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 THEJIDIAI II HIS IGAM, 
 
 OF THE 
 
 FROM ORIGINAL NOTES AND MANUSCRIPTS, 
 
 BY HENRY R. jSCHOOLCRAFT, 
 
 Memb. Royal Geographical Society of London, and of the Royal Society of Northern Antiquaries, 
 Copenhagen ; Hon. Memb. of the Natural History Society of Montreal, Canada East; Memb. or 
 the American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia ; of the American Antiquarian Society 
 Worcester ; of the American Geological Society, New Haven; Vice-President of the American 
 Ethnological Society, New York ; Hon. Memb. of the New York Historical Society ; Hon. Memb 
 of the Historical Society of Georgia ; President of the Michigan Historical Society ; and Hon. 
 Memb. of the Ohio Historical and Philosophical Society ; Cor. Memb. of the New York Lyceum 
 of Natural History, and of the Lyceums of Natural History of Troy and Hudson, N. Y. ; Memb 
 of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia ; of the Albany Institute at the State Capitol, 
 Albany, and a Res. Memb. of the National Institute at Washington ; President of the Algic Society 
 for meliorating the condition of the Native Race in the United States, instituted in 1831; Hon. 
 Memb. of the Goethean and of the Philo L. Collegiate Societies of Pennsylvania, &c. &c. | 
 
 NEW YORK- 
 DEWITT & DAVENPORT, 
 
 TRIBUNE BUILDINGS. 
 1848.
 
 PERSONAL REMINISCENCES. 
 
 IT is now twenty-six years since I first entered the area of the Missis- 
 sippi valley, with the view of exploring its then but imperfectly known 
 features, geographical and geological. Twenty-two years of this period 
 have elapsed since I entered on the duties of an Executive Agent for the 
 United States Government in its higher northern latitudes among the In 
 dian tribes in the west. Having devoted so large a portion of my life in 
 an active sphere, in which the intervals of travel left me favourable oppor- 
 tunities of pursuing the languages and history of this branch of the 
 race, it appears to be a just expectation, that, in sitting down to give some 
 account of this people, there should be some preliminary remarks, to ap- 
 prise the reader how and why it is, that his attention is recalled to a topic 
 which he may have supposed to be well nigh exhausted. This it is pro- 
 posed to do by some brief personal reminiscences, beginning at the time 
 above alluded to. 
 
 The year 1814 constituted a crisis, not only in our political history, 
 but also in our commercial, manufacturing, and industrial interests. The 
 treaty of Ghent, which put a period to the war with England, was a 
 blessing to many individuals and classes in America : but, in its conse- 
 quences, it had no small share of the effects of a curse upon that class of 
 citizens who were engaged in certain branches of manufactures. It was 
 a peculiarity of the crisis, that these persons had been stimulated by 
 double motives, to invest their capital and skill in the perfecting and estab- 
 lishment of the manufactories referred to, by the actual wants of the 
 country and the high prices of the foreign articles. No pains and no cost 
 had been spared, by many of them, to supply this demand ; and it was 
 another result of the times, that no sooner had they got well established, 
 and were in the high road of prosperity than the peace came and plunged 
 them headlong from the pinnacle of success. This blow fell heavier 
 upon some branches than others. It was most fatal to those manufacturers 
 who had undertaken to produce fabrics of the highest order, or which 
 belong to an advanced state of the manufacturing prosperity of a nation. 
 Be this as it may, however, it fell withcrushingforce upon that branch in 
 which I was engaged. As soon as the American ports were opened to 
 these fabrics, the foreign makers who could undersell us, poured in cargo 
 on cargo ; and when the first demands had been met, these cargoes were 
 ordered to be sold at auction ; the prices immediately fell to the lowest 
 point, and the men who had staked in one enterprise their zeal, skill and 
 money, were ruined at a blow. 
 
 Every man in such a crisis, must mentally recoil upon himself. Habits 
 
 5 
 
 ANTHRO-SCC:
 
 6 PERSONAL REMINISCENCES. 
 
 of application, reading, and an early desire to be useful, had sustained 
 me at a prior period of life, through the dangers and fascinations of jovial 
 company. There was in this habit or temper of room-seclusion, a pleas- 
 ing resource of a conservative character, which had filled up the intervals 
 of my busiest hours ; and when business itself came to a stand, it had 
 the effect to aid me in balancing and poising my mind, while I pre- 
 pared to enter a wider field, and indeed, to change my whole plan of life. 
 If it did not foster a spirit of right thought and self-dependence, it, at 
 least, gave a degree of tranquillity to the intervals of a marked pause, and. 
 perhaps, flattered the ability to act. 
 
 Luckily I was still young, and with good animal spirits, and a sound 
 constitution I resolved I would not go down so. The result of seven 
 years of strenuous exertions, applied with persevering diligence and suc- 
 cess, was cast to the winds, but it was seven years of a young man's life, 
 and I thought it could be repaired by time and industry. What the east 
 withheld, I hoped might be supplied by another quarter. I turned my 
 thoughts to the west, and diligently read all I could find on the subject. 
 The result of the war of 1812, (if this contest had brought no golden 
 showers on American manufacturers, as I could honestly testify in my 
 own case,) had opened to emigration and enterprise the great area 
 west of the Alleghanies. The armies sent out to battle with Indian, 
 and other foes, on the banks of the Wabash, the Illinois, the Detroit, the 
 Raisin and the Miami of the Lakes, had opened to observation attractive 
 
 scenes for settlement ; and the sword was no sooner cast aside, than emi- 
 
 ' 
 
 grants seized hold of the axe and the plough. This result was worth the 
 cost of the whole contest, honour and glory included. The ^otal prostra- 
 tion of the moneyed system of the country, the effects of city -lot and other 
 land speculations, while the system was at its full flow, and the very 
 backward seasons of 1816 and 1817, attended with late and early frosts, 
 which extensively destroyed the corn crop in the Atlantic states, all lent 
 their aid in turning attention towards the west and south-west, where seven 
 new states have been peopled and organized, within the brief period to 
 which these reminiscences apply : namely, Indiana, Illinois, Mississippi, 
 Missouri, Alabama, Arkansas and Michigan, besides the flourishing terri- 
 tories of Wisconsin and Iowa, and the more slowly advancing territory 
 of Florida. It appeared to me, that information, geographical and other, 
 of such a wide and varied region, whose boundaries were but ill defined, 
 must be interesting at such a period ; and I was not without the hope that 
 the means of my future advancement would be found in connexion with 
 the share I might take in the exploration of it. With such views I resolved 
 to* go west. This feeling I find to be expressed on the back of an old slip 
 of an account of the period : 
 
 " I will go by western fountain, 
 I will wander far and wide ;
 
 PERSONAL REMINISCENCES. 7 
 
 Till some sunny spot invite me, 
 Till some guardian bid me bide. 
 
 " Snow or tempest plain the drearest 
 
 Shall oppose a feeble bar, 
 Since I go from friends the dearest, 
 'Tis no matter then how far. 
 
 " On ! 'tis useless here to dally j 
 
 On ! I can but make or mar ; 
 Since my fortune leads to sally, 
 
 'Tis no matter then how far." 
 
 Of the " seven years" to which -allusion has been made I had spent 
 four in New England a land, which is endeared to me at this distance of 
 time, by recollections of hospitality, virtue, and manly intelligence. 
 
 While engaged in the direction of the business above named, I had pre- 
 pared the notes and materials for my first publication, in which I aimed 
 to demonstrate the importance of an acquaintance with Chemistry and 
 Mineralogy in the preparation and fusion of numerous substances in the 
 mineral kingdom, which result in the different conditions of the various 
 glasses, enamels, <fcc. I had, from early youth, cultivated a taste for 
 mineralogy, long indeed it may be said, before I knew that mineralogy 
 was a science ; and, as opportunities increased, had been led by my in 
 quiries, (which I followed with ardour but with very slight helps,) to add 
 to this some knowledge of elementary chemistry and experimental philos- 
 ophy, and to supply myself, from Boston and New York, with books, 
 apparatus, and tests. I do not know that there were any public lectures 
 on mineralogy, &c. at this time, say from 1810 to '16 ; certainly, there 
 were none within my reach. I gleaned from the best sources I could, 
 and believe that the late Professor Frederick Hall was the only person to 
 whom I was indebted even for occasional instructions in these depart- 
 ments. He was a man strongly devoted to some of the natural sciences, 
 particularly mineralogy ; and was erudite in the old authors on the sub- 
 ject, whom he liked to quote ; and I may say that I continued to enjoy 
 his confidence and friendship to the time of his death, which happened in 
 1843. From such sources, from the diligent reading of books, and 
 .from experiments, conducted with the advantage of having under my 
 charge extensive works, at various times, in the states of New York, Ver- 
 mont and' New Hampshire, I drew the principles which formed the basis 
 of my treatise on Vitreology. With this work in hand, I left Keene, in 
 New Hampshire, early in the winter of 1817 ; and, crossing the Con- 
 necticut river at Brattleboro,' proceeded over the Green Mountains, by the 
 route of Bennington, to Albany, and thence returned to my father's house 
 in western New York. No time was lost in issuing proposals for the 
 work ; and I had the satisfaction to find that the portions published, and
 
 8 PERSONAL REMINISCENCES. 
 
 the entire plan and merits of it were warmly approved by the pen of the 
 late Mr. Maynard of Utica, and by several liberal minded and intelligent 
 persons. Before quitting New England, I had determined to go to the 
 Mississippi valley, and had begun to study its geography ; and I now 
 resolved to proceed, without unnecessary delay. 
 
 Means constitute the first object of solicitude in all such undertakings. 
 The ebbing tide of manufacturing prosperity to which I have referred, had 
 left me very poor. From the fragments of former acquisitions, for which, 
 however, I was exclusively indebted to my own industry, I raised a small 
 sum of money much smaller I think than most men would be willing 
 to start with, who had resolved to go so far. I had, in truth, but sixty 
 dollars in the world ; but I possessed a very good wardrobe, and some 
 other personal means, such as it may be supposed will adhere to a man 
 who has lived in abundance for many years. I put up a miniature col- 
 lection of mineralogical specimens, to serve as a standard of comparison 
 in the west, a few implements for analysis, some books which I thought it 
 would be difficult to meet with in that region, and some drawing mate- 
 rials. I had connected these things in some way with my future success. 
 In other respects, I had the means, as above hinted, of making a respect- 
 able appearance. Thus prepared, I bade adieu to my father and mother, 
 and also to three sisters and a brother, all younger than myself, and set 
 forward. The winter of 1818 had opened before I reached my brother'* 
 house at Geneva, in western New York. From this point I determined 
 to leave the main track, through the Genessee county west, and to strike 
 the head waters of the Alleghany river, so as to descend that stream with 
 the spring flood. 
 
 My brother drove me in his own sleigh, as far as Angelica. By the 
 time we reached that place, being no traveller and much fatigued with 
 the intricacies and roughness of the road, he was fain to give over his 
 undertaking, and I parted from him, sending back the sleigh from Olean, 
 to take him home. 
 
 The Alleghany river was locked with ice when I reached it. I had 
 an opportunity to cross it on foot, and to examine in the vicinity those 
 evidences of the coal formation which are found in masses of bituminous 
 shale, slaty coal and petroleum. The river began to open about the middle 
 of March. I left Olean in the first ark for the season, borne onwards down 
 the sweeping Alleghany at the top of the flood, often through winding 
 channels, and once in danger of being precipitated over a mill dam, by 
 taking the wrong channel. 
 
 On another occasion, just as we were coming to the division of the 
 channel, at the head of a group of islands, a tall Seneca Indian, standing 
 in the bow of a very long pine canoe, cried out, in a tone of peculiar em- 
 phasis, " Keep to the right I speak it." This direction we followed, and 
 were saved from another mishap. We tied the ark to the shore at
 
 PERSONAL REMINISCENCES. 
 
 built a fire on the bank and cooked a supper. On passing the Conowonga, 
 it was at the height of its flood, and appeared to bring in as much water as 
 the Alleghany. We stopped at the noted chief Cornplanter's village, and 
 also to gratify a reminiscent curiosity, at the mouth of French Creek, 
 connected with Washington's perilous adventure in visiting Fort de Boef, 
 now Erie. At Kittaning, a great scow ferry boat was rowed and man- 
 aged by two women or girls with a degree of muscular exertion, or rather 
 ease, which would put to the blush many a man east or west of the Alle- 
 ghanies. The tone, air, and masculine strength of these girl-boatmen, 
 reminded me of nothing this side of Rollin's description of the Amazons 
 save that the same provision was not apparent for drawing the bow. 
 Bold hills line both banks of the river along its upper parts, and continue, 
 indeed, at farther intervals apart, to very near the junction of the Monon- 
 gahela ; but long before this point, the stream is one of noble dimensions, 
 clear, broad, and strong. After a voyage of exciting and vivid interest, 
 I reached and landed at Pittsburgh.
 
 NO. II. 
 
 It is Dr. Johnson, I think, who says, that we take slight occasions to 
 be pleased. At least, I found it so, on the present occasion ; the day of 
 my arrival was my birth day, and it required but little stretch of imagi- 
 nation to convert the scene upon which I had no\v entered, into a new 
 world. It was new to me. I was now fairly in the great geological 
 valley of the west, the object of so many anticipations. 
 
 The ark, in which I had descended the Allegany. put ashore near the 
 point of land, which is formed by the junction of the Monongahela with 
 this fine clear stream. The dark and slowly moving waters of the one, 
 contrasted strongly with the sparkling velocity of the other. I felt a 
 buoyancy of spirits as I leapt ashore, and picked up some of its clean 
 pebbles to see what kind of geological testimony they bore to the actual 
 character of their parent beds in the Apalachian range. 
 
 " What shall I pay you, for my passage, from Olean," said I, to the 
 gentleman with whom I had descended, and at whose ark-table I had 
 found a ready seat with his family. " Nothing, my dear sir," he replied 
 with a prompt and friendly air, " Your cheerful aid in the way, taking 
 the oars whenever the case required it, has more than compensated for 
 any claims on that score, and I only regret that you are not going further 
 with us." 
 
 Committing my baggage to a carman, I ascended the bank of diluvial 
 earth and pebbles with all eagerness, and walked to the point of land 
 where Fort Pitt (old Fort Du duesne) had stood. It is near this point 
 that the Alleghany and Monongahela unite, and give birth to the noble 
 Ohio. It is something to stand at the head of such a stream. The 
 charm of novelty is beyond all others. I could realize, in thought, as I 
 stood here, gazing on the magnificent prospect of mingling waters, and 
 their prominent and varied shores, the idea, which is said to be embodied 
 in the old Mingo substantive-exclamation of O-he-o ! a term, be it remem- 
 bered, which the early French interpreters at once rendered, and truly, it 
 is believed, by the name of lid Belle Riviere. 
 
 So far. I said to myself, all is well, I am now west of the great 
 spinal chain. All that I know of America is now fairly east of me 
 bright streams, warm hearts and all I have fairly cast myself loose 
 
 10
 
 PERSONAL REMINISCENCES. H 
 
 on the wide waters of the west. I have already come as many hundred 
 miles, as there are days in the week, but I begin my travels here. I 
 have, as it were, taken my life in my hand. Father and mother, I may 
 never see more. God wot the result. I go to seek and fulfil an unknown 
 destiny. Come weal or woe, I shall abide the result. All the streams 
 run south, and I have laid in, with " time and chance" for a journey with 
 them. I am but as a chip on their surface nothing more ! Whether 
 my bones are to rest in this great valley, or west of the Cordilleras, or the 
 Rocky Mountains, I know not. I shall often think of the silver losco^ 
 the farther I go from it. To use a native metaphor, My foot is on the 
 path, and the word, is onward ! " The spider taketh hold with her 
 hands," Solomon says, " and is in king's palaces." Truly, a man should 
 accomplish, by diligence, as much as a spider. 
 
 Pittsburgh was, even then, a busy manufacturing town, filled witn 
 working machinery, steam engines, hammers, furnaces, and coal smoke. 
 t visited Mr. O'Hara, and several other leading manufacturers. They 
 made glass, tiar iron, nails, coarse pottery, castings, and many other 
 articles, which filled its shops and warehouses, and gave it a city-like 
 appearance. Every chimney and pipe, perpendicular or lateral, puffed 
 out sooty coal smoke, and it required some dexterity to keep a clean collar 
 half a day. I met ladies who bore this impress of the city, on their morning 
 toilet. I took lodgings at Mrs. McCullough's, a respectable hotel on Wood 
 street, and visited the various manufactories, for which the place was then, 
 and is now celebrated. In these visits, I collected accurate data of the cost 
 of raw material, the place where obtained, the expense of manufacture, and 
 the price of the finished fabric. I had thus a body of facts, which enabled 
 me, at least to converse understandingly on these topics^ to give my 
 friends in the east, suitable data, and to compare the advantages of manu- 
 facturing here with those possessed by the eastern and middle states. Every 
 thing was, in the business prospects of the west, however, at a compara- 
 tively low ebb. The prostrating effects of the war, and of the peace, were 
 alike felt. We had conquered England, in a second contest, but were 
 well exhausted with the effort. The country had not recovered from the 
 sacrifices and losses of a series of military operations, which fell most 
 heavily on its western population. Its agricultural industry had been 
 crippled. Its financial affairs were deranged. Its local banks were 
 broken ; its manufactories were absolutely ruined. There was little con- 
 fidence in business, and never was credit, public and private, at a lower 
 ebb. There was however, one thing, in which the west held out a 
 shining prospect. It had abundance of the finest lands in the world, 
 and in fact, it promised a happy home to the agricultural industry of half 
 the world. It was literally the land of promise, to the rest of the union, 
 if not to Europe. 
 
 Having seen whatever I wished in Pittsburgh, I hired a horse and
 
 _ II <* 
 
 12 PERSONAL REMINISCENCES. 
 
 A , ,, , . . , . , , . , ^, 
 
 crossing the Monongahela, went up its southern banks, as high as Wil- 
 
 liamsport. I found the country people were in the habit of calling the city 
 " Pitt" or " Fort Pitt," a term dating back doubtless to the time of the sur- 
 render, or rather taking possession of Fort Du Quesne, by Gen. Forbes. 
 Mineral coal (bituminous) characterizes the entire region, as far as my 
 excursion reached. By a happy coincidence in its geological structure, 
 iron ores are contained in the series of the coai deposits. On returning 
 from this trip, night set in, very dark : on the evening I approached the 
 summit of the valley of the Monongahela, called Coal Hill. The long and 
 winding road down this steep was one mass of moving mud, only varied 
 in its consistence, by sloughs, sufficient to mire both man and horse. I was 
 compelled to let the animal choose his own path, and could only give 
 him aid, when the flashes of lightning lit up the scene with a momentary 
 brilliance, which, however, had often no other effect but to remind me of 
 my danger. He brought me, at length, safely to the brink of the river, 
 and across the ferry. 
 
 To be at the head of the Ohio river, and in the great manufacturing 
 city of the West, was an exciting thought, in itself. I had regarded 
 Pittsburgh as the alpha, in my route, and after I had made myself familiar 
 with its characteristics, and finding nothing to invite my further attention, 
 I prepared to go onward. For this purpose, I went down to the banks 
 of the Monongahela, one day, where the arks of that stream usually 
 touch, to look for a passage. I met on the beach, a young man from Massa- 
 chusetts, a Mr. Brigham, who had come on the same errand, and being 
 pleased with each other, we engaged a passage together, and getting our 
 baggage aboard immediately, set off the same evening. To float in an ark, 
 down one of the loveliest rivers in the world, was, at least, a novelty, and 
 as all novelty gives pleasure, we went on charmingly. There were some 
 ten or a dozen passengers, including two married couples. We prome- 
 naded the decks, and scanned the ever changing scenery, at every bend, 
 with unalloyed delight. At night we lay down across the boat, with 
 our feet towards the fire-place, in a line, with very little diminution 
 of the wardrobe we carried by day, the married folks, like light 
 infantry in an army, occupying the flanks of our nocturnal array. The 
 only objection I found to the night's rest, arose from the obligation, 
 each one was tacitly under, to repair on deck, at the hollow night-cry 
 of " oars !" from the steersman. This was a cry which was seldom 
 uttered, however, except when we were in danger of being shoved, by 
 the current, on the head of some island, or against some frowning " snag," 
 so that we had a mutual interest in being punctual at this cry. By it, 
 sleep was to be enjoyed only in sections, sometimes provokingly short, and 
 our dreams of golden vallies, studded with pearls and gems, were oddly 
 jumbled with the actual presence of plain matter of fact things, such as 
 running across a tier of "old monongahela" or getting one's fingers
 
 PERSONA!/ REMINISCENCES. 13 
 
 trod on, in scrambling on deck. We took our meals on our laps, sitting 
 around on boxes and barrels, and made amends for the want of style or 
 elegance, by cordial good feeling and a practical exhibition of the best 
 principles of " association." There was another pleasing peculiarity in 
 this mode of floating. Two or more arks were frequently lashed 
 together, by order of their commanders, whereby our conversational circle 
 was increased, and it was not a rare circumstance to find both singers 
 and musicians, in the moving communities for " the west," so that those 
 who were inclined to, might literally dance as they went. This was 
 certainly a social mode of conquering the wilderness, and gives some 
 idea of the bouyancy of American character. How different from the 
 sensations felt, in floating down the same stream, by the same means, in 
 the era of Boon, the gloomy era of 1777, when instead of violin, or 
 flageolet, the crack of the Indian rifle was the only sound to be anticipated 
 at every new bend of the channel. 
 
 Off Wheeling the commander of our ark made fast to a larger one 
 from the Monongahela, which, among other acquaintances it brought, 
 introduced me to the late Dr. Sellman of Cincinnati, who had been a 
 surgeon in Wayne's army. This opened a vista of reminiscences, which 
 were wholly new to me, and served to impart historical interest to the scene. 
 Some dozen miles below this town, we landed at the Grave Creek Flats. 
 for the purpose of looking at the large mound, at that place. I did not 
 then know that it was the largest artificial structure of this kind in tbe 
 western country. It was covered with forest trees of the native growth, 
 some of which were several feet in diameter, and it hd indeed^ essen- 
 tially the same look and character, which I found it to present, twenty- 
 five years afterwards, when I made a special visit to this remarkable 
 mausoleum to verify the character of some of its antiquarian contents. 
 On ascending the flat summit of the mound, I found a charming prospect 
 around. The summit was just 50 feet across. There was a cup-shaped 
 concavity, in its centre, exciting the idea that there had been some internal 
 sub-structure which had given way, and caused 'the earth to cave in. 
 This idea, after having been entertained for more than half a century, 
 was finally verified in 1838, when Mr. Abelard Tomlinson, a grandson 
 of the first proprietor, caused it to be opened. They discovered two 
 remarkable vaults, built partly of stone, and partly of logs, as was judged 
 from the impressions in the earth. They were situated about seventeen 
 feet apart, one above the other. Both contained bones, the remains of 
 human skeletons, along with copper bracelets, plates of mica, sea shells, 
 heads of wrought conch, called " ivory" by the multitude, and some other 
 relics, most of which were analogous to articles of the same kind occur- 
 ring in other ancient mounds in the west. The occasion would not indeed 
 have justified the high expectations which had been formed, had it not been 
 for the discovery, in one of the vaults, of a small flat etone of an oval form,
 
 14 PERSONAL REMINISCENCES. 
 
 containing an inscription in ancient characters. This inscription, which 
 promises to throw new light on the early history of America, has not 
 been decyphered. Copies of it have been sent abroad. It is thought, 
 by the learned at Copenhagen, to be Celtiberic. It is not, in their view, 
 Runic. It has, apparently, but one hieroglyphic, or symbolic figure. 
 
 A good deal of historical interest clusters about this discovery of the 
 inscribed stone. Tomlinson, the grandfather, settled on these flats in 1772, 
 two years before the murder of Logan's family. Large trees, as large as 
 any in the forest, then covered the flats and the mound. There stood in 
 the depression I have mentioned, in the top of the mound, a large beech 
 tree, which had been visited earlier, as was shewn by several names and 
 dates cut on the bark. Among these, there was one of the date of A. D. 
 1734. This I have seen stated under Mr. Tomlinson's own hand. The 
 place continued to be much visited from 1770 to 1790, as was shewn 
 by newer names and dates, and indeed, continues to be so still. There 
 was standing at the time of my first visit in 1818, on the very summit 
 of the mound, a large dead or decayed white oak, which was cut down, 
 it appears, about ten years afterwards. On counting its cortical layers, 
 it was ascertained to be about 500 years old. This would denote the 
 desertion of the mound to have happened about the commencement of 
 the 13th century. Granting to this, what appears quite clear,, that the in- 
 scription is of European origin, have we not evidence, in this fact, of 
 the continent's having been visited prior to the era of Columbus? 
 Visited by whom ? By a people, or individuals, it may be said, who had 
 the use of an antique alphabet, which was much employed, (although 
 corrupted, varied and complicated by its spread) among the native priest- 
 hood of the western shores and islands of the European continent, prior 
 to the introduction of the Roman alphabet. 
 
 The next object of antiquarian interest, in my descent, was at Gallipolis 
 the site of an original French settlement on the west bank, which is 
 connected with a story of much interest, in the history of western 
 migrations. It is an elevated and eligible plain, which had before been 
 the site of an Indian, or aboriginal settlement. Some of the articles found 
 in q. mound, such as plates of mica and sea shells, and beads of the wrought 
 conch, indicated the same remote period for this ancient settlement, as 
 ,the one at Grave Creek Flats ; but I never heard of any inscribed articles, 
 or monuments bearing alphabetic characters. 
 
 All other interest, then known, on this subject, yielded to that which 
 was felt in witnessing the antique works at Marietta. Like many others 
 who had preceded me and many who have followed me, in my visit, I felt 
 whije walking over these serai-military ruins, a strong wish to know, 
 who had erected works so different from those of the present race of In- 
 dians, and during what phasis of the early history of the continent ? 
 A covered way had, evidently, been constructed, from the margin of
 
 PERSONAL REMINISCENCES. 15 
 
 the Muskmgum to the elevated square, evincing more than the ordi- 
 na f y degree of military skill exercised by the Western Indians. Yet 
 these works revealed one trait, which assimilates them, in character, with 
 others, of kindred stamp, in the west. I allude to the defence of the open 
 gate-way, by a minor mound ; clearly denoting that the passage was to be 
 disputed by men, fighting hand to hand, who merely sought an advantage 
 in exercising manual strength, by elevation of position. The Marietta 
 tumuli also, agree in style with others in the Ohio valley. 
 
 A leaden plate was found near this place, a few years after this visit, of 
 which an account was given by Gov. Clinton, in a letter to the American 
 Antiquarian Society, in 1827, but the inscription upon it, which was in 
 Latin, but mutilated, proved that it related to the period of the French 
 supremacy in the Canadas. It appeared to have been originally deposited 
 at the mouth of the river Venango, A. D. 1749, during the reign of 
 Louis XV. 
 
 While at Marietta, our flotilla was increased by another ark from the 
 Muskingum, which brought to my acquaintance the Hon. Jesse B. Thomas, 
 of Illinois, to whose civilities I was afterwards indebted, on several occa- 
 sions. Thus reinforced, we proceeded on, delighted with the scenery of 
 every new turn in the river, and augmenting our circle of fellow travellers, 
 and table acquaintance, if that can be called a table acquaintance which 
 assembles around a rustic board. One night an accident befel us, which 
 threatened the entire loss of one of our flotilla. It so happened, at the 
 spot of our landing, that the smaller ark, being outside, was pressed by the 
 larger ones, so far ashore, as to tilt the opposite side into the stream below 
 the caulked seam It would have sunk, in a few minutes, but was held 
 up, partly by its fastening to the other boats. To add to the interest felt, 
 it was filled with valuable machinery. A congress of the whole travelling 
 Community assembled on shore, some pitching pebble-stones, and some 
 .taking .a deeper interest in the fate of the boat. One or two unsuccessful 
 (efforts had been made to bail it out, but the water flowed in faster than 
 it could be removed. To cut loose the rope and abandoa it, seemed all 
 that remained. " I feel satisfied," said I, " to my Massachusetts friend, 
 that two men, bailing with might and main, can throw out more water, 
 in a given time, than is let in by those seams ; and if you will step in 
 with me, we will test it, by trying again." With a full assent sued ready 
 good will he met this proposition. We pulled off our coats, and each 
 (taking a pail, stepped in the water, then half-leg deep in the ark, and 
 began to bail away, with all force. By dint of determination we soon 
 had the satisfaction to see the water line lower, and catching new spirit 
 at this, we finally succeeded in sinking its level below the caulked seam. 
 The point was won. Others now stepped in to our relief. The ark 
 and its machinery were saved. This little incident was one of those 
 which served to produce pleasurable sensations, all round, and led per
 
 16 PERSONAL REMINISCENCES. 
 
 ?t<r 
 
 haps, to some civilities at a subsequent date, which were valuable to me. 
 At any rate, Mr. Thomas, who owned the ark, was so well pleased, that 
 he ordered a warm breakfast of toast, chickens, and coffee on shore 
 for the whole party. This was a welcome substitute for our ordinary 
 breakfast of bacon and tea on board. Such little incidents serve as new 
 points of encouragement to travellers: the very shores of the river 
 looked more delightful, after we put out, and went on our way that morn- 
 ing. So much has a satisfied appetite to do with the aspect of things, 
 both without, as well as within doors. 
 
 The month of April had now fairly opened. The season was delight- 
 ful. Every rural sound was joyful every sight novel, and a thousand 
 circumstances united to make the voyage one of deep and unmixed 
 interest. At this early season nothing in the vegetable kingdom gives 
 a more striking and pleasing character to the forest, than the frequent 
 occurrence of the celtis ohioensis, or Red Bud. It presents a perfect 
 bouquet of red, or rose-coloured petals, while there is not a leaf exfoliated 
 upon its branches, or in the entire forest. 
 
 No incident, further threatening the well being of our party, occurred 
 on the descent to Cincinnatti, where we landed in safety. But long before 
 we reached this city, its outliers^ to use a geological phrase, were encoun- 
 tered, in long lines and rafts of boards and pine timber, from the sources 
 of the Alleghany, and arks and flat-boats, from all imaginable places, 
 with all imaginable names, north of its latitude. Next, steamboats lying 
 along the gravel or clay banks, then a steam-mill or two, puffing up 
 its expended strength to the clouds, and finally, the dense mass of brick 
 and wooden buildings, jutting down in rectangular streets from high 
 and exceedingly beautiful and commanding hills in the rear. All was 
 suited to realize high expectations. Here was a city indeed, on the very 
 spot from which St. Clair set out, on his ill-fated expedition in 1791, 
 against the hostile Indians. Twenty-five years had served to transform 
 the wilderness into scenes of cultivation and elegance, realizing, with no 
 faint outlines, the gay creations of eastern fable.
 
 NO. III. 
 
 CINCINNATI had, at this time, (1818,) the appearance of a rapidly grow- 
 ing city, which appeared to have, from some general causes, been suddenly 
 checked in its growth. Whole rows of unfinished brick buildings had 
 been left by the workmen. Banks, and the offices of corporate and manu- 
 facturing companies, were not unfrequently found shut. Nor did it re- 
 quiie long looking or much inquiry to learn that it had seen more pros- 
 perous times. A branch bank of the U. S. then recently established there, 
 was much and bitterly, but I know not how justly, spoken against. But if 
 there was not the same life and air in all departments, that formerly ex- 
 isted, there was abundant evidence of the existence of resources in the city 
 and country, which must revive and push it onward in its career and 
 growth, to rank second to no city vest of the Alleghanies. This city owes 
 its origin, I believe, to John Cleves Symes, father-in-law of the late Presi- 
 dent Harrison, a Jerseyman by birth, who, in planning it, took Philadel- 
 phia as his model. This has imparted a regularity to its streets, and 
 squares, that visitors will at once recognize, as characteristic of its paren- 
 tage. It stands on a heavy diluvial formation of various layers of clay, 
 loam, sand, and gravel, disposed in two great plateaux, or first and second 
 banks, the lowest of which is some thirty or forty feet above the common 
 summer level of the Ohio. Yet this river has sometimes, but rarely, been 
 known to surmount this barrier and invade the lowermost streets of the 
 city. These diluvial beds have yielded some curious antiquarian relics, 
 which lead the mind farther back, for their origin, than the Indian race. 
 The most curious of these, if the facts are correctly reported to me, was 
 the discovery of a small antique-shaped iron horse-shoe, found twenty-five 
 feet below the surface in grading one of the streets, and the blunt end, 
 or stump of a tree, at another locality, at the depth of ninety-four feet, to- 
 gether with marks of the cut of an axe, and an iron wedge. I have 
 had no means to verify these facts, but state them as credible, from the cor- 
 roborative testimony afforded them by other discoveries in the great geolo- 
 gical basin of the west, examined by me, which denote human occupancy 
 in America prior to the deposition of the last of the unconsolidated and 
 eocene series. 
 
 Our flotilla here broke up, and the persons who had formed its floating 
 
 2 17
 
 18 PERSONAL REMINISCENCES. 
 
 community separated, each to pursue his several way, and separate views. 
 I made several acquaintances, whose names are recollected with pleasure. 
 Dr. S. invited me to dine with him, introduced me to his young partner, 
 Dr. Moorhead, and put me in the way of obtaining eligible private lodg- 
 ings. The three weeks I spent in this city were agreeably passed, varied 
 as they were, by short excursions in the vicinity, including the Licking 
 valley a stream which comes in, on the Kentucky side, directly opposite 
 the city. I went, one day, to see an experimental structure, built at the 
 foot of the Walnut hills, with a very long pipe, or wooden chamber lead- 
 ing up their sides, and rising above their tops. This was constructed by 
 an ingenious person, at the expense of the late Gen. Lyttle, under the con- 
 fident hope of his realizing a practical mechanical power from the rari- 
 f action of atmospheric air. There was confessedly a power, but the diffi- 
 culty was in multiplying this power, so as to render it practically appli- 
 cable to the turning of machinery. The ratio of its increase, contended for, 
 namely, the length of the pipe, appeared to me to be wholly fallacious, and 
 the result proved it so. The thing was afterwards abandoned. There 
 was an ancient mound here, which had not then been opened, but which 
 has since yielded a curious ornamented stone, bearing a kind of arabesque 
 figures, not dissimilar, in the style of drawing, to some of the rude sculp- 
 tured figures of Yucatan, as recently brought to light by Mr. Stephens 
 and Mr. Catherwood. 
 
 I received, one day, a note from one of the directors of the White Lead 
 Works, above the city, requesting me to visit it, and inspect in detail the 
 processes of the manufacture. The latter I found to be defective in the 
 mode of corroding the lead by the acetic acid; there was also an unneces- 
 sary complication and amount of machinery in bringing the oxide into 
 the condition of a good pigment, and putting it into kegs, which had been 
 very onerous in its cost, and was perpetually liable to get out of order. 
 
 It was during my stay here that I first felt the effects of the western 
 limestone waters hi deranging the stomach and bowels, and paid for my 
 initiation into the habit, as all strangers must, by some days confinement. 
 Dr. M. brought me about, and checked the disease, without any perma- 
 nently injurious effects on my general health. 
 
 When I was ready to proceed down the river, I went to seek a passage 
 along the landing, but found no boat (steamboats were few and far be- 
 tween in those days.) While pacing the beach, I met a man of gentle- 
 manly appearance, who had experienced the same disappointment, and 
 was desirous to go forward in his journey. He told me, that he had 
 found a small row boat, well built, and fitted with seats, which could be pur- 
 chased for a reasonable sum ; that it would hold our baggage very well, 
 and he thought we could make a pleasant trip in it as far as Louisville at 
 the Falls, where the means of communication by steamboats were ample. 
 On examining the boat, and a little inquiry, I acceded to this proposition,
 
 PERSONAL REMINISCENCES. 19 
 
 and I had no cause to regret it. This gentleman, whose name I have for- 
 gotten, but which is somewhere among my papers, was a native of the 
 city of Nancy, but a resident of Baltimore. He was, like the city itself 
 I believe, Franco-German, speaking the two languages very well, and the 
 English with peculiarities. He had a benevolent and honest countenance 
 and social, agreeable manners, not two free, nor stiffly reserved ; and we 
 performed the trip without accident, although we had a narrow escape one 
 day from a sawyer, one of that insidious cast of these river pests, called in 
 western parlance, a sleeping s'awyer. It was now the month of May ; the 
 atmosphere was mild and balmy, loaded with the perfumes of opening 
 vegetation ; we took the oars and the helm alternately ; we had a constant 
 succession of pretty views ; we put ashore to eat and to sleep, and the whole 
 trip, which occupied some three or four days. at the farthest, was perfectly 
 delightful 
 
 We put ashore at Vevay, where the Swiss had then newly introduced 
 the cultivation of the vine, to see the vineyards and the mode of cultivation. 
 I have since witnessed this culture on the banks of the Rhine, and found 
 it to be very similar. The vines are closely pruned and kept from becoming 
 woody, and are trained to slender sticks, which, are arranged with the 
 order of a garden bean-bed, which at the proper season, they much re- 
 semble. We also tasted the wine, and found it poor. 
 
 On the last day of the voyage, we took into our boat a young physician 
 a Hollander, recently arrived in the country, telling him, that by way 
 of equivalent, we should expect him to take his turn at the oars. He was 
 a man of small stature well formed, rather slovenly, yet pretty well 
 dressed, with blue eyes, a florid face, and very voluble. Of all that he 
 said, however, by far the most striking part, was his account of his skill 
 in curing cancer. It was clear that he was an itinerating cancer-doctor. 
 He said, amid other things, that he had received an invitation to go and 
 cure the Governor of Indiana. We now had Indiana on our right hand, 
 and Kentucky on our left. 
 
 These are the principal incidents of the trip. We reached our destina- 
 tion in safety, and landed on the superb natural sylvan wall, or park, 
 which is formed by the entrance of Beargrass Creek with the Ohio, just 
 in front of, or a little above, Louisville. Here we sold our boat, took 
 separate lodgings, and parted. I found in a day or two, that my friend 
 from Nancy had a flourishing school for military tactics and the sword 
 exercise, where, at his invitation, I went to visit him. From this man, I 
 learned, as we descended the Ohio, that the right and left banks of a river, 
 in military science, are determined by the supposed position of a man 
 standing at its head, and looking downwards. 
 
 I found in the lime-stone rocks which form the bed of the river between 
 the town and Corn Island, the cornu ammonis and some other species of 
 organic remains; and while I remained here, which was seyeral weeks,
 
 20 PERSONAL REMINISCENCES. 
 
 I wrote a notice for one of the papers, of a locality of manganese on Sandy 
 river, Ky., and others of some other objects of natural history in the 
 west, which I perceived, by their being copied at the eastward, were well 
 taken. It was my theory, that there was a general interest felt in the 
 Atlantic States for information from the west, and this slight incident served 
 to encourage me. 
 
 The steamboat canal since constructed around the falls at this place, was 
 then a project only spoken of, and is here alluded to for no higher purpose 
 than to mention, that in its actual subsequent execution, we are informed 
 the workmen came, at the depth of fourteen feet below the surface of the 
 calcareous rock, to a brick hearth, covered with what appeared to be the 
 remains of charcoal and ashes. 
 
 I took walks almost daily, on the fine promenade, shaded with lofty 
 trees, festooned with their native vines, along the Beargrass Creek, which 
 is the common place of landing for arks and boats. On one of these oc- 
 casions, there came in a large ark, which had been freighted at Perryo- 
 potis, on the Yioughagany, some thirty miles from Pittsburgh. The two 
 proprietors were K. and K., Marylanders, both young men, or verging to 
 middle life, who had clubbed together the necessary funds, and in the spirit 
 of adventure, resolved on a trading voyage. There was something in the 
 air and manners of both, which 1 thought I could trust in for an agree- 
 able voyage, especially as they saw in me, not a rival in commerce of any 
 kind, but a mere observer, a character which I found, on more than one 
 occasion, placed me on grounds of neutrality and advantage. Steamboats 
 are the worst vehicles ever invented by the ingenuity of man to make ob- 
 servations on a country, always excepting the last improvement on loco- 
 motive rail-roads. To a naturalist, especially, they are really horrible. 
 Not a tree or plant can be examined ; not a shell, or a rock certainly iden- 
 tified. Hundreds of miles are passed in a few hours ; the effect of speed 
 is to annihilate space ; town succeeds town, and object object, with such 
 rapidity, that there is no distinct time left for observation or reflection ; and 
 after the voyager has reached his point of destination, he is often seriously 
 in doubt, what he has seen, and what he has not seen, and is as much puz- 
 zled to put together the exact feature of the country's geography, as if he 
 were called to re-adjust the broken incidents of a night's dream. I had 
 yet another objection to this class of boats, at the era mentioned. Their 
 boilers and machinery were not constructed with elaborate skill and 
 strength : their commanders were often intemperate, and a spirit of reckless 
 rivalry existed, -vhose results were not infrequently exhibited in exploded, 
 sunk, or grounded boats, and the loss of lives. 
 
 it is a regulation of law that pilots are provided for all boats, descend',^ 
 the falls a descent, by the way, which can only be made on the Ind'ian a 
 side. When this officer came on board, the owners thought best to -so bv 
 land to Shippingport I had less at stake in its safety than they. ye ; t. felt :<
 
 PERSONAL REMINISCENCES, 21 
 
 desire to witness this novel mode of descent; nor did the result disappoint 
 me. Standing on the deck, or rather flat roof of the ark, the view was 
 interesting and exciting. The first point at which the mass of water 
 breaks was the principal point of danger, as there is here a powerful re- 
 flux, or eddy current, on the right hand, while the main velocity of the 
 current drives the vessel in a direction which, if not checked by the large 
 sweeps, would inevitably swamp it. The object is to give this check, and 
 shoot her into the eddy water. This was done. The excitement ceased 
 in a few moments, and we passed the rest of the way with less exertion 
 to the men, and got down the remainder of the falls in perfect safety. All 
 this danger to the growing commerce of the west, is now remedied by the 
 Louisville canal, which, by a work of but two miles in length, which holds 
 the relative position of a string to the bow, connects the navigable waters 
 above and below those falls, and permits all river craft of the largest bur- 
 den to pass. 
 
 It was about the falls of the Ohio, or a little above, that I first saw the 
 gay and noisy paroquet, or little parrot of the west ; a gregarious bird, 
 whose showy green and yellow plumage makes it quite an object to be 
 noticed and remembered in a passage on the lower Ohio. One of these 
 birds, which had been wounded, was picked up out of the river, a few 
 miles below the falls. It was evident, from the occurrence of this species, 
 and other features in the natural history of the country, that we were now 
 king a rapid southing. The red-bud, the papaw, the buckeye, and the 
 cucumbex trftp,, had all introduced themselves to notice, among the forest 
 species, below Pittsburgh ; although they are all, I think, actually known 
 to extend a little north of that latitude ; and we now soon had added to the 
 catalogue, the pecan and cypress, and the cane, with the constant attendant 
 of the latter, the green briar. I had no opportunity to examine the pecan, 
 until we reached the mouth of the Wabash and Shawneetown, where I 
 went on a shooting excursion with a young Kentuckian, who gave me 
 the first practical exhibition of bringing down single pigeons and otter 
 small game with the rifle, by generally striking the head or neck only. 
 I had heard of this kind of shooting before, and witnessed some capital 
 still shots, but here was a demonstration of it, in brush and brier catching 
 a sight as best one could. The ball used on these occasions was about 
 the size of a large buckshot. 
 
 Shawneetown is a word which brings to mind one of the North Ame- 
 rican tribes, Avho, between 1632 and the present time, figure as one of the 
 frontier actors in our history. They have, in this time, with the ubiquity 
 01 . ~^of their own genii, skipped over half America. They were once, cer- 
 p 1 " ?, U .^Igrs on the Savannah, if not, at a still earlier day, on the Suanee, in 
 rt-flwai 1C toll north ' a P art com i n g down the Kentucky river, and a 
 Kongo" west of the jfcware, and thence west. They are now on the 
 - ; So much for the association of names.
 
 22 PERSONAL REMINISCENCES. 
 
 History never remembers any thing which she can possibly forget, and I 
 found at least, one high-feeling personage here, who did not like the man- 
 ner in which I associated the modern town with reminiscences of the 
 savages. "Why, sir," said he, as we walked the deck of the ark, floating 
 down the Ohio, and getting nearer the place every moment. " we have a 
 bank there, and a court house ; it is the seat of justice for Gallatin county ; 
 and a printing press is about to be established ; it is a very thriving 
 place, and it bids fair to remain second to none below the Wabash." " All 
 this, truly," I responded, willing to reprove pride in an easy way, " is a great 
 improvement on the wigwam and the council-fire, and wampum coin-beads." 
 It is sometimes better to smile than argue, and I found it so on the present 
 occasion. I did not wish to tread on the toes of rising greatness, or pour 
 upon a love of home and locality, honorable and praise-worthy in my 
 fellow traveller, the chilling influence of cold historical facts. My allu- 
 sions were the mere effect of the association of ideas, resulting from 
 names. If the residents of Shawneprown do not like to be associated with 
 the native race, who would not have exchanged a good bow and arrows 
 for all the court houses in Christendom, they should bestow upon the 
 place some epithet which may sever the tie-
 
 NO. IV. 
 
 After stopping a day or more at Shawneetown, and reconnoitering its 
 ricinity, I proceeded to the mouth of the Cumberland, and from thence, 
 after many days detention at that point waiting for a boat, to the mouth of 
 the Ohio. I found this to be a highly interesting section of the river, from 
 its great expanse and its fine water prospects. The picturesque calcareous 
 cliffs on the west banks, display a novel and attractive line of river scenery. 
 The Ohio had, from its commencement, well sustained the propriety of its 
 ancient appellation of the Beautiful River ; but it here assumed something 
 more than beautiful it was majestic. Let it be borne in mind that this 
 stream, in the course of some seven or eight hundred miles flow from 
 Pittsburg to Shawneetown, had been swelled on the right and left hand by 
 the Scioto, the Muskingum, the Kentucky, the Miami, Green River, Wa- 
 bash, and other rivers of scarcely inferior size. It is still further aug- 
 mented, from the left bank, with those noble tributaries, the Cumberland 
 and Tennessee, which bring in the gathered drain of the middle ranges 
 of the Alleghanies. It is below Shawneetown, too, that the cliffs of the 
 Cave-in-Rock- Coast present themselves on the west shore with their as- 
 sociations of the early robber-era which has been commemorated by the 
 pen of fiction of Charles Brockden Brown. These cliffs are cavernous; 
 and assume varied forms. They rise in bold elevations, which bear the 
 general name of the Knobs, but which are well worthy of the name of moun- 
 tains. Distinct from the interest they have by casting their castle-like 
 shadows, at sunset, in the pure broad stream, they constitute a kind 
 of Derbyshire in their fine purple spars, and crystalized galena and other 
 mineralogical attractions. I was told that a German of the name of Storch, 
 who pretended to occult knowledge, had, years before, led money and 
 mineral diggers about these Knobs, and that he was the discoverer of the 
 fine fluates of lime found here. 
 
 One can hardly pass these broken eminences, with the knowledge that 
 they tally in their calcareous structure and position with the rock forma- 
 tion of the Missouri state border, lying immediately west of them, without 
 regarding them as the apparent monuments of some ancient geological 
 change, which affected a very wide space of country north of their posi- 
 tion. A barrier of this nature, which should link the Tennessee and Mis-
 
 S4 t PERSONAL REMINISCENCES. 
 
 souri coasts, at Grand Tower, would have converted into an inland sea 
 the principal area of the present states of Illinois, Indiana, and Southern 
 Ohio. The line of separation in this latitude is not great. It constitutes 
 the narrowest point between the opposing rock formations of the east and 
 west shores, so far as the latter rise through and above the soil. 
 
 I was still in a floating Monongahela ark as we approached this coast 
 of cliffs. The day was one of the mildest of the month of June, and the 
 surface of the water was so still and calm that it presented the appearance 
 of a perfect mirror. Our captain ordered alongside the skiff, which served 
 as his jolly boat, and directed the men to land me at the Great Cave. Its 
 wide and yawning mouth gave expectations, however, which were not 
 realized. It closes rapidly as it is pursued into the rock, and never could 
 have afforded a safe shelter for gangs of robbers whose haunts were 
 known. Tradition states, on this point, that its mouth was formerly closed 
 and hid by trees and foliage, by which means the unsuspecting voyagers 
 with their upward freight were waylaid. We overtook the slowly float- 
 ing ark before it had reached Hurricane Island, and the next land we 
 made was at Smithfield, at the mouth of the Cumberland. While here, 
 several discharged Tennessee militiamen, or volunteers from the still un- 
 finished Indian war in the south, landed on their way home. They were 
 equipped after the fashion of western hunters, with hunting shirts and 
 rifles, and took a manifest pride in declaring that they had fought under 
 " old Hickory" a term which has, since that era, become familiar to the 
 civilized world. >I here first saw that singular excrescence in the vegeta- 
 ble kingdom called cypress knees. The point of land between the 
 mouth of the Cumberland and Ohio, was a noted locality of the cypress 
 tree. This tree puts up from its roots a blunt cone, of various size and 
 height, which resembles a sugar loaf. It is smooth, and without limb or 
 foliage. An ordinary cone or knee would measure eight inches in diam- 
 eter, and thirty inches high. It would seem like an abortive effort of the 
 tree to put up another growth. The paroquet was exceedingly abundant 
 at this place, along the shores, and in the woods. They told me that this 
 bird rested by hooking its upper mandible to a limb. I made several 
 shooting excursions into the neighbouring forests, and remember that I 
 claimed, in addition to smaller trophies of these daily rambles, a shrike 
 and a hystrix. 
 
 At length a keel boat came in from the Illinois Saline, commanded by 
 a Captain Ensminger an Americo-German a bold, frank man, very 
 intelligent of things relating to river navigation. With him I took passage 
 for St. Louis, in Missouri, and we were soon under weigh, by the force 
 of oars, for the mouth of the Ohio. We stopped a short time at a new 
 hamlet on the Illinois shore, which had been laid out by some speculators 
 of Cincinnati, but was remarkable for nothing but its name. It was 
 called, by a kind of bathos in nomenclature, " America." I observed on
 
 PERSONAL REMINISCENCES. 25 
 
 the short* of the river at this place, a very recent formation of pudding- 
 stone, or rather a local stratum of indurated pebbles and clay, in which 
 the cementing ingre4i ent was the oxyde of iron. Chalybeate waters per- 
 colated over and amongst ihi* mass. This was the last glimpse of consol- 
 idated matter. All below, and indeed f M above, was alluvial, or of recent 
 origin. Nothing could exceed the fertile character of the soil, or its rank 
 vegetation and forest growth, as we approached the point of junction but 
 it was a region subject to periodical overflows, the eras of which were'\ CIy 
 distinctly marked by tufts and bunches of grass, limbs, and other floating 
 matter which had been lodged and left in the fovl-s and branches u trees, 
 now fifteen or twenty feet above our hqads. It was now the first day of 
 July, and I felt the most intense interest as we approached and came to the 
 point of confluence. I had followed the Ohio, in all its sinuosities, a thou- 
 sand miles. I had spent more than three months in its beautiful and va- 
 ried valley ; and I had something of the attachment of an old friend for its 
 noble volume, and did not well like to see it about to be lost in the mighty 
 Mississippi. Broad and ample as it was, however, bringing in the whole 
 congregated drain of the western slopes of the Alleghanies and the table 
 lands of the Great Lakes, the contest was soon decided. The stream had, 
 at that season, sunk down to its summer level, and exhibited a transparent 
 blue volume. The Mississippi, on the contrary, was swelled by the melt- 
 ing snows of the Rocky Mountains, and was in its vernal flood. Coming 
 in at rather an acute angle, it does not immediately arrest the former, but 
 throws its waters along the Tennessee shores. It runs with prodigious 
 velocity. Its waters are thick, turbid, and replete with mingled and float- 
 ing masses of sand and other comminuted rock and floating vegetation, 
 trees, and rubbish. For miles the line of separation between the Ohio and 
 Mississippi waters was visible by its colour ; but long before it reaches the 
 Iron Banks, the modern site of Memphis the Father of Waters, as it 
 is poetically, not literally, called had prevailed, and held on its way to 
 make new conquests of the St. Francis, the White, the Arkansas, and 
 other noble streams. 
 
 Our captain, although he had no lack of self-confidence, did not seem to 
 be in haste to grapple with this new foe, by plunging at once into the tur- 
 bid stream, but determined to try it next morning. This left me, a good 
 part of the day, in a position where there was not much to reward inquiry. 
 I fished awhile from the boat's side, but was rewarded with nothing 
 besides a gar, a kind of sword, or rather billed fish, which appears to be 
 provided with this appendage to stir up its food or prey from a muddy 
 bottom. Its scales and skin are nearly as hard and compact as a shark's, 
 and its flesh is equally valueless. It is at this point that the town of Cairo 
 has since been located. There were, at the period mentioned, several 
 arks and flat-boats lying on the higher banks, where they had been moored 
 in high water. These now served as dwellings, and by cutting doors in
 
 26 PERSONAL REMINISCENCES. 
 
 their sides they formed rude groceries and provision stores. Whatever 
 else, however, was to be seen at so low and nascent a point, the mosquito, 
 as night cam<j on, soon convinced us that he was the true magnate of those 
 dominions. 
 
 The next morning at an early hour our stout-hearted commander put 
 his boatmen in motion. **>* 'Ued his keel into the torrent ; but such was 
 the velocity ^ tQe water ? an d its opacity and thick turbidness, that I 
 thougfit we should have been precipitated down stream, and hurled against 
 sunken logs. Those who have ascended this stream in the modern era 
 of otoamboats, know nothing of these difficulties. It seemed impossible to 
 stem tne current. A new mode of navigation, to me at least, was to be 
 tried, and it was evidently one whrch tl best practised and stoutest-hearted 
 men by no means relishe"d. These boats are furnished with a plank walk 
 on each side, on which slats are nailed to give a foothold to the men. 
 Each man has a pole of ash wood about 16 feet long, with a wooden knob 
 at the head to rest against the shoulder, and a blunt point at the other end 
 shod with iron. Planting these upon the bottom near shore, with their 
 heads facing down stream, the men bend all their force upon them, pro- 
 pelling the boat by their feet in the contrary direction. This is a very 
 laborious and slow mode of ascent, which has now been entirely super- 
 seded on the main rivers by the use of steam. 
 
 Such is the fury and velocity of the current, that it threatens at every 
 freshet to tear down and burst Asunder its banks, and run lawless through 
 the country. Often whole islands are swept away in a short time. We 
 had an instance of this one night, when the island against which we were 
 moored, began to tumble into the channel, threatening to overwhelm us by 
 the falling earth and the recoil of the waves, and we got away to the main 
 shore with much effort, for night was set in, the current furious, and the 
 shore to which we were going entirely unknown. To have struck a 
 sunken log on such a traverse, under such circumstances, must have been 
 fatal. We got at length upon a firm shore, where we moored and turned 
 in at a late hour ; but a curious cause of alarm again roused us. Some 
 animal had made its appearance on the margin of the stream, not far below 
 us, which in the dimness of the night appeared to be a bear. All who 
 had arms, got them, and there was quite a bustle and no little excitement 
 among the cabin passengers. The most knowing pronounced it to be a 
 white bear. It produced a snorting sound resembling it. It seemed furi- 
 ous. Both white and. furious it certainly was, but after much delay, .com- 
 mendable caution, and no want of the display of courage, it turned out to 
 be a large wounded hog, which had been shot in the snout and head, and 
 came to allay its fevered and festered flesh, by night, in the waters of the 
 Mississippi. 
 
 To stem the current along this portion of the river required almost 
 superhuman power, Often not more than a few miles can be made with
 
 PERSONAL REMINISCENCES. 27 
 
 a hard day's exertions. We went the first day six miles, the second about 
 the same distance, and the third eight miles, which brought us to the first 
 cultivated land along a low <H*-ir,t of the west shore, called the Tyewapety 
 Bottom. There were six or eight small farms at this spot ; the land rich, 
 and said to be quite well adapted for corn, flax, hemp, and tobacco. I ob- 
 served here the papaw. The next day we ascended but three miles and 
 stopped, the crew being found too weak to proceed. While moored to the 
 bank, we were passed by several boats destin" for St. Louis, which were 
 loaded with pine boards and plank from Ok j, on the sources of the Al- 
 leghany. They told us that sixty dollars j\t L - thousand feet could be ob- 
 tained for them. 
 
 Additional men having been hired, we went forward the next day to a 
 point which is called the Little Chain of Rocks, where, from sickness i" 
 
 . some of the hands, another halt became necessary. It is at fir' * "* 
 , ~ ,., . , ., . , _,. -nore first presents 
 
 the firm cherty clay, or diluvial sou of the Mb*t; -i , , 
 
 1r , J . % , . mu . ..- or a sterile and mineral cha- 
 
 itself on the banks of the river. J^ point of . near ^ 
 
 racter I noticed beneajh^^ which . g called chal ^ 
 
 a locality of wb'*~ , ^ . f . . 
 
 J .. oy mechanics. Un giving a specimen of it, after my returr 
 
 to New York in 1819, to Mr. John Griscom, he found it completely desti. 
 tute of carbonic acid ; it appears to be a condition of alumine or nearly- 
 pure clay. Large masses of. pudding-stone, disrupted from their originai 
 position, were seen lying along the shore at this locality, being similar in 
 their character to that seen on approaching the mouth of the Ohio. 
 
 We ascended the river this day ten miles, and the next five miles, whuh 
 brought us to Cape Girardeau, at the estimated distance of fifty miles above 
 the mouth of the Ohio. At this place I was received with attention by one 
 of the principal residents, who, on learning that my object was to examine 
 the natural history of the country, invited me to his house. In rambling 
 the vicinity, they showed me a somewhat extra but dilapidated and 
 deserted house, which had been built by one Loramee, a Spanish trader, 
 who has left his name on one of the branches of the river St. Mary's of 
 Indiana. This old fabric excited a strong interest in my mind as I walked 
 through its open doors and deserted rooms, by a popular story, how true I 
 know not, that the occupant had been both a rapacious and cruel man, 
 siding with the Indians in the hostilities against our western people ; and 
 that he had, on one occasion, taken a female captive, and with his own 
 hands cut off her breasts. 
 
 The journey from Cape Girardeau to St. Louis occupied nineteen days, 
 and was fraught with scenes and incidents of interest, which I should de- 
 tail with pleasure were it compatible with my limits. Indeed, every day's 
 voyage along this varied and picturesque shore presented objects of remark, 
 which both commended themselves to my taste, and which the slow mode 
 of ascent gave me full means to improve. This might be said particularly
 
 28 PERSONAL REMINISCENCES* 
 
 of its geological structure and its mineralogical productions themes which 
 were then fresh and new, but which have lost much of their attractions by 
 the progress which natural science has made in the country during six 
 and twenty years. To these topics it is the less necessary to revert, as 
 they were embraced in the results of my tour, given in my " View of the 
 Mines? published in 1819. 
 
 The article improperly called pumice, which floats down the Missouri 
 during its floods, from the burning coal banks in the Black Hills, I first 
 picked up on the shore in the ascent above Cape Girardeau, and it gave 
 me an intimation that the waters had commenced falling. We came to, 
 the same night, at a well known fountain, called the Moccasin Spring, a 
 copious and fine spring of crystal water, which issues from an elongated 
 "*****4jithe limestone rock. 
 
 ""^"Shfimouth of the river Obrazo. where we were detained 
 on account ot nandsTsfr^^,, , . , . 
 
 j -R.T Vr^at2J uc hed at the place, carrying emigrants 
 '" from Vermont and New YorT?>^_ 
 
 ... . At , ;^*4ination was the most westerly 
 s settlements on the Missouri. At higherpV^: 
 
 i, ,, . ~ t ^^>the ascent we encoun- 
 
 n> *ered emigrants from Maine, Connecticut, Pennsylvtfe^. . 
 
 .... , ., r , . vH*0 Carolina. 
 
 P e md Kentucky, which denotes the wide range of the spirit oirnrgi,.-. " ^ 
 
 ^he era. The ends of the Union seemed to be brought together by this 
 sec yeneral movement towards the west. It was not uncommon to find rep- 
 resentatives from a great number of the states in these accidental meetings ; 
 ^ they were always of a social and highly friendly character, and the effect 
 of such a system of intercommunication and residence, from districts widely 
 separated, could not but be highly auspicious in promoting uniformity of 
 manners and opinions, and assimilating customs, dress, and language. 
 If Jong continued it must destroy provincialisms, and do much to annihilate 
 local prejudices. 
 
 Every one who has ascended this stream will recollect the isolated cliff, 
 standing in its waters, called Grand Tower, with the corresponding de- 
 velopments of the coast on the contiguous shores, which tell the traveller 
 plainly enough that here is the site of some ancient disruptive process in 
 the physical history of the valley. The current has an increased velocity 
 in sweeping around this obstacle ; and we found, as the waters fell, that 
 there were numerous eddies and strong jets or currents along this precipi- 
 tous coast, which it required extra force to surmount. We saw one day a 
 number of pelicans standing on a sand bar. The wild turkey and quail 
 were daily encountered on shore. 
 
 Our approach to St. Genevieve was preceded by a sight of one of those 
 characteristic features in all the early French settlements in this quarter 
 the ?reat public field extending several miles, five miles I think, along the 
 banks 'of the river. St. Genevieve itself lies about a mile from the river, 
 ami is concealed by irregularities in the surface. It is a highly charac- 
 teristic antique French town, and reminds one strongly of the style and
 
 PERSONAL HEMINISCENCES. 29 
 
 manner of building of the provincial villages and towns of the parent 
 country, as still existing. Three miles above this place we came to a noted 
 point of crossing called the Little Rock Ferry ; a spot worthy of note at 
 that time as the residence of a very aged Frenchman, called Le Breton. 
 Statements which are believed to be true, made him 109 years old. From 
 his own account he was at the seige of Bergen-op-zoom, in Flanders ; at 
 the seige of Louisburg; at the building of Fort Chartres, in Illinois ; and 
 at Braddock's defeat. After his discharge, he discovered those extensive 
 lead mines in Washington county, about forty miles west of the river, 
 which still bear his name. 
 
