O O* CAlONIA THE UNIVERSITY SANTA BARBARA UNIVfSSTY o c Of CAllFONIA SANTA iO A8VMI1 3M1 VIN8C1 1VJ) THE HMIVESITY C ClONIA c SANTA BARBARA tO ABY88I1 ihti O' CAllOSNIA o/3epb<: KV/JIOS, and implies on the part of him who uses it a more entire prostration of self before the might and majesty of God than Ktptos would have done." The fact cannot be questioned that Clement shows a decided preference for SevwoTrp over Kvpios as a name for God, and applies the latter to him sparingly. The significance of this use permits of more than one interpretation. In his desire to avoid confusion and keep the distinction clear between Christ and God, he may have chosen for God the term WH-OTT/S with the feeling that something of the old dignity still clung to the word, and he wished to express by it his sense of the higher exaltation of God. Or the use may signify nothing more than the desire to avoid confusion. But the whole attitude of Clement toward the unique majesty of God lends support to the view that he sought to indicate this majesty in some measure by the use of the word GOD THE FATHER SUPREME AND THE CENTER OF INTEREST 5 (2) The author assigns to Christ a unique relation to God by the titles which he gives to him, and the ascriptions which he makes to him. a) The power of Christ. His conception of the power of Christ is indicated by the titles "Lord," "Son," "High Priest," "Savior," "Helper," and "Patron." The dignity conveyed by these titles cannot be determined from the words themselves, but must be learned from the force which the author gives them. Christ has power and authority over the spiritual life of believers. He calls them, protects them, sancti- fies them; he is their high priest, savior, helper; they are, his elect, his flock; and they must obey him. This spiritual work exhausts the work that is denoted by any of his titles. He is Lord, but only over the spiritual life of believers. He is the Son seated at the right hand of God. The author uses " son " not to denote moral likeness on the ground of which he may be called son. Rather by this term he means akin to God in nature; he is using "son" in the metaphysical sense. The ascription to him of a place at the right hand of God denotes his parti- cipation in the administration with God, his Father. But when we seek the nature and extent of his administration, the answer is clear: he deals with the spiritual life of believers. In 36: 2, he declares Christ is "the reflection of the majesty of God." Here Clement is following Heb. 1:3. But he has confused the meaning somewhat by substituting /tcyaAuxrwjTs for 8067$. The passage in Hebrews declares that Christ is the reflection of the absolute perfection of the Deity. Clement, by the word which he uses, calls attention to the governing power of the Deity. But Clement has made a mistake in his use of the word, for the idea which he wishes to express, as the context shows, is the moral per- fection of God as reflected in Christ. In 16:2, by the use of the phrase "the scepter of his majesty," he calls attention to the governing power of God. The scepter is the symbol of power. The application of the figure to Christ signifies that royal majesty has been transferred to him. The majesty of God is represented in him. 1 But in what field, and to what extent, does he represent the imperial majesty? His work is limited to the spiritual life of believers. This limitation of the power of Christ is made still more sharp by the consideration of two negative aspects of his work. He is not said to have dominion over all men, or over the whole life of believers. Universality of dominion is assigned to God alone, and he alone creates and preserves men. This leads to the 1 Dorner, Doctrine of the Person of Christ, Div. I, Vol. I, p. 101. 6 THE CHRISTOLOGY IN THE APOSTOLIC FATHERS second negative aspect of Christ's work. No cosmological function is assigned to him. And the failure to assign such a function to Christ is not because Clement omits this subject. He has much to say of pre- servation and creation, but God is alone in this work. See 19:2: "the Father and maker of the whole world"; 26:1: "the Creator of the universe"; 27:4: "by the word of his majesty He compacted the universe." Many other passages might be cited. From three passages attempts have been made to identify Christ as the agent of God in creation. The passage quoted above (27:4) is thus interpreted by Dorner. 1 He says that the "word of his majesty" is the pre-existent Christ. He gives as the reason of this identification that Clement frequently applies /AeyoAowui; to Christ; that he was familiar with Paul's cosmological teaching and also with the teaching of the author to the Hebrews. As a matter of fact, Clement uses the word only eight times, and in five of these instances it refers without the possibility of a doubt to God. This leaves only two instances in which the word is used in reference to Christ, outside of the passage under discussion. Clement's usage, therefore, affords no presumption in favor of the application of the term to Christ, but rather the contrary. It can be so applied, but only on the basis of an argument from the context. The connection, however, in which the phrase occurs, "by the word of his majesty," gives no hint that it means Christ, and such an interpre- tation is in conflict with the whole letter of Clement, which assigns crea- tion to God. W. Scherer also attempts to make Christ the creator. 8 In 59'3 Scherer identifies "Lord" with Christ in the prayer: "Grant unto us Lord." Lightfoot brackets these words in this place, and Gebhardt, Harnack, and Zahn omit them altogether. But even if they are retained, they would clearly refer to God as the primal source of all creation, and add but one more to the small number of passages in which he calls God Kupios. In the immediately preceding context God the creator is expressly distinguished from "his beloved son Jesus Christ." And immediately following, the primal source of creation is called God "who alone art the benefactor of spirits and the God of all flesh." Our author, moreover, in no other place calls Christ 0'os. In 2:1, Clement says: "And ye were all lowly in mind and free from arrogance, yielding rather than claiming submission, more glad to give than to receive, and content with the provisions which Christ supplieth. And giving heed unto his words, ye laid them up diligently in your 1 Doctrine of the Person of Christ, pp. 356, 357. 1 Scherer, Der erste Clemensbrief an die Corinther, S. 159-61. GOD THE FATHER SUPREME AND THE CENTER OF INTEREST f hearts, and his sufferings were before your eyes." Here Scherer identifies Christ with God, and then reasons that Christ is the creator of all things, "and consequently uncreated and therefore God." While the reading here is in dispute, Gebhardt, Harnack, and Zahn read TOV Xpurrov, the reading for which Scherer contends. But in vs. 3 the subject changes to "Almighty God" as the object of the Christians' prayer, and there is little justification for thinking that Clement intends to apply 0<>s to Christ. The two persons are constantly kept clearly distinct. b) The pre-existence of Christ. The author shows his belief in Christ's pre-existence in three different ways. In 16:2 his declaration involves pre-existence. He says: "The scepter of the majesty of God, even the Lord Jesus Christ, came not in the pomp or arrogance of pride, though he might have done so." He declares that Christ spoke parts of the Old Testament through the Holy Spirit. In 22:1, he says: "Now all these things the faith which is in Christ confirmeth; for he himself through the Holy Spirit inviteth us." Then he follows this statement with a quotation from the Septuagint of Ps. 53:1-12. In the passage from Isaiah concerning the suffering servant (53:1-12), he represents Christ himself as speaking a part of this chapter. In 15:16, he says: "And again he himself says." He identifies Christ with this speaker. c) The holiness of Christ. In 23:5, he identifies Christ with the "Holy One." In two instances the work of Christ suggests the infer- ence that he is holy, if it does not positively involve such an inference, as Scherer maintains. 