occasions should be eliminated as long as they remain sources of danger. When they are approached it should be deliberately, with due preparation, and great caution. The overcoming of the special difficulties presented by them should be strongly held in the mind. They should be left alone, unless the mood is one of self-confidence with regard to them. The elimination may be managed by simply keeping away from them, or by substituting something else in their place. The latter is usually the best course, as the breaking up of formed habits usually leaves a blank somewhere in the life, and if this is not filled it is apt to create a craving. THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 251 The unavoidable occasions have to be faced with whatever boldness is possible, but attention must be paid in advance to the course of conduct which is devised as the best for meeting them. A clear and persistent attitude of mind almost invariably results in appropriate action at the critical moment, and this is especially true with regard to inhibition. The point of importance is to see that there are as few surprises as possible. It is particularly with regard to the reaction towards other persons, who are antipathetic, but who cannot be altogether avoided, that inhibition is needed. A sort of ceremoniousness and distance of manner is easily learned and is very effective. This is a matter for ingenuity and contrivance in relation to the particular needs. Those who have never practised themselves in these processes will probably be surprised to find how easy it is to inhibit any tendency after a Httle previous training. Finally, some definite hope and the sense of its gradual achievement is a very valuable inhibitory factor, because it gives encouragement. It is like looking back when climbing a hill. The reahzation of the height that has been attained gives force to accomplish the remainder of the undertaking. The hope should be strongly associated in the mind with the inhibitions which are necessary for its attainment. In this way the two together act as one complex whole at the moment when they are needed. The cost of any momentary lack of self- restraint is realized in time, and the impulses which might otherwise have resulted in some fooHsh action are counteracted. In time they tend to die away altogether. It is, of course, possible to form a merely mental record of this 252 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE hope and its gradual achievement, and this is particularly the case of those who have a strong and retentive memory. Most, however, are the better for a few written notes. These are more reliable ; they tend to impress themselves on the mind, and are in this way, if in no other, of con- siderable value in the formation of inhibitory habits. They preserve the original aim and resolu- tion in all its clearness, they mark the steps by which something has been won, and they cause ideas to crystalHze which would otherwise remain vague and only half conscious. By them the ' will to avoid ' certain undesirable mental states is gradually developed, and this is the true basis of self-control. IV. 5 THE INTERCHANGE OF IDEAS AND POINTS OP VIEW IN THE ' AFFINITY-RELATIONSHIP ' HEREIN DEFINED CAN BE USED FOR THE IMPROVEMENT OF THE PERSONALITY. A NEW STIMULUS TO EFFORT AND NEW INTERESTS ARE THEREBY CALLED INTO BEING. ' Affinity ' in the psychological sense has been mentioned, but it has not been either fully defined or discussed. As it is a matter of considerable importance for the purposes of self -direction, it needs as full an explanation as can be given. The definition which comes nearest to its proposed psychological use, in Nuttall's Dictionary, is ' the tendency which the particles of dissimilar bodies have to combine and form new compounds '. This is noted as the meaning of the word in relation to chemistry : in relation to other matters it is, THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 253 of course, used quite differently. Now when two persons combine to form an affinity, something resembhng the chemical change described above actually takes place. There is an alteration in each personaHty. The results are not so obvious as they are in a chemical experiment, but they are noticeable by the methods of objective introspec- tion. The objection which may be made to the theory is that every one whom we meet frequently, and on terms of familiarity, alters us to some extent. Are all of them, then, to be regarded as in affinity-relation with us? The answer is that it is all a matter of degree, and that only those who produce the more marked alterations should be so regarded. The next point that arises in the mind is how the new compounds are formed. It seems that they are formed by the working of ideas on the personality. Ideas derived from books can be recognized as having an immediate effect, and the effect must be considered in the first instance because it is the simplest and least complicated. What passes in the consciousness when we realize that an idea is true and binding on us, though we had not previously reaUzed that it was ? It seems to be a process of crystalUzaticwi. Our thoughts, which have previously been vague and diffuse, seem to be suddenly brought to a focus. Take as an instance a man reading a play of Shake- speare's. He reads a sentence, and all at once he sees something expressed which strikes him as being so true that it is almost a revelation. He feels that he has thought that all his life, though he has never been able to express it. It may be an observation of human character, or a statement 254 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE of his own sub-conscious desire. Now it becomes clear to him as it has never been before ; he has an insight and an understanding which he never before possessed. His own scattered experiences or longings have taken a definite shape. They are transformed, and by the transformation something has been added. A new compound has been called into existence. When we leave books and come to living persons there are new possibiHties. The person can be questioned and led to give further explanations ; the book cannot. A more careful and critical perusal of the book may elucidate the matter to some extent, but the person can be made to think, and to bring forth something illuminating from the depths of his consciousness. The point at issue can be set in new lights and discussed from fresh points of view. But the essence remains the same though the practical advantages may differ, and that essence is the process of crystallization, and it is founded on ' rapport ' — that is, an intimate relation between minds. This ' rapport ' is a word very commonly used in books on hypnotism. The subject is said to be en rapport with the hypnotist. It implies that the two minds move together, that of the hypnotist being, of course, altogether the predominant partner. In the waking state, too, there is usually some degree of domination of one by the other in relation to certain matters, but the same person is not invariably the leader. As the point under discussion varies they change places. Each is profoundly affected by the other, so much so that they tend to take colour from one another, and their whole theory of life and their standards of value become modified. THE DIKECTION OF DESIRE 255 It will be seen from this description that affinity differs from both affection and friendship, though it may, and frequently does, coexist with them. It is possible to feel affectionate towards an animal or a young child, though it is impossible to have any community of ideas with the one and difficult to share any large proportion with the other. A perfectly sincere friendship may be founded on nothing more than a community of interests and habits. For the existence of a true affinity (in the sense in which that word is here used) there must be a clarification or alteration of consciously held ideas, and consequently there must be a wish and intention to interchange them. They may, of course, be ideas about the fulfilment of desires, they need not be abstract, but there must be a movement of the theorizing faculty. It may be thought that this definition is narrow and arbitrary, and perhaps it is difficult to defend it from this imputation in a perfectly satisfactory way. It can, however, be pleaded in mitigation that the word has, at present, no very precise psychological significance, and that it may there- fore be legitimately adapted to special require- ments. It is intended as far as possible to discuss affinity here in its purest form, free from the complexities with which it is, in real life, nearly always surrounded. The actual affinity is generally also a friendship and a state of affection, but it is its aspect in relation to ideas, motives, and theories of life which has now to be considered. Its action on the personaUty is the next point. It creates stimulus, expectation, new ideals, and new interests. It causes a re-enforcing of the personality, it is the source of hope, the great 256 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE destroyer of ennui. It is the solace of those too sensitive to expose their thoughts to the rough comments of people who do not understand them. The stimulus comes partly from the power given by the mere expression and clearing of the thoughts, partly from the desire for the approval of an admired person. The former liberates the energies by disposing of doubts and vacillations. The tendency is for every man to show himself in the most favourable light, though without dehberate concealment of faults and shortcomings, to any one who understands him and expects the best from him. The desire to be worthy of the approval of such a person is a strong motive. The relation of affinity is rarely, if ever, estabUshed without some element of mutual admiration. This need not be blind and uncritical, still less need it include the whole of the personaUty, but in some form, and to some extent, it may be taken for granted. As Plato noted in his day, this mutual admiration is a continual spur, urging each not to be unworthy of the other. New ideals and interests spring from the interchange of thought. One person thinking by himself tends to become narrow. It is only by engrafting something new on what already exists that this can be overcome. It is because those of different sexes have, by that very fact, differing outlooks on life, that this relation of affinity so often and so usefully grows up between a man and a woman. It may, of course, exist between those of the same sex, and it frequently does. In times when any intimacy between men and women was suspected of an immoral, or, at least, of an improper tendency, unless between near THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 257 relations, or man and wife, the bi-sexual affinity relationship was impossible, but in modern times its social advantages are becoming recognized as outweighing its social detriments, and it is at least tolerated. These advantages include, besides the diversity of experience and ideas above men- tioned, a greater easiness of concentrating the attention, which, though not universally felt, is on the whole more common, and a peculiar, almost inexpHcable, kind of sympathy. An affinity of this kind may, of course, become the basis of an ordinary sexual passion, and that is one of its inevitable risks, which has to be either yielded to or faced. Which of these courses should be pursued is a matter to be decided either by expediency or by the ethical standards of the individual. It may, however, be pointed out that in the normal person only a few of these at most can so end. The others will remain unaffected. There may be, as Nietzsche says, some element of physical disgust on one side or the other, and where this is the case the sexual 'element cannot enter very largely. In addition to this there is another consideration. To many natures several simultaneous affinity- relationships will be more useful than one or two. They cannot all develop into passion at the same time, except perhaps in some abnormal per- sonalities. Perhaps it may be necessary to explain the possible uses of these partial and simultaneous affinity -relationships. The necessity for them is founded on the desire for many forms of stimulus, for many new interests and ideas, for affecting and energizing the consciousness in many ways at once. Many people have something to give us, to many we can contribute in one way or another. It is BLIGH K 258 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE but rarely that we find one person who can give us everything we want, and whose every require- ment we can supply. Those who stand in this last case are no doubt the favourites of the gods, but there is no reason why those who are less favoured should be precluded from taking advantage of the chances that lie open to them. It may be helpful to formulate provisionally the ways in which the affinity-relationship can be used for the purposes of the improvement of the person- ahty, and to point out how common mistakes may be avoided. First, then, those who are suitable for this purpose should be diligently sought out. Too many people seem to neglect the observation of character from this special point of view. They omit to notice the ways in which others can be useful to them in this respect. Whilst often ready enough to note those who may be of service to them in any worldly ambition, they overlook those whose intimacy is likely to confer a psychological benefit, and whose insight and sympathy would be most valuable. Then it should be remembered that one must give as well as take, and that it is necessary to have something to give. A very one-sided arrangement is never stable, and in any case it is apt to turn one party into a patron and the other into a parasite. Giving in this relation means being helpful to the realization of the higher aims. It requires tact, and attention to the real aspirations of the other person. It involves the consideration of his desires in a kindly spirit, and some self-abnegation. The common error in this respect is a wish to exercise too much influence in detail, to make in- sufficient allowance for difference of temperament. THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 259 The avoidance of occasions of irritation is another point of importance. These are usually due to the wish to play too large a part in the other person's life, or to have him play too large a part in one's own. The result is a sort of surfeit, a feeling that the intimacy is overstrained. It is not wise to attempt too much. The hold that any two people can have on one another is necessarily limited, and the limitations should be recognized. Within them very much may be done ; if they are trans- gressed, the result is nearly always unfortunate. Jealousy and conflict of all sorts should be carefully avoided. If they are allowed to take root they are apt to poison the whole relationship. It seems to be commonly assumed that afFmity-relationship, once formed, proceeds automatically and needs no watch- ing. The very reverse of this is usually the fact. Finally, and perhaps most important of all, the interchange of ideas must always be kept at a high level. It may be thought that in this section too great stress has been laid upon ideas, but it is probable that the neglect of them has been the death of many a most promising affinity-relation- ship. They are the great preservative — they prevent degeneration. Some people begin by putting forward the best of their thoughts, but when some degree of intimacy is reached they think it only needful to talk of their worries or their triumphs. The rule should be to discuss particular problems, having some bearing on the lives of one party or the other, and to consider them as far as possible in relation to general principles. That gives a breadth and a detach- ment to the whole tone of the intimacy which renders it both stable and beneficent. 260 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE IV. 6 THE SELF-REGARDING SENTIMENT IS THE SOURCE OF WHAT ARE HERE CONSIDERED AS EFFORTS OF THE WILL. PROPER TRAINING INCREASES THE FORCE OF THESE EFFORTS. THEY MAY BE OF USE BOTH IN RESISTING THE INCITEMENTS OF OTHERS AND IN OVERCOMING APATHETIC TENDENCIES. What is the attitude of directive psychology towards what are known as ' efforts of the will ' ? That is the problem which has to be dealt with to some extent in this section, though always with the qualification that no final solution of it can be at present attained. All metaphysical specula- tion will be avoided as far as possible. Directive psychology is a series of expedients for ensuring that the rational will and considered intention shall triumph as often as possible over those casual and unorganized impulses which are not approved. Its aim is to arrange both exterior circumstances and the forces which operate within the personality, so that as little as possible is allowed to depend on direct and immediate ' efforts of the will '. But, however carefully these ex- pedients are followed, and however admirably circumstances are arranged and forces are stimu- lated into activity, the so-called ' efforts of the will ' cannot be dispensed with altogether. The general opinion of the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, as reflected in jurisprudence at any rate, seems to have placed undue reliance on this power of the will to react strongly and appropriately when circumstances seemed to re- quire that it should do so. The criminal law of THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 261 those times was founded on the assumption that the will was not merely ' free ' in a metaphysical sense, but was a force which would operate in any direction and against almost any odds. Therefore, when a crime was committed it was treated as something for which the criminal was wholly responsible. He was conceived of as having willed it in its entirety ; he was not regarded as in any degree the sport of social or psychological forces beyond his control. Opinion nowadays is to some extent divided and to some extent hesitating. It certainly takes into consideration, as mitigating circumstances, temptations from without and pathological con- ditions within the personality. The same tendency of thought can be observed in operation in private judgment as in criminal law. Excuses for conduct are admitted. In relation to some questions which arc forced on the pubhc attention they are, perhaps, almost too fully admitted. Very little seems to be known about the condi- tions which are favourable to the ' efforts of the will ', except that they depend on the general vitaUty. If the vitaHty, or native energy of the personality, be strong, it can be used for ' efforts of the will ' ; but on the other hand it may go to re-enforce any of the instinctive tendencies. Upon what then does its direction depend ? Apparently upon the strength or weakness of what is known as the ' self -regarding sentiment ', which, if strongly developed, may control the activities of the personality as a whole. The ' self -regarding sentiment ' and the surplus vitality or energy which it habitually has at its disposal seem, then, to be at the root of ' efforts of the will '. 262 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE The ' self -regarding sentiment ' needs some explanation, because it is commonly ignored, or at least misunderstood. It presupposes some standard of theory of values in respect to thought and conduct, though this is often vague rather than clearly defined. Other things being equal, however, this standard of values tends to be more strongly held in proportion as it becomes clearer; hence the importance of bringing it to full consciousness and basing it on definite founda- tions. These foundations need not necessarily be moral unless the aim be an improvement of personal morality. Purely psychological founda- tions, such as the desire for some success which has no moral aspect, may be most effective. The only essential is full and perfect recognition. There is a certain element of abstraction about any standard of values, but the ' self -regarding sentiment ' has, as its name impHes, a distinct emotional tone. It is this tone which gives it its power. It is a realization of this power which tends to create in many minds a beUef in the freedom of the will. Whether it is in reality free, and if so, in what sense, need not be discussed here. The emotional tone of the ' self -regarding sentiment ' is the point of interest for directive psychology. Its main pecuHarity which calls for notice is that it can cause indifference to pleasure and pain. Whether it does this by supplying a special pleasure of its own is a point of some subtlety which cannot be settled with any certainty. Those who believe that to get pleasure and avoid pain are the only motives which really move humanity have to contend that a special form of pleasure accompanies the emotional tone of the THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 263 * self -regarding sentiment '. Many who have viewed the matter more from the standpoint of personal introspection tend to consider that a sense of obligation, rather than any hope of pleasure, is the actual process of consciousness. It is not necessary for directive psychology to take either one side or the other in this controversy. For its purposes the complex whole, whatever its nature, can be regarded as the ultimate fact. The great point in relation to practical application is to devise methods by which the emotional tone can be made strong and effective. These have to be so contrived as not to produce undue self- assertion on the one hand, and not to lead to undue submissiveness and humihty on the other. When these two extremes are avoided the result is either a will to the reahzation of the individuaHty, or some variety of the will to power. The worth of the personality is recognized in one way or another, and this is the basis of the capacity for ' efforts of the will '. Whether these efforts are many and powerful or few and faint, depends, as has been explained, upon the conditions of vital energy, and on the ability to conserve and direct it according to a pre-determined plan. The actual amount of energy at any given time depends mainly, if not entirely, on the state of health and particularly of nutrition. It is indeed contended by some that additional energy may be derived from other sources, either spiritual or human. It is alleged that power is given by other consciousnesses not functioning on the physical plane. Again, it is said that some personalities have the power of ' sucking the vitality ' from others by a process 264 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE akin to vampirism. These allegations must, for the present purpose, be regarded as unproved, though, as they are freely put forward, they deserve some mention in passing. The better opinion seems to be that the phenomena urged as evidence for them can be explained on the ground that some stimulus is supplied from outside which calls out latent forces within the personality. In this connexion it may be noted that direction of vital energy is at present very imperfectly understood. Many natures seem to have an almost inexhaustible supply of a purely physical energy, or what is known as ' animal spirits ', but seem unable to convert any of this energy into volition. It flows away in the form of motor impulses, and cannot be utilized in any effective way for efforts of the will. In another class of cases it is more or less convertible, generally in an increasing degree in the later stages of Hfe. It seems likely that this progress in the power of converting energy takes place unconsciously in proportion as the personality becomes more and more set and hardened by habit. It is, therefore, of importance that constant atten- tion should be paid to the process, and that the vital energy should be steadily directed into those channels which are shown by experience to conduct it towards capacities for efforts of the will. In general it is obvious that it is exercise of the voHtional powers which strengthens them. This only means that the more frequently energy is directed into voUtional channels the more readily does it tend to flow along them. The particular occasions on which, and