 The coast between St. Genevieve and Herculaneum is almost one con- 
 tinuous cliff of precipitous rocks, which are broken through chiefly at the 
 points where rivers and streams discharge. Herculaneum itself is seated 
 on o v ae of these limited areas, hemmed in by cliffs, which, in this case, 
 we,re rendered still more picturesque by their elevated shot towers. I 
 landed at this place about noon of my twenty-second day's ascent, and find- 
 ing it a convenient avenue to the mine district, determined to leave my 
 baggage at a hotel till my return from St. Louis, and pursue the rest of the 
 journey to that place on foot. It was at this point that I was introduced to 
 Mr. Austin, the elder, who warmly approved my plan of exploring the 
 mines, and offered every facility in his power to further it. Mr. Austin 
 was, he informed me at a "subsequent stage of our acquaintance, a native 
 of Connecticut. He had gone early into Virginia and settled at Richmond* 
 where his eldest son was born, and afterwards removed to Wythe county. 
 In 1778 he went into Upper Louisiana, enduring severe sufferings and 
 the risk of life, in crossing the country by way of Vincennes to St. Louis, 
 *vhere he was well received by the Spanish local governor. He obtained 
 a grant of land in the present area of Washington county, the principal 
 seat of the older mines. About the time I went to Missouri, or soon after 
 it, he resolved to visit San Antonio, in Texas, with a view of introducing 
 a colony of Americans into that quarter. This plan he carried into execu- 
 tion, I think, ija 1820, and returned with an ample grant; but he did not 
 live to carry its stipulations into effect, having died suddenly after his 
 return, at the house of his daughter, Mrs. Bryant, at Hazel Run. 
 
 Mr. Austin was a man of great zeal and fervour of imagination, and en- 
 tered very warmly into all his plans and views, whatever they were. He 
 was hospitable, frank, intelligent, and it is with feelings of unmixed plea- 
 sure, that I revert to my acquaintance with him, no less than with his talented 
 son, Stephen, and the excellent, benign, and lady-like Mrs. Austin, and 
 other members of this intelligent family.
 
 NO. V. 
 
 HERCULANEUM had nothing in common with its sombre Italian proto- 
 type, which has been dug out of dust and ashes in modern times, but its 
 name. Instead of buried palaces and ruins of a luxurious age of marble, 
 bronze and silver, most of the houses were built of squared oak logs, and 
 had bulky old fashioned chimneys, built outside with a kind of castelated 
 air, as they are seen in the old French and Dutch settlements in Canada, 
 and along the vallies of the Hudson and Mohawk. The arts of painting 
 and gilding' and cornices, had not yet extended their empire here. Mr. 
 Austin's residence, was the only exception to this remark, I remember. 
 The Courts of Justice were content to hold their sessions in one of the 
 oaken timber buildings named ; the county jail had a marvellous re- 
 semblance to an ample smoke-house, and my kind host, Ellis, who was a na 
 live of South Carolina, was content to serve up substantial and good cheer 
 in articles, not exhumed from a city buried in volcanic ashes, but in plain 
 fabrics of Staffordshire and Birmingham. In addition to the host-like and 
 agreeable resort, which travellers unexpectedly found at his hands, in a 
 mansion whose exterior gave no such signs, he presided over the depart- 
 ment of a public ferry, established at this place, across the wild and fluc- 
 tuating Mississippi; and had he kept note book, he could have given 
 account of many a one, from other lands, with golden hopes of the far 
 west, whom he had safely conducted, against the most adverse floods, to 
 the Missouri shore. I found a few old books at his house, which showed 
 that there had been readers in his family, and which helped to while 
 away moments, which every traveller will find on his hands. 
 
 I have intimated that there was nothing in the way of the antique, in 
 Herculaneum, but its name. To this I might add, that there was no ex- 
 ception, unless it be found in the impressions of objects, in the structure 
 of the rocks, in this quarter, denoting a prior age of existence. I was 
 shown an impression, in the surface of a block of limestone, quarried here, 
 which was thought to resemble a man's foot. It did not appear to me to 
 bear this similitude, but was rather to be referred to some organic extinct 
 forms, which are not yet well understood. 
 
 Having passed a couple of days here, I set out early one morning, 
 
 30
 
 PERSONAL REMINISCENCES. 3j 
 
 ^ 
 
 on foot, for St. Louis, accompanied by two young men from Pennsylvania, 
 with whom I had become acquainted on prior parts of my route. They 
 had come with an adventure of merchandize from the waters of the 
 Yioughagany, and were desirous of seeing the (then) capitol of the Terri- 
 tory. Nothing untoward occurred, until we reached and crossed the 
 river Merrimack, where night overtook us, and set in with intense dark- 
 ness, just as we reached the opposite shore. There was but one house in 
 the vicinity ; and not distant more than a mile, but such was the intensity 
 of the darkness, owing to clouds and a gathering storm, that we lost the 
 road, wandered in the woods for some hours, 'during which the rain com- 
 menced, and were at length directed to the house we sought, by the faint 
 and occasional tinkling of a cow bell. 
 
 We travelled the next morning twelve miles, to breakfast at the antique 
 6oking village of Carondalet. The route lies over an elevated tract of 
 uplands, eligibly situated on the right bank of the Mississippi, in which 
 a growth of wild prairie grass and flowers, filled up the broad spaces be- 
 tween the trees. There was no habitation visible on the route a stand- 
 ing spring under a ledge of rocks, about half way, was the only spot 
 where we could get a drop of water to allay our thirst for it was a hot 
 August day. We encountered several deer, and from the frequent occur- 
 rence of their tracks, deemed such an occurrence to be common. It is on 
 this elevated and airy tract, that the site of Jefferson Barracks, has since 
 been judiciously established by the government. 
 
 Beyond Carondalet, the country has the appearance of a grown-up 
 heath. It is a bushy uninviting tract, without mature forest trees. The 
 most interesting feature we saw, consisted of a number of regular depres- 
 sions, or cup-shaped concavities in the soil, caused by the passage of 
 springs over a clay basis, upon which there is deposited a heavy diluvial 
 stratum of sand, mixed earth and pebbles. Within about three miles of the 
 city, this heathy and desolate tract began to assume a cultivated character ; 
 dwellings and gardens soon succeeded, and we found ourselves, by almost 
 imperceptible grades, introduced into the city, which we reached about 
 four o'clock in the afternoon. On entering its ancient Spanish barriers, 
 we noticed one of the old stone towers, or defences, which constituted a 
 part of the enclosure. This town, I afterwards learned, had been regu- 
 larly walled and fortified, during the ^possession of the country by the 
 Spanish crown. As soon as I had taken lodg^gs, I called on R. Petti- 
 bone Esq., a friend formerly of Vernon, in western N. Y. who had estab- 
 lished himself in this central city of the west, in the practice of the law; 
 he was not in, at the moment, but his family received me with cordiality. 
 He returned my visit in the evening, and insisted on my taking up my 
 quarters at his house. The time that I spent here, was devoted to the 
 most prominent objects which the town and its vicinity presented to in- 
 terest a stranger, such as the private museum of the late Gen. Wm. Clark,
 
 32 PERSONAL REMINISCENCES. 
 
 containing many articles of rich and valuable Indian costume ; the largs 
 natural mounds above the city, and the character of the rock formation 
 along the shores of the river, which was said to have had the impressions 
 of human feet, on its original surface. The latter I did not see till the 
 summer of 1821, when the block of stone containing them was examined 
 in Mr. Rapp's garden, at Harmony, on the Wabash. 
 
 My inclinations having led me, at this time, to visit the extensive lead 
 mines, southwest of this city, on the waters of the Merrimack, I lost no 
 time in retracing my way to Herculaneum, by descending the Mississippi 
 When I was prepared to descend the river, the two gentlemen who 
 had been my travelling companions, on the journey up, had completed 
 the business of their adventure, and offered me a seat, in a small boat, 
 under their control. It was late in the afternoon of the day that this 
 arrangement was proposed, and it was dusk before we embarked ; but it 
 was thought the village of Cahokia, some five or six miles below, could 
 be reached in good season. A humid and misty atmosphere rendered the 
 night quite dark, and we soon found ourselves afloat on the broad current 
 of the stream, without knowing our position, for it was too intensely dark 
 to descry the outlines of either shore. Being in a light open boat, we 
 were not only in some peril, from running foul of drifting trees, but it 
 became disagreeably cold. On putting in for the Illinois shore, a low 
 sandy bar, or shoal was made, but one of my companions who had landed 
 came running back with an account of a bear and her cub, which caused 
 us to push on about a mile further, where we passed the night, without 
 beds or fire. Daylight disclosed to us the fact that we had passed Caho 
 kia ; we then crossed over to the Missouri shore, and having taken break 
 fast at Carondalet, continued the voyage, without any further misadven 
 ture, and reached Herculaneum at noon. 
 
 I lost no time in preparing to visit the mines, and having made arrang* 
 ments for my baggage to follow, set out on foot for Potosi. The first daj 
 I proceeded eighteen miles, and reached Steeples, at the head of th* 
 Zwoshau, or Joachim river, at an early hour. The day was excessively 
 hot, and the road lay for the greater part of the distance, over a ridge of 
 land, which afforded -ao water, and very little shelter from the sun's rays. 
 I met not a solitary individual on the route, and with the exception of the 
 small swift footed lizard, common to the way side, and a single wild turkey, 
 nothing in the animal kj$gdom. The antlers of the deer frequently seen 
 above the grass, denoted it however to abound in that animal. I was con- 
 strained while passing this dry tract, to allay my thirst at a pool, in a rut, 
 not, however, without having disconcerted a wild turkey, which had come 
 apparently for the same purpose. 
 
 Next day I crossed the valley of Grand or Big river, as it is commonly 
 called, and at the distance of twelve miles from the Joachim, I entered the 
 mining village of Shibboleth the feudal seat, so to say, of the noted
 
 PERSONAL REMINISCENCES. 33 
 
 " John Smith T." of whose singularities rumour had already apprized me. 
 Here was a novel scene. Carts passing with loads of ore smelting fur 
 naces, and fixtures, and the half-hunter, half-farmer costumes of the group 
 of men who were congregated about the principal store, told me ' very 
 plainly, that I was now in the mining region. Lead digging and dis- 
 covering, and the singular hap-hazards of men who had suddenly got rich 
 by finding rich beds of ore, and suddenly got poor by some folly or extra- 
 vagance, gave a strong colouring to the whole tone of conversation at thi* 
 spot, which was carried on neither in the mildest or most unobtrusive way . 
 quite a vocabulary of new technical words burst upon me, of which it was 
 necessary to get the correct import. I had before heard of the pretty 
 term, " mineral blossom," as the local name for radiated quartz, but here 
 were tiff (sulphate of barytes), glass-tiff (calcareous spar), " mineral sign," 
 and a dozen other words, to be found in no books. At the head of these 
 new terms stood the popular word "mineral," which invariably meant 
 galena, and nothing else. To hunt mineral, to dig mineral, and to smelt 
 mineral, were so many operations connected with the reduction of the 
 ores of galena. 
 
 I soon found the group of men about the village store, was a company 
 of militia, and that I was in the midst of what New Yorkers call a " train- 
 ing," which explained the hunter aspect I had noticed. They were 
 armed with rifles, and dressed in their every day leather or cotton hunting 
 shirts. The officers were not distinguished from the men, either because 
 swords were not easily procured, or more probably, because they did not 
 wish to appear with so inefficient and useless an arm. " Food for powder," 
 was the first term that occurred to me on first surveying this group of men, 
 but nothing could have been more inapposite ; for although like " lean 
 Jack's" men, they had but little skill in standing in a right line, never 
 were men better skilled for personal combat, from the specimens given, I 
 believe there was hardly a man present, who could not drive a bullet into 
 the size of a dollar at a hundred yards. No man was better skilled in this 
 art, either with rifle or pistol, than the Don of the village, the said John 
 Smith T., or his brother, called " the Major," neither of whom travelled, 
 or eat, or slept, as I -after wards witnessed, without their arms. During 
 my subsequent rambles in the mine country, I have sat at the same table, 
 slept in the same room, and enjoyed the conversation of one or the other, 
 and can say, that their extraordinary habit of going fully armed, was 
 united in both with courteous manners, honourable sentiments, and high 
 chivalric notions of personal independence ; and I had occasion to notice, 
 that it was none but their personal enemies, or opponents in business, that 
 dealt in vituperation against them. John Smith T. was doubtless a man 
 of singular and capricious humours, and a most fiery spirit, when aroused ; 
 of which scores of anecdotes are afloat. He was at variance with several 
 of his most conspicuous neighbours, and, if he be likened to the lion of
 
 34 PERSONAL REMINISCENCES. 
 
 the forest, it will be perfectly just to add, that most of the lesser animals 
 stood in fear of him. 
 
 My stop here had consumed some time, but thinking I could still reach 
 Mine a Burton, I pushed on, but had only proceeded a couple of miles 
 when I was hastily compelled to seek shelter from an impending shower. 
 As it was late, and the storm continued, I remained at a farm house, at 
 Old Mines during the night. They gave me a supper of rich fresh 
 milk and fine corn bread. In the morning, a walk of three miles brought 
 me to Potosi. where I took lodgings at Mr. Ficklin's, proprietor of the 
 principal inn of the place. Mr. F. was a native of Kentucky, a man of 
 open frank manners, and most kind benevolent feelings, who had seen 
 much of frontier life, had lived a number of years in Missouri, and now 
 at a rather advanced period of life, possessed a fund of local knowledge 
 and experience, the communication of which rendered the time I spent at 
 his house both profitable and pleasing. 
 
 I reached Potosi on the second of August. The next day was the day 
 of the county election*, which brought together the principal miners and 
 agricultural gentlemen of the region, and gave me a favourable oppor- 
 tunity of forming acquaintance, and making known the object of my visit. 
 I was particularly indebted to the civilities of Stephen F. Austin, Esq. 
 for these introductions. During my stay in the country he interested 
 himself in my success, omitted no opportunity of furthering my views, and 
 extending my acquaintance with the geological features and resources of 
 the country. He offered me an apartment in the old family mansion of 
 Durham Hall, for the reception and accumulation of my collections. 
 Mr. Bates and sons, Mr. Jones and sons, Mr. Perry and brothers, Mr. 
 Elliot, Mr. Brickey, Mr. Honey and others, seconded these civilities. In- 
 deed the friendly and obliging disposition I uniformly met with, from the 
 inhabitants of the mines, and the mine country generally, is indelibly im- 
 pressed on my memory. 
 
 I was now at the capital of the mines, and in a position most favour- 
 able for obtaining true information of their character and value. 
 Three months devoted to this object left scarcely a nook of the country 
 which I had not either personally explored, or obtained authentic 
 information of. I found forty-five principal mines, or mineral diggings 
 as some of them are called, within a circumference of less than forty 
 miles. Potosi, and its vicinity yielded annually about three millions 
 of pounds of lead, and furnished employment to the estimated num- 
 ber, of eleven to twelve hundred hands. The business was however de- 
 pressed, like almost every other branch of domestic arts or industry, 
 after the peace of 1814, owing to the great influx and low prices of 
 
 * About 70 votes were polled in the town of Potosi. Mr. Austin, the younger, WM 
 returned by the county to the Territorial Legislature.
 
 PERSONAL REMINISCENCES. 35 
 
 foreign products, and the general derangement ot currency and credit. 
 Prepared ore, delivered at the furnaces, was worth two dollars per cwt. 
 paid chiefly in merchandize. Pig lead sold at four dollars, at the mines ; 
 and but half a dollar higher on the banks of the Mississippi, and was 
 quoted at seven dollars in the Atlantic cities. Judged from these data, 
 there appeared no adequate cause for the alleged depression ; for in addi- 
 tion to the ordinary merchant's profit, in the disposition of his stock to the 
 operative miner or digger of ore, a profit of one cent and a half per pound 
 was left, over and above the cost of transportation to an eastern market ; 
 besides, the difference in exchange, between the south western and eastern 
 cities. And it was evident, from a view of the whole subject, that the 
 business could not only be profitably pursued, with economical arrange- 
 ments, but that the public domain, upon which most of the mines are 
 seated, might be made to yield a revenue to the treasury, at least equal to 
 the amount of this article required for the national consumption, over the 
 expenses, the superintendence and management. Besides which, there 
 was great room for improved and economical modes of mining; and there 
 was hardly one of the manipulations, from the making of a common drill 
 or pick, to the erection of a smelting furnace, which did not admit of salu- 
 tary changes for the better. The recovery of the mere waste lead, in its 
 sublimated form, around the open log furnaces of the country, promised to 
 add a valuable item to the profit of the business. The most wasteful, hurried, 
 and slovenly of all systems is pursued in exploring and raising the ore, by 
 which the surface of the country is riddled with pit holes, in the most 
 random manner ; the loose and scattered deposits in the soil hastily gathered 
 up, and the real lead and veins of metal left, in very many cases, untouched. 
 Thousands of square acres of land were thus partially rifled of their 
 riches, and spoiled, and condemned, without being exhausted. By having 
 no scientific knowledge of mineral veins and geological structure, as prac- 
 tically adopted in Europe, all rule in the process of mining and raising 
 the ore had degenerated into mere guess work, and thousands of dollars 
 had been wasted, in some places, where the application of some of the 
 plainest mining principles, would not have warranted the removal of a 
 shovel full of earth. In short, there was here observed, a blending of the 
 miner and farmer character. Almost every farmer was a miner. Plan- 
 ters who had slaves, employed them part of the year in mining; and 
 every miner, to some extent was a farmer. Because the ore found in the 
 clay beds did not occur in east and west, or north and south lines, or its 
 rules of deposition had not been determined by careful observation, all 
 success in the exploration was supposed to be the result of chance. And 
 whoever surveys the mineral counties of Missouri, wil be ready to con- 
 clude, that more labour has been thrown away in the helter-skelter sys- 
 tem of digging, than was ever applied to well directed or profitable
 
 36 PERSONAL REMINISCENCES 
 
 mining. Had an absolute monarch called for this vast amount of labour 
 from his people to build some monument, he would have been declared 
 the greatest tyrant. Indeed, I know of no instance in America, of the 
 misapplication of so great an amount of free labour labour cheerfully 
 bestowed, and thrown away without a regret. For the losers in mining, 
 like the adventurers in a lottery, have no one to blame but themselves. 
 
 It appeared to me that a statement of the actual condition of the mines, 
 would be received with attention at Washington, and that a system for the 
 better management of them could not but be approved, were it properly 
 brought forward. I determined to make the attempt. It did not, how- 
 ever, appear to me, that nature had limited the deposits of ore to one spe- 
 cies, or to so limited an area, and I sought means to extend my personal 
 examinations farther west and south. To bring this about, and to collect 
 the necessary information to base statements on, in a manner correspondent 
 to my wishes, required time, and a systematic mode of recording facts. 
 
 To this object, in connexion with the natural history of the country, I 
 devoted the remainder of the year, and a part of the following year. I 
 soon found, after reaching the mines, that I had many coadjutors in the 
 business of collecting specimens, in the common miners, some of whom 
 were in the habit of laying aside for me, any thing they found, in their 
 pits and leads, which assumed a new or curious character. Inquiries and 
 applications relative to the mineralogy and structure of the country were 
 made, verbally and by letter, from many quarters. I established my resi- 
 dence at Potosi, but made excursions, from time to time, in various direc- 
 tions. Some of these excursions were fruitful of incidents, which would 
 be worth recording, did the cursory character of these reminiscences per- 
 mit it. On one occasion, I killed a horse by swimming him across the 
 Joachim river, at its mouth, whilst he was warm and foaming from a hard 
 day's ride. He was put in the stable and attended, but died the next day, 
 as was supposed, from this sudden transition. There was scarcely 
 a mine or digging in the country, for forty miles around, which I did not 
 personally examine ; and few persons, who had given attention to the 
 subject, from whom I did not derive some species of information. 
 
 The general hospitality and frankness of the inhabitants of the mine 
 country could not but make a favourable impression on a stranger. The 
 custom of riding on horseback, in a region which affords great facilities 
 for it, makes every one a horseman and a woodsman, and has generated 
 something of the cavalier air and manners. But nothing impressed me 
 more, in this connexion, than the gallant manner, which I observed here, 
 of putting a lady on horseback. She stands facing you, with the bridle 
 in her right hand, and gives you her left. She then places one of her feet 
 in your left hand, which you stoop to receive, when, by a simultaneous 
 exertion and spring, she is vaulted backwards into the saddle. Whether
 
 PERSONAL REMINISCENCES. 37 
 
 mis be a transmitted Spanish'eustom, I know not, but I have not observed 
 it in the French, or American settlements west of the Alleghanies. 
 
 The earthquakes of 1812, which were so disastrous in South America, 
 are known to have propagated themselves towards the north, and they ex- 
 erted some striking effects in the lower part of the valley of the Missis- 
 sippi, sending, down into the channel of the latter, large areas of deluvial 
 earth', as was instanced, in a remarkable manner, at New Madrid. Por- 
 tions of the forest, back of this town, sunk, and gave place to lakes and 
 lagoons. These effects were also witnessed, though in a milder form, in 
 the more solid formations of the mine country. Soon after reaching 
 Potosi, I visited the Mineral Fork, a tributary of the Merrimack, where 
 some of these effects had been witnessed. I descended into the pit and 
 crevices of the Old Mines. These mines were explored in the metallifer- 
 ous rock. Every thing had an old and ruinous look, for they had been 
 abandoned. Large quantities of the ore had been formerly raised at this 
 mine, which was pursued into a deep fissure of the limestone rock. I de- 
 scended into this fissure, and found among the rubbish and vein stones, 
 large elongated and orbicular masses of calc spar, the outer surfaces of 
 which bore strong marks of geological abrasion. They broke into rhombs 
 very transparent, and of a honey-yellow colour. Mr. Elliot, the intelli- 
 gent proprietor of this mine, represented the indications of ore to have been 
 flattering, although every thing was now at a stand. Masses of sulphuret 
 of zinc, in the form of blende, were noticed at this locality. Mr. Elliot 
 invited me to dine, and he filled up the time with interesting local remin- 
 iscences. He stated, among other facts, that a copious spring, at these 
 mines, dried up during the remarkable earthquakes of 1812. These 
 earthquakes appear to have discharged their shocks in the direction of the 
 stratification from the southwest to the northeast, but they spent their force 
 west of the Mississippi. Their chief violence was at Natchitoches and 
 New Madrid, at the latter of which they destroyed an immense area of 
 alluvial land. Their effects in the Ohio valley, lying exactly in the direc- 
 tion of their action, were slight. A Mr. Watkins, of Cincinnati, accom- 
 panied me on this examination, and rode back with me to Potosi. 
 
 On the 9th of August, I had dined with Samuel Perry, Esq., at Mine 
 a Burton, one of the principal inhabitants of the county, and was passing 
 the evening at Mr. Austin's, when Mr. and Mrs. Perry came suddenly in. 
 They had hardly taken seats, when a rabble of persons with bells and 
 horns surrounded the house, and kept up a tumult that would have done 
 honor to one of the wildest festivals of St. Nicholas, headed by Brom Bones 
 himself. This, we were told, was a Chiraviri. And what is a Chiravin? 
 I am not deep enough read in French local customs to give a satisfactory 
 answer, but the custom is said to be one that the populace may indulge in, 
 whenever a marriage has taken place in the village, which is not in exact 
 accordance with their opinions o< its propriety. I was, by this incident, in-
 
 38 PERSONAL REMINISCENCES. 
 
 formed of Mr. Perry's recent marriage, and should judge, moreover, that 
 he had exercised both taste and judgment in his selection of a partner. 
 The affair of the Chiraviri is said to have been got up by some spiteful 
 persons. 
 
 Towards the middle of the month (12th,) I set out, accompanied by Mr. 
 James B. Austin, on horseback, for Herculaneum, by the way of Hazel 
 Run, a route displaying a more southerly section of the mine country than 
 I had before seen. A ride on horseback over the mine hills, offers one 
 of the most delightful prospects of picturesque sylvan beauty that can be 
 well conceived of. The hills are, with a few exceptions, not precipitous 
 enough to make the ride irksome. They rise in long and gentle swells, 
 resembling those of the sea, in which the vessel is, by an easy motion, al- 
 ternately at the top of liquid hills, or in the bottom of liquid vales. From 
 these hills the prospect extends over a surface of heath-grass and prairie 
 flowers, with an open growth of oaks, giving the whole country rather 
 the aspect of a park than a vrilderness. Occasionally a ridge of pine 
 intervenes, and wherever there is a brook, the waters present the trans- 
 parency of rock crystal. Sometimes a range of red clay hillocks, put- 
 ting up rank shrubs and vines of species which were unkiwwn before^ 
 indicates an abandoned digging or mine. Farms and farm houses were 
 then few ; and every traveller we met on horseback, had more or less the 
 bearing of a country cavalier, with a fine horse, good equipments, per- 
 haps holsters and pistols, sometimes a rifle, and always something of a 
 military air, betokening manliness and independence. Wherever we 
 stopped, and whoever we met on the way, there was evinced a courteous 
 and hospitable disposition. 
 
 We did not leave Potosi till afternoon. It was a hot August day, and it 
 was dusk before we entered the deep shady valley of Big River. Some 
 delay arose in waiting for the ferryman to put us across the river, and it 
 was nine o'clock in the evening when we reached Mr. Bryant's, at Hazel 
 Run, where we were cordially received. Our host would not let us leave 
 his house, next morning, till after breakfast. We rode to McCormick's, 
 on the Flatten, to dinner, and reached Herculaneum before sunset. The 
 distance by this route from Potosi is forty-five miles, and the road, with 
 the exception of a couple of miles, presented a wholly new section of the 
 country. 
 
 The Mississippi was now low, displaying large portions of its margin, 
 and exhibiting heavy deposits of mud and slime, which broke into cakes, 
 as they dried in the sun. I know not whether these exhalations affected 
 me, but I experienced a temporary illness for a few days during this visit. 
 I recollect that we had, during this time, some severe and drenching rain 
 storms, with vivid and copious lightning, and heavy pealing thunder. 
 These drenching and rapid showers convert the brooks and rills of the 
 mine country to perfect torrents, and this explains one cause of the wash-
 
 PERSONAL REMINISCENCES. 39 
 
 ing away and gullying- of roads and streets, so remarkable on the west 
 bank of the Mississippi. My illness induced me to give up returning on 
 horseback ; and I set out, on the 18th of the month, in a dearborn, accom- 
 panied by Mrs. Austin. On descending the long hill, near Donnell's, be- 
 yond the Joachim, the evening was so dark that I became sensible I must 
 have got out of the road. I drove with the more care a few moments, 
 and stopped. Requesting Mrs. Austin to hold the reins, I jumped out 
 and explored the ground. I found myself in an abandoned, badly gullied 
 track, which would have soon capsized the wagon ; but leading the horse 
 by the bridle, I slowly regained my position in the direct road and got 
 down the hill, and reached the house without further accident. Next day 
 we drove into Potosi by four o'clock in the afternoon. This was my 
 second visit, and 1 now accepted a room and quarters for my collection, 
 at their old homestead called Durham Hall. 
 
 From this period till the middle of September, I pursued with unre- 
 mitting assiduity, the enquiry in hand, and by that time had made a cabi- 
 net collection, illustrating fully the mineralogy, and, to some extent, the geo- 
 logical structure of the country. I erected a small chemical furnace for 
 assays. Some of the clays of the country were found to stand a high 
 heat, and by tempering them with pulverized granite, consisting largely 
 of feldspar, I obtained crucibles that answered every purpose. Some of 
 the specimens of lead treated in the dry way, yielded from 75 to 82 pei 
 wac 
 
 -voeidem threw :u ^y way, on the 25th of August, a fact which led to 
 cne discovery of a primitive tract, on the southern borders of the mine 
 country, the true geological relation of which to the surrounding second- 
 ary formations, formed at the outset rather a puzzle. I rode out on horse- 
 back on that day, with Mr. Stephen F. Austin, to Miller's, on the Mineral 
 Fork, to observe a locality of manganese, and saw lying, near his mills, 
 some large masses of red syenitic granite, which appeared to have been 
 freshly blasted. He remarked that they were obtained on the St. Francis, 
 and were found to be the best material at hand for millstones. On exami- 
 nation, the rock consisted almost exclusively of red feldspar and quartz. 
 A little hornblende was present, but scarcely a trace of mica. This 
 species of syenitic granite, large portions of which, viewed in the field, 
 are complete syenite, and all of which is very barren of crystals, I have 
 since found on the upper Mississippi, and throughout the northwestern 
 regions above the secondary latitudes. The hint, however, was not lost 
 I took the first opportunity to visit the sources of the St. Francis : having 
 obtained letters to a gentleman in that vicinity, I set out on horseback 
 for that region, taking a stout pair of saddle-bags, to hold my collections. 
 I passed through Murphy's and Cook's settlements, which are, at the 
 present time, the central parts of St. Francis county. Mine a la Motte 
 afforded some new facts in its mineralogical features. I first saw this red
 
 40 PERSONAL REMINISCENCES. 
 
 syenite, in place, on Blackford's Fork. The westernmost limits of this 
 ancient mine extends to within a mile or two of this primitive formation. 
 The red clay formation extends to the granitic elevations, and conceals 
 their junction with the newer rock The nearest of the carboniferous 
 series, in place, is on the banks of Rock Creek, at some miles' distance. 
 It is there the crystalline sandstone. How far this primitive district of 
 the St. Francis extends, has not been determined. The St. Francis and 
 Grand rivers, both have their sources in it. It is probable the Ozaw Fork 
 of the Merrimack comes from its western borders. Not less than twenty 
 or thirty miles can be assigned for its north and south limits. The Iron 
 mountain of Bellvieu is within it. The vicinity of the pass called the 
 Narrows, appears to have been the locality of former volcanic action. A 
 scene of ruder disruption, marked by the vast accumulation of broken 
 rock, it would be difficult to find. Indeed the whole tract is one of high 
 geological, as well as scenic interest. Had the observer of this scene 
 been suddenly dropped down into one of the wildest, broken, primitive 
 tracts of New England, or the north east angle of New York, he could 
 not have found a field of higher physical attractions. Trap and green- 
 stone constitute prominent tracts, and exist in the condition of dykes in 
 the syenite, or feldspathique granite. I sought in vain for mica in the 
 form of distinct plates. Some of the greenstone is handsomely porpho- 
 rytic, and embraces green crystals of feldspar. Portions of this rock are 
 sprinkled with masses of bright sulphuret of iron. Indeed iron in several 
 of its forms abounds. By far the largest portion of it is in the shape of 
 the micaceous oxyde. I searched, without success, for the irridescen 
 specular variety, or Elba ore. In returning from this trip, I found Wolf 
 river greatly swollen by rains, and had to swim it at much hazard, with 
 my saddle-bags heavily laden with the results of my examination. It was 
 dark when I reached the opposite bank : wet and tired I pushed for the 
 only house in sight. As I came to it the doors stood open, the fences 
 were down, a perfect air of desolation reigned around. There was no 
 living being found ; and the masses of yawning darkness exhibited by 
 the untenanted rooms, seemed a fit residence for the genius of romance. 
 Neither my horse nor myself were, however, in a temper or plight for an 
 adventure of this kind, and the poor beast seemed as well pleased as I 
 was, to push forward from so cheerless a spot. Four miles' riding through 
 an untenanted forest, and a dark and blind road, brought us to a Mr. 
 Murphy s, the sponsor of Murphy's settlement.
 
 
 IN THE OZARK MOUNTAINS. 
 A. D. 1818 AND 1819. 
 
 FROM THE ORIGINAL NOTES AND JOURNAL. 
 
 PRELIMINARY REMARKS. 
 
 VERY little, it is conceived, is necessary to enable the reader to determine 
 the writer's position on the extreme south western frontiers, in the year 
 1818. He had spent the summer of that year in traversing the mine dis- 
 trict, which extends along- the right bank of the Mississippi, between the 
 mouth of the Maromeg and the diluvial cliffs south of Cape Girardeau, 
 extending west and south westward to the sources of the St. Francis. In 
 these mineralogical rambles, which were pursued sometimes on foot, and 
 sometimes on horseback, or wheels, he made acquaintance with many 
 estimable men, amongst whom he may name the Austins, father and son, 
 the late Col. Ashley, John Rice Jones, Esq., and many others who are 
 still living, by all whom, his object in visiting the country was cordially 
 approved and encouraged, at all times. He also became acquainted with 
 practical miners, and persons of enterprize who were not only familiar 
 with the settled frontiers, but who had occasionally penetrated beyond 
 them, into the broad expanse of highlands, now geographically known 
 under the term of, the Ozark Chain. Geologically considered, the mine 
 country is but the eastern flanks of this chain, which extends flush to the 
 banks of the Mississippi, and has its terminus in that elevated range of 
 mural cliffs, which form so striking and often picturesque a display, be- 
 tween St. Genevieve and St. Louis. There was, at the time, a general 
 apprehension felt and expressed, by hunters and others who had pene- 
 trated those wilds in quest of deer and buffalo, or of saltpetre-earth in the 
 limestone caves, of the predatory tribe of theOsages, a people who had for 
 years enjoyed the bad reputation of being thieves and plunderers. All 
 concrirred, however, irr 'the interesting character of the country extending 
 in a general course, south-westwardly, from the junction of the Missouri 
 with the Mississippi. He felt an ardent desire to penetrate this terra 
 incognita. He could not learn that any exploratory journey had been 
 m^de towards the Rocky Mountains, since the well known expeditions of 
 I. t 3wis and Clark, up the Missouri, and of Lieut. Pike, across the upper 
 r trion of the Arkansas, to Sante Fe and Chihuahua. Breckenridge had 
 
 41
 
 42 ADVENTURES IN THE OZARK MOUNTAINS. 
 
 subsequently published an account of a trip to Council Bluffs.* But nei- 
 ther of these routes crossed the wide and mountanious tracts referred to, or 
 gave any definite information respecting them. Viewed on the map, these 
 routes formed the general exterior outlines, but they left the interior filling 
 up to be supplied, or, if supplied at all, it was too often with such vague 
 
 phrases as these ' Here are salt mountains." " The is supposed to 
 
 take its rise here." " Volcanic hills," and so forth. The geology of the 
 country furnished no indications whatever of the probability of the latter 
 remark. The kind of pseudo-pumice found floating down the Missouri, 
 in high water, had been stated by Lewis and Clarke, to have a far more 
 remote, and local origin. The description of rock salt, in mountain mass, 
 had long been numbered by popular belief, among the fanciful creations 
 of an exciting political era ; and together with western volcanoes, had 
 settled down among those antiquarian rumours, which hold up, as their 
 prime item, the existence of the living mammoth " beyond the big lakes." 
 
 If the writer of the notes and journal which furnish these sketches, 
 was not swayed by any particular theories of this nature, yet was he not 
 free from the expectation of finding abundant materials, in the natural pro- 
 ductions and scenery and incidents of the journey, to reward him amply for 
 its perils. He had received from hunters several objects of the minerological 
 and geological collection which he made, while living at Potosi, and Mine a 
 Burton: from these wild borders, and, without pretending to estimate the 
 force of each particular object which made up the sum of his motives, he 
 resolved to organize an expedition, with all the means he could muster, 
 and explore the region. The Austins, who had treated him with marker? 
 kindness and attention, from the hour of hir first limiting in Missouri, 
 were then preparing .-IK-- .heir first movomrnt into Texas, and neid 
 out to him a fine the;...,, lor enterprise ; but it was one not suited to his 
 particular means or taste. He recoiled from the subtlety of the Spanish 
 character ; and is free to confess, that he deemed it a far more attractive 
 latitude for the zea maize and the cotton plant, than for those pursuits 
 which led him to prefer the more rugged eminences of the Ozarks. 
 They, in the end, founded a republic, and he only made an adventurous 
 journey. 
 
 Having thus recalled the era and the motive of the following sketches, 
 the purport of these remarks is accomplished. 
 
 New York, 1844. 
 
 The United States government, the ve^y next year, >S19, sent out Col. Long to tha 
 Yellow Stone.
 
 ADVENTURES IN THE OZARK MOUNTAINS. 43 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 Things to be thought of before plunging into the woods Composition of the party, and 
 reasons why it was not more numerous First night's encampment Preliminaries 
 Sleep in a deserted Indian lodge A singular variety of the Fox Squirrel The 
 Pack Horse escapes Cross the elevation called the Pinery Reach the outskirts of 
 the settlements in the valley of the Fourche A'Courtois. 
 
 WHOEVER would venture into the wilderness, should provide himself 
 with such articles of personal comfort or safety, as habits, forecast, or the 
 particular object of pursuit or observation, require. Every one will think 
 of arms and ammunition, but there are other things required to make life 
 pleasant, or even tolerable in the woods. This, prior excursions had 
 already taught me, but the lesson was repeated by those of greater expe- 
 rience. There were two persons who had agreed to go with me, and 
 stick by me, to the end, the one a native of Massachussets, and the other, 
 of Connecticut, both like myself, new in the field, and unacquainted with 
 life in the woods. What they lacked in this art, they more than made up, 
 I thought, in intelligence, enterprise and resource. The name of the first 
 was Brigham. The other, I shall allude to, under the name of Enobitti. 
 Some three or four other persons, natives of the region, had consented to 
 go as hunters, or adventurers into a new field for emigration, but it so 
 happened, that when all was ready when every objection to the tour had 
 been obviated, and every want supplied, and when my two eastern friends 
 came on to the ground, these persons all quietly, and with an easy flow of 
 reasons, backed out. In fact, my friend Brigham, was also obliged to 
 relinquish the journey, after he had reached the point of rendezvous, i. e. 
 Potosi. A residence on the American bottom, in Illinois, the prior sum- 
 mer, had exposed him to the malaria of that otherwise attractive agricul- 
 tural area, and an intermittent fever, which he had thus contracted, forbade 
 his venturing beyond the settlements. So that when the appointed day 
 arrived, Enobitti and myself and my good landlord, Ficklin a warm 
 hearted Kentuckian, who had been a hunter and border spy in his youth, 
 were all the persons I could number, and the latter, only went a short dis- 
 tance, out of the. goodness of his heart, and love of forest adventure, to set 
 us, as it were, on the way, and initiate us into some necessary forest arts. 
 It was a bright balmy day, the 6th of November, 1818. The leaves were 
 rapidly falling from the trees, and strewed the road and made a musical 
 rustling among the branches, as we passed the summits of the mine hills, 
 which separated the valley of Mine Burton from the next adjoining 
 stream. The air had just enough of the autumn freshness in it, to make 
 it inspiring ; and we walked forward, with the double animation of health
 
 44 ADVENTURES IN THE OZARK MOUNTAINS 
 
 and hope. As we passed through forests where the hickory abounded, 
 the fox and grey squirrel were frequently seen preparing their winter's 
 stores, and gave additional animation to the scene. It was early in the 
 afternoon when we came into the valley of Bates' Creek it was indeed 
 but a few miles from our starting point, where our kind Mentor told us, it 
 was best to encamp ; for, in the first place, it was the only spot where we 
 could obtain water for a long distance, and secondly, and more important 
 than all. it was necessary that we should re-arrange the load of our pack- 
 horse, take a lesson in the art of encamping, and make some other prepa- 
 rations which were proper, before we plunged outright into the wilderness. 
 This was excellent advice, and proper not only to novices, but even to the 
 initiated in the woodsman's art. It is always an object, to make, by this 
 initiatory movement, what is technically called a start. 
 
 I had purchased at Potosi, a horse a low priced animal, rather old and 
 bony, to carry our blankets, some light cooking utensils and a few other 
 articles of necessity, and some provisions. He bore the not very appro- 
 priate name of" Butcher," whether from a former owner, or how acquired 
 I know not, but he was not of a sanguinary temper, or at least, the only 
 fighting propensity he ever evinced was to get back to Potosi. as quick as 
 possible, for he ran off the very first night, and frequently, till we got qtiit^ 
 far west, repeated the attempt. The poor beast seemed to know, instinc- 
 tively, that he was going away from the land of corn fodder, and would 
 have to sustain himself by picking up his meals out of sere-grass, often in 
 stony places, or in some dense and vine-bound cane bottom, where his hind 
 legs would often he bound fast by the green briar, while he reached for- 
 ward in vain, to bite off a green leaf. 
 
 Here we took the first lesson in duly hobbling a horse a very neces- 
 sary lesson: for if not hobbled, he will stray away, and cause great deten- 
 tion in the morning, and if not well hobbled he will injre his legs. We 
 found, near the banks of the stream, a deserted Indian lodge, which ap- 
 peared susceptible, by a little effort, of affording us a very comfortable 
 night's lodging, and would furthermore, should it rain, prove an effectual 
 shelter. This arrangement we immediately set about : the horse was un- 
 packed, his burden stowed in the lodge, the horse hobbled and belled, and 
 a fire lit. While my companion arranged the details of the camp, and 
 prepared to hoil a cup of tea, I took my gun, and, with but little ado. shot 
 anumber of fine fox and grey squirrels beingthe first fruits of our exertions 
 in the chace. Among them, there was one of decidedly mongrel species. 
 If not, Ihe variety was peculiar. He had a grey body, and a red foxy 
 tail, with the belly, nose, and tips, of the ears black, thus uniting charae- 
 terestics of three varieties. One or two of these were added to our supper, 
 which we made with great satisfaction, and in due time spread out our 
 blankets, and slept soundly till day break. 
 
 On sallying out, I found the horse was gone, and set out in pursuit of
 
 ADVENTURES IN THE OZARK MOUNTAINS. 45 
 
 him. Although his fore feet were tethered, so that he must lift up both 
 together, he made his way back, in this jumping manner, to his former 
 owner's door, in the village of Mine a Burton. He had not, however, 
 kept the path, all the way, and losing his track after he got on the herbage, 
 my ear caught the sound of a bell far to the left, which I took to be his, 
 and followed. I pursued the sound of this bell ; which was only heard 
 now and then, till after crossing hill and dale, without deviation from the 
 line of sound, I came out at a farm yard, four miles below Potosi ; where 
 I found the bell to be attached to the neck of a stately penned ox. The 
 owner, (who knew me and the circumstance of my having set out on the 
 expedition,) told me, that Butcher had reached the mines, and been sent 
 back, by a son of his former owner, to my camp. I had nothing left, but 
 to retrace my way to the same spot, where I found the fugitive, and sat 
 down to a breakfast of tea, bread, ham and squirrel. The whole morning 
 had been lost by this misadventure. It was ten o'clock before we got the 
 animal packed and set forward. 
 
 Our second day's journey yielded but little to remark. We travelled 
 diligently along a rough mountainous path, across a sterile tract called the 
 Pinery. This tract is valuable only for its pine timber. It has neither 
 farming land nor mineral wealth. Not a habitation of any kind was 
 passed. We saw neither bird nor animal. The silence of desolation 
 eeemed to accompany us. It was a positive relief to the uniform sterility 
 of the soil, and monotony of the prospect, to see at length, a valley before 
 us. It was a branch of the Maromeg, or Merrimack, which is called by 
 its original French term of Fourche a Courtois. We had travelled a dis- 
 tance of fourteen miles over these flinty eminences. The first signs of 
 human habitation appeared in the form of enclosed fields. The sun sunk 
 below the hills, as we entered this valley, and we soon had the glimpse of 
 a dwelling. Some woodcock flew up as we hastened forward, and we 
 were not long in waiting for our formal announcement in the loud and 
 long continued barking of dogs. It required the stern commands of their 
 master, before they slunk back and became quiet. It was a small log 
 tenement of the usual construction on the frontiers, and afforded us the 
 usual hospitality and ready accommodation. They gave us warm cakes 
 of corn bread, and fine rich milk. We spread our blankets before an 
 evening's fire, and enjoyed a good night's rest. Butcher here, I think, 
 had his last meal of corn, and made no attempt to return. With the 
 earliest streaks of day light, we re-adjusted his pack, and again set 
 forward.
 
 ADVENTURES IN THE OZARK MOUNTAINS. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 Reach a hunter's cabin on the outskirts of the wilderness He agrees to accompany 
 us Enter the Ozark Hills Encounter an encampment of the Delaware Indians 
 Character of the country Its alpine air, and the purity of its waters. Ascend to 
 the source of the Merrimack Reach a game country Deserted by the hunter and 
 guide, and abandoned to individual exertions in these arts. 
 
 EVERY joint labour, which proceeds on the theory, that each person en- 
 gaged in it is to render some personal service, must, in order that it may 
 go on pleasantly and succeed well, have a definite order, or rule of pro- 
 gress j and this is as requisite in a journey in the wilderness as any where 
 else. Our rule was to lead the pack horse, and to take the compass and 
 guide ahead, alternately, day by day. It was thought, I had the best art 
 in striking and making a fire, and when we halted for the night, always did 
 this, while my companion procured water and put it in a way to boil for 
 tea. We carried tea, as being lighter and more easy to make than coffee. 
 In this way we divided, as equally as possible, the daily routine of duties, 
 and went on pleasantly. We had now reached the last settlement on the 
 frontier, and after a couple of hours' walk, from our last place of lodging, 
 we reached the last house, on the outer verge of the wilderness. It was 
 a small, newly erected log hut, occupied by a hunter of the name of Ro- 
 berts, and distant about 20 miles from, and south-west of Potosi. Our ap- 
 proach here was also heralded by dogs. Had we been wolves or pan- 
 thers, creeping upon the premises at midnight, they could not have 
 performed their duty more noisily. Truly this was a very primitive 
 dwelling, and as recent in its structure as it was primitive. Large fallen 
 trees lay about, just as the axeman had felled them, and partly consumed 
 by fire. The effect of this partial burning had been only to render these 
 huge trunks black and hideous. One of them lay in front of the cottage. 
 In other places were to be seen deer skins stretched to dry; and 
 deers' feet and antlers lay here and there. There was not a foot of 
 land in cultivation. It was quite evident at first sight, that we had 
 reached the dwelling of a border hunter, and not a tiller of the ground. 
 But the owner was absent, as we learned from his wife, a spare, shrewd 
 dark-skinned little woman, drest in buckskin, who issued from the dooi 
 before we reached it, and welcomed us by the term of " Strangers." Al 
 though this is a western term, which supplies the place of the word 
 " friend," in other sections of the union, and she herself seemed to be 
 thoroughly a native of these latitudes, no Yankee could have been 
 more inquisitive, in one particular department of enquiry, namely the de- 
 partment relative to the chace. She inquired our object the course and 
 distance we proposed tr travel, and the general arrangements of horse-
 
 ADVENTUEES IN THE OZA.RK MOUNTAINS. 47 
 
 gear, equipage, &c. She told us of the danger of encountering the 
 Osages, and scrutinized our arms. Such an examination would indeed, 
 for its thoroughness, have put a lad to his trumps, who had come 
 prepared for his first quarter's examination at a country academy. She 
 told us, con amore, that her husband would be back soon, as soon indeed 
 as we could get our breakfast, and that he would be glad to accompany 
 us, as far as Ashley's Cave, or perhaps farther. This was an opportunity 
 not to be slighted. We agreed to wait, and prepare our morning's 
 meal, to which she contributed some well baked corn cakes. By this 
 time, and before indeed we had been long there, Roberts came in. It is 
 said that a hunter's life is a life of feasting or fasting. It appeared to be 
 one of the latter seasons, with him. He had been out to scour the 
 precincts, for a meat breakfast, but came home empty handed. He was 
 desirous to go out in the direction we were steering, which he represented 
 to abound in game, but feared to venture far alone, on account of the ras- 
 cally Osages. He did not fear the Delawares, who were near by. 
 He readily accepted our offer to accompany us as hunter. Roberts, like 
 his forest help-mate, was clothed in deer skin. He was a rather chunky, 
 stout, middle sized man, with a ruddy face, cunning features, and a 
 bright unsteady eye. Such a fellow's final destination would not be a 
 very equivocal matter, were he a resident of the broad neighbourhood of 
 Sing Sing, or "sweet Auburn:" but here, he was a man that might, 
 perhaps, be trusted on an occasion like this, and we, at any rate, were glad to 
 have his services on the terms stipulated. Even while we were talk- 
 ing he began to clean his rifle, and adjust his leathern accoutrements : he 
 then put several large cakes of corn bread in a sack, and in a very 
 short time he brought a stout little horse out of a log pen, which 
 served for a barn ; and clapping an old saddle on his back and mounting 
 him, with his rifle in one hand, said, " I am ready," and led off. We 
 now had a guide, as well as a hunter, and threw this burden wholly 
 on him. Our course lay up a long ridge of hard bound clay and chert 
 soil, in the direction of the sources of the Marameg, or, as it is now uni- 
 versally called and written, Merrimack. After travelling about four 
 miles we suddenly descended from an acclivity into a grassy, woodless 
 valley, with a brisk clear stream winding through it, and several lodges 
 of Indians planted on its borders. This, our guide told us, was the Ozaw 
 Fork of the Merrimack, (in modern geographical parlance Ozark.) And 
 here we found the descendants and remainder of that once powerful 
 tribe of whom William Penn purchased the site of Philadelphia, and 
 whose ancient dominion extended, at the earliest certain historical era 
 along the banks the Lennapihittuck, or Delaware river. Two of them 
 were at home, it being a season of the year, and time of day, when the 
 men are out hunting. Judging from peculiarity of features, manners and 
 dress, it would seem to be impossible that any people, should have re-
 
 48 
 
 mained so long in contact with or juxtaposition to the European races, 
 and changed so little, in all that constitutes national and personal identity. 
 Roberts looked with no very friendly eye upon these ancient lords of the 
 forest, the whole sum of his philosophy and philanthropy being measured 
 by the very tangible circle of prairie and forests, which narrowed his own 
 hunting grounds. They were even then, deemed to have been injudici- 
 ously located, by intelligent persons in the west, and have long since re- 
 moved to a permanent location, out of the corporate limits of the States 
 and Territories, at the junction of the river Konga with the Missouri. I 
 should have been pleased to have lengthened our short halt, but the word 
 seemed with him and Enobitti to be " onward," and onward we pushed. 
 We were now fairly in the Ozark chain a wide and almost illimitable 
 tract, of which it may be said, that the vallies only are susceptible of fu- 
 ture cultivation. The intervening ridges and mountains are nearly desti- 
 tute of forest, often perfectly so, and in almost all cases, sterile, and unfit 
 for the plough. It is probable sheep might be raised on some of these 
 eminences, which possess a sufficiency of soil to permit the grasses to be 
 sown. Geologically, it has a basis of limestones, resting on sandstones. 
 Unfortunately for its agricultural character, the surface has been co- 
 vered with a foreign diluvium of red clay filled with chips of horstone, chert 
 and broken quartz, which make the soil hard and compact. Its trees are 
 few and stunted ; its grass coarse. In looking for the origin of such a soil, 
 it seems probable to have resulted from broken down slates and shists on the 
 upper Missouri and below the range of the Rocky Mountains, in which 
 these broken and imbedded substances originally constituted veins. It is 
 only in the vallies, and occasional plains, that a richer and more carbo- 
 naceous soil has accumulated. The purest springs, however, gush out of 
 its hills ; its atmosphere is fine and healthful, and it constitutes a theatre 
 of Alpine attractions, which will probably render it, in future years, tht 
 resort of shepherds, lovers of mountain scenery, and valetudinarians 
 There is another remark to be made of the highland tracts of the Ozari 
 range. They look, in their natural state, more sterile than they actually 
 are, from the effects of autumnal fires. These fires, continued for ages bj 
 the natives, to clear the ground for hunting, have had the effect not only 
 to curtail and destroy large vegetation, but all the carbonaceous particles of 
 the top soil have been burned, leaving the surface in the autumn, rough, 
 red, dry and hard. When a plough comes to be put into such a surface, 
 it throws up quite a different soil ; and the effects of light, and the sun's 
 heat are often found, as I have noticed in other parts of the west, to pro- 
 duce a dark and comparatively rich soil. 
 
 We occupied the entire day in ascending and crossing the ridge of 
 land, which divides the little valley of the Oza from that of the Merrimack. 
 When getting near the latter, the soil exhibited traces of what appeared 
 to be iron ore, but somewhat peculiar in its character, and of dark hue.
 
 ADVENTURES IN THE OZARK MOUNTAINS. 49 
 
 This soon revealed itself, in passing a short distance, in an abundant lo- 
 cality of black and coloured oxide of manganese lying in masses in the 
 arid soil. The Indian trail which we were pursuing led across the val- 
 ley. We forded the river on foot. No encampments of Indians were 
 found, nor any very recent traces of them; and we began to think that 
 the accounts of Osage depredations and plundering, must be rather exag- 
 gerated. The river pours its transparent mountain waters over a wide 
 bed of pebbles and small boulders, and, at this season, offered but little im- 
 pediment to the horses or ourselves in crossing it. The sun was getting 
 low, by the time we reached the opposite side of the valley, and we en- 
 camped on its borders, a mile or two above. Here we took due care of 
 our horses, prepared our evening's meal, talked over the day's adven- 
 tures, enjoyed ourselves sitting before our camp fire, with the wild wide 
 creation before us and around, and then sank to a sound repose on our 
 pallets. 
 
 Novices in the woodman's art, and raw in the business of travelling, 
 our sleep was sounder and more death-like, than that of Roberts. His 
 eye had shown a restlessness during the afternoon and evening. We 
 were now in a game country, the deer and elk began to be frequently 
 seen, and their fresh tracks across our path, denoted their abundance. 
 During the night they ventured about our camp, so as to disturb the ears 
 of the weary hunter, and indeed, my own. He got up and found both 
 horses missing. Butcher's memory of Mine a Burton corn fodder had 
 not deserted him, and he took the hunter's horse along with him. I jumped 
 up, and accompanied him, in their pursuit. They were both overtaken 
 about three miles back on the track, making all possible speed homeward, 
 that their tethered fore legs would permit. We conducted them back, 
 without disturbing my companion, and he then went out with his rifle, 
 and quickly brought in a fine fat doe, for our breakfast. Each one cut 
 fine pieces of steaks, and roasted for himself We ate it with a little salt, 
 and the remainder of the hunter's corn cakes, and finished the repast, with 
 a pint cup each, of Enobitti's best tea. This turned out to be a finale 
 meal with our Fourche a Courtois man, Roberts : for the rascal, a few 
 hours afterwards, deserted us, and went back. Had he given any intima- 
 tion of dissatisfaction, or a desire to return, we should have been in a 
 measure prepared for it. It is probable his fears of the then prevalent bug- 
 bear of those frontiersmen, the Osages, were greater than our own. It is 
 also probable, that he had no other idea whatever, in leaving the Fourche a 
 Courtois, than to avail himself of our protection till he could get into a 
 region where he could shoot deer enough in a single morning to load 
 down his horse, with the choicest pieces, and lead him home. This the 
 event, at least, rendered probable ; and the fellow not only deserted us 
 meanly, but he carried off" my best new hunting knife, with scabbard and 
 belt a loss not easily repaired in such a place.
 
 50 
 
 ADVENTURES IN THE OZARK MOUNTAINS. 
 
 To cloak his plan, he set out with us in the morning: it had rained a little, 
 during the latter part of the night, and was lowering and dark all the 
 morning. After travelling about ten miles, we left the Osage trail, which 
 began to bear too far north-west, and struck through the woods in a south 
 course, with the view of reaching Ashley's Cave on one of the head 
 streams of the river currents. Soon after leaving this trail, Roberts, who 
 was in advance on our left, about half a mile, fired at, and killed, a deer, 
 and immediately re-loaded, pursued and fired again ; telling us to continue 
 on our course, as he, being on horseback, could easily overtake us. We 
 neither heard nor saw more of him. Night overtook us near the banks of 
 a small lake, or rather a series of little lakes or ponds, communicating 
 with each other, where we encamped. After despatching our supper, and 
 adjusting, in talk, the day's rather eventful incidents, and the morrow's plan 
 of march, we committed ourselves to rest, but had not sunk into forgetful- 
 ness, when a pack of wolves set up their howl in our vicinity. We had 
 been told that these animals will not approach near a fire, and are not to 
 be dreaded in a country where deer abound. They follow the track of 
 the hunter, to share such part of the carcass as he leaves, and it is their 
 nature to herd together and run down this animal as their natural prey. We 
 slept well, but it is worthy of notice, that on awaking about day break, the 
 howling of the wolves was still heard, and at about the same distance. 
 They had probably serenaded us all night. Our fire was nearly out ; 
 we felt some chilliness, and determined to rekindle it, and prepare our 
 breakfast before setting forward. It was now certain, that Roberts was 
 gone. Luckily he had not carried off our compass, for that would have 
 been an accident fatal to the enterprise.
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 A deeper view of the Ozark Chain. Pass along the flanks of the highlands which 
 send out the sources of the Black, Eleven points, Currents and Spring rivers. Reach 
 a romantic glen of caves. Birds and animals seen. Saltpetre earth ; stalactites. 
 Cross the alpine summit of the western Ozarks. Source of the Gasconde river 
 Accident in fording the Little Osage river. Encamp on one of its tributaries. 
 
 IT was found, as we began to bestir ourselves for wood to light our fire 
 that we had reposed not far from ^i bevy of wild ducks, who had sought 
 the grassy edge of the lake during the night, and with the first alarm be- 
 took themselves to flight. With not so ready a mode of locomotion, we 
 followed their example, in due time, and also their course, which was 
 south. At the distance of a couple of miles, we crossed a small stream, 
 running south-east, which we judged to be the outlet of the small lakes 
 referred to, and which is, probably the source of Black River, or the 
 Eleven points. Our course led us in an opposite direction, and we soon 
 found ourselves approaching the sterile hills which bound the romantic 
 valley of the currents. There had been some traces of wheels, on the 
 softer soil, which had been driven in this direction toAvards the saltpetre 
 caves, but we completely lost them, as we came to and ascended these arid 
 and rugged steeps. Some of these steeps rose into dizzy and romantic 
 cliffs, surmounted with pines. We wound our way cautiously amongst 
 them, to find some gorge and depression, through which we might enter the 
 valley. For ourselves we should not have been so choice of a path, but 
 we had a pack horse to lead, and should he be precipitated into a gulf, we 
 must bid adieu to our camp equipage. Our arms and a single blanket, 
 would be all we could carry. At length this summit was reached. The 
 view was enchanting. A winding wooded valley, with its clear brigkt 
 river, stretched along at the base of the summit. Rich masses of foliage, 
 hung over the clear stream, and were reflected in its pellucid current, with a 
 double beauty. The autumnal frost, which had rifled the highland trees 
 of their clothing, appeared to have passed over this deeply secluded valley 
 
 51
 
 52 ADVENTURES IN THE OZARK MOUNTAINS. 
 
 with but little effect, and this effect, was only to highten the interest of the 
 scene, by imparting to portions of its foliage, the liveliest orange and crim- 
 son tints. And this was rendered doubly attractive by the contrast. Be- 
 hind us lay the bleak and barren hills, over which we had struggled, 
 without a shade, or a brook, or even the simplest representative of the ani- 
 mal creation. For it is a truth, that during the heat of the day, both birds 
 and quadrupeds betake themselves to the secluded shades of the streams 
 and vallies. From these they sally out, into the plains, in quest of food 
 at early dawn, and again just before night fall. All the rest of the day, 
 the plains and highlands have assumed the silence of desolation. Even- 
 ing began to approach as we cautiously picked our way down the cliffs, 
 and the first thing we did, on reaching the stream was to take a hearty 
 drink of its crystal treasure, and let our horse do the same. The next ob- 
 ject was to seek a fording place which was effected without difficulty. 
 On mounting the southern bank, we again found the trail, lost in the 
 morning, and pursued it with alacrity. It was my turn this day to be in 
 advance, as guide, but the temptation of small game, as we went up the 
 valley, drew me aside, while Enobitti proceeded to select a suitable spot 
 for the night's encampment. It was dark when I rejoined him, with my 
 squirrel and pigeon hunt. He had confined himself closely to the 
 trail. It soon led him out of the valley, up a long brushy ridge, and then 
 through an open elevated pine grove, which terminated abruptly in a per- 
 pendicular precipice. Separated from this, at some eight hundred yards 
 distance, stood a counter precipice of limestone rock, fretted out, into pin- 
 nacles and massy walls, with dark openings, which gave the whole the 
 resemblance of architectural ruins. The stream that ran between these 
 cliffs, was small, and it lay so deep and well embrowned in the shades of 
 evening, that it presented vividly from this elevation, a waving bright line 
 on a dark surface. Into this deep dark terrific glen the path led, and here 
 we lit our fire, hastily constructed a bush camp, and betook ourselves, 
 after due ablutions in the little stream, to a night's repose. The sky be- 
 came rapidly overcast, before we had finished our meal, and a night of 
 intense darkness, threatening a tempest, set in. As we sat by our fire, its 
 glare upon huge beetling points of overhanging rocks, gave the scene a 
 wild and picturesque cast ; and we anticipated returning daylight with an 
 anxious wish to know and see our exact locality. By the restless tramp- 
 ing of our horse, and the tinkling of his bell, we knew that he had found 
 but indifferent picking. 
 
 Daylight fulfilled the predictions of the evening. We had rain. It 
 also revealed our position in this narrow, and romantic glen. A high wall 
 of rocks, encompassed us on either hand, but they were not such as would 
 have resulted in a volcanic country from a valley fissure. Narrow and 
 deep as the glen was, it was at once apparent, that it was a valley of de- 
 nudation, and had owed its existence to the wasting effects of the trifling
 
 ADVENTURES IN THE OZARK MOUNTAINS. 53 
 
 stream within it, carrying away, particle by particle, the matter loosened 
 by rains and frosts, and mechanical attrition. The cliffs are exclusively 
 calcareous, and piled up, mason like, in horizontal layers. One of the 
 most striking pictures which they presented, was found in the great num- 
 ber, size and variety of caves, which opened into this calcareous formation. 
 These caves are of all sizes, some of them very large, and not a few of 
 them situated at elevations above the floor of the glen, which forbade ac- 
 cess. 
 