1 In chap. 36, men look up to heaven and taste immortal knowledge through fixing the eyes upon Jesus. By calling Christ (36:2) "the reflection of the majesty of God," and from the connection of this passage with Heb. 1:3, he presents Christ as the one who reveals the perfection of the Deity. In 7:4, Christ wins for the whole world the grace of repentance. Whatever interpretation may be put upon this passage, he who takes away sin, either by bearing the penalty of sin or by his marvelous exhibition of love in death winning men away from sin, must himself be a holy being. d) The knowledge of Christ. The author gives no reliable hint of his thought about Christ's knowledge. Whatever opinion he may have held regarding the omniscience of Christ, he has not made it known to us. Violence is done to the simple statement of the writer if one attempts to construe 4:41 into a declaration of the omniscience of Christ. Here he says: "And our apostles knew through our Lord Jesus Christ that there would be strife over the name of the bishop's office." From this 1 Der erste Clcmensbrief an die Corinthcr, S. 181. 8 THE CHRISTOLOGY IN THE APOSTOLIC FATHERS statement Scherer concludes that in Christ lay concealed all the treasures of science and of wisdom, and that before his eyes the veil of the future was lifted.' But such a statement implies no more knowledge than in the case of the apostle Paul when he tells the Ephesian elders that they may expect trouble in the church. In Acts 20:29, he says: "I know that after my departing grievous wolves shall enter in among you, not sparing the flock." Such a statement rests upon an understanding of the situation, and implies only human foresight. Nothing more than this can be gained from Clement's statement regarding the knowledge of Christ. In 23:5, he barely refers to a day of judgment. Here Christ is the ' 'Holy One," who will suddenly come to his temple. (3) The conjoining of Christ with God The author conjoins Christ with God in such a way that he shows the exaltation of Christ. Most important are two trinitarian passages. We read in 46 : 6: " Have we not one God, and one Christ, and one spirit of grace that was shed upon us ?" Still more significant is 58 : 2 : "For as God liveth, and the Lord Jesus Christ liveth, and the Holy Spirit, who are the faith and hope of the elect." Dorner and Scherer have called attention to the fact that this statement is the form of the oath employed in the Old Testament (Deut. 6:13), "as God liveth." Lightfoot also points out the similarity of this statement to the baptismal formula in Matt. 28:3. It has been contended that great significance belongs to the fact that these three names are joined together in the form of the oath. However, the names of men were joined with God in the form of an oath, as in I Sam. 25 :36: "Now therefore, my lord, as Jehovah liveth, and as thy soul liveth"; also the same form is seen in II Sam. 15:21: "As Jehovah liveth, and as my lord the king liveth." Still further it is maintained that it is significant that three persons are made conjointly the foundation of the faith and hope of the elect. From this Scherer concludes (p. 146): "It is the essential Deity which the author assigns to the persons." Dorner also maintains that the work of salvation involves Deity even more clearly than the work of creation. 8 In fact, however, what Clement ascribes to Christ in union with the Father and Spirit is not deity, but only the work which he has already ascribed to Christ alone in other places, that is, the work of salvation. The new element here is that the three are put together on an equality so far as this work is concerned. By virtue of this implied equality in the work 1 Der ersle Clemensbrief an die Corinthcr, S. 168. 1 Dorner, op. cit., I, zoo. GOD THE FATHER SUPREME AND THE CENTER OF INTEREST 9 of salvation, the language certainly conveys an exalted conception of Christ. In two instances the same doxology is used in respect to Christ which in other places is used of God. In 20:12, he says: "Our Lord Jesus Christ, to whom be the glory and the majesty forever and ever." And in 59:7 glory is ascribed to Christ. Outside of these doxologies, Clement has declared that majesty and glory belong to Christ without implying his deity. To throw this declaration into the form of a doxol- ogy does not essentially change the meaning. Clement undoubtedly holds a very exalted conception of Jesus. (4) The subordination of Christ to God This subordination appears when Christ takes the position of God's agent. The whole of Christ's work is done as the agent of God. God gives grace and peace through Christ; he shows mercy through Christ. He calls and instructs men through Christ. In the agent, Clement does not lose sight of God back of the agent. Christ works not only in har- mony with the will of God, but in obedience to it. God sent Christ as Christ sent the apostles. Christ is governed in his work by the will of God. However, there is no suggestion of force in the rule of God over Christ. By love and compassion, Christ was moved to his work of salvation. 1 In his resurrection is seen Christ's subordination to God. In 24:1, it is said: " whereof he made the Lord Jesus Christ the first fruit, when he raised him from the dead." The author shows a distinctly different attitude toward God from that which he takes toward Christ in many particulars. He emphasizes repeatedly the supremacy of God. He is almighty, omniscient, all- holy; he created and preserves all things; men offer prayer to him; men worship God; and they must fear him. The resurrection offers an oppor- tunity for Clement to enlarge upon the power of God as seen in nature. He says in 24: 5: "The sower goeth forth and casteth into the earth each of the seeds; and these falling into the earth dry and bare decay; then out of their decay the mightiness of the Master's [TOT) WTTOTOU] provi- dence raiseth them up, and from being one they increase manifold and bear fruit." And again in 26: i, he says: "Do we think it to be a great and marvellous thing, if the creator of the universe shall bring about the resurrection of them that have served him?" Omnipotence is ascribed so repeatedly to God alone that the writer makes a wide separa- 'Int. 32:4; 42:12; 49:6. 