the methods by which, this direction can be managed are matters for indi- vidual experimentation. The sense of strain is THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 265 the automatic register of the actual effort, just as muscular strain is the indicator of physical work. Some ' strain of the will ' should therefore be made a matter of daily discipline, new enterprises being undertaken as the old become easier by practice. Waste of energy, even when on intellectual lines, should be noted for avoidance. The amount of energy at any given time is, for practical purposes, a limited quantity, and if it is expended it is lost for more useful purposes. Conversation may be given as an instance of how this may take place. Some kinds of social intercourse are most valuable for the mind, and have a highly stimulating quality, but this is by no means invariably the case. Often it produces as great a sense of strain as would be necessary for a useful effort of the will. In such a case it should be unhesitatingly brought to a conclusion as soon as this can be done without causing offence, and the same principle appUes in other cases of a similar kind. Efforts of the will have to be studied from two points of view, according to the purposes for which they are required. These may be either to counter- act or restrain undesirable impulses on the one hand, or to take some trouble or achieve something on the other. These two kinds require different methods of training. The general question of the restraint of impulses has been dealt with in the section on ' Inhibitions ' as far as the preparatory steps leading up to it are concerned. It may, however, sometimes happen that no preparation is possible, and then the only resource is an effort of the will made in the moment of emergency. It is a power of reaction or opposition, almost of antagonism, mostly to other people. It implies K3 266 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE confidence in one's own powers of resistance, and involves, as a general rule, a conflict of two wills. Theoretically, of course, the impulse to be resisted may be purely internal, and this is sometimes actually the case, but in this event there will probably be time for preparation, because the impulse can be foreseen. In nearly every case where sudden effort is required some other person will be involved. The main point, therefore, which requires attention in this relation is the attitude which can be assumed towards the pressure which may be exerted by others. The power of resisting incitements from others to do something contrary to the self-regarding sentiment is what constitutes the ' strong will ' of popular speech. The easiest way to acquire it is to see that persons seeking to exercise influence cannot enforce the final decision of an issue under circumstances unfavourable to resistance. It may also be acquired by learning the habit of a sort of self- protective passivity, which refuses to be hurried into action of any sort. This is a species of calcu- lated dilatoriness, and for special purposes it is pecuUarly effective. It is generally relied upon by those in whom timidity and unreadiness of speech are marked characteristics. In its extreme form it becomes obstinacy. The use of efforts of the will to overcome indo- lence, apathy, or procrastination is the other side of the problem. The Americans have devised a system depending on the use of cards with the words ' Do it now ' printed on them in bold type, which are intended to be placed as reminders full in the line of sight. This somewhat crude method has some utihty, particularly in relation to com- THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 267 mercial business, where some definite matter requiring immediate attention is apt to be put off to the morrow. Something more is required by those whose affairs are not limited to posting books or answering correspondence with dispatch. This ' something more ' appears to consist of arranging daily tasks of as definite a nature as possible and using the efforts of the will to accompUsh them with regularity. The maxim with regard to divid- ing in order to rule seems to be as appUcable to the achieving of these results as it is to the managing of mankind. IV. 7 UNSELFISH INTERESTS HAVE A CONSIDERABLE VALUE FOR THE PERSONALITY, AND THEIR GROWTH MAY BE FOSTERED BY FILLING THE MIND WITH APPROPRIATE IDEAS IN SUCH A MANNER THAT THE ' EMOTIONAL GLOW ' LEADING TO ACTION OR SELF-SACRIFICE IS CREATED. Many of the most admirable people cannot take enough interest in their own personaHty to pay very much attention to its improvement. This does not seem to them an end worth striving for. Human beings may indeed be classified according to the way they regard their own individuahties. The extreme individuaHst is possessed by the idea that he controls himself much more fully than he can control others, and that consequently his primary responsibihty is for, and to, himself. He admits a duty towards his neighbour, and he may try to do it, but he is acutely aware of the duty he owes to himself, and this is at the same time a pleasure. He gets supreme 268 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE gratification from watching, tending, and contri- buting towards the growth of his own personality. This tendency is usually innate, but it may, of course, be increased or diminished by an appro- priate psychological education. This type is spoken of as ' self-centred ', and is often regarded \vith some disapproval, but it may be contended that this disapproval is only merited when the development is on immoral or non-moral lines. At the other extreme is the man of the type mentioned in the first lines of this section. He may be called, for purposes of distinction, and for want of a better word, the altruist. In point of fact he is not invariably strictly altruistic, but he is at any rate individuaUstic in the sense above explained. He is what may be called an idea- enthusiast. His essential characteristic is that some non-personal aim occupies his attention and calls for his energies. He cannot live for himself, he does not think of himself as worthy of that. He finds a cause, and to that he devotes himself. It often happens that he does not so much dehber- ately choose the cause as that he gets involved in it without being aware of the process. On the other hand, he is sometimes conscious of the need of an outlet for his self-devoting tendencies. Between these two extremes comes the somewhat apathetic person who does not really live for anything outside himself, and who at the same tinie is not whole-heartedly set on the develop- ment of his own personahty. People of this indeterminate sort drift through existence — they make no serious attempt to direct themselves. They are the sport of various forces in their social environment. Sometimes they are organized by THE DIEECTION OF DESIRE 269 one stronger than themselves; occasionally they only waste their time. What, then, has directive psychology to say to these various types ? The fully developed altruist is outside its sphere almost entirely. He has found his work and it absorbs him. He may wonder why others cannot devote themselves as he does. The truth is that self-devotion is not a very common quality, at least in an active form. It is latent in most people, but it needs bringing out, and direct exhortation to unselfishness is not, as a general rule, very effective as a method of achieving this. Directive psychology can explain to the pure individuahst the necessity of having some detached and impersonal aims, if ultimately only for the sake of his own personaUty. It can teach the naturally apathetic man how he can discover in himself the latent possibilities of ardour in the pursuit of objects in which he has primarily no direct concern. For both of them it can point out the conditions most favourable for the growth of interest in the non-personal aims. It seems probable that it is to the advantage of each individual to have as large a proportion of these non-personal aims as possible, at least if they are properly chosen in relation to the particular personaKty. They are larger than the man himself, they are not so petty, they are capable of almost indefinite expansion ; compared with the life of a man they seem almost eternal. They give more scope for thought, and any good work done is more enduring. They produce a calm of mind, a freedom from worry, which perhaps the more directly personal aims can never give. They 270 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE are of a greater utility ; they may benefit an untold number. It is true that there are dangers con- nected with them. Too violent enthusiasm for any of them may result in undue interference with the rights of others, and in some variety of fanaticism. They may overbalance the personaUty. They require for their right management a more sure judgment, because mistakes are less easily discovered when things are on a big scale and the suffering caused by them is borne by others. But on the whole the general opinion is in favour of them. How far they can be carried is a matter which each must discover for himself. Some fall into the error of having them in an artificial and spurious form. To be useful in any direction they must be absolutely sincere. A certain freedom from material cares and worries seems to be an almost essential condition for taking up these impersonal interests. Any one who is pre-occupied with anxieties about his own future is usually devoid of the surplus vitaHty which is required in their pursuit. On the other hand, a final and definite failure in some line of desire is favourable. For instance, those whose love affairs have turned out unfortunately find it particularly easy to devote themselves to an unselfish end, the reason apparently being that they have nothing more to hope for or to fear. Any one who proposes to devote himself to them has to make a definite and systematic search for the particular kind which fills his special needs and calls out liis peculiar gifts and energies. In this way the disappointment and dissatisfaction which arise from a mistaken vocation are avoided. Persons, books, the direct study of nature or art THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 271 generally, and the vague floating social suggestions current at the moment are the sources from which ideas may be drawn. The study of the types taking up particular causes gives valuable clues to the suitabiUty of those causes for the purposes of the personality. The quahties required are in this way more thoroughly realized, and the importance of this can hardly be over-emphasized. Books often give illuminating ideas of subjects which merit more attention than is ever given to them. To any one seeking a more or less original Hne of research they point the way in which it can be most efficiently undertaken. The direct study of nature or art requires higher qualities of the intelligence, and is perhaps suited only for those who recognize in themselves a distinct bent of mind which merely needs specializing. Vague social suggestions are the most common of all the sources. They have already received a certain measure of popular approval, they are in course of being organized, and it is comparatively easy to take a share in them. What is known as ' work amongst the poor ' is at the moment the most fashionable. The fault of it, perhaps, is that it lends itself very easily to amateurishness, and few out of the many who begin work of this kind attain to any thorough- ness. It probably needs very special gifts. It may be convenient to enumerate the chief fields for disinterested endeavour. The first is patriotism. It is often confused with mere party politics, but should be carefully distinguished from it. A man may, of course, honestly believe that the welfare of the country depends on the success of his own political party, and in that case he is actuated by patriotic feeling when he works 272 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE for it. Where pure party feeling is the actuating motive, and politics are regarded as a game, there is still an element of disinterestedness, but it is not of so high a type. Humanitarianism is another outlet for the spirit of impersonal effort. The attempt to reform the administration of the Congo is an excellent instance of it. The attainment of truth as an end in itself in science or philosophy, artistic creation, the exercise of a beneficent influence either on individuals or groups, are non- personal aims to which devotion can be given. Directive psychology has to analyse the processes by which this devotion comes into being, and to consider whether it is possible to discover means by which it can be made to increase. There is all the difference in the world between abstract approval and the kind of self-devotion which is here referred to. Most men, in theory, are anxious for the welfare of their country, approve of humanitarian ideals, wish that justice may reign on the earth, desire progress in philosophy and science, and prefer that their own influence should be good rather than evil. About the mere opinion there is no difficulty. The problem begins at the point when a personal sacrifice has to be made for the advancement of the various objects which have been mentioned. How does abstract approval become transmuted into actual endea- vour ? This raises the whole question of a theory of values, and of how it comes to be formed. Valuation seems to depend upon what has been called the ' emotional glow '. It depends less on the purely intellectual judgment than on the desires ; but the desires are capable of being reinforced by intellectual means. In many people those of the THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 273 tendencies or impulses mentioned in the third chapter which have a non-personal bearing remain undeveloped because they are not directly called into activity by the necessities of life. There seems to be no time or opportunity for acquiring the information which is a necessary prehminary to their functioning. As knowledge about them grows, intellectual interest grows with it, and the emotional interest follows the intellectual. Sacri- fice of the more directly personal concerns, or action involving effort, is commonly the result of this emotional interest, because it transforms the standards of value, and alters the sense of what it is worth while to do or abstain from doing. The practical upshot of this theory is that any one desiring to acquire these impersonal and emotional interests must begin by systematic study of the facts. He must first fill his mind with all the information he can get bearing upon the points in question. It is true that this process is only necessary for those who have some difficulty about the matter. Fervour for patriotic, humanitarian, or scientific objects seems to be given to specially favoured individuals as a sort of grace. They may be regarded as the geniuses of disinterested- ness. But those who have not this gift must take care not to despise the day of small things ; they must not be led to think that because others can dispense with humble beginnings that they also can do so. Having got the information they must so arrange it that it strikes their imagination. This is not always an easy thing, for the mere fact that their sympathies are as yet only imperfectly aroused implies that their imagination has not yet begun 274 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE to function in this particular direction. Once, however, it begins to deal with the matter the question can be put to it : ' What action should this involve ? ' An answer of some kind will probably be given almost automatically. Here the intellectual part of the process comes to an end, and an emotional condition, leading to personal sacrifice or action, may or may not follow. If it follows, the desired result has been obtained. The impersonal aim has been created and under favourable conditions will grow to be part of the personality. Indeed, its growth may effect unfore- seen alterations in the whole outlook on life. If there is no ' emotional glow ' of any sort then the experiment may be reckoned as a failure, anyhow for the time being. This may be due to a lack of self-confidence, or to too strong personal distrac- tions, or to the impersonal object not being of the right kind to move the sympathies of the nature. The causes should be sought for and a new attempt made on some more hopeful line. Failure at the beginning is, at any rate, better than some sporadic and temporary enthusiasm which dies soon after it comes into being. These quickly passing fervours produce discouragement, and thus, on the whole, weaken the personaHty. They may of course lead up to something good in the end, they may be essays towards some finality; but ordinarily the last case is worse than the first. It is the securely founded, rationally chosen, and durable fervour for some impersonal object that invariably ennobles and purifies the whole character. THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 275 IV. 8 INTELLECTUAL AND EMOTIONAL HABITS, IF WISELY FORMED, MAY CONTROL, PARTIALLY AT ANY RATE, THOSE AFFECTIVE STATES WHICH IT IS DESIRED TO ALTER OR IMPROVE. ATTENTION TO THE CHOICE OF IMPRESSIONS AND STIMULI, AND TO THE POWER OF RE-ENFORCING THOSE SELECTED, ARE THE METHODS WHICH DIRECTIVE PSYCHO- LOGY SUGGESTS FOR THE FORMATION OF PROPER MENTAL AND EMOTIONAL HABITS. The subject of this section is the formation of intellectual and emotional habits, and their study is perhaps more full of difficulties than any other which is dealt with in this book. Bodily habits are comparatively simple because they depend on the co-ordination of muscular movements which gradually become almost automatic. Their forma- tion lends itself to external regulation and the accurate observation by others, as, for instance, in mihtary drill or in social deportment. Faults can be at once observed by any one who has the necessary training, and forthwith corrected. Intel- lectual and emotional habits, on the other hand, are more likely to be formed without being noticed either by others or by the individual who forms them. Only indirect evidence of their formation can be obtained by others, and this is often highly fallacious. There is usually a disinclination to rigid self-examination with regard to these intel- lectual and emotional habits, and perhaps an even greater disincHnation to expose them to the com- ments of other people when something is known about these habits. Little theoretical information 276 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE is at present obtainable about them ; they do not seem to have been made the subject of very- frequent studies by psychologists. Moralists and writers on ethics, from Aristotle downwards, have noted their importance, but few seem to have formulated any practical rules for their forma- tion. Their origin seems to be in the reactions of the consciousness to the impressions which it receives, either from the outside world or from the body. These appear to be worked upon very slowly and gradually, by the reflective intelHgence where this is actually functioning, and where it is not by a process of intuition or direct recognition. Certain associations of pain or pleasure, excitement or apathy, tension or relaxation, seem to become attached to them. Those which are immediately and directly pleasure-producing tend to be followed up, and in this way mental habits begin to be formed. In those temperaments to which excite- ment and tension are naturally agreeable the habits tend to be active ; in the contrary cases to be passive. In the same way the natures in whom the intelligence is the predominant characteristic tend to occupy themselves with intellectual ques- tions, and tliis fixes itself as an intellectual habit of mind. More commonly the emotional side predominates, especially in adolescence, and the result is a complex of emotional habits which gradually become more and more stable until they absorb all the mental energy. Such people feel rather than think, and act on emotional impulses rather than on considered judgment. If their impulses happen to be good ones they may be some of the finest natures among humanity, but THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 277 that does not make them any more ratiocinative in their mental processes. Selection from among stimuli and impressions which reach the consciousness seems to be the first essential in the formation of mental habits. This selection is performed by the attention, not neces- sarily the purely intellectual attention, which is only fitted to deal with intellectual impressions, but what may be termed the emotional or affective attention. The selective process is carried out partly by seeking some impressions and avoiding others, partly by concentrating all the forces of the personality on those which are particularly approved. It is perhaps necessary to say something about the conscious selection of impressions, because it is a matter which seems to be occasionally, if not often, misunderstood. Impressions may be called the food of the mind, and the current opinion seems to be that fastidiousness in the choice of emotional and intellectual food is just as much a fad as the same process is in relation to physical food. The truth is that though fastidious persons are apt to be faddists they need not necessarily be such. They may be deciding on scientific evidence or on personal experience of the most definite kind. The majority of people do their selection by an intuitive method. They do not think out prin- ciples and then apply them. The result is that they grow more and more in the direction of their impulses. If these happen to be good they make more progress than would otherwise be possible, but if they are bad or indifferent progress is difficult or very improbable. The basis of the personality is made up of what 278 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE are known as the ' affective states ' dependent on the cells which go to form the body, and particu- larly those of the larger organs. These affective states are not rational, they rather resemble a chemical reaction or the growth of a plant. Each makes its separate claim on the attention of the personaHty as a whole. Instinctive impulses which have risen to the rank of conscious desires sometimes coalesce into a complex whole, but the purely affective states rarely if ever do. Diffused fatigue and diffused sex feeling are two examples of affective states, but it is almost impossible to imagine them in combination. First one and then the other may demand attention, but not both at the same time. What, then, is the relation of these affective states to the intelhgence ? It seems that they tend to focus attention on the desires which they call into existence, and to make the stream of con- sciousness seem pleasurable or the reverse, accord- ing as these desires are or are not gratified. They have, however, some difficulty in forcing themselves on the consciousness when it is otherwise occupied. Those whose attention is vague and wandering are a prey to them. They may become hypochon- driacs if their affective states are disordered, and then they spend their time watching for symptoms. Those in whom the sexual side of the temperament unduly predominates tend to become the victims of some variety of morbid love, if not of some more definite sexual perversion. Indeed, it may be said that all of the affective states have their respective dangers, if allowed too large a measure of control, and not subordinated when occasion requires. They use up the vitality which ought to THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 279 be conserved for other purposes. When circum- stances are unfavourable to their gratification they cause worry and distress. The remedy for all this lies in the acquisition of those habits of mind which tend to keep the affective states from forcing themselves on the conscious attention more than is deliberately approved of. The secret of mastering them depends first on the fact, which has already been noted, that they are incapable of combination. One can be set against another. Those which are encouraged emerge more often; those which are discouraged tend to grow gradually weaker. In the