 One of our first objects, after examining the neighbourhood, was to re- 
 move our baggage and location up the glen, into one of these caves, 
 which at the distance of about a mile, promised us an effectual shelter from 
 the inclemency of the storm. This done, we determined here to wait for 
 settled weather, and explore the precincts. By far the most prominent 
 object, among the caverns, was the one into which we had thus uncere- 
 moniously thrust ourselves. It had evidently been visited before, by per- 
 sons in search of saltpetre earth. Efflorescences of nitric earth, were 
 abundant in its fissures, and this salt was also present in masses of reddish 
 diluvial earth, which lay in several places. The mouth of this cave pre- 
 sented a rude irregular arc, of which the extreme height was probably 
 thirty feet, and the base line ninety. The floor of this orifice occurs, at 
 an elevation of about forty feet above the stream. And this size is held for 
 about two hundred feet, when it expands into a lofty dome, some eighty or 
 ninety feet high, and perhaps, three hundred in diameter. In its centre a 
 fine spring of water issues from the rock. From this dome several pas- 
 sages lead off in different directions. 
 
 One of these opens into the glen, at an inaccessible point, just below. 
 Another runs back nearly at right angles with the mouth, putting out 
 smaller passages, of not much importance, however, in its progress. So 
 splendid and noble an entrance gave us the highest hopes of finding it but 
 the vestibule of a natural labyrinth ; but the result disappointed us. These 
 ample dimensions soon contract, and after following the main or south 
 passage about five hundred yards, we found our further entrance barred, 
 by masses of fallen rock, at the foot of which a small stream trickled 
 through the broken fragments, and found its way to the mouth. Have we 
 good reason to attribute to this small stream, a power sufficient to be re- 
 garded as the effective agent in carrying away the calcareous rock, so as 
 to have in a long period produced the orifice? Whence then, it may be 
 asked, the masses of compact reddish clay and pebble diluvium, which 
 exist ? These seem rather to denote that these caves were open orifices, 
 during the period of oceanic action, upon the surface of the Ozarks, and 
 that a mass of waters, surcharged with such materials, flowed into pre- 
 existing caverns. This diluvium is, in truth, of the same era as the wide 
 spread stream of like kind, which has been deposited over thfe metalliferous 
 region of Missouri. If these, however, be questions for geological doubt,
 
 54 ADVENTURES IN THE OZARK MOUNTAINS. 
 
 we had lit upon another inquiry, very prominent on our minds in 
 making this exploration, namely, whether there were any wild beasts 
 sheltered in its fissures. Satisfied that we were safe on this score, we re- 
 traced our footsteps to our fire, and sallied out to visit other caves. Most 
 of these were at such heights as prevented access to them. In one in- 
 stance, a tree had fallen against the face of the cliff, in such a manner, 
 that by climbing it to its forks, and taking one of the latter, the opening 
 might be reached. Putting a small mineral hammer in my pocket, I as- 
 cended this tree, and found the cave accessible. It yielded some wax- 
 yellow and white translucent stalactites, and also very delicate white crys- 
 tals of nitre. The dimensions of this cave were small, and but little 
 higher than to enable a man to stand upright. 
 
 In each of the caves of this glen which I entered, during a halt of 
 several days in this vicinity, I looked closely about for fossil bones, but 
 without success in any instance. The only article of this kind observed 
 was the recent leg and foot bones and vertebra of the bos musarius, 
 which appeared to be an inhabitant of the uppermost fissures in these cal- 
 careous cliffs, but I never saw the living species, although I ranged along 
 their summits and bases, with my gun and hammer, at various hours. 
 Some of the compact lime stone in the bed of the creek exhibited a striped 
 and jaspery texture. The wood-duck and the duck and mallard some- 
 times frequented this secluded stream, and it was a common resort for the 
 wild turkey, at a certain hpur in the evening. This bird seemed at such 
 times to come in thirsty, from its ranges in quest of acorns on the up- 
 lands, and its sole object appeared to be to drink. Sitting in the mouth 
 of our cave, we often had a fine opportunity to see flocks of these noisy 
 and fine birds flying down from the cliffs, and perching on the trees below 
 us. If they came to ifc>ost, as well as to slack their thirst, a supposition 
 probable, this was an ill-timed movement, so long as we inhabited the glen, 
 for they only escaped the claw and talons of one enemy, to fall before the 
 fire-lock of the other. This bird, indeed, proved our best resource on the 
 journey, for we travelled with too much noise and want of precaution 
 generally, to kill the deer and elk, which, however, were abundant on the 
 highland plains. 
 
 We passed three days at the Glen Cave, during which there were se- 
 veral rains ; it stormed one entire day, and we employed the time of this 
 confinement, in preparing for the more intricate and unknown parts of 
 our journey. Hitherto we had pursued for the most of the way, a trail, 
 and were cheered on our way, by sometimes observing traces of human 
 labour. But, from this point we were to plunge into a perfect wilderness, 
 without a trace or track. We had before us, that portion of the Ozark 
 range, which separates to the right and left, the waters of the Missouri 
 from those of the Mississippi. It was supposed, from the best reports, that 
 by holding south-west, across these eminences, we should strike the valley
 
 ADVENTURES IN THE OZARK MOUNTAINS. 55 
 
 of the White River, which interposed itself between our position there 
 and the Arkansas. To enter upon this tract, with our compass only as a 
 guide, and with the certainty of finding no nutritious grass for our horse 
 required that we should lighten and curtail our baggage as much as pos- 
 sible, and put all our effects into the most compact and portable form. 
 And having done this, and the weather proving settled, we followed a 
 short distance up the Glen of Caves ; but finding it to lead too directly 
 west, we soon left it and mounted the hills which line its southern border. 
 A number of latter valleys, covered with thick brush, made this a labour 
 by no means slight. The surface was rough ; vegetation sere and dry, 
 and every thicket which spread before us, presented an obstacle which was 
 to be overcome. We could have penetrated many of these, which the 
 horse could not be forced through. Such parts of our clothing as did not 
 consist 'of buckskin, paid frequent tribute to these brambles. At length 
 we got clear of these spurs, and entered on a high waving table land where 
 travelling became comparatively easy. The first view of this vista of 
 nigh land plains was magnificent. It was covered with moderate sized 
 sere grass and dry seed pods, which rustled as we passed. There was 
 scarcely an object deserving the name of a tree, except, now and then, a 
 solitary trunk of a dead pine, or oak, which had been scathed by light- 
 ning. The bleached skull of the buflalo, was sometimes met, and proved 
 that this animal had once existed here. Rarely we passed a stunted oak ; 
 sometimes a cluster of saplings crowned the summit of a sloping hill ; the 
 deer often bounded before us ; we sometimes disturbed the hare from its 
 sheltering bush, or put to flight the quail or the prairie hen. There was 
 no prominent feature for the eye to rest upon. The unvaried prospect 
 produced satiety. We felt in a peculiar manner the solitariness of the 
 wilderness. We travelled silently and diligently. It was a dry and thirsty 
 barren. From morning till sun set we did not encounter a drop of water. 
 This became the absorbing object. Hill after hill, and vale after vale 
 were patiently scanned, and diligently footed, without bringing the ex- 
 pected boon. At length we came, without the expectation of it, to a small 
 running stream in the plain, where we gladly encamped. There was 
 also some grass which preserved a greenish hue, and which enabled our 
 horse also to recruit himself. 
 
 Early the next morning we repacked him, and continued our course, 
 travelling due west south-west. At the distance of five or six miles, we 
 reached the banks of a clear stream of twenty feet wide, running over a 
 bed of pebbles and small secondary boulders. This stream ran towards 
 the north west, and gave us the first intimation we had, that we had 
 crossed the summit and were on the off drain of the Missouri. We sup- 
 posed it to be the source of the Gasconade, or at farthest some eastern tri- 
 butary of the Little Osage. 
 
 A few hours travelling brought us to the banks of another stream of
 
 56 ADVENTURES IN THE OZARK MOUNTAINS. 
 
 much larger size and depth, but running in the same direction. This 
 stream we found it difficult to cross, and spent several hours in heaping 
 piles of stone, and connecting them with dry limbs of trees, which had 
 been carried down by floods. It had a rapid and deep current, on each 
 side of which was a wide space of shallow water and rolled boulders of 
 lime and sand stone. We succeeded in driving the horse safely over. 
 Enobitti led the way on our frail bridge-work, but disturbed the last link 
 of it as he jumped off on the south bank, so that it turned under my tread 
 and let me in. There was no kind of danger in the fall as it was in the 
 shallow part of the stream, but putting out my hands to break the fall, it so 
 happened that my whole weight rested on my gun, which was supported 
 on two stones, merely on its butt and muzzle ; the effect was to wrench the 
 barrel. I gave it a counter wrench as soon as we encamped, but I never 
 afterwards could place full confidence in it. We had not gone over three 
 or four miles beyond this river, when we came to the banks of a third 
 stream, running west, but also sweeping off below, towards the north- 
 west. This stream was smaller than the former and opposed no dif- 
 ficulty in fording it. Having done this we followed it up a short distance, 
 and encamped on its south banks.
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 Hearsay information of the hunters turns out false We alter our course A bear 
 hunt An accident Another rencontre with bears Strike the source of the Great 
 North Fork of White River Journey down this valley Its character and productions 
 A great Spring Incidents of the route Pack horse rolls down a precipice Plunges 
 in the river A cavern Osage lodges A hunter's hut. 
 
 IT was now manifest, from our crossing the last two streams, that we 
 were going too far north that we were in fact in the valley of the Mis- 
 souri proper ; and that the information obtained of the hunters on the source 
 of the Merrimack, was not to be implicitly relied on. It is not probable that 
 one of the persons who gave this information had ever been here. It was 
 a region they were kept out of by the fear of the Osages, as our own ex- 
 perience in the case of Roberts denoted. Willing to test it farther, how- 
 ever, we followed down the last named stream a few miles, in the hope of 
 its turning south or south-west, but it went off in another direction. We 
 then came to a halt, and after consulting together, steered our course due 
 south south-west, thus varying our general course from the caves. This 
 carried us up a long range of wooded highlands. The forest here as- 
 sumed a handsome growth. We passed through a track of the over-cup 
 oak, interspersed with hickory, and had reached the summit of an elevated 
 wooded ridge, when just as we gained the highest point, we discovered 
 four bears on a large oak, in the valley before us. Three of the number 
 were probably cubs, and with their dam, they were regaling themselves 
 on the ripe acorns without observing us. We had sought no opportunities 
 to hunt, and given up no especial time to it, but here was too fair a chal- 
 lenge to be neglected. We tied our horse securely to a sapling, and then 
 examining our pieces, and putting down an extra ball, set out to descend 
 che hill as cautiously as possible. An unlucky slip of Enobitti threw him 
 with force forward and sprained his ankle. He lay for a short time in 
 agony. This noise alarmed the bears, who one after the other quickly 
 ran in from the extremities of the Kmbs to the trunk, which they descended 
 
 57
 
 58 ADVENTURES IN THE OZARK MOUNTAINS. 
 
 head first, and scampered clumsily off up the valley. I pursued tnem 
 without minding my companion, not knowing, indeed how badly he was 
 hurt, but was compelled to give up the chase, as the tall grass finally pre- 
 vented my seeing what course they had taken. I now returned to my 
 companion. He could not stand at first, nor walk when he arose, and the 
 first agony had passed. I proposed to mount him on the pack horse, and 
 lead him slowly up the valley, and this plan was carried into effect. But 
 he endured too much suffering to bear even this. The ankle began to in- 
 flame. There was nothing but rest and continued repose that promised 
 relief. I selected a fine grassy spot to encamp, unpacked the horse, built 
 a fire, and got my patient comfortably stretched on his pallet. But little 
 provision had been made at Potosi in the medical department. My whole 
 store of pharmacy consisted of some pills and salves, and a few simple 
 a/ticles. The only thing I could think of as likely to be serviceable, was 
 in our culinary pack, it was a little sack of salt, and of this I made a 
 solution in warm water and bathed the ankle. I then replenished the 
 fire and cut some wood to renew it. It was still early in the day, and 
 leaving my companion to rest, and to the effect of the remedy offered, I 
 took my gun and strolled over the adjoining hills, in hopes of bringing 
 in some pigeons, or other small game. But it was a time of day when 
 both birds and quadrupeds have finished their mornings repast, and retired 
 to the groves or fastnesses. I saw nothing but the little grey bunting, 
 and the noisy jay. When I returned to our camp in the vale I found my 
 companion easier. The bathing had sensibly alleviated the pain and 
 swelling. It was therefore diligently renewed, and the next morning he 
 was so far improved, that he consented to try the pack horse again. We had 
 not, however, travelled far, when two large bears were seen before us play- 
 ing in the grass, and so engaged in their sport, that they did not perceive us. 
 We were now on the same level with them, and quickly prepared to give 
 them battle. My companion dismounted as easily as possible, and having 
 secured the horse and examined our arms, we reached a stand within firing 
 distance. It was not till this moment that our approach was discovered by 
 them, and the first thing they did after running a few yards, .was to sit up in 
 the grass and gaze at us. Having each singled his animal, we fired at the 
 same instant. Both animals fled, but on reaching the spot where my 
 mark had sat, blood was copiously found on the grass, and a pursuit was 
 the consequence. I followed him up a long ridge, but he passed over the 
 summit so far before me, that I lost sight of him. I came to a large hol- 
 low black oak, in the direction he had disappeared, which showed the nail 
 marks of some animal, which I believed to be his. While exa- 
 mining these signs more closely my companion made his appear- 
 ance. How he had got there I know not. The excitement had well 
 nigh cured his ancle He stood by the orifice, while I went for 
 the axe to our camp, and when I was tired chopping, he laid hold.
 
 ADVENTURES IN THE OZARK MOUNTAINS. 59 
 
 We chopped alternately, and big as it was, the tree at last came down 
 with a crash that made the forest ring. For a few moments we looked at 
 the huge and partly broken trunk as if a bear would start from it ; but all 
 was silence. We thoroughly searched the hollow part but found nothing. 
 I went over another ridge of forest land, started a noble elk, but saw 
 nothing more of my bear. Here terminated this adventure. We retraced 
 our footsteps back to the valley, and proceeded on our route. This inci- 
 dent had led us a little south of our true course ; and it so turned out that 
 it was at a point, where a mile or two one way or the other, was calculated 
 to make a wide difference in the place of our exit into the valley of White 
 River ; for we were on a high broken summit ridge, from which several 
 important streams originated. The pursuit of the bear had carried us 
 near to the head of the valley, and by crossing the intervening summit, we 
 found ourselves at the head springs of an important stream, which in due 
 time we learned was the Great North Fork of White River. This stream 
 begins to develope itself in pools, or standing springs, which soak through 
 the gravel and boulders, and it is many miles before it assumes the cha- 
 racter of a continuous stream. Even then it proceeds in plateaux or 
 steps, on which the water has a level, and the next succeeding level below 
 it has its connection with it, through a rapid. In fact, the whole stream, 
 till near its mouth, is one series of these lake-like levels, and short rapids, 
 each level sinking lower and lower, till, like the locks in a canal, the last 
 flows out on a level with its final recipient. But however its waters are 
 congregated, they are all pure and colourless as rock crystal, and well vin- 
 dicate the propriety of their original name of la Riviere Blanc. They all 
 originate in mountain springs, are cool and sparkling, and give assurance 
 in this feature, that they will carry health to the future inhabitants of the 
 valley through which they flow. With the first springs begins to be seen 
 a small growth of the cane, which is found a constant species on its bot- 
 tom lands. This plant becomes high in more southern latitudes, and being 
 intertwined with the green briar, renders it very difficult, as we soon found, 
 to penetrate it, especially with a horse. Man can endure a thousand ad- 
 ventures and hardships where a horse would die ; and it would require no 
 further testimony than this journey gave, to convince me, that providence 
 designed the horse for a state of civilization. 
 
 We followed the course of these waters about six miles, and emcamped. 
 It was evidently the source of a stream of some note. It ran in the re- 
 quired direction, and although we did not then know, that it was the 
 valley of the Great North Fork of White River, we were satisfied it was 
 a tributary of the latter stream, and determined to pursue it. This we 
 did for twelve days, before we met with a human being, white or red. It 
 rapidly developed itself, as we went, and unfolded an important valley, of 
 rich soil, bearing a vigorous growth of forest trees, and enclosed on either 
 hand, by elevated limestone cliffs. Nothing could exceed the purity of
 
 60 ADVENTURES IN THE OZARK MOUNTAINS. 
 
 its waters, which bubbled up in copious springs, from the rock, or pebble 
 stratum. For a long distance the stream increased from such accessions 
 alone, without large and independent tributaries. On the second day's 
 travel, we came to a spring, of this crystal character, which we judged to 
 be about fifty feet across, at the point of its issue from the rock and soil 
 Its outlet after running about a thousand yards, joined the main stream, to 
 which it brings a volume fully equal to it This spring I named the Elk 
 Spring, from the circumstance of finding a large pair of the horns of this 
 animal, partly buried in the leaves, at a spot where I stooped down to 
 drink. I took the horns, and hung them in the forks of a young oak 
 tree. 
 
 We found abundance of game in this valley. There was not an entire 
 day, I think, until we got near the hunters' camps, that we did not see 
 either the bear, elk, or deer, or their recent signs. Flocks of the wild tur- 
 key were of daily occurrence. The gray squirrel frequently sported on 
 the trees, and as the stream increased in size, we found the duck, brant 
 and swan. 
 
 There were two serious objections, however, in travelling down a 
 wooded valley. Its shrubbery was so thick and rank that it was next to 
 impossible to force the pack horse through it. Wherever the cane abounds, 
 and this comprehends all its true alluvions, it is found to be matted to- 
 gether, as it were, with the green briar and grape vine. So much noise 
 attended the effort at any rate, that the game generally fled before us, and 
 had it not been for small game, we should have often wanted a meal. 
 With every effort, we could not make an average of more than fourteen 
 miles a day. The river was so tortuous too, that we could not count, 
 on making more than half this distance, in a direct line. To remedy 
 these evils we sometimes went out of the valley, on the open naked plains. 
 It was a relief, but had, in the end, these difficulties, that while the plains 
 exposed us to greater heats in travelling, they afforded no water, and we 
 often lost much time in the necessity, we were under, towards night-fall, of 
 going back to the valley for water. Neither was it found to be safe 
 to travel far separated, for there were many causes of accident, which 
 rendered mutual assistance desirable. One day, while Enobitti led the 
 horse, and was conducting him from a lofty ridge, to get into the 
 valley, the animal stumbled, and rolled to the bottom. We thought 
 every bone in his body had been broke, but he had been protected by his 
 pack, and we found that he was but little injured, and when repacked, 
 still capable of going forward. On another occasion, I had been leading 
 him for several hours, along a high terrace of cliffs on the left banks 
 where this terrace was, as it were, suddenly cut off by the intersection of 
 a lateral valley. The view was a sublime one, standing at the pinna- 
 cle of junction ; but there was no possible way of descent, and it was neces- 
 sary to retrace my steps, a long long way. As an instance of the very
 
 ADVENTURES IN THE OZARK MOUNTAINS. 61 
 
 tortuous character of this stream, I will mention that a rocky peninsula, 
 causing a bend which it took my companion some two hours to pass 
 with the horse, I had crossed in less than twenty minutes, with my 
 hammer and gun. When we had, as we supposed, become familiar 
 with every species of impediment and delay, in descending the valley, a 
 new, and very serious and unexpected one, arose one day, in crossing the 
 stream, from the left to the right bank. It was my turn to be muleteer 
 that day, and I had selected a ford where the river was not wide, and the 
 water, apparently, some two or three feet deep. I judged from the clearness 
 of the pebbles at the bottom, and their apparent nearness to the surface. 
 But such was the transparency of the water, that a wide mistake was 
 made. We had nearly lost the horse, he plunged in over head, could not 
 touch bottom, and when with great ado, we had got him up the steep bank 
 on the other side, he was completely exhausted. But this was not the extent 
 of the evil. Our sugar and salt were dissolved. Our meal, of which a little 
 still remained, was spoiled. Our tea was damaged, our blankets and cloth- 
 ing wetted, our whole pack soaked. The horse had been so long in 
 the water, in our often fruitless efforts to get him to some part of the bank 
 depressed enough, to pull him up, that nothing had escaped its effects. 
 We encamped on the spot, and spent the rest of the day in drying our 
 effects, and expelling from our spare garments the superfluous moisture. 
 The next day we struck out into the high plains, on the right bank, and 
 made a good day's journey. The country was nearly level, denuded of 
 trees, with sere autumnal grass. Often the prairie hen started up, but 
 we saw nothing in the animal creation beside, save a few hares, as even- 
 ing came on. To find water for the horse, and ourselves, we were 
 again compelled to approach the valley. We at length entered a dry and 
 desolate gorge, without grass or water. Night came on, but no sound 
 or sight of water occurred. We were sinking deeper and deeper into the 
 rocky structure of the country at every step, and soon found there were 
 high cliffs on either side of us. What we most feared now occurred. It 
 became dark, the clouds had threatened foul weather and it now began to 
 rain. Had it not been for a cavern, which disclosed itself, in one of 
 these calcareous cliffs, we must have passed a miserable night. On enter- 
 ing it, we found a spring of water. It was too high in the cliff to get the 
 horse in, but we carried him water in a vessel. He was afterwards hob- 
 bled, and left to shift for himself. On striking a fire, in the cave, its rays 
 disclosed masses of stalactites, and a dark avenue into the rocks back. 
 Having made a cup of tea and finished our repast, we determined to ex- 
 plore the cave before lying down to rest, lest we might be intruded on by 
 some wild animal before morning. A torch of pine wood was soon made, 
 which guided our footsteps into the dismal recess, but we found nothing 
 of the kind. On returning to our fire, near the mouth of the cave, we 
 found the rain had increased to a heavy shower, and the vivid flashes of
 
 62 ADVENTURES IN THE OZARK MOUNTAINS. 
 
 lightning, illumined with momentary brilliancy, the dark and frowning 
 precipices of this romantic gorge. The excitement and novelty of our po- 
 sition, served to drive away sleep, notwithstanding a long day's march, and 
 it was late before we sought repose. 
 
 Morning brought a clear sky, but the horse was gone. He had fol- 
 lowed on the back track, up the glen, in search of something to feed upon, 
 and was not found till we reached the skirts of the plains. The whole 
 morning was indeed, lost in reclaiming him, and we then set forward 
 again and returned to the North Fork valley. We found it had assumed 
 a greater expanse, at the point of our re-entry, which it maintained, and 
 increased, as we pursued it down. Wide open oak plains extended 
 on the left bank, which appeared very eligible for the purposes of set- 
 tlement. On an oak tree, at this spot, we observed some marks, which 
 had probably been made by some enterprising land explorer. With these 
 improved evidences of its character for future occupation, we found the 
 travelling easier. Within a few miles travel, we noticed a tributary com- 
 ing in on the left bank, and at a lower point another on the left. The 
 first stream had this peculiarity, that its waters came in at a right angle, 
 with the parent stream, and with such velocity as to pass directly across 
 its channel to the opposite bank. In this -vicinity, we saw many of the 
 deserted pole camps of the Osages, none of which appeared, however, to 
 have been recently occupied. So far, indeed, we had met no hindrance, or 
 annoyance from this people ; we had not even encountered a single mem- 
 ber of the tribe, and felt assured that the accounts we had received of their 
 cruelty and rapacity, had been grossly exaggerated, or if not wholly 
 overcoloured, they must have related to a period in their history, which 
 was now well nigh past. We could not learn that they had hunted on 
 these lands, during late years, and were afterwards given to understand 
 that they had ceded them to the United States by a treaty concluded at St. 
 Louis. From whatever causes, however, the district had been left free 
 from their roving parties, it was certain that the game had recovered un- 
 der such a cessation of the chase. The black bear, deer and elk, were 
 abundant. We also frequently saw signs of the labours of the beaver 
 along the valley. I had the good luck, one day, while in advance with 
 my gun, of beholding two of these animals, at play in the stream, and ob- 
 serving their graceful motions. My position was, within point blank shot 
 of them, but I was screened from their gaze. I sat, with gun cocked, 
 meaning to secure one of them after they came to the shore. Both ani- 
 mals came out together, and sat on the bank at the edge of the river, a 
 ledge of rocks being in the rear of them. The novelty of the sight led 
 me to pause, and admire them, when, all of a sudden, they darted into a 
 crevice in the rock. 
 
 On the second day after re-entering the valley, we descried, on descend- 
 ing a long slope of rising ground, a hunter's cabin, covered with narrow
 
 ADVENTURES IN THE OZARK MOUNTAINS. 63 
 
 oak boards, split with a frow ; and were exhilarated with the idea of find- 
 ing it occupied. But this turned out a delusive hope. It had been de- 
 serted, from appearance, the year before. We found, among the surround- 
 ing weeds, a few stems of the cotton plant, which had grown up from 
 seeds, accidentally dropped. The bolls had opened. I picked out the 
 cotton to serve as a material in lighting my camp fires, at night, this be- 
 ing a labour which I had taken the exclusive management of. The site 
 of this camp, had been well chosen. There was a small stream in front, 
 and a heavy rich cane bottom behind it, extending to the banks of the 
 river. A handsome point of woodlands extended north of it, from the 
 immediate door of the camp. And although somewhat early in the day, 
 we determined to encamp, and soon made ourselves masters of the fabric, 
 and sat down before a cheerful fire, with a title to occupancy, which there 
 was no one to dispute. 
 
 THE BIRD. 
 
 VERSIFIED FROM THE GERMAN OF GESSNER: 1812. 
 
 A swain, as he strayed through the grove, 
 Had caught a young bird on a spray 
 
 What a gift, he exclaimed, for my love, 
 How beautiful, charming, and gay. 
 
 With rapture he viewed the fair prize, 
 And listened with joy to its chat, 
 
 As with haste to the meadow he hies 
 To secure it beneath his straw hat. 
 
 I will make of yon willows so gay, 
 A, cage for my prisoner to mourn, 
 
 Then to Delia, the gift I'll convey, 
 And beg for a kiss in return. 
 
 She will grant me that one, I am sure, 
 For a present so rare and so gay, 
 
 And I easily can steal a few more 
 And bear them enraptured away. 
 
 He returned : but imagine his grief, 
 The wind had his hat overthrown, 
 
 And the bird, in the joy of relief, 
 Away with his kisses had flown. 
 
 a at
 
 PERSONAL INCIDENTS AND IMPRESSIONS OF THE INDIAN RACE, 
 DRAWN FROM NOTES OF TRAVEL AND RESIDENCE IN THEIR 
 TERRITORIES. 
 
 CHARACTER OF THE RED MAN OF AMERICA. 
 
 INQUIRY I. What kind of a being is the North American Indian ? Have we judged 
 rightly of him ? What are his peculiar traits, his affections, and his intellectual 
 qualities ? Is he much influenced by his religion, his mode of government, and hia 
 complicated language. 
 
 MY earliest impressions of the Indian race, were drawn from the fire- 
 side rehearsals of incidents which had happened during the perilous 
 times of the American revolution ; in which my father was a zealous actor, 
 and were all inseparably connected with the fearful ideas of the Indian 
 yell, the tomahawk, the scalping knife, and the fire brand. In these reci- 
 tals, the Indian was depicted as the very impersonation of evil a sort of 
 wild demon, who delighted in nothing so much as blood and murder, 
 Whether he had mind, was governed by any reasons, or even had any 
 soul, nobody inquired, and nobody cared. It was always represented as a 
 meritorious act in old revolutionary reminiscences, to have killed one of 
 them in the border wars, and thus aided in ridding the land of a cruel and 
 unnatural race, in whom all feelings of pity, justice, and mercy, were 
 supposed to be obliterated. These early ideas were sustained by printed 
 narratives of captivity and hair-breadth escapes of men and women from 
 their clutches, which, from time to time, fell into my hands, so that long 
 before I was ten years old, I had a most definite and terrific idea impressed 
 on my imagination of what was sometimes called in my native precincts, 
 " the bow and arrow race." 
 
 To give a definite conception of the Indian man, there lived in my na- 
 tive valley, a family of Indians of the Iroquois stock, who often went off 
 
 64
 
 PERSONAL INCIDENTS AND IMPRESSIONS. 65 
 
 yo their people in the west, and as often returned again, as if they were a 
 troop of genii, or the ghosts of the departed, who came to haunt the nut 
 wood forests, and sub-vallies of the sylvan Tawasenthaw, which their an- 
 cestors had formerly possessed, and to which they still claimed some right. 
 In this family, which was of the Oneida tribe, and consisted of the hus- 
 band and wife, with two grown up sons, I first saw those characteristic 
 features of the race, namely, a red skin, with bright black eyes, and 
 black straight hair. They were mild and docile in their deportment, an<J 
 were on friendly terms with the whole settlement, whom they furnished 
 with neatly made baskets of the linden wood, split very thin, and coloured 
 to impart variety, and with .nice ash brooms. These fabrics made 
 them welcome guests with every good housewife, who had forgotten the 
 horrific stories of the revolution, and who was ever ready to give a chair 
 and a plate, and a lodging place by the kitchen fire, to poor old Isaac and 
 Anna, for so they had been named. What their original names were, 
 nobody knew ; they had lived so long in the valley that they spoke the 
 Dutch language, and never made use of their own, except when talking 
 together; and I recollect, we thought it a matter of wonder, when they 
 discoursed in Indian, whether such a guttural jargon, could possibly be 
 the medium of conveying any very definite ideas. It seemed to be one 
 undistinguished tissue of hard sounds, blending all parts of speech 
 together. 
 
 Had the boys of my own age, and I may say, the grown people, 
 stopped to reflect, and been led to consider this family and their race in 
 America, independently of their gross acts, under the strong excitements 
 of war and revenge, goaded by wrongs, and led on by the class of revo- 
 lutionary tories, more implacable than even themselves, we must have 
 seen, in the peaceable Jives, quiet manners, and benevolent dispositions of 
 these four people, a contradiction to, at least, some part, of the sweeping 
 conclusions above noticed. But no such thoughts occurred. The word 
 " Indian," was synonymous then, as perhaps now, with half the opprobri- 
 ous epithets in the dictionary. I recollect to have myself made a few lines, 
 in early life, on the subject, which ran thus : 
 
 Indians they were> ere Colon crossed the sea, 
 And ages hence, they shall but Indians be. 
 
 Fortunately I was still young when my sphere of observation was en- 
 larged, by seeing masses of them, in their native forests ; and I, after a few 
 years, assumed a position as government agent to one of the leading tribes, 
 at an age when opinions are not too firmly rooted to permit change. My 
 opinions were still, very much however, what they had been in boyhood. 
 I looked upon them as very cannibals and blood-thirsty fellows, who were 
 only waiting a good opportunity to knock one in the head. But I regarded 
 tnem as a curious subject of observation. The remembrance of poor old 
 
 I * 
 
 Isaac, had shown me that there was some feeling and humanity m their 
 
 5
 
 66 PERSONAL INCIDENTS AND IMPRESSIONS. 
 
 breasts. I had seen many of them in my travels in the west, and I felt 
 inclined to inquire into the traits of a people, among whom my duties had 
 placed me. I had, from early youth, felt pleased with the study of natural 
 history, and I thought the Indian, at least in his languages, might be 
 studied with something of the same mode of exactitude. I had a strong 
 propensity, at this time of life, for analysis, and I believed that something 
 like an analytical process might be applied to enquiries, at least in the 
 department of philology. Whenever a fact occurred, in the progress of 
 my official duties, which I deemed characteristic, I made note of it, and in 
 this way preserved a sort of skeleton of dates and events, which, it was 
 believed, would be a source of useful future reference. It is, in truth, 
 under advantages of the kind, that these remarks are commenced. 
 
 The author has thrown out these remarks, as a starting point. He has 
 made observations which do not, in all respects, coincide with the com- 
 monly received opinions, and drawn some conclusions which are directly 
 adverse to them. He has been placed in scenes and circumstances of 
 varied interest, and met with many characters, in the course of four and 
 twenty years' residence and travel in the wilds of America, who would 
 have struck any observer as original and interesting. With numbers of 
 them, he has formed an intimate acquaintance, and with not a few, con- 
 tracted lasting friendships. Connected with them by a long residence, by 
 the exercise of official duties, and by still more delicate and sacred ties, he 
 has been regarded by them as one identified with their history, and received 
 many marks of their confidence. 
 
 The Indians, viewed as a distinct branch of the human race, have some 
 peculiar traite and institutions, from which their history and character may 
 be advantageously studied. They hold some opinions, which are not 
 easily discovered by a stranger, or a foreigner, but which yet exert a pow- 
 erful influence on their conduct and life. There is a subtlety in some of 
 their modes of thought and belief, on life and the existence of spiritual and 
 creative power, which would seem to have been eliminated from some 
 intellectual crucible, without the limits of their present sphere. Yet, there 
 is much relative to all the common concerns of life, which ]s peculiar to 
 it. The author has witnessed many practices and observances, such as 
 travellers have often noticed, but like others, attributed them to accident, 
 or to some cause widely different from the true one. By degrees, he has 
 been admitted into their opinions, and if we may so call it, the philosophy 
 of theii minds ; and the life of an Indian no longer appears to him a 
 mystery. He sees him acting, as other men would act, if placed exactly 
 in his condition, prepared with the education the forest has given him. and 
 surrounded with the same Avants, temptations and dangers. 
 
 The gentler affections are in much more extensive and powerful exer- 
 cise among the Indian race, than is generally believed, although necessa- 
 rily developed with less refinement than in civilized society. Their pater-
 
 PERSONAL INCIDENTS AND IMPRESSIONS. 67 
 
 nal and fraternal affections, have long been known to be very strong, as 
 well as their veneration for the dead. It has been his province in these 
 departments, to add some striking examples of their intensity of feeling 
 and affection, and truthfulness to nature. 
 
 The most powerful source of influence, with the Red man, is his religion. 
 Here is the true groundwork of his hopes and his fears, and, it is believed, 
 the fruitful source of his opinions and actions. It supplies the system of 
 thought by which he lives and dies, and it constitutes, indeed, the basis 
 of Indian character. By it he preserves his identity, as a barbarian, and 
 when this is taken away, and the true system substituted, he is still a Red 
 Man, but no longer, in the popular sense, an Indian a barbarian, a 
 pagan. 
 
 The Indian religion is a peculiar compound of rites, and doctrines, and 
 observances, which are early taught the children by precept and example. 
 In this respect, every bark-built village is a temple, and every forest a 
 school. It would surprise any person to become acquainted with the 
 variety and extent to which an Indian is influenced by his religious views 
 and superstitions. He takes no important step without reference to it. 
 It is his guiding motive in peace and in war. He follows the chace under 
 its influence, and his very amusements take their tincture from it. To the 
 author, the facts have been developing themselves for many years, and 
 while he is able to account for the peculiar differences between the con- 
 duct of Indians and that of white men, in given cases, he can easily per- 
 ceive, why the latter have so often been unable to calculate the actions of 
 the former, and even to account for them, when they have taken place. 
 It may be here remarked, that the civilized man, is no less a mysterious 
 and unaccountable being to an Indian, because his springs of action are 
 alike unintelligible to him. 
 
 If the following pages shall afford the public any means of judging of 
 the Red Race, with greater accuracy, he hopes they may lead to our 
 treating them with greater kindness and a more enlarged spirit of justice. 
 The change which has been wrought in his own mind, by the facts he has 
 witnessed, has been accompanied by a still more important one, as to their 
 intellectual capacities and moral susceptibilities, and their consequent 
 claims on the philanthropy of the age. As a class of men, it is thought 
 their native speakers, without letters or education, possess a higher scope 
 of thought and illustration, than the corresponding class in civilized life. 
 This may be accounted for, perhaps, from obvious external causes, with- 
 out impugning the actual native capacity of the lower, although educated 
 classes of civilized life. Still, it is a very striking fact, and one which has 
 very often forced, itself on the attention of the author. The old idea that 
 the Indian mind is not susceptible of a high, or an advantageous develope- 
 ment, rests upon questionable data. The two principal causes, which 
 have prolonged their continuance in a state of barbarism, on this continent,
 
 68 PERSONAL INCIDENTS AND IMPRESSIONS. 
 
 for so long a period, are a false religion, and ialse views of government 
 The first has kept back social prosperity and impeded the rise of virtue. 
 With respect to government, during all the time we have had them for neigh- 
 bours, they may be said to have had no government at all. Personal inde- 
 pendence, has kept the petty chiefs from forming confederacies for the com- 
 mon good. Individuals have surrendered no part of their original private 
 rights, to secure the observance of the rest. There has been no public 
 social organization, expressed or implied. The consequence has been that 
 the law of private redress and revenge prevailed. In the only two cases 
 where this system was departed from, in North America, namely that of 
 the Azteek empire, and of the Iroquois confederacy, there was no lack of 
 vigour to improve. The results were a constantly increasing power, and 
 extending degree of knowledge up to the respective eras of their conquest. 
 It was not want of mental capacity, so much as the non-existence of moral 
 power, and of the doctrines of truth and virtue, that kept them back ; and 
 left our own wandering tribes, particularly, with the bow and the spear in 
 their hands. He believes, that their errors, in these particulars, may be 
 pointed out, without drawing conclusions adverse to their political or 
 social prosperity, under better auspicies, and without attributing such 
 failures to mental imbecility. 
 
 The mode of recording thought, among these tribes, by means of pic- 
 torial signs, and mnemonic symbols, has attracted particular attention, and 
 gives the author hopes, that he has been enabled to collect, and bring for- 
 ward, a body of facts, in this department, which will recommend them- 
 selves by their interest and novelty. Confidence, inspired by long resi- 
 dence in their territories, revealed to him another trait of character, in the 
 existence among them of a traditionary imaginative lore, which is repeated 
 from father to son, and has no small influence upon their social condition. 
 It is in these two departments, that, he believes, he has opened new and 
 important means of judging of the Indian character, and discovered the 
 sources of views and opinions, on many subjects, which had escaped pre- 
 vious inquirers. 
 
 >. There is one more point, to which he will here invite a momentary at- 
 tention, and which, although not usually enumerated as among the prac- 
 tical causes that influenced Indian society and character, is yet believed to 
 exercise a strong, though silent sway, both upon the question of the mental 
 character, and its true development. The author alludes to the topic of 
 their languages. Some of the most venerated writers present a theory of 
 the origin of national government languages and institutions, difficult or 
 impossible to be conformed with the nature of man in society, and un- 
 supported by such evidence as their doctrines require. Such, he regards, 
 the theory of the " social compact," except it be viewed in the most un- 
 defined and general sense possible. Such, also, is the theory of the 
 origin and improvement of languages. The system of government jrene-
 
 PERSONAL INCIDENTS AND IMPRESSIONS. 69 
 
 rally prevailing among the Indian tribes, is indeed so simple and natural, 
 under their circumstances, that it is thought no person would long seek 
 for the traces of any great legislator, giving them laws in any past period. 
 When, however, we consider the curious structure of their languages, 
 we find an ingenuity and complexity, far* surpassing any theory to be 
 discovered in that of the modern languages of Europe, with, perhaps, some 
 exceptions in the Basque and Majyer, and even beyond any thing exist- 
 ing in the Greek. As the latter has long been held up as a model, and 
 the excellencies of its plan attributed to some unknown, but great and sa- 
 gacious, learned and refined mind, we might feel justified in assigning 
 the richness of forms, the exceeding flexibility, and the characteristic beau- 
 ties and excellencies of the Indian tongues, to a mind of far superior wis- 
 dom, ingenuity, and experience. Yet how perfectly gratuitous would this 
 be ! All history bears testimony against the human invention and de- 
 signed alteration of language ; and none but a mere theorist can ever em- 
 brace the idea that it is, or ever was, in the power of any man, to fabricate 
 and introduce a new language, or to effect a fundamental change in the 
 groundwork of an existing one. This, at least, is the decided opinion 
 of the author ; and he firmly believes, that whoever will contemplate 
 the subject, amidst such scenes as he has been accustomed to, will inevita- 
 bly come to the same conclusion. He has seen changes in dialects 
 commenced and progressive, and indications of others going on, but these 
 owed their origin and impulse to accidental circumstances, and were not 
 the result of any plan or design. They were the result of necessity, 
 convenience, or caprice. These three causes, that is to say, necessity 
 convenience and caprice, if properly examined and appreciated in their 
 influence, and traced with care to their effects, will develop the origin 
 of many things, whose existence has been sought at too great a distance, 
 or amidst too much refinement. 
 
 Books, and the readers of books, have done much to bewilder and per- 
 plex the study of the Indian character. Fewer theories and more obser- 
 vation, less fancy and more fact, might have brought us to much more 
 correct opinions than those which are now current. The Indian is, 
 after all, believed to be a man, much more fully under the influence of 
 common sense notions, and obvious every-day motives of thought and 
 action, hope and fear, than he passes for. If he does not come to the 
 same conclusions, on passing questions, as we do, it is precisely be- 
 cause he sees the premises, under widely different circumstances. The 
 admitted errors of barbarism and the admitted truths of civilization, are two 
 very different codes. He is in want of almost every source of true know- 
 ledge and opinion, which we possess. He has very imperfect notions 
 on many of those branches of knowledge in what we suppose him best 
 informed. He is totally in the dark as to others. His vague and 
 vast and dreamy notions of the Great Author of Existence, and the mode
 
 70 PERSONAL INCIDENTS AND IMPRESSIONS. 
 
 of his manifestations to the human race, and the %vide and complicated 
 system of superstition and transcendental idolatry which he has reared 
 upon this basis, place him, at once, with all his sympathies and theories, out 
 of the great pale of truth and civilization. This is one of the leading 
 circumstances which prevents him from drawing his conclusions as we 
 draw them. Placed under precisely similar circumstances, we should 
 perhaps coincide in his opinion and judgments. But aside from these er- 
 roneous views, and after making just allowances for his ignorance and 
 moral depression, the Indian is a man of plain common sense judg- 
 ment, acting from what he knows, and sees, and feels, of objects immedi- 
 ately before him, or palpable to his view. If he sometimes employs a 
 highly figurative style to communicate his thoughts, and even stoops, as 
 we now know he does, to amuse his fire-side circle with tales of extrava- 
 gant and often wild demonic fancy, he is very far from being a man who, 
 in his affairs of lands, and merchandize, and business, exchanges the sober 
 thoughts of self preservation and subsistence, for the airy conceptions of 
 fancy. The ties of consanguinity bind him strongly. The relation of 
 the family is deep and well traced amongst the wildest tribes, and this 
 fact alone forms a basis for bringing him back to all his original duties, 
 and re-organizing Indian society. The author has, at least, been thrown 
 into scenes and positions, in which this truth has strongly presented itself 
 to his mind, and he believes the facts are of a character which will 
 interest the reader, and may be of some use to the people themselves, 
 so far as affects the benevolent plans of the age, if they do not constitute 
 an increment in the body of observational testimony, of a practical nature 
 from which the character of the race is to be judged.
 
 PERSONAL INCIDENTS AND IMPRESSIONS OP THE RED RACE, 
 DRAWN FROM NOTES OF RESIDENCE AND TRAVEL IN THE IN- 
 DIAN TERRITORIES. 
 
 DOMESTIC CONDITION OF THE TRIBES AND CONSTUTION OF THE 
 INDIAN FAMILY- 
 
 II. What is the domestic condition and organization of the Indian family T 
 Is the tie of consanguinity strong, and what characteristic facts can be stated of it? 
 How are the domestic duties arranged ? What are the rights of each inmate of the 
 lodge ? How is order maintained in so confined a space, and the general relations 
 of the family preserved ? Are the relative duties and labours of the hunter and his 
 wife, equally or unequally divided ? Who builds the lodge, and how is it constructed? 
 
 THERE is a very striking ^agreement. in the condition, relative duties 
 and obligations, of the Indian family, among all the tribes of whom I 
 have any personal knowledge, in North America. Climate and position, 
 the abundance or want of the means of subsistence and other accidental 
 causes, have created gradations of condition in the various tribes, some of " 
 whom excel others in expertness, in hunting and war, and other arts, but 
 these circumstances have done little to alter the general characteristics, or to 
 abridge or enlarge the original rights and claims of each inmate of the 
 lodge. The tribes who cultivated maize in the rich sub-vallies and plains 
 of the Ohio and Mississippi, had fuller means of both physical and mental 
 development, than those who were, and still are, obliged to pick a scanty 
 subsistence, among the frigid, and half marine regions in the latitudes 
 north of the great lakes. There are some peculiar traits of manners, in. 
 the prairie-tribes, west of the Mississippi, who pursue the bison on horse 
 back, and rely for their subsistence greatly, on its flesh, and the sale of its 
 skin. The well fed Muscogee, Cherokee, or Choctaw, who lived in the 
 sunny vallies of upper Georgia, Alabama, and Tennessee, the robust 
 Osage, revelling in the abundance of corn and wild meat, south of the 
 
 71
 
 72 PERSONAL INCIDENTS AND IMPRESSIONS. 
 
 Missouri, and the lean and rigid Montaignes, Muskeego, and Kenisteno, 
 who push their canoes through waters choked with aquatic weeds, and 
 wild rice, present very different pictures of home and comfort, within their 
 lodge doors. But they really present the same idea, the same sentiments, 
 and the same round of duties and obligations, of father and mother, sister 
 and brother, wife and husband. The original type of the human family 
 among them, is well preserved, better, indeed, than was to have been ex- 
 pected in a state of barbarism, and among branches of the race who have 
 been so long separated, and subjected to such severe vicissitudes. It 
 would be useless, in this view, to draw a parallel between the relative con- 
 dition of the members of a family, within, and without the pale of civiliza- 
 tion. Nothing of the kind could be done, without showing up pictures 
 of want in the hunter-life which are wholly unknown in the agricultural 
 state. It cannot perhaps, in fair justice, be said that the tie of consan- 
 guinity, in the man of the woods, is stronger, than in civilized life. But 
 it is in accordance with all observation to say, that it is very strong, that 
 its impulses beat with marked force, and are more free from the inter- 
 twined ligaments of interest, which often weakens the tie of relationship in 
 refined and affluent society. 
 
 The true idea of matrimony, in Indian life, is also well set forth and 
 acknowledged, although it has come down through ages of plunder and 
 wandering, degraded in its condition, shorn of its just ceremonies, and 
 weakened in its sacred character. I have observed that polygamy, among 
 the northern tribes, is chiefly to be found, among bands who are favour- 
 ably located, and have the best means of subsistence. But even here it is 
 not reputable ; it may often increase a man's influence in the tribe or nation, 
 but there are always persons in the wildest forests, who do not think the 
 practice right or reputable. In the worst state of Indian society, there are 
 always some glimmerings of truth. If the conscience of the Red man 
 may be compared to a lamp, it may be said to have rather sunk low into its 
 socket, than actually to have expired. The relation between husband 
 and wife, in the forest, are formed under circumstances, which are geno- 
 rally uniform. Various incidents, or motives determine a union. Some- 
 times it is brought about by the intervention of friends ; sometimes from 
 a sudden impulse of admiration ; sometimes with, and sometimes against 
 the wishes of the graver and more prudent relatives of the parties. 
 Where the husband is acceptable, and has not before been married, 
 which covers the majority of cases, he comes to live for a while after mar- 
 riage, in the lodge of his mother-in-law ; and this relation generally lasts 
 until the increase of children, or other circumstances determine his setting 
 up a lodge for himself. Presents are still a ready way for a young hun- 
 ter to render himself acceptable in a lodge. There are some instances, 
 where considerable ceremony, and the invitation of friends, have attended 
 the first reception of the bridegroom, at the lodge ; but these are in most
 
 PERSONAL INCIDENTS AND IMPRESSIONS. 73 
 
 cases, what we should denominate matches of state, or expediency, in 
 which the bravery, or other public services of a chief or leader, has in- 
 clined his village to think, that his merits deserve the reward of a wife. 
 Generally, the acceptance of the visitor by the party most interested, and 
 her mother and father, and their expressed, or tacit consent, is the only 
 preliminary, and this is done in a private way. The only ceremonial 
 observance, of which I have ever heard, is the assigning of what is called 
 an abbinos, or permanent lodge seat, to the bridegroom. When this has 
 been done, by the mother or mistress of the lodge, who governs these 
 things, he is received, and henceforth installed as a constituent member of 
 the lodge and family. The simple rule is, that he who has a right to sit 
 by the bride, is her husband. 
 
 The lodge itself, with all its arrangements, is the precinct of the rule 
 and government of the wife. She assigns to each member, his or her or- 
 dinary place to sleep and put their effects. These places are permanent, 
 and only changed at her will, as when there is a guest by day or night. 
 In a space so small as a lodge this system preserves order, and being at all 
 times under her own eye, is enforced by personal supervision. The hus- 
 band has no voice in this matter, and I have never heard of an instance in 
 which he would so far deviate from his position, as to interfere in these 
 minor particulars. The lodge is her precinct, the forest his. 
 
 There is no law, nor force, to prevent an Indian from decreeing his 
 own divorce, that is to say, leaving one wife and taking another whenever 
 he sees cause. Yet it often occurs that there is some plausible pretext for 
 such a step, such as if true, would form some justification of the measure. 
 The best protection to married females arises from the ties of children, 
 which by bringing into play the strong natural affections of the heart, and 
 appeals at once to that principle in man's original organization, which is 
 the strongest. The average number of children borne by the women, and 
 which reach the adult period is small, and will scarcely exceed two. On 
 the pay rolls it did not exceed this. Much of this extraordinary result is 
 owing to their erratic mode of life, and their cramped means of subsis- 
 tence. Another cause is to be found in the accidents and exposure to 
 which young children are liable, but still more to their shocking ignorance 
 of medicine. I once* knew a child at three years of age to be killed by 
 an attempt to restore a deranged state of the bowels, by a strong overdose 
 of an astringent tincture of hemlock bark administered by her father. 
 This man, who was called Attuck, had strong natural affections, but he 
 was very ignorant even in the eyes of the Indian race, being one of that 
 people living N. E. of lake Superior, who are called variously Gens de 
 Terres, Mountaineers, and Muskeegoes. Wherever the laws of reproduc 
 tion are relieved from these depressing circumstances, the number of chil 
 dren is seen to be increased. 
 
 The chief laba-Waddick, who lived on a small bay at the foot of lake
 
 74 PERSONAL INCIDENTS AND IMPRESSIONS. 
 
 Superior, and had abundance of means of subsistence, had fourteen chil- 
 dren by one wife. He was an excellent hunter, and of habits for the 
 most part of his life, strictly temperate : he had married young, and had 
 always had the means of providing his family with adequate clothing and 
 food. Not one of these children died in infancy. He lived himself to be 
 old, and died rather from, a complaint induced by constitutional structure, 
 than from a natural decay of vital power. 
 
 The duties and labours of Indian life, are believed to be equally, and 
 not, as has been generally thought, unequally divided between the male 
 and female. This division is also the most natural possible, and such as 
 must ever result from the condition of man, as a mere hunter. It is the 
 duty of the male to provide food, and of the female to prepare it. This 
 arrangement carries with it to the share of the male, all that relates to ex- 
 ternal concerns, and all that pertains to the internal to the care of the female 
 as completely as is done in civilized life. To the man belongs not only the 
 business of hunting, for this is an employment and not a pastime, but the 
 care of the territory, and keeping off intruders and enemies, and the pre- 
 paration of oanoes for travel, and of arms and implements of war. The 
 duties of cooking and dressing meats and fowl, and whatever else the 
 chase affords, carries on the other hand, to the share of the hunter's wife, 
 the entire care and controul of the lodge, with its structure and removal, 
 and the keeping it in order, with all its utensils and apparatus. A good 
 and frugal hunter's wife, makes all this a point of ambitious interest, and 
 takes a pride in keeping it neat and proper for the reception of her hus- 
 band's guests. She sweeps the earth clean around the fire, with a broom 
 of branches of the cedar constructed for this purpose. This lodge it is te 
 be remembered, is made not of beams and posts, and heavy carpentry, 
 but out of thin poles, such as a child can lift, set in the ground in a circle, 
 bent over and tied at the top, and sheathed with long sheets of the white birch 
 bark. A rim of cedar wood at the bottom, assimilates these birch bark 
 sheets to the roller of a map, to which in stormy weather a stone is at- 
 tached to hold it firm. This stick has also the precise use of a map- 
 roller, for when the lodge is to be removed, the bark is rolled on it, and 
 in this shape carried to the canoe, to be set up elsewhere. The circle 
 of sticks or frame, is always left standing, as it would be useless to en- 
 cumber the canoe with what can easily be had at any position in a forest 
 country. 
 
 Such at least is the hunting lodge, and indeed, the lodge generally 
 used by the tribes north of lattitude 42. It is, in its figure, a half globe, 
 and by its lightness and wicker-like structure, may be said to resemble an 
 inverted bird's nest. The whole amount of the transportable materials of 
 it, is often comprehended in some half a dozen good rolls of bark, and as 
 many of rush mats which the merest girl can easily lift. The mats which 
 are the substitute for floor cloths, and- also the under stratum of the sleep-
 
 PERSONAL INCIDENTS AND IMPRESSIONS. 75 
 
 ing couch, are made out of the common lacustris or bullrush, or the 
 flag, cut at the proper season, and woven in a warp of fine hemp net 
 thread, such as is furnished by traders in the present state of the Indian 
 trade. A portion of this soft vegetable woof, is dyed, and woven in vari- 
 ous colours. Lodges thus constructed are to be still abundantly seen, 
 by the summer visitor, in the upper lakes, at all the principal points, to 
 which the Indians resort, during the height of summer. Such are the 
 posts of Michilimackinac, Sault Ste. Marie, and Green Bay. At Michili- 
 mackinac, where it is now difficult to get fresh lodge poles, without going 
 some distance, or trespassing on private rights, the natives who resort thi- 
 ther, of late years, have adopted an ingenious change, by which two ob- 
 jects are accomplished at the same time, and the labour of the females dis- 
 pensed with in getting new poles. It is known, that the bark canoe, be- 
 ing itself but an enlarged species of wicker work, has not sufficient 
 strength to be freighted, without previously having a number of poles laid 
 longitudinally, in the bottom, as a kind of vertebral support. These poles 
 on landing upon the gravelly shores of that island, are set up, or stacked 
 to use a military phrase, that is tying the tops together and then drawing 
 out the other ends so as to describe a circle, and thus making a perfect 
 cone. The bark tapestry is hung around these poles very much as it 
 would be around the globular close lodges ; and by this arrangement, an 
 Indian lodge is raised, and ready for occupation, in as many minutes, 
 after landing, as the most expert soldiers could pitch a tent in. 
 
 Before we can affirm that the labour of preparing these barks and mats 
 and setting up, and taking down, the lodge, is disproportionately great, 
 or heavy on the females, it will be necessary to inquire into other particu- 
 lars, both on the side of the male and female. Much of the time of an In- 
 dian female, is passed in idleness. This is true not only of a part of every 
 day, but is emphatically so, of certain seasons of the year. She has not 
 like the farmer's wife, her cows to milk, her butter and cheese to make, 
 and her flax to spin. She has not to wash and comb and prepare her 
 children every morning, to go to school. She has no extensive or fine 
 wardrobe to take care of. She has no books to read. She sets little value 
 on time, which is characteristic of all the race. What she does, is either 
 very plain sewing, or some very painstaking ornamental thing. When 
 the sheathing and flooring of the lodges are once made, they are 
 permanent pieces of property, and do not require frequent renewal. 
 When a skin has been dressed, and a garment made of it, it is worn, 
 till it is worn out. Frequent ablution and change of dress, are eminently 
 the traits of high civilization, and not of the hunter's lodge. The 
 articles which enter into the mysteries of the laundry, add but little to 
 the cares of a forest housekeeper. With every industrial effort, and 
 such is, somtimes the case, there is much unoccupied time, while her hus- 
 band is compelled by their necessities, to traverse large tracts, and endure
 
 76 PERSONAL INCIDENTS AND IMPRESSIONS. 
 
 great fatigues, in all weathers in quest of food. He must defend his hunt- 
 ing grounds, in peace and war, and has his life daily in his hands- 
 Long absences are often necessary, on these accounts. It is at such times, 
 during the open season, that the Indian female exerts her industry. In 
 the fall season, she takes her children in a canoe, or if she have none, in* 
 vites a female companion to go with her, along the streams, to cut the 
 rush, to bo manufactured into mats, at her leisure, in the winter. It is 
 also a part of her duty, at all seasons, to provide fuel for the lodge fire, 
 which she is careful to do, that she may suitably receive her husband, on 
 his return from the chase, and have the means of drying his wet mocca- 
 sins, nd a cheerful spot, where he may light his pipe, and regain his mental 
 equilibrium, while she prepares his meals. The very idea of a female's 
 chopping wood, is to some horriffic. But it is quite true that the Indian 
 female does chop wood, or at least, exert an undue labour, in procuring 
 this necessary article of the household. In speaking of the female, we, at 
 once, rush to the poetic idea of the refinement of lady like gentleness, and 
 delicacy. Not only does the nature of savage life and the hardiness of 
 muscle created by centuries of forest vicissitude, give the hunter's wife, 
 but a slender claim on this particular shade of character, but the kind ot 
 labour implied, is very different from the notion civilized men have of 
 "wood chopping." The emigrant swings a heavy axe of six pounds 
 weight, incessantly, day ra, and day out, against immense trees, in the 
 heaviest forest, until he has opened the land to the rays of the sun, and 
 prepared an amount of cyclopean labours for the power of fire, and the 
 ox. The hunter clears no forests, the limits of which on the contrary, he 
 carefully cherishes for his deer to range in. He seats himself down, with 
 his lodge, in the borders of natural glades, or meadows, to plant his few 
 hills of maize. He had no metallic axe, capable of cutting down a tree, 
 before 1492, and he has never learned to wield a heavy axe up to 1844. 
 His wife, always made her lodge fires by gathering sticks, and she does 
 so still. She takes a hatchet of one or two pounds weight, and after 
 collecting dry limbs in the forest, she breaks them into lengths of about 
 18 inches, and ties them in bundles, or faggots, and carries them, at her 
 leisure, to her lodge. Small as these sticks are, in their length and diame- 
 ter, but few are required to boil her pot. The lodge, being of small cir 
 cumference, but little heat is required to warm the air, and by suspending 
 the pot by a string from above, over a small blaze, the object is attained, 
 without that extraordinary expenditure of wood, which, to the perfect 
 amazement of the Indian, characterizes the emigrant's roaring fire of logs. 
 The few fields which the Indians have cleared and prepared for corn fields, 
 in northern latitudes, are generally to be traced to some adventitious opening, 
 and have been enlarged very slowly. Hence, I have observed, that when 
 they have come to be appraised, to fix their value as improvements upon 
 the land, under treaty provisions, that the amount thereof may be paid the
 
 PERSONAL INCIDENTS AND IMPRESSIONS. 77 
 
 owner, they have uniformly set a high estimate upon these ancient clear- 
 ings, and sometimes regarded their value, one would think, in the inverse 
 proportion of these limits. As if, indeed, there were some merit, in having 
 but half an acre of cleared ground, where, it might be supposed, the owner 
 would have cultivated ten acres. And this half acre, is to be regarded as 
 the industrial sum of the agricultural labours of all ages and sexes, during 
 perhaps, ten generations. Could the whole of this physical effort, there- 
 fore, be traced to female hands, which is doubtful, for the old men and 
 boys, will often do something, it would not be a very severe imposition. 
 There is at least, a good deal, it is believed, in this view of the domestic 
 condition of the women to mitigate the severity of judgment, with which 
 the proud and labour-hating hunter, has sometimes been visited. He has. 
 in our view, the most important part of the relative duties of Indian life, 
 to sustain. In the lodge he is a mild, considerate man, of the non-interfering 
 and non-scolding species. He may indeed, be looked upon, rather as the 
 guest of his wife, than what he is often represented to be, her tyrant, and 
 he is often only known as the lord of the lodge, by the attention and res- 
 pect which she shows to him. He is a man of few words. If her temper 
 is ruffled, he smiles. If he is displeased, he walks away. It is a pro- 
 vince in which his actions acknowledge her right to rule ; and it is one, 
 in which his pride and manliness have exalted him above the folly of al- 
 tercation.
 
 THE MANITO TREE. 
 
 There is a prominent hill in the vicinity of Sault Ste. Marie, at the out- 
 let of lake Superior, called by the French La Butte des Terres. An In- 
 dian footpath formerly connected this hill with the old French settlement 
 at those falls, from which it is distant about a mile. In the intermediate 
 space, near the path, there formerly stood a tree, a large mountain ash, 
 from which, Indian tradition says, there issued a sound, resembling that 
 produced by their own war-drums, during one of the most calm and 
 cloudless days. This occurred long before the French appeared in the 
 country. It was consequently regarded as the local residence of a spirit, 
 and deemed sacred. 
 
 From that time they began to deposit at its foot, an offering of small 
 green twigs and boughs, whenever they passed the path, so that, in pro- 
 cess of time, a high pile of these offerings of the forest was accumulated. 
 It seemed as if, by this procedure, the other trees had each made an offer- 
 ing to this tree. At length the tree blew down, during a violent storm, 
 and has since entirely decayed, but the spot was recollected and the offer- 
 ings kept up, and they would have been continued to the present hour, 
 had not an accidental circumstance put a stop to it. 
 