10 THE CHRISTOLOGY IN THE APOSTOLIC FATHERS tion between God and all other beings. All the universe is under sub- jection to God. Nature renews itself in obedience to his laws; and the breath of men is from Almighty God. Christ forms no exception to the universal supremacy of God. God works through Christ. But back of the agent, the supreme author of the work stands transcendent in power and authority. The authority of God is consequently unique and absolute. The love of Christ, which is the foundation of mercy, is plainly declared. But God alone has authority to exercise mercy. It is not a question in regard to the spirit of either Christ or God. It is entirely a matter of authority. And here the supremacy of God is made emphatic. To him prayer is offered; to him thanksgiving is rendered for all benefits. The whole attitude of dependence upon the power and mercy of God and of prayer to him differs widely from the attitude taken toward Christ. Omnipotence, omniscience, creation, preserva- tion, universal dominion are ascribed to God, but never to Christ. 2. THE HUMAN NATURE OF CHRIST Clement constantly assumes and clearly recognizes the human nature of Christ, though he gives but little attention to this aspect of his nature. In 32:2, his descent is traced to Abraham according to the flesh. The phrase "according to the flesh" shows clearly that this account of Christ does not exhaust Clement's conception of him. Christ was more than human. In 49:6, he speaks of his body and soul. In other places he represents Christ as sharing the nature common to men when he speaks of Christ as enduring hardships and suffering, physical death. 3. THE FUNCTION OF CHRIST'S DEATH Clement speaks of the function of Christ's death in the following five passages: 7:4; 12:7; 16:3-16; 21:6; 49:6. There is one other reference which has some value for this subject in 20: n, where he says: 'have taken refuge in his compassionate mercy through our Lord Jesus Christ." It forms no part of the author's purpose to set forth any doctrine concerning the atonement. His use of the death of Christ has for its object the practical purpose of leading the faction in the church to repent- ance, to reinstatement of the elders, and to submission to the rule of the divinely appointed officers. In 7:4 Clement makes three statements concerning the blood of Christ: (i) The blood of Christ is precious unto the Father; (2) it was shed for the salvation of men; (3) and it has brought the grace of GOD THE FATHER SUPREME AND THE CENTER OF INTEREST II repentance to the whole world. Clement in this passage, and in all the others relating to this subject, is treating of the death of Christ, and not of his life. The value of the death of Christ is related in some way to God. It may mean that the kind of conduct which is displayed in the death of Christ is that upon which God places a high estimate. Ch- it may mean that the death of Christ has great value in its influence upon God. The on clause assigns the reason for the preceding statement of the value of the blood of Christ. The act itself and the work which it accomplished are the grounds for its high estimation. It was shed for the benefit of men. But in what way did his blood benefit men ? The answer to this question depends upon the interpretation of the state- ment "won the grace of repentance." The word x< t5 has great significance in the interpretation of the passage. Its usual meaning, in the New Testament at least, is favor, a gracious, favorable attitude of one toward another. There is no reason to depart from that usage here. In vss. 5-7 of this chapter, he says: "The Master has given a place for repentance to those that desire to return to him. Noah preached repentance, and they that obeyed were saved. Jonah preached destruction to them of Nineveh ; but they, repenting of their sins, obtained pardon of God by their supplications and received salvation, albeit they were aliens from God." So the readers are exhorted to fix their eyes upon the blood of Christ as that which "brought to all the world the grace of repentance"; the graciously granted opportunity to repent, implying also the guaranty of pardon. The connection implies dearly enough that it is God who confers this favor of repentance. This shows then that the value of Christ's blood consists in its influence upon God. The author's meaning is as follows: Christ's death has so influ- enced God that on account of his death God has given the opportunity of repentance to the whole world. The other passages confirm this representation as the author's way of thinking. In 16:3-16, he quotes Isaiah 53:1-12. His purpose in introducing this quotation is to give an example of lowliness as exhibited in the life of Christ. The lowliness of Christ consists in his enduring suffering for men and bearing the penalty of their sins, since Clement identifies Christ with the suffering servant. The Isaiah passage teaches that the suffering servant bears the penalty of the sins of others. He is, repeatedly spoken of in this chapter as the substitute of the wicked. 1 1 So this passage is interpreted by Dr. J. M. P. Smith, Atonement, pp. 35-37: "The penalty due their sins has been borne by Israel. He has suffered in their place. No thought appears so frequently in this passage as this of the righteous servant's 12 THE CHRISTOLOGY IN THE APOSTOLIC FATHERS In 49:6, he says: "Jesus Christ our Lord has given his blood for us by the will of God, and his flesh for our flesh and his life for our lives." While this passage may receive two different interpretations, it is in harmony with the preceding passage to treat it as meaning that his death takes the place of our death. In 12:7, the passage in regard to Rahab, the author introduces the word Avrpoxris. Her scarlet thread is a prophecy "that through the blood of the Lord there shall be redemption unto all them that believe and hope on God." Clement uses the word \vrpwa with two significations. In 59:4 there is no thought of the price paid. The word is used to express "deliverance." But in 55:2, he speaks of deliverance through the payment of a price. He adduces examples who have made sacrifices for others, and then says: "We know that many among ourselves have delivered themselves to bondage that they might ransom others." In 12:7, since the blood of Christ is mentioned, it is most natural to regard it as the price paid to deliver men from the penalty of sin. Scherer, likewise, in his treatment of this passage, takes the view that if repentance were sufficient the author would say nothing about redemption. 1 Chap. 21:6 should be inter- preted in harmony with the other passages. "The blood given for us" is that which is given in the place of us. 4. THE CONSTRUCTIVE ASPECT OF CHRIST'S SOTERIOLOGICAL WORK The whole work of salvation is assigned to Christ. Election, calling, sanctification, illumination, grace, peace, forgiveness of sins, salvation in its totality, all are the work of Christ. 2 This work may be viewed as accomplished in part through the example of the earthly Christ. Thus in the calling of men the earthly Christ is an important factor. He is the reflection of the glory of the Father, and as such makes an appeal to men. In his introduction, he greets those who "are called and sanctified through our Lord Jesus Christ." Christ accomplishes this calling, in one way at least, by reflect- ing the glory of God. So in the illumination of men, the glory of God, substitution for the wicked (vss. 4, 5, 6, 8, 19, n, 12). The thought is that of the vicarious satisfaction of demands made by the divine righteousness He is bearing the penalty of others' sins." For a different interpretation, see Professor E. D. Burton, Atonement, pp. 104, 105. Domer says of this chapter in Clement, Doctrine of the Person of Christ, I, 98: "Every interpretation of this passage is forced which does not recognize in it the idea of substitution." 