second place they depend to a very large extent on external stimuli, and when these are denied them they atrophy. The history of the struggles of mediaeval monks against what they regarded as the temptations of the flesh affords most interesting instances of the relations of the affective states to the rational consciousness. The monks separated themselves from the world ; they lived in isolation, so that they might avoid those stimuli which, as they thought, were incitements to evil. So far they were very well advised. But, generally speaking, they over- looked the necessity of properly occupying the field of consciousness with other matters which were capable of attaining the strength requisite to hold possession of it. The lonehness which removed temptation removed also the ordinary factors which tend to the concentration of atten- tion. The severe training which they imposed on themselves in the direction of eHminating the need for common physical comforts left them free from the work which would otherwise have been 280 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE necessary to supply those comforts. Their imagi- nation had no occupation ; their power of focussing attention was not properly exercised. The result was an incessant inner conflict, of the type rendered almost proverbial in the temptations of St. Anthony. The more scientific ways of acquiring mental habits are, as has been said, to occupy the con- sciousness as fully as possible with the right sort of impressions, and to build up chains of association in connexion with them. The identification or recognition of the most appropriate impressions is not an altogether easy matter, but the common mistake of selecting those which have no real hold on the personality can at least be avoided. If this be carefully done the rest will follow as the result of more accurate observation. The two main ideas which should be steadily held before the mind are, first, that some subjects which are naturally fascinating may be dangerous, because they encourage undesirable afiective states, and, secondly, that subjects which are repugnant, or are thought about with a sense of unwillingness and strain, are nearly useless for focussing the attention. When the subjects which fall within either of these two descriptions have been noted for avoidance, those which remain over constitute the field of selection, and out of this field the ones which naturally arouse the most interest are the best. Having selected them, the next question that arises is the concentration of thought upon them, or, in other words, the re-enforcing of the natural interest in them. In the earlier stages, at any rate, of this process of re-enforcing or of creating mental habits, other persons are a factor of primary importance. Those THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 281 should be looked for, and chosen as associates, in whom the special mental interests which it is desired to acquire are already fully formed. It is not necessary that they should be experts in those interests ; it is sufficient if they merely occupy themselves with them. Any interests which are strongly held become in some degree contagious, and the community of effort in the same direc- tion is a very potent re-enforcing factor. Mental habits are usually associated with physical habits, and especially with the employment of time. It is the way time is spent which counts for so much in the building up of mental habits, and this, in the beginning, is regulated very largely by those with whom some engagement or appointment is made. It is true that those of very resolute character can do a great deal for themselves by themselves, but the power to achieve this indicates a firmness and determination which would enable their possessor to succeed without any assistance from directive psychology. Those should more particularly be sought out who insist on very full attention, and are impatient of any wanderings of thought. Temperaments differ greatly in this respect, but those are the most valuable for this special purpose who not only have themselves the power of concentration on the matter in hand, but who know how to enforce it on others to whom it is not as habitual. To those who live much in books care with regard to the course of reading is an essential. Hitherto this has been chiefly dealt with by the moralists, but their point of view generally differs from that of directive psychology. In the first place they are, on the whole, more negative, their 282 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE great aim being to exclude. They are anxious, for instance, that libraries should not circulate books of which they disapprove. They are apt to copy the Catholic Church and set up a private Index Expurgatorius, for use in the circle over which they have any control. Directive psychology would tend to be less negative and more personal. It would recognize that books harmful to one person would be positively beneficial to another. It would consequently lay more stress on the individual choice, and less on any general regula- tions. It would not have the same tendency to mark certain books as, essentially and for every one, common and unclean. Some natures, for instance, need strongly emotional literature as an outlet. They can satisfy certain instincts through their imagination alone without doing any harm to their personality. In others this same thing would set up a process of suggestion-imitation, and cause them to carry out in practice what was in its inception only a process of thought. Again, moralists frequently desire to inculcate morals directly, but directive psychology would not advocate the teaching of its own principles except to those who happened to have a desire for them. As long as their minds were properly occupied with a subject, either emotional or intellectual, which fixed their interest and kept it from dwelling on something which would eventually result in harm to their personality, its claims on them would be fully satisfied. Finally there is the most complex and difficult method of all — the focussing of the attention and interest in particular directions with a minimum of outside assistance. At its best this is a process THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 283 of minute observation of all those details which ultimately can be so arranged as to form a coherent theory about some question which excites the curiosity. It is probable that this is not a power attainable by every one. It presupposes an active desire for a certain sort of knowledge — that which can be obtained from collecting and systematizing facts as they happen to be met with in the course of Hfe. First of all, questions have to suggest themselves for solution, or at least to be suggested by other minds. Then attention has to be paid to all the phenomena that bear upon them. Finally, these have to be put in order and reflected upon. It is certain that those who can acquire a mental habit of this kind have found one of the paths to satisfaction with existence, but it must be owned that its acquisition is difficult, and that it is almost impossible to teach it to those whose minds do not readily lend themselves to it. There is a centre of consciousness just as there is a centre of vision, and in both cases whatever most nearly approaches the centre is most clearly realized. The observation habit depends in its beginnings on being able to turn this centre of consciousness towards those phenomena which are of impor- tance for theory-building. The rest depends upon accuracy of memory and upon the power of synthe- sizing the observations when collected. It should be especially mentioned, in this connexion, that, even though the theories which are formed are not of great value, the habit of forming them may be most beneficial to the personality as a preventive of distraction or of meditation upon what is undesirable. 284 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE IV. 9 DESIRE IMPULSES MAY BE SUBLIMATED — THAT IS, MADE TO TAKE FORMS MORE IN ACCORDANCE WITH SOCIAL REQUIREMENTS, OR WITH THE HIGHER ASPIRATIONS OF THE PERSONALITY — BY A PROCESS OF SELECTION FROM AMONG THE MATERIALS SUPPLIED BY CERTAIN FORMS OF ART, PARTICULARLY THE DRAMA AND LITERATURE. In considering the subject of the sublimation of desires by means of processes of the imagination, it is first necessary to get as clear an idea as possible of what is meant by ' sublimation '. Nuttall's dictionary gives us the definition : ' the act of heightening and improving '. There may, however, be a conflict of opinions about the nature of improvement, and care has to be taken to discuss this point without going beyond the limits of directive psychology. What, then, is improve- ment from the standpoint which has been taken up in this book ? Any advance in morality de- finitely recognized as such by the individual is obviously an improvement, but, beyond this, much that has only a very distant relation to morals, or no relation at all, may for psychological purposes be deemed to be an improvement. This is not the place to deal with questions of morals as such, but an attempt to sketch the outlines of a theory of the sublimation of desires, apart from morals, may have a certain relative and provisional value. What tests can be applied for the purpose of discovering whether an alteration in the form of a desire is, or is not, a sublimation ? It is suggested that these must be frankly utilitarian, and that THE DIRECTION OP DESIRE 285 only the results on the character as a whole can be accepted as a guide. This makes the solution of the whole question depend on subjective self- satisfaction, which may at first sight appear to be a very unstable and elusive standard by which to judge. The strength of this objection must, to some extent, be admitted. A more satisfactory standard would certainly be desirable, but, as it is apparently unobtainable at present, it is perhaps better to make use of this one provisionally than to have none at all. It is not so unreliable as it seems, because, in many temperaments at any rate, self-satisfaction tends to become fairly definite and ascertainable. The distinction between the effects of gratifying desires in their coarser and their more idealized forms becomes, with practice, easily recognizable if the methods of objective intro- spection be carefully applied. These coarser gratifications tend to the brutalization, the more subHmated to the refinement, of the personality. The progress or retrogression, as the case may be, is generally quite appreciable. Perhaps something ought to be said about the relation which this subjective self-satisfaction bears to happiness, and consequently upon the question of how far the sublimation of desires tends to make people happier. It seems that the notion of happiness varies from one person to another. It also varies in the same person at different times. Some seem to conceive of it merely as the gratification of desires whatever their description or quality. It is thus, in their minds, equivalent to freedom from outside coercion by people or circumstances. To others it appears to be a process of becoming, and to these the 286 THE DIPvECTION OF DESIRE element of the gratification of desires, other than the desire for a certain sort of growth, seems comparatively unimportant. It is to this latter class alone that the sense of subjective self- satisfaction is essential for happiness. It is only those to whom it is essential who will find it worth their while to take the trouble necessary for the sublimation of their desires. It is consequently to them that directive psychology will make the strongest appeal. All the main desire elements which go to the making of the normal personality are capable of sublimation, and something has been said about it in relation to nearly all of them. It will not be necessary to repeat this here. The particular applications to the needs of each personality are a matter exclusively for the individual, who alone can estimate the gain which is likely to accrue to him in his own peculiar circumstances. The methods by which the imagination can be called into play to produce the sublimation are the main points for notice in this section. The imagination is chiefly stimulated in this direction by certain forms of art. The process by which these produce their effect seems still involved in some obscurity, though its main outlines have long been noted. The famous passage in Aristotle's Poetics bearing on this point is thus translated in Bohn's edition : ' Tragedy, therefore, is an imita- tion of a worthy or illustrious and perfect action, possessing magnitude, in pleasing language, using separately the several species of imitation in its facts, by men acting, and not through narration, through pity and fear effecting a purification from such-like passions.' THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 287 The point that is for the present purposes specially noteworthy is the recognition that pity and fear will effect a purification from such-like passions. The interpretation of the passage above quoted is said to present difficulties, and no attempt to discuss it in detail can be made here. It is, however, not an unusual experience — perhaps it may even be said to be a common one — that being present at tragedies gives ideas about, and some- times leads to criticisms of, emotions and passions. It is from this point of view that the subject is dealt with here. Almost every one, especially when young, is comparatively ignorant of his emotional possi- bilities. Dramatic performances of a serious kind give him an opportunity of arriving at a certain degree of self-knowledge. He is able to note the circumstances under which, and the directions in which, his sympathies and emotions are aroused. To a greater or less extent he takes the place in imagination of the characters whom he believes that he in any way resembles, and is affected as they are. It is this power of living in imagination for the time being which renders the problem play so important if it happens to deal with a situation likely to arise in the circumstances of actual Hfe, and if the characters exhibit emotional tendencies which really move many of the audience. The same may be said of the problem novel, and of certain other books, such as Montaigne's Essays, in which the writer has frankly revealed his feelings, tastes, likes, and dislikes. It is, per- haps, not very easy to follow what takes place in the consciousness of those who are affected by plays and books in this manner. It is probable, however, 288 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE that, if they are of a reflective turn of mind, they more or less consciously transmute the emotions or feelings which they read about, to fit their own circumstances, and go through the mental opera- tion of thinking out what would happen if they themselves were actuated by them. The result is a process of comparison between the emotions and feelings which they imagine they would actually experience and those which they have seen expressed on the stage or read about. This process of comparison serves two purposes. The first is self-knowledge ; the second may be called crystallization. The self-knowledge is attained by a recognition of affinities and repulsions in the sphere of emotions. A man, for instance, sees on the stage a representation of the murder of Desdemona by Othello. He may realize the possibiUty that he personally might be deceived by the wiles of such a villain as lago, and in a passion of jealousy might be tempted to act as Othello acted. On the other hand, he may know at once that no storm of emotion strong enough to move him to that extent could ever be aroused in his nature. In either event he would have gained some self-knowledge. The second purpose, called, for want of a better word, crystallization, is more difficult to explain with any clearness. It depends partly on the vagueness of desires and impulsive tendencies before they have become hardened by habit, and partly on the power of suggestion. The sentiments having a relation to the sexual instinct afford the best illustrations, because the chief subjects for both dramas and works of fiction are selected from among them, and so the process of crystallization THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 289 can be easily observed. The effect of The Sorrows of WeHher, by Goethe, is an example. It is a glori- fication of an extreme of sentiment of the type which is, in the main, pure and straightforward, though considered by many to be excessive and uncontrolled by any considerations of reason. From a moral point of view it has been blamed as culminating in suicide. Whatever criticism it may have met with as a variety of sexual emotion, it had, undoubtedly, a very far-reaching effect as a suggestion. It created in many a tone of feeling which did actually end in self-destruction. That is crystallization. A work of genius of this sort imposes itself on the imagination of those who are highly suggestible. Their vague and unformulated emotions are guided into the channels which are prepared by the suggestions contained in it. Subjectively they feel the passion and the misery which are described. They have no means of distinguishing illusions from actuaUties, conse- quently the growth of their personality may be permanently affected in one way or another, and not invariably for the better. It is the influence, both over individuals and social organisms, due to this power of suggestion which has caused the controversy between the artists and the moralists. The artists frequently contend that they have only to express themselves and that it is no part of their duty to attempt to produce moral effects. They allege that they have only to say what it is in them to say, and to reflect those aspects of the world which are selected by their artistic consciousness. The moralists, being acutely aware of this attitude of mind, which seems to them to indicate an absence of high moral BLIGH T. 290 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE seriousness, are sometimes inclined to look upon all art, but more particularly the dramatic form of it, as dangerous and misleading. The truth seems to be that it is better to leave art free to express what it will, and to devote attention to the training of the selective powers of the individual. Some minds naturally develop this capacity for selection among the materials which art provides. They tend to formulate rules of life as they go along. They incorporate the results of the imagination of others for the benefit of their own personaUty in much the same way as average people incorporate the results of personal experience. In this way they acquire a habit of mind almost equivalent to intuition, they learn unconsciously or semi-consciously, what they should seek for and what they should avoid in respect of characters and circumstances. Their outlook upon a work of art differs essentially, and sometimes widely, from that of the true amateur or art lover. They are concerned less with per- fection of structure and form and more with the formulation of principles for their own future guidance. They are therefore viewed by the artistically minded with some suspicion, which occasionally verges on hostility. They seem to be engaged in an attempt to extract from works of art what these were never meant to contain, and so to be always passing unfair judgments upon them. The answer to this is that if the artist claims the freedom to express whatever commends itself to his artistic conscience, he must, on his own principles, leave others free to select therefrom whatever they may deem to be advan- tageous to themselves, even though their prin- THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 291 ciples of selection may be, artistically speaking, outrageous. Sad as it may seem to those whose main end in life is the search for beauty, there are undoubtedly many people who are practically incapable of being moved by purely aesthetic considerations. These make use of art not for its own sake, but as a mechanism for the sublimation of their desires and emotions. It is better that this should be frankly recognized, and directive psychology, at any rate, has to deal with things as they are here and now, and not as they might be among those possessed of a more highly developed aesthetic sense. Whilst saying nothing against the theory of ' art for art's sake ', for those to whom it is a practical possibility, directive psychology empha- sizes the importance of training the ability to select instances and formulate rules for self-guidance from the materials which certain forms of art supply. IV. 10 THE TENDENCY TO IMITATE QUALITIES OP CHARAC- TER ADMIRED IN OTHERS SHOULD BE UTILIZED TO ATTAIN THOSE QUALITIES FOR ONESELF. THE POWER TO IMITATE IS INCREASED IP THE STEPS BY WHICH OTHER PERSONS HAVE GAINED OR IMPROVED THOSE QUALITIES CAN BE ASCERTAINED. Psychologists have dealt fully with the imitative tendency in animals and men, from the mimicry of the young up to the general laws of imitation in their social effects. It will not be necessary to deal here with more than a very small portion 292 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE of this vast field. The special uses to which the imitative tendency can be put for the purposes of self-direction, and the methods by which it can be made most effective, are the only aspects of the question which wiU be treated in this section. A particular variety of imitativeness, that of the outward observance of ceremonies and cere- monial behaviour, has always been highly estimated by Orientals for purposes such as those classed together by Confucius under the heading of ' propriety '. He says : ' Therefore the instructive and transforming powers of ceremonies are subtle. They stop depravity before it has taken form, causing men to move daily toward what is good, and to keep farther aw^ay from that which is evil, without being themselves conscious of it. It was on this account that the ancients set so high a value on them.' The psychological justification for this ' high value set on them by the ancients ' is that, to some extent, outward behaviour does have a certain efiect in producing moods. Taking part, for instance, in an organized festival of any sort would change the tone of thought of a considerable percentage of the participators. It is possible, however, that this influence was overestimated. At any rate, there was a reaction of opinion on the point. The Pharisees, the great upholders of ceremonial observance, who were undeviating in their performance of traditional rites, these being only an organized form of imitativeness, came to be regarded as the hypocrites far excellence. Their hearts were not affected by their outward actions. Directive psychology has to study how, and to THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 293 what extent, changes of heart and of desire can be affected by the various kinds of imitation. It wishes to make what use can be made of them, whilst avoiding the error of expecting too much from them. In the first place their chief use is negative. They enable common faults to be avoided. More particularly they eliminate those tendencies to anger, passion, and external aggres- sion which, as well as having anti-social effects, tend to injure the personality. The species of imitation which is most efficient for this purpose is that which causes the conventions of outward poHteness to be copied. In this way a certain calm of mind, at least, is attained, if nothing more. Beyond this a few of the more definitely utilitarian quaUties of mind can be attained by direct imita- tion. These depend very largely on regularity of muscular action. They cause physical habits to be formed, and the simpler habits of mind corre- sponding to them are brought about in this way. A boy who imitates soldiers standing ' at atten- tion ' is more likely to be mentally attentive than one who is slouching. The higher mental quahties or higher desires of the personaHty cannot be produced by simple imitation of externals, but they may be by the complexes of imitation-admiration and imitation- suggestion, and so it is necessary to notice these. The typical cases most frequently arise in the relations between the sexes, because in them the admiration