 In the month of July 1822, the government sent a military force to take 
 post, at that ancient point of French settlement, at the foot of the falls, and 
 one of the first acts of the commanding officer was to order out a fatigue 
 party to cut a wagon road from the selected site of the post to the hill. This 
 road was directed to be cut sixty feet wide, and it passed over the site of 
 the tree. The pile of offerings was thus removed, without the men's 
 knowing that it ever had had a superstitious origin ; and thus the practice 
 itself came to an end. I had landed with the troops, and been at the place 
 but nine days, in the exercise of my appropriate duties as an Agent on the 
 part of the government to the tribe, when this trait of character was men- 
 tioned to me, and I was thus made personally acquainted with the locality, 
 the cutting of the road, and the final extinction of the rite. 
 
 Our Indians are rather prone to regard the coming of the white man, 
 as. fulfilling certain obscure prophecies of their own priests; and that they 
 are. at best, harbingers of evil to them ; and with their usual belief in 
 fatality, they tacitly drop such rites as the foregoing. They can excuse 
 themselves to their consciences in such cases, in relinquishing the wor- 
 ship of a local manito, by saying : it is the tread of the white man that 
 has desecrated the ground. 
 
 78
 
 TALES OF A IGAM. 
 
 THE WHITE STONE CANOE. 
 
 THERE was once a very beautiful young girl, who died suddenly on the 
 day she was to have been married to a handsome young man. He was 
 also brave, but his heart was not proof against this loss. From the 
 hour she was buried, there was no more joy or peace for him. He went 
 often to visit the spot where the women had buried her, and sat musing 
 there, when, it was thought, by some of his friends, he would have done 
 better to try to amuse himself in the chase, or by diverting his thoughts in 
 the war-path. But war and hunting had both lost their charms for him. 
 His heart was already dead within him. He pushed aside both his 
 war-club and his bow and arrows. 
 
 He had heard the old people say, that there was a path, that led to the 
 land of souls, and he determined to follow it. He accordingly set out, 
 one morning, after having completed his preparations for the journey. 
 At first he hardly knew which way to go. He was only guided by the 
 tradition that he must go south. For a while, he could see no change in 
 the face of the country. Forests, and hills, and vallies, and streams had 
 the same looks, which they wore in his native place. There was snow 
 on the ground, when he set out, and it was sometimes seen to be piled 
 and matted on the thick trees and bushes. At length, it began to dimin- 
 ish, and finally disappeared. The forest assumed a more cheerful ap- 
 pearance, the leaves put forth their buds, and before he was aware of 
 the completeness of the change, he found himself surrounded by spring. 
 He had left behind him the land of snow and ice. The air became 
 mild, the dark clouds of winter had rolled away from the sky ; a pure 
 field of blue was above him, and as he went he saw flowers beside his 
 path, and heard the songs of birds. - By these signs he knew that he was 
 going the right way, for they agreed with the traditions of his tribe. At 
 length he spied a path. It led him through a grove, then up a long and 
 elevated ridge, on the very top of which he came to a lodge. At the 
 door stood an old man, with white hair, whose eyes, though deeply sunk, 
 had a fiery brilliancy. He had a long robe of skins thrown loosely 
 around his shoulders, and a staff in his hands.
 
 80 THE WHITE STONE CANOE. 
 
 The young Chippewayan began to tell his story ; but the venerable chief 
 arrested him, before he had proceeded to speak ten words. I have expected 
 you, he replied, and had just risen to bid you welcome to my abode. She, 
 whom you seek, passed here but a few days since, and being fatigued with 
 her journey, rested herself here. Enter my lodge and be seated, and I 
 wnl then satisfy your enquiries, and give you directions for your journey 
 from this point. Having done this, they both issued forth to the lodge door. 
 "You see yonder gulf, said he," and the wide stretching blue plains be- 
 yond. It is the land of souls. You stand upon its borders, and my lodge 
 is the gate of entrance. But you cannot take your body along. Leave it 
 here with your bow and arrows, your bundle and your dog. You will 
 find them safe on your return." So saying, he re-entered the lodge, and 
 the freed traveller bounded forward, as if his feet had suddenly been endow- 
 ed with the power of wings. But all things retained their natural colours 
 and shapes. The woods and leaves, and streams and lakes, were only 
 more bright and comely than he had ever witnessed. Animals bounded 
 across his path, with a freedom and a confidence which seemed to tell 
 him, there was no blood shed here. Birds of beautiful plumage inhabit- 
 ed the groves, and sported in the waters. There was but one thing, in 
 which he saw a very unusual effect. He noticed that his passage was 
 not stopped by trees or other objects. He appeared to walk directly 
 through them. They were, in fact, but the souls or shadows of material 
 trees. He became sensible that he was in a land of shadows. When 
 he had travelled half a days journey, through a country which was con- 
 tinually becoming more attractive, he came to the banks of a broad lake, 
 in the centre of which was a large and beautiful island. He found a 
 canoe of shining white stone, tied to the shore. He was now sure that 
 he had come the right path, for the aged man had told him of this. There 
 were also shining paddles. He immediately entered the canoe, and took 
 the paddles in his hands, when to his joy and surprise, on turning round, 
 he beheld the object of his search in another canoe, exactly its counter- 
 part in every thing. She had exactly imitated his motions, and they were 
 side by side. They at once pushed out from shore and began to cross 
 the lake. Its waves seemed to be rising and at a distance looked ready to 
 swallow them up; but just as they entered the whitened edge of them 
 they seemed to melt away, as if they were but the images of waves. But 
 no sooner was one wreath of foam passed, than another, more threaten- 
 ing still, rose up. Thus they were in perpetual fear ; and what added to 
 it, was the clearness of the water, through which they could see heaps of 
 beings who had perished before, and whose bones laid strewed on the 
 bottom of the lake. The Master of Life had, however, decreed to let them 
 pass, for the actions of neither of them had been bad. But they saw many 
 others struggling and sinking in the waves. Old men and young men, 
 males and females of all ages and ranks, were there ; some passed, and
 
 THE "WHITE STONE CANOE. 81 
 
 some sank. It was only the little children whose canoes seemed to meet 
 no waves. At length, every difficulty was gone, as in a moment, and 
 they both leapt out on the happy island. They felt that the very air 
 was food. It strengthened and nourished them. They wandered to- 
 gether over the blissful fields, where every thing was formed to please the 
 eye and the ear. There were no tempests there was no ice, no chilly 
 winds no one shivered for the want of warm clothes: no one suffered 
 for hunger no one mourned for the dead. They saw no graves. They 
 heard of no wars. There was no hunting of animals; for the air itself 
 was their food. Gladly would the young warrior have remained there 
 forever, but he was obliged to go back for his body. He did not see 
 the Master of Life, but he heard his voice in a soft breeze: "Go back, 
 said this voice, to the land from whence you came. Your time has not 
 yet come. The duties for which I made you, and which you are to per- 
 form, are not yet finished. Return to your people, and accomplish 
 the duties of a good man. You will be the ruler of your tribe for many 
 days. The rules you must observe, will be told you by my messenger, 
 who keeps the gate. When he surrenders back your body, he will tell 
 you what to do. Listen to him, and you shall afterwards rejoin the spirit, 
 which you must now leave behind. She is accepted and will be ever 
 here, as young and as happy as she was when I first called her from the 
 land of snows." When this voice ceased, the narrator awoke. It was 
 the fancy work of a dream, and he was still in the bitter land of snows, 
 and hunger and tears. 
 
 THE 
 
 LYNX AND THE HARE, 
 
 A FABL'E FROM THE OJIBWA-ALGONQUIN. 
 
 A LYNX almost famished, met a hare one day in the woods, in the winter 
 season, but the hare was separated from its enemy by a rock, upon which 
 it stood. The lynx began to speak to it in a very kind manner. Wa- 
 bose ! Wabose '" * said he, " come here my little white one, I wish to talk 
 to you." " O no," said the hare, " I am afraid of you, and my mother 
 told me never to go and talk with strangers." You are very pretty," 
 replied the lynx, " and a very obedient child to your parents ; but you must 
 know that I am a relative of yours ; I wish to send some word to your 
 lodge ; come down and see me." , The hare was pleased to be called pretty, 
 and when she heard that it was a relative, she jumped down from the 
 place where she stood*, and immediately the lynx pounced upon her and 
 tore her to pieces. 
 
 * This word appears to be a derivation from the radix WAWB, white. The termi- 
 nation in o is the objective sign. The term is made diminutive in a. 
 
 6
 
 THE WORSHIP OF THE SUN. 
 AN OTTOWA TRADITION, 
 
 A LONG time ago, there lived an aged Odjibwa and his wife, on the 
 shores of Lake Huron. They had an only son, a very beautiful boy, 
 whose name was O-na-wut-a-qut-o, or he that catches the clouds. The 
 family were of the totem of the beaver. The parents were very proud 
 of him, and thought to make him a celebrated man, but when he reached 
 the proper age, he would not submit to the We-koon-de-win, or fast. 
 When this time arrived, they gave him charcoal, instead of his breakfast, 
 but he would not blacken his face. If they denied him food, he would 
 seek for birds' eggs, along the shore, or pick up the heads of fish that had 
 been cast away, and broil them. One day, they took away violently the 
 food he had thus prepared, and cast him some coals in place of it. This 
 act brought him to a decision. He took the coals and blackened his face, 
 and went out of the lodge. He did not return, but slept without ; and 
 during the night, he had a dream. He dreamed that he saw a very 
 beautiful female come down from the clouds and stand by his side. " O- 
 no-wut-a-qut-o," said she, "I am come for you step in my tracks." The 
 young man did so, and presently felt himself ascending above the tops of 
 the trees he mounted up, step by step, into the air, and through the 
 clouds. His guide, at length, passed through an orifice, and he, following 
 her, found himself standing on a beautiful plain. 
 
 A path led to a splendid lodge. He followed her into it. It was large, 
 and divided into two parts. On one end he saw bows and arrows, clubs 
 and spears, and various warlike implements tipped with silver. On the 
 other end, were things exclusively belonging to females. This was the 
 home of his fair guide, and he saw that she had, on the frame, a broad 
 rich belt, of many colours, which she was weaving. She said to him: 
 "My brother is coming and I must hide you." Putting him in one cor- 
 ner, she spread the belt over him. Presently the brother came in, very 
 richly dressed, and shining as if he had had points of silver all over him. 
 He took down from the wall a splendid pipe, together with his sack of a- 
 pa-ko-ze-gun, or smoking mixture. When he had finished regaling him- 
 self in this way, and laid his pipe aside, he said to his sister: "Nemissa, 1 
 (which is, my elder sister,) "when will you quit these practices? Do you 
 forget that the Greatest of the Spirits has commanded that you should not 
 
 82
 
 THE WORSHIP OP THE 9UN. 83 
 
 take away the children from below? Perhaps you suppose that you have 
 concealed O-na-wut-a-qut-o, but do I not know of his coming? If you 
 would not offend me, send him back immediately." But this address did 
 not alter her purpose. She would not send him back. Finding that she 
 was purposed in her mind, he then spoke to the young lad, and called him 
 from his hiding place. "Come out of your concealment," said he, "and 
 walk about and amuse yourself. You will grow hungry if you remain 
 there." He then presented him a bow and arrows, and a pipe of red stone, 
 richly ornamented. This was taken as the word of consent to his mar- 
 riage ; so the two were considered husband and wife from that time 
 
 O-no-wut-a-qut-o found every thing exceedingly fair and beautiful around 
 him, but he found no inhabitants except her brother. There were flowers 
 on the plains. There were bright and sparkling streams. There were 
 green Vallies and pleasant trees. There were gay birds and beautiful 
 animals, but they were not such as he had been accustomed to see. There 
 was also day and night, as on the earth ; but he observed that every morn- 
 ing the brother regularly left the lodge, and remained absent all day; and 
 every evening the sister departed, though it was commonly but for a part 
 of the night. 
 
 His curiosity was aroused to solve this mystery. He obtained the 
 brother's consent to accompany him in one of his daily journies. They 
 travelled over a smooth plain, without boundaries, until O-no-wut-a-qut-o 
 felt the gnawings of appetite, and asked his companion if there were no 
 game. "Patience! my brother," said he, "we shall soon reach the spot 
 where I eat my dinner, and you will then see how I am provided." After 
 walking on a long time, they came to a place which was spread over with 
 fine mats, where they sat down to refresh themselves. There was, at this 
 place, a hole through the sky ; and O-no-wut-a-qut-o, looked down, at the 
 bidding of his companion, upon the earth. He saw below the great lakes, 
 and the villages of the Indians. In one place, he saw a war party steal- 
 ing on the camp of their enemies. In another, he saw feasting and dancing. 
 On a green plain, young men were engaged at ball. Along a stream, 
 women were employed in gathering the a-puk-wa for mats. 
 
 "Do you see," said the brother, "that group of children playing beside 
 a lodge. Observe that beautiful and active boy," said he, at the same time 
 darting something at him, from his hand. The child immediately fell, 
 and was carried into the lodge. 
 
 They looked again, and saw the people gathering about the lodge. 
 They heard the she-she-gwan of the meeta, and the song he sung, asking 
 that the child's life might be spared. To this request, the companion of 
 O-no-wut-a-qut-o made answer "send me up the sacrifice of a white dog." 
 Immediately a feast was ordered by the parents of the child, the white dog 
 was killed, his carcass was roasted, and all the wise men and medicine 
 men of the village assembled to witness the ceremony, " There are many
 
 84 THE WORSHIP OP THE SUN. 
 
 below," continued the voice of the brother, "whom you caUgreU in med- 
 ical skill, but it is because their ears are open, and they listen to ray 
 voice, that they are able to succeed. When I have struck one with sick- 
 ness, they direct the people to look to me: and when they send me the 
 offering I ask, I remove my hand from off them, and they are well." 
 After he had said this, they saw the sacrifice parcelled out in dishes, for 
 those who were at the feast The master of the feast then said, "we send 
 this to thee, Great Manito," and immediately the roasted animal came up. 
 Thus their dinner was supplied, and after they had eaten, they returned 
 to the lodge by another way. 
 
 After this manner they lived for some time; but the place became 
 wearisome at last. O-no-wut-a-qut-o thought of his friends, and wished 
 to go back to them. He had not forgotten his native village, and his 
 father's lodge; and he asked leave of his wife, to return. At length 
 she consented. " Since you are better pleased," she replied, with the 
 cares and the ills, and the poverty of the world, than with the peaceful 
 delights of the sky, and its boundless prairies, go! I give you permission, 
 and since I have brought you hither, I will conduct you back; but re- 
 member, you are still my husband, I hold a chain in my hand by which 
 I can draw you back, whenever I will. My power over you is not, in any 
 manner, diminished. Beware, therefore, how you venture to take a wife 
 among the people below. Should you ever do so, it is then that you shall 
 feel the force of my displeasure." 
 
 As she said this, her eyes sparkled she raised herself slightly on her 
 toes, and stretched herself up, with a majestic air ; and at that moment, O- 
 no-wut-a-qut-o awoke from his dream. He found himself on the ground, 
 near his father's lodge, at the very spot where he had laid himself down 
 to fast. Instead of the bright beings of a higher world, he found himself 
 surrounded by his parents and relatives. His mother told him he had 
 been absent a year. The change was so great, that he remained for some 
 tune moody and abstracted, but by degrees, he recovered his spirits. He 
 began to doubt the reality of all he had heard and seen above. At last, 
 he forgot the admonitions of his spouse, and married a beautiful young 
 woman of his own tribe. But within four days, she was a corpse. Even 
 the fearful admonition was lost, and he repeated the offence by a 
 second marriage. Soon afterwards, he went out of the lodge, one night, 
 but never returned. It was believed that his wife had recalled him to the 
 region of the clouds, where the tradition asserts, he still dwells, and walks 
 on the daily rounds, which he once witnessed. 
 
 The native tribes are a people without maxims : One of the few which 
 have been noticed is this : Do not tell a story in the summer ; if you do, 
 the toads will visit you.
 
 SHINGEBISS. 
 
 FROM THE ODJIBWA-ALGONQUIN, 
 
 THERE was once a Shingebiss, [the name of a kind of duck] living alone, 
 in a solitary lodge, on the shores of the deep bay of a lake, in the coldest 
 winter weather. The ice had formed on the water, and he had but four 
 logs of wood to keep his fire. Each of these, would, however, burn a 
 month, and as there were but four cold winter months, they were sufficient 
 to carry him through till spring. 
 
 Shingebiss was hardy and fearless, and cared for no one. He would 
 go out during the coldest day, and seek for places where flags and rushes 
 grew through the ice, and plucking them up with his bill, would dive 
 through the openings, in quest of fish. In this way he found plenty of 
 food, while others were starving, and he went home daily to his lodge, 
 dragging strings of fish after him, on the ice. 
 
 Kabebonicca * observed him, and felt a little piqued at his perseverance 
 and good luck in defiance of the severest blasts of wind he could send 
 from the northwest. " Why ! this is a wonderful man," said he ; " he does 
 not mind the cold, and appears as happy and contented, as if it were the 
 month of June. I will try, whether he cannot be mastered." He poured 
 forth ten-fold colder blasts, and drifts of snow, so that it was next to impos- 
 sible to live in the open air. Still the fire of Shingebiss did not go out : 
 he wore but a single strip of leather around his body, and he was seen, in 
 the worst weather, searching the shores for rushes, and carrying home fish. 
 " I shall go and visit him," said Kabebonicca, one day, as he saw Shin- 
 gebiss dragging along a quantity of fish. And accordingly, that very 
 night, he went to the door of his lodge. Meantime Shingebiss had cooked 
 his fish, and finished his meal, and was lying, partly on his side, before 
 the fire singing his songs. After Kabebonicca had come to the door, and 
 stood listening there, he sang as follows : 
 
 Ka Neej Ka Neej 
 
 Be In Be In 
 
 Bon In Bon In 
 
 Oc Ee. Oc Ee. 
 
 Ca We-ya! Ca We-ya ! 
 
 The number of words, in this song, are few and simple, but they are 
 made up from compounds which carry the whole of their original mean- 
 ings, and are rather suggestive of the ideas floating in the mind, than 
 actual expressions of those ideas. Literally he sings : 
 
 Spirit of the North West you are but my fellow man. 
 
 * A personification of the North West. 
 
 85
 
 86 SHINGEBISS. 
 
 By being broken into syllables, to correspond with a simple chant, and 
 by the power of intonation and repetition, with a chorus, these words are 
 expanded into melodious utterance, if we may be allowed the term, and 
 may be thus rendered : 
 
 Windy god, I know your plan, 
 You are but my fellow man, 
 Blow you may your coldest breeze, 
 Shingebiss you cannot freeze, 
 Sweep the strongest wind you can, 
 Shingebiss is still your man, 
 Heigh ! for life and ho ! for bliss, 
 
 Who so free as Shingebiss ? 
 
 / 
 The hunter knew that Kabebonicca was at his door, for r.e felt his cold 
 
 and strong breath ; but he kept on singing his songs, and affected utter 
 indifference. At length Kabebonicca entered, and took his seat on the 
 opposite side of the lodge. But Shingebiss did not regard, or notice him. 
 He got up, as if nobody were present, and taking his poker, pushed the 
 log, which made his fire burn brighter, repeating as he sat down again : 
 
 You are but my fellow man. 
 / 
 
 Very soon the tears began to flow down Kabebonicca's cheeks, which 
 
 increased so fast, that, presently, he said to himself, " I cannot stand this 
 I must go out" He did so, and left Shingebiss to his songs ; but resolved 
 to freeze up all the flag orifices, and make the ice thick, so that he could not 
 get any more fish. Still Shingebiss, by dint of great diligence, found 
 means to pull up new roots, and dive under for fish. At last Kabebon- 
 icca was compelled to give up the contest. " He must be aided by some 
 Monedo," said he, " I can neither freeze him, nor starve him, he is a very 
 singular being I will let him alone." 
 
 The introduction of the Saxon race into North America, has had three 
 determined opponents, the life of each of whom forms a distinct era. They 
 were Powhatan, Metakom, and Pontiac. Each pursued the same method 
 to accomplish his end, and each was the indominitable foe of the race. 
 Sassacus ought, perhaps, to be added to the number. Brant, was but a 
 partisan, and fought for one branch, against another. Tecumseh, was 
 also, rather the foe of the American type of the race, than the whole race. 
 The same can be said of lesser men, such as Little Turtle, Buckanjaheela, 
 and Black Hawk. Uncas was also a partisan, not a hater of the white 
 race, and like Waub Ojeeg in the north, fought, that one tribe might 
 prevail over another. If the Saxon race profited by this, he could not 
 help it. Tuscaloosa fought for his tribe's supremacy ; Osceola for 
 revenge.
 
 EARLY INDIAN BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 PISKARET. 
 
 THERE lived a noted chief on the north banks of the St. Lawrence in 
 ..he latter part of the 16th century, who was called by the Iroquois, Piskaret 
 but the true pronunciation of whose name, by his own people, was Bisco- 
 nace, or the Little Blaze. Names are often arbitrarily bestowed by the 
 Indians, from some trivial circumstance in domestic life, or hunting, as 
 mere nick names, which take the place of the real names : for it is a prac- 
 tice among this people to conceal their real names, from a subtle, supersti- 
 tious notion, that, if so known, they will be under the power of priestly 
 incantation, or some other evil influence. 
 
 What the real name of this man was, if it differed from the above, is not 
 kriown, as this was his only appellation. He was an Adirondak : that 
 is to say, one of the race of people who were called Adirondaks by the 
 Iroquois, but Algonquins by the French. And as the Algonquins and 
 Iroquois, had lately became deadly enemies and were so then, the distinction 
 to which Bisconace rose, was in the conducting of the war which his peo- 
 ple waged against the Iroquois, or Five Nations. 
 
 It seems, from the accounts of both English and French authors, that 
 the Algonquins, at the period of the first settlement of the St. Lawrence, 
 were by far the most advanced in arts and knowledge, and most distin- 
 guished for skill in war and hunting, of all the nations in North America. 
 This at least is certain, that no chief, far or near, enjoyed as high a repu- 
 tation for daring valor and skill as Bisconace. He is spoken of in this 
 light by all who name him ; he was so fierce, subtle and indomitable that 
 he became the terror of his enemies, who were startled at the very 
 mention of his name. Bisconace lived on the north banks of the St. Law- 
 rence, below Montreal, and carried on his wars against the Indians inhabit- 
 ing the northern parts of the present state of New York, often proceeding 
 by the course of the River Sorel. 
 
 The period of the Adirondak supremacy, embraced the close of the 
 15th century and the beginning of the 16th, and at this time the people be- 
 gan to derive great power and boldness, from the possession of fire arms, 
 with which the French supplied them, before their southern and western 
 neighbours came to participate in this great improvement, this striking era 
 of the Red man, in the art of war. Golden is thought to be a little out, 
 in the great estimate he furnishes of the power, influence, and advances 
 of this great family of the Red Race. The French naturally puffed them 
 up a good deal ; but we may admit that they were most expert warriors, 
 and hunters, and manufactured arms and canoes, with great skill. They 
 
 87
 
 88 EARLY INDIAN BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 were the prominent enemies of the Five Nations ; and like all enemies at 
 a distance had a formidable name. The word Adirondak is one of Iro- 
 quois origin; but the French, who always gave their own names to the 
 Tribes, and had a policy in so doing, called them Algonquins a term 
 whose origin is involved in some obscurity. For a time, they prevailed 
 against their enemies south of the St. Lawrence, but the latter were soon 
 furnished with arms by the Dutch, who entered the Hudson in 1609, and 
 their allies, the Iracoson, or Iroquois, soon assumed that rank in war 
 which, if they had before lacked, raised them to so high a point of pre- 
 eminence. It was in that early period of the history of these nations that 
 Bisconace exerted his power. 
 
 Where a people have neither history nor biography, there is but little 
 hope that tradition will long preserve the memory of events. Some of 
 the acts of this chief are known through the earlier colonial writers. So 
 great was the confidence inspired in the breast of this chief, by the use of 
 fire arms, that he pushed into the Iroquois country like a mad man, and 
 performed some feats against a people armed with bows only, which are 
 astonishing. 
 
 With only four chiefs to aid him, he left Trois Rivieres, on one occa- 
 sion, in a single canoe, with fifteen loaded muskets, thus giving three 
 pieces, to each man. Each piece was charged with two balls, joined by a 
 small chain ten inches long. Soon after entering the Sorel river, he en- 
 countered five bark canoes of Iroquois, each having ten men. To cloak 
 his ruse he pretended to give himself up for lost, in view of such a dis- 
 parity of numbers ; and he and his companions began to sing their death 
 song. They had no sooner got near their enemies, however, than they 
 began to pour in their chain-shot, riddling the frail canoes of the enemy, 
 who tumbled into the water, and sank under the active blows of their 
 adversaries. Some he saved to grace his triumphant return, and these 
 were tortured at the stake. 
 
 On another accasion he undertook an enterprize alone. Being well 
 acquainted with the Iroquois country, he set out, about the time the snow 
 began to melt, taking the precaution to put the hinder part of his snowj- 
 shoes forward to mislead the enemy, in case his track should be discovered. 
 As a further precaution, he avoided the plain forest paths, keeping along 
 the ridges and high stony grounds, where the snow was melting, that his 
 track might be often lost. When he came near to one of the Villages of 
 the Five Nations, he hid himself till night. He then crept forth, and en- 
 tered a lodge, where he found every soul asleep. Having killed them all, 
 he took their scalps, and went back to his lurking place. The next day 
 the people of the village searched in vain for the perpetrator. At night 
 he again sallied forth, and repeated the act, on another lodge, with equal 
 secrecy and success. Again the villagers searched, but could find nc 
 traces of his footsteps. They determined, however, to set a watch. Pis-
 
 EARLY INDIAN BIOGRAPHY. 89 
 
 karet, anticipating this, gathered up his scalps, and stole forth slyly, but 
 found the inhabitants of every lodge on the alert, save one, where the sen- 
 tinel had fallen asleep. This man he despatched and scalped, but alarmed 
 the rest, who rose in the pursuit. He was, however, under no oreat 
 fears of being overtaken. One of the causes of his great confidence in 
 himself was found in the fact that he was the swiftest runner known. 
 He eluded them often, sometimes, however, lingering to draw them on, 
 and tire them out. When he had played this trick, he hid himself. His 
 pursuers, finding they had let him escape, encamped, thinking themselves 
 in safety, but they had no sooner fallen asleep, than he stole forth from 
 his lurking place, and despatched every one of them. He added their 
 scalps to his bundle of trophies, and then returned. N 
 
 Recitals of this kind flew from village to village, and gave him the 
 greatest reputation for courage, adroitness and fleetness. 
 
 The Five Nations were, however, early noted for their skill in stratagem, 
 and owed their early rise to it. They were at this era engaged in their 
 long, fierce and finally triumphant war against the Algonquins and Wy- 
 andots, or to adopt the ancient terms, the Adirondaks and Quatoghies. 
 These latter they defeated in a great battle, fought within two miles of 
 Quebec. In this battle the French, who were in reality weak in number, 
 were neutral. Their neutrality, on this occasion, happened in this way. 
 They had urged the reception of priests upon the Five Nations, through 
 whose influence, they hoped to prevail over that people, and to wrest 
 western New York from the power of the Dutch and English. As soon 
 as a number of these missionaries of the sword and cross had insinuated 
 themselves among the Five Nations, the latter seized them, as hostages ; 
 and, under a threat of their execution, kept the French quiet in this deci- 
 sive battle. This scheme had succeeded so well, that it taught the Five 
 Nations the value of negociation ; and they determined, the next year, to 
 try another. Pretending that they were now well satisfied with their tri- 
 umph on the St. Lawrence, they sent word that they meant to make a 
 formidable visit to Yonnendio, this being the official name they bestowed 
 on the governor of Canada. Such visits they always made with great 
 pomp and show ; and on this occasion, they came with 1000 or 1200 men. 
 On the way to Quebec, near the river Nicolet, their scouts met Piskaret, 
 whom they cajoled, and kept in utter ignorance of the large force behind 
 until they had drawn out of him an important piece of information, and 
 then put him to death. They cut off his head, and carried it to the Iro- 
 quois army. To have killed him, was regarded as an assurance of ulti- 
 mate victory. These scouts also carried to the army the information, 
 which they had .obtained, that the Adirondaks were divided into two 
 bodies, one of which hunted on the river Nicolet, and the other at a place 
 called Wabmeke, on the north side of the St. Lawrence. They immedi-
 
 90 EARLY INDIAN BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 ately divided their forces, fell upon each body at unawares and cut them 
 both to pieces. 
 
 This is the great triumph to which Charlevoix, in his history of New 
 France, alludes. It was the turning point in the war against the confederated 
 Wyandots, and Algonquins, and, in effect, drove both nations, in the end, 
 effectually out of the St. Lawrence valley. The former fled to Lake Hu- 
 ron, to which they imparted their name. Some of the Adirondaks took 
 shelter near Quebec, under the care of the Jesuits ; the larger number 
 went up the Utawas, to the region of Lake Nipising ; the Atawairos fled 
 to a large chain of islands in Lake Huron, called the Menaloulins ; other 
 bands scattered in other directions. Each one had some local name ; and 
 all, it is probable, were well enough pleased to hide their defeat by the 
 Five Nations, under local and geographical designations. But they had 
 no peace in their refuge. The spirit of revenge burned in the breast of the 
 Iroquois, particularly against their kindred tribe, the Wyandots, whom 
 they pursued into Lake Huron, drove them from their refuge at Michili- 
 mackinac, and pushed them even to Lake Superior, where for many years, 
 this ancient tribe continued to dwell. 
 
 The pernicious examples of white men, who have conducted the Indian 
 trade, their immoral habits, injustice, and disregard of truth, and open 
 licentiousness, have created the deepest prejudice in the minds of the Red 
 men against the whole European race. 
 
 The Indian only thinks when he is forced to think, by circumstances. 
 Fear, hunger and self-preservation, are the three prominent causes of his 
 thoughts. Affection and reverence for the dead, come next 
 
 Abstract thought is the characteristic of civilization. If teachers could 
 induce the Indians to think on subjects not before known to them, or but 
 imperfectly known, they would adopt one of the most efficacious means 
 of civilizing them. 
 
 Christianity is ultraism to an Indian It is so opposed to his natural 
 desires, that he. at first, hates it, and decries it. Opposite states of feeling, 
 however, affect him, precisely as they do white men. What he at first 
 hates, he may as suddenly love and embrace. 
 
 Christianity is not propagated by ratiocination, it is the result of feelings 
 and affections on the will and understanding. Hence an Indian can be- 
 come a Christian.
 
 .BMO; 
 
 THE SAUSTAWRAYTSEES, 
 
 THE ORIGIN OF THE WYANDOT AND SENEO\ TRIBES. 
 
 A WYANDOT TRADITION. 
 
 TOWARDS the middle of the seventeenth century, a body of Indians, com- 
 posed of the Wyandots (or ag they were then called the Saus-taw-ray- 
 tsee) and Seneca tribes inhabited the borders of Lake Ontario. The pre- 
 sent Wyandots and Senecas are the remains of this community, and of 
 the cause of their separation and of the relentless hostilities by which it 
 was succeeded, the following details are given in the traditionary history 
 of the Wyandots. 
 
 A Wyandot girl, whose name for the sake of distinction shall be Oon- 
 yay-stee, and in whom appeared united a rare combination of moral attrac- 
 tions, and of extraordinary personal beauty, had for her suitors, nearly 
 all the young men of her tribe. As insensible however, as beautiful, the 
 attentions of her lovers were productive of no favorable effect, for though 
 none were rejected, yet neither was any one distinguished by her partiality. 
 This unaccountable apathy became, in time, a subject not only of general, 
 but of common interest to the young Wyandots. A council composed of 
 those interested in the issue of these many and importunate applications 
 for her favor, was held for the purpose of devising some method, by which 
 her intentions in relation to them might be ascertained. At this, when 
 these amourists had severally conceded, each, that he could boast of no in- 
 dication of a preference shown by Oon-yay-stee to himself, upon which to 
 found a reasonable hope of ultimately succeeding, it was finally deter- 
 mined, that their claims should be withdrawn in favor of the War Chief 
 of their lodge. This was adopted, not so much for the purpose of ad van 
 cing the interests of another to the prejudice of their own, as to avoid the 
 humiliating alternative of yielding the object of so much competition te 
 some more fortunate rival not connected with their band. 
 
 It may be here necessary to remark that nearly all the suitors belonged 
 to one lodge, and that each of these was a large oblong building, capable 
 of containing 20 or 30 families, the domestic arrangements of which were 
 regulated by a war chief, acknowledged as the head of that particular sub- 
 ordinate band. 
 
 Many objections to the task imposed on him by .this proposition were
 
 92 HISTORICAL TRADITIONS. 
 
 interposed by the chief, the principal of which were, the great disparity of 
 age and the utter futility of any further attempt, upon the affections of one 
 so obdurate of heart. The first was obviated by some well applied com- 
 mendations of his person, and the second yielded to the suggestion that 
 women were often capricious, were not always influenced by considera- 
 tions the most natural, or resolvable to reasons the most obvious. 
 
 The chief then painted and arrayed himself as for battle, bestowing 
 some little additional adornment upon his person, to aid him in this species 
 of warfare, with which he was not altogether so familiar as that in which 
 he had acquired his reputation ; his practice having been confined rather to 
 the use of stone-headed arrows than love darts, and his dexterity in the 
 management of hearts displayed rather in making bloody incisions, than 
 tender impressions. Before he left the lodge, his retainers pledged them- 
 selves, that if the prosecution of this adventure should impose upon their 
 chief the necessity of performing any feat, to render him better worthy the 
 acceptance of Oon-yay-stee, they would aid him in its accomplishment, 
 and sustain him against its consequences to the last extremity. It was re- 
 served for so adventurous a spirit that it should be as successful in love, as 
 it had hitherto been resistless in war. 
 
 After a courtship of a few days, he proposed himself and was condition- 
 ally accepted, but what the nature of this condition \vas, further than that 
 it was indispensable, Oon-yay-stee refused to tell him, until he should 
 have given her the strongest assurances that it should be complied with. 
 After some hesitation and a consultation with the lovers who urged him 
 to give the promise, he declared himself ready to accept the terms of the 
 compact. Under her direction he then pledged the word of a warrior, 
 that neither peril to person, nor sacrifice of affection should ever prevail 
 with him to desist, imprecating the vengeance of Hau-men-dee-zhoo, and 
 the persecution of Dairh-shoo-oo-roo-no upon his head if he failed to 
 prosecute to the uttermost, the enterprise, if its accomplishment were 
 only possible. 
 
 She told him to bring her the scalp of a Seneca chief whom she desig- 
 nated, who for some reason she chose not to reveal, was the object of her 
 hatred. 
 
 The Wyandot saw too late, that he was committed. He besought her 
 to reflect, that this man was his bosom friend, they had eaten and drank 
 and grown up together and how heavy it would make his heart to think 
 that his friend had perished by his hand. He remonstrated with her on 
 the cruelty of such a requisition, on the infamy of such an outrage of con- 
 fidence and the execration which would forever pursue the author of an 
 action so accursed. But his expostulations were made to deaf ears. She 
 iold him either to redeem his pledge, or consent to be proclaimed for a 
 lying dog, whose promises were unworthy ever to be heard, and then left 
 him. 

 
 HISTORICAL TRADITIONS. 93 
 
 An hour had hardly elapsed, before the infuriated Wyandot blackened 
 his face, entered the Seneca Village, tomahawked and scalped his friend, 
 and as he rushed out of the lodge shouted the scalp-whoop. In the dark- 
 ness of the night his person could not be distinguished, and he was chal- 
 lenged by a Seneca to whom he gave his name, purpose, and a defiance 
 and then continued his flight. But before it had terminated, the long 
 mournful scalp-whoop of the Senecas was resounding through the Wy- 
 andot Village ; and the chief had hardly joined in the furious conflict that 
 ensued between the avengers of his murdered victim and his own retain- 
 ers, before he paid with his life the forfeit of his treachery. 
 
 After a deadly and sustained combat for three days and nights, with 
 alternate success, the Wyandots were compelled to retire, deserting their 
 village and abandoning their families to such mercy as might be granted 
 by an infuriated enemy. Those who were left, sunk under the tomahawk 
 and scalping knife the village was devastated and the miserable author 
 of the bloody tragedy herself perished amid this scene of indiscriminate 
 slaughter and desolation. 
 
 This war is said to have continued for a period of more than 30 years, 
 in which time, the Wyandots had been forced backwards as far as Lakes 
 Huron and Michigan. Here they made an obstinate stand, from which all 
 the efforts of their relentless enemies to dislodge them were ineffectual. 
 Their inveterate hatred of each other was fostered by the war parties of 
 the respective tribes, whose vindictive feelings led them to hunt and de- 
 stroy each other, like so many beasts of the forest. These resulted gene- 
 rally in favor of the Wyandots, who, inspirited by these partial successes, 
 prepared for more active operations. Three encounters took place, on the 
 same day, two being had on Lake Michigan and one on Lake Erie, and 
 which from their savage and exterminating character, closed this long and 
 merciless contest. It is somewhat remarkable, as no other tradition makes 
 mention of an Indian battle upon water, that one of these, said to have 
 occurred on Lake Erie, between Long Point and Fort Talbot, was fought 
 in canoes. Of this the following detail is given. 
 
 A large body of Wyandots accompanied by two Ottawas left Lake Hu- 
 ron in birch canoes, on a war excursion into the country of the Senecas, 
 who had settled at this time, near the head of the Niagara river. They 
 put ashore at Long Point to cook, when one of the Ottawas and a Wyan- 
 dot were sent out as spies to reconnoitre. They had proceeded but a short 
 distance from the camp, when they met two Senecas, who had been de- 
 spatched by their party for the like purposes, and from whom they instantly 
 fled. The Ottawa finding his pursuers gaining upon him, hid himself in 
 the branches of a spruce tree, where he remained till the Seneca had 
 passed. The Wyandot, fleeter of foot, succeeded in reaching his camp 
 and gave the alarm, when the whole body embarked and pushed out intc 
 the lake. In another moment a party of Senecas was discovered, turniu
 
 94 EARLY SKETCHES OP INDIAN WOMEN. 
 
 the nearest point of land in wooden canoes. Immediately the war-whoops 
 were sounded and the hostile bands began to chant their respective songs. 
 As they slowly approached each other, the Wyandots struck a fire, and 
 prepared their gum and bark to repair any damage which might occur to 
 the canoes. The battle was fought with bows and arrows, and after a 
 furious and obstinate contest of some hours, in which the carnage was 
 dreadful, and the canoes were beginning to fill with blood, water and man- 
 gled bodies, the Senecas began to give way. The encouraged Wyandots 
 fought with redoubled ardor, driving the Senecas to the shore, where the 
 conflict was renewed with unabated fury. The Wyandots were victorious, 
 and few of the surviving Senecas escaped to tell the story of their defeat. 
 One of the prisoners, a boy, was spared and adopted by the nation. Two 
 Wyandots are now living who profess to have seen him, when very fai 
 advanced in years. 
 
 The two other attacks to which allusion has been made, as occurring 
 on the borders of Lake Michigan, were not more fortunate in their issue. 
 The Senecas were repulsed with great slaughter. 
 
 Thus, say the Wyandots, originated this long, bloody and disastrous 
 war, and thus it terminated after proving nearly the ruin of our nation. 
 
 HO-TSHUNG-RAH. 
 
 Upper Sandusky, March 1st, 1827. 
 
 EARLY SKETCHES OF INDIAN WOMEN. 
 
 THE oldest -books we possess written by the first observers of our In- 
 dians abound in interest. Among these is a small work by William Wood, 
 who visited Plymouth and Massachusetts soon after their settlement, and 
 published his " New England} s Prospect" in London, in 1634. 
 
 The following extract from this book, (now very scarce,) we make 
 here, partly for the purpose which the author declares he had in view in 
 writing it, viz. : to excite the special interest of our female readers, though 
 the good humour and wit, as well as the benevolence of the writer, will 
 doubtless commend it to persons of both sexes. That we may not run 
 the risk of losing any of the effect of the quaint, old-fashioned style of 
 the original, we have been careful to preserve the author's orthography 
 and punctuation, together with the long sentences, for which, as well as 
 many of his contemporaries, he was remarkable. We have omitted short 
 and unimportant passages in a few places, marked with asterisks. E.
 
 WASBASHAS; 
 
 OR, 
 
 THE TRIBE THAT GREW OUT OF A SHELL 
 
 AN OSAGE LEGEND. 
 
 There was a snail living on the banks of the river Missouri, where he 
 found plenty of food, and wanted nothing. But at length the waters be- 
 gan to rise and overflow its banks, and although the little animal clung 
 to a log, the flood carried them both away : they floated along for many 
 days. When the water fell, the poor snail was left in the mud and slime, 
 on shore. The heat of the sun came out so strong, that he was soon fixed 
 in the slime and could not stir. He could no longer get any nourish- 
 ment. He became oppressed with heat and drought. He resigned him- 
 self to his fate and prepared to die. But all at once, he felt a renewed 
 vigour. His shell burst open, and he began to rise. His head gradually 
 rose above the ground, he felt his lower extremities assuming the charac- 
 ter of feet and legs. Arms extended from his sides. He felt their ex- 
 tremities divide into fingers. In fine he rose, under the influence of one 
 day's sun, into a tall and noble man. For a while he remained in a dull 
 and stupid state. He had but little activity, and no clear thoughts. 
 These all came by degrees, and when his recollections returned, he re- 
 solved to travel back to his native land. 
 
 But he was naked and ignorant. The first want he felt was hunger. 
 He saw beasts and birds, as he walked along, but he knew not how to 
 kill them. He wished himself again a snail, for he knew how, in that 
 form, to get his food. At length he became so weak, by walking and 
 fasting, that he laid himself down, on a grassy bank, to die. He had not 
 laid long, when he heard a voice calling him by name. " Was-bas-has," 
 exclaimed the voice. He looked up, and beheld the Great Spirit sitting 
 on a white horse. His eyes glistened like stars. The hair of his head 
 shone like the sun. He could not bear to look upon him. He trembled 
 from head to foot. Again the voice spoke to him in a mild tone- 
 " Was-bas-has ! Why do you look terrified ?" " I tremble," he replied, 
 because 1 stand before Him who raised me from the ground. I am faint 
 
 95
 
 96 WASBASHAS. 
 
 and hungry, I have eaten nothing since the floods left me upon the shore 
 a little shell." 
 
 The Great Spirit here lifted up his hands and displaying a bow and 
 arrows, told him to look at him. At a distance sat a bird on a tree. He 
 put an arrow to the string, and pulling it with force, brought down the 
 beautiful object. At this moment a deer came in sight. He placed ano- 
 ther arrow to the string, and pierced it through and through. " These" 
 said he, "are your food, and these are your arms," handing him the bow 
 and arrows. He then instructed him how to remove the skin of the deer, 
 and prepare it for a garment. " You are naked," said he, " and must be 
 clothed ; it is now warm, but the skies will change, and bring rains, and 
 snow, and cold winds." Having said this, he also imparted the gift of fire, 
 and instructed him how to roast the flesh. He then placed a collar of 
 wampum around his neck. " This," said he, " is your authority over all 
 beasts." Having done this, both horse and rider rose up, and vanished 
 from his sight. 
 
 Was-bas-has refreshed himself, and now pursued his way to his native 
 land. He had seated himself on the banks of the river, and was medita- 
 ting on what had passed, when a large beaver rose up from the channel 
 and addressed him. " Who art thou ;" said the beaver, " that comest here 
 to disturb my ancient reign ?" "I am a man" he replied ; " I was once a shell, 
 a creeping shell ; but who art thou ?" " I am king of the nation of beavers," 
 he answered : " I lead my people up and down this stream ; we are a busy 
 people, and the river is my dominion." " I must divide it with you," re- 
 torted Was-bas-has. " The Great Spirit has placed me at the head of 
 beasts and birds, fishes and fowl ; and has provided me with the power 
 of maintaining my rights." Here he held up the bow and arrows, and 
 displayed the collar of shells around his neck. " Come, come," said the 
 Beaver, modifying his tone, " I perceive we are brothers. Walk with me 
 to my lodge, and refresh yourself after your journey," and so saying he 
 led the way. The Snail-Man willingly obeyed his invitation, and had 
 no reason to repent of his confidence. They soon entered a fine large vil- 
 lage, and his host led him to the chiefs lodge. It was a well-built room, 
 of a cone-shape, and the floor nicely covered with mats. As soon as 
 they were seated, the Beaver directed his wife and daughter to prepare 
 food for their guest. While this was getting ready, the Beaver chief 
 thought he would improve his opportunity by making a fast friend of so 
 superior a being ; whom he saw, at the same time, to be but a novice. 
 He informed him of the method they had of cutting down trees, with their 
 teeth, and of felling them across streams, so as to dam up the water, and de- 
 scribed the method of finishing their dams with leaves and clay. He also 
 instructed him in the way of erecting lodges, and with other wise and 
 seasonable conversation beguiled the time. His wife and daughter now 
 entered, bringing in vessels of fresh peeled poplar, and willow, and sassa-
 
 ORIGIN OP THE DORMOUSE. 97 
 
 fras, and alder bark, which is the most choice food known to them. Of 
 this, Was-bas-has made a merit of tasting, while his entertainer devoured 
 it with pleasure. He was pleased with the modest looks and deportment of 
 the chiefs daughter, and her cleanly and neat attire, and her assiduous 
 attention to the commands of her father. This was ripened into esteem 
 by the visit he made her. A mutual attachment ensued. A union was 
 proposed to the father, who was rejoiced to find so advantageous a match 
 for his daughter. A great feast was prepared, to which all the beavers, 
 and other animals on good terms with them, were invited. The Snail- 
 Man and the Beaver-Maid were thus united, and this union is the origin 
 of the Osages. So it is said by the old people. 
 
 THE BOY WHO SET A SNARE FOR THE SUN; 
 
 THE ORIGIN OF THE KUG-E-BEENG-WA-KWA,* OR DORMOUSE. 
 
 FIIOM THE ODJIBWA ALGONQUIN. 
 
 At the time when the animals reigned in the earth, they had killed all 
 but a girl, and her little brother, and these two were living in fear and se- 
 clusion. The boy was a perfect pigmy, and never grew beyond the stature 
 of a small infant ; but the girl increased with her years, so that the labor 
 of providing food and lodging devolved wholly on her. She went out 
 daily to get wood for their lodge-fire, and took her little brother along that 
 no accident might happen to him ; for he was too little to leave alone. A 
 big bird might have flown away with him. She made him a bow and 
 arrows, and said to him one day, " I will leave you behind where I have 
 been chopping you must hide yourself, and you will soon see the Git- 
 shee-gitshee-gaun, ai see -ug or snow birds, come and pick the worms out of 
 the wood, where I have been chopping," (for it was in the winter.) " Shoot 
 one of them and bring it home." He obeyed her, and tried his best to kill 
 one, but came home unsuccessful. She told him he must not despair, but 
 try again the next day. She accordingly left him at the place she got 
 wood, and returned. Towards nightfall, she heard his little footsteps on 
 the snow, and he came in exultingly, and threw down one of the birds, 
 which he had killed. " My sister," said he, " I wish you to skin it and 
 stretch the skin, and when I have killed more, I will have a coat made 
 out of them." " But what shall we do with the body ?" said she : for as yet 
 men had not begun to eat animal food, but lived on vegetables alone. 
 " Cut it in two," he answered, " and season our pottage with one half of it 
 
 * Blind Woman. 
 7
 
 98 ORIGIN OP* THE DORMOUSE, 
 
 i 
 
 at a time." She did so. The boy, who was of a very small stature, con- 
 tinued his efforts, and succeeded in killing ten birds, out of the skins of 
 which his sister made him a little coat. 
 
 "Sister," said he one day, "are we all alone in the world ? Is there nobody 
 else living ?" She told him that those they feared and who had destroyed 
 their relatives lived in a certain quarter, and that he must by no means go 
 in that direction. This only served to inflame his curiosity and raise his 
 ambition, and he soon after took his bow and arrows and went in that 
 direction. After walking a long time and meeting nothing, he became 
 tired, and lay down on a knoll, where the sun had melted the snow. He 
 fell fast asleep ; and while sleeping, the sun beat so hot upon him, that it 
 singed and drew up his bird-skin coat, so that when he awoke and 
 stretched himself, he felt bound in it, as it were. He looked down and 
 saw the damage done to his coat. He flew into a passion and upbraided 
 the sun, and vowed vengeance against it. " Do not think you are too* 
 high," said he, " I shall revenge myself." 
 
 On coming home he related his disaster to his sister, and lamented bit- 
 terly the spoiling of his coat. He would not eat. He lay down as one 
 that fasts, and did not stir, or move his position for ten days, though she 
 tried all she could to arouse him. At the end of ten days, he turned over, 
 and then lay ten days on the other side. When he got up, he told his 
 sister to make him a snare, for he meant to catch the sun. She said she 
 had nothing ; but finally recollected a little piece of dried deer's sinew, that 
 her father had left, which she soon made into a string suitable for a noose. 
 But the moment she showed it to him, he told her it would not do, and 
 bid her get something else. She said she had nothing nothing at all. 
 At last she thought of her hair, and pulling some of it out of her head, 
 made a string. But he instantly said it would not answer, and bid her, 
 pettishly, and with authority, make him a noose. She told him there 
 was nothing to make it of, and went out of the lodge. She said to her- 
 self, when she had got. without the lodge, and while she was all alone, 
 " neow obewy indapin." This she did, and twisting them into a tiny 
 cord she handed it to her brother. The moment he saw this curious 
 braid he was delighted. " This will do," he said, and immediately put it 
 to his mouth, and began pulling it through his lips ; and as fast as he drew 
 it changed it into a red metal cord, which he wound around his body and 
 shoulders, till he had a large quantity. He then prepared himself, and 
 set out a little after midnight, that he might catch the, sun before it rose. 
 He fixed his snare on a spot just where the sun would strike the land, as 
 it rose above the earth's disc ; and sure enough, he caught the sun, so that 
 it was held fast in the cord, and did not rise. 
 
 The animals who ruled the earth were immediately put into a great 
 commotion. They had no light. They called a council to debate upon 
 the matter, and to appoint some one to go and cut the cord for this
 
 AMPATA SAPA. 99 
 
 was a very hazardous enterprize, as the rays of the sun would burr who- 
 ever came so near to them. At last the dormouse undertook it for at 
 this time the dormouse was the largest animal in the world. When it 
 stood up it looked like a mountain. When it got to the place where the 
 sun was snared, its hack began to smoke and burn, with the intensity of 
 the heat, and the top of its carcass was reduced to enormous heaps of 
 ashes. It succeeded, however, in cutting the cord with its teeth, and free- 
 ing the sun, but it was reduced to a very small size, and has remained 
 so ever since. Men call it the Kug-e-been-gvva-kwa. 
 
 AMPATA SAPA; 
 
 OR, 
 
 THE FIRST-WIFE. 
 
 A TRADITION OF THE DACOTAHS. 
 
 AMPATA SAPA was the wife of a brave young hunter and warrior, by 
 whom she had two children. They lived together in great happiness, 
 which was only varied by the changes of a forest life. Sometimes they 
 lived on the prairies ; sometimes they built their wigwam in the forest, 
 near the banks of a stream, and they paddled their canoe up and down the 
 rivers. In these trips they got fish, when they were tired of wild meats. 
 In the summer season they kept on the open grounds ; in the winter, they 
 fixed their camp in a sheltered position, in the woods. The very change 
 of their camp was a source of pleasure, for they were always on the look- 
 out for something new. They had plenty, and they wanted nothing. 
 
 In this manner the first years of their marriage passed away. But it so 
 happened, that as years went by, the reputation of her husband in the tribe 
 increased, and he soon came to be regarded as a Weetshahstshy Atapee, or 
 chief. This opened a new field for his ambition and pride. The fame 
 of a chief, it is well known, is often increased by the number of his wives. 
 His lodge was now thronged with visitors. Some came to consult him ; 
 some to gain his favour. All this gave Ampata Sapa no uneasiness, for 
 the Red People like to have visitors, and to show hospitality. The first thing 
 that caused a jar in her mind, was the rumour that her husband was about 
 to take a new wife. This was like a poison in her veins ; for she had a big 
 heart. She was much attached to her husband, and she could not bear 
 the idea of sharing his affections with another. But she found that the 
 idea had already got strong hold of her husband's mind, and her remon- 
 strances did little good. He defended himself on the ground, that it would 
 give him greater influence in the tribe if he took the daughter of a noted
 
 100 AMPATA SAPA. 
 
 chief. But before he had time to bring her to hjs lodge, Ampata Sapa 
 had fled from it, taking her two children, and returned to her father's 
 lodge. Her father lived at some distance, and here she remained a short 
 time in quiet. The whole band soon moved up the Mississippi, to their 
 hunting ground. She was glad to go with them, and would, indeed, have 
 been glad to go any where, to get farther from the lodge of her faithless 
 husband. 
 
 Here the winter wore away. When the Spring opened, they came 
 back again to the banks of the river, and mended and fitted up the canoes, 
 which they had left in the fall. In these they put their furs, and de- 
 scended to the Falls of St. Anthony. Ampata Sapa lingered behind a 
 short time the morning of their embarkation, as they began to draw near 
 the rapids which precede the great plunge. She then put her canoe in 
 the water, and embarked with her children. As she approached the falls, 
 the increasing velocity of the current rendered the paddles of but little 
 use. She rested with her's suspended in her hands, while she arose, and 
 uttered her lament : 
 
 "It was him only that I loved, with the love of my heart It was for 
 him that I prepared, with joy, the fresh killed meat, and swept with 
 boughs my lodge-fire. It was for him I dressed the skin of the noble deer, 
 and worked, with my hands, the Moccasins that graced his feet. 
 
 I waited while the sun ran his daily course, for his return from the 
 chase, and I rejoiced in my heart when I heard his manly footsteps ap- 
 proach the lodge. He threw down his burden at the door it was a 
 haunch of the deer ; I flew to prepare the meat for his use. 
 
 My heart was bound up in him, and he was all the world to me. But 
 ho has left me for another, and life is now a burden which I cannot bear. 
 E'ven my children add to my griefs they look so much like him. How 
 can I support life, when all its moments are bitter ! I have lifted up my 
 voice to the Master of life. I have asked him to take back that life, which 
 he gave, and which I no longer wish. I am on the current that hastens 
 to fulfil my prayer. I see the white foam of the water. It is my shroud. 
 I hear the deep murmur from below. It is my funeral song. Farewell. 
 
 It was too late to arrest her course. She had approached too near the 
 abyss, before her purpose was discovered by her friends. They beheld 
 her enter the foam they saw the canoe for an instant, on the verge, and 
 then disappear for ever. Such was the end of Ampata Sapa ; and they say 
 her canoe can sometimes be seen, by moonlight, plunging over the falls. 
 
 Internal dissention has done more to destroy the Indian power in 
 America, than the white man's sword. Could the tribes learn the wis- 
 dom of confederation, they might yet be saved. This is a problem now 
 undergoing an interesting process of solution.
 
 
 MUKAKEE MINDEMOEA; 
 
 OR, 
 
 THE TOAD-WOMAN- 
 
 AN ODJIBWA TALE. 
 
 GREAT good luck once happened to a young woman who was living all 
 alone in the woods, with nobody near her but her little dog, for, to her sur- 
 prise, she found fresh meat e^very morning at her door. She felt very 
 anxious to know who it was that supplied her, and watching one morning, 
 very early, she saw a handsome young man deposit the meat. After his 
 being seen by her, he became her husband, and she had a son by him. 
 One day not long after this, the man did not return at evening, as usual, 
 from hunting. She waited till late at night, but all in vain. Next day 
 she swung her baby to sleep in its tikenagun, or cradle, and then said to 
 her dog : " Take care of your brother whilst I am gone, and when he 
 cries, halloo for me'." The cradle was made of the finest wampum, and 
 all its bandages and decorations were, ot the same costly material. After 
 a short time the woman heard the cry of her faithful dog, and running 
 home as fast as she could, she found her child gone and the dog too. 
 But on looking round, she saw pieces of the wampum of her child's cradle 
 bit off by the dog, who strove to retain the child and prevent his being 
 carried off by an old woman called Mukakee Mindemoea, or the Toad- 
 Woman. The mother followed at full speed, and occasionally came to 
 lodges inhabited by old women, who told her at what time the thief had 
 passed ; they also gave her shoes, that she might follow on. There were 
 a number of these old women, who seemejl as if they were all prophetesses. 
 Each of them would say to her, that when she arrived in pursuit of her 
 stolen child at the next lodge,- she must set the toes of the moccasins they 
 had loaned her pointing homewards, and they would return of themselves. 
 She would get others from her entertainers farther on, who would also 
 give her directions how to proceed to recover her son. She thus followed 
 in the pursuit, from valley to valley, and stream to sfrpm, for months and 
 years ; when she came, at length, to the lodge of the last of the friendly old 
 Nocoes, or grandmothers, as they were called, who gave her final instruc. 
 tions how to proceed. She told her she was near the place where her son 
 was, and directed her to build a lodge of shingoob, or cedar boughs, near 
 the old Toad- Woman's lodge, and to make a little bark dish and squeeze 
 her milk into it. Then," she said, your first child (meaning the dog) 
 will come and find you out/' She did accordingly, and in a short time
 
 102 MUKAKEE MINDEMOEA. 
 
 she heard her son, now grown, going out to hunt, with his dog, calling on 
 to him, " Monedo Pewaubik (that is, Steel or Spirit Iron,) Twee ! 
 Twee!" She then set ready the dish and filled it with her milk. The 
 dog soon scented it and came into the lodge ; she placed it before him. 
 u See my child," said she, addressing him, " the food you used to have 
 from me, your mother." The dog went and told his young master that 
 he had found his real mother ; and informed him that the old woman, whom 
 he called his mother, was not his mother, that she had stolen him when an 
 infant in his cradle, and that he had himself followed her in hopes of get- 
 ting him back. The young man and his dog then went on their hunting 
 excursion, and brought back a great quantity of meat of all kinds. He 
 said to his pretended mother, as he laid it down, "Send some to the 
 stranger that has arrived lately." The old hag answered, " No ! why 
 should I send to her the Sheegowish."* He insisted ; and she at last 
 consented to take something, throwing it in at the door, with the remark, 
 " My son gives you, or feeds you this." But it was of such an offensive 
 nature, that she threw it immediately out after her. 
 
 After this the young man paid the stranger a visit, at her lodge of cedar 
 boughs, and partook of her dish of milk. She then told him she was his 
 real mother, and that he had been stolen away from her by the detestable 
 Toad-Woman, who was a witch. He was not quite convinced. She 
 . said to him, " Feign yourself sick, when you go home, and when the 
 Toad-Woman asks what ails you, say that you want to see your cradle ; 
 for your cradle was of wampum, and your faithful brother, the dog, bit a 
 piece off to try and detain you, which I picked up, as I followed in your 
 track. They were real wampum, white and blue, shining and beautiful." 
 She then showed him the pieces. He went home and did as his real 
 mother bid him. " Mother," said he, " why am 1 so different in my 
 looks from the rest of your children ?" " Oh," said she, " it was a very 
 bright clear blue sky when you were born ; that is the reason." When 
 the Toad- Woman saw he was ill, she asked what she could do for him. 
 He said nothing would do him good, but the sight of his cradle. She ran 
 immediately and got a cedar cradle ; but he said " That is not my cradle." 
 She went and got one of her own children's cradles, (for she had four,) but 
 he turned his head and said, " That is not mine." She then produced the 
 real cradle, and he saw it was the same, in substance, with the pieces the 
 other had shown him ; and he was convinced, for he could even see the 
 marks of the dog's teeth upon it. 
 
 He soon got well^md went out hunting, and killed a fat bear. He and 
 his dog-brother then stripped a tall pine of all its branches, and stuck the 
 carcass on the top, taking the usual sign of his having killed an animal 
 the tongue. He told the Toad-Woman where he had left it, saying, " It 
 is very far, even to the end of the earth." She answered, " It is not so far 
 * Sheegowiss, a widow, and mowigh, something nasty.
 
 MUKAKEE MINDEMOEA. JQ3 
 
 but I can get it," so off she set. As soon as she was gone, the young man 
 and his dog killed the Toad- Woman's children, and staked them on each 
 side of the door, with a piece of fat in their mouths, and then went to his 
 real mother and hastened her departure with them. The Toad- Woman 
 spent a long time in finding the bear, and had much ado in climbing the 
 tree to get down the carcass. As she got near home, she saw the children 
 looking out, apparently, with the fat in their mouths, and was angry at 
 them, saying, " Why do you destroy the pomatum of your brother." But 
 her fury was great indeed, when she saw they were killed and impaled. 
 She ran after the fugitives as fast as she could, and was near overtaking 
 them, when the young man said, " We are pressed hard, but let this stay 
 her progress," throwing his fire steel behind him, which caused the Toad- 
 Woman to slip and fall repeatedly. But still she pursued and gained on 
 them, when he threw behind him his flint, which again retarded her, for 
 it made her slip and stumble, so that her knees were bleeding ; but she 
 continued to follow on, and was gaining ground, when the young man 
 said, " Let the Oshau shaw go min un (snake berry) spring up to detain 
 her," and immediately these berries spread like scarlet all over the path 
 for a long distance, which she could not avoid stooping down to pick and 
 eat. Still she went on, and was again advancing on them, when the 
 young man at last, said to the dog, " Brother, chew her into mummy, for 
 she plagues us." So the dog, turning round, seized her and tore her to 
 pieces, and they escaped. 
 
 Death is frightful, or welcome, according to the theories men have of it. 
 To the Indian, it is a pleasing and welcome event. He believes a future 
 state to be one of rewards, and restitutions, and not of punishments. 
 
 The Indian idea of paradise is the idea of the orientals. It consists of 
 sensualities, not spiritualities. He expects the scene to furnish him ease 
 and plenty. Ease and plenty make the Indian's happiness here, and his 
 heaven is but a bright transcript of his earth. 
 