1 Der erste Clemensbrief an die Corinther, S. 179. * Chaps, i, 20, 36 , 42, 50, 59, and in many instances this work is presented. GOD THE FATHER SUPREME AND THE CENTER OF INTEREST 1$ reflected in the life of Christ on earth, transformed men. 1 This passage in chap. 36 reflects very strikingly II Cor. 3: 18, except that Clement says nothing of the activity of the Lord in connection with beholding. The vision of Christ illuminates the moral understanding. "Through him the eyes of our heart were opened." The vision of Christ quickens holy desires and gives strength to the will. "Through him our foolish and darkened mind springeth up unto his marvellous light." The vision of Christ gives a taste of immortal knowledge. The part achieved by the earthly Christ in the work of salvation must not be overlooked. But this does not exhaust the content of Christ's work. The heavenly Christ also saves men. The believer is in union with him. Clement uses also Paul's figure of the body to denote the relation of the believer to Christ. Thus the activity of the heavenly Christ accomplishes the work of salvation. Believers must regard the living Christ, together with God and the Holy Spirit, as the foundation of their hope of salva- tion.* Faith is required of men in order to secure their salvation. In 32 : 4, he speaks of faith very much as Paul considers it. He says: "And so we having been called through his will in Christ Jesus are not justified through ourselves or through our own wisdom or understanding or piety or works which we wrought in holiness of heart, but through faith, whereby the Almighty God has justified all men that have been from the beginning." 5. THE RESURRECTION AND ESCHATOLOGY Clement mentions the resurrection of Christ but twice. In 24: i, he says that God raised Christ from the dead and made him the first- fruit. And in 42:3, he says that the resurrection of the Lord gave assurance to the faith of the apostles. He mentions the second coming of Christ in only two passages. In 23: 5, to warn them against sinning, he reminds the readers of the second coming of Christ. He speaks in 59:4 of the visitation of the kingdom of Christ, and in connection with it of the reward of the righteous, and their resurrection from the tombs. 6. THE CHRISTOLOGY OF CLEMENT VIEWED IN THE LIGHT OF THE OBJECT OF THE LETTER The object of the letter is stated above. It is necessary here only to call attention to the method by which Clement seeks to attain his object. 'Chap. 36. . * Chap. 58:2. 14 THE CKRJSTOLOGY IN THE APOSTOLIC FATHERS The sanction for the order of the church is received from God. God sent Christ; Christ sent the apostles; the apostles appointed bishops and deacons. 1 The order of the church is thus divine, and conformity to it is submission not to men but to God. Obedience to the divine order is essential to the welfare of men. Such conformity to the divine arrangement is the condition of welfare in all relations. In the Temple services each one had his place, and the offering must be presented in the prescribed manner. 2 There is harmony in nature and obedience to the laws of God. 3 The author says here: "The heavens are moved by his direction and obey him in peace. Day and night accomplish the course assigned to them by him, without hindrance one to another. The sun and the mood and the dancing stars according to his appointment circle in harmony within the bounds assigned to them without any swerving aside." This whole chapter is an eloquent description of nature in harmony with the behests of God. There must be obedience to author- ity in an army, for only thus can the life of the army be maintained. The welfare of the body is dependent upon the same harmony. 4 He also seeks to overcome rebellion by a long list of examples which show the dire consequences of envy, jealousy, and rebellion in the past. The character itself of the seditious is despicable. The author displays no little warmth of feeling as he characterizes the leaders of this sedition. Over against the picture of evil are placed the results of obedience and the nobility of self-denial for the good of others. Thus the author seeks to restore order in the Corinthian church by showing that God has established the order in the church, and that to his supreme will all owe allegiance; by showing from a long list of examples the evil consequences of sedition; and also by a great number of examples, he shows the benefit of obedience. Such an object led the writer to state and illustrate one main thought supremacy. To attain this object of supremacy he exalts God. But this purpose need not lead Clement to lower his Christology. Another man writing later would have accomplished the same object by exalting Christ. II. THE CHRISTOLOGY IN THE DIDACHE I. THE SUBORDINATION OF CHRIST TO GOD A marked feature of the Christology that shows the affinity of the Didache with First Clement is the emphasis upon the subordination of Christ to God. The Son is the agent of salvation , but God is made 1 Chap. 42. i Chap. 20. 'Ibid. Chaps. 37, 38. GOD THE FATHER SUPREME AND THE CENTER OF INTEREST 15 very prominent as the power back of the Son. God made known knowl- edge, faith, and immortality through the Son. In the prayers and thanks- givings, the supremacy of God is made very prominent. To Him all glory is ascribed; to Him thanksgiving is offered and prayer is made. "We give thee thanks, O our Father; thine is the glory and power through Jesus Christ for ever and ever." 1 The use of weus 6t<$ Aa/3tS as an ascription of praise to Christ. It must rather refer to the Father. In XVI. 7, the author reflects Matt. 25:31, and there is no reason to think that he connected 6 xvpto? here with the Jehovah of the Old Testament. This expression is constantly used in the New Testament both of the Father and of Christ, and there is nothing here indicating a connection with the Old Testament Jehovah. He is one with Clement in the extent 'Chaps. DC, X. "59:4. 17:1,3; 9:2,3; 10:2, 3. Schaff, Teaching of the Twelve A pasties, p. 25; Harnack, Geschichte der altckrist- lichen Littcratur bis Eusebius, II, 428. 1 6 THE CHRISTOLOGY IN THE APOSTOLIC FATHERS of the authority which he assigns to Christ. The author recognizes Christ as Lord over their spiritual lives. He is the agent of God. The Christian secures through him salvation that is, knowledge, faith, spirit- ual food, eternal life and in turn they call him Lord. It uses the trinitarian formula in baptism. 