is strongly aroused and the suggestions are very subtle. It is probably for this reason that friendships between the opposite sexes so often give such excellent psychological results. Different qualities tend to reach their highest 294 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE point of excellence in the different sexes — women, for instance, often having a pecuhar purity of idealism, and men a power of prolonged attention to the intricacies of a compHcated subject. Women are predominantly more intuitional, men more ratiocinative. These excellences may be com- municated from one to the other by imitation- admiration and imitation-suggestion, and it is by far the easiest w^ay of acquiring them. One mind tends to follow the processes of another which is admired, and in this way it is possible to acquire new tones of feeling and even new modes of thought. It is noticeable that women who have been on very intimate terms with men of marked abiUties seem able to reflect those abihties, and to reproduce with readiness the trains of thought to which they have become accustomed. The effect on men is perhaps more difficult to trace, but the converse — that is, the absence of certain of the more amiable qualities — can be observed in men who have per- sistently avoided the society of women. It is therefore advisable, for those who know their own requirements with regard to quahties of personality, to make use of imitation coupled with admiration in the way here mentioned. This, of course, tends to be more effective when the admiration extends to the personality of the other person as a whole, and is not confined to the one special quaUty, and this is particularly the case when there is some tenderness or affection towards the person. The ideal conditions for the imitation of the higher qualities or varieties of desire are, therefore, an exalted opinion and strong emotional attraction, but these cannot always be found in conjunction. Where the conjunction is impossible such sub- THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 295 stitutes as offer themselves must be made use of. These consist in imitating those, certain of whose quaHties are admired, though their personality as a whole may not be regarded as specially perfect, and though they may excite no feelings of emotion of any sort. This is a sort of abstract and respect- ful imitation, but it may be very useful, especially as a means of attaining certain valuable qualities which are not usually accompanied by amiabiHty. Of course, mere imitation of externals is useless without a constant and sincere desire for the quaUties, and without that attention and insight which enables the relation between the inner life and the outward actions to be traced. This raises one aspect of the question with regard to what are known as ' magnetic personaHties '. No very adequate explanation has ever been given of all the essentials which go to make up a ' magnetic personality ' ; but there is apparently more agree- ment on one point than on any of the others, and that point is that they set up an imitative tendency in others. Little or nothing is definitely known about the factors which together enable them to do this. The opinion that seems to have the best evidence on its side is that single-mindedness is the most prominent of these factors. Magnetic person- aUties see very clearly one side of all the questions which touch them, and their desires come very readily to a focus. They contrive to brush aside all the objections to their plans, and when they cannot do this they minimize these objections so much that they appear to have little or no impor- tance. Above all, they create the impression of having discovered how to make life thoroughly interesting. ' Magnetic ' people may be tragic, 296 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE they may be gloomy, depressed, or discouraged, but, at least, they are never dull. They derive a large part, at any rate, of their attraction from the hope which they arouse that what they have succeeded in doing for themselves can be done by any one who mixes with them on terms of intimacy, and who carefully watches the move- ments of their consciousness. This hope is not without a definite psychological foundation. ' Magnetic ' persons have undoubtedly something about them which lends itself to imita- tion, and when imitated produces something of the same effect as the original. The process is rarely capable of being carried to entire completion. There is always something indefinable which cannot be transferred, but even allowing for this there is an appreciable gain. This gain is chiefly in the re-enforcing of a natural desire of which the imitating party is already more or less conscious, but which would be choked by other and stronger desires, or by external difficulties, if it remained without the assistance of the example of a stronger personality. Where, then, the advantages which may be derived from association with those possessing ' magnetic ' quahties are clearly recognized, a search should be made for such persons. When they are found the person desiring to acquire their qualities should assume the attitude of a follower and a learner. He should put away from him all tendencies to criticism, and should devote himself to trying to understand and to copy, not slavishly, but intelligently. This demands considerable insight. The usual mistake is to imitate obvious weaknesses and THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 297 mannerisms without taking the trouble to enter into the very heart of the business. True insight in this relation consists in discovering the processes of growth by which the desired qualities have been developed. It may be taken for granted that they did not originally exist in all the perfection which belongs to them after long practice. They were acquired little by little, as a result of the bend- ing of the whole personality towards some end, whether that end was consciously intended from the beginning, or gradually crystallized by sub- conscious processes. Those most easily imitated are persons who may be called the ' self -expository '. These have a taste for expounding their ideas and the processes of consciousness by which they attained them. Some natures are ' self-expository ' under almost all circumstances ; they recall their own difficulties and explain the methods by which they dealt with them. Others are usually more reserved, and only reveal themselves to those with whom they feel in very intimate sympathy. In dealing with these, therefore, it is necessary to take every care to gain their confidence. In conclusion, something ought to be said on the subject of the inhibition of the imitative tendencies. It is better, of course, that the life should be so arranged that this is rendered unnecessary, but some people are not so fortunately placed that they can control their circumstances to the necessary extent. Inhibition of the imitative tendencies seems to depend upon sharpening the critical faculties and arousing the forces which make for opposition. In some temperaments both of these are naturally strong, but tend to remain latent L3 298 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE until intentionally and deliberately brought to full consciousness. When once they have been set in motion they produce a peculiar sort of reaction for which there is no one word in the English language, but which may be described as being the exact antithesis of imitation. This can sometimes be observed in families where the inelegancies of an older generation cause a minute particularity of manner or behaviour in the younger. This critical reaction from something which is considered to be undesirable is not perhaps a very amiable trait in character, but directive psychology has to take note of it and to point out that in certain circumstances it may have a degree of utility. IV. 11 INFLUENCES ARISING FROM THE ASPIRATIONS AND PRACTICES OF SOCIAL GROUPS MAY BE USED BY INDIVIDUALS FOR THE STIMULATION OF DESIR- ABLE QUALITIES, AND FOR THE CONCENTRATION OF ATTENTION IN CERTAIN DIRECTIONS. DIREC- TIVE PSYCHOLOGY CAN MAKE SUGGESTIONS WITH REGARD TO THE SELECTION OF GROUPS SUITABLE FOR THESE PURPOSES. The pressures exerted by social groups on the per- sonality have been treated in an earher part of this book from one point of view — that is, as obstacles to seK-direction — it now remains to say something about them from another standpoint : that of their uses and advantages. It is only when they are consciously and intentionally chosen or accepted as aids to the formation or growth of the personality that they become an instrument for the purposes THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 299 of directive psychology. They are not very fre- quently chosen or accepted in this way ; on the contrary, they are more often passively submitted to, either because they pass unnoticed as part of the regular order of things sanctified by custom, or because they are regarded as unavoidable. Young people tend to accept the conventions, the dominant ideas and tastes, of the environment in which they grow up, without much questioning, at any rate for a time. The special social conditions which obtain in a large centre give openings for the selection of groups, to which an individual can affiliate himself more or less closely as he pleases. There is a sort of art in this affiliation. It requires a certain independence of spirit, and a resolution to avoid undue identification with any particular clique. A readiness to accept new ideas and canons of judgment with regard to conduct, and a certain quality of open-mindedness, are also essential. In what ways, then, can these group pressures or influences be used for the purposes of directive psychology ? In the main to control the attention, and to provide a mental and moral atmosphere suitable for the growth of particular qualities which it is desired to cultivate. Of these it may be well to give a few instances, but other applications of the general principle will readily suggest themselves to any one who is interested in the question. The system here adopted is the arrangement in pairs of opposites such as simplicity and luxury, strenuous- ness and quietism, and so on. The reason for this is to avoid the suggestion that either of the alter- natives mentioned is necessarily to be recommended in all cases. From the point of view of a moralist 300 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE there is, perhaps, generally something more to be said on one side than on the other ; at any rate, writers on morals usually seem to deal with them on that assumption. Directive psychology, how- ever, is, for its own purposes, more detached. It simply teaches the individual how social forces can be adapted to his own private ends. As the first pair of alternatives, simplicity and luxury may be taken, if we use these words in their most broad significance. Groups are to be found which make a cult of either of them. To one the simple life is an ideal to be rigorously followed, to the other, a certain magnificence, verging sometimes on actual display and osten- tation, seems essential to self-respect. These groups can be discovered in almost all classes of society, from the coster girls who save their money to buy feathers to those whose ambition it is to have their expensive entertainments mentioned in the columns of Society newspapers. The mere observation of their fashions, habits, and customs is in itself fascinating, and it may have in addition a distinct value. The too luxuriously inclined may correct their undue fondness for material posses- sions by following the example of those who love the simple life ; the penurious may learn from the more magnificent new possibilities of the joy of living. Strenuousness and quietism are another pair of alternatives. The strenuous are, on the whole, likely to be also gregarious; the more quietistic to be solitary and meditative. It is beneficial to persons having either of these tendencies in a strongly marked form to mix with those who are their opposites in point of temperament, at least THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 301 to the extent which will enable them to realize the possible advantages which may be derived from the tastes that differ from their own. The feelings and opinions of various groups with regard to sex sentiments, and the fashions and arrangements arising therefrom, present a contrast which is both interesting and valuable. It is, however, difficult to find any two words which express this contrast with any exactness. Strict and lax would be suitable, but for the fact that the latter suggests an exaggeration of the dominant form of feeling, or else an indifference to moral considerations. The early Victorian tradition which still holds the field in certain circles, was based on the theory that it was socially dan- gerous to allow persons of opposite sexes to meet unless under observation, and then only under circumstances which almost entirely precluded any connected interchange of ideas. The more modern custom tends to grant almost unrestricted liberty, and to rely on the self-control of the parties for the avoidance of dangers which might be supposed to arise from the freedom which is accorded. Groups regulated on either of these principles and systems intermediate between the extremes may easily be found. The stricter offer a refuge for those who have but little self-con- fidence ; the more easy-going enable regulations to be cast aside by those to whom they are no longer necessary. With regard to matters of the intelligence there is again a wide field of choice between groups having different ideals. In some the tone of conversation is predominantly thoughtful and serious. Every one is expected to contribute 302 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE something to the elucidation of the points which are discussed. In others it is reckoned almost a social offence to follow up a subject. It may be touched in passing, but no attempt must be made to focus attention upon it. Many people who are absorbed in business find this light and unintellectual conversation recreative. They have very good reasons for not wishing to exhaust their energies in strenuous debate. Those whose minds are in process of expansion, and who are anxious to test their opinions, experience the necessity of an interchange of ideas. Finally, the religious form of group feeHng needs to be noticed. The contrast here is not so much between those who believe and those who may be said to make unbelief almost an article of faith ; but between those to whom religion is one of the vital concerns of life, and those to whom it is unimportant, or only regarded as a subject of intellectual curiosity. The boundaries between groups which differ widely in respect to religious consciousness are perhaps harder to pass than would be the case with those which differed on less vital matters. There are some, however, who have the necessary tact to pass from one to another without deceit, and at the same time without giving offence. The possibilities which are opened up by the variations of group opinion on these points having been thus roughly outUned, the ways in which they can be utilized by individuals remain to be dis- cussed. First of all, group atmosphere can only be used by those who are to some extent in sym- pathy with the aims of the group. There must be a response, if only a partial one, on the part of THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 303 the individual to the group ideals. The value for purposes of self-direction of the pressure exerted by the group arises from the fact that the group consciousness, having crystallized and hardened around a set of ideas, exerts a strongly suggestive effect on any person brought in contact with it. Aspirations and endeavours on his part, which might have perished from inanition if he had been left to himself, receive encouragement and stimulus from group recognition and enthusiasm. The group has attained to a sort of specialization of function of which the individual can take advantage. How, then, are groups to be judged and valued for practical purposes ? To what critical tests should they be subjected before they are utilized ? The first of these is based on the characteristic and predominant tastes and desires of their members. These are the foundations on which a valuable group is built, and they give rise to its enthusiasms and its efforts. They should be care- fully examined in order to see how far they are really living forces. Many groups are destitute of any sincere feeling — they are mere survivals held together by habit. They originally took their rise from the pursuit of some ardently desired object, which has either been partially attained or else has ceased to be genuinely wished for. Such groups as these have a certain utility in relation to those who have grown up in them and feel the need of their continued support. They depend upon friend- ships and associations of long standing. They are, however, almost useless to a new comer, because all vitality of interest has left them, and it is just this quality which makes group life so valuable. 304 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE The next test is the public group profession and its relation to the real purposes which the group serves. It might seem to the uninitiated that there would be no distinction between the publicly declared policy and the actual objects, but for one reason or another these are often almost entirely separate, at least as far as the majority of the members of the group are concerned. Many will, for instance, join in a professedly religious organiza- tion much more on social than on distinctively religious grounds. They pay but little attention to the purely devotional side, though accepting it passively as something to which they are able to give a vague approval, whilst tacitly recog- nizing that its main utility is to hold together an organization which serves their purposes. For the person who desires to find a group pressure which will help him to a particular end it is necessary to look beneath the surface and to see what are the realities as opposed to the mere appearances. This does not in the least imply that he need suspect hypocrisy on the part of the groups which he is examining. They are under no obligation to declare to the world the real nature of the forces which hold them together. Their professions and the more esoteric aims by which they are guided are more often than not frequently consistent with each other, but the latter are perhaps less clearly formulated, and often they are followed almost subconsciously. It is, however, the essential group spirit which is the matter of real importance, and it is about this that inquiry should be directed. The duties and obligations practically insisted upon by the group and imposed on all persons coming under its jurisdiction is the final test. THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 305 These are very varied, and, as a matter of social observation, highly interesting. Some groups will not tolerate any one who cannot and will not conform in certain external matters, such as the wearing of fashionable clothes or maintaining a particular style of living. Others again exclude any one who rests under the imputation of eccen- tricity of behaviour or opinion. Many have some- what intricate standards of their own with regard to sexual ethics, vehemently condemning particular acts which have no very harmful results, whilst passing over others the effects of which appear to be obviously detrimental to social well-being. These duties and obligations are important because they create habit, and they are specially so when the performance of them is rigorously exacted, as it sometimes is, down to minute details. Groups which are strong enough to impose them constitute a sort of school for grown-up people. The value of this schooling can, in certain instances, be easily recognized, and its harm can equally be observed in others. Perhaps in the future some sociologist may make a thorough study of groups and the obligations imposed by them. They are, however, comparatively unstable, they undergo a constant process of disintegration, and the tone of feeling changes as their composition is altered. For all these reasons any study, if made, would need constant revision. In the meantime, every one must take his own provisional observations, and act on them as well as he can for his own purposes. The creation and moulding of groups for special ends by means of personal influence is discussed in a later section. 306 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE IV. 12 EXTERNAL CONDITIONS AND BODILY SENSATIONS PROFOUNDLY AFFECT THE CONDITION AND DIREC- TION OF CONSCIOUSNESS. EACH INDIVIDUAL MUST SELECT THE SPECIAL CONDITIONS MOST SUITABLE TO HIS OWN NEEDS, BUT DIRECTIVE PSYCHOLOGY CAN MAKE A FEW PROVISIONAL SUGGESTIONS THAT WILL FREQUENTLY BE FOUND USEFUL. The external conditions which can be used to control the tone of consciousness have been designedly treated last of all. The reason for this is not that they are unimportant, but that they are necessarily indirect in their effects and not always easily appreciated even by a person trained to self-observation. No very specific direction or suggestions for their use can be given, because so much depends on personal idiosyncrasy with regard to them. What is highly beneficial to one type of personahty may be just as deleterious to another. Indeed, some justification may be required for dealing with them at all, even by way of enumera- tion and description. The justification lies in the fact that they afford a most interesting field for self-experimentation, and that though this process may be most useful it is but little understood, and is too often entirely neglected. In conse- quence, the good results which might be obtained are lost, and much information which might be collected and utilized for the benefit of others never sees the light. The widest possible meaning is given to the phrase ' external conditions ' in this section. It is intended to include all the circumstances within THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 307 the control of the individual which have not been dealt with in the previous sections of this chapter, but those are more especially emphasized which do not depend upon ideas or the influence of other persons, or any effort on the part of the individual himself. Various forms of nourishment or self- denial, solitude and contact with wild nature, chmate, physical exercise or physical repose, and various forms of sex stimulation or the absence of such, are examples of the external conditions which are here touched upon. For what psychological purposes can these be pursued ? and what is the best way of finding out how they can best be adapted to the ends of self- direction ? Their main use is for the production or reinforcing of certain moods or tones of feeling which are recognized as desirable. They can be used to stimulate the apathetic or to soothe the over-excited. They have a great effect on the emotions and the passions — they divert the atten- tion and tend to focus desire on certain objects. They give rest to certain over- wrought brain cells. All this is obvious. Every one who goes away for a holiday or a change tacitly recognizes the fact. What, however, is not so obvious is that these external conditions can be selected and adapted, either wisely and according to knowledge, or carelessly and indifferently, and that they can be used with the definite purpose of favouring certain activities of consciousness, as well as for physical recuperation or pleasure regarded simply as ends in themselves. The cumulative effect of the more minute variations are also commonly overlooked, and much more attention could, with advantage, be paid to them. 308 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE The importance of these moods and feeling tones is that if they are often repeated they tend to become fixed and permanent. Cheerfulness, for instance, largely depends upon the condition of diffused bodily self -feeling. It is essentially a con- dition of consciousness which only a few people can attain or maintain, unless they are, on the whole, fairly satisfied