 Paganism and idolatry, require more mysteries for their support than 
 Christianity. The Christian has but one God, existing in three hjpostases. 
 It would be below the truth to say that the Indian has one hundred thou- 
 sand gods. 
 
 The Hindoos worship their multiform gods of the earth, air and sea. 
 The North American Indian only believes in them. He worships the 
 Great Spirit. 
 
 Wild thoughts are often bright thoughts, but like the wild leaps of a 
 mountain torrent, they are evanescent and unequal. We are dazzled 
 by a single figure in an Indian speech, but it is too often like a spark 
 amid a shower of ashes.
 
 THE FLIGHT OP THE SHAWNEES FROM 
 THE SOUTH. 
 
 A MOHEGAN TRADITION. 
 
 METOXON states, that the Shawnees were, in ancient times, while they 
 lived in the south, defeated by a confederacy of surrounding tribes, and in 
 danger of being totally cut off and annihilated, had it not been for the in- 
 terference of the Mohegans and Delawares. An alliance between them 
 and the Mohegans, happened in this way. Whilst the Mohegans lived 
 at Schodack, on the Hudson river, a young warrior of that tribe visited 
 the Shawnees, at their southern residence, and formed a close friendship 
 with a young warrior of his own age. They became as brothers, and 
 vowed for ever to treat each other as such. 
 
 The Mohegan warrior had returned, and been some years living with 
 his nation, on the banks of the Chatimac, or Hudson, when a general war 
 broke out against the Shawnees. The restless and warlike disposition of 
 this tribe, kept them constantly embroiled with their neighbours. They 
 were unfaithful to their treaties, and this was the cause of perpetual troubles 
 and wars. At length the nations of the south resolved, by a general ef- 
 fort, to nd themselves of so troublesome a people, and began a war, in 
 which the Shawnees were defeated, battle after battle, with great loss. In 
 this emergency, the Mohegan thought of his Shawnee brother, and re- 
 solved to rescue him. He raised a war-party and being joined by the Le- 
 napees, since called Delawares, they marched to their relief, and brought 
 off the remnant of the tribe to the country of the Lenapees. Here they 
 were put under the charge of the latter, as their grandfather. 
 
 They were now, in the Indian phrase, put between their grandfather's 
 knees, and treated as little children. Their hands were clasped and tied 
 together that is to say, they were taken under their protection, and 
 for,ned a close alliance. But still, sometimes the child would creep out 
 
 104
 
 FLIGHT OF THE SHAWNEES. JQ5 
 
 under the old man's legs, and get into trouble implying that the Shaw- 
 nees could never forget their warlike propensities. 
 
 The events of the subsequent history of this tribe, after the settlement 
 of America are well known. With the Lena pees, or Delawares, they mi- 
 grated westward. 
 
 The above tradition was received from the respectable and venerable 
 chief, above named, in 1827, during the negotiation of the^treaty of Buttes 
 des Marts, on Fox river. At this treaty his people, bearing the modern 
 name of Stockbridges, were present, having, within a few years, migrated 
 from their former position in Oneida county, New York, to the waters of 
 Fox river, in Wisconsin. 
 
 Metoxon was a man of veracity, and of reflective and temperate habits, 
 united to urbanity of manners, and estimable qualities of head and heart, 
 as I had occasion to know from several years' acquaintance with him, be- 
 fore he, and his people went from Vernon to the west, as well as after he 
 migrated thither. 
 
 The tradition, perhaps with the natural partiality of a tribesman, lays 
 too much stress upon a noble and generous act of individual and triba; 
 friendship, but is not inconsistant with other relations, of the early south- 
 ern position, and irrascible temper of the Shawnee tribe. Their name it- 
 self, which is a derivative from O-sha-wan-ong, the place of the South, is 
 strong presumptive evidence of a former residence in, or origin from, the 
 extreme south. Mr. John Johnston, who was for many years the govern- 
 ment agent of this tribe at Piqua, in Ohio, traces them, in an article in the 
 Archselogia Americana (vol. 1, p. 273) to the Suwanee river in Florida. 
 Mr. Gallatin, in the second volume of the same work (p. 65) points out 
 their track, from historical sources of undoubted authority, to the banks 
 of the upper Savannah, in Georgia ; but remarks that they have only been 
 well known to us since 1680. They are first mentioned in our scattered 
 Indian annals, by De Laet, in 1632. 
 
 It may further be said, in relation to Metoxon's tradition, that there is 
 authority for asserting, that in the flight of the Shawnees from the south, 
 a part of them descended the Kentucky river west, to the Ohio valley, 
 where, in after times, the Shawnees of Pennsylvania and New Jersey, 
 rather formed a re-union with this division of their kindred than led the 
 way for them. 
 
 To depart one step from barbarism, is to take one step towards civiliza- 
 tion. To abandon the lodge of bark to throw aside the blanket to dis- 
 continue the use of paints or to neglect the nocturnal orgies of the wa- 
 beno, are as certain indications of incipient civilization, as it unquestion- 
 ably is, to substitute alphabetical characters for rude hieroglyphics, or to 
 prefer the regular cadences of the gamut, to the wild chanting of the chi- 
 chigwun.
 
 
 BOSH-KWA-DOSH, 
 
 THE QUADRUPED WITH THE HAIR BLOWN OFF ITS SKIN. 
 
 THERE was once a man who found himself alone in the world. He 
 knew not whence he came, nor who were his parents, and he wandered 
 about from place to place, in search of something. At last he became 
 wearied and fell asleep. He dreamed that he heard a voice saying, 
 " Nosis," that is, my grandchild. When he awoke he actually heard 
 the word repeated, and looking around, he saw a tiny little animal 
 hardly big enough to be seen on the plain. While doubting whether the 
 voice could come from such a diminutive source, the little animal said to 
 him, " My grandson, you will call me Bosh-kwa-dosh. Why are you so 
 desolate. Listen to me, and you shall find friends and be happy. 
 You must take me up and bind me to your body, and never put me 
 aside, and success in life shall attend you." He obeyed the voice, sewing 
 up the little animal in the folds of a string, or narrow belt, which he tied 
 around his body, at his navel. He then set out in search of some one like 
 himself, or other object. He walked a longtime in woods without seeing 
 man or animal. He seemed all alone in the world. At length he came 
 to a place where a stump was cut, and on going over a hill he descried a 
 large town in a plain. A wide road led through the middle of it ; but 
 what seemed strange was, that on one side there were no inhabitants in 
 the lodges, while the other side was thickly inhabited. He walked boldly 
 into the town. 
 
 The inhabitants came out and said ; " Why here is the being we have 
 heard so much of here is Anish-in-a-ba. See his eyes, and his teeth in 
 a half circle see the Wyaukenawbedaid ! See his bowels, how they are 
 formed ;" for it seems they could look through him. The king's son, the 
 Mudjdkewis, was particularly kind to him, and calling him brother-in-law, 
 commanded that he should be taken to his father's lodge and received with 
 attention. The king gave him one of his daughters. These people, 
 (who are supposed to be human, but whose rank in the scale of being is 
 left equivocal,) passed much of their time in play and sports and trials of 
 various kinds. When some time had passed, and he had become re- 
 
 106
 
 BOSH-KWA-DOSH. 107 
 
 freshed and rested, he was invited to join in these sports. T.ne first test 
 which they put him to, was the trial of frost. At some distance was a 
 large body of frozen water, and the trial consisted in lying down naked 
 on the ice, and seeing who could endure the longest. He went out with 
 two young men, who began, by pulling off their garments, and lying 
 down on their faces. He did likewise, only keeping on the narrow magic 
 belt with the tiny little animal sewed in it ; for he felt that in this alone was 
 to be his reliance and preservation. His competitors laughed and tittered 
 during the early part of the night, and amused themselves by thoughts of 
 his fate. Once they called out to him, but he made no reply. He felt a 
 manifest warmth given out by his belt. About midnight finding they were 
 still, he called out to them, in return, "What!" said he, "are you be- 
 numbed already, I am but just beginning to feel a little cold." All was si- 
 lence. He, however, kept his position till early day break, when he got 
 up and went to them. They were both quite dead, and frozen so hard, 
 that the flesh had bursted out under their finger nails, and their teeth 
 stood out. As he looked more closely, what was his surprise to find them 
 both transformed into buffalo cows. He tied them together, and carried 
 them towards the village. As he came in sight, those who had wished 
 his death were disappointed, but the Mudjekewis, who was really his 
 friend, rejoiced. "See!" said he " but one person approaches, it is my 
 brother-in-law." He then threw down the carcasses in triumph, but it 
 was found that by their death he had restored two inhabitants to the 
 before empty lodges, and he afterwards perceived, that every one of these 
 beings, whom he killed, had the like effect, so that the depopulated part 
 of the village soon became filled with people. 
 
 The next test they put him to. was the trial of speed. He was chal- 
 lenged to the race ground, and began his career with one whom he 
 thought to be a man ; but every thing was enchanted here, for he soon 
 discovered that his competitor was a large, black bear. The animal 
 outran him, tore up the ground, and sported before him, and put out its 
 large claws as if to frighten him. He thought of his little guardian spirit 
 in the belt, and wishing to have the swiftness of the Kakake, i. e. 
 sparrow hawk, he found himself rising from the ground, and with 
 the speed of this bird he outwent his rival, and won the race, while 
 the bear came up exhausted and lolling out his tongue. His friend the 
 Mudjekewis stood ready, with his war-club, at the goal, and the 
 moment the bear came up, dispatched him. He then turned to the 
 assembly, who had wished his friend and brother's death, and after re- 
 proaching them, he lifted up his club and began to slay them on every 
 side. They fell in heaps on all sides ; but it was plain to be seen, the 
 moment they fell, that they were not men, but animals, foxes, wolves, 
 tigers, lynxes, and other kinds, lay thick around the MudjSkewis. 
 
 Still the villagers were not satisfied. They thought the trial of frost,
 
 BOSH-KWA-DOSH. 
 
 had not been fairly accomplished, and wished it repeated. He agreed to 
 repeat it, but being fatigued with the race, he undid his guardian belt, and 
 laying it under his head, feH asleep. When he awoke, he felt re- 
 freshed, and feeling strong in his own strength, he went forward to 
 renew the trial on the ice, but quite forgot the belt, nor did it at all occur 
 to him when he awoke, or when he lay down to repeat the trial. 
 About midnight his limbs became stiff, the blood soon ceased to circulate, 
 and he was found in the morning, a stiff corpse. The victors took 
 him up and carried him to the village, where the loudest tumult of vic- 
 torious joy was made, and they cut the body into a thousand pieces, that 
 each one might eat a piece. 
 
 The MudjSkewis bemoaned his fate, but his wife was inconsolable. She 
 lay in a state of partial distraction, in the lodge. As she lay here, she 
 thought she heard some one groaning. It was repeated through the night, 
 and in the morning, she carefully scanned the place, and running her fingers 
 through the grass, she discovered the secret belt, on the spot where her hus- 
 band had last reposed. " Aubishin !" cried the belt that is, untie me, or 
 unloose me. Looking carefully, she found the small seam which enclosed 
 the tiny little animal. It cried out the more earnestly " Aubishin !" and 
 when she had carefully ripped the seams, she beheld, to her surprise, a mi- 
 nute, naked little beast, smaller than the smallest new born mouse, without 
 any vestige of hair, except at the tip of its tail, it could crawl a few inches, 
 but reposed from fatigue. It then went forward again. At each movement 
 it would pupowee, that is to say, shake itself, like a dog, and at each shake it 
 became larger. This it continued until it acquired the strength and size of 
 a middle sized dog, when it ran off! 
 
 The mysterious dog ran to the lodges, about the village, looking for the 
 bones of his friend, which he carried to a secret place, and as fast as he 
 found them arranged all in their natural order. At length he had formed all 
 the skeleton complete, except the heel bone of one foot. It so happened that 
 two sisters were out of the camp, according to custom, at the time the body 
 was cut up, and this heel was sent out to them. The dog hunted every 
 lodge, and being satisfied that it was not to be found in the camp, he sought 
 it outside of it, and found the lodge of the two sisters. The younger sister 
 was pleased to see him, and admired and patted the pretty dog, but the elder 
 sat mumbling the very heel-bone he was seeking, and was surly and sour, 
 and repelled the dog, although he looked most wistfully up in her face, 
 while she sucked the bone from one side of her mouth to the other. At last 
 she held it in such a manner that it made her cheek stick out, when the dog, 
 by a quick spring, seized the cheek, and tore cheek and bone away and 
 fled. 
 
 He now completed the skeleton, and placing himself before it, uttered a 
 hollow, low, long-drawn-out-howl, when the bones came compactly toge- 
 ther. He then modulated his howl, when the bones knit together and
 
 BOSH-KWA-DOSH. 109 
 
 became tense. The third howl brought sinews upon them, and the fourth, 
 flesh. He then turned his head upwards, looking into the sky, and gave 
 a howl, which caused every one in the village to startle, and the ground 
 itself to tremble, at which the breath entered into his body, and he first 
 breathed and then arose. " Hy kow!" I have overslept myself, he 
 exclaimed, " I will be too late for the trial." "Trial !" said the dog, " I told 
 you never to let me be separate from your body, you have neglected this. 
 You were defeated, and your frozen body cut into a thousand pieces, and 
 scattered over the village, but my skill has restored you. Nc w I will de- 
 clare myself to you, and show who and what I am !" 
 
 He then began to PUPOWEE, or shake himself, and at every shake, he 
 grew. His body became heavy and massy, his legs thick and long, with 
 big clumsy ends, or feet. He still shook himself, and rose and swelled. 
 A long snout grew from his head, and two great shining teeth out of his 
 mouth. His skin remained as it was, naked, and only a tuft of hair 
 grew on his tail. He rose up above the trees. He was enormous. " I 
 should fill the earth," said he, " were I to exert my utmost power, and all 
 there is on the earth would not satisfy me to eat. Neither could it fatten 
 me or do me good. I should want more. It were useless, therefore, and 
 the gift I have, I will bestow on you. The animals shall henceforth be 
 your food. They were not designed to feed on man, neither shall they 
 hereafter do it, but shall feed him, and he only shall prey on beasts. But 
 you will respect me, and not eat my kind. 
 
 [The preceding is a traditionary tale of Maidosegee, an aged and respected hunter, 
 , of Sault-ste-Mairie, who was the ruling chief of the band of Chippewas at those falls, 
 and the progenitor of the present line of ruling chiefs. It is preserved through the 
 Johnston family, where he was a frequent guest, prior to 1810, and was happy to while 
 away many of his winter's evenings, in return for the ready hospitalities which were 
 sure to await him at the house of the Indian's friend.] 
 
 MASH-KWA-SHA-KWONG, 
 
 THE TRADITIONARY STORY OF THE RED HEAD AND HIS 
 
 TWO SONS. 
 
 BY NABINOI, AN AGED ODJIBWA CHIEF. 
 
 MASH-KWA-SHA-KWONG, was a first rate hunter, and he loved the chase 
 exceedingly, and pursued it with unceasing vigilance. One day, on his 
 return home, arriving at his lodge, he was informed by his two sons, w 
 were but small then, that they were very lonesome, because their mother 
 was in the habit of daily leaving them alone, and this occurred so soon as
 
 110 MASH-KWA-8HA-KWONG. 
 
 he started upon his daily chase. This circumstance was not unknown to 
 Mash-kwa-sha-kwong, but he seemed fully aware of it : he took his boys 
 in his arms and kissed them, and told them that their mother behaved 
 improperly and was acting the part of a wicked and faithless woman. 
 But Mash-kwa-sha-kwong behaved towards his wife as if ignorant of her 
 vile course. One morning rising very early, he told his sons to take cou- 
 rage, and that they must not be lonesome, he also strictly enjoined them 
 not to absent themselves nor quit their lodge ; after this injunction was 
 given to the boys, he made preparations, and starting much earlier than 
 usual, he travelled but a short distance from his lodge, when he halted and 
 secreted himself. After waiting a short time, he saw his wife coming out 
 of their lodge, and immediately after a man made his appearance and 
 meeting Mash-kwa-sha-kwong's wife, they greeted one another. His 
 suspicions were now confirmed, and when he saw them in the act of car- 
 rying on an illegal intercourse, his anger arose, he went up to them and 
 killed them with one blow ; he then dragged them both to his lodge, and 
 tying them together, he dug a hole beneath the fire-place in his lodge and 
 buried them. He then told his sons that it was necessary that he should 
 go away, as he would surely be killed if he remained, and their safety 
 would depend upon their ability of keeping the matter a secret. He gave 
 his eldest son a small bird, (Kichig-e-chig-aw-na-she) to roast for his small 
 brother over the ashes and embers where their mother was buried, he also 
 provided a small leather bag, and then told his sons the necessity of his im- 
 mediate flight to heaven, or to the skies. And that it would be expedient 
 for them to fly and journey southward, and thus prepared their minds for 
 the separation about to take place. " By and bye," said Mash-kwa-sha- 
 kwong to his sons, " persons will come to you and enquire for me and for 
 your mother, you will say to them that I am gone hunting, and your little 
 brother in the mean time will continually point to the fire place, this will 
 lead the persons to whom I allude, to make inquiries of the cause of this 
 pointing, and you will tell them that you have a little bird roasting for 
 your brother, this will cause them to desist from further inquiry at the 
 time. As soon as they are gone escape! While you are journeying 
 agreeably to my instructions, I will look from on high upon you, I will 
 lead and conduct you, and you shall hear my voice from day to day." 
 Mash-kwa-sha-kwong at this time gave his sons an awl, a beaver's tooth, 
 and a hone, also a dry coal, and directed them to place a small piece of 
 the coal on the ground every evening, so soon as they should encamp, 
 from which fire would be produced and given to them ; he told his eldest 
 son to place his brother in the leather bag, and in that manner carry him 
 upon his back ; he then bade them farewell. 
 
 The two boys being thus left alone in the lodge, and while in the act 
 of roasting the little bird provided for them, a man came in, and then 
 another, and another, until they numbered ten in all ; the youngest boy
 
 MASH-KWA-SHA-KWONG. HI 
 
 would from time to time point at the fire, and the men enquired to know 
 the reason, the eldest boy said that he was roasting a bird for his brother 
 and digging the ashes produced it. They enquired, where their 
 father and mother were, the boy answered them saying, that their father 
 was absent hunting, and that their mother had gone to chop and collect 
 wood ; upon this information the men rose and searched around the out- 
 skirts of the lodge, endeavouring to find traces of the man and his wife 
 but they were not successful, and returned to the lodge. Before this, how- 
 ever, and during the absence of the ten men, Mash-kwa--sha-kwong's 
 eldest son placed his little brother in the leather bag, (Ouskemood,) and ran 
 away southward. 
 
 One of the ten men observed, that the smallest boy had repeatedly 
 pointed to the fire place, and that they might find out something by dig- 
 ging ; they set to work, and found the woman and the man tied together. 
 On this discovery their wrath was kinclled, they brandished their weapons, 
 denouncing impercations upon Mash-kwa-sha-kwong. who was of course 
 suspected of having committed the deed. 
 
 The ten men again renewed their search in order to avenge themselves 
 upon the perpetrator of this dark deed, but Mash-kwa-sha-kwong. in order 
 to avoid instant death, had sought a large hollow tree, and entering at the 
 bottom or root part, passed through and reached the top of it, from whence 
 he took his flight upwards to the sky. His pursuers finally traced him, 
 and followed him as far as the tree, and into the sky, with loud and un- 
 ceasing impercations of revenge and their determination to kill him. The 
 spirit of the mother alone followed her children. About mid-day the 
 boys heard, as they ran, a noise in the heavens like the rolling of distant 
 thunder.* The boys continued their journey soath, when the noise 
 ceased ; towards night they encamped ; they put a small piece of the coal 
 on the ground, then a log of fire-wood was dropped down from the 
 skies to them, from whence a good blazing fire was kindled. This was 
 done daily, and when the fire was lit, a raccoon would fall from on high 
 upon the fire, and in this manner the boys were fed, and this over-ruling 
 care they experienced daily. In the evenings at their camping place, 
 and sometimes during the day, the Red Head's voice was heard speaking 
 to his children, and encouraging them to use their utmost exertions to fly 
 from the pursuit of their mother. To aid them in escaping, they were 
 told to throw away their awl, and immediately there grew a strong and 
 almost impassable hedge of thorn bushes behind them, in their path, which 
 the pursuing mother could scarcely penetrate, and thus impeding her pro- 
 
 * Note by Mr. George Johnston, from whom this tale was received. Any thing of 
 the kind, or a similar noise heard, is attributed by the Indian, to this day, as an indica- 
 tion of the contention between Mash-kwa-sha-kwong and his pursuers, and hence a 
 prelude to wars and contentions among the nations of the world.
 
 112 MASH-KWA-SHA-KWONG. 
 
 gress, tearing away her whole body and leaving nothing but the head. 
 So they escaped the first day. 
 
 The next day they resumed their march and could distinctly hear the 
 noise of combat in the sky, as if it were a roaring thunder ; they also 
 heard the voice of their mother behind them, desiring her eldest son to 
 stop and wait for her, saying that she wished to give the breast to his 
 brother ; then again Mash-kwa-sha-kwong's voice, encouraging his sons to 
 fly for their lives, and saying that if their mother overtook them she would 
 surely kill them. 
 
 In the evening of the second day the boys prepared to encamp, and the 
 noise of combat on high ceased ; on placing a small piece of the coal on 
 the ground, a log and some fire-wood was let down as on the preceding 
 night, and the fire was kindled, and then the raccoon placed on it for 
 their food. This was fulfilling the promise made by their father, that they 
 would be provided for during their flight. The beaver's tooth was here 
 thrown away, and this is the cause why the northern country now abounds 
 with beaver, and also the innumerable little lakes and marshes, and con- 
 sequently the rugged and tedious travelling now experienced. 
 
 On the third day the boys resumed their flight, and threw away their 
 hone, and it became a high rocky mountainous ridge, the same now seen 
 on the north shore of these straits, (St. Mary's) which was a great obstacle 
 in the way of the woman of the Head, for this was now her name, be- 
 cause that part alone remained of her whole frame, and with it she was 
 incessantly uttering determinations to kill her eldest son ; the boys finally 
 reached the fishing place known as the eddy of Wah-zah-zhawing, at the 
 rapids of Bawating, situated on the north shore of the river. Here Mash- 
 kwa-sha-kwong, told his sons that he had himself been overtaken in his 
 flight by his pursuers and killed, and he appeared to them in the shape of 
 a red headed wood-pecker, or a mama. This is a bird that is seldom or 
 never attacked by birds of prey, for no vestiges of his remains are ever seen 
 or found by the Indian hunter. " Now my sons," said the red headed 
 wood-pecker, " I have brought you to this river, you will now see your 
 grand father and he will convey you across to the opposite side." Then 
 the boys looked to the southern shore of the river, and they saw in the 
 middle of the rapid, an OSHUGGAY standing on a rock ; to the Oshuggay 
 the boys spoke, and accosted him as their grand father, requesting him 
 to carry them across the river Bawating. The Oshuggay stretching his 
 long neck over the river to the place where the boys stood, told them to 
 get upon his head and neck, and again stretching to the southern shore, 
 he landed the boys in safety, upon a prairie : the crane was seen walking 
 in state, up and down the prairie. 
 
 The persevering mother soon arrived at Wah-zah-hawing, and im- 
 mediately requested the Oshuggay to cross her over, that she was in pur-
 
 MASH-KWA-SHA-KWONG. 113 
 
 suit of her children and stating that she wished to overtake them ; but the 
 Oshuggay seemed well aware of her character, and objected to conveying 
 her across, giving her to understand that she was a lewd and bad wo- 
 man ; he continued giving her a long moral lecture upon the course she 
 had pursued and the bad results to mankind in consequence, such as 
 quarrels, murders, deaths, and hence widowhood. 
 
 The woman of the Head persisted in her request of being conveyed 
 a cross. Objections and entreaties followed. She talked as if she were still 
 a woman, whose favour was to be sought ; and he, as if he were above 
 such favours. After this dialogue the Oshuggay said that he would 
 convey her across, on the condition that she would adhere strictly to 
 his injunctions ; he told her not to touch the bare part of his head, but to 
 get upon the hollow or crooked part of his neck ; to this she agreed, and 
 got on. The Oshuggay then withdrew his long neck to about half way 
 across, when feeling that she had forgotten her pledge he dashed her head 
 upon the rocks, and the small fish, that were so abundant instantly fed 
 upon the brain and fragments of the skull and became large white fish. 
 " A fish " said the Oshuggay, " that from this time forth shall be abundant, 
 and remain in these rapids to feed the Indians and their issue, from genera- 
 tion to generation."* 
 
 After this transaction of the Oshuggay's, landing the boys safely across, 
 and dashing the woman's head upon the rocks, he spake to the Crane and 
 mutually consulting one another in relation to Mash-kwa-sha-kwong's sons 
 they agreed to invite two women from the eastward, of the tribe of the WAS- 
 SISSIG, and the two lads took them for wives. The Oshuggay plucked one 
 of his largest wing feathers and gave it to the eldest boy, and the Crane 
 likewise did the same, giving his feathers to the youngest ; they were told 
 to consider the feathers as their sons after this, one feather appeared like 
 an Oshuggay and the other like a young Crane. By and by they appeared 
 like human beings to the lads. Thus the alliance was formed with the Was- 
 sissig,and the circumstance of the Oshuggay and Crane interesting them- 
 selves in behalf of the boys and the gift to them of their feathers and the 
 result, is the origin of the Indian Totem. 
 
 Here Mash-kwa-sha-kwong's sons were told that they would be con- 
 sideied as chieftains and that this office would be hereditary and continue 
 in their generations. After this, they multiplied exceedingly and became 
 strong and powerful. About this time the Obinangoes, (or the Bears' 
 Totem) came down from Shaugah-wah-mickong, near the extremity of 
 Lake Superior. On their way eastward they were surprised on reaching 
 Bawating to find such a numerous population of human beings : they were 
 
 * The small white shells that the white fish live upon, and the white subsftnce found ( 
 in its gizzard are to this day considered by the Indians, the brain and skull of the woman 
 of the Head.
 
 14 MASH-KWA-SHA-KWONG. 
 
 not aware of its oeing in existence ; fear came upon the Obinangoes, and 
 they devised the plan of securing friendship with the Oshuggays and 
 Cranes, by adopting and claiming a relationship with them, and calling 
 them their grandson^ This claim was yielded, and they were permitted to 
 remain at Bawaiting upon the score of relationship thus happily attained. 
 The Obenangoes eventually emigrated eastward and settled upon the 
 northern coast of Lakes Huron and Ontario. 
 
 Population increased so rapidly at Bawaiting, that it was necessary to 
 form new villages, some settling on the Garden River, some upon the 
 Pakaysaugauegan River, and others upon the island of St. Joseph's, and 
 upon the Menashkong Bay and Mashkotay Saugie River. 
 
 About this time, a person in the shape of a human being came down 
 from the sky ; his clothing was exceedingly pure and white ; he was seated 
 as it were in a nest, with a very fine cord attached to it, by which this 
 mysterious person was let down, and the cord or string reached heaven. 
 He addressed the Indians in a very humane, mild, and compasionate tone, 
 saying that they were very poor and needy, but telling them that they 
 were perpetually asleep, and this was caused by the Mache Monedo who 
 was in the midst of them, and leading them to death and ruin. 
 
 This mysterious personage informed them also that above, where he 
 came from, there was no night, that the inhabitants never slept, that it was 
 perpetually day and they required no sleep ; that Kezha Monedo was their 
 light. He then invited four of the Indians to ascend up with him promis- 
 ing that they would be brought back in safety ; that an opportunity would 
 thereby present itself to view the beauty of the sky, or heavens. But the 
 Indians doubted and feared lest the cord should break, because it appeared 
 to them so small. They did not believe it possible it could bear theii 
 weight. With this objection they excused themselves. They were, however, 
 again assured that ths cord was sufficiently strong and that Kezha Monedo 
 had the power to make it so. Yet the Indians doubted and feared, and 
 did not accompany the messenger sent down to them. After this re- 
 fusal the mysterious person produced a small bow and arrows with which 
 he shot at the Indians in different parts of their bodies : the result was, 
 the killing of multitudes of small white worms, which he showed to them ; 
 telling them that they were the Mache Monedo which caused them to 
 sleep, and prevented their awakening from their death-like state. 
 
 This divine messenger then gave to the Indians laws and rules, where- 
 by they should be guided : first, to love and fear Kezha Monedo, and next 
 that they must love one another, and be charitable and hospitable ; and 
 finalfy, that they must not covet their neighbours property, but acquire it 
 by labour and honest industry. He then instituted the grand medicine or 
 metiiy we win dance : this ceremony was to be observed annually, and 
 with due solemnity, and the Indians, said Nabinoi, experienced much good 
 from it ; but unfortunately, the foolish young men were cheated by Mache
 
 MASH-K-WA-SHA.KWONG. 115 
 
 Monedo, who caused them to adopt the Wabano dance and its ceremonies. 
 This latter is decidedly an institution of the sagemaus, or evil spirits, 
 and this was finally introduced into the metay we wining, (i. e. medicine 
 dance) and thereby corrupted it. ,'-- : _ f 
 
 The old chief continued his moral strain thus : While the Indians were 
 instructed by the heavenly messenger they were told that it would snow 
 continually for the space of five years, winter and summer, and the end 
 would then be nigh at hand ; and again that it would rain incessantly as 
 many winters and summers more, which would cause the waters to rise and 
 overflow the earth, destroying trees and all manner of vegetation. After 
 this, ten winters and summers of drought would follow, drying up the 
 land, and mostly the lakes and rivers ; not a cloud would be seen during 
 this period. The earth would become so dry, that it will then burn up with 
 fire of itself, and it will also burn the waters to a certain depth, until it at- 
 tains the first created earth and waters. Then the good Indians will rise 
 from death to enjoy a new earth, filled with an abundance of all manner 
 of living creatures. The only animal which will not be seen is the beaver 
 The bad Indians will not enjoy any portion of the new earth ; they will be 
 condemned and given to the evil spirits. 
 
 Four generations, he went on to say, have now passed away, since that 
 brotherly love and charity, formerly known, still existed among the In- 
 dians. There was in those ancient times an annual meeting among the In- 
 dians, resembling the French New Year's Day, which was generally ob- 
 served on the new moon's first appearance, Gitchy Monedo gesus. The 
 Indians of our village would visit these of another, and sometimes meet 
 one another dancing ; and on those occasions they would exchange bows 
 and arrows, their rude axes, awls, and kettles, and their clothing. This 
 was an annual festival, which was duly observed by them. In those 
 days the Indians lived happy ; but every thing is now changed to the In- 
 dian mind, indicating the drawing near and approach of the end of time. 
 The Indians who still adhere to the laws of the heavenly messenger ex- 
 perience happiness ; and, on the contrary, concluded the old man, those 
 who are wicked and adhere to the Wabano institution, generally meet 
 with their reward; and it is singular to say that they generally come 
 to their end by accidents, such as drowning, or miserable deaths. 
 
 He then reverted to the former part of his story. The Oshuggays, and 
 the Cranes quarrelled, and this quarrel commenced on a trivial point. It 
 appears that the Cranes took a pole, without leave, from the Oshuggays, 
 and they broke the pole ; this circumstance led to a separation. 
 Oehuggays emigrated south, and are now known as the Shawnees. 
 
 
 
 ;o :, 'j'o aril i:tiv.- 
 .,T .:,...*> :
 
 WA-WA-BE-ZO-WIN, 
 
 THE SWING ON THE LAKE SHORE. 
 
 FROM THE TRADITIONS OF THE ODJIBWAfl. 
 
 THERE was an old hag of a woman living with her daughter-in-law, 
 and son, and a little orphan boy, whom she was bringing up. When 
 her son-in-law came home from hunting, it was his custom to bring 
 his wife the moose's lip, the kidney of the bear, or some other choice 
 bits of different animals. These she would cook crisp, so as to make a 
 sound with her teeth in eating them. This kind attention of the hunter 
 to his wife, at last, excited the envy of the old woman. She wished 
 to have the same luxuries, and in order to get them she finally resolved to 
 make way with her son's wife. One day, she asked her to leave her in- 
 fant son to the care of the orphan boy, and come out and swing with 
 her. She took her to the shore of a lake, where there was a high range 
 of rocks overhanging the water. Upon the top of this rock, she erected 
 a swing. She then undressed, and fastened a piece of leather around her 
 body, and commenced swinging, going over the precipice at every swing. 
 She continued it but a short time, when she told her daughter to do the 
 same. The daughter obeyed. She undressed, and tying the leather 
 string as she was directed, began swinging. When the swing had got 
 in full motion and well a going, so that it went clear beyond the precipice, 
 at every sweep, the old woman slyly cut the cords and let her daughter 
 drop into the lake. She then put on her daughter's clothing, and thus dis- 
 guised went home in the dusk of the evening and counterfeited her ap- 
 pearance and duties. She found the child crying, and gave it the breast, 
 but it would not draw. The orphan boy asked her where its mother was. 
 She answered, " She is still swinging." He said, " I shall go and look 
 for her." " No !" said she, " you must not what should you go for ?" 
 When the husband came in, in the evening, he gave the coveted morsel 
 to his supposed wife. He missed his mother-in-law, but said nothing. 
 She eagerly ate the dainty, and tried to keep the child still. The hus- 
 band looked rather astonished to see his wife studiously averting her face, 
 and asked her why the child cried so. She said, she did not know that 
 it would not draw. 
 
 In the meantime the orphan boy went to the lake shores, and found no 
 one. He mentioned his suspicions, and while the old woman was out 
 getting wood, he told him all that he had heard or seen, The man then 
 
 116
 
 WA-WA-BE-ZO-WIN. H7 
 
 painted his face black, and placed his spear upside down in the earth and 
 requested the Great Spirit to send lightning, thunder, and rain, in the 
 hope that the body of his wife might arise from the water. He then 
 began to fast, and told the boy to take the child and play on the lake 
 shore. 
 
 We must now go back to the swing. After the wife had plunged into 
 ihe lake, she found herself taken hold of by a water tiger, whose tail 
 twisted itself round her body, and drew her to the bottom. There she 
 found a fine lodge, and all things ready for her reception, and she became 
 ;he wife of the water tiger. Whilst the children were playing along the 
 shore, and the boy was casting pebbles into the lake, he saw a gull com- 
 ing from its centre, and flying towards the shore, and when on shore, the 
 bird immediately assumed the human shape. When he looked again he 
 recognized the lost mother. She had a leather belt around her loins, and 
 another belt of white metal, which was. in reality, the tail of the water 
 tiger, her husband. She suckled the babe, and said to the boy " Come 
 here with him, whenever he cries,, and I will nurse him." 
 
 The boy carried the child home, and told these things to the father. 
 When the child again cried, the father went also with the boy to the 
 lake shore, and hid himself in a clump of trees. Soon the appearance 
 of a gull was seen, with a long shining belt, or chain, and as soon as it 
 came to the shore, it assumed the mother's shape, and began to suckle the 
 child. The husband had brought along his spear, and seeing the shining 
 chain, he boldly struck it and broke the links apart. He then took his 
 wife and child home, with the orphan boy. When they entered the 
 lodge, the old woman looked up, but it was a look of despair, she instantly 
 dropped her head. A rustling was heard in the lodge, and the next mo- 
 ment, she leaped up, and flew out of the lodge, and was never heard of 
 more. 
 
 The name of God, among the ancient Mexicans, was Teo, a word sel 
 dom found, except in compound phrases. Among the Mohawks and 
 Onondagas, it is Neo. With the western Senecas, as given by Smith, 
 Owayneo. With the Odjibwas, Monedo ; with the Ottowas, Maneto. 
 Many modifications of the word by prefixes, to its radix Edo, appear 
 among the cognate dialects It is remarkable that there js so striking a 
 similarity in the principal syllable, and it is curious to observe that Edo, 
 is, in sound, both the Greek term Deo, and the Azteek Teo, transposed. 
 Is there any thing absolutely fixed in the sounds of languages?
 
 TAKOZI1), 
 
 THE SHORT-FOOT. 
 
 A. BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH. 
 
 MOST of the individuals who have figured amongst the Red Race in 
 America, have appeared under circumstances which have precluded any 
 thing like a full and consistent biography. There is, in truth, but little in 
 savage life, to furnish materials for such biographies. The very scanti- 
 ness of events determines this. A man suddenly appears among these 
 tribes as a warrior, a negociator, an orator, or a prophet, by a name that 
 nobody ever before heard of. He excites attention for a short time, and 
 then sinks back into the mass of Indian society, and is no more heard of. 
 His courage, his eloquence, or his diplomatic skill, are regarded as evi- 
 dences of talent, and energy of thought or action, which, under better au- 
 spices, might have produced a shining and consistent character. But he 
 has been left by events, and is sunk in the mass. He appeared rathe'r like 
 an erratic body, or flash, than a fixed light amid his people. The circum 
 stances that brought him into notice have passed away. A victory has 
 been won, a speech made, a noble example given. The affair has been 
 adjusted, the tribe resumed its hunting, or corn-planting, or wandering, 
 or internal discords, and the new name, which promised for a while to raise 
 a Tamerlane, or Tippoo Saib in the west, settles down in the popular 
 mind ; and if it be not wholly lost, is only heard of now and then, as one 
 of the signatures to some land treaty. There is not, in fact, sufficient, in 
 the population, military strength, or importance of the affairs of most of 
 our tribes, to work out incidents for a sustained and full biography. Even 
 the most considerable personages of past times, who have been honoured 
 with such full notices, have too much resemblance to a stout boy in his 
 father's regimentals. They hang loosely about him. The most that can 
 be done all indeed which the occasion requires in general is a 
 sketch of such particular events, in aboriginal history, as the individual 
 has connected his name with. It is proposed in the progress of this work, 
 to furnish some of such sketches from the unwritten annals of the west 
 and the north. 
 
 Among that class of aboriginal chiefs and actors, who have not risen to 
 the highest distinction, or attained general notoriety out of the circle of 
 their own tribes, was Takozid, or the Short-Foot ; a Mukundwa, or pil- 
 lager ; a fierce, warlike, and predatory tribe of the Odjibwa Algonquin 
 
 118
 
 TAKOZID, OR THE SHORT-FOOT. 119 
 
 stock, who, at an early time seated themselves on the sources of the Mis- 
 sissippi, making their head quarters at Leech Lake. To this place, their 
 traditions assert, they came from Chagoimegon, or still farther east, prior 
 to the discovery of the country by Europeans. They were consequently 
 intruders in, or conquerors of the country, and drove back some other 
 people. It seems equally probable that this people were the Dacotahs, the 
 Naddowassies, or as it is abbreviated, Sioux, of early French writers. The 
 Sioux are a numerous and warlike stock, who occupy portions of the banks of 
 the Missouri and the Mississippi, at, and about the latitude of St. Anthony's 
 Falls. A hereditary war of which " the memory of man runneth not to 
 the contrary," was the consequence of this ancient inroad. Of all this 
 region of country we can speak from personal knowledge, having tra- 
 versed it at sundry times, and in various directions. It is in local remi- 
 niscence, little more than a widely extended scene of Indian battles, ambus- 
 cades and murders. There is hardly a prominent stream, plain or forest, 
 which is not referred to, as the traveller proceeds, as the particular locality 
 of some fight, tragedy, or hair-breath escape among the Red Men. The 
 Olympic games were not a surer test of fame in successful rivalry, than is 
 this wide area of aboriginal warfare, for the opposing nations of the Sioux 
 and Chippewas. War is the prime avenue to distinction to the Indian 
 mind. As soon as a hunter has acquired any distinction, and begins to 
 look upon himself as a person of courage and address, he turns his efforts 
 to the war path. Whatever else he is famous for, this is the crowning 
 test and seal of his reputation. And none have pursued it with more in- 
 cessant devotion than the Chippewas. 
 
 Takozid determined from his earliest youth to take a part in the strife 
 for barbaric glory. He early joined the war parties going into the great 
 plains. He learned their arts, repeated their songs, and became expert in 
 all the warrior's arts. He established the reputation of a brave young 
 man. The next step was to lead a war party himself. He courted popu- 
 larity by generosity, self denial, and attention to their religious rites and 
 ceremonies. ' These things may be done on a smaller scale, as effectually 
 among a band of savages, as in the hall or forum. He succeeded. He 
 raised a war party, conducted it into the plains, discovered his enemies, 
 approached them slily, fell upon them, defeated them, and returned in tri- 
 umph with their scalps to his village. His deep and hollow CHE KWAN 
 DUM, or death-cry of victory as he came to the eminence which overlooked 
 his village, announced all this before he set foot in his village : and the 
 number of his scalps. 
 
 These exploits placed him on the pinnacle of fame. It is a curious fact, 
 in the lives of our Red men, to observe that war is a stimulus to poligamy. 
 One of the first things he thought of, as a proper reward for his bravery, 
 was to take another wife. In this, his friends and partizans concurred, 
 although he had no cause of dissatisfaction with his first wife, to whom he
 
 120 TAKOZID, OR THE SHORT-FOOT. 
 
 had been married but a short time, and who had borne him a son. Time 
 added confirmation to this plan. It was talked of, and even debated by the 
 chiefs. It was conceded to be due to his bravery. All. indeed, appeared 
 to approve of it, but his wife. She heard of the rumor with alarm, and 
 received the account of its confirmation, with pain. It could no longer be 
 doubted, for the individual who was to share, nay, control the lodge 
 with her was named, and the consent of her parents had been obtained. 
 
 Monon, or the Little-Iron- Wood-Tree, as she was called, was a female 
 of no ordinary firmness of character. She was ardently attached to her 
 husband, not the less so for his rising fame, jealous of her rights, and 
 prompted by strong feelings to maintain them. In all these points she 
 was above the generality of her country women. Like others, however, 
 in a community where poligamy was common, she might have submitted 
 at length, to her fate, had _not her rival in the affections of Takozid. ap- 
 pealed to a deeper seated principle, and waked up, in the breast of the in- 
 jured wife, the feeling of revenge: a principle reckless enough, in com- 
 munities whore there are the safeguards of education and Christianity 
 to restrain and regulate it ; but horrible in wild and roving bands of bar- 
 barians. Monon's fidelity was slandered. She was a pure and high 
 minded woman, and the imputation goaded her to the quick. 
 
 When this slander first reached her ears, through the ordinary chan- 
 nel of village gossip, a chord was struck, which vibrated through every 
 throe, and steeled her heart for some extraordinary act ; although none 
 could anticipate the sanguinary deed which marked the nuptial night. 
 An Indian marriage is often a matter of little ceremony. It was not so, 
 on this occasion. To render the events imposing, many had been invited. 
 The bride was dressed in her best apparel. Her father was present 
 Many young and old, males and females were either present or thronged 
 around the lodge. The broad clear blue waters of the lake, studded with 
 green islands, spread before the door. A wide grassy lawn, which was 
 the village ball and play ground, extended down to its margin. It was 
 a public event. A throng had gathered around. Takozid was to be 
 married. He was to take a second wife, in the daughter of Obegwud. 
 Takozid himself was th\ere. Hilarity reigned within and without. All 
 indeed, were there, but the dejected and deserted Monon, who had been 
 left with her child, at the chieftain's own lodge. 
 
 But a spirit had been aroused in her breast, which would not permit 
 her to remain absent. She crossed the green silently, stealthily. She 
 stood gazing awhile at the lake. She approached the bridal lodge. She 
 passed easily among the group. She entered the lodge. Nor had any 
 one, at that moment, a thought of suspicion or alarm. The bride was 
 seated on her envied abbinos ; her affianced husband was at her side. 
 
 All at once, there arose a shrill cry, in the Chippewa tongue. " This, 
 vociferated the enraged Monon, This for the bastard!" and at each repeti
 
 TAKOZID, OR THE SHORT-FOOT. Jgi 
 
 tion of the words, she raised an Indian poignard, in her hand. The sud- 
 denness of her movement had paralyzed every attempt to arrest her. 
 Amazement sat in every face. She had plunged a pointed knife into the 
 breast of her rival. 
 
 There is little to be added to such a catastrophe. Its very suddenness 
 and atrocity appalled every one. Nobody arrested her, and nobody pur- 
 sued her. She returned as she came, and re-entered her lodge. Her 
 victim never spoke. 
 
 From this moment the fame of Takozid declined. The event appeared 
 to have unmanned him. He went no more to war. His martial spirits 
 appeared to have left him. He sank back into the mass of Indian society, 
 and was scarcely ever mentioned. Nor should we, indeed, have recalled 
 his name from its obscurity, were it not associated in the Indian reminis- 
 cences of Leach lake, with this sanguinary deed. 
 
 I had this relation a few years ago, from a trader, who had lived at 
 Leech lake, who personally knew the parties, and whose veracity I 
 had no reason at all, to call into question. It is one of the elements that 
 go into the sum of my personal observations, on savage life, and as such 1 
 cast it among these papers. To judge of the Red race aright, we must 
 view it, in all its phases, and if we would perform our duty towards them, 
 as Christians and men, we should gather our data from small, as well as 
 great events, and from afar as well as near. When all has been done, m 
 the way of such collections and researches, it will be found, we think, 
 that their errors and crimes, whatever they are, assume no deeper dye 
 than philanthropy has had reason to apprehend them to take, without a 
 knowledge of the principles of the gospel. Thou shalt not kill, is a law, 
 yet to be enforced, among more than two hundred thousand souls, who 
 bear the impress of a red skin, within the acknowledged limits of the 
 American Union. 
 
 MACHINITO, THE EVIL SPIRIT; 
 
 FROM THE LEGENDS OF IAGOU. 
 
 BY MRS. E. OAKES SMITH. 
 
 " The Pagan world not only believes in a myriad of gods, but worships them also 
 It is the peculiarity of the North American Indian, that while he believes in as many, 
 he worships but one, the Great Spirit." (Schoolcraft.) 
 
 CHEMANITOTJ, being the master of life, at one time became the origin of 
 a spirit, that has ever since caused himself and ail others of his creation
 
 122 INDIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 a great deal of disquiet. His birth was owing to an accident It was in 
 this wise. 
 
 METOWAC, or as the white people now call it, Long- Island, was origi- 
 nally a vast plain, so level and free from any kind of growth, that it looked 
 like a portion of the great sea that had suddenly been made to move back 
 and let the sand below appear, which was the case in fact. 
 
 Here it was that Chemanitou used to come and sit, when he wished to 
 bring any new creation to the life. The place being spacious and solitary, 
 the water upon every side, he had not only room enough, but was free 
 from interruption. 
 
 It is well known that some of these early creations were of very great 
 size, so that very few could live in the same place, and their strength made 
 it difficult for Chemanitou, even to controul them ; for when he has given 
 them certain elements, they have the use of the laws that govern these .ele- 
 ments, till it is his will to take them back to himself. Accordingly, it was 
 the custom of Chemanitou, when he wished to try the effect of these crea- 
 tures, to set them in motion upon the island of Metowac, and if they did 
 not please him, he took the life out before they were suffered to escape. 
 He would set up a mammoth or other large animal, in the centre of the 
 island, and build him up with great care, somewhat in the manner that a 
 cabin or a canoe is made. 
 
 Even to this day may be found traces of what had been done here in 
 former years ; and the manner in which the earth sometimes sinks down 
 [even wells fall out at the bottom here,] shows that this island is 
 nothing more than a great cake of earth, a sort of platter laid upon the sea, 
 for the convenience of Chemanitou, who used it as a table upon which he 
 might work, never having designed it for anything else ; the margin of the 
 CHATIEMAC, (the stately swan,) or Hudson river, being better adapted to 
 the purposes of habitation. 
 
 When the master of life wished to build up an elephant or mammoth he 
 placed four cakes of clay upon the ground, at proper distances, which 
 were moulded into shape, and became the feet of the animal. 
 
 Now sometimes these were left unfinished ; and to this day the green 
 tussocks, to be seen like little islands about the marshes, show where these 
 cakes of clay had been placed. 
 
 As Chemanitou went on with his work, the NEEBANAWBAIGS (or water 
 spirits,) the PUCK-WUD-JINNIES, (Fairies *) and indeed all the lesser manit- 
 toes, used to come and look on, and wonder what it would be, and how it 
 would act. 
 
 When the animal was quite done, and had dried a long time in the sun, 
 Chemanitou opened a place in the side, and entering in, remained there 
 many days. 
 
 * Laterally, little men, who vanish.
 
 INDIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 When he came forth, the creature began to shiver and sway from side 
 10 side, in such a manner as shook the whole island for many leagues. 
 If his appearance pleased the master of life he was suffered to depart, and 
 it was generally found that these animals plunged into the sea upon the 
 north side of the island, and disappeared in the great forests beyond. 
 
 Now at one time Chemanitou was a very long while building an ani- 
 mal, of such great bulk, that it looked like a mountain upon the cen- 
 tre of the island ; and all the manittoes, from all parts, came to see what it 
 was. The Puck-wud-jinnies especially made themselves very merry, 
 capering behind his great ears, sitting within his mouth, each perched 
 upon a tooth, and running in and out of the sockets of the eyes, think- 
 ing Chemanitou, who was finishing off other parts of the animal, could not 
 see them. 
 
 But he can see right through every thing he has made. He was glad 
 to see them so lively, and bethought himself of many new creations while 
 he watched their motions. 
 
 When the Master of Life had completed this large animal, he was fear- 
 ful to give it life, and so it was left upon the island, or work-table of Che- 
 manitou, till its great weight caused it to break through, and sinking 
 partly down it stuck fast, the head and tail holding it in such a manner 
 as to prevent it from going down. 
 
 Chemanitou then lifted up a piece of the back, and found it made a 
 very good cavity, into which the old creations, which failed to please him, 
 might be thrown. 
 
 He sometimes amused himself by making creatures very small and ac- 
 tive, with which he disported awhile, and finding them of very little use 
 in the world, and not so attractive as the little Vanishers, he would take 
 out the life, holding it in himself, and then cast them into the cave made 
 by the body of the unfinished animal. In this way great quantities of 
 very odd shapes were heaped together in this Roncomcomon, or " Place of 
 Fragments." 
 
 He was always careful to first take out the life. 
 
 One day the Master of Life took two pieces of clay and moulded them 
 into two large feet, like those of a panther. He did not make four there 
 were two only. 
 
 He stepped his own feet into them, and found the tread very light and 
 springy, so that he might go with great speed, and yet make no noise. 
 
 Next he built up a pair of very tall legs, in the shape of his own, and 
 made them walk about awhile he was pleased with the motion. Then 
 followed a round body, covered with large scales, like the alligator. 
 
 He now found the figure doubling forward, and he fastened a long 
 black snake, that was gliding by, to the back part of the body, and let it 
 wind itself about a sapling near, which held the body upright, and made 
 a very good tail.
 
 124 INDIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 The shoulders were broad and strong, like those of the buffaloe, and 
 covered with hair the neck thick and short, and full at the back. 
 
 Thus far Chemanitou had worked with little thought, but when he 
 came to the head he thought a long while. 
 
 He took a round ball of clay into his lap, and worked it over with great 
 care. While he thought, he patted the ball upon the top, which made it 
 very broad and low; for Chemanitou was thinking of the panther feet, 
 and the buffaloe neck. He remembered the Puck-wud-jinnies playing 
 in the eye sockets of the great unfinished animal, and he bethought him 
 to set the eyes out, like those of a lobster, so that the animal might see 
 upon every side. 
 
 He made the forehead broad and full, but low ; for here was to be the 
 wisdom of the forked tongue, like that of the serpent, which should be in 
 his mouth. He should see all things, and know all things. Here Che- 
 manitou stopped, for he saw that he had never thought of such a creation 
 before, one with but two feet, a creature who should stand upright, and 
 see upon every side. 
 
 The jaws were very strong, with ivory teeth, and gills upon either side, 
 which arose and fell whenever breath passed through them. The nose was 
 like the beak of the vulture. A tuft of porcupine quills made the scalp-lock. 
 
 Chemanitou held the head out the length of his arm, and turned it first 
 upon one side and then upon the other. He passed it rapidly through 
 the air, and saw the gills rise and fall, the lobster eyes whirl round, and 
 the vulture nose look keen. 
 
 Chemanitou became very sad ; yet he put the head upon the shoulders. 
 It was the first time he had made un upright figure. 
 
 It seemed to be the first idea of a man. 
 
 It was now nearly night ; the bats were flying through the air, and the 
 roar of wild beasts began to be heard. A gusty wind swept in from the 
 ocean, and passed over the island of Metowac, casting the light sand to 
 and fro. A heavy scud was skimming along the horizon, while higher 
 up in the sky was a dark thick cloud, upon the verge of which the moon 
 hung for a moment, and then was shut in. 
 
 A panther came by and stayed a moment, with one foot raised and 
 bent inward, while he looked up at the image, and smelt the feet, that 
 were like his own. 
 
 A vulture swooped down wiih a great noise of its wings, and made a 
 dash at the beak, but Chemanitou held him back. 
 
 Then came the porcupine, and the lizard, and the snake, each drawn by 
 its kind in the image. 
 
 Chemanitou veiled his face for many hours, and the gusty wind swept 
 by, but he did not stir. 
 
 He saw that every beast of the earth seeketh its kind ; and that which 
 is like draweth its likeness unto himself.
 
 INDIAN MYTHOLOGY. 125 
 
 The Master of Life thought and thought. The idea grew into his mind 
 that at some tune he would create a creature who should be made not 
 after the things of the earth, but after himself. 
 
 He should link this world to the spirit world, being made in the like- 
 ness of the Great Spirit, he should be drawn unto his likeness. 
 
 Many days and nights, whole seasons, passed while Chemanitou 
 thought upon these things. He saw all things. 
 
 Then the Master of Life lifted up his head ; the stars were looking 
 down upon the image, and a bat had alighted upon the forehead, spreading 
 its great wings upon each side. Chemanitou took the bat and held out its 
 whole leathery wings, (and ever since the bat, when he rests, lets his 
 body hang down,) so that he could try them over the head of the image. 
 He then took the life of the bat away, and twisted off the body, by which 
 means the whole thin part fell down over the head, and upon each side, 
 making the ears, and a covering for the forehead like that of the hooded 
 serpent. 
 
 Chemanitou did not cut off the face of the image below, he went on 
 and made a chin, and lips that were firm and round, that they might shut 
 in the forked tongue, and the ivory teeth ; and he knew that with the lips 
 and the chin it would smile, when life should be given to it. 
 
 The image was now all done but the arms, and Chemanitou saw that 
 with a chin it must have hands. He grew more grave. 
 
 He had never given hands to any creature. 
 
 He made the arms and the hands very beautiful, after the manner of his 
 own. 
 
 Chemanitou now took no pleasure in his work that was done it was 
 not good in his sight. 
 
 He wished he had not given it hands ; might it not, when trusted with 
 life, might it not begin to create ? might it not thwart the plans of the 
 master of life himself I 
 
 He looked long at the image. He saw what it would do when life 
 should be given it. He knew all things. 
 
 He now put fire in the image : but fire is not life. 
 
 He put fire within, and a red glow passed through and through it 
 .The fire dried the clay of which it was made, and gave the image an ex- 
 ceedingly fierce aspect. It shone through the scales upon the breast, and the 
 gills, and the bat-winged ears. The lobster eyes were like a living coal. 
 
 Chemanitou opened the side of the image, but he did not enter. He 
 had given it hands and a chin. 
 
 It could smile like the manittoes themselves. 
 
 He made it walk all about the island of Metowac, that he might see 
 how it would act. This he did by means of his will. 
 
 He now put a little life into it, but he did not take out the fire.> Che- 
 manitou saw the aspect of the creature would be very terrible, and yet that
 
 INDIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 he could smile in such a manner that he ceased to be ugly. He thought 
 much upon these things. He felt it would not be best to let such a 
 creature live ; a creature made up mostly from the beasts of the field, but 
 with hands of power, a chin lifting the head upward, and lips holding all 
 things within themselves. 
 
 While he thought upon these things, he took the image in his hands 
 and cast it into the cave. 
 
 But Chemanitou forgot to take out the life ! 
 
 The creature lay a long time in the cave and did not stir, for his fall 
 was very great. He lay amongst the old creations that had been thrown 
 in there without life. 
 
 Now when a long time had passed Chemanitou heard a great noise in 
 the cave. He looked in and saw the image sitting there, and he was try- 
 ing to put together the old broken things that had been cast in as of no value. 
 
 Chemanitou gathered together a vast heap of stones and sand, for large 
 rocks are not to be had upon the island, and stopped the mouth of the cave. 
 Many days passsed and the noise grew louder within the cave. The 
 earth shook, and hot smoke came from the ground. The Manittoes 
 crowded to Metowac to see what was the matter. 
 
 Chemanitou came also, for he remembered the image he had cast in 
 there, and forgotten to take away the life. 
 
 Suddenly there was a great rising of the stones and sand the sky 
 grew black with wind and dust. Fire played about the ground, and 
 water gushed high into the air. 
 
 All the. Manittoes fled with fear ; and the image came forth with a great 
 noise and most terrible to behold. His life had grown strong within 
 him, for the fire had made it very fierce. 
 
 Everything fled before him and cried MACHmrro MACHINITO which 
 means a god, but an evil god ! 
 
 / 
 
 The above legend is gathered from the traditions of lagou, the great 
 Indian narrator, who seems to have dipped deeper into philosophy than 
 most of his compeers. The aboriginal language abounds with stories re- 
 lated by this remarkable personage, which we hope to bring before the 
 public at some future time. Whether subsequent events justify the Indian 
 in making Long Island the arena of the production of Machinito or the 
 Evil Spirit, will seem more than apocryphal to a white resident. How- 
 ever we have nothing to do except to relate the fact as it was related. 
 
 As to these primitive metaphysics, they are at least curious ; and the cool- 
 ness with which the fact is assumed that the origin of evil was accidental 
 in the process of developing a perfect humanity, would, at an earlier day, 
 have been quite appalling to the schoolmen. E. 0. S,
 
 REPOSE OF THE SOUL. 
 
 ; 
 
 WHEN an Indian corpse is put in a coffin, among the tribes of the Lake- 
 Algonquins, the lid is tied down, and not nailed. On depositing it in the 
 grave, the rope or string is loosed, and the weight of the earth alone 
 relied on, to keep it in a fixed position. The reason they give for this, is, 
 that the soul may have free egress from the body. 
 
 Over the top of the grave a covering of cedar bark is put, to shed the 
 rain. This is roof-shaped and the whole structure looks, slightly, like a 
 house in miniature. It has gable ends. Through one of these, being the 
 head, an aperture is cut. On asking a Chippewa why this was done, he 
 replied, " To allow the soul to pass out, and in." 
 
 " I thought," I replied, " that you believed that the soul went up from 
 the body at the time of death, to a land of happiness. How, then, can it 
 remain in the body ?" 
 
 " There are two souls," replied the Indian philosopher. 
 
 " How can this be ? my friend." 
 
 " It is easily explained," said he. 
 
 " You know that, in dreams, we pass over wide countries, and see hills 
 and lakes and mountains, and many scenes, which pass before our eyes, 
 and affect us. Yet, at the same time, our bodies do not stir, and there is 
 a soul left with the body, else it would be dead. So, you perceive, it must 
 be another soul that accompanies us." 
 
 This conversation took place, in the Indian country. I knew the, In- 
 dian very well, and had noticed the practice, not general now, on the fron- 
 tiers, of tying the coffin-lid, in burials. It is at the orifice in the bark 
 sheeting mentioned, that the portion of food, consecrated in feasts for the 
 dead, is set. It could not but happen, that the food should be eaten by the 
 hystrix, wolf, or some other animal, known to prowlj at night ; nor that, 
 Indian superstition, ever ready to turn slight appearances of this kind to 
 Mcount, should attribute its abstraction to the spirit of the deceased. 
 
 THE LITTLE SPIRIT, OR BOY-MAN, 
 
 AN ODJIBWA FAIRY TALE. 
 
 WRITTEN OUT FROM THE VERBAL NARRATIVE BY THE LATE 
 MRS. H. R. SCHOOLCRAFT. 
 