1 The Christians baptize in the name of the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. In this there is doubtless to be seen the influence of Matthew's Gospel, not an independent development of Christology, and no direct affirmation concerning the nature of the Lord. The Didache calls Christ the son of God. The title is used, not to indi- cate his official position, or the moral nature of Christ, but rather it indicates the metaphysical relation of Christ to God. 2. ESCHATOLOGY Chap, xvi contains a brief but clear statement of the last things. False prophets shall appear; iniquity shall increase; the sheep shall be turned into wolves, and love into hate. Then the world-deceiver shall appear as a son of God, work signs and wonders, and the earth shall be delivered into his hands. This temporary reign of the world-deceiver suggests the triumph of Satan, Rev. 20:7. A peculiar feature of the eschatology is the "cure of the curse." All created mankind shall come to the fire of testing, and many shall be offended and perish, but they that endure in their faith shall be saved by the curse himself. 2 The intention is probably to express the well-known truth that those who do not fall under a great temptation will be purified and strengthened by it. It is not permissible to push the meaning of the words "all created mankind" to their literal signification. For in vs. 7 below, it is said that not all will be raised from the dead. Rather, the words signify that all people living will be tested by this great trial. At its close Christ will come. There will be " a rift in the heaven, then a sign of a voice of a trumpet, and thirdly a resurrection of the dead" who are righteous. III. THE CHRISTOLOGY IN THE FRAGMENTS OF PAPIAS The only hint of the christological position of the Fragments of Papias is the use of the titles "Lord" and "Christ." In the short fragments which Eusebius professes to quote, he uses the title "Lord" eleven times and "Christ" twice. Eusebius quotes a narrative in which he says that Papias speaks of the ascension of Christ, but he gives Chap. 7. * For an interpretation of this obscure passage, see J. Rendel Harris, The Teaching of the Apostles, p. 62, interesting because of its uniqueness. GOD THE FATHER SUPREME AND THE CENTER OF INTEREST 17 no quotation of such a passage. The title "Lord" is used to denote the authority of Christ over the Christians and the Christian community. So far as it contains any indication of the author's position, it shows that he belongs to the First Clement group. SUMMARY OF THE CHRISTOLOGY IN THIS GROUP A. CLEMENT The highest point of the author's Christology is reached in the function which he assigns to Christ as Lord of the Christian community, and, in conjunction with the Father and Spirit, as the ground of the believer's hope of salvation. In harmony with this conception is the representation that he was pre-existent, and that he is the scepter of the divine majesty. But the marked characteristic of Clement's Christology is the sub- ordination which he assigns to Christ. This subordination he makes emphatic in several ways: (i) He applies three titles exclusively to God, namely, 0os, &t-njp, 6 dpxtcpevc, o xpiords, o vJos 0oJ5, and one most significant additional title 6 0eo. He gives also to some of these titles which had already been employed a wider meaning. He uses the title 6 Kvpio? to denote the authority of Christ over men in every relation in which he 1 Lightfoot, Apostolic Fathers, Clement of Rome, II, 191-210. 24 THE CHRISTOIOGY IN THE APOSTOLIC FATHERS considers men. His authority extends over the spiritual life of the believer. He watches over their safety. Men must obey the ordi- nances of the Lord in order that they may prosper in all things. They must be obedient to the bishop as to Jesus Christ, and "live not after men but after Jesus Christ." 1 His power extends over the body as well as the spirit. He uses "flesh and spirit" very frequently to designate the whole man.' Ecclesiastical affairs are under his authority. Christ is the bishop of all. The bishop of the local church is under the authority of Christ. The deacons of the church "have been appointed according to the mind of Jesus Christ, whom after his own will he confirmed and established by his Holy Spirit." 3 The marital relations must be in harmony with the Lord. The award of honor and the acceptance or rejection of men are under the authority of Christ. 4 The extent of God's authority is not greater than Christ's. He recognizes so fully the sway of Christ in every realm that to the mind of Ignatius there seem to be no limits to the authority of Christ. Here is a marked difference between Ignatius and Clement. Christ is presented almost constantly by Clement as acting under the direction of the Father. Clement saw the supreme authority of God back of Christ. In the view of Ignatius the background with God in it fades away, and Christ stands alone as Lord over men. The author's use of vwrrfp, opx"pcvs, and 6 xpurros has not much significance in it. He indicates in no way by his use the content of the word o-unrfp. Christ as &p\itp(.v; is the mediator between God and men. He is the door to the Father through whom Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob enter in. The author uses 6 xpurros only once as a title, and there is nothing in the context to show his conception of the Messiah. He uses vlos in the following combinations: TOV vlov aurou, TW via? dv6pwirov, vlov 6eov Kara dc'Aip/ia teal ovvafjuv deov. The title indicates that he is son in the metaphysical sense. Two of these titles are espe- cially significant. TOV fiovov vlov avrov is a reflection of John i : 14 and 3:16: oo$av is /ioroyevovs irupa wurpos, and rov vlov TOV fiovoytrr). Such a title separates him from men. vlov deov Kara de'X^/ia cai 8vvap.iv $ov stands in contrast to his human nature. His human nature is accounted for by his descent from David. But this fails to exhaust the idea which the author has of him. His existence also pro- 'Philad. s; Mag. 13; Trail. 2. 1 Ephes. 10:3; Mag. i; Lightfoot, Apostolic Fathers, Ignatius and Polycarp, H, 160. J Philad. Int.; Pol. Int.; Mag. 3:1. < Pol. 5; PhiUd. n. CHRIST THE CENTER OF INTEREST 25 cecds from the divine will and power. But the most significant title which Ignatius gives to Christ is 6 6t6*. Lightfoot maintains that Ignatius never uses 0<* of Christ in an absolute sense. Some adjective or modifying phrase is used or the word is used predicatively. The cor- rectness of this statement can scarcely be maintained. There are some passages which can be explained in no other way than in the absolute sense. At least they are so used in the text as it is given to us. Light- foot recognizes this fact and is compelled to resort to the expedient of a corrupt text. An examination of the instances in which Ignatius uses 0eos will confirm the statement that he uses it in an absolute sense. The title is applied to Christ thirteen times in these letters. Seven times it is "our God," as in Ephes. Int. 15:3; 18:2; Rom. Int. 3:3; Pol. 8:3. Once it is "God in men," Ephes. 7:2. Once it is "the God who has bestowed such wisdom upon you," Smyr. 1:1. Three times it is used without any qualification: Ephes. 1:1, "the blood of God" Trail. 