with their surroundings and occupations. That, as a general principle, is freely admitted. But comparatively few people make any critical study of the effects produced on their consciousness by details, especially those to which they have become accustomed. They passively accept whatever is sanctified by usage, even though they personally would largely increase their average of happiness and contentment by making simple changes. It is, perhaps, by arousing interest in matters of this kind, especially those which contribute to mental activity, that directive psychology may perform a useful service in this relation. The conventions of life with regard to food, clothes, domestic arrangements, amusements, recreations, and so on, have grown up insensibly to suit the tastes and habits of the average unthink- ing person. Many of them militate against the mental efficiency of the more individual members of society in ways that are not as yet by any means fully recognized. Those aiming at self-direction should strive to be open-minded, and to have a readiness to try all things and hold fast to that which is good. As long as they do not interfere unduly with the comfort of others they should receive new fashions and customs with gladness, and note their effects with precision. The first heading under which THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 309 these may be observed is perhaps that which relates to coenaesthesia, or general bodily feeling, in so far as it affects the tone of consciousness. The kind and quality of food, the hours and con- ditions of eating it, the use of alcohol and tobacco, the amount and variety of exercise and rest, of light and air, are the main points to which observa- tion needs to be directed. The easiest method of arriving at some sort of provisional conclusion is to take note of all those occasions when the tone of consciousness has been unusually satisfactory. The test of satisfaction can, of course, be only subjective. It will depend partly on direct pleasure states, partly on states which have seemed to lead to some after-effects which are desired. The combination of the two in a state of contentment, coupled with a maximum of mental energy which serves some useful purpose, is of course the ideal. From these satisfactory tones of consciousness it will often be possible to work back to their predisposing causes. It will be found that they seem to follow upon some special course of life. This can then be selected for prolonged trial, to see if it can be relied upon to produce the same good results always, or in the great majority of instances. Modifications can be made as inventive ingenuity suggests. Those who have any brain work to do, or who depend for their success or pleasure on combinations of mental factors which demand original thought, have to pay special attention to the conditions which favour cerebral activity. Direct introspection seems to show that the quality of the stream of consciousness is affected by external conditions, whatever the mechanism may be by which this 310 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE is brought about. Many people, for instance, find that their thoughts are momentarily more pleasant, and even that they are more efficient for the solution of difficulties, after a moderate consumption of alcohol. That in itself may not be an argument in favour of its use, but it does support the view that combinations of ideas which would otherwise have been unattainable may be effected, and so made into possibiUties of pleasure or profit, by the use of certain external and physical stimulants. Alcohol has been selected as an instance because it is the most obvious and easily experienced, and not in any way because its use is advisable. Indeed, the flow of ideas is produced in some minds just as readily and in a more lasting manner by other methods, as, for example, by prolonged physical rest, or certain forms of exercise, such as riding on horseback. It is possible for any one to take practical measures to ensure that the amount and quality of the thoughts which spring up in his mind are in accordance with his general view of what they should be. A strict observation and control of the external conditions favourable to this end must necessarily be maintained. Physical surroundings, such as nature and the decorations of the rooms which are habitually lived in, have certain effects which should be noted for self-directive purposes. They predominantly affect those whose mental life is of the distinctively visual type. To such people a sordid or inartistic environment causes depression, sometimes almost amounting to torture. Their whole emotional tone is altered. Others, on the contrary, seem almost unaffected; living as they do in a world of ideas, or prc-occupied with their own schemes THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 311 and interests, their power of aesthetic observation seems to remain wholly undeveloped : indeed, for practical purposes it can hardly be said to exist. This type, which is indifierent to visual impressions, is peculiarly fitted to survive and live comfortably in ugly surroundings, such as are more or less unavoidable in industrial districts. Any one aiming at self-direction has to find out by experience how he stands in this respect, and to consider his life accordingly. The process of finding out is not so easy as it might seem to be at first sight, for very strong social suggestions interfere with a correct judgment. If brought up among artistic people he will be continually told that happiness or discomfort depends very largely on visual impressions. If his lot is cast amongst those of the contrary kind, any desire he may evince for beauty will be regarded as a species of eccentricity. There are at present no sure means of testing how far any individual is really affected mentally by what he sees habitually. Those who are enthusiastic advocates of the aesthetic side of the personality assume, in favour of their own case, that the sense of beauty can be developed in every normal human being, and that every one would be the happier for its development. Such facts as are known seem to point to a much more moderate estimate of human capacity in this direction. It seems probable that many natures can only appreciate very simple kinds of beauty, usually those into which a certain sexual element enters somewhat largely. They enjoy looking at attractive persons of the opposite sex, and the evidence of this is that they will pay to see musical comedy. They will hardly visit an 312 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE art gallery, even when it is open without any charge. They prefer a crowded hoUday resort to the charms of wild nature. The right aim for such people, from a psychological point of view, seems to be to seek for the best which they really enjoy, and not to attempt that which is aesthetically out of their reach. Some may be able so to train themselves as to raise the level of their aesthetic appreciation, but the process is much more gradual than is sometimes supposed, and artificial pressure rarely gives results in proportion to the effort which it involves. Of all the external conditions which may conduce to the improvement of the personality, the one which seems at present to be most underestimated and neglected is solitude in the midst of wild nature. The reason for this neglect seems difficult to understand. Books have been written on the subject, of which Thoreau's W olden is the best known and the most attractive. On the whole, a solitary holiday costs rather less than one in a comparatively fashionable place, so that economic causes can have but little to do with the disHke of loneliness which appears to prevail. Probably the causes must be sought in an over-development of the gregarious impulses on the one hand, and a want of understanding of the right uses of solitude on the other. The first of these causes does not call for notice here, but perhaps something may be said about the psychological advantages which may be derived from solitude by those of a certain temperament. It need hardly be said that to some it is worse than useless, because it has a highly depressing effect. Where, however, no depression is produced, there is usually a great stimulation THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 313 of certain reflective powers of the mind. The abstinence from commonplace conversation, and the removal of the ordinary petty interests of everyday life, must change the contents of con- sciousness. Questions which are pressed aside by the urgency of practical affairs offer themselves for solution, and find their answers. There is a certain detachment from the past and the future which makes life assume a different proportion. The consciousness is more nearly in the position which could be imagined as that of a disembodied spirit. It is not hampered by any details, and gets a clearer outlook on itself, and in favourable cases even a certain degree of inward vision on what appear to be ultimate realities. How long such a condition can be maintained without a risk of it leading to morbidity of thought depends, of course, on the individual temperament. The total results of the process are not observable at once. The thoughts which are generated do not imme- diately take a clear form ; indeed they often seem unusually disconnected and obscure, even to the point of causing some momentary discomfort. Eventually, however, there is usually a marked increase of originality, and power. The higher tendencies and desires of the individual gradually emerge from the depths, and they can then be relied upon to have far-reaching effects on the subsequent tone of consciousness and on the prac- tical conduct of life. When the power of remaining alone has been developed the mental states to which it gives rise tend to recur, and meditation can again be taken up at the point at which it was dropped, and in this way a new and valuable per- spective is attained, which can be utilized at will. V. 1 IT IS POSSIBLE TO ATTAIN A HIGH DEGREE OF SATISFACTION FROM REFLECTION AND MEDITATION. THE POWER TO DO THIS GIVES INDEPENDENCE, AND AT THE SAME TIME CAUSES THE PERSONALITY TO BE A SOURCE OF INTEREST TO OTHERS WHO HAVE NOT ACQUIRED IT. The previous chapters have dealt with the reasons for which directive psychology might be studied, the pressures which social relations exert on the personality, the tendencies which go to make it up, and the methods by which improve- ments which are desired may be obtained. Now, in conclusion, certain results which may be the outcome of what has gone before remain to be noticed. The first of these is the power of deriving pleasure or amusement from the processes of the consciousness. This needs to be defined because many people seem to think that, in the main, they are derived from some external stimulus. This, of course, is perfectly true of certain types, but it is an advantage to be partially independent of the external stimuli. First of all, how is the verb ' to amuse ' defined ? Nuttall's Dictionary, which is one in common use, gives as the definition ' to occupy attention agreeably with agreeable objects '. Now what are objects in this relation ? Are they merely some- thing external, like a music-hall performance, which can be directly perceived, or may they be THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 315 thoughts which rise in the mind, the results, of course, of a combination of past impressions, but not due to anything which at the moment is forced on the consciousness from outside ? In this section thoughts so rising in the mind will alone be discussed. None of the words which have to be used are very suitable to this special purpose. This is due to the fact that more attention is commonly paid to direct momentary impressions than to those elements in the stream of conscious- ness which arise of themselves. In the hurry of life comparatively few people even think it worth while to notice their own train of thought when fresh external impressions are cut ofi. To do this satisfactorily requires some little practice. An easy way is to sit quietly in some familiar room where nothing is going on, and where there are no fresh sights, sounds, tastes, smells, or tactile sensations to distract the attention. The mind is then thrown back on itself : it can revive the past, it can speculate either on the future or on some abstract question. If there is no urgent question which demands solution, and no worries to create something in the nature of an obsession, the thoughts will probably follow one another accord- ing to one or other of the laws of association. One random memory will call up another which is in some way attached to it. Now in some tempera- ments such chains of thoughts are predominantly pleasant, in others the reverse. Directive psycho- logy has to study the methods by which the pro- cess can be made to produce satisfactory results. On what, then, do these results depend ? Very largely on what is technically known as * coen- aesthesia ' — that is, diffused bodily self -feeling. This 316 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE is due to the character of the messages which reach the brain from the great internal organs that maintain life, the heart, the liver, and such-like. Every one has experienced the depression which is the outcome of a slight derangement of any of these organs, and the elation which springs from exuberant good health. Books on hygiene give the rules for maintaining health, and they need not be stated here. Assuming normal health, directive psychology has to consider the other factors. The chief of these is giving the mind just sufficient work and not too much. The work need not be intellectual, at any rate in the sense of being speculative : it can be practical or aesthetic, that is, for the satisfaction of some desire. But it must be to some extent creative, even if in quite a humble way. If no mental work is being done, distractions are necessary, and supposing them to be unobtainable the condition known as ennui supervenes. It is possible that exception may be taken to the word ' creative ' in this connexion. It is, however, only used in the sense of bringing some new combination or arrangement into existence, and in contradistinction to the mere repetition of old thoughts, conceptions, or opinions, which are already familiar. The element of newness or freshness need be only very slight — possibly the bare appUcation of the most commonplace prin- ciples to the individual case — but its presence makes all the practical difference. It gives the sense of achievement, of individuality, of progress towards a goal, and it is this sense which causes satisfaction. The rules which can be laid down for the attain- ment of these mental states are, at the best, merely THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 317 tentative and provisional, and they vary from person to person. It is, perhaps, better to have some suggestions as a basis, and accordingly the following are mentioned. Hopeful or favourable instances of the satisfaction of whatever particular desire tends to be dominant at the moment should be sought for, and held before the imagination. The reasons of success in those instances should be discovered, examined, and, where applicable, utilized. This tends to create self-confidence and to abolish faint-heartedness. The common mistake is to dwell too much on instances of failure. These also should be considered, but rather with a view to avoiding the causes which conduced to it, and making the proper distinctions between their circumstances and those of the case in question. Alternative subjects of meditation should be arranged and prepared to occupy the mind. The stream of consciousness cannot always be directed in one particular way, and several problems should be held in readiness to suit varying moods. Some of these should be practical, others aesthetic, others* abstract or speculative. The main point is to have the information necessary for their decision, and to have the trained habit of ordering it so that it provides solutions for questions. It is as well to direct the mind as far as possible into channels in which chance plays as small a part as possible in the ultimate decisions. There is necessarily an element of chance — that is, of what is so unknown as to be practically incapable of being foreseen — in all the concerns of life. The estimation of probability is the great business of all reflection. But it is most satisfactory where the knowledge is so considerable that something more 318 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE than a wild guess can be hazarded. Finally, there is an art of thinking without worrying, which but few people take sufficient trouble to attain to. It largely depends on so arranging matters that some good result is bound to come however events turn out. It requires perhaps a rather far-reaching power of mind, and a complexity of speculation which some find very difficult. It implies that existence has been so well organized that some desire will be gratified in almost any conceivable combination of circumstances. All the eggs have not been put into one basket. It is one of the most interesting of all the powers of the mind, and its acquisition invariably proves most valuable. In the abstract, any serious degree of worry is universally regarded as undesirable, but there is much disagreement as to the point at which worry is conceived of as beginning. This difference of feeling or opinion opens up the whole large question of the degree of emotional excitement which is regarded as desirable by various types of indi- viduals. The question is psychologically of the greatest importance, and, as it is a matter of taste, every one has to decide it for himself. It should, however, be definitely decided on evidence and not left to chance, and when the decision is arrived at the course of life should be arranged in accord- ance with it. At the one end of the scale are those who consider the condition known as ' ataraxia ' as their ideal. It may be roughly described as a sort of earthly Nirvana, an entire freedom from all those besetting problems or pre-occupations which cause an agitation of the emotional side of the nature. The two first verses of Swinburne's * Garden of Proserpine ' are perhaps the best THE DIRECTION OP DESIRE S:9 presentation of it which can be named. It is preferred by those who are liable to be disorganized by emotional shocks, even though they be of moderate intensity, and for whom a perfect calmness of mind is an essential if they are to be happy. These are of the philosophic meditative temperament, with a tendency to dreaminess, and perhaps to mysticism. At the other extreme are those *to whom a continual stirring of the emotions and the sympathetic reactions is the main source of enjoyment. This intensity of excitement need not necessarily be called into play by anything external, but may be produced by the alternations of hope and fear. The invariable characteristic of this type is that they prefer tension, even though amounting to anxiety, to a state of indifference. In between these extremes lie the more ordinary types of personality, each with its special preference for a certain degree and kind of emotional excite- ment. It seems impossible to give any reasons for thinking any one of these more admirable than the others on theoretical grounds ; the only prac- tical course is to attain the degree of self-knowledge necessary to recognize what is suited to the individual requirements, and the wisdom which enables appropriate action to att^^.in it. It may, perhaps, be useful to consider the question in relation to romance, or a love of the wonderful or adventurous. Those who have a love of the romantic tend to realize it in their thoughts and imaginings, and so they excite their emotions. Their inner life is perhaps more richly coloured than that of less imaginative people — there is a certain vividness in their consciousness. The fondness for, or dislike of, the romantic is a most 320 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE useful clue to the proper miderstauding of the personality, and should be made more of a feature than it is now made in a proper psychological education. What, then, are the practical uses of the fully developed inner life, whether purely intellectual and speculative, or accompanied by emotional excitement and a love of romance ? First of all, its possessor is, as has been already explained, comparatively independent of external emotional stimulus. He is more sufficient unto himself. But he is also more socially desirable, because he has a power which is lacking in others. To some extent he can always communicate his interest; and very fully so, if he has practised the art with any thoroughness. He becomes a centre to which people gravitate ; he sets a social tone. The ordinary untrained mind is subject more or less to ennui, and from this it seeks relief. It is not amused by its own processes. It cannot set itself problems and find delight in answering them. It cannot weave romances even for its own satisfaction. It has not even that inchoate artistic imagination which can create for its own pleasure, even though the technique necessary to give satisfactory expression to its creations be wanting. Those whose mind functions without continual resort to external stimuli are able to make good these deficiencies in others, or, if they lack the power to achieve as much as this, they can at least create a temporary illusion that they are doing so. This is the explanation of the success of the amateur controversialist who can propound subjects for argument, and of the family story- teller. It also accounts for the popularity of those THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 321 modern novels which make no claim to literary distinction. The point that all these have in common is that they tend to remove apathy and dullness for the time being. Those who have made a study of directive psychology are in a position to recognize the importance of controlling, partially at any rate, the direction of their own stream of conscious- ness, both for their own benefit and that of those around them. They should watch their thoughts, and should elaborate methods of observation with regard to them. When they notice tendencies to apathy arising they should seek for stimulating subjects of reflection. These are mentioned, more or less directly, in various sections of this chapter. They depend upon the interaction of desires and ideas. The great essential is to acquire the habit of bringing both of these to a proper focus, instead of allowing them to remain vague, unrelated, and unformulated. V. 2 INFLUENCE, FOR THE PURPOSES OF DIRECTIVE PSYCHOLOGY, IS THE POWER OF ALTERING ' STANDARDS OP VALUE ' — THAT IS, THE ' RELISH OP RIGHT AND WRONG ' — IN OTHERS. A COHERENT PRACTICAL BELIEF ABOUT THE MAIN QUESTIONS OF LIFE, BASED ON A PERSISTENT EMOTIONAL ATTITUDE TOWARDS THEM, AND SOME LUCIDITY OF THOUGHT, ARE THE ESSENTIALS FOR GAINING THIS KIND OF INFLUENCE. The last section dealt with the question of how to amuse oneself with inner processes of the consciousness, and how the aid of external stimuh BUQH ^ 322 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE could be partially dispensed with. At the end of it mention was made of the attractive force that the power to do this had on others. The present section deals with influence — a further stage of the same action. All influence is to some extent based on the power of mental and emotional attraction, but this does not by itself give influence. Indeed it often ends by leaving people exactly where it found them. It is therefore necessary to try to define the word ' influence ', used in this psychological sense, and to distinguish it from mere attraction. Influence, then, is a particular variety of the ' will to power ', and the variety which has to do with the alteration of ' standards of value '. These two terms have been created by Nietzsche, and are widely accepted and under- stood ; but for the benefit of those unfamiliar with his works they may need a few words of explana- tion, especially as they are sometimes conceived in somewhat varying senses by different minds. The ' will to power ' is an extension of positive self-feeling, or