 THERE was once a little boy, remarkable for the smallness of his stature. 
 He was living alone with his sister older than himself. They were orphans, 
 
 they lived in a beautiful spot on the Lake shore j nany large rocks were 
 
 127
 
 128 THE LITTLE SPIRIT, OR BOY-MAN. 
 
 scattered around their habitation. The boy never grew larger as he 
 advanced in years. One day, in winter, he asked his sister to make him 
 a ball to play with along shore on the clear ice. She made one for him, 
 but cautioned him not to go too far. Off he went in high glee, throwing 
 his ball before him, and running after it at full speed ; and he went as fast 
 as his ball. At last his ball flew to a great distance: he followed it as fast 
 as he could. After he had run for some time, he saw four dark substances 
 on the ice straight before him. When he came up to the spot he was sur- 
 prised to see four large, tall men lying on the ice, spearing fish. When he 
 went up to them, the nearest looked up and in turn was surprised to see 
 such a diminutive being, and turning to his brothers, he said, " Tia! look ! 
 see what a little fellow is here." After they had all looked a mo- 
 ment, they resumed their position, covered their heads, intent in searching 
 for fish. The boy thought to himself, they imagine me too insignificant 
 for common courtesy, because they are tall and large ; I shall teach them 
 notwithstanding, that I am not to be treated so lightly. After they were 
 covered up the boy saw they had each a large trout lying beside them. 
 He slyly took the one nearest him, and placing his fingers in the gills, and 
 tossing his ball before him, ran off at full speed. When the man to 
 whom the fish belonged looked up, he saw his trout sliding away as if of 
 itself, at a great rate the boy being so small he was not distinguished from 
 the fish. He addressed his brothers and said, " See how that tiny boy 
 has stolen my fish ; what a shame it is he should do so." The boy 
 reached home, and told his sister to go out and get the fish he had brought 
 home'. She exclaimed, " where could you have got it ? I hope you have 
 not stolen it." " O no," he replied, " I found it on the ice." " How" per- 
 sisted the sister, "could you have got it there ?" " No matter," said the boy, 
 " go and cook it." He disdained to answer her again, but thought he 
 would one day show her how to appreciate him. She went to the place 
 he left it, and there indeed she found a monstrous trout. She did as she 
 was bid, and cooked it for that day's consumption. Next morning he went 
 off again as at first. When he came near the large men, who fished every 
 day, he threw his ball with such fofce that it rolled into the ice-hole of 
 the man of whom he had stolen the day before. As he happened to raise 
 himself at the time, the boy said, " Neejee, pray hand me my ball." " No 
 indeed," answered the man, " I shall not," and thrust the ball under the 
 ice. The boy took hold of his arm and broke it in two in a moment, and 
 threw him to one side, and picked up his ball, which had bounded back 
 from under the ice, and tossed it as usual before him. Outstripping it in 
 speed, he got home and remained within till the next morning. The 
 man whose arm he had broken hallooed out to his brothers, and told them 
 his case, and deplored his fate. They hurried to their brother, and as 
 loud as they could roar threatened vengeance on the morrow, knowing
 
 THE LITTLE SPIRIT, OR BOY-MAN. 129 
 
 the boy's speed that they could not overtake him, and he was near out of 
 sight ; yet he heard their threats and awaited their coming in perfect in- 
 difference. The four brothers the next morning prepared to take their 
 revenge. Their old mother begged them net to go " Better" said she " that 
 one only should suffer, than that all should perish , for he must be a 
 monedo, or he could not perform such feats." But her sons would not lis- 
 ten ; and taking their wounded brother along, started for the b6y's lodge, 
 having learnt that he lived at the place of rocks. The boy's sister thought 
 she heard the noise of snow-shoes on the crusted snow at a distance ad- 
 vancing. She saw the large, tall men coming straight to their lodge, or 
 rather cave, for they lived in a large rock. She ran in with great fear, and 
 told her brother the fact. He said, " Why do you mind them? give me 
 something to eat." " How can you think of eating at such a time," she 
 replied, " Do as I request you, and be quick." She then gave him his 
 dish, which was a large mis-qua-dace shell, and he commenced eating. Just 
 then the men came to the door, and were about lifting the curtain placed 
 there, when the boy-man turned his dish upside-down, and immediately 
 the door was closed with a stone ; the men tried hard with their clubs to 
 crack it ; at length they succeeded in making a slight opening. When one 
 of them peeped in with one eye, the boy-man shot his arrow into his eye 
 and brain, and he dropped down dead. The others, not knowing what had 
 happened their brother, did the same, and all fell in like manner ; their 
 curiosity was so great to see what the boy was about. So they all shared 
 the same fate. After they were killed the boy-man told his sister to go 
 out and see them. She opened the door, but feared they were not dead, and 
 entered back again hastily, and told her fears to her brother. He went out 
 and hacked them in small pieces, saying, "henceforth let no man be 
 larger than you are now. So men became of the present size. When 
 spring came on, the boy-man said to his sister, " Make me a new set of 
 arrows and bow." She obeyed, as he never did any thing himself of a na- 
 ture that required manual labour, though he provided for their sustenance. 
 After she made them, she again cautioned him not to shoot into the lake ; 
 but regardless of all admonition, he, on purpose, shot his arrow into the 
 lake, and waded some distance till he got into deep water, and paddled 
 about for his arrow, so as to attract the attention of his sister. She came 
 in haste to the shore, calling him to return, but instead of minding her 
 he called out, " Ma-mis-quon-je-gun-a, be-nau-wa-con-zhe-shin," that is, 
 " you : of the red fins come and swallow me." Immediately that monstrous 
 fish came and swallowed him ; and seeing his sister standing on the shore 
 in despair, he hallooed out to her, " Me-zush-ke-zin-ance." She wondered 
 what he meant. But on reflection she thought it must be an old mockesin. 
 She accordingly tied the old mockesin to a string, and fastened it to a tree. 
 The fish said to the boy-man, under water, "What is that floating?" the 
 boy-man said to the fish, Go, take hold of it, swallow it as fast as you 
 
 9
 
 130 THE LITTLE SPIRIT, OR BOY-MAN. 
 
 can." The fish darted towards the old shoe, and swallowed it The boy- 
 man laughed in himself, but said nothing, till the fish was faiily caught; 
 be then took hold of the line and began to pull himself and fish to 
 shore. The sister, who was watching, was surprised to see so large a fish ; 
 and hauling it ashore she took her knife and commenced cutting it open. 
 When she heard her brother's voice inside of the fish, saying, " Make 
 haste and release me from this nasty place," his sister was in such haste 
 that she almost hit his head with her knife ; but succeeded in making an 
 opening large enough for her brother to get out. When he was fairly out, 
 he told his sister to cut up the fish and dry it, as it would last a long time 
 for their sustenance, and said to her, never, never more to doubt his ability 
 in any way. So ends the story. 
 
 AINGODON AND NAYWADAHA, 
 
 TORT OP A FAMILY OF NADOWAS, OK PEOPLE OF THE SIX NATIONS OF TORONTO, 
 CONSISTING OF SIX BROTHERS, THEIR YOUNGEST SISTER, AND TWO AUNTS. THEIR 
 FATHER AND MOTHER HAVING DIED, THEY WERE LEFT ORPHANS, THEIR ORIGIN, 
 HOWEVER, WAS FROM THE FIRST CLASS OF CHIEFTAINS IN THEIR NATION. 
 
 NARRATED FROM THE ORAL RELATION OF NABANOI, BY 
 MR. GEORGE JOHNSTON. 
 
 IN the days of this story, wars, murders, and cruelty existed in the 
 country now comprising the province of Upper Canada, or that portion 
 bordering upon Lakes Simcoe. Erie, and Ontario, which was claimed and 
 belonged to the powerful tribe of the eight nations of the Nawtoways. 
 The young men had, on a day, started for a hunting excursion: in the 
 evening five only of the brothers returned, one was missing. Upon search 
 being made the body was found, and it appeared evident that he had been 
 killed: this gave a great blow to the family, but particularly causing great 
 affliction to the sister, who was the youngest of the family. She mourned 
 and lamented her brother's death, and she wept incessantly. 
 
 The ensuing year another was killed, and so on till four were killed. 
 The remaining two brothers did all they could to afford consolation to 
 their pining sister, but she would not be consoled: they did all they could 
 to divert her rnind from so much mourning, but all their endeavours 
 proved ineffectual : she scarcely took any food, and what she ate was 
 hardly sufficient to sustain nature. The two brothers said that they 
 would go hunting, which they did from day to day. They would bring 
 
 *
 
 AINGODON AND NAYWADAHA. 131 
 
 ducks and birds of every description to their sister, in order to tempt her 
 appetite, but she persisted in refusing nourishment, or taking very little. 
 At the exp'ration of the year when the fourth brother had been killed 
 the two young men set out upon the chase ; one of them returned in the 
 evening, the other was missing, and found killed in like manner as the 
 others had been. This again augmented the afflictions of the young girl ; 
 she had been very delicate, but was now reduced to a mere skeleton. At 
 the expiration of the year the only and last of her brothers, taking pity 
 upon his pining sister, said to her that he would go and kill her some fresh 
 venison, to entice her to eat. He started early in the morning, and his sister 
 would go out from time to time, in the course of the day, to see if her bro- 
 ther was returning. Night set in, and no indications of his coming she 
 sat up all night, exhibiting fear and apprehension bordering upon despair 
 day light appeared, and he did not come search was made, and he was 
 finally found killed, like all the other brothers. After this event the girl be- 
 came perfectly disconsolate, hardly tasting food, and would wander in the 
 woods the whole day, returning at nights. One of her aunts had the care 
 of her at this time. One dayjn one of her rambles she did not return; 
 her aunt became very anxious, and searched for her, and continued her 
 search daily. On the tenth day, the aunt in her search lost her way and 
 was bewildered, and finally was benighted. WhileJying down, worn with 
 fatigue, she thought she heard the voice of some one speaking: she got up, 
 and directing her course to the spot, she came upon a small lodge made 
 of bushes, and in it lay her niece, with her face to the ground. She pre- 
 vailed upon her to return home. Before reaching their lodge the girl stopt, 
 and her aunt built her a small lodge, and she resided in it. Here her 
 aunt would attend upon her daily. 
 
 One day as she lay alone in her little lodge, a person appeared to her 
 from on high : he had on white raiment that was extremely pure, clean and 
 white : he did not touch the earth, but remained at some distance from it. 
 He spoke to her in a mild tone and said, Daughter, why do you remain 
 here mourning ? I have come to console you, and you must arise, and I 
 will give you all the land, and deliver into your hands the persons who 
 have killed your brothers. All things living and created are mine, I give 
 and take away. Now therefore arise, slay and eat of my dog that lays 
 there. You will go to your village and firstly tell your relatives and na- 
 tion of this vision, and you must act conformably to my word and to the 
 mind I'll give you, and your enemies will I put into your hands. I will 
 be with you again. 
 
 After this, he ascended on high. When the girl looked to the pla 
 where the heavenly being pointed, she saw a bear. She arose and 
 home, and mentioned to her relatives the vision she had seen, and 
 a request that the people might be assembled to partake of her fe 
 directed her relations to the spot where the bear was to be found ; u was
 
 132 AINGODON AND NAYWADAHA. 
 
 killed and brought to the village, and singed upon a fire, and the feast 
 was made, and the nature of the vision explained. Preparations were im- 
 mediately set on foot, messengers were sent to each tribe of the six nations, 
 and an invitation given to them, to come upon a given day to the village 
 of Toronto. Messengers were also sent all along the north coast of lake 
 Huron to Bawiting. inviting the Indians to form an alliance and fight 
 against the enemies of the young girl who had lost so many brothers. 
 
 In the midst of the Nadowas, there lived two chieftains, twin brothers. 
 They were Nadowas also of the Bear tribe, perfect devils in disposition, 
 cruel and tyrannical. They were at the head of two nations of the Na- 
 dowas, reigning together, keeping the other nations in great fear and awe,, 
 and enslaving them ; particularly the Indians of the Deer totem, who re- 
 sided in one portion of their great village. Indians in connection with 
 the Chippewas were also kept in bondage by the two tyrants, whose names 
 were Aingodon and Naywadaha. When the Chippewas received the 
 young girl's messengers, they were told that they must rescue their re- 
 latives, and secretly apprize them of their intention, and the great 
 calamity that would befall Aingodon and Naywadaha's villages and towns. 
 Many therefore made their escape ; but one remained with his family, 
 sending an excuse for not obeying the summons, as he had a great quan- 
 tity of corn laid up, and that he must attend to his crops. The Indians all 
 along the north shore of lake Huron and of Bawiting, embarked to join 
 the general and common cause ; they passed through the lakes, and 
 reached Toronto late in the fall. In the beginning of the winter the assem- 
 bled allies marched, headed by the young girl. She passed through lake 
 Simcoe, and the line covered the whole lake, cracking the ice as they 
 marched over it. They encamped at the head of the lake. Here the young 
 girl produced a garnished bag, and she hung it up, and told the assembled 
 multitude that she would make chingodam-; and after this she sent hunters 
 out directing them to bring in eighteen bears, and before the sun had 
 risen high the bears were all brought in, and they were singed, and the 
 feast of sacrifice offered. At this place the person from on high appeared 
 to the girl in presence of the assembled multitude, and he stretched 
 forth his hand and shook hands with her only. He here directed her to 
 send secret messengers into the land, to warn the Indians who had the 
 deer totem to put out their totems on poles before their lodge door, in 
 order that they might be known and saved from the approaching destruc- 
 tion ; and they were enjoined not to go out of their lodges, neither man, 
 woman, or child ; if they did so they would be surely consumed and de- 
 stroyed ; and the person on high said Do not approach nigh the open plain 
 until the rising sun, you will then see destruction come upon your 
 enemies, and they will be delivered into your hands. 
 
 The messengers were sent to the Deer Totems, and they entered the 
 town at night, and communicated their message to them. After t.bis all
 
 AINGODON AND NAYWADAHA. 133 
 
 the Indians bearing that mark were informed of the approaching calamity, 
 and they instantly made preparations, setting out poles before their lodge 
 doors, and attaching deer skins to the poles, as marks to escape the ven- 
 geance that was to come upon Aingodon and Nawadaha, and their tribes. 
 The next morning at daylight the Aingodons and Nawadahas rose, and 
 seeing the poles and deer skins planted before the doors of the lodges, 
 said in derision, that their friends, the Deer Totems, had, or must have had, 
 bad d reams, thus to set their totems on poles. The Indians of the deer totems 
 remained quiet and silent, and they did not venture out of their lodges. The 
 young girl was nigh the skirts of the wood with her host, bordering upon 
 the plain ; and just as the sun rose she marched, and as she and her allied 
 forces neared the village of the twin tyrants, it became a flame of fire, de- 
 stroying all its inhabitants. The Deer Totems escaped. Aingodon and Na- 
 wadaha were not consumed. The allied Indians drew their bows and shot 
 their arrows at them, but they bounded off, and the blows inflicted upon 
 them were of no avail, until the young girl came up and subdued them, 
 and took them alive, and made them prisoners. 
 
 The whole of Aingodon's and Nawadaha's towns and villages were 
 destroyed in the same way ; and the land was in possession of the young 
 girl and the six remaining tribes of the Nadowas. After this signal ven- 
 geance was taken the young girl returned with her host, and again en- 
 camped at the head of lake Simcoe, at her former encamping place ; and 
 the two tyrants were asked, what was their object for making chingodam, 
 and what weight could it have? They said, in answer, that their imple- 
 ments for war, were war axes, and if permitted they would make chingodam, 
 and on doing so they killed each two men. They were bound immediately, 
 and their flesh was cut off from their bodies in slices. One of them was 
 dissected, and upon examination it was discovered that he had no liver, 
 and his heart was small, and composed of hard flint stone. There are 
 marks upon a perpendicular ledge of rocks at the narrows, or head of lake 
 Simcoe, visible to this day, representing two bound persons, who are re- 
 cognized by the Indians of this generation as the two tyrants, or twin 
 brothers, Aingodon and Nawadaha. One of the tyrants was kept bound, 
 until the time the French discovered and possessed the Canadas. and he 
 was taken to Quebec. After this the young girl was taken away by the 
 god of light. 
 
 GEO. JOHNSTON. 
 
 Sault Ste. Marie, May 12th, 1838. 
 
 The Indian warriors of the plains west of the sources of the Mississippi, 
 chew a bitter root, before going into battle, which they suppose impart? 
 courage, and renders them insensible to pain. It is called zhigowak.
 
 SKETCHES OF THE LIVES OF 
 
 WHO HAVE APPEARED ON THE WESTERN CONTINENT. 
 
 WABOJEEG, OR THE WHITE FISHER. 
 
 This individual has indelibly interwoven his name with the history of 
 the Chippewa nation, during the latter half of the 18th century. His an- 
 cestors had, from the earliest times, held the principal chieftainship in lake 
 Superior. His father, Ma-mongazida, was the ruling chief during the 
 war of the conquest of the Canadas by the British crown. In common 
 with his tribe and the northern nations generally, he was the fast friend 
 of the French government, and was present with his warriors, under Gen. 
 Montcalm, at the loss of Quebec, in 1759. He carried a short speech from 
 that celebrated officer to his people in the north, which is said to have 
 been verbally delivered a short time before he went to the field. 
 
 The period of the fall of the French power in the Canadas, is one of 
 the most marked events in Indian reminiscence throughout all northwest 
 America. They refer to the days of French supremacy as a kind of 
 golden era, when all things in their affairs were better than they now are ; 
 and I have heard them lament over the change as one which was 
 in every respect detrimental to their power and happiness. No European 
 nation, it is evident from these allusions, ever pleased them as well. The 
 French character and manners adapted themselves .admirably to the exist- 
 ing customs of forest life. The common people, who went up into the in- 
 terior to trade, fell in with their customs with a degree of plasticity and 
 an air of gaiety and full assent, which no other foreigners have, at least to 
 the same extent, shown. These Couriers du, Bois had not much to boast 
 of on the score of rigid morals themselves. They had nearly as much su- 
 perstition as the wildest Indians. They were in fact, at least nine-tenths 
 of them, quite as illiterate. Very many of them were far inferioj in their 
 mental structure and capacity to the bold, eloquent, and well formed and 
 athletic northern chiefs and hunters. They respected their religious and 
 festive ceremonies. They never, as a chief once told me, laughed at 
 them. They met their old friends on their annual returns from Montreal, 
 with a kiss. They took the daughters of the red men for wives, and 
 reared large families, who thus constituted a strong bond of union between 
 
 U* two races, which remains unbroken at this day. 
 
 134
 
 WABOJEEG, OR THE WHITE FISHER. 135 
 
 This is the true secret of the strenuous efforts made by the nortnern and 
 western Indians to sustain the French power, when it was menaced in the 
 war of 1744, by the fleets and armies of Great Britain. They rallied 
 freely to their aid at Detroit, Vincennes, the present sites of Pittsburg and 
 Erie, at Fort Niagara, Montreal, and Quebec, and they hovered with in- 
 furiated zeal around the outskirts of the northern and western settlements 
 during the many and sanguinary wars carried on between the English 
 and French. And when the French were beaten they still adhered 
 to their cause, and their chiefs stimulated the French local commanders to 
 continue and renew the contest, even after the fall of Niagara and Quebec, 
 with a heroic consistency of purpose, which reflects credit upon their fore- 
 sight, bravery, and constancy. We hope in a future number to bring for- 
 ward a sketch of the man who put himself at the head of this latter effort, 
 who declared he would drive the Saxon race into the sea, who beseiged 
 twelve and took nine of the western stockaded forts, and who for four years 
 and upwards, maintained the war, after the French had struck their colours 
 and ceded the country. We refer to the great Algic leader, Pontiac. 
 
 At present our attention is called to a cotemporary chief, of equal per- 
 sonal bravery and conduct, certainly, but who lived and exercised his au- 
 thority at a more remote point, and had not the same masses and means 
 at his command. This point, so long hid in the great forests of the north, 
 and which, indeed, has been but lately revealed in our positive geography, 
 is the AREA OF LAKE SUPERIOR. It is here that we find the Indian tradition 
 to be rife with the name of Wabojeeg and his wars, and his cotemporaries. 
 It was one of the direct consequences of so remote a position, that it with- 
 drew his attention more from the actual conflicts between the French and 
 English, and fixed them upon his western and southern frontiers, which 
 were menaced and invaded by the numerous bands of the Dacotahs, and 
 by the perfidious kinsmen of his nation, the Outagamies and Saucs. He 
 came into active life, too, as a prominent war leader, at the precise era 
 when the Canadas had fallen into the British power, and by engaging 
 zealously in the defence of the borders of his nation west, he allowed time 
 to mitigate and adjust those feelings and attachments which, so far as pub- 
 lic policy was concerned, must be considered to have moulded the Indian 
 mind to a compliance with, and a submission to, the British authority. 
 Wabojeeg was, emphatically, the defender of the Chippewa domain against 
 the efforts of other branches of the Red Race. 'He did not, therefore, lead 
 his people to fight, as his father, Ma-mongazida, and nearly all the great 
 Indian war captains had, to enable one type of the foreign race to triumph 
 over another, but raised his parties and led them forth to maintain his tribal 
 supremacy. He may be contemplated, therefore, as having had a more 
 patriotic object for his achievement. 
 
 Lake Superior, at the time of our earliest acquaintance with the region, 
 was occupied, as it is at this day, by the Chippewa race. The chief seat
 
 136 WABOJEEG, OR THE WHITE FISHER. 
 
 of their power appeared to be near the southwestern extremity of the lake, 
 at Chagoimegon, where fathers Marquette and Alloez found their way, 
 and established a mission, so early as 1668. Another of their principal, 
 and probably more ancient seats, was at the great rapids on the outlet of 
 that lake, which they named the Sault de Ste. Marie. It was in allusion 
 to their residence here that they called this tribe Saulteur, that is to say, 
 people of the leap or rapid. 
 
 Indian tradition makes the Chippewas one of the chief, certainly by far 
 the most numerous and widely spread, of the Algonquin stock proper. It 
 represents them to have migrated from the east to the west. On reaching 
 the vicinity of Michilimackinac, they separated at a comparatively mo- 
 derate era into three tribes, calling themselves, respectively, Odjibwas, 
 Odawas, and Podawadumees. What their name was before this era, is 
 not known. It is manifest that the term Odjibvva is not a very ancient one, 
 for it does not occur in the earliest authors. They were probably of the 
 Nipercinean or true Algonquin stock, and had taken the route of the Utawas 
 river, from the St. Lawrence valley into lake Huron. The term itself is 
 clearly from Bwa, a voice ; and its prefix^ in Odji, was probably designed 
 to mark a peculiar intonation which the muscles are, as it were, gathered 
 up, to denote. 
 
 Whatever be the facts of their origin, they had taken the route up the 
 straits of St. Mary into lake Superior, both sides of which, and far beyond, 
 they occupied at the era of the French discovery. It is evident that their 
 course in this direction must have been aggressive. They were advanc- 
 ing towards the west and northwest. The tribe known as Kenistenos, 
 had passed through the Lake of the Woods, through the great lake Nipe- 
 sing, and as far as the heads of the Saskatchewine and the portage of the 
 Missinipi of Hudson's bay. The warlike band of Leech Lake, called 
 Mukundwas, had spread themselves over the entire sources of the Missis- 
 sippi and extended their hunting excursions west to Red River, where they 
 came into contact with the Assinaboines, or Stone Sioux. The central 
 power, at this era, still remained at Chagoimegon, on Superior, where in- 
 deed, the force of early tradition asserts there was maintained something 
 like a frame of both civil and ecclesiastical polity and government. 
 
 It is said in the traditions related to me by the .Chippewas, that the Ou- 
 tagamies, or Foxes, had preceded them into that particular section of coun- 
 try which extends in a general course from the head of Fox River, of Green 
 Bay, towards the Falls of St. Anthony, reaching in some points well nigh 
 to the borders of lake Superior. They are remembered to have occupied 
 the interior wild rice lakes, which lie at the sources of the Wisconsin, the 
 Ontonagon, the Chippewa, and the St. Croix rivers. They were associated 
 with the Saucs, who had ascended the Mississippi some distance above the 
 Falls of St. Anthony, where they lived on friendly terms with the Dacotahs 
 or Sioux. This friendship extended also' to the Outagamies, and it was
 
 WABOJEEG, OR THE WHITE FISHER. 137 
 
 the means of preserving a good understanding between the Dacotahs and 
 Chippewas. 
 
 The Fox tribe is closely affiliated with the Chippewas. They call 
 each other brothers. They are of the same general origin and speak the 
 same general language, the chief difference in sound being that the Foxes 
 use the letter 1, where the Odjibwas employ an n. The particular cause of 
 their disagreement is not known. They are said by the Chippewas to 
 have been unfaithful and treacherous. Individual quarrels and trespasses 
 on their hunting grounds led to murders, and in the end to a war, in which 
 the Menomonees and the French united, and they were thus driven from 
 the rice lakes and away from the Fox and upper Wisconsin. To main- 
 tain their position they formed an alliance with the Sioux, and fought by 
 their side. 
 
 It was in this contest that Wabojeeg first distinguished himself, and vin- 
 dicated by his bravery and address the former reputation of his family, 
 and laid anew the foundations of his northern chieftaindom. Having 
 heard allusions made to this person on my first entrance into that region, 
 many years ago, I made particular enquiries, and found living a sister, 
 an old white-headed woman, and a son and daughter, about the age of 
 middle life. From these sources I gleaned the following facts. He was 
 born, as nearly as I could compute the time, about 1747. By a singular 
 and romantic incident his father, Ma-mongazida, was a half-brother of the 
 father of Wabashaw, a celebrated Sioux chief, who but a few years ago 
 died at his village on the upper Mississippi. The connexion happened in 
 this way. 
 
 While the Sioux and Chippewas were living in amity near each other, 
 and frequently met and feasted each other on their hunting grounds and 
 at their villages, a Sioux chief, of distinction, admired and married a Chip- 
 pewa girl, by whom he had two sons. When the war between these two 
 nations broke out, those persons of the hostile tribes who had married 
 Chippewa wives, and were living in the Chippewa country, withdrew, 
 some taking their wives along and others separating from them. Among 
 the latter was the Sioux chief. He remained a short time after hostilities 
 commenced, but finding his position demanded it, he was compelled, with 
 great reluctance, to leave his wife behind, as she could not, with safety, 
 have accompanied him into the Sioux territories. As the blood of the 
 Sioux flowed in the veins of her two sons, neither was it safe for her to 
 leave them among the Chippewas. They were, however, by mutual 
 agreement, allowed to return with the father. The eldest of these sons 
 became the father of Wabashaw. 
 
 The mother thus divorced by the mutual consent of all parties, re- 
 mained inconsolable for some time. She was still young and handsome, 
 and after a few years, became the wife of a young Chippewa chief of 
 Chagoimegon, of the honoured totem of the ADDICK or reindeer. Her
 
 138 
 
 first child by this second marriage, was Ma Mongazida, the fathei of 
 Wabojeeg. In this manner, a connexion existed between two families, 
 of separate hostile nations, each of which distinguished itself, for bravery 
 and skill in war and council. It has already been stated that Ma Monga- 
 zida, was present, on the side of the French, in the great action in which 
 both Montcalm and Wolf fell, and he continued to exercise the chieftain- 
 snip till his death, when his second son succeeded him. 
 
 It was one of the consequences of the hostility of the Indians to the 
 English rule, that many of the remote tribes were left, for a time, without 
 traders to supply their wants. This was the case, tradition asserts, with 
 Chao-oimegon, which, for two years after the taking of old Mackinac, was 
 left without a trader. To remonstrate against this, Ma Mongazida visited 
 Sir William Johnson, the superintendant general of Indian affairs, by 
 whom he was well received, and presented with a broad wampum belt and 
 gorget This act laid the foundation of a lasting peace between the Chip- 
 pewas and the English. The belt, it is added, was of blue wampum, 
 with figures of white. And when Wabojeeg came to the chieftainship, he 
 took from it the wampum employed by him to muster his wai parties. 
 
 In making traditionary enquiries I have found that the Indian narra- 
 tors were careful to preserve and note any fact, in the early lives of their 
 distinguished men, which appeared to prefigure their future eminence, or 
 had any thing of the wonderful or premonitory, in its character. The 
 following incident of this sort, was noticed respecting this chief. Ma 
 Mongazida generally went to make his fall hunts on the middle grounds 
 towards the Sioux territory, taking with him all his near relatives, amount- 
 ing usually to twenty persons, exclusive of children. Early one morning 
 while the young men were preparing for the chase, they were startled by 
 the report of several shots, directed towards the lodge. As they had 
 thought themselves in security, the first emotion was surprise, and they 
 had scarcely time to fly to their arms, when another volley was fired, 
 which wounded one man in the thigh, and killed a dog. Ma Mongazida 
 immediately sallied out with his young men, and pronouncing his name 
 aloud in the Sioux language, demanded if Wabasha or his brother, were 
 among the assailants. The firing instantly ceased a pause ensued, when 
 a tall figure, in a war dress, with a profusion of feathers upon his head, 
 stepped forward and presented his hand. It was the elder Wabasha, his 
 half brother. The Sioux peaceably followed their leader into the lodge, 
 upon which they had, the moment before, directed their shots. At the in- 
 stant the Sioux chief entered, it was necessary to stoop a little, in passing 
 the door. In the act of stooping, he received a blow from a war- 
 club wielded by a small boy, who had posted himself there for the pur- 
 pose. It was the young Wabojeeg. Wabasha, pleased with this early 
 indication of courage, took the little lad in his arms, caressed him, and
 
 WABOJEEG, OR THE WHITE FISHER. 139 
 
 pronounced that he would become a brave man, and prove an inveterate 
 enemy of the Sioux. 
 
 The border warfare in which the father of the infant warrior was con- 
 stantly engaged, early initiated him in the arts and ceremonies pertaining 
 to war. With the eager interest and love of novelty of the young, he lis- 
 tened to their war songs and war stories, and longed for the time when 
 he would be old enough to join these parties, and also make himself a 
 name among warriors. While quite a youth he volunteered to go out 
 with a party, and soon gave convincing proofs of his courage. He also 
 early learned the arts of hunting the deer, the bear, the moose, and all the 
 smaller animals common to the country ; and in these pursuits, he took 
 the ordinary lessons of Indian young men, in abstinence, suffering, dan- 
 ger and endurance of fatigue. In this manner his nerves were knit and 
 formed for activity, and his mind stored with those lessons of caution 
 which are the result of local experience in the forest. He possessed a tall 
 and commanding person, with a full black piercing eye, and the usual 
 features of his countrymen. He had a clear and full toned voice, and 
 spoke his native language with grace and fluency. To these attractions, 
 he united an early reputation for bravery and skill in the chase, and at 
 the age of twenty -two, he was already a war leader. 
 
 Expeditions of one Indian tribe against another, require the utmost 
 caution, skill, and secrecy. There are a hundred things to give informa- 
 tion to such a party, or influence its action, which are unknown to civilized 
 nations. The breaking of a twig, the slightest impression of a foot print, 
 and other like circumstances, determine a halt, a retreat, or an advance. 
 The most scrupulous attention is also paid to the signs of thg heavens, the 
 flight of birds, and above all, to the dreams and predictions of the jossakeed, 
 priest, or prophet, who accompanies them, and who is entrusted with the 
 sacred sack. The theory upon which all these parties are conducted, is 
 secrecy and stratagem: to steal upon the enemy unawares; to lay in am- 
 bush, or decoy ; to kill and to avoid as much as possible the hazard of 
 being killed. An intimate geographical knowledge of the country, is also 
 required by a successful war leader, and such a man piques himself, not 
 only on knowing every prominent stream, hill, valley, wood, or rock, but 
 the particular productions, animal, and vegetable, of the scene of opera- 
 tions. When it is considered that this species of knowledge, shrewdness 
 and sagacity, is possessed on both sides, and that the nations at war watch 
 each other, as a lynx for its prey, it may be conceived, that many of these 
 border war parties are either light skirmishes, sudden on-rushes, or utter 
 failures. It is seldom that a close, well contested, long continued hard 
 battle is fought. To kill a few men, tear off their scalps in haste, and 
 retreat with these trophies, is a brave and honourable trait with them, and 
 may be boasted of, in their triumphal dances and warlike festivities. 
 
 To glean the details of these movements, would be to acquire the
 
 140 WABOJEEG, OR THE WH1 TE FISHER. 
 
 modern history of the tribe, which induced me to direct my enquiries to 
 the subject ; but the lapse of even forty or fifty years, had shorn tradition 
 of most of these details, and often left the memory of results only. The 
 Chippewas told me, that this chief had led them seven times to successful 
 battle against the Sioux and the Outagamies, and that he had been 
 wounded thrice once in the thigh, once in the right shoulder, and a 
 third time in the side and breast, being a glancing shot. His war parties 
 consisted either of volunteers who had joined his standard at .the war 
 dance, or of auxiliaries, who had accepted his messages of wampum and 
 tobacco, and come forward in a body, to the appointed place of rendezvous. 
 These parties varied greatly in number ; his first party consisted of but 
 forty men, his greatest and most renowned, of three hundred, who were 
 mustered from the villages on the shores of the lake, as far east as St. 
 Mary's falls. 
 
 It is to the incidents of this last expedition, which had an important in- 
 fluence on the progress of the war, that we may devote a few moments. 
 The place of rendezvous was La Pointe Chagomiegon, or as it is called 
 in modern days, La Pointe of Lake Superior. The scene of the conflict, 
 which was a long and bloody one, was the falls of the St. Croix. The 
 two places are distant about two hundred and fifty miles, by the most di- 
 rect route. This area embraces the summit land between Lake Superior 
 and the upper Mississippi. The streams flowing each way interlock, 
 which enables the natives to ascend them in their light canoes, and after 
 carrying the latter over the portages, to descend on the opposite side. On 
 this occasion Wabojeeg and his partizan arrny, ascended the Muskigo, or 
 Mauvais river, to its connecting portage with the Namakagon branch of the 
 St. Croix. On crossing the summit, they embarked in their small and 
 light war canoes on their descent westward. This portion of the route 
 was passed with the utmost caution. They were now rapidly approach- 
 ing the enemy's borders, and every sign was regarded with deep attention. 
 They were seven days from the time they first reached the waters of the 
 St. Croix, until they found the enemy. They went but a short distance 
 each day, and encamped. On the evening of the seventh day, the scouts 
 discovered a large body of Sioux and Outagamies encamped on the lower 
 side of the portage of the great falls of the St. Croix. The discovery was 
 a surprise on both sides. The advance of the Chippewas had landed at 
 the upper end of the portage, intending to encamp there. The Sioux 
 and their allies had just preceded them, from the Tower part of the stream 
 with the same object. The Foxes or Outagamies immediately fired, and 
 a battle ensued. It is a spot indeed, from which a retreat either way is 
 impracticable, in the face of an enemy. It is a mere neck of rugged rock. 
 The river forces a passage through this dark and solid barrier. It is 
 equally rapid and dangerous for canoes above and below. It cannot be 
 crossed direct After the firing began Wabojeeg landed and brought up
 
 WABOJEEG, OR THE WHITE FISHER. 14 J 
 
 his men. He directed a part of them to extend themselves' in the wood 
 around the small neck, or peninsula, of the portage, whence alone escape 
 was possible. Both parties fought with bravery ; the Foxes with despera- 
 tion. But they were outnumbered, overpowered, and defeated. Some 
 attempted to descend the rapids, and were lost. A few only escaped. 
 But the Chippewas paid dearly for their victory. Wabojeeg was slightly 
 wounded in the breast : his brother was killed. Many brave warriors fell. 
 It was a most sanguinary scene. The tradition of this battle is one of the 
 most prominent and wide spread of the events of their modern history. 
 I have conversed with more than one chief, who dated his first military 
 honours in youth, to this scene. It put an end to their feud with the 
 Foxes, who retired from the intermediate rice lakes, and fled down the 
 Wisconsin. It raised the name of the Chippewa leader, to the acme of 
 his renown among his people : but Wabojeeg, as humane as he was 
 brave, grieved over the loss of his people who had fallen in the action. 
 This feeling was expressed touchingly and characteristically, in a war song, 
 which he uttered after this victory which has been preserved by the 
 late Mr. Johnston of St. Mary's, in the following stanzas. 
 
 LOn that day when our heroes lay low lay low, 
 
 On that day when our heroes lay low, 
 I fought by their side, and thought ere I died, 
 Just vengeance to take on the foe, 
 Just vengeance to take on the foe. 
 
 On that day, when our chieftains lay dead lay dead, 
 
 On tha*. day when our chieftains lay dead, 
 I foagnt hand to hand, at the head of my band, 
 
 And here, on my breast, have 1 bled, 
 
 And here, on my breast, have I bled. 
 
 Our chiefs shall return no more no more, 
 
 Our chiefs shall return no more, 
 Nor their brothers of war, who can show scar for scar, 
 
 Like women their fates shall deplore deplore, 
 
 Like women their fate shall deplore. 
 
 Five winters in hunting we'll spend we'll spend, 
 
 Five winters in hunting we'll spend, 
 Till our youth, grown to men, we'll to war lead again, 
 
 And our days, like our fathers, we'll end, 
 
 And our days, like our fathers, we'll end.^ 
 
 It is the custom of these tribes to go to war in the spring and 
 summer, which are, not only comparatively seasons of leisure with them,
 
 142 WABOJEEG, OR THE WHITE FISHER. 
 
 but it is at these seasons that they are concealed and protected by the 
 foliage of the forest, and can approach the enemy unseen. At these annual 
 returns of warmth and vegetation, they also engage in festivities and dances, 
 during which the events and exploits of past years are sang and recited : 
 and while they derive fresh courage and stimulus to renewed exertions, 
 the young, who are listeners, learn to emulate their fathers, and take their 
 earliest lessons in the art of war. Nothing is done in the summer months 
 in the way of hunting. The small furred animals are changing their 
 pelt, which is out of season. The doe retires with her fawns, from the 
 plains and open grounds, into thick woods. It is the general season of 
 reproduction, and the red man for a time, intermits his war on the 
 animal creation, to resume it against man. 
 
 As the autumn approaches, he prepares for his fall hunts, by retiring 
 from the outskirts of the settlements, and from the open lakes, shores, and 
 streams, which have been the scenes of his summer festivities ; and pro- 
 ceeds, after a short preparatory hunt, to his wintering grounds. This 
 round of hunting, and of festivity and war, fills up the year ; all the tribes 
 conform in these general customs. There are no war parties raised in 
 the winter. This season is exclusively devoted to securing the means of 
 their subsistence and clothing, by seeking the valuable skins, which are 
 to purchase their clothing and their ammunition, traps and arms. 
 
 The hunting grounds of the chief, whose life we are considering, ex- 
 tended along the southern shores of Lake Superior from the Montreal 
 River, to the inlet of the Misacoda, or Burntwood River of Fond du Lac. 
 If he ascended the one. he usually made the wide circuit indicated, and 
 came out at the other. He often penetrated by a central route up the 
 Maskigo. This is a region still abounding, but less so than formerly, in the 
 bear, moose, beaver, otter, martin, and musk rat. Among the smallei 
 animals are also to be noticed the mink, lynx, hare, porcupine, and par- 
 tridge, and towards its southern and western limits, the Virginia deer. In 
 this ample area, the La Pointe, or Chagoimegon Indians hunted. It is a rule 
 of the chase, that each hunter has a portion of the country assigned to him, 
 on which he alone may hunt ; and there are conventional laws which de- 
 cide all questions of right and priority in starting and killing game. In 
 these questions, the chief exercises a proper authority, and it is thus in the 
 power of one of these forest governors and magistrates, where they happen 
 to be men of sound sense, judgment and manly independence, to make 
 themselves felt and known, and to become true benefactors to their tribes. 
 And such chiefs create an impression upon their followers, and leave a 
 reputation behind them, which is of more value than their achievements 
 in war. 
 
 Wabojeeg excelled in both characters ; he was equally popular as a 
 civil ruler and a war chief; and while he administered justice to his peo- 
 ple, he was an expert hunter, and made due and ample provision for his
 
 WABOJEEG, OR THE WHITE FISHER. 143 
 
 family. He usually gleaned, in a season, By his traps and carbine, four 
 packs of mixed furs, the avails of which were ample to provide clothing 
 for all the members of his lodge circle, as well as to renew his supply of 
 ammunition and other essential articles. 
 
 On one occasion, he had a singular contest with a moose. He had 
 gone out, one morning early, to set martin traps. He had set about forty, 
 and was returning to his lodge, when he unexpectedly encountered a 
 large moose, in his path, which manifested a disposition to attack him. 
 Being unarmed, and having nothing but a knife and small hatchet, 
 which he had carried to make his traps, he tried to avoid it. But the ani- 
 mal came towards him in a furious manner. He took shelter behind a 
 tree, shifting his position from tree to tree, retreating. At length, as he 
 fled, he picked up a pole, and quickly untying his moccasin strings, he 
 bound his knife to the end of the pole. He then placed himself in a 
 favourable position, behind a tree, and when the moose came up, stabbed 
 him several times in the throat and breast. At last, the animal, exhausted 
 with the loss of blood, fell. He then dispatched him, and cut out his 
 tongue to carry home to his lodge as a trophy of victory. When they 
 went back to the spot, for the carcass, they found the snow trampled 
 down in a wide circle, and copiously sprinkled with blood, which gave it 
 the appearance of a battle-field. It proved to be a male of uncommon 
 size. 
 
 The domestic history of a native chief, can seldom be obtained. In the 
 present instance, the facts that follow, may be regarded with interest, as 
 having been obtained from residents of Chagoimegon, or from his descen- 
 dants. He did not takte a wife till about the age of thirty, and he then 
 married a widow, by whom he had one son. He had obtained early 
 notoriety as a warrior, which perhaps absorbed his attention. What 
 causes there were to render this union unsatisfactory, or whether there 
 were any, is not known ; but after the lapse of two years, he mar- 
 ried a girl of fourteen, of the totem of the bear, by whom he had a family 
 of six children. He is represented as of a temper arid manners affec- 
 tionate and forbearing. He evinced thoughtfulness and diligence in the 
 management of his affairs, and the order and disposition of his lodge. 
 When the hunting season was over, he employed his leisure moments in 
 adding to the comforts of his lodge. His lodge was of an oblong shape, 
 ten fathoms long, and made by setting two rows of posts firmly in the 
 ground, and sheathing the sides and roof with the smooth bark of the 
 birch. From the centre rose a post crowned with the carved figure of 
 an owl, which he had probably selected as a bird of good omen, for it was 
 neither his own nor his wife's totem. This figure was so placed, 
 that it turned with the wind, and answered the purpose of a weather- 
 cock. 
 
 In person Wabojeeg was tall, being six feet six inches, erect in carriage.
 
 144 WABOJEEG, OR THE WHITE FISHER. 
 
 and of slender make. He possessed a commanding countenance, united 
 to ease and dignity of manners. He was a ready and fluent speaker, 
 and conducted personally the negotiations with the Fox and Sioux nations. 
 It was perhaps twenty years after the battle on the St. Croix, which es- 
 tablished the Chippewa boundary in that quarter, and while his children 
 were still young, that there came to his village, in the capacity of a trader, 
 a young gentleman of a respectable family in the north of Ireland, who 
 formed an exalted notion of his character, bearing, and warlike exploits. 
 This visit, arid his consequent residence on the lake, during the winter, 
 became an important era to the chief, and has linked his name and me- 
 mory with numerous persons in civilized life. Mr. Johnston asked the 
 northern chief for his youngest daughter. Englishman, he replied, my 
 daughter is yet young, and you cannot take her as white men have too often 
 taken our daughters. It will be time enough to think of complying with 
 your request, when you return again to this lake in the summer. My 
 daughter is my favourite child, and I cannot part with her, unless you 
 will promise to acknowledge her by such ceremonies as white men use. 
 You must ever keep her, and never forsake her. On this basis a union 
 was formed, a union it may be said, between the Erse and Algonquin 
 races and it was faithfully adhered to, till his death, a period of thirty- 
 seven years. 
 
 Wabojeeg had impaired his health in the numerous war parties which 
 he conducted across the wide summit which separated his hunting grounds 
 from the Mississippi valley. A slender frame, under a life of incessant 
 exertion, brought on a premature decay. Consumption revealed itself at 
 a comparatively early age, and he fell before this 'insidious disease, in a 
 few years, at the early age of about forty-five. He died in 1793 at his 
 native village of Chagoimegon. 
 
 The incident which has been named, did not fail to make the forest 
 chieftain acquainted with the leading truth of Christianity, in the revela- 
 tion it makes of a saviour for all races. On the contrary, it is a truth 
 which was brought to his knowledge and explained. It is, of course, not 
 known with what particular effects. As he saw his end approaching, he 
 requested that his body might not be buried out of sight, but placed, ac- 
 cording to a custom prevalent in the remoter bands of this tribe, on a form 
 supported by posts, or a scaffold. This trait is, perhaps, natural to the 
 hunter state. 
 
 My friends when my spirit is fled is fled 
 
 My friends when my spirit is fled, 
 Ah, put me not bound, in the dark and cold ground, > 
 
 Where light shall no longer be shed be shed, 
 
 Where day-light no more shall be shed.
 
 WABOJEEG, OR THE WHITE FISHER, 145 
 
 But lay me up scaffolded high all high, 
 
 Chiefs lay me up scaffolded high, 
 Where my tribe shall still say, as they point to my clay, 
 
 He ne'er from the foe sought to fly to fly, 
 
 He ne'er from the foe sought to fly. 
 
 And children, who play on the shore the shore, 
 
 And children who play on the shore, 
 As the war dance they beat, my name shall repeat, 
 
 And the fate of their chieftan deplore deplore, 
 
 And the fate of their chieftain deplore. 
 
 MODE OF WRITING AN INDIAN LANGUAGE.. 
 
 The rules of utterance of these tribes, after all that has been said and 
 written on the subject, are very simple, and determine the orthography, so 
 far, at least, as relates to distinctions for the long and short vowels. If, in 
 writing Indian, the syllables be separated by hyphens, there need be no 
 uncertainty respecting their sounds, and we shall be saved a world of 
 somewhat over nice disquisition. A vowel preceded by a consonant, is 
 always long, a vowel followed by a consonant is always short. A vowel 
 between two consonants, is short. A vowel standing by itself is always 
 full or long. A few examples of well known words will denote this. 
 
 On ta' ri o. Wa bash. 
 
 Ni ag' ar a. Pe 6 ri a. 
 
 O we' go. Ti con de ro ga. 
 
 Ti 6 ga. Mis siss ip pi. 
 
 Os we go. O nei da. 
 
 I'-o-wa. Al ab a ma 
 
 Wis con' sin. O tis' co. 
 
 Chi ca go. Or' e gon. 
 
 Write the words by whatever system of orthography you will, French, 
 English or German, and the vowel sounds will vindicate this distinction. 
 
 O 9 ' 
 
 If diphthongs have been used, for simple vowels, through early mistake or 
 redundancy, the rule is the same. If they appear as proper diphthongs, they 
 follow the rule of diphthongs. This principal of utterance appears to be a 
 general and fixed law in the Indian languages as respects the sounds 
 of e, i, o, u, aud the two chief sounds of a, 1 and 3 of Walker's Key. As 
 the letter a ; .ias four distinct sounds, as in English, the chief discrepancies, 
 seen abov<j. will appear in the use of this letter. 
 
 10
 
 SKETCHES OF THE LIVES OP 
 
 NOTED RED MEN AND OMEN, 
 
 WHO HAVE APPEARED ON THE WESTERN CONTINENT. 
 
 BRANT, RED JACKET, UNCAS, MIONTONIMO. 
 
 A NOTICE OF THE BIOGRAPHIES OF THE LATE COL. WILLIAM L. STONE, PREPARED FOR TK| 
 DEMOCRATIC REVIEW 1843. 
 
 THE Egyptians embalmed their dead in myrrh and spices, but the 
 blessed art of printing has given us a surer and less revolting method of 
 preserving and transmitting to posterity, all that is truly valuable in the 
 plaudits of virtue, worth, and honor. Books thus become a more perma- 
 nent memorial than marble, and by their diffusion scatter those lessons 
 among all mankind, which the age of mounds and hieroglyphics, stone 
 and papyrus, had confined to the tablet of a shaft, or the dark recesses of 
 a tomb or a pyramid. It is never to be forgotten, that in the development 
 of this new phasis in the history of the human race, it was printing that 
 first lit the lamp of truth, and has driven on the experiment, till the boun- 
 daries of letters have well nigh become co-extensive with the world. If 
 we do not widely err, there is no part of the globe, where books of all de- 
 scriptions have become so cheap and abundant as they are at this time in 
 the United States, and, laying aside all other considerations, we may find 
 a proof of the position stated in the fact, that our vernacular literature is no 
 longer confined to the production of school books, the annals of law and 
 divinity, the age of muddy pamphlets, or the motley pages of the newspa 
 per. We have no design to follow up these suggestions by showing how 
 far the study of the natural sciences, the discussion of political economy, 
 or the advances of belles-lettres, have operated to produce this result; far 
 less to identify those causes, in the progress of western arts and commerce, 
 which have concurred to bring down the price of books, and scatter the 
 blessings of an untrammelled press, among all classes. It is sufficient for 
 our purpose to say that even the lives of our distinguished native chieftains 
 have come in for a share of modern notice, and, we feel proud to add, of 
 a notice which, so far as it reaches, is worthy of the subject. And should 
 our contributions on this head, for the last few years, be equally well fol- 
 lowed up for a few years to come, even the desponding strains of one of
 
 INDIAN RULERS. 147 
 
 their own impersonated heroes can no longer be repeated with perfect 
 truth : 
 
 " They sink, they pass, they fly, they go, 
 
 Like a vapor at morning's dawn, 
 Or a flash of light, whose, sudden glow 
 Is seen, admired, and gone. 
 
 " They died ; hut if a brave man bleeds, 
 
 And fills the dreamless grave, 
 Shall none repeat his name, his deeds, 
 Nor tell that he was brave ?" 
 
 To no one in our literary annals is the public so much indebted for res- 
 cuing from oblivion the traits and character of the four celebrated chiefs 
 whose names stand at the head of this article, as to the able author of these 
 biographies, William L. Stone. Gifted with a keen perception of the ques- 
 tions of right and wrong, which turn upon the planting of the colonies 
 among barbarians, who more than idled away their days upon a soil 
 which they did not cultivate with a deep sympathy in their fate and for- 
 tunes, on the one hand, and the paramount claims of letters and Christian- 
 ity on the other, he has set himself to the task of rendering justice to whom 
 justice belongs, with the ardor of a philanthropist, and the research of a 
 historian. He appears to have planned a series of biographies which, if 
 completed, will give a connected view of the leading tribes who occupied 
 New York, Connecticut, Rhode Island, and Massachusetts, with a range 
 in the examination of contemporary men and collateral topics, which em- 
 braces a wide circle. And he has filled up the outlines of his plan, thus 
 far, in a manner which leaves but little to glean in the path which he has 
 trod. If the extension of this circle, and the large amount of contempo- 
 raneous matter brought in, has, in the minds of some, abstracted too large 
 a share of attention, and left the biographies with less unity and compact- 
 ness than they would otherwise have assumed, this is exclusively the fault 
 of their plan, so far as it is acknowledged, and not of the execution. And 
 for this course of extension there is a plea to be found in the nature of the 
 subject, in the treatment of which, scantiness of material was often sought 
 to be supplied by the introduction of collateral and sometimes extraneous 
 matter. 
 
 We propose briefly to notice the series of these biographies in their 
 order of publication. In his first work on Brant, he has presented, in liv- 
 ing colors, the great Mohawk of 1776, who rose up to crush that confed- 
 eracy which Washington and his compeers had pledged their lives to 
 maintain. Brant was a man of power and capacities, mental and physical, 
 beyond his tribe ; and was so situated, in the actual contest, as to throw a 
 greater weight into the scale against us, than any other, or all of the hos- 
 tile chiefs of the Red Race put together. If he could not, like Ariel, call
 
 148 INDIAN RULERS. 
 
 up the "spirits of the vasty deep," he could, at his bidding, summon 
 together the no less. malignant spirits of the woods, who fell upon our 
 sleeping hamlets with the fury of demons. And whether at Johnson Hall 
 or Niagara, at Cherry Valley or Schoharie, on the waters of the Oriskany 
 or the Chemung, he was the ruling and informing spirit of the contest. 
 Such was the power he wielded as commander of a most effective body 
 of light troops (for such are all Indian warriors), who were supported by 
 large and well appointed armies, that, like the electric flashes of the boding 
 storm, he preceded the heavier outbreak by sounding aloud the wild notes 
 of terror and dismay. It was in this manner that his name became 
 a talisman on the frontiers, to conjure up deeds of evil, and in this way 
 also, doubtless, it became loaded with reproaches, some of which, as the 
 author has denoted, were due to other actors in the contest. It is difficult, 
 however, to disturb the judgments of a preceding age, on the character of 
 individuals who have long passed off the stage of action, whether those 
 judgments be favorable or unfavorable ; and it is, in fact, impossible to re- 
 verse them. It is only necessary to glace backward a short way, on the 
 track of biography, to perceive that posterity never revises' the opinions 
 once put on individual character, heroic or literary. It tries to forget all 
 it can, and every body it can, and never remembers a long time any name 
 which it is possible to forget. It is willing, we should infer, to concede 
 something to the great men among barbarian nations, whose names have 
 often burst upon civilized society with the fearful attractions of the meteor, 
 or the comet, producing admiration in the beholders, without stopping to 
 inquire the true cause. Such were the Tamerlanes, and the Tippoo Saiba 
 of the eastern world, of a prior age, as well as the Mehemet Alis and 
 Abdel Kaders of the present. And such were, also, with reduced means 
 of action, numbers of the American aboriginal chiefs, who, between the 
 days of Manco Capac and Micanopy have figured in the history of the 
 western world. Most of these men owe their celebrity to the mere fact of 
 their having dazzled or astounded, or like Brant himself, excited the terror 
 of those who opposed them. In the case of the latter, a change of opin- 
 ion in those particular traits which affect his humanity, is less readily 
 made, from the fact, yet generally remembered, that he had received 
 a Christian education ; that he was, while a mere boy, received into the 
 best society, acquired the English language, and had been instructed, first 
 at a New England academy, and afterwards at one of its most practically 
 efficient colleges. Posterity holds the Mohawk chief responsible to have 
 carried the precepts thus obtained into the forest, and to have diffused their 
 blessings among those who had perhaps his bravery, without his talents 
 or his knowledge. Those who fought against him were ill qualified, we 
 confess, to be his judges. He had not only espoused the wrong cause, 
 wrong because it was adverse to the progress of national freedom and 
 those very principles his people contended for ; but he battled for it with a
 
 INDIAN RULERS. 
 
 master's hand, and made the force of his energy felt, as the author has 
 more fully indicated than was before known, from the banks of the Mo- 
 hawk and the Niagara, to the Ohio, the Miami, and the Wabash. Yet, 
 if there was error in the extent to which he failed to carry the precepts of civ- 
 ilization and Christianity, it was meet it'should be pointed out, although it 
 will also be admitted, the public have a right to look for the strongest of these 
 proofs of a kind and benevolent feeling towards his open enemies, out of 
 the range of his domestic circle. His family had carried the incipient 
 principles of civilization, which he gave them, too high they had exhib- 
 ited to the next age, a too prominent example of cultivation and refinement 
 hi every sense not to feel deeply the obloquy cast upon his name, by the 
 poetic spirit of the times ; and not to wish that one who had, in verity, so 
 many high and noble qualities, both in the council and the field, should 
 also be without a spot on his humanity. We deem the feeling as honor- 
 able to all who have the blood of the chieftain in their veins as it is praise- 
 worthy in his biographer. We cannot, however, consent to forget, that 
 historical truth is very severe in its requisitions, and is not to be put off, by 
 friend or foe, with hearsay testimony, or plausible surmises. 
 
 Brant cannot, like Xicotencal, be accused of having joined the invaders 
 }f his country, who were recklessly resolved upon its subjugation ; but he 
 overlooked the fact, that both the invader and the invaded in the long and 
 bloody border warfare of the revolution, were, in all that constitutes charac- 
 ter, the same people. They were of the same blood and lineage, spoke 
 the same language, had the same laws and customs, and the same litera- 
 ture and religion, and he failed to see that the only real point of difference 
 between them was, who should wield the sceptre. Whichever party 
 gained the day in such a contest, letters and Christianity must triumph, 
 and as the inevitable result, barbarism must decline, and the power of the 
 Indian nation fall. 
 
 In Brant, barbarism and civilization evinced a strong and singular con- 
 test. He was at one moment a savage, and at another a civilian, at one 
 moment cruel, and at another humane ; and he exhibited, throughout all 
 the heroic period of his career, a constant vacillation and struggle between 
 good and bad, noble and ignoble feelings, and, as one or the other got the 
 mastery, he was an angel of mercy, or a demon of destruction. In this re- 
 spect, his character does not essentially vary from that which has been 
 found to mark the other leading red men who, from Philip to Osceola, 
 have appeared on the stage of action. Like them, his reasoning faculties 
 were far less developed than his physical perceptions. And to attempt to 
 follow or find anything like a fixed principle of humanity, basing itself on 
 the higher obligations that sway the human breast, would, we fear, be- 
 come a search after that which had no existence in his mind ; or if the 
 germ was there, it was too feeble to become predominant. We do not 
 think it necessary, in commenting on his life, to enter into any nice
 
 150 INDIAN RULERS. 
 
 train of reasoning or motives to account for this characteristic, or to recon 
 cile cruelties of the most shocking kind, when contrasted with traits 
 of mildness and urbanity. They were different moods of the man. and 
 in running back over the eventful years of his life, it becomes clear, that 
 civilization had never so completely gained the mastery over his mind and 
 heart, as not to desert him, without notice, the moment he heard the sound 
 of the war-whoop. The fact that he could use the pen, supplied no in- 
 superable motive against his wielding the war club. His tomahawk and 
 his Testament lay on the same shelf. The worst trait in his character is 
 revealed in his tardiness to execute acts of purposed mercy. There was 
 too often some impediment, which served as an excuse, as when he had 
 a ploughed field to cross to save Wells and his family, or a lame heel, or 
 gave up the design altogether, as in the case of Wisner, whom he con- 
 strued it into an act of mercy to tomahawk. 
 
 That he was, however, a man of an extraordinary firmness, courage 
 and decision of character, is without doubt. But his fate* and fortunes 
 have not been such as to give much encouragement to chiefs of the native 
 race in lending their influence to European, or Anglo-European powers, 
 who may be engaged in hostilities against each other on this continent. 
 Pontiac had realized this before him, and Tecumtha realized it alter him. 
 Neither attained the object he sought. One of these chiefs was assassi- 
 nated, the other fell in battle, and Brant himself only survived the defeat 
 of his cause, to fret out his latter days in vain attempts to obtain justice 
 from the power which he had most loyally served, and greatly benefited. 
 Had he been knighted at the close of the contest, instead of being shuffled 
 from one great man to another, at home and abroad, it would have been 
 an instance of a noble exercise of that power. But George III. seemed 
 to have been fated, at all points, neither to do justice to his friends nor his 
 enemies. 
 
 Such was Brant, or Thayendanegea. symbolically, the Band of 'his 
 tribe,* to whose lot it has fallen to act a more distinguished part in the 
 Colonies, as a consummate warrior, than any other aboriginal chieftain 
 who has arisen. And his memory was well worthy of the elaborate work 
 in which his biographer has presented him, in the most favourable points 
 of view, amidst a comprehensive history of the border wars of the revolu- 
 tion, without, however, concealing atrocities of which he was, perhaps 
 sometimes unwillingly, the agent. 
 
 A word, and but a word, will be added, as to some points connected 
 with this chiefs character, which are not in coincidence with the generally 
 received opinion, or are now first introduced by way of palliation, or vin- 
 dication. We confess, that so far as the presence or absence of the Great 
 Mohawk in the massacre of Wyoming, is concerned, the statements are 
 
 * The name is usually translated, two-sticks tied, or united.
 
 INDIAN RULERS. 
 
 either inconclusive, or less satisfactory than could be wished. There was 
 quite too much feeling sometimes evinced by his family, and particularly 
 his son John, to permit us to receive the new version of the statement with- 
 out some grains of allowance. An investigation is instituted by Col. Stone 
 as to the immediate ancestry of Brant, and much importance is attached 
 to the inquiry, whether he was descended from a line of hereditary chiefs. 
 We think the testimony adverse to such a supposition, and it affords no 
 unequivocal proof of talents, that notwithstanding such an adventitious 
 circumstance, certainly without being of the line of ruling chiefs, he ele- 
 vated himself to be, not only the head chief and leader of his tribe, but of 
 the Six Nations. Courtesy and popular will attach the title of chief or 
 sachem to men of talents, courage or eloquence among our tribes gene- 
 rally ; and while mere descent would devolve it upon a chiefs son, what- 
 ever might be his character, yet this fact alone would be of little import, 
 and give him little influence, without abilities : whereas abilities alone are 
 found to raise men of note to the chieftainship, among all the North 
 American tribes, whose customs and character are known. 
 
 It has constituted no part of our object, in these general outlines, to ex- 
 amine minor points of the biography or history, upon which the information 
 or the" conclusions are not so satisfactory as could be wished, or which may, 
 indeed, be at variance with our opinions. One fact, however, connected 
 with this name, it is not deemed proper to pass sub silentio. Brant is 
 made to take a part in the Pontiac War, a contest arising on the fall of the 
 French power in Canada in 1759, and which closed in 1763. Brant 
 was at its close but twenty-one years of age, and had not, it is probable, 
 finally returned from his New England tutors. At any rate, there is no 
 reason to suppose, that, at that early period of his life and his influence, 
 he could have had any participation in the events of that war. 
 
 In the life of Red Jacket, or Sagoyewata, we have a different order of In- 
 dian intellect brought to view. He was an orator and a diplomatist, and was 
 at no period of his life noted for his skill as a warrior. Nay, there are 
 indubitable proofs that his personal courage could not always be " screwed 
 up to the sticking point." But in native intellect, he was even superior 
 to Brant. He was, indeed, the Brant of the council, and often came down 
 upon his opponents with bursts of eloquence, trains of argument, or rhap- 
 sodies of thought, which were irresistible. And of him, it may be sym- 
 bolically said, that his tongue was his tomahawk, and the grandiloquent 
 vocabulary of the Seneca language, his war-club. Nor has any native 
 chieftain wielded the weapon to more purpose, or with a longer continued 
 effect than the great Seneca orator. The specimens of his eloquence 
 which have appeared in our newspapers for forty years or more, are still 
 fresh in the memory, and it was due and meet that these should be col- 
 lected and preserved in a permanent shape, together with such particulars 
 of his life and career as could be obtained. This task has been performed
 
 152 
 
 by Col. Stone, in a manner which leaves nothing more to be attempted on 
 the subject. Much zeal and industry have been evinced in eliciting facts 
 from every quarter where it was probable information could be had. And 
 he has brought together a body of contemporaneous proofs and reminis- 
 cences, touching this chief, which a few years would have put beyond the 
 power of recovery, and which a position less prominent than he occupied 
 as a public journalist, might have rendered it difficult for another to collect 
 We need only refer to the names of Gen. P. B. Porter, Rev. J. Brecken- 
 ridge, Mr. Parish, and Mr. Hosmer, to show the character of this part of 
 his materials. 
 