7:1, "inseparable from God, Jesus Christ"; Smyr. 10:1, "minis- ters of Christ, God." Thus it is seen that out of the thirteen times that the title is applied to Christ, three times it is applied absolutely. Light- foot thinks that the use of " blood of God " and " blood of Christ " as con- vertible expressions gives no warrant for the conclusion that he would therefore speak of Christ as God absolutely. But it is difficult to see how the equivalence of the two expressions destroys its absolute use in this instance. Moreover, the absolute use cannot be denied to Smyr. 10:1, xptorov Otov, except by maintaining that the text is corrupt here. Lightfoot retains xpurrov but brackets it. Gebhardt, Harnack, and Zahn retain xP t < rTO * > without the brackets. There has been some attempt where \purrov is retained to interpret it as if there were a u between ^purrov and Otw, and even Lightfoot shows sympathy with this interpretation and wishes to read it "inseparable from God, and Jesus Christ, and the bishop," although the text is kept as Gebhard Harnack, and Zahn give it. However, Lightfoot acknowledges that such an absence of the connective is contrary to the genius of the Greek language. 1 Goltz has made a careful study of the way in which Ignatius forms compounds with 0eos. The messenger who should carry the letters from Asia Minor to Antioch is called in Pol. 7:2 0eoSpo/xos. Again in Smyr. 11:2, he is called tfeonyMa/Sevn/s. Poly carp is addressed, Pol. 7:2, as foofiaKopio-Tos. In Smyr. 1:2, the passion of Christ is spoken of as dtopaiuiptTrft . The Magnesian Christians, Mag. 1:2, are accounted worthy to bear a name 0oir/xir0TaTov. In Ephes. 2:1, 1 Apostolic Fathers, Ignatius and Polycarp, II, 389. 26 THE CHRISTOLOGY IN THE APOSTOLIC FATHERS Crocus is said to be faov a&o?. Goltz concludes from these passages that Ignatius has a tendency to designate the divine character of an act or of a person by 0eos. So he interprets Ignatius' application of 0os to Christ in the same way. The divine act of Christ in bringing salvation entitles him to be called Bios. 0eds is the collective denotation of the good of salvation. 1 It must be noted, however, that the word 0os is applied to an act or a person, apart from God or Christ, only once. In Ephes. 14:1, he says: apx*) P-* v " ri '' Tl ' rc'Aos Se aydmj, ra &c 8vo, v kvorifn yevo/iem, 0eos eariv. Here he characterizes as 0eos the essential qualities of God which he wishes the Ephesians to possess. This is the only significant use, and the bold application by a figure of speech of 0cds to a thing is very different from calling a his- torical person 0eos. In all of the other instances, the relation to God is clearly indicated from the adjective with which he combines Be 6s. It is a long step from this modified use of 0eos in compound words to its use without any qualification. In this unmodified sense 0ed? is applied to Christ, and for such use there is no analogy furnished by its indirect ap- plication to men, or its evidently boldly figurative application to things. Moreover, the fact that Ignatius calls Christ "our God" seven times 2 and "my God" once 3 prepares the reader for the application in the absolute sense, and these instances in which it occurs come without any suggestion of inappropriateness. (2) Ascriptions to Christ Pre-existence, eternal existence, omniscience, and holiness are ascribed to Christ, and prayer is addressed to him. Christ was with the Father before the worlds. Christ shared with the Father in the act of fore- ordination 'before the ages," and he appeared at the end of time in the likeness of men. 4 Ignatius declares still more absolutely the eternity of Christ. He is "ingenerate." 5 The parallel clauses show that he means that as God he is "ingenerate" and that as man he is "generate." Lightfoot has shown in an excursus on yewi/ros and dycVi/ros that Ignatius does not use these words with the same accuracy with which they were employed by later theologians. 6 Ignatius has no intention to deny the eternal generation of the Son as it was asserted by 1 Ed. v. d. Goltz, Ignatius von Antiochien als Christ und Theologe, in Texte und Untersuchungen, B. 12, S. 21-29. ' Ephes. Int. 7:2; 15:3; 18:2; Rom. 3:3; Int.; Pol. 8:3. i Rom. 6:3. Mag. 6; Ephes. Int. * Ephes. 7. 6 Apostolic Fathers, Ignatius and Polycarp, II, 00-94. CHRIST THE CENTER OF INTEREST 2J later theologians. The idea of "eternal generation" was not present to his mind, not having yet been developed. The word that was later used to express the fact which Ignatius has in mind was ityivrfros. Christ as God was not only before the ages, but he was "increate." In Pol. 3:2, he writes: "Await him that is above every season, the eternal" rbv a^povw. axpovo? denotes here "transcending the limits of time," "eternal." The declaration of his eternity is made also in Mag. 7:2: "who came forth from the Father, and is with One, and has departed unto One." The expression efe em ovra described the eternal union of the Son with the Father. A similar expression is found in John l8:i: ftovoytv^s Otos 6 lav Js TOV KO\ITOV TOV jrarpos. 1 Christianity, in order to evade the charge that it was new, falls back upon the pre-existence of Christ. 2 He was the teacher of Moses and the prophets. He was different from the Father and also pre-existed. This excludes modalism. 3 There is no express declaration of the omni- science of Christ, but it is involved in the functions ascribed to him. God is represented as shepherd. 4 Then in the next line Ignatius says that Jesus alone shall be shepherd. The care of the invisible bishop involves omniscience. When he speaks of the bishop as God, in Mag. 3, he adds that nothing is hid from the eyes of the invisible bishop. Such knowledge on the part of the bishop was used to warn the Christians against sinning. In his letter to the Ephesians, Ignatius informs them that it is his purpose to write a second tract to them if it is the divine will, and if the Lord should reveal aught to him. Here 6 xuptos denotes Christ. Ignatius never uses this title of the Father. Christ is the treasury of knowledge from which Ignatius drew. Jesus Christ is their only teacher. He has bestowed wisdom upon them. 5 But the most direct ascription of omniscience to Christ is in Ephes. Int. There he says that foreordination is by the will of the Father and Jesus Christ. Foreordination involves omniscience. Holiness is also involved in the ascriptions made to Christ. He is true life; he is the mind of God; he is the unerring mouth of the Father; he is perfect faithfulness. He can be relied upon with absolute certainty to remember those who have lived righteously. In Ephes. 17, there is a reflection of Mark 14: 1-8, the anointing of Christ. He says that the ointment was poured upon the head of the Lord in order that he might breathe incorruption upon the church. The teaching of the 1 Ibid., 123. 1 Dorner, Div. I, Vol. I, p. 112. * Rom., chap. 9. 