what may be called the impulse to dominate. It springs from a sense of innate capacity or superiority. It takes all sorts of forms, and is often very subtle, the individual himself being only partially aware of its strength. He is apt to confuse it with a sense of duty, or with the necessity of getting rights which he would regard it as pusillanimous to forgo. The lowest form of it is the will to material power, — the sort of power derived in ancient times from the ability to inflict physical suffering, and in modern times from the control of money or material possessions. The higher forms are moral or spiritual influence, resulting from the action of THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 323 character on character, where no material or physical pressure is brought to bear. Influence may be exercised over individuals regarded as such, or over groups regarded as such. In this section the first only will be dealt with, and in the next section the second. The reason for treating them separately is that the desire for the one by no means involves any desire for the other, and because generally they are pursued by wholly different methods. Influence over individuals is gained by direct contact with them, and by interchange of views. It can only be gained by mixing with them on terms of intimacy greater or less. Influence over groups is gained and main- tained generally by the delivery of public speeches or by pubHshed writings. It is obvious that each of these kinds of influence demands different gifts and tastes, and consequently requires to be looked at from a special point of view, although the same person may very well exercise both sorts of influence. Now influence has been defined as the variety of the will to power which has to do with altering ' standards of value ' ; so these have now to be explained. A standard of value may be defined in Montaigne's phrase as a special ' relish of right and wrong '. In many people it is almost entirely instinctive and without a reasoned basis : indeed, it is often only a reaction to certain actual circum- stances, and could not be consciously thought out apart from them. Thus if you ask an uneducated person how he would act in relation to a combina- tion of hypothetical events which might occur in his own life, but which have not in point of fact ever occurred, he would usually be puzzled as to what 324 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE answer to give. He would have no theory on the point. When the events happened he would act in accordance with his character, but what the action would be is unknown to him. The explana- tion of this is that his interest in and power of theorizing are not strong enough to raise his ' reHsh of right and wrong ' to full consciousness. He would rely, and in the main rightly, on a quasi- automatic reaction. This would be, however, in a large degree formed for him by the various influences with which he had been brought in contact, though probably he would be quite uncon- scious of the process. The more educated and trained the mind, the more clearly is the ' relish of right and wrong ' held, and the more firmly is it fixed. The main out- lines of it are settled by the predominating tastes, emotions, tendencies, and impulses. The purely theoretical conception of duty has a share in it, more or less illusive according to the particular case. It is necessary to notice this illusive quality of the sense of duty, because it has considerable practical importance. Some have an external idea of duty, by external being meant something which has been derived from outside, and which has never become part of an effective system. In the abstract, and for conversational purposes, they admit claims which they would never be able to live up to in practice. Such a sense of duty as this may be regarded as largely fictitious. It may have a certain stimulating quality, but it may also cause great disappointment in the hour of need. The only reliable sense of duty is that which is based on the reasonable expectation of the power to perform. It is for this reason that the phrase THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 325 * relish of right and wrong ' is more useful as a description of the essential attitude of a man towards life than the more theoretical word ' duty ', which is so often used ambiguously if not hypo- critically. Before leaving the definition of influence it will be as well to explain a distinction which is often overlooked.. Some regard themselves as influen- tial because they can cause a certain number of easy-going people to act in some way contrary to their momentary inclinations. The common usage of the word supports their contention, but for the purposes of directive psychology it is necessary to make the meaning more specific. That alone is true influence, as the word is here used, which alters or enlarges the relish of right and wrong, and alters it without relying on physical force, fraud, or material reward. Now what has directive psychology to say about this influence ? It neither advocates its acquisi- tion nor regards it as undesirable. It simply recognizes it as an object of desire in some natures, and teaches what are the essential characteristics needed to obtain and maintain it. In a later section, that on psychological education, a few remarks wull be made upon how it may be used with advantage. The first essential for its acquisition is the persistence of certain emotional states, or perhaps it would be more accurate to say of a certain condition w^hich leads to effort. Influence is only gained by those who have a continuous belief that something is worth while. This belief both causes a readiness in its possessor to take trouble, and communicates itself from one person to another 326 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE by a sort of contagion. Strong belief is indeed recognized even in popular language as contagious. Desire that it should be accepted by others, and a sense of its value to whoever has it, are the basis of this communicability from one to another. This desire must be lasting, for if a person is in the habit of burning what he has formerly adored he gives the impression that any new object to which he attaches himself is likely to meet with the same fate, and so he gets no followers. The next essential is a certain lucidity of ideas, and some power of expressing them. However strong belief may be it cannot focus the attention of other people unless the thought that accompanies it is reason- ably clear. This .does not mean that it need be many-sided and include all points of view. Many of the most influential people owe their success to their narrowness, and also perhaps to their obscurity on certain points where the difficulties are too great for them to overcome. These difficulties they cover with a mist of words. But on the matters about which their belief is settled they have the power of expression : they can give an account of the faith that is in them. Often they have the power of speaking the ' burning word ' — that is, of elaborating phrases which, so to speak, burn themselves into the consciousness of those they address. They contrive to get such a grasp of the matter that they can state it in a way which renders it difficult to forget what they have said. They seem to know by instinct or intuition how to reach the innermost recesses of another mind. They do not talk in hackneyed generalities ; they find the particular phrase suitable to the special case. This gift is probably due to THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 327 what is known as ' emotional understanding ', which differs in many ways from pure intellectual understanding of ideas. It is based either on a simi- larity of experiences and desires, or on a quality of imagination which enables its possessor to look at a question as it presents itself to a consciousness with different experiences and desires. A know- ledge of how various types of personality are acted on by social pressures is derived from a mixture of emotional and intellectual understanding. It is of great practical importance, and the omission to take due account of it often negatives an influence which would otherwise be considerable. People are partly unaware of the effect of these social pressures in influencing thought and conduct, and even when they cannot deny the facts they are apt to try to explain them away. Any one who is an expert at making suggestions for resisting or eluding the various social pressures can get considerable influence in that way alone. The more abstract ratiocinative faculty is an appro- priate instrument for influencing those who have, or are in course of forming, a philosophic theory of life. Such people are few in number, but relatively of considerable importance, because they are in their turn Hkely to influence others. It is there- fore valuable to acquire the elements of practical dialectics, and to learn to apply them to the dis- cussion of these matters. This question of dialectics leads on to the last of the essentials of influence which will be men- tioned, and that is the organizing impulse. Just as some people are organizers of business or political parties, so others have the same tendency with regard to particular personalities with which 328 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE they come in contact. Those possessing this organizing faculty seem to have the power of recognizing in others that condition of flux and uncertainty which are the preliminaries to a new synthesis of the elements forming the personality. Causes, such as emotional shock, the ordinary pro- cesses of growth, alterations in health or material conditions of life, or new ideas which have a dis- integrating effect, break up the routine of all lives at one time or another, and bring about a state of unsettlement and unrest. The hitherto accepted basis of life and conduct is shaken to its founda- tions ; a new crystallization is taking its place. At such a moment as this a guide is sought for, and the born organizer accepts the responsibilities of that position. He becomes what is known among the Chinese as a ' reason talker '. He sketches new lines upon which the desired refor- mation or alteration can be effected. He plays the part of a statesman on a small scale, doing for an individual what an expert in the art of government does for a nation. He is a helper in the time of stress. He focusses the will upon new objects and overcomes difficulties. Those who have any scintilla of genius for work of this kind rarely remain long unoccupied, their services are in constant demand, and they have the satisfaction of accomplishing a most useful work. A study of directive psychology helps them to become efficient ; they get an understanding of the theory of the personality which enables them to avoid many errors. THE DIRECTION OP DESIRE 329 V. 3 GROUPS TEND TO CRYSTALLIZE AND BECOME SELF- CONSCIOUS WHEN A NUMBER OF INDIVIDUALS BECOME AWARE THAT THEY HAVE DESIRES WHICH CAN BE PROMOTED BY COMMON ACTION. WHOEVER ACTIVELY ASSISTS IN THE CRYSTALLIZA- TION OF A NEW GROUP TENDS TO GAIN INFLUENCE OVER IT. GROUPS HAVING AS THEIR MAIN OBJECT THE ALTERATION AND IMPROVEMENT OF HABITS AND CUSTOMS ARE THOSE WHICH HAVE THE MOST INTEREST FOR DIRECTIVE PSYCHOLOGY. Psychological influence over individuals was the subject of the last section. In the present section the same sort of influence over groups will be discussed, and more particularly in relation to the breaking up of unsuitable fashions and customs, and the replacing of them by new and better ones. This distinction needs some emphasis because many people are considered influential who really have, in the sense of the word as here used, no influence at all. They do not originate anything, nor do they alter anything. They float passively along on the stream, and they voice already existing sentiments. They are representatives of what is, they make no attempt to be organizers of what is to come. They have their uses, and nothing need be said against them, but they do not change group opinion, and it is the power to do this which is the matter of interest here. First of all, how do groups crystallize themselves out of incoherent masses of individuals ? That question must be answered as a preliminary to the discussion of the influence of individuals over M3 330 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE them. A group seems to be formed when many- people become conscious of a common desire or set of desires. Before they become aware that they all want the same end they remain without any coherence, and thought or action in common is impossible. They are without that knowledge oi each other's aims which is necessary before they can group themselves together. It is the formula- tion of the principles of endeavour which causes the group to crystallize. Though the effect of this formulation may be small at first it gradually exer- cises an attraction on all those who feel themselves in harmony with the main objects aimed at. Any one who has caused a group to crystallize and made its members conscious of their unity has a certain claim to influence it. It is in part his creation, and in the process of formulating its principles he has to some extent given a direction to its energies. The scattered units look to him as their head, and, having once received benefits from his initiative, accept his guidance. It is in relation to religious desires that the best instances of group formation are to be found, and the Wesleyan movement in particular followed the lines sketched above. There was a widespread longing for a deepening of religious life, and the preaching of John Wesley brought it to a focus : the coherence of the movement was due to his initiative, and to his death his rule was almost absolute. This, then, is a case where the same mind was the predominant influence in the production of the crystaUization and the guiding spirit of the group afterwards. There are instances, also, where a man has become the vitalizing principle of an organization already THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 331 in existence, but lethargic, inefficient, and inert. The best of such instances is perhaps that of Dr. Arnold of Rugby. This school, before he came to it, appears to have followed the educational routine usual at that time, but to have had no inspiring effect on those who passed through it, Arnold transformed it by his ideas and his organ- izing capacity, until it became a model for other schools, and produced a marked effect on the tone of EngUsh life. The essential point to be noted is that he made the whole machine respond to the impulse of his mind, and that he paid special attention to the improvement of customs and ideals. Probably there are always group organizations which have been called into existence to satisfy some need, but in which no inspiring influence is, for the time being, at work. Most men have not sumcient insight to recognize this, and if they had they would be incapable of supplying the inspira- tion, or even of showing any very marked initiative in carrying out comparatively commonplace re- forms. Those, however, who have either of these somewhat rare powers rapidly attain a dominating influence over any group with which they are associated. There is apparently a third class of group or organization which show no traces of any one dominating influence, but to whose guidance several of the leading members contribute almost equally. These are in their nature somewhat more vague and indefinite, more suited to the task of leavening pubHc opinion with a mixture of ideas than of carrying out any very closely defined poUcy in relation to practical affairs. The Fabian Society is a case in point. 332 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE It is in relation to religion, politics, or social reform in its more distinctly humanitarian aspects that group consciousness has hitherto become most definitely evolved. Leagues and associations with these objects are too numerous to need special mention. It is, however, those which more directly make for the alteration of customs, and for the organization of what Nietzsche has called the ' herd people ', which have the most interest for directive psychology. For the present purposes the ' herd people ' may be defined as those who have individually little or no power of self-direction, at any rate in any way which brings them into opposition with current public opinion. In order to face this they have to be made to feel that they do not stand alone, that they can rely on the support of others. The best instances of these custom-transforming organizations are those which have tried to deal with the temperance question, such, for instance, as the United Kingdom Alliance. These no doubt have produced a very marked effect in diminishing the drinking habits in all classes of the population, and they have been largely instrumental in altering the prevalent tone of public opinion with regard to the consump- tion of alcohol. This they have done partly by the force of the example of their members, and partly by supplying information in a convenient form. It seems probable that when the power of fashion and custom as factors in the life of the non-self-directive is more fully understood, and the importance of their right regulation is better appreciated, some of the attention and energy which is now directed to politics and legislation will be expended on their alteration and improvement. THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 333 General opinion seems to be only now becoming alive to the fact that fashions and customs ought to be consciously and definitely formed in accord- ance with the best sociological and psychological opinion obtainable. Much more study is given to early English Charters than to the formation and growth of modern English customs, although the practical effect of the latter is of much more vital importance. It seems that there is no great belief that fashions and customs can be directed, or very largely influenced, by criticisms or con- sidered opinions. Some lament the passing away of that to which they have become accustomed, and resent innovations. Few, if any, realize that information about and discussion of these innova- tions may be a specially useful form of social service. In the early history of law new legislation was regarded as something almost impious. Tradi- tional law, as handed down, was thought of as having a semi-divine origin. It was only very gradually that the idea took root that a regular yearly legislative output was a necessity for a civilized State, and that public discussion was neces- sary for its successful production. We seem now to be in a corresponding stage of thought with regard to fashion and custom. The first of these, it is true, is continually changing, but it is not the business of any particular person to concern himself with the direction of these changes, or even to record them as material for future inquiry. In the study of the growth of custom help may perhaps be derived from observation of the development of International Law, whicli seems to present some partial analogies. Both start from 334 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE unforeseen events which need some practical rule for their decision, and in both the principles are formulated by a comparison of these decisions. In both the principles are extended to cover cases which have not actually arisen, but rather by way of surmise and suggestion by experts than in any other way. In neither is there any supreme authority to which appeal can be made. Only force or a sense of general convenience carries any real weight. In both there are a large number of open questions to which no certain answer can be given. International Law has made an advance in the direction of arbitration on more or less defined principles, which has had no counterpart in the sphere of custom-formation, but it may be, in the future some association of sociologists, at first quite informally, may sit to discuss social customs, their desirability or otherwise, and their psychological effects on individuals. In such an event medical evidence could be adduced against certain of them : those in relation to the consump- tion of alcohol- as a semi-social duty would be a leading instance. Others would be condemned on psychological grounds as tending to produce undesirable conditions of the personality. Many would remain for a time doubtful until the weight of opinion decided the issue. There would be variations according to circumstances, correspond- ing to the different treatment accorded by Inter- national Law to the goods of private citizens of a State at war with another, according to whether they are on land or at sea. The whole subject opens up a field for speculation so vast that it cannot be dealt with here. It is a matter for surprise that, with all the societies and associations THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 335 which meet to discuss every variety of subject, this one has apparently never been made the direct study of any one of them. Customs relative to the association and relations of the sexes, to food, hospitality, games, sports, amusements, and such- like, are at present much more fully studied in the forms in which they are found amongst savages and primitive people than in their more complex developments amongst civilized men, and no serious attempt is being made to deduce principles as to the lines on which their evolution should be encouraged by public opinion. Every one who has the direction of the minds of the young is left to hazard the best guess that he can about all these matters, without the guidance which could be derived from reliable information thrown into systematized form. Even customs having an economic bearing, such as the employment of adolescents in occupations which in adult life render them fit for unskilled labour only, are but beginning to attract attention. It would indeed be but rational for a civiHzed State to have a duly elected body of men concerned with the discussion of customs, just as it has a legislature for purposes of law making. The breaking up of obsolescent customs when they have outlived their period of usefulness is perhaps even more important than the formation of new ones, though the two processes should properly go together. At present this breaking through of traditional restrictions which may have once been necessary, but are so no longer, is left to the individual initiative of those who are bold enough to take social risks. These have to suffer in the cause of social freedom, and to some extent this is una void- 336 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE able. When, however, it can be proved that their experiment has not resulted in harm to themselves or to others, the path they have followed should be thrown open to all who may wish to pursue it. At present the pioneer work has to be needlessly repeated. It seems that those who have made some study of directive psychology, and have any taste and inclination for attaining influence over groups, have many opportunities before them in the immediate future. They can watch for the awakening of that consciousness of desires by iso- lated individuals which is the condition precedent to group crystallization. They can study and try to understand the binding forces which will hold the group together, though these at present are somewhat obscure. They can learn how to initiate courses of conduct, how to inspire the group with their ideals, and how to focus the attention of the non-self-directive or herd people on the merits of the cause which they espouse. They can discover and point out the weaknesses in existing social opinion which, if judiciously played upon, will make new departures possible. By com- bining all this information into one coherent whole and applying it in practice they can become sources of an influence which may be very far- reaching. THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 337 V. 4 REGULAR AND SYSTEMATIC OBSERVATION ALONG THE LINES SUGGESTED BY A STUDY OP DIREC- TIVE PSYCHOLOGY GIVES MANY RESULTS WHICH, THOUGH PERHAPS WORTHLESS FOR SCIENTIFIC PURPOSES, ARE OF PRACTICAL UTILITY, BOTH IN JUDGING THE CAPACITIES OF INDIVIDUALS AND IN FORECASTING THE PROBABLE