 Other chiefs of'the native stock, have produced occasional pieces of elo- 
 quence, or admired oratory, but Red-Jacket is the only prominent individual 
 who has devoted his whole career to it. That he did, indeed, excel, pro- 
 ducing effects which no reported speech of his ever equalled or did justice 
 to, there are still many living to attest. In the question of land sales, 
 which arose between the white and red races, there were frequent occa- 
 sions to bring him out. And these, in the end, assumed a complicated 
 shape, from either the vague nature, or ill understood conditions of prior 
 grants. In all these discussions, he preserved a unity and consistency in 
 the set of opinions he had adopted. He was opposed to further sales, to 
 removal, to civilization, and to the introduction of Christianity among his 
 people. What Brant had done in politics, Red-Jacket repeated in morals. 
 Both took the wrong side, and both failed. But it is to be said of the Sen- 
 eca orator, that he did not live to see the final defeat of that course 
 of policy which he had so long and so ably advocated. 
 
 It was remarked by Mr. Clinton, and the fact had impressed others, that 
 the Iroquois, or Six Nations, excelled the other natives in eloquence. Of 
 this, their history, during the Supremacy of 6olland and England in New 
 York, as given by Golden, furnishes ample proofs. The speech of Gar 
 angula. against the Governor General of Canada and his wily policy, is 
 unexcelled, as a whole, by anything which even Red-Jacket has left in 
 print, though much of the effect of it is due to the superior and heroic po- 
 sition occupied by the tribes for whom he spoke. Logan, unexcelled by 
 all others for his pathos and simplicity, it must be remembered, was also 
 of this stock, Mingo, or Mengwe, as the Delawares pronounced it, being 
 but a generic term for Iroquois ; so that the transmission of this trait, from 
 the proud era of the Iroquois confederacy down to modern days, is quite 
 in keeping with the opinion quoted. 
 
 It is to be wished that Col. Stone would supply another link in the 
 chain of Iroquois history, by favoring the public with the life of the noted 
 Oneida chief, Shenandoah, for which materials must exist in the Kirkland 
 family. 
 
 The lives of the two men, Uncas and Miontonimo, whose leading a;ts 

 
 153 
 
 ire described in one of the volumes named in our caption, belong to an 
 earlier period of history, and a different theatre of action. The scene 
 changes from western New York to the seaboard of Connecticut, Rhode 
 Island, and, to some extent, Massachusetts. Uncas was the good genius, 
 the tutelary spirit, if we may so say, of the colony of Connecticut ; and 
 the best monument which that State could erect to his memory, would be 
 to change the unmeaning and worn out name of one of her counties, New 
 London, for that of the noble and friendly chief, of whose forest kingdom 
 it once formed a part. From the first day that -the English colonists set 
 foot within it, to the hour of his death, Uncas was the unwavering " friend 
 of the white man," as his biographer justly calls him. He was of that 
 race, whom history has, without making a particle of allowance for sav- 
 age ignorance and hereditary prejudice, branded under the name of Pe- 
 quods. They were of that type of languages and lineage, which was 
 very well characterized generically, at least as far south as the original 
 country of the Delawares ; but which assumed a sub-type after crossing 
 the Hudson, and was known east of that point under one of its superin- 
 duced forms, as the Mohegan. This term had been dropped by the Pe- 
 quods, if it was ever their specific cognomen, but it is a proof, and we think 
 a very conclusive proof, of the yet freshly remembered affiliation with 
 Taminund* and the Manhattans, that Uncas, the moment he revolted from 
 King Sassacus, assumed the name of a Mohegan, and put himself at the 
 head of that tribe, as it then existed within the boundaries of Connecticut. 
 Or rather, he constituted the revolted Pequods a new tribe, under an old 
 and respected name, and he thus laid the foundation of the Uncas dynasty. 
 Placed thus by circumstances in a position in which he sought an alliance 
 with the early colonists, and finding his security in theirs, he was in fact 
 the only leading chief of the times who, really, heartily, and faithfully 
 sought their prosperity and growth to the end. The rise of Uncas and 
 Connecticut thus began at one era ; and as the alliance was founded on 
 mutual interest and safety, it only grew stronger with time. A man of 
 less force of character or natural sagacity than Uncas, would have vacillated 
 when he saw the colonists becoming more powerful and himself more 
 weak as years rolled on, and would have been seduced to enter into alli- 
 ances for arresting the white man's power, as other native chiefs had done. 
 But all history concurs in showing that, under every circumstance, and 
 there were many of the most trying kind, he carried himself well, and 
 avoided even a suspicion of his fidelity. 
 
 Uncas was well qualified for a ruler both in mind and person. He pos- 
 sessed a fine figure, over six feet in height, a commanding voice, and a 
 noble bearing. He was mild yet dignified in his manners. He was not 
 
 The name of this chief is Anglicised in the word Tammany-
 
 154 INDIAN RULERS. 
 
 only wise in council, but brave* in war, as he evinced in many instances, 
 but particularly in the battle of Sachem's Plain, in which he proved him- 
 self the bravest and most chivalrous of the brave. Yet his wisdom and 
 moderation in governing his people, and the well balanced justice and con- 
 sistency of his character, give him a still higher reputation, and establish 
 his best claim to remembrance. In all the trials in which he was placed, 
 in all the temptations he had to fly into a rage, and act out the savage, he 
 sustained this character for wise deliberation ; and by adhering to his first 
 covenant with the English, and laying all his plans and grievances before 
 the colonial courts, he raised himself in strength and reputation, and finally 
 triumphed, first over Sassacus, and then over Miontonimo, the two great- 
 est and most powerful of his immediate contemporaries. 
 
 If Uncas was the patron of Connecticut, Miontonimo, with his family 
 of the Narragansett chiefdom, was equally so of Rhode Island. And it is 
 from this obvious fact, probably, in part, that we find "the historical notices 
 of him, from the last quarter, decidedly more favorable to his general 
 character than those emanating from the land of his enemy and his con- 
 queror, Uncas. While there is no disagreement as to any historical fact 
 of note, it is natural that some little shade of feeling of this nature should 
 remain. We have noticed a similar feeling with respect to existing tribes 
 and chiefs, in the western world, where the inhabitants never fail to be 
 imbued with those peculiar notions and traditions of the particular tribe 
 about them, which represent the latter as the principal nation, and invest 
 them with tribal traits of superiority. It is a feeling which leans to the 
 better side of one's nature, and does honor to men's hearts ; but the histo- 
 rian is obliged to look at such questions with a colder eye, and can never 
 abate a tittle of the truth, although he may run counter to this local sym- 
 pathy and bias. We could name some remarkable instances of this preju- 
 dice, if we were willing to digress. 
 
 If Miontonimo be compared to Uncas, it will at once be seen that 
 he lacked the latter's sagacity and firmness of character. Had the Nar- 
 ragansett listened to Sassacus, and formed a league with him, he would 
 have crushed, for a time, the infant colony of Connecticut. This he de- 
 clined, apparently, because it had the specific character of enabling Sassa- 
 cus to put down Uncas. After the Pequod king had been defeated and 
 
 * The terms "brave" and "braves" used m a substantive sense, in this work, are 
 neither English nor Indian. The Indian term should be translated strong-heart, its 
 literal import ; for it is one of the general rules of these languages, that the operation 
 of the adjective, as well as action of the verb, is uniformly marked upon the substan- 
 tive there being, indeed, different inflections of each substantive, to denote whethei 
 this operation or action be caused by a noble or ignoble, or an animate or inanimate ob- 
 ject. Still the general use of the Canadian term Brave, on our Indian border, may 
 give it some poetic claims to introduction into our vernacular, burthened as it aheady in 
 with more objectionable Americanisms.
 
 INDIAN RULERS. 155 
 
 fled to the Mohawks, Miontonimo was left in a position to assume the Pe- 
 quod's policy, and then tried to bring Uncas into just such a combination 
 to fall on the colonists, as he had himself refused, when the proposition 
 came from Sassacus. As Uncas not only refused, but laid the scheme be- 
 fore his allies, Miontonimo went to war against him, with a large army. 
 Uncas hastily prepared to meet him, with a smaller force. They met on 
 Sachem's Plain, on the banks of the Shawtucket. Uncas, unwilling to 
 see so many of his people slain in battle, nobly stepped forward and pro- 
 posed a personal combat, to decide the question of who should rule, and 
 who obey. It was declined, but the moment the reply was made, he 
 threw himself on the plain, a signal, it seems, for his men to advance, and 
 they came on with such an impulse, that he won the day and took Mion- 
 tonimo prisoner. This capture was the act of one of his minor chiefs ; 
 but when his enemy was brought before him, he declined exercising his 
 right of putting him to death, but determined to refer the matter to the au- 
 thorities of Hartford. There it was found to be a knotty question, and 
 finally referred to the General Court at Boston. The Court strengthened 
 itself with the opinions of six distinguished clergymen and several eminent 
 civilians ; and then decided, that the Narragansett chief had justly forfeited 
 his life, by violating his political covenants with the colonies, but it might 
 not be taken away by them. He must be remanded to Uncas, within his 
 jurisdiction, and by him be executed ; but it was enjoined, with a very 
 poor compliment to the known mildness of the character of Uncas, that no 
 needless cruelty should be practised. Here, then, the white man evinced 
 less mercy than the red had done. Miontonimo was now released from 
 his confinement, and conducted back to the very spot where he had first 
 been taken prisoner, as he approached which, one of the Mohegans who 
 accompanied him, keeping him in entire ignorance of his fate, raised his 
 tomahawk as he walked behind him, and laid him dead at a blow. 
 
 Whether the moral responsibility of this execution rests with the court, 
 or the executioner, we do not propose particularly to inquire, nor to ascer- 
 tain to what degree it was shuffled off, by directing an Indian to commit 
 an act which it was unlawful for a white man and a Christian to perform. 
 Had Uncas slain his adversary in cold blood, after the action, the thing 
 would have been in perfect accordance with Indian law. Had Mionton- 
 imo been a subject of either of the colonies of Connecticut, Rhode Island 
 or Massachusetts, and levied war, or committed any overt act of treason, 
 his execution would have been in accordance with the laws of civilized 
 nations. Neither- condition happened. It was, however, felt, that the 
 great disturber of the colonies, after Sassacus, had now been caught. He 
 had violated his covenant by going to war without apprising them. They 
 did not believe he would keep any future covenants. The moral sense 
 of the community would not be shocked, but rather gratified by his exe- 
 cution. This point was strongly signified to the court. But they could
 
 156 INDIAN RULERS. 
 
 not legally compass it. English law opposed it. The customs of civil 
 ized nations, in warring with each other, opposed it. Should a differed 
 rule be observed towards the aborigines ? Did the dictates of sound judg- 
 ment and common sense, did the precepts of Christianity, aye, " there 
 was the rub," did the precepts of Christianity sanction it ? On full de- 
 liberation, for the question was not decided in haste, neither of these 
 points could be affirmatively answered. But while policy the policy of 
 expediency, the lust of power, and the offended moral sense of an exposed 
 and suffering community demanded, as it was thought, the death of the 
 sachem, still it was not found that one whom they had ever treated, and 
 then viewed, as a foreign prince, legally considered, could be thus de- 
 prived of his life. Imprisonment was not, as a permanent policy, resolved 
 on. There was one course left to escape both dilemmas, and to avoid ail 
 censure. It was to restore things to the precise footing they had before 
 his surrender. It was to hand him back to Uncas, without the expression 
 of any decision, leaving that chieftain to act as he deemed fit. They re- 
 manded him indeed, but went one step too far, by first deciding in a formal 
 court, after months of deliberation, in the course of which the clergy and 
 gentry, (this is a term that would be proper to the times) had been form 
 ally consulted, and directed his death, stipulating only that he should not 
 be killed with cruelty. If there was not something that smacks of the 
 want of true and noble dealing in this if it accorded with the bland pre- 
 cepts of Christianity, to do unto others as you would that others should do 
 unto you if the act did not, in fine, partake of the very spirit of Jesuitism 
 in the worst sense in which the word has been adopted into the language, 
 we have, we confess, formed a totally wrong idea of its meaning. 
 
 A case, in some respects similar to this, happened in modern times, 
 which may be thought to contrast rather strongly with the above example 
 of Puritan mercy. The reasons for a capital punishment, were, indeed, 
 far more cogent, and the community called out strongly for it, and would 
 have sustained it. It was the capture of Black Hawk, which, it will be 
 recollected, took place during the first Presidential term of General Jack- 
 son. Black Hawk had levied war within the boundaries of one of the 
 States, on lands ceded by treaty, and organized a confederacy of Indian 
 tribes, which, though broken up in part, chiefly through the failure of the 
 other tribes to fulfil their engagements with him, yet required for its sup- 
 pression the entire disposable force of the Union. The Sac chief was 
 finally captured on Indian territory, in the act of fleeing west of the Mis- 
 sissippi. He was imprisoned, and the case referred to the Government 
 for decision. He had broken his treaty covenants. He had not only 
 made war, but in its outbreak and its continuance, had been guilty of coun- 
 tenancing, at least, the most shocking barbarities. He had, indeed, opened 
 the scene by cruelly murdering the agent of the Government, the repre- 
 sentative of the President, in the person of Mr. St. Vrain. The commu-
 
 INDIAN RULERS. 157 
 
 nity, the western States particularly, called loudly for his execution. 
 There could be no security, it was said, if such a bloody fellow was al- 
 allowed to roam at large. He had forfeited his life a thousand times. 
 There was, indeed, the same popular feeling against him, which had ex- 
 isted in New England, one hundred and ninety years before, against 
 Miontonimo. But could he have been legally executed? And if so, was 
 it, indeed, the true policy ? Was it noble was it high-minded ? Was 
 it meting out exact and equal justice to men with red skins, as well as 
 white? It was thought that all these questions must be negatively 
 answered ; and the bold Sac insurgent was sent home, accompanied by an 
 officer of the army, to secure his comfort and safety, and thus to see that a 
 wise and merciful decision should be faithfully carried out, and popular 
 indignation be prevented from wreaking itself, in the assassination of the 
 chief. 
 
 In closing these remarks, it may appear selfish to express the hope, that 
 Mr. Stone, to whom we are already indebted for these spirited, compre- 
 hensive, and well written volumes, should still further employ his pen in 
 adding to the sum of these obligations. But he has so well studied the 
 field in its historical bearing, so far at least as relates to the eastern depart- 
 ment of the Union, that we know of no one to whom the labour would 
 present less of the character of a task. We are in want of a good account 
 of Philip, or Metacom, the energetic sachem of the Pokenokets, who im- 
 personated so fully the wild Indian character, and views, and battled so 
 stoutly against the occupancy of New England by the Saxon race. In 
 showing up to modern times such a man, we think a biography would de- 
 rive very deep interest, and it would certainly be a new experiment, to 
 take up the aboriginal views and opinions of the invading race, and thus 
 write, as it were, from within, instead of without the circle of warlike ac- 
 tion. In this way, their combinations, efforts and power, would better ap- 
 pear, and redound more to the credit of the aboriginal actors, as warriors 
 and heroes. As it is, history only alludes to them as conspirators, rebels, 
 traitors, or culprits ; as if the fact of their opposing the egress of civilized 
 nations, who were in all respects wiser and better, were sufficient tcr blot 
 out all their right and claim to the soil and sovereignty of the land of their 
 forefathers, and they were in fact bound to stand back, and give it up nokns 
 volens. 
 
 We had designed to subjoin a few remarks on the biographical labors 
 of other writers in this department, particularly those of Thatcher and 
 Drake, but our limits are already exhausted, and we must abandon, or at 
 least, defer it.
 
 THE RABID WOLF. 
 
 v 
 
 A VERITABLE TRADITION OF THE VALLEY OF THE TAWASENTBA. 
 
 THE great Pine Plains, beginning not far south of the junction of the 
 Mohawk with the North River, are still infested by wolves, who harbour 
 in its deep gorges, from which they sally out at night, on the sheep-folds 
 of the farmers, and often put a whole neighbourhood in fear. The rail- 
 road track from Albany to Schenectady, passes over a part of these plains, 
 which stretch away in the direction of the blue outlines of the Hel- 
 derberg mountains. It is many miles across the narrowest part of them, 
 and they reach down to the very outskirts of the city of Albany, where 
 they have of late years, and since Buel's day, begun to cultivate them by 
 sowing clover, planting fruit trees, and in other ways. They constitute 
 the table land of the county, and send out from beneath their heavy mass 
 of yellow sand and broken down sand stones, mica slates, and granites, 
 many springs and streams of the purest and most crystalline waters, which 
 find their outlets chiefly into the valley of the Tawasentha, or, as the river 
 is called in popular language, the Norman's Kill, and are thus contributed 
 to swell the noble volume of the Hudson. These springs issue at the pre- 
 cise point where the arenaceous mass rests on a clay or impervious basis. 
 The effect, in ancient years, has been that the sand is carried off, grain by 
 grain, till a deep ravine or gorge is formed. The sides of this gorge 
 being composed of mixed earth and some mould, and free from the aridity 
 of the surface, bear a dense and vigorous growth of hard wood trees and 
 shrubbery, and are often found to be encumbered with immense trunks of 
 fallen pines and other forest rubbish, which renders it very difficult to 
 penetrate them. It is into these dark gorges that the wolves retreat, after 
 scouring the plains and neighbouring farms for prey ; and here they have 
 maintained their ancient empire from time immemorial. Such, at least. 
 was the state of things between the settlers and the wolves, at the date of 
 this story, in 1807. 
 
 Sometimes the whole country armed and turned out en masse, to ferret 
 them out of their fastnesses and destroy them ; and truly the forces 
 assembled on some of these wolf-hunts were surprising, and, in one 
 respect, that is to say, the motley and uncouth character of their arms, 
 they would have put both Bonaparte and Wellington to flight. There 
 was nothing, from a pitchfork to a heavy blunderbuss, which they did not 
 carry, always excepting a good rifle, which I never remember to have 
 seen on these occasions. Indeed, these formal turn-outs were better suited 
 to frighten away, than to kill and capture the foe ; so that there was no
 
 VILLAGE TRADITION. 159 
 
 just cause of surprise why the wolves remained, and even increased. 
 They still kept masters of the Plains sheep were killed by dozens, night 
 after night, and the alarm went on. 
 
 It was at other times tried to trap them, and to bait them in sundry ways. 
 I recollect that we all had implicit faith in the village schoolmaster, one 
 Cleanthus, who knew some Latin, and a little of almost every thing ; and 
 among other arts which he cherished, and dealt out in a way to excite 
 wonder for his skill, he knew how to make the wolves follow his tracks, 
 by smearing his shoes with sesofedita, or some other substance, and then 
 ensconcing himself at night in a log pen, where he might bid defiance to 
 the best of them, and shoot at them besides. But I never could learn that 
 there were any of these pestiferous animals killed, either by the school- 
 master and his party, or any other party, except it was the luckless poor 
 animal I am about to write of, which showed its affinities to the canine 
 race by turning rabid, and rushing at night into the midst of a populous 
 manufacturing village. 
 
 losco was eligibly seated on the summit and brow of a picturesque 
 series of low crowned hills, just on the southern verge of these great 
 Plains, where the tillable and settled land begins. It was, consequently, 
 in relation to these wolves, a perfect frontier ; and we had not only fre- 
 quent alarms, but also the privilege and benefit of hearing all the won- 
 derful stories of wolf-adventure, to man and beast, for a wide circle. In- 
 deed, these stories often came back with interest, from the German and 
 Dutch along the Swarta Kill, and Boza Kill settlements, away up to the foot 
 of the Helderberg mountains. A beautiful and clear stream of sparkling 
 cold water, called the Hungerkill, after gathering its crystal tributaries from 
 the deep gorges of the plains, ran through the village, and afforded one 
 or two seats for mills, and after winding and doubling on its track a mile 
 or two, rendered its pellucid stores into the Norman's Kill, or, as this 
 stream was called by the ancient Mohawk race, in allusion to their sleep- 
 ing dead, the Tawasentha. No stream in the country was more famous 
 for the abundance of its fine brook trout, and the neighbouring plains 
 served to shelter the timid hare, and the fine species of northern partridge, 
 which is there always called a pheasant. 
 
 The village was supported by its manufacturing interests, and was 
 quite populous. It had a number of long streets, some of which reached 
 across the stream, and over a spacious mill pond, and others swept at 
 right angles along, the course of the great Cherry Valley turnpike. In 
 its streets were to be heard, in addition to the English, nearly all the dia- 
 lects of the German between the Rhine and the Danube ; the Low Dutch 
 as spoken by the common country people on the manor of Rensselaer- 
 wyck, the Erse and Gaelic, as not unfrequently used by the large pro- 
 portion of its Irish and Scotch, and what seemed quite as striking to one 
 brought up in seclusion from it, the genuine Yankee, as discoursed by
 
 VILLAGE TRADITION. 
 
 the increasing class of factory wood choppers, teamsters, schoolmasters, 
 men out at the elbows, and travelling wits. The latter were indeed but a 
 sorry representation of New England, as we have since found it. No 
 small amount of superstitions were believed and recited in the social meet- 
 ings of such a mixed foreign population. Accounts of instances of the 
 second sight, death-lights on the meadows and in the churchyard, the 
 low howling of premonitory dogs before funerals, and other legendary 
 wares, to say nothing of the actual and veritable number of downright 
 spooks, seen on various occasions, on the lands of the Veeders, the Van 
 Valken burgs, the Truaxes, and the Lagranges, rendered it a terror to all 
 children under twelve to stir out of doors after dark. There were in the 
 annals of losco, several events in the historical way which served as per- 
 fect eras to its inhabitants ; but none, it is believed, of so striking and 
 general importance as the story of the Mad \V olf, of which I am about 
 to write. 
 
 There had been found, soon after the close of the revolutionary war, 
 in a dark wood very near the road, pieces of a cloth coat and metallic 
 buttons, and other things, which rendered it certain that a man had been 
 murdered at that spot, in consequence of which the place was shunned, 
 or hurried by, as if a spirit of evil had its abode there. On another oc- 
 casion, the body of a poor- old man of the name of Homel, was found 
 drowned deep in the Norman's Kill, clasped in the arms of his wife, both 
 dead. A gentleman of standing, who ventured alone, rather groggy, 
 one dark night, over the long unrailed bridge that crossed the mill pond, 
 pitched upon some sharp pallisadoes in the water, and came to a melan- 
 choly end. Hormaun, an Iroquois, who haunted the valley, had killed, 
 it was said, ninety-nine men, and was waiting an opportunity to fill his 
 count, by dispatching his hundredth man. This was a greatly dreaded 
 event, particularly by the boys. There was also the era, when a Race 
 Course had been established on a spot called the " Colonel's Farm," and 
 the era of the " Deep Snow." There were many other events celebrated 
 in losco, such as the De Zeng era, the Van Rensselaer era, and the Van 
 Kleeck era, which helped the good mothers to remember the period 
 when their children were born ; but none, indeed, of so notable a cha- 
 racter to youthful minds as the adventure of the mad wolf. 
 
 Wolf stories were in vogue, in fact, in the evening and tea party cirdes 
 of losco for many years ; and if one would take every thing as it was 
 given, there had been more acts of bravery, conduct, and firm decision of 
 character and foresight, displayed in encountering these wild vixens of 
 the plains and valleys by night, than would, if united, have been suffi- 
 cient to repel the inroads of Burgoyne, St. Leger, or Sir John Johnson, 
 with Brant, and all his hosts of tories and Indians, during the American 
 revolution. 
 
 I chanced one night to have left the city of Albany, in company with
 
 VILLAGE TRADITION. 161 
 
 one of these heroic spirits. We occupied my father's chaise, an old- 
 Sishioned piece of gentility now out of vogue, drawn by a prime horse, 
 one which he always rode on parades. It was late before we got out of 
 the precincts of the city, and up the hill, and night overtook us away in 
 the pine woods, at Billy McKown's, a noted public-house seated half way 
 between the city and losco, where it was customary in those days to halt ; 
 for besides that he was much respected, and one of the most sensible and 
 influential men in the town, it was not thought right, whatever the traveller 
 might require, that a horse should be driven eight miles without drawing 
 breath, and having a pail of water. As I was but young, and less of a 
 charioteer than my valiant companion, he held the whip and reins thus 
 far; but after the wolf stories .that poured in upon us at McKown's that 
 evening, he would hold them no longer. Every man, he thought, was 
 responsible to himself. He did not wish to be wolfs meat that night, so 
 he hired a fleet horse from our host, and a whip and spurs, and set off 
 with the speed of a Jehu, leaving me to make my way, in the heavy 
 chaise, through the sandy plains, as best 1 could. 
 
 In truth we had just reached the most sombre part of the plain, where 
 the trees were more thick, the sand deep and heavy, and not a house but 
 one, within the four miles. To render it worse, this was the chief locality 
 of wolf insolence, where he had even ventured to attack men. It was on 
 this route too, that the schoolmaster had used his medical arts, which made 
 it better known through the country as the supposed centre of their power. 
 Nothing harmed me, however ; the horse was fine, and I reached home 
 not only uneaten, but unthreatened by a wolf's jaw. 
 
 But I must confine myself to the matter in hand. A large and fierce 
 wolf sallied out of the plains one dark summer's night, and rushed into 
 the midst of the village, snapping to the right and left as he went, and 
 biting every animal that came in his way. Cows, swine, pigs, geese 
 every species, whether on four legs, or two legs, shared its malice alike. 
 The animal seemed to have a perfect ubiquity it was every where, and 
 seemed to have spared nothing. It is not recollected that there was a 
 single house, or barn-yard in the village, where something had not been 
 bitten. If he had come on an errand of retribution, for the great and 
 threatening wolf-parties which had gone out against his race, and all the 
 occult arts of the schoolmaster in trying to decoy them at Barrett's hollow, 
 he could not have dealt out his venomous snaps more indiscriminately. 
 
 It must have been about midnight, or soon after, that the fearful visiter 
 came. Midnight, in a country village, finds almost every one in bed, but 
 such was the uproar among the animal creation, made by this strange in- 
 terloper, that out of bed they soon come. The cattle bellowed, the pigs 
 squealed, the poultry cackled there must be something amiss. Santa 
 Glaus himself must be playing his pranks. " A wolf!" was the cry " a 
 woif is committing havoc." " It is mad !" came next on the voices of the 
 ' 12 
 
 \
 
 152 VILLAGE TRADITION. 
 
 night. "A mad wolf! a mad wolf!" Nothing but a mad wolf could ven- 
 ture alone into the heart of the village, and do so much mischief. Out 
 ran the people into the streets, men, women and all. Some caught up 
 guns, some clubs, some pitchforks. If the tories and Indians, in the old 
 French war, had broke into the settlement with fire and sword, there 
 could not have been a greater tumult, and nothing but a mad wolf would 
 have stood his ground. Where is he ? which way did he run ? who 
 saw him ? and a thousand like expressions followed. He had gone south, 
 and south the mob pushed after him. He was away over on the street 
 that leads up from the middle factory. It was a cloudy night, or the moon 
 only came out fitfully, and threw light enough to discern objects dimly, 
 as the clouds rolled before it. Indistinct murmurs came on the breeze, 
 and at length the scream of a woman. The cause of it soon followed. 
 The wolf had bitten Mrs. Sitz. Now Mrs. Sitz was a careful, tall, rigid- 
 faced, wakeful housewife, from the dutchy of Hesse D'Armstadt, who 
 had followed the fortunes of her husband, in trying his mechanical skill 
 in the precincts of losco ; but while her husband Frank laid fast asleep, 
 under the influence of a hard day's labour, her ears were open to the 
 coming alarm. It was not long before she heard a tumult in her goose 
 pen. The rabid animal had bounded into the midst of them, which 
 created as great an outcry as if Rome had a second time been invaded. 
 Out she ran to their relief, not knowing the character of the disturber, 
 but naturally thinking it was some thief of a neighbour, who wished to 
 make provision for a coming Christmas. The animal gave her one snap 
 and leapt the pen. " Mein hemel !" screamed she, " er hat mein gebis- 
 sen !" Sure enough the wolf had bit her in the thigh. 
 
 The party in chase soon came up, and while some stopt to parley and 
 sympathize with her, others pushed on after the animal the spit/bug, as 
 she spitefully called him. By this time the wolf had made a circuit of 
 the southern part of the village, and scampered down the old factory road, 
 by the mill dam, under the old dark bridge at the saw mill, and up the 
 hill by the old public store; and thus turned his course back towards the 
 north, into the thickest part of the village, where he had first entered. 
 He had made a complete circuit. All was valour, boasting, and not speed 
 behind him, but the wolf had been too nimble for them. Unluckily foi 
 him, however, while the main group pushed behind, just as he was scam 
 pering up the old store hill, he was suddenly headed by a party coming 
 down it. This party was led by old Colonel S., a revolutionary soldier 
 a field-officer of the county militia, and the superintendent of the exten 
 sive manufacturing establishment from which the village drew its pros 
 perity. He was armed with a fusil of the olden time, well charged, and 
 having been roused from his bed in a hurry, could not at the moment find 
 his hat, and clapt on an old revolutionary cocked hat, which hung- in the 
 room. His appearance was most opportune ; he halted on the brow of
 
 VILLAGE TRADITION. 163 
 
 the hill, and as the wolf bounded on he levelled his piece at the passing 
 fugitive, and fired. He had aimed at the shoulders ; the fleetness of its 
 speed, however, saved its vital parts, but the shot took effect in the ani- 
 mal's hind legs. They were both broken at a shot. This brought him 
 down. The poor creature tried to drag himself on by his fore paws, 
 but his pursuers were too close upon him, and they soon dispatched him 
 with hatchets and clubs. 
 
 Thus fell the rabid wolf, to be long talked of by men and boys, and 
 put down as a chief item in village traditions. But the effect's of his visit 
 did not end here. In due time, symptoms of madness seized the cattle 
 and other animals, which had come within the reach of his teeth. Many 
 of the finest milch cows were shot. Calves and swine, and even poultry 
 went rabid ; and as things of this kind are generally overdone, there was 
 a perfect panic in the village on the subject, and numbers of valuable 
 animals were doubtless shot, merely because they happened to show some 
 restiveness at a very critical epoch. 
 
 But what, methinks the reader is ready to ask, became of Mrs. Sitz ? 
 Whether it was, that she had brought over some mystical arts from the 
 Wild Huntsman of Bohemia, or had derived protection from the venom 
 through the carefully administered medicines of Dr. Grouse, who duly 
 attended the case, or some inherent influence of the stout hearted woman, 
 or the audacity of the bite itself, had proved more than a match for the 
 wolf, I cannot say : but certain it is, that while oxen and kine, swine and 
 fadings, fell under the virus and were shot, she recovered, and lived 
 many years to scold her dozing husband Frank, who did not jump up 
 immediately, and come to her rescue at the goose pen. 
 
 INDIAN POSSESSIONS. The Ottoes own, at the latest accounts, a large 
 tract of country on the Big Platte, west of the Missouri ; they are a poor 
 race of people, and receive a small annuity of $2,500. The Pawnees are 
 a powerful body, and number about 6,500 persons, divided into bands un- 
 der the names of Pawnee Loups, Grand Pawnees, Republican Pawnees, 
 Pawnee Pics, &c. ; they are wild and furtive in their habits, and receive 
 provisions and goods. The Grand Nation is the Potto vvattomies, or the 
 " united bands of the Chippewas, Ottawas, and Potto wattomies." They 
 own five millions of acres of prairie lands, alqpg the Missouri river to 
 the Little Sioux, number about 2,000, and receive $42,000 a year for 
 their lands sold in Illinois and Michigan. They are a respectable body 
 of Indians, are good farmers, and educate their children. The payment of 
 the annuities is always a season of great hilarity and festivity. N. O. Pic.
 
 
 It is a characteristic of some of the Indian legends, that they convey a moral which 
 seems clearly enough to denote, that a part of these legends were invented to convey 
 instruction to the young folks who listen to them. The known absenpe of all harsh 
 methods among the Indians, in bringing up their children, favours this idea. The fol- 
 lowing tale addresses itself plainly to girls ; to whom it teaches the danger of what we 
 denominate coquetry. It would seem from this, that beauty, and iU concomitant, a 
 passion for dress, among the red daughters of Adam and Eve, has the same tendency 
 to create pride, and nourish self-conceit, and self-esteem, and assume a tyranny oter the 
 human heart, which writers tell us, these qualities have among their white-skinned, 
 auburn-haired, and blue-eyed progeny the world over. This tale has appeared in the 
 " Columbian." The term Moowis is one of the most derogative and offensive possible. 
 It is derived from the Odjibwa substantive, mo, filth, or excrement 
 
 MOOWIS, 
 
 THE MAN MADE UP OF RAGS AND DIET- 
 
 A TRADITIONARY LEGEND OF THE ODJIBWAS. 
 
 IN a large village, there lived a noted belle, or Ma mon da go kwa, who 
 was the admiration of all the young hunters and warriors. She was 
 particularly admired by a young man, who from his good figure, and the 
 care he took in his dress, was called the Beau-Man, or Ma mon da. gin in-e. 
 This young man had a friend and companion, whom he made a confidant 
 of his affairs. " Come," said he, one day in a sportive mood, " Jet us go a 
 courting to her who is so handsome, perhaps she may fancy one of us." 
 But she would listen to neither of them, and when the handsome young 
 man rallied from the coldness of her air, and made an effort to overcome 
 her indifference, she put together her thumb and three fingers, and raising 
 her hand gracefully towards him, deliberately opened them in his face. 
 This gesticulate ry mode of rejection is one of the highest contempt, and 
 the young hunter retired confused and abashed. His sense of pride was 
 deeply wounded, and he was the more piqued, that it had been done in 
 the presence of others, and the affair was soon noised about the village, 
 and became the talk of every lodge circle. Besides, he was a very sen- 
 sitive man, and the thing so preyed upon him, that he became moody, 
 and at last took to his bed. He was taciturn, often lying for days without 
 uttering a word, with his eyes fixed on vacancy, and taking little or no 
 food. From this state no efforts could rouse him ; he felt abashed and dis- 
 honoured, even in the presence of his own relatives, and no persuasions 
 could induce him to rise. So that when the family prepared to take 
 down the lodge to remove, he still kept his bed, and they were compelled 
 to lift it over his head, and leave him upon his skin couch. It was a time 
 of general removal and breaking up of the camp, for it was only a win- 
 ter's hunting camp, and as the season of the hunt was now over, and 
 
 164
 
 TRADITIONARY LEGENDS. 165 
 
 spring began to appear, they all moved off, as by one impulse, to the plaoj 
 of their summer village, and in a short time, all were gone, and he was 
 left alone. The last person to leave him was his boon companion, and 
 cousin, who has been mentioned as also one of the admirers of the 
 forest belle. But even his voice was disregarded, and as soon as his steps 
 died away on the creaking snow, the stillness and solitude of the wilder- 
 ness reigned around. 
 
 As soon as all were gone, and' he could no longer, by listening, hear the 
 remotest sounds of the departing camp, the Beau-Man arose. It is to be 
 understood that this youug man was aided by a powerful guardian spirit, 
 or personal Moneto ; and he resolved to make use of his utmost power to 
 punish and humble the girl. For she was noted in the tribe for her co- 
 quetry, and had treated others, who were every way her equals, as she 
 had done him. He resolved on a singular stratagem, by way of revenge. 
 For this purpose, he walked over the deserted camp, and gathered up all 
 the bits of soiled cloth, clippings of finery, and cast off clothing, and 
 ornaments which had either been left or lost. These he carefully picked 
 out of the snow, into which some of them had been trodden and 
 partially buried, and conveyed them to one place. The motly heap of 
 gaudy and soiled stuffs, he restored to their original beauty, and deter- 
 mined to make them into a coat and leggins, which he trimmed with 
 beads, and finished and decorated after the best fashion of his tribe. He 
 then made a pair of moccasins and garnished them with beads, a bow and 
 arrows, and a frontlet and feathers for the ,head. Having done this, he 
 searched about for cast out bones of animals, pieces of skins, clippings of 
 dried meat, and even dirt, and having cemented them together with snow, he 
 filled the clothes with these things, and pressed the mass firmly in, and 
 fashioned it externally in all respects, like a tall and well framed man. 
 He put a bow and arrows in his hands, and the frontlet on his head. And 
 having finished it, he brought it to life, and the image stood forth, in the 
 most favoured lineaments of his fellows. Such was the origin of Moowis, 
 or the Dirt and Rag Man. 
 
 " Follow me," said the Beau-Man, " and I will direct you, how you shall 
 act." He was indeed, a very sightly person, and as they entered the new 
 encampment, the many colours of his clothes, the profusion of ornaments 
 which he had managed to give him, and his fine manly step, and animated 
 countenance, drew all eyes. And he was received by all, both old and 
 young, with marks of attention. The chief invited him to his lodge, and 
 he was feasted on the moose's hump and the finest venison. 
 
 But no one was better pleased with the handsome stranger than Ma mon 
 da go kwa. She fell in love with him at the first sight, and he was an 
 invited guest at the lodge of her mother, the very first evening of his ar 
 rival. The Beau-man went with him, for it was under his patronage that 
 he had been introduced, and, in truth, he had another motive for accom- 
 ptnying him, for he had not yet wholly subdued his feelings of admira
 
 IQQ TRADITIONARY LEGENDS. 
 
 tion for the object, against whom he had, nevertheless, exerted all his 
 necromantic power, and he held himself subject to any favourable turn, 
 which he secretly hoped the visit might take, in relation to himself. But 
 no such turn occurred. Moowis attracted the chief attention, and every 
 eye and heart were alert to entertain him. In this effort on the part of 
 his entertainers, they had well nigh revealed his true character, and dis- 
 solved him into his original elements of rags, and snow, and dirt ; for he 
 was assigned the most prominent place before the fire : this was a degree 
 of heat which he could by no means endure. To ward it off he put a 
 boy between himself and the fire. He shifted his position frequently, and 
 evaded, by dexterous manoeuvres, and timely remarks, the pressing invi- 
 tation of his host to sit up, and enjoy it. He so managed these excuses, as 
 not only to conceal his dread of immediate dissolution, but to secure the 
 further approbation of the fair forest girl, who could not but admire one 
 who had so brave a spirit of endurance against the paralysing effects of 
 cold. 
 
 The visit proved that the rejected lover had well calculated the effects 
 of his plan. He withdrew from the lodge, and Moowis triumphed. 
 Before he went, he saw him cross the lodge to the coveted abinos, or bride- 
 groom's seat. Marriage in the forest race, is a simple ceremony, and 
 where the impediments of custom are small, there is but little time de 
 manded for their execution. The dart which Ma mon da go kwa had so 
 often delighted in sending to the hearts of her admirers, she was at length 
 fated herself to receive. She had married an image. As the morning 
 begun to break, the stranger arose and adjusted his warrior's plumes, and 
 took his forest weapons to depart. " I must go," said he, " for I have an 
 important business to do, and there are many hills and streams between 
 me and the object of my journey." " I will go with you," she replied. 
 " It is too far." he rejoined, " and you are ill able to encounter the perils 
 of the way." " It is not so far, but that I can go," she responded, " and 
 there are no dangers which I will not fully share for you." 
 
 Moowis returned to the lodge of his master, and detailed to him the 
 events we have described. Pity, for a moment, seized the breast of the 
 rejected youth. He regretted that she should thus have cast herself away 
 upon an image and a shadow, when she might have been mistress of the 
 best lodge in the band. " But it is her own folly," he said, " she has 
 turned a deaf ear to the counsels of prudence, and she must submit to her 
 fate." 
 
 The same morning the Image-man set forth, and his wife followed him, 
 according to custom, at a distance. The way was rough and intricate, 
 and she could not keep up with his rapid pace ; but she struggled hard, 
 and perseveringly to overtake him. Moowis had been long out of sight, 
 when the sun arose, and commenced upon his snow-formed body the 
 work of dissolution. He began to melt away, and fall to pieces. As 
 she followed him, piece after piece of his clothing were found in the path.
 
 TRADITIONARY LEGENDS. 167 
 
 She first found his mittens, then his moccasins, then his leggins, then his 
 coat, and other parts of his garments. As the heat unbound them, they 
 had all returned also to their debased and filthy condition. The way led 
 over rocks, through wind falls, across marshes. It whirled about to all 
 points of the compass, and had no certain direction or object. Rags, 
 bones, leather, beads, feathers, and soiled ribbons, were found, but she 
 never caught the sight of Moowis. She spent the day in wandering ; and 
 when evening came, she was no nearer the object of her search than in 
 the morning, but the snow having now melted, she had completely lost 
 his track, and wandered about, uncertain which way to go, and in a state 
 of perfect despair. Finding herself lost, she begun, with bitter cries, to 
 bewail her fate. 
 
 " Moowis, Moowis," she cried. "Nin ge won e win ig, ne won e win ig" 
 that is Moowis, Moowis, you have led me astray you are leading me 
 astray. And with this cry she continued to wander in the woods. 
 
 Sometimes the village girls repeat the above words, varying the expres- 
 sions, till they constitute an irregular kind of song, which, according to 
 the versions of a friendly hand, may be set down as follows : 
 
 Moowis ! Moowis ! 
 
 Forest rover, 
 
 Where art thou? 
 
 Ah my bravest, gayest lover, 
 
 Guide me now. 
 
 
 
 Moowis ! Moowis ! 
 
 Ah believe me, 
 List my moan, 
 
 Do not do not, brave heart, leave me 
 All alone. 
 
 Moowis ! Moowis ! 
 
 Foot-prints vanished, 
 Whither wend I, 
 
 Fated, lost, detested, banished, 
 
 w 
 Must I die. 
 
 Moowis ! Moowis ! 
 
 Whither goest, 
 Eye-bright lover, 
 
 Ah thou ravenous bird that knowest, 
 I see you hover. 
 
 Circling circling, 
 
 As I wander, 
 But to spy 
 
 Where I fall, and then to batten, 
 On my breast.
 
 THE LONE LIGHTNING. 
 
 AN ODJJBWA TALK. 
 
 A LITTLE orphan boy who had no one to care for him, was once living 
 with his uncle, who treated him very badly, making him do hard things 
 and giving him very little to eat ; so that the boy pined away, he never 
 grew much, and became, through hard usage, very thin and light. At 
 last the uncle felt ashamed of this treatment, and determined to make 
 amends for it, by fattening him up, but his real object was, to kill him 
 by over-feeding. He told his wife to give the boy plenty of bear's meat, 
 and let him have the fat, which is thought to be the best part. They 
 were both very assiduous in cramming him, and one day came near 
 choking him to death, by forcing the fat down his throat. The boy 
 escaped and fled from the lodge. He knew not where to go, but wan- 
 dered about. When night came on, he was afraid the wild beasts would 
 eat him, so he climbed up into the forks of a high pine tree, and there 
 he fell asleep in the branches, and had an aupoway, or ominous dream. 
 
 A person appeared to him from the upper sky, and said, " My poor little 
 lad, I pity you, and the bad usage you have received from your uncle 
 has led me to visit you : follow me, and step in my tracks. " Immediately 
 his sleep left him, and he rose up and followed his guide, mounting up 
 higher and higher into the air, until he reached the upper sky. Here 
 twelve arrows were put into his hands, and he was told that there were 
 a great many manitoes in the northern sky, against whom he must go to 
 war, and try to waylay and shoot them. Accordingly he went to that 
 part of the sky, and, at long intervals, shot arrow after arrow, until he 
 had expended eleven, in vain attempt to kill the manitoes. At the 
 flight of each arrow, there was a long and solitary streak of lightning in 
 the sky then all was clear again, and not a cloud or spot could be seen. 
 The twelfth arrow he held a long time in his hands, and looked around 
 keenly on every side to spy the manitoes he was after. But these mani- 
 toes were very cunning, and could change their form in a moment. All 
 they feared was the boy's arrows, for these were magic arrows, which 
 had been given to him by a good spirit, and had power to kill them, if 
 aimed aright. At length, the boy drew up his last arrow, settled in his 
 aim, and let fly, as he thought, into the very heart of the chief of the 
 manitoes ; but before the arrow reached him, he changed himself 
 into a rock. Into this rock, the head of the arrow sank deep and stuck 
 fast. 
 
 " Now your gifts are all expended," cried the enraged manito, " and I 
 will make an example of your audacity and pride of heart, for lifting 
 your bow against me" and so saying, he transformed the boy into the 
 Nazhik-a-wa wa sun, or Lone Lightning, which may be observed in the 
 northern sky, to this day. 
 
 J 168
 
 SKETCHES OF THE LIVES OP 
 
 NOTED BED MEN AID V01EI 
 
 WHO HAVE APPEARED ON THE WESTERN CONTINENT, 
 
 CONFESSIONS OF CATHERINE OGEE WYAN AKWUT OKWA; 
 OR THE WOMAN OF THE BLUE-ROBED CLOUD, 
 
 THE PROPHETESS OF CHEGOIMEGON. 
 
 [These confessions of the Western Pythoness were made after she had relin- 
 quished the prophetic office, discarded all the ceremonies of the Indian Medd.wina.nd. 
 Jesukeiwin, and united herself to the Methodist Episcopal church, of which, up to 
 our latest dates, she remained a consistent member. They are narrated in her own 
 words.] x 
 
 WHEN I was a girl of about twelve or thirteen years of age, my mother 
 told me to look out for something that would happen to me. Accordingly, 
 one morning early, in the middle of winter, I found an unusual sign, and 
 ran off, as far from the lodge as I could, and remained there until my 
 mother came and found me out. She knew what was the matter, and 
 brought me nearer to the family lodge, and bade me help her in making 
 a small lodge of branches of the spruce tree. She told me to remain 
 there, and keep away from every one, and as a diversion, to keep myself 
 employed in chopping wood, and that she would bring me plenty of pre- 
 pared bass wood bark to twist into twine. She told me she would come 
 to see me, in two days, and that in the meantime I must not even taste 
 snow. 
 
 I did as directed ; at the end of two days she came to see me. I 
 thought she would surely bring me something to eat, but to my disap- 
 pointment she brought nothing. I suffered more from thirst, than hun- 
 ger, though I felt my stomach gnawing. My mother sat quietly down 
 and said (after ascertaining that I had not tasted anything, as she 
 directed), " My child, you are the youngest of your sisters, and none are 
 now left me of all my sons and children, but you four" (alluding to her 
 two elder sisters, herself and a little son, still a mere lad). " Who," 
 she continued, " will take care of us poor women ? Now, my daughter, 
 listen to me, and try to obey. Blacken your face and fast really, that 
 the Master of Life may have pity on you and me, and on us all. Do 
 not, in the least, deviate from my counsels, and in two days more, I 
 
 169
 
 170 THE PROPHETESS OF CHEGOIMEGON. 
 
 will come to you. He will help you, if you are determined to do what 
 is right, and tell me, whether you are favored or not, by the true Great 
 Spirit ; and if your visions are not good, reject them." So saying, she 
 departed. 
 
 I took my little hatchet and cut plenty of wood, and twisted the cord 
 that was to be used in sewing ap puk way oon wn, or mats, for the use of 
 the family. Gradually, I began to feel less appetite, but my thirst con- 
 tinued ; still I was fearful of touching the snow to allay it, by sucking it, 
 as my mother had told me that if I did so, though secretly, the Great 
 Spirit would see me, and the lesser spirits also, and that my fasting 
 would be of no use. So I continued to fast till the fourth day, when my 
 mother came with a little tin dish, and filling it with snow, she came to 
 my lodge, and was well pleased to find that I had followed her injunc- 
 tions. She melted the snow, and told me to drink it. I did so, and 
 felt refreshed, but had a desire for more, which she told me would 
 not do, and I contented myself with what she had given me. She again 
 told me to get and follow a good vision a vision that might not only do 
 us good, but also benefit mankind, if I could. She then left me, and for 
 two days she did not come near me, nor any human being, and I was 
 left to,my own reflections. The night of the sixth day, I fancied a voice 
 called to me, and said : " Poor child ! I pity your condition ; come, you 
 are invited this way ;" and I thought the voice proceeded from a certain 
 distance from my lodge. I obeyed the summons, and going to the spot 
 from which the voice came, found a thin shining path, like a silver cord, 
 which I followed. It led straight forward, and, it seemed, upward. 
 No. 3. After going a short distance I stood still, and saw on my right 
 hand the new moon, with a flame rising from the top like a candle, 
 which threw around a broad light. No. 4. On the left appeared the 
 sun, near the point of its setting. No. 11. I went on, and I beheld on 
 my right the face of Kau ge gag be qua, or the everlasting woman, No. 
 5, who told me her name, and said to me, " I give you my name, and 
 yoft may give it to another. I also give you that which I have, life ever- 
 lasting. I give you long life on the earth, and skill in saving life in 
 others. Go, you are called on high." 
 
 I went on, and saw a man standing with a large circular body, and 
 rays from his head, like horns. No. 6. He said, " Fear not, my name is 
 Monedo Wininees, or the Little man Spirit. I give this name to your 
 first son. It is my life. Go to the place you are called to visit." I fol- 
 lowed the path till I could see that it led up to an opening in the sky, 
 when I heard a voice, and standing still, saw the figure of a man standing 
 near the path, whose head was surrounded with a brilliant halo, and his 
 breast was covered with squares. No. 7. He said to me : " Look at 
 me, my name is Shau wau e gecghick, or the Bright Blue Sky. I am 
 the veil that covers the opening into the sky. Stand and listen to me.
 
 CONFESSIONS OF THE 171 
 
 Do not be afraid. I am going to endow you with gifts'of life, and put 
 you in array that you may withstand and endure." Immediately I saw 
 myself encircled with bright points which rested against me like needles, 
 but gave me no pain, and they fell at my feet. No. 9. This was repeat- 
 ed several times, and at each time they fell to the ground. He said, 
 " wait and do not fear, till I have said and done all I am about to do." 
 I then felt different instruments, first like awls, and then like nails stuck 
 into my flesh, but neither did they give me pain, but like the needles, fell 
 at my feet, as often as they appeared. He then said, " that is good," 
 meaning my trial by these points. " You will see length of days. Ad- 
 vance a little farther," said he. I did so, and stood at the commence- 
 ment of the opening. " You have arrived," said he, " at the limityou can- 
 not pass. I give you my name, you can give it to another. No*?, re- 
 turn ! Look around you. There is a conveyance for you. No. 10. Do not 
 be afraid to get on its back, and when you get to your lodge, you must 
 take that which sustains the human body." I turned, and saw a kind of 
 fish swimming in the air, and getting upon it as directed, was carried 
 back with celerity, my hair floating behind me in the air. And as soon 
 as I got back, my vision ceased. 
 
 In the morning, being the sixth day of my fast, my mother came with 
 a little bit of dried trout. But such was my sensitiveness to all sounds, 
 and my increased power of scent, produced by fasting, that before she 
 came in sight I heard her, while a great way off, and when she came in, I 
 could not bear the smell of the fish or herself either. She said, " I have 
 brought something for you to eat, only a mouthful, to prevent your dy- 
 ing." She prepared to cook it, but I said, " Mother, forbear, I do not 
 wish to eat it the smell is offensive to me." She accordingly left off 
 preparing to cook the fish, and again encouraged me to persevere, and try to 
 become a comfort to her in her old age and bereaved state, and left me. 
 
 I attempted to cut wood, as usual, but in the effort I fell back on the 
 snow, from weariness, and lay some time ; at last I made an effort and 
 rose, and went to my lodge and lay down. I again saw the vision, and 
 each person who had before spoken to me, and heard the promises of 
 different kinds made to me, and the songs. I went the same path which 
 I had pursued before, and met with the same reception. I also had 
 another vision, or celestial visit, which I shall presently relate. My 
 mother came again on the seventh day, and brought me some pounded 
 corn boiled in snow water, for she said I must not drink water from lake 
 or river. After taking it, I related my vision to her. She said it was 
 good, and spoke to me to continue my fast three days longer. I did so ; 
 at the end of which she took me home, and made a feast in honor of my 
 success, and invited a great many guests. I was told to eat sparingly, 
 and to take nothing too hearty or substantial ; but this was unnecessary, 
 for my abstinence had made my senses so acute, that all animal food had 
 a gross and disagreeable odor.
 
 172 PROPHETESS OF CHEGOIMEGON. 
 
 After the seventh day of my fast (she continued), while I was 
 lying in my lodge, I saw a dark round object descending from the sky 
 like a round stone, and enter my lodge. As it came near, I saw that 
 it had small feet and hands like a human body. It spoke to me and said, 
 " I give you the gift of seeing into futurity, that you may use it, for the 
 benefit of yourself and the Indians your relations and tribes-people." 
 It then departed, but as it went away, it assumed wings, and looked to 
 me like the red-headed woodpecker. 
 
 In consequence of being thus favored, I assumed the arts of a medicine 
 woman and a prophetess ; but never those of a Wabeno. The first 
 time I exercised the prophetical art, was at the strong and repeated soli- 
 citations of my friends. It was in the winter season, and they were then 
 encamped west of the Wisacoda, or Brule river of Lake Superior, and 
 between it and the plains west. There were, besides my mother's 
 family and relatives, a considerable number of families. They had 
 been some time at the place, and were near starving, as they could find 
 no game. One evening the chief of the party came into my mother's 
 lodge. I had lain down, and was supposed to be asleep, and he request- 
 ed of my mother that she would allow me to try my skill to relieve them. 
 My mother spoke to me, and after some conversation, she gave her con- 
 sent. I told them to build the Jee suk aun, or prophet's lodge, strong, 
 and gave particular directions for it. I directed that it should consist of 
 ten posts or saplings, each of a different kind of wood, which I named. 
 When it was finished, and tightly wound with skins, the entire population 
 of the encampment assembled around it and I went in, taking only a 
 small drum. I immediately knelt down, and holding my head near the 
 ground, in a position as near as may be prostrate, began beating my 
 drum, and reciting my songs or incantations. The lodge commenced 
 shaking violently, by supernatural means. I knew this, by the com- 
 pressed current of air above, and the noise of motion. This being regard- 
 ed by me, and by all without, as a proof of the presence of the spirits I 
 consulted, I ceased beating and singing, and lay still, waiting for questions, 
 in the position I had at first assumed. 
 
 The first question put to me, was in relation to the game, and where 
 it was to be found. The response was given by the orbicular spirit, 
 who had appeared to me. He said, " How short-sighted you are ! 
 If you will go in a west direction, you will find game in abundance." 
 Next day the camp was broken up, and they all moved westward, the 
 hunters, as usual, going far ahead. They had not proceeded far beyond 
 the bounds of their former hunting circle, when they came upon tracks 
 of moose, and that day, they killed a female and two young moose 
 nearly full-grown. They pitched their encampment anew, and had 
 abundance of animal food in this new positior. 
 
 My reputation was established by this success, and I was after-
 
 THE PROPHETESS OP CHEGOIMEGON. 173 
 
 waras noted in the tribe, in the art of a medicine woman, and sung 
 the songs which I have given to you. About four years after, I was 
 married to Mush Kow Egeezhick, or the Strong Sky, who was a 
 very active and successful hunter, and kept his lodge well supplied 
 with food ; and we lived happy. After I had had two children, a girl 
 and a boy, we went out, as is the custom of the Indians in the spring, to 
 visit the white settlements. One night, while we were encamped at the 
 head of the portage at Pauwating (the Falls of St. Mary's), angry words 
 passed between my husband and a half Frenchman named Gaultier, who, 
 with his two cousins, in the course of the dispute, drew their knives and a 
 tomahawk, and stabbed and cut him in four or five places, in his body, head 
 and thighs. This happened the first' year that the Americans came to 
 that place (1822). He had gone out at a late hour in the evening, to 
 visit the tent of Gaultier. Having been urged by one of the trader's 
 men to take liquor that evening, and it being already late, I desired him 
 not to go, but to defer his visit till next day ; and after he had left the 
 lodge, I felt a sudden presentiment of evil, and I went after him, and re 
 newed my efforts in vain. He told me to return, and as I had two chil 
 dren in thfe lodge, the youngest of whom, a boy, was still in his cradle, 
 and then ill, I sat up with him late, and waited and waited, till a late 
 hour, and then fell asleep from exhaustion. I slept very sound. The 
 first I knew, was a violent shaking from a girl, a niece of Gaultier's, 
 who told me my husband and Gaultier were all the time quarrelling. I 
 arose, and went up the stream to Gaultier's camp fire. It was nearly 
 out, and I tried in vain to make it blaze. I looked into his tent, but all 
 was dark and not a soul there. They had suddenly fled, although I did 
 not at the moment know the cause. I tried to make a light to find my 
 husband, but could find nothing dry, for it had rained very hard the day 
 before., After being out a while my vision became clearer, and turning 
 toward the river side, I saw a dark object lying near the shore, on a 
 grassy opening. I was attracted by something glistening, which turned 
 out to be his ear-rings. I thought he was asleep, and in stooping to 
 awake him, I slipped and fell on my knees, f had slipped in his blood 
 on the grass, and putting my hand on his face, found him dead. In the 
 morning the Indian agent came with soldiers from the fort, to see what 
 had happened, but the murderer and all his bloody gang of relatives had 
 fled. The agent gave orders to have the body buried in the old Indian 
 burial ground, below the Falls. 
 
 My aged mother was encamped about a mile off, at this time. I took 
 my two children in the morning, and fled to her lodge. She had just 
 heard of the murder, and was crying as I entered. I reminded her that 
 it was an act of providence, to which we must submit. She said it was 
 for me and my poor helpless children that she was crying that I was 
 left as she had been, years before, with nobody to provide for us*
 
 174 EULING CHIEF OF THE MIAMIS- 
 
 With her I returned to my native country at Chegoimegon on Lake 
 Superior. 
 
 Thus far, her own narrative. We hope, in a future number, to give 
 further particulars of her varied, and rather eventful life ; together with 
 specimens of her medicine, and prophetic songs. 
 
 RULING CHIEF OF THE MIAMIS. 
 
 DIED, on the 13th inst. (August, 1841), at his residence on the St 
 Mary's, four and a half miles south-west of this city, John B. Richardville, 
 principal chief of the Miami nation of Indians, aged about eighty years. 
 
 Chief Richardville, or " Piskewah" (which is an Indian name, mean- 
 ing in English " wild-cat"), was born on the point across the Maumee 
 river, opposite this city, under or near a large apple tree, on the farm of 
 the late Colonel Coles ; and at a very early age, by succession, became 
 the chief of the tribe, his mother being chieftainess at the time of his 
 birth. His situation soon brought him in contact with the whites, and he 
 was in several engagements, the most important of which was the cele- 
 brated slaughter on the St. Joseph River, one mile north of this city, 
 designated as " Harmar's Defeat," where several hundred whites, under 
 General Harmar, were cut off in attempting to ford the river, by the In- 
 dians, who lay in ambush on the opposite shore, by firing upon the 
 whites when in the act of crossing ; which slaughter crimsoned the river 
 a number of days for several miles below with the blood of the un- 
 fortunate victims. 
 
 The Chief is universally spoken of as having been kind and humane to 
 prisoners far more so than most of his race ; and as soon as peace was 
 restored, became a worthy citizen, and enjoyed the confidence of the 
 whites to the fullest *extent. He spoke good French and English, as 
 well as his native tongue ; and for many years his house, which is pleas- 
 antly situated on the banks of the St. Mary's, and which was always 
 open for the reception of friends was a place of resort for parties of 
 pleasure, who always partook of the hospitality of his house. 
 
 The old man was strictly honest, but remarkably watchful of his in- 
 terest, and amassed a fortune exceeding probably a million of dollars, 
 consisting of nearly $200,000 in specie on hand, and the balance in the 
 most valuable kind of real estate, which he has distributed by " will" 
 among his numerous relations with " even-handed justice." He had 
 always expressed a great anxiety to live, but when' he became conscious 
 that the time of his departure was near at hand, he resigned himself with 
 perfect composure, saying that it was ordered that all must die, and he 
 was then ready and willing to answer the call of the " Great Spirit." 
 .His remains were deposited in the Catholic bury ing-ground with reli- 
 gious* ceremonies. .For* Wayv(Ind.) Sentinel.
 
 
 THE MAGICIAN OF LAKE HURON. 
 
 AN OTTOWA TALK RELATED BY NABUNWA IN THE INDIAN TONGUE, TO ME. 
 
 GEORGE JOHNSTON: 
 
 AT the time that the Ottowas inhabited the Manatoline Islands, 
 in Lake Huron, there was a famous magician living amongst them whose 
 name was Masswaweinini, or the Living Statue. It happened, by the 
 fortune of war, that the Ottowa tribe were driven off that chain of 
 islands by the Iroquois, and obliged to flee away to the country lying 
 between Lake Superior and the Upper Mississippi, to the banks of a 
 lake which is still called, by the French, and in memory of this migra- 
 tion, Lac Courtoriellej or the lake of the Cut-ears, a term which is their 
 nom de guerre for this tribe. But the magician Masswaweinini re- 
 mained behind on the wide-stretching and picturesque Manatoulins, a 
 group of islands which had been deemed, from the earliest times, a fa- 
 vorite residence of the manitoes or spirits. His object was to act as a 
 sentinel to his countrymen, and keep a close watch on their enemies, the 
 Iroquois, that he might give timely information of their movements. 
 He had with him two boys ; with their aid he paddled stealthily around 
 the shores, kept himself secreted in nooks and bays, and hauled up his 
 canoe every night, into thick woods, and carefully obliterated his tracks 
 upon the sand. 
 
 One day he rose very early, and started on a hunting excursion, leav- 
 ing the boys asleep, and limiting himself to the thick woods, lest he 
 should be discovered. At length he came unexpectedly to the borders 
 of an extensive open plain. After gazing around him, and seeing no 
 one, he directed his steps across it, intending to strike the opposite side 
 of it ; while travelling, he discovered a man of small stature, who ap- 
 peared suddenly on the plain before him, and advanced to meet him. 
 He wore a red feather on his head, and coming up with a familiar air, 
 accosted Masswaweinini by name, and said gaily, " Where are you 
 going ?" He then took out his smoking apparatus, and invited him to 
 smoke. " Pray," said he, while thus engaged, " wherein does your 
 strength lie." " My strength," answered Masswaweinini, " is similar 
 to the human race, and common to the strength given to them, and no 
 stronger." " We must wrestle," said the man of the red feather. " If 
 you should make me fall, you will say to me, I have thrown you, Wa 
 ge me na." 
 