1 Goltz, B. 12, S. 15. * Mag. 9:2; Smyr. t: i. 28 THE CHRISTOLOGY IN THE APOSTOLIC FATHERS prince of this world robs men of life, but Christ preserves life. He urges the Magnesians to unity and to obedience to the bishop and then holds up Christ as the example of righteous conduct. He did nothing without the Father and is the pattern "than whom there is nothing better." He is presented constantly as the norm of righteous conduct. Men should run in harmony with the mind of God. Christ is the mind of God. And all conduct in obedience to him is righteous. All such statements rest upon the assumption that Christ is holy. The general attitude of dependence finds fullest expression in the address of prayer to Christ. When he writes to the Romans about his anticipated death by the wild beasts, he asks them to supplicate the Lord for him that through these instruments he may be found a sacrifice to God. Gebhardt, Harnack, and Zahn read rbv xpt-arov instead of Kvptov as read by Lightfoot. The kindness of the church at Ephesus in sending delegates to meet him at Smyrna awakens in his heart " thanks- giving to the Lord." Philo and Rhaius Agathopus, who had been treated well by the church at Smyrna, "gave thanks to the Lord for you, because you refreshed them in the way." 1 Ignatius' use of 6 KvpuK to designate Christ, and not God the Father, furnishes the proof that Christ is here the object of prayer. The address of prayer to Christ is a distinct advance over Clement. Men come to God through Christ according to Clement, but Christ is not made the direct object of thanksgiving nor do men supplicate him for the things desired. (3) Important acts and functions are ascribed to the Father and Christ conjointly Foreordination "before the ages," direction of the action of men at present, and granting mercy are acts which are ascribed to the Father and Son conjointly. The joint action is carried back to eternity, and is brought down to the present. The welfare of men is traced to the joint action of the Father and Son in eternity, and men are at present depend- ent upon both Father and Son. Christians belong to God and Jesus Christ conjointly. This ownership is predicated both of individuals and of the church. God and Jesus Christ are conjointly bishop. He declares that the two are bishop of the church at Antioch, and also are bishop of Polycarp. Fellowship with God the Father and Jesus Christ is the common basis for sending "greetings" to others. Ignatius is in union with God and Jesus Christ; the Magnesians partake of the same 1 Ephes. 21 :i; Smyr. 10:1. CHRIST THE CENTER OF INTEREST 29 fellowship; this union forms a bond of connection on the basis of which greetings pass from one to the other. 1 (4) Jesus is subordinate to God However little the subordination of Christ to God is emphasized, it is not altogether absent. Jesus is an agent. He mediates between God and men. He is the unerring mouth of God. The mind of the Father comes to expression through the words of Jesus. Jesus is the revelation of the character of God. As the high priest, Jesus is the door through whom men enter in to the Father. Even Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob must enter through this door. Jesus was under the authority of the Father. God sent him into the world. On earth Jesus was subject to the authority of the Father. Jesus imitated the Father. God raised up the Eucharist, the flesh of Christ. 2 The attitude of Ignatius toward Christ is shown not by his denial of the subordination of Christ to God, but by the emphasis which he puts upon Christ's authority, independence, and association with the Father. We may, therefore, summarize Ignatius' teaching concerning the relation of Christ to the Father as follows: Christ possesses the divine attributes of eternity, omniscience, and holiness. He has the power to give life. He is associ- ated with God in all the functions which are ascribed to God. He possesses divine qualities. He is called God. And very slight emphasis is put upon his subordination to God. 2. THE TWO NATURES OF CHRIST The great ideas upon which Ignatius dwells grow out of the prac- tical needs of his situation. This is true in regard to his teaching con- cerning: (i) the reality of Christ's human nature; (2) the place of Christ's passion in the believer's life; (3) union with Christ. The reality of Christ's human nature is maintained in opposition to Docetism. Ephes. 7: 18-20; Trail. 9-11; and Smyr. 1-4 are devoted to this subject. While the purpose of the author is to assert the reality of Christ's human nature, at the same time he is not content to present the human nature alone. So over against the human nature, he con- stantly puts the divine. He is "of the seed of David and of the Holy Ghost " ; he is " both son of man and son of God" ; he is born as man and not born as God; he is born of both "Mary and of God." His divine 'Ephes. Int.; Mag. Int.; Rom. Int.; Philad. Int. 3:2; Smyr. Int.; Pol. Int.; Trail. 1:1. Rom. 8:2; Mag. 7:8; 8:2; 13:2; Smyr. 7:1; 8:1; Trail. 9:2. 30 THE CHRISTOLOGY IN THE APOSTOLIC FATHERS nature is presented to show that the human side does not exhaust Igna- tius, conception of Christ. He speaks of only two events in the life of the historical Christ, and these are the beginning and end of his life. He was born of the Virgin Mary, and he was crucified under Pontius Pilate. The proofs of the reality of his human nature are his birth, suffering, death, and appearance after his resurrection. He came into the world subject to the laws which govern birth, and in his life he was subject to the condition of suffering under which men universally live. Only a real man could suffer as other men suffer. The reality of his resurrection is dwelt upon, and the proof of it is taken from John 20:24-29, the account of Christ's appearance to his disciples. He says to the disciples, according to the quotation of Ignatius: "Lay hold and handle me, and see that I am not a demon without a body." And then Ignatius says "Straightway they touched him, and they believed, being joined to his flesh and blood." 1 And their conviction of his reality inspired them with great courage and lifted them above the fear of death. The bonds of Ignatius are a proof to him of the reality of Christ's suffering. To Ignatius his willingness to suffer and his desire to fight with wild beasts are inexplicable except as the effect upon his heart of the real sufferings of Christ. 1 That which was most fundamental in its effects upon Christian life was not a semblance. Rather, those who deny the reality of the sufferings are themselves mere semblances. 3. THE DEATH OF CHRIST Ignatius' own anticipated martyrdom gave the death of Christ deep significance to his mind. He affirms the historical fact of his death, the reality of his passion, and the function of his death. The first two points have been presented above. So the function of his death must now be considered. He dies to deliver men from death, and his death is the ground upon which God forgives sin, and justifies the believer. In Trail. 2:1, he says: "He died for us, in order that you believing might escape dying." The infinitive avoBavflv denotes, not a state of death, but the act of dying. Christ's death relieved men from the necessity to suffer death. Faith is the condition upon which men appropriate the benefits of Christ's death. He says "faith in his death" either because he considered the confession of the reality of his death a test of Christian faith, or because he considered that it was by virtue of his death that faith in him was effective. He employs the word Awpow in Philad. 11:1. He says: 1 Smyr. 3. CHRIST THE CENTER OF INTEREST 3! ot S< dTi/iacraTs avrov? \vrfnaB (.irfrav iv ry \aptn rov *Irj(rov ^ptarov. He prays that the Lord may receive those who have honored the mes- sengers who ministered to him. In the case of those who have dis- honored the ministers of Ignatius, the inference is that their conduct has made them displeasing to the Lord, and so liable to punishment. He prays that the favor of the Lord may remit the punishment. He is leading them not out of one moral state into another, but out of a state of liability to punishment into a state where there is no such liability. In Philad. 