MOVEMENTS OF PUBLIC OPINION. Psychological ob?ervation in relation to every- day life has at present little claim to be ranked higher than a first-class hobby. If strictly scien- tific results are required, laboratory methods must be followed. What then are the advantages which may be derived by the ordinary person interested in directive psychology from systematic observation of all those points which have a bearing upon it ? First of all he will get a surer insight into individual character, because he will gradually learn what to look for, and be more able to find it readily and easily. He will render what was at first chaotic more orderly, and consequently more valuable. This will eventually result in increased interest in the human consciousness and its potentiaUties for self -direction. The com- parisons made between the workings of his own mind and those of others will increase his powers of objective introspection, and enable him to trace more clearly the relations of causes and effects. He will begin to understand why it is that other people suft'er from mental and moral discomforts which could easily be avoided, and he will learn how to avoid such misfortunes in his own case. 338 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE When his observations extend to more general movements of the human mind, as these may be seen in groups or nations, he will, to some extent, be able to forecast the tendencies which are likely to be operative in the near future. He will acquire impartiaUty and detachment of mind, and a clearer insight into realities. He will avoid prejudices and all violent partizanship. If he has philanthropic impulses he will be enabled to regulate them according to wisdom, and to bend his energies into the most useful directions. If his ambitions lead him to desire personal success, as, for instance, in business, he will be in a better position to attain it. He will get a knowledge both of subordinates and rivals which may be utiHzed in many different ways. More and more attention is now being given to what is called scientific advertising, and to all the various methods by which impressions can be produced upon minds which are primarily indif- ferent to the information or opinions to which it is desired that they should pay attention. Psycho- logical observation is the source from which ideas on these subjects spring to consciousness. They may be some time in evolving themselves in any highly finished form ; but the chances of their growth are greatly favoured by a minute and careful study of mental powers and processes. In ordinary social life the power of making rapid and fairly accurate inductions from a variety of small observations is much appreciated. Indeed, it will often be found that the average person, if asked to state his conception of a psychologist, will answer that he means by the word some one who can ' read character at a glance '. It need THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 33£ hardly be said that this idea is not a correct one, but it is an indication of the importance which is attached to the power, and of the high estimation in which it is held. What help can directive psychology give to one who is anxious to make systematic observa- tions ? It cannot make any very new or startling proposals, but it. may be able to suggest certain arrangements which will conduce to clearness of thought. It cannot make a naturally bad observer into a good one, but it may show how what is collected may be combined into a synthetic scheme, and so made more available for practical purposes. What then are the points which should be noted in the study of individuals ? The inclinations, emotions, passions — that is, the whole of the senti- ments — are the group of primary importance. They give the main bent of the personaUty. They should be studied both qualitatively and quan- titatively ; that is to say, their direction and their strength should both be noted. Frequently there is one master impulse which tends to dominate all the others and reduce them into subservience. When this can be detected it throws a clear light upon the whole personality, and from it general predictions can be made about the future with considerable accuracy. The inclinations as a whole show what line would be taken in the absence of counteracting pressures. The prevaihng emo- tions give indications with regard to the pleasure or pain that is likely to be experienced, according to whether circumstances are favourable or the reverse. If they are so violent as to amount to passions the dangers of violent shock can be fore- 340 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE seen and perhaps guarded against. It is essential to note whether these incUnations are being developed harmoniously, or are on the contrary mutually destructive or injurious. Next in importance comes the group of reactions which have to do with the ' will ', using the word in the sense of capacity for effort against unfavour- able surroundings or external difficulties of any sort, but especially those arising from other per- sonaHties. Evidence of aggressiveness, or the desire to dominate others, should be looked for and analysed. The attitude towards the self is of great importance, and it varies very much in different types. Some have an acute sense of the future, and are governed in all their thoughts and actions by considerations respecting the effect which they may produce on the development of their personality. Others are utterly careless, and take no thought for the morrow. As long as they are happy in the moment they are perfectly satisfied. These are deficient in the self -regarding sentiment, and this deficiency has dangers of its own, though it may also have disadvantages in certain cases. Then come the more intellectual thought pro- cesses including perception, memory, meditation, reflection, and creative imagination. Accuracy of perception and the power to reproduce impressions should first be tested, and they often give most interesting and indeed almost amazing results. Professor Munsterberg has described some very ingenious experiments along this line in his book Psychology and Crime, and from them it appears that the average number of mistakes made in the description of even the simplest scene are higher THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 341 than would be generally imagined. It is probable that some people who have no intent to deceive gain the reputation of being deliberate liars, because their minds are incapable of accurately reproducing facts or statements. Again, some people seem to be unable to apply their minds to any question, however urgently its solution may be required. There is some defect in their power of attention. When they think at all it is by a series of rapid intuitions, and these seem to be for practical purposes fortuitous and accidental. This does not mean that they are without any cause at all, but that the cause can never be ascertained with any certainty, and therefore their thoughts are not under any control. Sometimes they have brilliant inspirations, sometimes they seem entirely stupid ; consequently in many situations they are unreliable. Suggestibility is another quality of the mind which needs notice. It may aliect the percep- tions, the desires, or the whole consciousness. In extreme cases it may result in obsessions. It takes many forms, and people who are highly suggestible in one direction may be entirely unsug- gestible in another. The phenomenon known as negative suggestibiUty should also be looked for. This peculiarity of the mind leads to a tendency to contradict any statement that is put forward, to oppose any plan, to offer rather unsparing criticisms about matters involving personal taste or behaviour. The degree to which and the ways in which any individual is suggestible are of practical importance, because they give indications with regard to their reliability or unreliability in certain events. Those, for instance, on whom suggestions 342 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE work slowly but surely can be permanently in- fluenced ; those on whom they take a strong and immediate, but not a lasting hold, may be diverted from their purposes by the replacing of old suggestions by new. Finally, the aesthetic sense calls for some obser- vations, though it is not usually of the same practical importance as the other qualities that have been mentioned. It is frequently almost undeveloped, but in so far as it exists it makes for refinement. Upon it depends whether the indi- vidual has or has not what is known as ' good taste ' in relation to art, literature, or everyday social relations. With regard to this, as to all the other qualities, the important point for notice is rcither potentiality than actual and present attain- ment. It is both more valuable and more interest- ing to discover what a person may become than what he is at the moment. The formation and growth of public opinion is also an interesting subject for psychological obser- vation. What, then, is public opinion, and how does it come into existence ? No complete answer can at present be given to this question. The pre- liminary studies have not yet been undertaken. Even in political matters, where so much turns on it a correct forecast cannot be attained. The most experienced are wrong nearly as often as they are right. It seems to involve, first of all, the con- sciousness of desires, whether natural or artificially stimulated. Then it is necessary that the inhibi- tory or counteracting factors should be weakened, or made to seem less important. There must be some clear idea with regard to the methods by which an alteration of ei^isting conditions can be THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 343 brought about. Finally, there must be some detached approval of the proposed new state of things — that is, a sense that it would correspond with abstract justice as well as be a source of gratification to certain individuals. This analysis is avowedly only a tentative and provisional one. Some attempt must be made by all who desire to understand public opinion to find out the elements of which it is composed, and, however imperfect this attempt may be, it will perhaps at least cause those who read it to improve upon it for their own purposes. The most marked changes in public opinion within the last few years have perhaps been in relation to the rights and position of women, to the problems connected with poverty and sociaHsm, and to certain external religious observations, such as those with respect to Sunday and church- going. Can any analysis be made of the causes which have led to these changes ? They are no doubt m part material and economic, but they are also in part due to the growth of new standards of value, probably based both on the strengthening of certain desires and on the spread of certain speculative opinions. It is perhaps impossible at present to estimate the relative importance of these factors respectively, but the interaction of theoretical ideas with alterations in material circumstances due to the progress of science and invention is a most fascinating subject for inves- tigation. Those who are interested in directive psychology can at least study what may be called the susceptibility to ideas in those with whom they come in contact. They can observe how the suggestion of new possibilities is treated by certain 344 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE classes of society, and how proposals for new schemes are received. In this way the growth of desires and tastes can be traced and followed. A distinction can be made between those move- ments of opinion which seem unlikely to prevail beyond the limits of very narrow groups, and those which appear to have the potentialities of immense influence. Above all, transformations of ideas are of importance. SociaUsm, for instance, has changed almost out of recognition in the last fifty years : it has almost entirely altered the character of its appeal. Commencing as an economic theory, it has now become for very many a humanitarian ideal, and comparatively little stress is laid on its theoretical economics. The ' woman move- ment * is now mainly political : it is, however, quite possible that its deeper and more lasting effects will be in the sphere of sexual morals and customs. The indirect effects of changes in religious opinion have hardly been as much noticed as they deserve. There is more toleration of widely differing religious beliefs than there has ever been, and not merely the form of toleration which allows those of another form of faith to escape persecution, direct or indirect, but that which almost encourages the interchange of views, opinions, and aspirations. This seems to have two effects. The first is that beliefs are not now held with the same feeling of inner certitude which characterized them in times past, and the second is that, as the compensations of a future life become less attended to, the anxiety to make the present life more endurable becomes proportionately increased. The concentration of attention on ' other- worldliness ' was an inhibitory THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 345 factor of great strength in relation to many changes which might otherwise have been strongly desired, and as this concentration of interest tends now to disintegration new topics can force their way into the public mind to an extent which would formerly have been impossible. That is one of the more obvious instances of the way in which public opinion may be indirectly affected. V. 5 PSYCHOLOGICAL EDUCATION MERITS MORE ATTEN- TION THAN IT GETS. IT SHOULD INCLUDE DEFINITE TEACHING WITH REGARD TO THE EFFECT OF MENTAL STATES ON PHYSICAL HEALTH, THE RECOGNITION OF APTITUDES NECESSARY FOR ECONOMIC SUCCESS, THE PROPER USE OF LEISURE, THE PREPARATION FOR SELF-DIRECTION IN ADULT LIFE, THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE SYNTHETIC QUALITY IN THE PERSONALITY, THE ELIMINATION OF PREJUDICE, AND HABITUAL CONCENTRATION AS OPPOSED TO INDEFINITENESS OF MIND. To sketch the outlines of a proper system of psychological education is a matter of great difficulty. Anything which may be said on this heading is inevitably coloured by personal needs and desires. At the same time it is probable that unsuccessful and inadequate attempts at a solution of the problems are the necessary conditions of the evolution of complete and satisfactory theories in the future. As the whole subject of this book has been self-direction, which is to a large extent an educational process, all that can be done in this section is to try to draw together the scattered threads and bind them into a whole. Some 346 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE repetition of what has gone before is therefore unavoidable. Ahnost every one who looks back on his own education becomes aware that it was not calculated to give him the sort of training that he would have found most useful. He knows it was capable of improvement, but he would hardly be able to make any practical suggestions for its alteration. It is possible that if the whole question be looked at from a psychological point of view a certain freshness may be given to it which will not be without its advantages. Some of the ideas here set forth may appear fantastic, and perhaps even harmful, as leading to undue self-consciousness. The answer to this, as far as there is one, lies in the fact that full self-conscious- ness is attained sooner or later by the great majority of educated persons, and by many whose education does not go beyond the primary stage. It is better therefore that it should from the beginning be directed in those ways which seem to give the greatest promise of success. No criticism of existing systems is directly offered here, but suggestions are made with regard to some additions which might tend to give assistance where it is at present wanting. The first of these educational suggestions relates to the effect of mental states on physical health. Generally, a good deal of attention is paid to hygiene in the training of the young, who are encouraged, and even compelled, to take part in those open-air sports and games which are supposed to make them strong and vigorous. The mental side of the question, on the other hand, is frequently overlooked. The young are taught little or nothing about the way in which mental processes may THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 347 aSect their nervous system. If they are timid or worried, or liable to shocks of any kind, they receive no instruction in how to mitigate these evils. The prevalent idea seems to be that it is safest to ignore all such matters, that to call attention to them is a way of making them worse. There is some truth in this view, but it lies in the fact that no effective methods of conveying information have yet been elaborated, and that most of those which are used, being founded on sentimentalism of one sort or another, are clumsy and inefficient. The result of this educational defect is that a certain percentage of adolescents emerge from their period of education with more or less damage to their nervous systems. This has been caused partly perhaps by the direct over-pressure due to competitive examinations, but a good deal of it must be set down to the account of preventable worry — that is, to anxiety which could have been largely, if not wholly, removed, if the appropriate methods for calming the mind had been taught. The problem is how to attain that state of consciousness which is best fitted for the acquisition of knowledge without putting any unnecessary strain on the nervous system. The detailed principles on which this may be done are of course far beyond the scope of this book ; but it may be permissible all the same to point out that they merit more study than they ever get, and that the co-operation of those who are being subjected to the pressure of educa- tion is necessary for their proper understanding. The second suggestion relates to the education of what may be termed the economic faculties — that is, those which enable a person to be at least 348 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE self-supporting in adult life, and if possible some- thing more. This has been referred to in a previous section, so need not be dealt with at any length here. A large proportion of young people are educated in a way which would be very fitting for those who were going to have an assured income, but is unsuited to those who have to earn their own living. By this it is not meant that wrong subjects are taught, but that no teaching at all is given on the question of what careers are economically advisable. Just as good health is the first requisite for psychological development, so freedom from material worries is the second. This freedom can only be attained by the practical certainty that the means of living are secure, and they are only secure when the individual possesses some aptitude or skill which has an industrial or commercial value. The right kind of psychological education would therefore direct the mind towards the discovery of aptitudes which were economically valuable, and it would cause the predominant desires and tastes to be developed in accordance with the demand which happened to exist, or seemed likely to become prevalent in the near future. The third suggestion is that there should be a more definite instruction in the use of leisure. It is almost the official policy at some English schools to abolish leisure, using the word in the sense of time which the individual is perfectly free to spend in the way he pleases. It is considered better that every hour of the day should be occupied with either work or games. From the point of view of school life alone this plan has no doubt many advantages, but its efiect on after THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 349 life is apt to be disastrous. The reason is that the faculty of self-direction has never been acquired. The right rule would seem to be to give a gradually- increasing amount of leisure, to teach how it may be used to advantage, and to observe how it is actually used in each case. The fourth suggestion is that the basis should be laid for subsequent psychological self -training. This would probably take the form of elementary instruction with regard to the principal desires which go to make up the personality, and the various sorts and degrees of pleasure which may be expected from their gratification. Such instruc- tion would materially contribute to systematic and impartial self-examination, leading up to fairly complete self-knowledge. An explanation would be given of how certain qualities of desire end only internally in some variety of thought or feeling, whilst others led to definite action. A distinction would be drawn between the satisfaction derivable from a comparatively stable state of consciousness — for instance, some objective and impersonal aim involving regular effort — and that produced by the direct gratification of some instinctive impulse. There would of course be some difficulty in stating all these points with the clearness and simplicity which would be necessary for the purposes of the young, but it would not be greater than that of explaining the many complex subjects which are already taught. The fifth suggestion is that there should be a definite education of the power of synthesizing the aims. This, when developed, gives a unified coherence to them, and makes the parts of fife con- sistent with each other. In particular, it organizes 350 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE the future, and ensures that momentary impulses shall be duly subordinated to the dominant senti- ment. It enables the rational will to rise superior to mere casual inclinations. It arouses the inhibitory factors at the right moment, and so gives self-control. This is perhaps at present taught as a moral principle and some phases of school life, such as organized games, are calculated to call it into existence. What is here advocated is that its purely psychological advantages should be definitely taught, and that the direct motive of self-interest should be made to play its proper part in relation to it. It is likely to be much stronger and more effective when propounded as a definite idea worthy of being followed up in practice, and when concrete illustrations of its advantages are given. The sixth suggestion is that more attention should be paid to the elimination of the sources of prejudice. Particular instances of prejudice are of course often due to definite experiences, and these cannot always be avoided. But some minds, when uncorrected, seem to function habitually by reliance on one prejudice after another, and never to attain to impartial and objective judg- ment on any question. Probably the reason of this is that too much reliance is placed on authority, and it is used too frequently in the settlement of points which should be left to free and open discussion. The result is that a habit of mind is formed of deciding by a species of immediate intuition, a sort of unconscious appeal to precedent, without sufficient detailed examination of facts. The consequences of this in after life, when new and complex situations have to be faced, are often THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 351 disastrous. The faculty of judgment has never been stimulated whilst the mind remained plastic, and cannot afterwards be relied on in the time of need. The seventh and last general suggestion is that more attention should be paid to concentration of mind — that is, to the power of directing the stream of consciousness according to the requirements of the rational will. Concentration on definite tasks is of course very fully insisted upon, and this is most useful. Indeed, the power that it gives is the chief benefit which is derived from modern education. But apart from definite tasks very little is taught about the important question of how to focus the attention on the solution of particular difiiculties which may happen to require an answer. The result is that indefiniteness of mind becomes habitual. The emotions and feel- ings being the strongest forces in the personality during youth impose themselves on the stream of consciousness, and in passionate natures the personality is overbalanced thereby. From this overbalancing come those emotional troubles which wreck the happiness of many lives. They could be avoided if sufficient attention were paid in youth to the general direction of thought. The above suggestions appear to be useful for the psychological education of nearly all young people of either sex. In addition to them a few may be mentioned more shortly which are only needed in special cases. The first of these is a cultivation of the creative imagination where its latent possibilities are observed. In certain direc- tions there are of course ample facilities ; of these the various art schools are instances. But the rarer and less commonplace forms of the creative 352 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE imagination probably go unnoticed, and conse- quently do not receive the degree of encouragement of which their social utiHty makes them worthy. We have not at present any system of catching and training the more unusual forms of capacity for certain work requiring originality of thought. The special training required by those who have a romantic type of imagination has already been referred to. They need a special kind of inspiration and direction if their particular qualities are to be made the best use of either for themselves or for others. They need to be trained in the romance of practical life, and perhaps to have the possi- bihties of the adventurous life, as it can be lived to-day on the boundaries of the Empire, brought home to them. If this is not done they may devote their thoughts too exclusively to the past, and regard the present as something hopelessly dull and commercial. Finally, that condition of mind which has been called ' the malady of the ideal ' remains to be noticed. It usually takes the form of undue dissatisfaction with Hfe as it is and people as they are ordinarily met with. Comparisons are con- tinually being instituted between an imaginary world, made in conformity with the wishes and preconceptions of the individual, and the actual reaUties. The result may be pessimistic and misanthropical tendencies. The remedy for this, as far as there is one, lies in focussing the attention on the consideration of practical remedies for the evils complained of, and the exclusion from the consciousness of vain regrets for what cannot be immediately altered for the better. It will be apparent that the consideration of THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 353 distinctively moral education has been designedly omitted from this section. It receives very full attention from moralists who make it their special care, and very great weight is attached to it in current practice. Even were matters not in this fortunate condition, this would not be the proper place to deal with moral education. Directive psychology may supply a basis for morality, just as it may supply one for practical success, but it has no claim to lay down what moral principles should be taught or followed. V. 6 DIRECTIVE PSYCHOLOGY IS USEFUL MAINLY TO THOSE IN WHOM THE SELF-REGARDING SENTIMENT IS WELL DEVELOPED, WHO MAKE THE CULTIVATION OP THEIR PERSONALITY THEIR CHIEF CONCERN, AND WHO ARE CONVINCED THAT THEY CAN MOULD THEIR INCLINATIONS SO AS TO INCREASE THEIR OWN HAPPINESS AND THAT OF THOSE WITH WHOM THEY COME IN CONTACT. Now that an outline has been given of the aims and methods of directive psychology, how should it be regarded in relation to practical conduct ? In this concluding section it may be useful to say something about the special types of personality to whom it will be most useful and the circum- stances under which they may expect to derive benefit from it. Life may be regarded from one of three main points of view. The first is that it is intended to be dedicated to some end which transcends the personality, such ends as the advancement of art, of science, of national well-being. To the chosen BLIGH ;(^ 354 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE end it is conceived that the interests of the individual must be subordinated. The second is that the development and cultivation of the personality itself is the supreme object of life in so far as this can be done without causing injury to others. In the more religious types this takes the form of anxiety for the salvation of the individual soul. The third is perhaps not so much a conscious theory as an habitual line of conduct carried out unthinkingly, because neither of the others has been definitely adopted. It consists of following what- ever inclinations happen to be uppermost in the mind at any given time, without making any serious attempt to ascertain their relative impor- tance with regard to the personality as a whole, and to arrange and subordinate them accordingly. This last is a state of chaotic anarchy, which may sometimes result in pleasure, but very rarely in any sort of growth and progress. Observers will differ as to the proportions in which those with whom they are acquainted should be divided among these three classes. They will have doubts about how some individuals should be classified, even when the course of their lives is fairly well known. Few are always consistent. At their best they may be in one class, at their worst in another. All sorts of illusions and mistakes have to be considered and allowed for. It must also be remembered that only a small proportion are free to exercise a wide choice in the arrangement of the whole of their own lives. Generally the necessity of earning a living leaves only a comparatively small proportion of time within the entire control of the individual himself. With these qualifica- tions the general classification set out above may THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 355 have some utility for the purpose of explaining the position which directive psychology may claim with regard to the practical conduct of life. Those who have already dedicated their per- sonality to the service of some great impersonal end can have but little use for directive psychology. It may give them some information which will enable them to fit themselves to perform their self- imposed task more efficiently. It may assist their progress and suggest methods for the elimination of some of their difficulties. It may aid them in gaining concentration, or in mastering certain undesirable tendencies. But it would never be the rule of their life, even if it were elaborated to a degree of perfection far beyond what it is at present. As they would be ready to sacrifice their personality to their ideal aim, those principles of directive psychology which are calculated to build up the personality as an end in itself would, of necessity never be recognized as binding on them. Directive psychology will always appeal most strongly to those who make the higher interests of the personality their chief care — that is, to the second class above mentioned. They will un- doubtedly see in it an instrument fashioned to their special purposes. Perhaps in its present im- perfect form they may be cautious in adopting its suggestions ; they may be inclined to wait until its conclusions are more firmly founded. But many of them will give to it their impartial con- sideration, and test it by personal experiment. They will perhaps arrive, as is only natural, at widely differing results ; but as they compare experiences they will gradually gain a sense of 356 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE security with regard to essentials. All this will not come without some struggle and controversy, but certain empirical principles of general utility will at length emerge. Assuming then that those whoSe predominant object in life is the cultivation of the higher interests of their personality will be the first to concern themselves with directive psychology, what are likely to be their personal tastes and characteristics ? They will tend to have a some- what unusual development of the self-regarding sentiment — in other words, they will be preoccupied with their own future and the processes of their own growth. They will have a good deal of energy of the sort which will enable them to take trouble over somewhat uninteresting details. But, above all, they must have the conviction that, for those at any rate in whom the self -regarding sentiment is highly developed, the greatest chances both of being happy and becoming socially valuable lie in building up new systems of tendencies, impulses, and inclinations by means of the reasoned judgment. This may be called, for purposes of illustration only, the dynamic view as opposed to the static view. It emphasizes the opinion that we may become something different from what we are if we take the necessary trouble to bring ideas into relation with desires, and make a proper use of the imagination. At the present moment this can hardly be demon- strated scientifically — it remains an article of faith or of personal conviction resting on imperfect evidence. It is perhaps not true of every one, but many will be satisfied from iimer experience that it is at least true with regard to themselves. This theory or conviction carries with it many THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 357 practical consequences. It gives new hopes, it creates new interests, it involves the formation of new habits and modes of thought. More especially is this the case with regard to social intercourse. In the minds of those preoccupied with the cultivation of their personality the idea of using social intercourse for purposes of ' edification ' tends to be revived. Importance was originally given to it by religious people, and edification in a religious sense, or the promotion of personal piety, was the object chiefly aimed at. Wherever interest in matters of religion grew weaker, the contrary notion, that the main end of social inter- course was amusement and recreation, became fashionable, and no doubt this reaction was valu- able as adding to the joy of living and abolishing an undue and often hypocritical seriousness. But within proper limits the edification idea merits attention, especially when modified to suit altered circumstances, and amongst those who have a mutual taste for it. What then is psychological edification ? It mainly consists of the interchange of experiences with a view to the solution of difficulties, and to the elaboration of principles upon which conduct ought to be based. The objection to it is that many people are disinclined to talk about themselves, and are apt to resent any questions as an imper- tinent intrusion into their private affairs. The willingness, which is found in such rare spirits as Montaigne, to expose their feelings and inner thoughts is very unusual. The opinion seems to prevail that this process involves some loss of dignity, exposes those who adopt it to the impu- tation of undue egotism, and is even accompanied 358 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE by some risk of falling into the power of those to whom the revelations are made. It is probable that most of these objections are illusory, but they have to be faced as facts because they undoubtedly exist. The searcher after psychological experiences is bound therefore to proceed with great caution if he is anxious to avoid giving offence. He must seek diligently to discover those who realize the advantages of an interchange of views, and who are not hindered by a too strong sense of self- consciousness. Such people can be found, and then comes the question of dialectics, which are neces- sary for the transformation of the wide material of experience into available form for the elimination of errors and illusions, and for the testing of sin- cerity. It need hardly be said that a great deal of tact is necessary in this relation. The main point is that an abstract turn should invariably be given to the discussion, and that all details which might involve any injury to those engaged in the conversation or to outsiders should be omitted. For all the information thus gained directive psychology supplies a systematic arrangement. It enables the material that is collected to be sifted and unified. Individual experiences thus lead up to provisional principles. The key of the system is the discovery of those incUnations which bring a blessing with them. This may perhaps seem a somewhat vague phrase, but it is necessary to find an expression wide enough to cover the benefit both to the person cultivating his inclination and to those with whom he is in social contact. There is no invariable rule by which the incHnations THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE 359 which have an ultimately beneficial effect can be in every case distinguished from the others. Each personality is to some extent a law unto itself. But directive psychology can at least point to the distinction and show that in the average case the sense of happiness derived from satisfying some inclinations becomes greater as they become stronger, and is accompanied by an increase of social advantage. The third class mentioned at the beginning of this section — chaotic and wholly unorganized per- sonalities driven by their momentary desires — remain to be dealt with. Can directive psychology do anything for them ? It can probably do a little to make the better members of this class more co- herent and reasonable. It can help some of them to mould their lives into a more hopeful shape. It can teach them to inhibit some of their more distinctly injurious impulses. The lower of them will always be ' herd people ', and these can only be helped indirectly. They must inevit- ably rely on the charitable assistance and the disinterested kindness of those who are their mental and moral superiors. They will always be the objects of good works. They cannot claim the status of autonomous moral beings. Directive psychology will be of use in teaching those who rule their lives and guide their evanescent wishes to exercise influence with wisdom, patience, and consideration. These then are the reasons, stated as shortly as possible, why directive psychology will some day be able to claim some share of attention in a busy world. Those that give their time and thought to it at present are only pioneers and explorers, 360 THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE who cannot avoid making many mistakes. They must ask the indulgence which is due to those opening up a sphere of operations hitherto scarcely touched. But they can work with the hope that some day their efforts will prove useful, and they can cheer themselves on with the words of Stevenson : ' To travel hopefully is a better thing than to arrive, and the true reward is to labour.' BY THE SAME AUTHOR Pott 8i;o, pp. xii + S2^, on thin opaque papei\ hound in limp cloth, gilt top, 2.9. net (70 c.) .mltan-red leather, limp, gilt top, Qs. net ($1 . 00) THE DESIRE FOR QUALITIES BY STANLEY M. BLIGH AUTHOR OF 'THE DIRECTION OF DESIRE ' AND * THE ABILITY TO CONVERSE ' ' Mr. Bligh wrote a very thoughtful little book called " The Direction of Desire", showing how psychology could be turned to a practical use in altering the tone of con- sciousness. He carries on the subject now into the question of the valuation of the qualities of personality, a subject which he treats with sense and with a knowledge of the thought of others.'— TAe Th HUMPHREY MILFORD OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS LONDON EDINBURGH GLASGOW NEW YORK TORONTO MELBOURNE BOMBAY FROM THE PREFACE For the purposes of this book I will assume the validity of the provisional conclusions arrived at in TJie Direction of Desire. On that basis I have now dealt with The Desire for Qualities, or the methods of estimating^ valuing, and appreciating the qualities of personality possible in a civilized community. It may seem to some readers that the arguments are too often interrupted by the illustrative instances which are given. My reason for putting in so many is that critics of The Direction of Desire complained of their scarcity in that book, and said that there was a difficulty in grasping general propositions apart from particular cases. It may be that I have now erred in the direction of referring too often to recent movements of opinion to illustrate the ideas I have put forward. I was also told that in The Direction of Desire I showed too much hesitation in stating my own views, and too frequently suggested doubts about them. This was due to my anxiety to avoid any appearance of dogma- tism. I am just as anxious to avoid it now, but as too many qualifications weaken the force of arguments, I have abstained from stating them. I hope, therefore, that whenever phrases occur which seem to have the air of absolute pronouncements the reader will re- member that I make no claim to finality, and that I always intend to speak under correction. Too much balancing of opinion seems to give an impression of uncertainty, so I have sometimes stated my views rather positively. At tlie same time I am aware that I am only too likely to he mistaken, and I shall always be very grateful to those who, having better or fuller information, will be at the trouble of putting me right. Specimen page of Text] SELF-RESPECT 203 more fully by some accident or misfortune outside Lis own control, then it is difficult to conceive that such a man can possibly retain his self-respect, using the word in the sense that has been given. Utterly wrong and mistaken estimates of this ratio or proportion are of course common, and upon them the self-respect of many persons is founded. But when it is clearly shown to these people that they are a drag and a hindrance, that they reap where they have not sown, that they are useless parasites, then their self-respect ceases, and they have to comfort themselves and still their con- science by some other reflection — or else to reform their hves. Their conscience has been touched, and unless they deaden it in some way, they must either suSer or mend their ways. This idea of proportionate repayment of benefits, though useful as estabhshing some sort of a general principle, still remains somewhat vague and nebu- lous. All that can be said for it is that a better one is difficult to find. Time and further discus- sion will do something to clear the matter up. The discussion at any rate is not at present wanting : it goes on nearly everywhere, and concerns not only individuals but entire classes. It is one of the most remarkable signs of the times. Those known as the ' idle rich ' are usually the crucial instance in the argument. Needless to say not all rich people are idle, but unquestionably some of them are just as idle as ever they can be. In the opinion of many, they cannot retain their self- respect, because they put forth no useful effort. According to others it is just by being idle that they perform a social function. These latter prac- tically assert that serious effort is an evil to be THE DESIRE FOR QUALITIES SOME PKESS OPINIONS Evening Standard : — ' Last year a good deal of talk was heard at the dinner tables of the intelligent on the subject of an amazingly practical and interesting, though modest looking and modestly written, little book on directive psychology, called T//«Direc^/o?2- o/Dmre. . . . Mr. Bligh in his first book indicated, to put it roughly, how we may make ourselves wish for the right qualities ; and in his second, how we may get them. His style is particularly lucid. The reader finds himself led on from page to page. . . . The whole thing repays not one, but many, readings, and its price brings it within the reach ofaU.' The Athenceum: — 'The treatment is most happy and illuminating. A thoughtful study of the modern man's spiritual needs and spiritual temptations in all their concrete diversity, the book, unpretentious as it is, deseives the attention of educated men. The style is admirably lucid throughout.' Hearth and Home :— ' Mr. Bligh has a particularly happy and lucid style, great clearness of thought, and a way of interesting you in his subject to the verge of enthusiasm.' 'Che Scotsman : — ' An extremely able little volume. It is bioadly philosophic, with many luminous generalizations on the analysis and valuation of states of mind having desire for their stimulus. The little work is a notable contribution to f cychology and the foundations of ethics.' BY THE SAME AUTHOR Pott Srn, pp. ATI-}- 323, on thin opfupic paper, hound in limp cloth, gilt top, 2.v. net (JO c), and in sultan-red leather, limp, gilt top, 3*. fiet ($1 . 00) THE ABILITY TO CONVERSE BY STANLEY M. BLIGH author of * the eirection of desire ' j. 'the desire for qualities' HUMPHREY xMILFORD OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS LONDON EDINBURGH GLASGOW NEW YORK TORONTO MELBOURNE BOMBAY FROM THE PREFACE The assumptions on which this book is based are that conversation is a means of culture which was in former times more highly valued than it is now, that it has recently been allowed to fall into neglect and disuse, and that it should be restored to its former high estate. Signs are not wanting that these assumptions are being gradually recognized and that many people are prepared to welcome an attempt, even though it be imperfect, to improve the general tone and standard of conversation and public discussion. Now in making this attempt I have been led first to elaborate what I have called ' the theory of planes'. Whether that theory will justify itself by results and find acceptance with those interested in the question remains to be seen. This at least can be claimed for it, that it divides the whole subject into separate departments and so perhaps makes it more manageable. At the same time, the divisions render it easier to discover and develop special gifts and potentialities. I have treated each of the different planes as shortly FROM THE PREFACE a* possible even at the risk of leaving out much that may be thought necessary for their adequate consideration. My aim has been rather to offer a few suggestions which each person can adapt or enlarge to suit his own })urposes than to give directions which could be followed in detail. CONTENTS CHAP. I The Theory of Planes II The Axecdotal Plane III The Personal Plane . IV The Scientific Plane V The Political Plane . VI The Aesthetic Plane VII The Ethical Plane . VIII The Spiritual Plane . IX Emotional Conditions X The Social Environment XI The Exertion of Influence XII The Importance of Listening XIII Conversational Associates XIV The Young and Inexperienced page 1 31 45 63 79 97 110 124 136 172 204 233 263 295 THE ABILITY TO CONVERSE SOME PRESS OPINIONS A th f nmim :—* Admirably lucid and thoughtful. . . . The book is small enough to fit into a pocket with ease, but full of suggestive hints. The author shows a wide range of illustration, from Socrates and Bacon to Dickens and M. Bergson's "Views on Laughter". Some of his points are disputable, but his good sense throughout is conspicuous. ' Boston Transcript : — ' Those who will digest and practise the principles laid down in this little book will not only be better talkers but better thinkers.' Cambridge Revieio : — ' One rises from reading The Ahility to Converse in the frame of mind, but not with the same pleasure, as one rose from The Egoist. Mr. Bligh sees right through you, and in The Ahility to Con- verse you have, well, an epitome of human life. . . . Plverybody ought to try to read Mr. Bligh. He is a social necessity.' Christian Commonwealth: — 'The book is fresh, and will help those who study it to make better speeches and preach more eifective sermons.' Baily News and Leader . — ' Any one who cherishes the ambition to become a professional talker will find this little work most instructive.' Journal of Education (Boston) : — ' Such a little treatise is an immense help ; its reading would forestall a great deal of talking which is uninteresting not for want of purpose but because the technique of the art is not appre- ciated.' Scotsman: — 'Mr. BHgh states, elaborates, and eluci- dates with the precision of the trained logician and the breadth of view of the thinker who sees all round a subject. These mental characteristics are admirably displayed in his latest book.' LIBRARY FACILITY B 000 017 469 8 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY Los Alleles Thb book is DUE on the last date stamped below. MAR 1 2 1993 41585 University Of California - Los Angeles L 006 877 613 7