8:2, he says that through their prayers he hopes to be justi- fied by the cross of Christ. He is considering the sins of division and anger. Two ends are held in view : forgiveness of the sin and deliverance from the power of the sin. Two conditions are given upon which these purposes can be attained: repentance and the cross of Christ. These conditions are not joined together formally. He says: "The Lord forgiveth all men when they repent." He also says that he expects to be justified by the cross of Christ, and that men escape death through faith in Christ. 1 Repentance and faith are required of men in order that their sins may be forgiven, and the death of Christ is the ground upon which the favor is exercised. Ignatius is not content to view the effect of Christ's death as beginning at a certain historical moment, the time when he was crucified. The effect of Christ's death began in eternity. They were "united and elect in a true passion by the will of the Father and Jesus Christ our God." a The death of Christ is thus viewed as the ground of the election of men. 3 The moral effects of Christ's death occupy a far more prominent place in the thought of Ignatius. The passion and the resurrection of Christ are the center around which the thought of Ignatius revolves. Lightfoot has suggested that the incarnation has significance for him only because it leads up to the passion. The whole Christian life springs out of the passion and the resurrection. 4 He says to the Smyrnaeans that they are the fruit of Christ's resurrection. Death is the tree upon which the fruit of Christian life has grown. He warns the Magnesians against Judaism and the observance of Sabbaths, but urges them to fashion "their lives after the Lord's day, on which our life arose through him and through his death." 5 Life out of death is fundamental in the thought of Ignatius. "Repent and return to the passion which is our resurrec- tion." 6 Not only does he make the general statement that the whole 'Trail. 2:1. 'Ephes. Int. * Lightfoot, Apostolic Fathers, Ignatius and Polycarp, II, 25. Smyr. 1:2. * Mag. 9:1. *Smyr. 5:3. 32 THE CHRISTOLOGY IN THE APOSTOLIC FATHERS life of the believer comes from the death and resurrection of Christ, but his mind is so filled with this thought that he constantly connects specific Christian graces with the death of Christ. His present sufferings and his anticipated and greatly desired martyrdom would naturally center his thoughts upon the death of Christ. The Trallian's peace felicity in the assurance of salvation comes from the death of Christ. 1 So also the joy of the Philadelphians comes from the death of Christ.* He praises the Ephesians for their well-beloved name to which they are entitled by natural right, but he reminds them that the blood of Christ has kindled their generosity into a flame. 3 Christ's passion inflames the hearts of men with a desire for the most generous deeds. His own experience testifies to the power of the death of Christ to produce the highest devotion in the lives of men. The death of Christ was the pattern for his own martyrdom, and the inspiration to it. He was humbled by the cross, and yet at the same time inspired by it. 4 He says that he longs to imitate the passion of his God. He declares that if anyone has Christ in him, he will understand the intensity of Ignatius' desire. Christ's death is that which fills the heart of Ignatius with love for his Lord. He says: "It is good for me to die for Jesus rather than to reign over the bounds of the earth. Him I seek who died on our behalf." 5 Christ's death is the power which made love firm and strong in the hearts of believers. 6 Christ's death as a principle of love is that power in the world which transforms the lives of men. 7 The death of Christ is a great factor in the building-up of the Christian life. He uses Paul's familiar figure of the building. The individual members are stones in the temple of God. They "are hoisted up to the heights through the engine of Jesus Christ, which is the cross, and using for a rope the Holy Spirit; while your faith is your windlass, and love is the way that leadeth up to God." 8 The passion of Christ furnishes the standard which the believer's conduct must attain, if he would have the life of Christ in him.' In one peculiar passage, he speaks of the relation of Christ's blood to the baptismal waters. Here he says: " He was born and bap- tized that by his passion he might cleanse water." 10 Trail. Int. Philad. Int. Ephes. i : i. Farrar, Lives of the Fathers, I, 62. *Rom. 6: i. Smyr. 1:1. 1 Dorner, Doctrine of the Person of Christ, I, Vol. I, p. 107. Ephes. 9:1. Rom. 6:3. 18 Ephes. 18:2. Lightfoot, Apostolic Fathers, Ignatius and Polycarp, II, 75, 76, says of this passage: "The baptism of Christ might in a certain sense be said, in the language of our liturgy, to sanctify water to the mystical washing away of sins; but it was the death of Christ which gave their purifying effect to the baptismal waters." CHRIST THE CENTER OF INTEREST 33 Ignatius takes a twofold view of the death of Christ. It had vicari- ous value, and moral power over the lives of men. 4. THE CONSTRUCTIVE ASPECT OF CHRIST'S SOTERIOLOGICAL WORK As the prominent doctrines of Ignatius, which have been considered above, grew out of the practical needs of his day, so does this one of union with Christ. Six of these letters are full of exhortations to unity. In the churches of Asia Minor there was a manifest tendency to extreme individualism which was disintegrating the church and giving an oppor- tunity for the entrance of heresy, such as Docetism and Judaism. There were some who were performing the functions of church life apart from the direction of the constituted officers. Ignatius admonishes them to obey the officers as a means of securing unity, and presents unity as a safeguard to their life. This unity which he desired in the church led him to emphasize unity with Christ as the condition of life. Christ as living, leading the church, and molding the life of believers is everywhere present to the thought of Ignatius. Christ is acting upon their lives. Now one of the ways in which Christ's work is accomplished in men is union with him. Two figures set forth the nature of this union with Christ, the body and the building. He says to the Ephesians that they are members of Christ, and urges them to live so that God will acknowl- edge them as members of his son. His use of the common Pauline figure to express the relation of the believer to Christ shows that the relation is one by means of which life is derived. 1 The figure of the building is employed in two different ways. Believers dwell in Christ, and Christ and God dwell in the believer. 2 The latter figure is the one most fully developed. He describes the manner of building the temple in which God dwells. Then, again, each believer bears his shrine. This figure is derived, no doubt, from the prevalent custom at Ephesus at that time. The pagans in their processions carried images of their gods. Now, he says that the Christians bear their shrines, but God and Christ are in them. Thus by these figures he portrays the nature of the intimate relation to Christ by means of which life was derived. He also expresses union with Christ by the Pauline phrase iv xpt