 As soon as they had finished smoking and' put up their pipe, the wrest- 
 ling began. For a long time the strife was doubtful. The strength of 
 
 175
 
 176 TALES OF A WIGWAM. 
 
 Masswaweinini was every moment growing fainter. The man of the red 
 feather, though small of stature, proved himself very active, but at 
 length he was foiled and thrown to the ground. Immediately his adver- 
 sary cried out, " I have thrown you : wa ge me na ;" and in an instant 
 his antagonist had vanished. On looking to the spot where he had fallen, 
 he discovered a crooked ear of mondamin, or Indian corn, lying on the 
 ground, with the usual red hairy tassel at the top. While he was gaz- 
 ing at this strange sight, and wondering what it could mean, a voice ad- 
 dressed him from the ground. " Now," said the speaking ear, for the 
 voice came from it, " divest me of my covering leave nothing to hide 
 my body from your eyes. You must then separate me into parts, pull- 
 ing off my body from the spine upon which I grow. Throw me into 
 different parts of the plain. Then break my spine and scatter it in small 
 pieces near the edge of the woods, and return to visit the place, after 
 one moon." 
 
 Masswaweinini obeyed these directions, and immediately set out on his 
 return to his lodge. On the way he killed a deer, and on reaching his 
 canoe, he found the boys still asleep. He awoke them and told them to 
 cook his venison, but he carefully concealed from them his adventure. 
 At the expiration of the moon he again, alone, visited his wrestling 
 ground, and to his surprise, found the plain filled with the spikes and 
 blades of new grown corn. In the place where he had thrown the pieces 
 of cob, he found pumpkin vines growing in great luxuriance. He con- 
 cealed this discovery also, carefully from the young lads, and after his 
 return busied himself as usual, in watching the movements of his enemies 
 along the coasts of the island. This he continued, till summer drew 
 near its close. He then directed his canoe to the coast of that part 
 of the island where he had wrestled with the Red Plume, drew up his 
 canoe, bid the lads stay by it, and again visited his wrestling ground. 
 He found the corn in full ear, and pumpkins of an immense size. He 
 plucked ears of corn, and gathered some of the pumpkins, when a voice 
 again addressed him from the cornfield. " Masswaweinini, you have 
 conquered me. Had you not done so, your existence would have been 
 forfeited. Victory has crowned your strength, and from henceforth you 
 shall never be in want of my body. It will be nourishment for the hu- 
 man race." Thus his ancestors received the gift of corn. 
 
 Masswaweinini now returned to his canoe, and informed the young 
 men of his discovery, and showed them specimens. They were aston- 
 ished and delighted with the novelty. 
 
 There were, in those days, many wonderful things done on these 
 islands. One night, while Masswaweinini was lying down, he heard 
 voices speaking, but he still kept his head covered, as if he had not 
 heard them. One voice said, " This is Masswaweinini, and we must get 
 his heart." " In what way can we get it ?" said another voice. " You
 
 TALES OF A WIGWAM. 177 
 
 must put your hand in his mouth," replied the first voice, " and draw it 
 out that way." Masswaweinini still kept quiet, and did not stir. He 
 soon felt the hand of a person thrust in his mouth. When sufficiently 
 far in, he bit off the fingers, and thus escaped the danger. The voices 
 then retired, and he was no further molested. On examining the fingers 
 in the morning, what was his surprise to find them long wampum beads, 
 which are held in such high estimation by all the Indian tribes. He had 
 slept, as was his custom, in the thick woods. On going out to the open 
 shore, at a very early hour, he saw a canoe at a small distance, tempora- 
 rily drawn up on the beach ; on coming closer, he found a man in the 
 bows and another in the stern, with their arms and hands extended in a 
 fixed position. One of them had lost its fingers : it was evidently the 
 man who had attempted to thrust his arm down his throat. They were 
 two Pukwudjininees, or fairies. Eut on looking closer, they were found 
 to be transformed into statues of stone. He took these stone images on 
 shore, and set them up in the woods. 
 
 Their canoe was one of the most beautiful structures which it is possi- 
 ble to imagine, four fathoms in length, and filled with bags of treasures 
 of every description and of the most exquisite workmanship. These 
 bags were of different weight, according to their contents. He busied 
 himself in quickly carrying them into the woods, together with the canoe, 
 which he concealed in a cave. One of the fairy images then spoke to 
 him and said : " In this manner, the Ottowa canoes will hereafter be 
 loaded, when they pass along this coast, although your nation are driven 
 away by their cruel enemies the Iroquois." The day now began to dawn 
 fully, when he returned to his two young companions, who were still 
 asleep. He awoke them, and exultingly bid them cook, for he had 
 brought abundance of meat and fish, and other viands, the gifts of the 
 fairies. 
 
 After this display of good fortune, he bethought him of his aged father 
 and mother, who were in exile at the Ottowa lake. To wish, and to 
 accomplish his wish, were but the work of an instant with Mass- 
 waweinini. 
 
 One night as he lay awake, reflecting on their condition, far away 
 from their native fields, and in exile, he resolved to visit them, and 
 bring them back to behold and to participate in his abundance. To 
 a common traveller, it would be a journey of twenty or thirty days, 
 but Masswaweinini was at their lodge before daylight. He found them 
 asleep, and took them up softly in his arms and flew away with them 
 through the air, and brought them to his camp on the Manatolines, or 
 Spirit's Islands. When they awoke, their astonishment was at its high- 
 est pitch ; and was only equalled by their delight in finding themselves 
 in their son's lodge, in their native country, and surrounded with abun- 
 dance.
 
 178 TALES OF A WIGWAM. 
 
 Masswaweinini went and built them a lodge, near the corn and wrest- 
 ling plain. He then plucked some ears of the corn, and taking some of 
 the pumpkins, brought them to his father and mother. He then told 
 them how he had obtained the precious gift, by wrestling with a spirit in 
 red plumes, and that there was a great abundance of it in his fields. He 
 also told them of the precious canoe of the fairies, loaded with sacks of 
 the most costly and valuable articles. But one thing seemed necessary 
 to complete the happiness of his father, which he observed by seeing 
 him repeatedly at night looking into his smoking pouch. He compre- 
 hended his meaning in a moment. " It is tobacco, my father, that you 
 want. You shall also have this comfort in two days." " But where," 
 replied the old man, " can you get it away from all supplies, and sur- 
 rounded by your enemies ?" " My enemies," he answered, " shall sup- 
 ply it I will go over to the Nadowas of the Bear totem, living at 
 Penetanguishine. " 
 
 The old man endeavored to dissuade him from the journey, knowing 
 their blood-thirsty character, but in vain. Masswaweinini determined 
 immediately to go. It was now winter weather, the lake was frozen 
 over, but he set out on the ice, and although it is forty leagues, he reach- 
 ed Penetanguishine the same evening. The Nadowas discerned him 
 coming they were amazed at the swiftness of his motions, and thinking 
 him somewhat supernatural, feared him, and invited him to rest in their 
 lodges, but he thanked them, saying that he preferred making a fire 
 near the shore. In the evening they visited him, and were anxious to 
 know the object of his journey, at so inclement a season. He said it was 
 merely to get some tobacco for his father. They immediately made a 
 contribution of the article and gave it to him. During the night they 
 however laid a plot to kill him. Some of the old men rushed into his 
 lodge, their leader crying out to him, " You are a dead man." " No, I 
 am not," said Masswaweinini, " but you are," accompanying his words 
 with a blow of his tomahawk, which laid the Nadowa dead at his feet. 
 Another and another came, to supply the place of their fallen comrade, but 
 he despatched them in like manner, as quickly as they came, until he had 
 killed six. He then took all the tobacco from their smoking pouches. 
 By this time, the day began to dawn, when he set out for his father's 
 lodge, which he reached with incredible speed, and before twilight, 
 spread out his trophies before the old man. 
 
 When spring returned, his cornfield grew up, without planting, or 
 any care on his part, and thus the maize was introduced among his 
 people and their descendants, who have ever been noted, and are at this 
 day, for their fine crops of this grain, and their industry in its cultiva- 
 tion. It is from their custom of trading in this article, that this tribe are 
 called Ottowas.
 
 CORN-PLANTING, AND ITS INCIDENTS. 
 
 THE zea, mais, originally furnished the principal article of subsistence 
 among all the tribes of this race, north and south. It laid at the founda- 
 tion of the Mexican and Peruvian types of civilization, as well as the in- 
 cipient gleamings of it, among the more warlike tribes of the Iroquois, 
 Natchez, Lenapees, and others, of northern latitudes. They esteem it so 
 important and divine a grain, that their story-tellers invented various tales, 
 in which this idea is symbolized under the form of a special gift from the 
 Great Spirit. The Odjibwa-Algonquins, who call it Mon-da-min, that is, 
 the Spirit's grain or berry, have a pretty story of this kind, in which the 
 stalk in full tassel, is represented as descending from the sky, under the 
 guise of a handsome youth, in answer to the prayers of a young man at 
 his fast of virility, or coming to manhood. 
 
 It is well known that corn-planting, and corn-gathering, at least among 
 all the still uncolonized tribes, are left entirely to the females and children, 
 and a few superannuated old men. It is not generally known, perhaps, 
 that this labour is not compulsory, and that it is assumed by the females 
 as a just equivalent, in their view, for the onerous and continuous labour" 
 of the other sex, in providing meats, and skins for clothing, by the chase, 
 and in defending their villages against their enemies, and keeping intruders 
 off their territories. A good Indian housewife deems this a part of her 
 prerogative, and prides herself to have a store of corn to exercise her hos- 
 pitality, or duly honour her husband's hospitality, in the entertainment of 
 the lodge guests. 
 
 The area of ground planted is not. comparitively, large. This matter 
 is essentially regulated by the number of the family, and other circum- 
 stances. Spring is a leisure season with them, and by its genial and re- 
 viving influence, invites to labour. An Indian female has no cows 
 to milk, no flax to spin, no yarn to reel. Even those labours, which, at 
 other seasons fall to her share, are now intermitted. She has apukwas to 
 gather to make mats. Sugar-making has ended. She has no skins to 
 dress, for the hunt has ended, the animals being out of season. It is at 
 this time that the pelt grows bad, the hair becomes loose and falls off, and 
 nature itself teaches the hunter, that the species must have repose, and be 
 allowed a Jistle time to replenish. Under these circumstances the mistress 
 
 179
 
 150 COEN, PLANTING, AND ITS INCIDENTS. 
 
 of the lodge and her train, sally out of the lodge into the corn-field, and 
 with the light pemidge-ag akwut, or small hoe, open up the soft ground 
 and deposit their treasured mondamin. 
 
 The Indian is emphatically a superstitious being, believing in all sorts 
 of magical, and secret, and wonderful influences. Woman, herself, comes 
 in for no small share of these supposed influences. 1 shrewdly suspect 
 that one half of the credit we have been in the habit of giving the war- 
 rior, on the score of virtue, in his treatment of captives, is due alone to his 
 superstitions. He is afraid, at all times, to spoil his luck, cross his fate, 
 and do some untoward act, by which he might, perchance, fall under a 
 bad spiritual influence. 
 
 To the wewun, or wife the equa, or woman, to the guh or mother, 
 to the equazas, or girl, and to the dan is, or daughter, and sheraa, or 
 sister, he looks, as wielding, in their several capacities, whether kindred 
 or not, these mystic influences over his luck. In consequence of this, the 
 female never walks in the path before him. It is an unpropitious sign. If 
 she cross his track, when he is about to set out on a hunting, or war ex- 
 cursion, his luck is gone. If she is ill, from natural causes, she cannot 
 even stay in the same wigwam. She cannot use a cup or a bowl without 
 rendering it, in his view, unclean. 
 
 A singular proof of this belief, in both sexes, of the mysterious influence 
 of the steps of a woman on the vegetable and insect creation, is found in an 
 ancient custom, which was related to me, respecting corn-planting. It 
 was the practice of the hunter's wife, when the field of corn had been 
 p'anted, to choose the first dark or overclouded evening, to perform a 
 secret circuit, sans habilement, around the field. For this purpose she 
 slipt out of the lodge in the evening, unobserved, to some obscure nook, 
 where she completely disrobed. Then taking her matchecota, or princi- 
 pal garment in one hand, she dragged it around the field. This wa& 
 thought to ensure a prolific crop, and to prevent the assaults of insects and 
 worms upon the grain. It was supposed they could not creep over the 
 charmed line. 
 
 But if corn-planting be done in a lively and satisfied, and not a slavish 
 spirit, corn-gathering and husking is a season of decided thankfulness and 
 merriment. At these gatherings, the chiefs and old men are mere specta- 
 tors, although they are pleased spectators, the young only sharing in the 
 sport. Who has not seen, the sedate ogema in such a vicinage, smoking 
 a dignified pipe with senatorial ease. On the other hand, turning to the 
 group of nature's red daughters and their young cohorts, it may be safe- 
 ly affirmed that laughter and garrulity constitute no part of the character- 
 istics of civilization. Whatever else custom has bound fast, in the do- 
 mestic female circle of forest life, the tongue is left loose. Nor does it re- 
 quire, our observation leads us to think, one tenth part of the wit or 
 drollery of ancient Athens, to set their risible faculties in motion.
 
 TW8 
 
 If one of the young female huskers finds a red ear of corn, it is typical 
 of a brave admirer, and is regarded as a fitting present to some young 
 warrior. But if the ear be crooked, and tapering to a point, no matter what 
 colour, the whole circle is set in a roar, and wa ge min is the word shouted^ 
 aloud. It is the symbol of a thief in the cornfield. It is considered as the 
 image of an old man stooping as he enters the lot. Had the chisel 
 of Praxitiles been employed to produce this image, it could not more vi- 
 vidly bring to the minds of the merry group, the idea of a pilferer of their 
 favourite mondamin. Nor is there any doubt on these occasions, that the 
 occurrence truly reveals the fact that the cornfield has actually been thus 
 depredated on. 
 
 The term wagemin, which unfolds all these ideas, and reveals, as by a 
 talisman, all this information, is derived in part, from the tri-literal term 
 Wavveau, that which is bent or crooked. The termination in g, is the 
 animate plural, and denotes not only that there is more than one object, 
 but that the subject is noble or invested with the importance of animated 
 beings. The last member of the compound, min, is a shortened sound 
 of the generic meen, a grain, or berry. To make these coalesce, agreea- 
 bly to the native laws of euphony, the short vowel i, is thrown in, between 
 the verbal root and substantive, as a connective. The literal meaning of 
 the term is, a mass, or crooked ear of grain ; but the ear of corn so called, 
 is a conventional type of a little old man pilfering ears of corn in a corn- 
 field. It is in this manner, that a single word or term, in these curious 
 languages, becomes the fruitful parent of many ideas. And we can thus 
 perceive why it is that the word wagemin is alone competent to excite 
 merriment in the husking circle. 
 
 This term is taken as the basis of the cereal chorus or corn song, as 
 sung by the northern Algonquin tribes. It is coupled with the phrase 
 Paimosaid, a permutative form of the Indian substantive made from the 
 verb, pim-o-sa, to walk. Its literal meaning is, he who walks, or the 
 walker ; but the ideas conveyed by it, are, he who walks at night to pilfer 
 corn. It offers, therefore, a kind of parallelism in expression, to the pre- 
 ceding term. The chorus is entirely composed of these two terms, vari- 
 ously repeated, and may be set down as follows : 
 
 Wagemin, 
 Wagemin, 
 Paimosaid. 
 Wagemin, 
 Wagemin, 
 
 Paimosaid. 
 
 183
 
 Jgo CORN PLANTING AND ITS INCIDENTS. 
 
 When this chant has been sung, there is a pause, during which some 
 one who is expert in these things, and has a turn for the comic or ironic, 
 utters a short speech, in the manner of a recitative, in which a peculiar in- 
 tonation is given, and generally interrogates the supposed pilferer, as if he 
 were present to answer questions, or accusations. There can be no pre- 
 tence, that this recitative part of the song is always the same, at different 
 times and places, or even that the same person should not vary his phrase- 
 ology. On the contrary, it is often an object to vary it. It is a perfect 
 improvisation, and it may be supposed that the native composer is always 
 actuated by a desire to please, as much as possible by novelty. . The 
 whole object indeed is, to keep up the existing merriment, and excite fun 
 and laughter. 
 
 The following may be taken as one of these recitative songs, written out, 
 on the plan of preserving the train of thought, and some of those peculiar 
 interjections in which these languages so much abound. The chorus 
 alone, it is to be observed, is fixed in its words and metr, however trans- 
 posed or repeated, and, unlike an English song, precet* ^ the stanza or 
 narrative. 
 
 CORN soite. 
 
 Cereal chorus. Wagemin ! wagemin ! 
 
 Thief in the blade, 
 Blight of the cornfield 
 Paimosaid. 
 
 Recitative. See you not traces, while pulling the leaf, 
 Plainly depicting the TAKER and thief? 
 See you not signs by the ring and tbe spot, 
 How the man crouched as he crept in the lot* 
 Is it not plain by this mark on the stalk, 
 That he was heavily bent in his walk? 
 Old man be nimble ! the old should be good, 
 But thou art a cowardly thief of the wood. 
 
 Cereal Chorus. Wagemin ! wagemin ! 
 
 Thief in the blade, 
 Blight of the cornfield 
 Paimosaid. 
 
 Recitative. Where, little TAKER of things not your own 
 
 Where is your rattle, your drum, and your bone? 
 Surely a WALKER so nimble of speed, 
 Surely he must be a Meta* indeed. 
 
 * A Juggler.
 
 CORN PLANTING AND ITS INCIDENTS. 
 
 See how he stoops, as he breaks off the ear, 
 Nushka !* he seems for a moment in fear ; 
 Walker, be nimble oh ! walker be brief, 
 Hooh !f it is plain the old man is the thief. 
 
 Cereal chorus. Wagemin ! wagemin ! 
 
 Thief in the blade, 
 Blight of the cornfield 
 Paitnosaid. 
 
 Recitative. Wabuma!| corn-taker, why do you lag? 
 
 None but the stars see you fill up your bag ? 
 
 Why do you linger to gaze as you pull, 
 
 Tell me, my little man, is it most full ? 
 
 A-tia ! see, a red spot on the leaf, 
 
 Surely a warrior cannot be a thief! 
 
 Ah, little night-thief, be deer your pursuit, 
 
 And leave here no print of your dastardly foot. 
 
 TO HEALTH. 
 
 BY THE LATE JOHN JOHNSTON, ESQ. 
 
 Health ! dearest of the heavenly powers, 
 With thee to pass my evening hours, 
 
 Ah ? deign to hear my prayer ; 
 For what can wealth or beauty give, 
 If still in anguish doomed to live 
 
 A slave to pain and care. 
 
 Not sovereign power, nor charms of love, 
 Nor social joys the heart can move, 
 
 If thou refuse thy aid ; 
 E'en friendship, sympathy divine ! 
 Does, in thy absence, faintly shine, 
 
 Thou all-inspiring maid. 
 
 Return then, to my longing soul, 
 W T hich sighs to feel thy sweet control 
 Transfused through every pore ; 
 My muse, enraptured, then shall sing 
 Thee gift of heaven's all bounteous king, 
 
 And gratefully adore. 
 February 4, 1807. 
 
 * A sharp exclamation quickly to behold something striking. 
 
 t A derogatory exclamation. t Behold thou. 
 
 A masculine exclamation, to express surprise
 
 DOMESTIC AND SOCIAL 
 
 DOMESTIC AND SOCIAL MANNL-,8 OF THE INDIANS, 
 WHILE ON THEIR WINTERING GROUNDS. 
 
 THE Indian, who takes his position as an orator, in front of his people, 
 and before a mixed assemblage of white men, is to be regarded, in a 
 measure, as an actor, who has assumed a part to perform. He regards 
 himself as occupying a position in which all eyes are directed upon him, 
 in scrutiny, and he fortifies himself for the occasion, by redoubled 
 efforts in cautiousness and studied stoicism. Rigid of muscle, and 
 suspicious of mind by nature, he brings to his aid the advantages of 
 practised art, to bear him out in speaking for his tribe, and to quit him 
 manfully of his task by uttering sentiments worthy of them and of him- 
 self. This is the statue-like and artistic phasis of the man. It is here 
 that he is, truly 
 
 " A man without a fear a stoic of the wood." 
 
 All this is laid aside, so far as it is assumed, when he returns from the 
 presence of the " pale-faces," and rejoins his friends and kindred, in his 
 own village, far away from all public gaze, in the deep recesses of the 
 forest. Let us follow the man to this retreat, and see what are his 
 domestic manners, habits, amusements, and opinions. 
 
 I have myself visited an Indian camp, in the far-off area of the NORTH- 
 WEST, in the dead of winter, under circumstances suited to allay his sus- 
 picions, and inspire confidence, and have been struck with the marked 
 change there is in his social temper, character, and feelings. And I have 
 received the same testimony from Indian traders, who have spent years 
 among them in these secluded positions, and been received by them as 
 friends and kindred. All indeed, who have had frequent and full oppor- 
 tunities of witnessing the red man on his hunting grounds, concur in 
 bearing evidence to his social, hospitable, and friendly habits and man- 
 ners. Viewed in such positions, the most perfect sincerity and cheer- 
 fulness prevail ; and their intercourse is marked with the broadest princi- 
 ples of charity and neighborly feeling. The restraint and ever watchful 
 suspicion which they evince at the frontier post, or in other situations 
 exposed to the scrutiny and cupidity of white men, is thrown aside and 
 gives way to ease, sociability and pleasantry. They feel while thus 
 ensconced in the shades of their native forests, a security unknown to 
 their breasts in any other situations. The strife seems to be, who shall 
 excel in offices of friendship and charity, or in spreading the festive 
 board. If one is more fortunate than the other, in taking meat, or 
 wielding the arrow or spear, the spoil is set apart for a feast, to which
 
 MANNERS OP THE INDIANS. 185 
 
 all the adults, without distinction, are inrited. When the set time of 
 the feast arrives, each one, ac< jrding to ancient custom, takes bis dish 
 and spoon, and proceeds to the entertainer's lodge. The victuals are 
 served up with scrupulous attention that each receives a portion of the 
 best parts. While at the me^, which is prolonged by cheerful conver- 
 sation, anecdote, and little narrations of personal adventure, the females 
 are generally listeners ; am none, except the aged, ever obtrude a re- 
 mark. The young women and girls show that they partake in the fes- 
 tivity by smiles, and are scrupulous to evince their attention to the elder 
 part of the company. Conversation is chiefly engrossed by the old men 
 and chiefs, and middle-aged men. Young men, who are desirous to 
 acquire a standing, seldom offer a remark, and when they do, it is with 
 modesty. The topics discussed at these public meals relate generally 
 to the chace, to the news they have heard, or to personal occurrences 
 about the village ; or to deeds, " real or fabulous," of " old lang syne ;" 
 but the matters are discussed in a lively, and not in a grave style. 
 Business, if we may be allowed that term for what concerns their trade 
 and government intercourse, is never introduced except in formal coun- 
 cils, convened specially, and opened formally by smoking the pipe. It 
 seems to be the drift of conversation, in these sober festivities (for it 
 must be recollected that we are speaking of the Indians on their winter- 
 ing grounds and beyond the reach, certainly beyond the free or ordinary 
 use of ardent spirits), to extract from their hunts and adventures, what- 
 ever will admit of a pleasant turn, draw forth a joke, or excite a laugh. 
 Ridiculous misadventures, or comical situations, are sure to be applauded 
 in the recital. Whatever is anti-social, or untoward, is passed over, or 
 if referred to by another, is parried off, by some allusion to the scene 
 before them. 
 
 Religion (we use this term for what concerns the great spirit, sacred 
 dreams, and the ceremonies of the Meda or medicine dance), like busi- 
 ness, is reserved for its proper occasion. It does not form, as with us, 
 a free topic of remark, at least among those who are professors of the 
 dance. Thus they cheat away the hours in pleasantry, free, but not 
 tumultuous in their mirth, but as ardently bent on the enjoyment of 
 the present moment, as if the sum of life were contained in these 
 three words, " eat, drink, and be merry." When the feast is over, the 
 women return to their lodges, and leave the men to smoke. On their 
 return, they commence a conversation on what they have heard the 
 men advance, and thus amuse themselves till their husbands return. 
 The end of all is generally some good advice to the children. 
 
 The company in these ordinary feasts is as general, with respect to 
 the rank, age or standing of the guests, as the most unlimited equality 
 of rights can make it. All the aged and many of, the young are in- 
 vited. There is, however, another feast instituted, at certain times
 
 186 DOMESTIC AND SOCIAL 
 
 during the season, to which young persons only are icvited, or admitted, 
 except the entertainer and his wife, and generally two other aged per- 
 sons, who preside over the feast and administer its rites. The object of 
 this feast seems to be instruction, to which the young and thoughtless 
 are induced to listen for the anticipated pleasure of the feast. Before 
 this feast commences, the entertainer, or some person fluent in speech, 
 whom he has selected for the purpose, gets up and addresses the youth 
 of both sexes on the subject of their course through life. He admo- 
 nishes them to be attentive and respectful to the aged and to adhere to 
 their counsels : never to scoff at the decrepid, deformed, or blind : to 
 obey their parents : to be modest in their conduct : to be charitable and 
 hospitable : to fear and love the great Spirit, who is the giver of life 
 and every good gift. These precepts are dwelt upon at great length, 
 and generally enforced by examples of a good man and woman and a 
 bad man and woman, and after drawing the latter, it is ever the custom 
 to say, " you will be like one of these." At {he end of every sentence, 
 the listeners make a general cry of had. When the advice is finished, 
 an address, or kind of prayer to the great Spirit is made, in which he 
 is thanked for the food before them, and for the continuance of life. 
 The speaker then says, " Thus the great Spirit supplies us with food ; 
 act justly, and conduct well, and you will ever be thus bountifully sup- 
 plied." The feast then commences, and the elders relax their manner 
 and mix with the rest, but are still careful to preserve order, and a de- 
 cent, respectful behavior among the guests. 
 
 Let it not be supposed, however, that the Indian's life, while on his 
 wintering grounds, is a round of feasting. Quite the contrary ; and his 
 feasts are often followed by long and painful fasts, and the severity of 
 the seasons, and scarcity of game and fish, often reduce himself and 
 family to the verge of starvation, and even death. When the failure of 
 game, or any other causes, induce the hunter to remove to a new circle 
 of country, the labor of the removal falls upon the female part of the 
 family. The lodge, utensils and fixtures of every kind, are borne upon 
 the women's backs, sustained by a strap of leather around the forehead. 
 On reaching the intended place of encampment, the snow is cleared 
 away, cedar branches brought and spread for a flooring, the lodge set up, 
 the moveables stowed away, wood collected, and a fire built, and then, 
 and not until then, can the females sit down and warm their feet and 
 dry their moccasins. If there be any provisions, a supper is cooked. 
 If there be none, all studiously strive to conceal the exhibition of the 
 least concern on this account, and seek to divert their thoughts by con- 
 versation quite foreign to the subject. The little children are the only 
 part of the family who complain, and who are privileged to complain, 
 but even they are taught at an early age to suffer and be silent. Gene- 
 rally, something is reserved by the mother, when food becomes scarce,
 
 MANNERS OF, THE INDIANS. 187 
 
 to satisfy their clamors, and they are satisfied with little. On such occa- 
 sions, if the family have gone supperless to rest, the father and elder 
 sons rise early in the morning in search of something. If one has the 
 luck to kill even a partridge or a squirrel, it is immediately carried to 
 the lodge, cooked, and divided into as many parts as there are members 
 of the family. On these occasions, the elder ones often make a merit 
 of relinquishing their portions to the women and children. If nothing 
 rewards the search, the whole day is spent by the father upon his snow- 
 shoes, with his gun in his hands, and he returns at night, fatigued, to his 
 couch of cedar branches and rush mats. But he does not return to com- 
 plain, either of his want of success, or his fatigue. On the following 
 day the same routine is observed, and days and weeks are often thus 
 consumed without being rewarded with anything capable of sustaining 
 life. Instances have been well authenticated, when this state of wretch- 
 edness has been endured by the head of a family until he has become so 
 weak as to fall in his path, and freeze to death. When all other means 
 of sustaining life are gone, the skins he has collected to pay his credits, 
 or purchase new supplies of clothing or ammunition, are eaten. They 
 are prepared by removing the pelt, and roasting the skin until it acquires 
 a certain degree of crispness. Under all their sufferings, the pipe of 
 the hunter is his chief solace, and is a solace often resorted to. Smoking 
 parties are frequently formed, when there is a scarcity of food not tend- 
 ing, as might be supposed, to destroy social feeling and render the 
 temper sour. On these occasions the entertainer sends a message to 
 this effect : " Come and smoke with me. I have no food ; but we can 
 pass away the evening very well without it." All acknowledge their 
 lives to be in the hand of the great Spirit ; feel a conviction that all 
 comes from him, and that although he allows them to suffer, he will again 
 supply them. This tends to quiet their apprehensions ; they are fatal- 
 ists, however, under long reverses, and submit patiently and silently to 
 what they believe to be their destiny. When hunger and misery are 
 past, they are soon forgotten, and their minds are too eagerly intent on 
 the enjoyment of the present good, to feel any depression of spirits from 
 the recollection of the past, or to hoard up anything to provide against 
 want for the future. No people are more easy, or less clamorous under 
 sufferings of the deepest dye, and none more happy, or more prone to 
 evince their happiness, when prosperous in their affairs. 
 October 29th, 1826. 
 
 
 
 &l
 
 PUGASAING; 
 
 THE GAME OF THE BOWL. 
 
 THIS is the principal game of hazard among the northern tribes. It is 
 played with thirteen pieces, hustled in a vessel called onagun, which is a 
 kind of wooden howl. They are represented, and named, as follows. 
 
 TTL. 
 
 in. 
 
 -v: 
 
 JOT 
 
 The pieces marked No. 1, in this cut, of which there are two, are called 
 Ininewug, or men. They are made tapering, or wedge-shaped in thick- 
 ness, so as to make it possible, in throwing them, that they may stand on 
 their base. Number 2, is called Gitshee Kenabik, or the Great Serpent. 
 It consists of two pieces, one of which is fin-tailed, or a water-serpent, the 
 
 188
 
 PUGASAING. 189 
 
 other truncated, and is probably designed as terrestrial. They are formed 
 wedge-shaped, so as to be capable of standing on their bases length-wise. 
 Each has four dots. Number 3, is called JPugamagun, or the war club. 
 It has six marks on the handle, on the red side, and four radiating from 
 the orifice of the club end ; and four marks on the handle of the white side ; 
 and six radiating marks from the orifice on the club-end, making ten on 
 each side. Number 4 is called Keego, which is the generic name for a 
 fish. The four circular pieces of brass, slightly concave, with a flat sur- 
 face on the apex, are called Ozawabiks. The three bird-shaped pieces, 
 Sheshebwug, or ducks. 
 
 All but the circular pieces are made out of a fine kind of bone. One 
 side of the piece is white, of the natural colour of the bones, and polished, 
 the other red. The brass pieces have the convex side bright, the concave 
 black. They are all shaken together, and thrown out of the onagun, as 
 dice. The term pugasaing denotes this act of throwing. It is the parti- 
 cipial form of the verb. The following rules govern the game : 
 
 1. When the pieces are turned on the red side, and one of the Inine- 
 wugs stands upright on the bright side of one of the brass peces, it 
 counts 158. 
 
 2. When all the pieces turn red side up, and the Gitshee Kenabik 
 with the tail stands on the bright side of the brass piece, it counts 138. 
 
 3. When all turn up red, it counts 58 whether the brass pieces be bright 
 or black side up. 
 
 4. When the Gitshee Kenabik and his associate, and the two Ininewugs 
 turn up white side, and the other pieces red, it counts 58, irrespective of 
 the concave or convex position of the brass pieces. 
 
 5. When all the pieces turn up white, it counts 38, whether the Ozawa- 
 biks, be bright or black. 
 
 6. When the Gitshee Kenabik and his associate turn up red, and the 
 other wnite, it counts 38, the brass pieces immaterial. 
 
 7. When one of the Ininewugs stands up, it counts 50, without regard 
 to the position of all the rest 
 
 8. When either of the Gitshee Kenabiks stands upright, it counts 40, 
 irrespective of the position of the others. 
 
 9. When all the pieces turn up white, excepting one, and the Ozawabiks 
 dark, it counts 20. 
 
 10. When all turn up red, except one, and the brass pieces bright, it 
 counts 15. 
 
 11. When the whole of the pieces turn up white, but one, with the 
 Ozawabiks bright, it counts 10. 
 
 12. When a brass piece turns up dark, the two Gitshee Kenabiks and 
 the two men red, and the remaining pieces white, it counts 8. 
 
 13 When the brass piece turns up bright, the two Gitshee Kenabika 
 and one of the men red, and all the rest white, it is 6.
 
 PUGASAING. 
 
 14. When the Gitshee Kenabik in chief, and one of the men turn up 
 red, the Ozawabiks, bright, and all the others white, it is 4. 
 
 15. When both the Kenabjks, and both men, and the three ducks, turn 
 up red, the brass piece black, and either the Keego, or a duck white, 
 it is 5. 
 
 16. When all the pieces turn up red, but one of the Ininewugs, and the 
 brass piece black, it counts 2. 
 
 The limit of the game is stipulated. The parties throw up for the 
 play. 
 
 This game is very fascinating to some portions of the Indians. They 
 stake at it their ornaments, weapons, clothing, canoes, horses, every thing 
 in fact they possess ; and have been known, it is said, to set up their wives 
 and children, and even to forfeit their own liberty. Of such desperate 
 stakes. I have seen no examples, nor do I think the game itself in com- 
 mon use. It is rather confined to certain persons, who hold the relative 
 rank of gamblers in Indian society men who are not noted as hunters or 
 warriors, or steady providers for their families. Among these are per- 
 sons who bear the term of lenadizze-wug, that is, wanderers about the 
 country, braggadocios, or fops. It can hardly be classed with the popular 
 games of amusement, by which skill and dexterity are acquired. I have 
 generally found the chiefs and graver men of the tribes, who encouraged 
 the young men to play ball, and are sure to be present at the customary 
 sports, to witness, and sanction, and applaud them, speak lightly and dis- 
 paragingly of this game of hazard. Yet, it cannot be denied, that some 
 of the chiefs, distinguished in war and the chase, at the west, can be refer 
 red to, as lending their example to its fascinating power. 
 
 An analysis of this game, to show its arithmetical principles and powers 
 might be gone into ; but it is no part of the present design to take up such 
 considerations here, far less to pursue the comparison and extension of cus- 
 toms of this kind among the modern western tribes. It may be sufficient 
 to say, from the foregoing rules, that there seems to be no unit in the 
 throw, and that the count proceeds by decimals, for all numbers over 8. 
 Doubtless these rules, are but a part of the whole series, known to ex- 
 perienced players. They comprise, however, all that have been revealeu 
 to me. 
 
 " Gambling is not peculiar to our race, 
 The Indian gambles with as fixed a face." 
 
 Herodotus says of the ancient Thracians that " the most honourable 
 life, with them, is a life of war and plunder ; the most contemptible that of 
 a husbandman. Their supreme delight is war and plunder." Who might 
 not suppose, were the name withheld, that this had been said by some 
 modem writer of the Pawnees, or the Camanches ?
 
 REVERENCE AND AFFECTION FOR PARENTS. 
 
 THERE lived a noted chief at Michilimackinac, in days past, called Gitshe 
 Naygow, or the Great-Sand-Dune, a name, or rather nick-name, 
 which he had, probably, derived from his birth and early residence at a 
 spot of very imposing appearance, so called, on the southern shore of 
 Lake Superior, which is east of the range of the Pictured Rocks. He 
 was a Chippewa, a warrior and a counsellor, of that tribe, and had 
 mingled freely in the stirring scenes of war and border *foray, which 
 marked the closing years of French domination in the Canadas. He 
 lived to be very old, and became so feeble at last, that he could not 
 travel by land, when Spring came on and his people prepared to move 
 their lodges, from their sugar-camp in the forest, to the open lake shore. 
 They were then inland, on the waters of the Manistee river, a stream 
 which enters the northern shores of Lake Michigan. It was his last win- 
 ter on earth ; his heart was gladdened by once more feeling the ge- 
 nial rays of Spring, and he desired to go with them, to behold, for the 
 last time, the expanded lake and inhale its pure breezes. He must 
 needs be conveyed by hand. This act of piety was performed by his 
 daughter, then a young woman. She carried him on her back from 
 their camp to the lake shore, where they erected their lodge and 
 passed their spring, and where he eventually died and was buried. 
 
 This relation I had from her own lips, at the agency of Michili- 
 mackinac, in 1833. I asked her how she had carried him. She re- 
 plied, with the Indian apekun, or head-strap. When tired she rested, and 
 again pursued her way, on-wa-be-win by on-wa-be-win, or rest by rest, in 
 the manner practised in carrying heavy packages over the portages. Her 
 name was Nadowakwa, or the female Iroquois. She was then, perhaps, 
 about fifty-five years of age, and the wife of a chief called Saganosh, 
 whose home and jurisdiction were in the group of the St. Martin's Islands, 
 north of Michilimackinac. 
 
 The incident was not voluntarily told, but came out, incidentally, in 
 some inquiries I was making respecting historical events, in the vicinity. 
 One such incident goes far to vindicate the affections of this people, 
 and should teach us, that they are of the same general lineage with 
 ourselves, and only require letters and Christianity, to exalt them in the 
 scale of being. 
 
 The first words of men, says Harris in his Hermes, like their first ideas, 
 had an immediate reference to sensible objects ; in after days, when they 
 began to discern with their intellect, they took those words which they 
 found already made, and transferred vhem by metaphor, to intellectual con- 
 ceptions.
 
 ANDAIG WEOS, OR CROWS-FLESH. 
 
 MANY persons among the Indian race, have attracted notice from their 
 exploits on the war-path. Andaig Weos was not among the num- 
 ber of these, or if he had mingled in such events, his deeds of daring 
 are now lost amid the remembrance of better qualities. He was a chief 
 of the once prominent and reigning band of Odjibwa Algonquins, who 
 are called Chippewas, located at Chegoimgon, on Lake Superior, where 
 his name is cherished in local tradition, for the noble and disinterested 
 deeds which he performed in former days. He lived in the latter part of 
 the 18th century. 
 
 It was perhaps forty years ago said my informant, it was while the 
 late Mr. Nolin, of Sault Ste. Maries was a trader in the Chippewa country, 
 between lake Superior and the Mississippi, that he wintered one year low 
 down on the Chippewa river. On his way down this stream, and while 
 he was still on one of its sources, cold weather set in suddenly, the ice 
 formed, and he was unable to get on with his goods. He consequently 
 put them en cache, according to the custom of the country, and proceeded 
 on foot, with his men to the lower part of the river, to the spot at which 
 he had determined to winter. Here he felled trees, and built his house, 
 and having made all things ready, he set out with his men on his return 
 to his cache, in order to bring down his goods. 
 
 On the way he fell in with an Indian hunter and his wife, who followed 
 him to the place where he had secreted his goods. On reaching this, he 
 filled a bottle with spirits and gave a glass to each of his men, took one 
 himself, and then filling the glass presented it to the Indian. This was 
 done after the camp had been made for the night. It so happened that 
 the Indian was taken suddenly ill that night, and before day light died. 
 Nolin and his men buried him, and then proceeded back to his wintering 
 house below, each man carrying a pack of goods ; and the widow rejoined 
 her friends. 
 
 After the Indians had taken their credits, and dispersed to their several 
 wintering grounds, it was rumoured amongst them, that the trader had 
 
 192
 
 ANDAIG WEOS, OR CROWS-FLESH. * 193 
 
 administered poison to the Indian who >.ied so suddenly after taking the 
 glass of spirits. And this opinion gained ground, although the widow wo- 
 man repeatedly told the Indians, that the liquor given to her deceased 
 husband was from the same bottle and glass, that all the French people 
 had drank from. But it was of no avail ; the rumour grew, and Mr. 
 Nolin began to be apprehensive, as he had already learnt that the Indians 
 meant to kill him. To confirm this suspicion a party of forty men, soon 
 after, entered his house, all armed, painted black, and with war dresses 
 on. They were all presented with a piece of tobacco, as was customary, 
 when each of them threw it into the fire. No alternative now appeared 
 to -remain to avert the blow, which he was convinced must soon folloAv. 
 Almost at the same instant, his men intimated that another party, of six 
 men more, were arriving. 
 
 It proved to be the chief Andaig Weos, from near Lac du Flambeau, 
 n search of a trader, for a supply of tobacco and ammunition. On entering, 
 the chief eyed the warriors, and asked Mr. N. whether he had given them 
 tobacco. He replied that he had, and that they had all, to a man, thrown 
 it in the fire, and, he added, that they intended to kill him. The chief 
 asked for some tobacco, which he threw down before the warriors, telling 
 them to smoke it, adding in an authoritive voice, that when Indians visited 
 traders, it was with an intention of getting tobacco from them to smoke and 
 and not to throw into the fire ; and that, for his part, he had been a long 
 time without smoking, and was very happy to find a trader to supply him 
 with that article. This present from him, with the rebuke, was received 
 with silent acquiescence, no one venturing a reply. / r , 
 
 The chief next demanded liquor of the trader, saying, " that he in- 
 tended to make them drink." The politic Frenchman remonstrated, 
 saying, "that if this was done, fie should surely he killed." "Fear not, 
 . Frenchman,-" replied the chief, boldly. " These are not men who want 
 to kill you: they are children. I, and my warriors will guard you." On 
 these assurances, a keg of liquor was given, but with the greatest reluc- 
 tance. The chief immediately presented it to the war-party, but cautioned 
 them to drink it at a distance, and not to come nigh the trader during the 
 night. They obeyed him. They took it a short distance and drank it, 
 and kept up a dreadful yelling- all night, but did not molest the house. 
 
 The next morning Andaig Weos demanded tobacco of the still uneasy 
 marchand voyageur, and ordered one of his young men to distribute it to 
 the Indians in the war-dress. He then rose and addressed them in an 
 energetic and authoritative speech, telling them to march off, without tasting 
 food; that they were warriors, and needed not any thing of the kind ; 
 and if they did, they were hunters, they had guns, and might hunt, and 
 kill and eat. , " You get nothing more here," he added. " This trader 
 has come here to supply your wants, and you seek to kill him a poor re- 
 ward for the trouble and the anxiety he has undergone ! This is no way 
 
 13
 
 jg^ ANDAIG WEOS, OR CROWS-FLESH. 
 
 of requiting white people." They all, to a man started, and went off, and 
 gave the trader no farther molestation while he remained in the country. 
 
 On another occasion Andaig Wcos was placed in a situation which 
 afforded a very different species of testimony to his principles and integrity. 
 A French trader had entered lake Superior so late in the season, that 
 with every effort, he could get no farther than Poinie La Peiile Fille, be- 
 fore the ice arrested his progress. Here he was obliged to build his winter- 
 ing house, but he soon ran short of provisions, and was obliged to visit La 
 Pointe, with his men, in order to obtain fish leaving his house and store- 
 room locked, with his goods, ammunition, and liquors, and resolving to 
 return immediately. But the weather came on so bad. that there was no 
 possibility of his immediate return, and the winter proved so unfavourable, 
 that he was obliged to spend two months at that post. 
 
 During this time, the chief Andaig Weos, with fifteen of his men, cam** 
 out from the interior, to the shores of the lake, for the purpose of trading , 
 each carrying a pack of beaver, or other furs. On arriving at the poin 
 La Petite Fille, they found the trader's house locked and no one therf . 
 The chief said to his followers. It is customary for traders to invite In- 
 dians into their house, and to receive them politely ; but as there is no 
 one to receive us, we must act according to circumstances. He then 
 ordered the door to be opened, with as little injury as possible, walked in, 
 with' his party, and caused a good fire to be built in the chimney. On 
 opening the store-door he found they could be supplied with all they 
 wanted. He told his party, on no account to touch, or take away any 
 thing, but shut up the door, and said, "that he would, on the morrow, act 
 the trader's part." 
 
 They spent the night in the house. Earjy the next morning, Jie arose 
 and addressed them, telling them, that he would now commence trading 
 with them. This he accordingly did, and when all was finished, he care- 
 fully packed the furs, and piled the packs, and covered them with an oil- 
 cloth. He then again addressed them, saying that it was customary for 
 a trader to give tobacco and a keg of spirits, when Indians had traded 
 handsomely. He, therefore, thought himself authorized to observe this 
 rule, and accordingly gave a keg of spirits and some tobacco. " The 
 spirits," he said, " must not be drank here. We must take it to our 
 hunting camp," and gave orders for returning immediately. He then 
 caused the doors to be shut, in the best manner possible, and the outer 
 door to be barricaded with logs, and departed. 
 
 When the trader returned, and found his house had been broken open, 
 he began to bewail his fate, being sure he had been robbed ; but on enter- 
 ing his stor? room and beholding the furs, his fears were turned to joy. 
 On examining his inventory, and comparing it with the amount of his 
 furs, he declared, that had he been present, he could not have traded to 
 better advantage, nor have made such a profit on his goods.
 
 ANDAIG WEOS, OR CROWS-FLESH. 195 
 
 These traits are not solitary and accidental. It happened at another 
 time, that a Mr. Lamotte. who had wintered in the Folle-avoine country, 
 unfortunately had a quarrel with the Indians, at the close of the season, 
 just when he was about to embark on his return with his furs. In the 
 heat of their passion the Indians broke all his canoes in pieces, and con- 
 fined him a prisoner, by ordering him to encamp on an island in the St. 
 Croix river. 
 
 In this situation he remained, closely watched by the Indians, till all 
 the other traders had departed and gone out of the country to renew their 
 supplies, when the chief Andaig Weos arrived. He comprehended the 
 case in an instant, and having found that the matter of offence was one of 
 no importance, he immediately went to the Indian village, and in a loud 
 and authoritative tonp of voice, so as to be heard by all, commanded suit- 
 able canoes to be taken to the imprisoned trader a summons which was 
 promptly obeyed. He then went to Mr. Lamotte and told him to embark 
 fearlessly, and that he himself would see that he was not further hindered, 
 at the same time lamenting the lateness of his return. 
 
 The general conduct of this chief was marked by kindness and ur- 
 banity. When traders arrived at Chagoimegon, where he lived, it was 
 his custom to order his young men to cover and protect their baggage lest 
 any thing should be injured or stolen. He was of the lineage of the 
 noted war-chief, Abojeeg, or Wab Ojeeg. He lived to be very old, so that 
 he walked nearly bent double using a cane. The present ruling chief of 
 that place, called Pezhickee, is his grandson. These anecdotes were re- 
 lated by Mr. Cadotte, of Lapointe, in the year 1829, and are believed to 
 be entitled to full confidence. 
 
 The Tartars cannot pronounce the letter b. Those of Bulgaria pro- 
 nounce the word blacks as if written ilacs. It is noticeable, that the Odji- 
 bwas and their cognate tribes at the north, not only make great use of the 
 letter b, in native words, but when they come to pronounce English 
 words, in which the letter v occurs, they invariably substitute the b for it, 
 as in village, and vinegar. 
 
 There are three letters in the English alphabet which the above tribes 
 do not pronounce. They are f, r, and 1. For f, they substitute, in their 
 attempts to pronounce foreign words, p. The sound of y -r, they change to 
 broad a, or drop. L is changed to n. 
 
 Singing and dancing are applied to political and to religious purposes 
 by the Indians. When they wish to raise a war-party, they meet to sing 
 and dance : when they wish to supplicate the divine mercy on a sick per- 
 son, they assemble in a lodge, to sing and dance. No grave act is per- 
 formed without singing and dancing.
 
 ORIGIN 
 
 AND 
 
 HISTORY OF THE RACE 
 
 WYANDOT TRADITIONS OF THE CREATION, 
 AND OTHER EPOCHS. 
 
 THE following traditions of the creation of man, and of the Red Race ; 
 of the order of precedence and relationship among the tribes, and the no- 
 tice of the first arrival of Europeans on the continent, together with the 
 allegories of Good and Evil, and of Civilization and Barbarism, are ex- 
 tracted from a private journal, kept during- the period of my official inter 
 course with the various tribes. 
 
 Superintendency Indian Affairs, 
 
 Detroit, January 30th, 1837. 
 
 A delegation of three Wyandot chiefs visited me, this day, from their 
 location near Amherstburg in Canada, with their interpreter, George C. 
 Martin. Their names were O-ri-wa-hen-to, or Charlo, On-ha-to-tun-youh. 
 or Round Head, son of Round Head, the brother of Splitlog, and Ty-er- 
 on-youh, or Thomas Clark. They informed me, in reply to a question, 
 that the present population of their tand, at that location, was eighty-six 
 souls. After transacting their business, I proposed several questions to 
 them respecting their origin and history. 
 
 1. What is the origin of the Indians ? We believe that all men sprang 
 from one man and woman, who were made by God, in parts beyond the 
 sea. But in speaking of the Indians we say, how did they cross the sea 
 without ships? and when did they come? and from what country? 
 What is your opinion on the subject ? 
 
 Oriwahento answered : " The old chief, Splitlog, who could answei 
 you, is not able to come to see you from his age and feebleness ; but he 
 has sent us three to speak with you. We will do the best we can. We 
 are not able to read and write, like white men, and what you ask is not 
 therefore to be found in black and white." (This remark was probably 
 made as they observed I took notes of the interview.) 
 
 il There was, in ancient times, something the matter with the earth. Ji 
 has changed. We think so. We believe God created it, and made men 
 out .of it. We think he made the Indians in this country, and that they 
 did not come over the sea. They were created at a place called MOUN 
 
 196
 
 WYANDOT TRADITIONS OP THE CREATION. 197 
 
 TAINS. It was eastward. When he had made the earth and those moun- 
 tains, he covered something over the earth, as it were, with his hand. 
 Below this, he put man. All the different tribes were there. One of the 
 young men found his way out to the surface. He saw a great light, and 
 was delighted with the beauty of the surface. While gazing around, he 
 saw a deer running past, with an arrow in his side. He followed it, to 
 the place where it fell and died. He thought it was a harmless looking 
 animal. He looked back to see its tracks, and he soon saw other tracks. 
 They were the foot prints of the person who had shot the deer. He soon 
 caime up. It was the creator himself. He had taken this method to show 
 the Indians what they must do, when they came out from the earth. 
 The creator showed him how to skin and dress the animal, bidding 1 
 
 / O 
 
 him do so and so, as he directed him. When the flesh was ready, 
 he told him to make a fire. But he was perfectly ignorant. God made 
 the fire. He then directed him to put a portion of the meat on a stick, 
 and roast it before the fire. But he was so ignorant that he let it stand till 
 it burned on one side, while the other was raw. 
 
 Having taught this man the hunter's art, so that he could teach it to 
 others, God called the Indians forth out of the earth. They came in 
 order, by tribes, and to each tribe he appointed a chief. He appointed 
 one Head Chief to lead them all, who had something about his neck, and 
 he instructed him, and put it into his head what to say to the tribes. 
 That he might have an opportunity to do so, a certain animal was killed, 
 and a feast made, in which they were told to eat it all. The leader God 
 had so chosen, told the tribes what they must do, to please their maker, 
 and what they must not do. 
 
 Oriwahento further said : God also made Good and Evil. They were 
 brothers. The one went forth to do good, and caused pleasant 
 things to grow. The other busied himself in thwarting his brother's 
 work. He made stony and flinty places, and caused bad fruits, and made 
 continual mischief among men. Good repaired the mischief as fast as it 
 was done, but he found his labour never done. He determined to fly 
 upon his brother and destroy him, but not by violence. He proposed to 
 run a race with him. Evil consented, and they fixed upon the place. But 
 first tell me, said Good, what is it you most dread. Bucks horns ! replied 
 he, and tell me what is most hurtful to you. Indian grass braid ! said 
 Good. Evil immediately went to his grandmother, who made braid, and 
 got large quantities of it, which he put in the path and hung on the limbs 
 that g"rew by the path where Good was to run. Good also filled the path, 
 of his brother with the dreaded horns. A question arose who should run 
 first. I, said Good, will begin, since the proposition to try our skill first 
 came from me. He accordingly set out. his brother following him. But 
 as he began to feel exhausted at noon, he took up the grass braid and eat 
 it. This sustained him, and he tired down his brother before night, who
 
 198 WYANDOT TRADITIONS OP THE CREATION. 
 
 entreated him to stop. He did not, however, cease, till he had successfully 
 reached the goal. 
 
 The next day Evil started on his path. He was encountered every- 
 where by the horns, which before noon had greatly weakened him. He 
 entreated to be relieved from going on. Good insisted on his running the 
 course. He sustained himself : till sunset, when he fell in the path, and 
 was finally dispatched by one of the horns wielded by his brother. 
 
 Good now returned in triumph to his grandmother's lodge. But she 
 was in an ill humour, as she always was, and hated him and loved his 
 brother whom he had killed. He wanted to rest, but at night was awoke 
 by a conversation between her and the ghost of Evil The latter pleaded 
 to come in, but although he fell for him, he did not allow his fraternal 
 feelings to get the better, and resolutely denied admission. Then said 
 Evil " I go to the north-west, and you will never see me more, and all who 
 follow me will be in the same state. They will never come back. Death 
 will for ever keep them." 
 
 Having thus rid himself of his adversary, he thought he would walk 
 out and see how things were going on, since there was no one to oppose 
 his doing good. After travelling some time he saw a living object a-head. 
 As he drew nearer, he saw more plainly. It was a naked man. They 
 began to talk to each other. " I am walking to see the creation, which I 
 have made," said Good, " but who are you ?" u Clothed man," said he, " I 
 am as powerful as you, and have made all that land you see." " Naked 
 man," he replied, a I have made all things, but do not recollect making 
 you." u You shall see my power," said the naked man, " we will try 
 strength. Call to yonder mountain to come here, and afterwards I will do 
 the same, and we will see who has the greatest power." The clothed man 
 fell down on his knees, and began to pray, but the effort did not succeed, or 
 but partially. Then the naked man drew a rattle from his belt, and be- 
 gan to shake it and mutter, having first blindfolded the other. After a 
 time, now said he, "look!" He did so, and the mountain stood close be- 
 fore him, and rose up to the clouds. He then blindfolded him again, and 
 resumed his rattle and muttering. The mountain had resumed hs former 
 distant position. 
 
 The clothed man held in his left hand a sword, and in his right hand 
 the law of God. The naked man had a rattle in one hand, and a war 
 club in the other. They exchanged the knowledge of the respective uses 
 of these things. To show the power of the sword, the clothed man cut 
 off a rod. and placed it before him. The naked man immediately put the 
 parts together and they were healed. He then took his club, which was 
 flat, and cut off the rod. and again healed the mutilated parts. He relied 
 on the rattle to answer the same purpose as the other's book. The clothed 
 man tried the use of the club, but could not use it with skill, while the 
 naked man took the sword and used it as well as the other.
 
 WYANDOT TRADITIONS 3P THE CREATION. 199 
 
 Oriwahento continued : It is said that Evil killed his mother at his 
 birth. He did not enter the world the right way. but bnrsted from the 
 womb. They took the body of the mother and laid it upon a scaffold. 
 From the droppings of her decay, where they fell on the ground, sprang 
 up corn, tobacco, and such other vegetable productions as the Indians 
 have. Hence we call corn, our mother.' And our tobacco propagattjffc- 
 self by spontaneous growth, without planting: but the clothed man is re- 
 quired to labour in raising it. 
 
 Good found his grandmother in no better humor when he came back 
 from the interview with the naked man. He therefore took and cast her 
 up, ana she flew against the moon, upon whose face the traces of her are 
 still to be seen. 
 
 This comprised the first interview ; after a recess during which they 
 were permitted to refresh themselves and smoke their pipes, I returned to 
 the office and resumed the inquiries. 
 
 2. Where did 3*0 ur tribe first see white men on this continent? The 
 French say you lived on the St Lawrence, and afterwards went to the 
 north, from whence you afterwards came down to the vicinity of Detroit 
 That you possess the privilege of lighting up the general council fire for 
 the Lake tribes ; and that you were converted to the catholic faith. Ori- 
 wahento again answered. 
 
 > [When the tribes were all settled, the Wyandots were placed at the head 
 They lived in the interior, at the mountains east, about the St. Lawrence. 
 They were the first tribe of old, and had the first chieftainship. The 
 cnief said to their nephew, the Lenapees, Go down to the sea coast and 
 look, and if you see any thing bring me word. They had a village near 
 the sea side, and often looked, but saw nothing except birds. At length 
 they espied an object, which seemed to grow and come nearer, and nearer. 
 When it came near the land it stopped, but all the people were afraid, and 
 fled to the woods. The next day. two of their number ventured out to 
 look. It was lying quietly on the water. A smaller object of the same 
 sort came out of it, and walked with long legs (oars) over the water. 
 When it came to land two men came out of it. They were different from 
 us and made signs for the others to come out of the woods. A conference 
 ensued. Presents were exchanged. They gave presents to the Lenapees, 
 and the latter gave them their skin clothes as curiosities. Three distinct 
 visits, at separate times, and long intervals, were made. The mode in 
 which the white men got a footing, and power in the country was this. 
 First, room was asked, and leave given to place a chair on the shore. 
 But they soon began to pull the lacing out of its bottom, and go inland 
 with it; and they have not yet come to the end of the string Fie 
 exemplified this original demand for a cession of territory and its re- 
 newal at other epochs, by other figures of speech, namely, of a bull's 
 hide, and of a man walking. The first request for a seat on the
 
 200 WYANDOT TRADITIONS OF THE CREATION. 
 
 shore, was made he said of the Lenapees ; alluding to the cognate 
 branches of this stock, who were anciently settled at the harbour of New 
 York, and that vicinity. 
 
 To the question of their flight from the St. Lawrence, their settlement in 
 the north, and their subsequent migration to, and settlemeut on, the straits 
 of Detroit, Oriwahento said : 
 
 The Wyandots were proud. God had said that such should be beaten 
 and brought low. This is the cause why we were followed from the 
 east, and went up north away to Michilimackinac, but as we had the 
 right before, so when we came back, the tribes looked up to us, as hold- 
 ing the council fire.* 
 
 3. What relationship do you acknowledge, to the other western 
 tribes ? 
 
 Answer by Oriwahento: We call the Lenapees, nephews; we call the 
 Odjibwas (Chippewas) Ottawas, Miamis &c. Younger Brother. We call 
 theShawnees, tlie^Youngest Brother. The Wyandots were the first tribe 
 in ancient times. The first chieftainship was in their tribe. 
 
 SUPPLEMENTARY QUESTIONS TO THE INTERPRTER. 
 
 1. Are the Wyandot and Mohawk languages, alike in sounds. You 
 say, you speak both. 
 
 Ans. Not at all alike. It is true there are a few words so, but the two 
 languages do not seem to me more akin than English and French. You 
 know some English and French words are alike. The Mohawk lan- 
 guage is on the tongue, the Wyandot is in the throat. 
 
 2. Give me some examples : Read some of this translation of the Mo- 
 hawk, (handing him John's Gospel printed by the American Bible So- 
 ciety in 1818.) He complied, reading it fluently, and appearing to have 
 been acquainted with the translation. 
 
 Further conversation, in which his attention was drawn to particular 
 facts in its structure and principles, made him see stronger analogies be- 
 tween the two tongues. It was quite evident, that he had never reflected 
 on the subject, and that there were, both grammatically, and philologically, 
 coincidences beyond his depth. 
 
 * This is certainly a dignified and wise answer ; designed as it was, to cover their 
 disastrous defeat and flight from the St. Lawrence valley to the north. The prece- 
 dence to which he alludes, on reaching the straits of Detroit, as having been theirs be- 
 fore, is to be understood, doubtless, of the era of their residence on the lower St. Law- 
 rence, where they were at the head of the French and Indian confederacy against the 
 Iroquois. Among the latter, they certainly had no precedency, so far as history 
 reaches. Their council fire was kept by the Onondagas. 
 
 H. R. S
 
 TRADITIONS OF THE ARCTID&S. 
 
 There are some curious traditions related by the race of people living 
 on that part of the continent lying north and west of Athabasca lake, and 
 the river Unjigah. Mackenzie has described that branch of them, who 
 are called by the trivial name of Che-pe-wyans. This is an Algonquin 
 term, meaning puckered blankets, and has reference only to the most 
 easterly and southerly division of the race. They are but the van of an 
 extensive race. All that gives identity to their general traditions, and dis- 
 tinctive character and language, relates as well to the Dogribs, the Cop- 
 permines, the Strongbows, the Ambawtawoots, the Hares, the Brush- 
 woods, the Sursees, the Tacullies, the Nateotetains, and other tribes lo- 
 cated north of them, extending to the Arctic Ocean, and west through the 
 Peace river pass of the Rocky Mountains. Philology brings into one 
 groupe all these dialects of a wide spread race, who extend from the bor- 
 ders of the Atnah nation on the Columbia, across the Rocky Mountains 
 eastwardly to the Lake of the Hills and the Missinipi or Churchill river, 
 covering many degrees of latitude and longitude. In the absence of any 
 generic name for them, founded on language or character, I shall allude 
 to them under the geographical phrase of ARCTIDES. 
 
 This stock of people have proceeded from the direction of the North 
 Pacific towards the Atlantic waters, in a general eastern direction, in 
 which respect, their history forms a striking exception to the other great 
 stocks of the eastern part of the United States, the Canadas, and Hudson's 
 bay, who have been in a continual progress towards the WEST and NORTH- 
 WEST, The Arctides, on the contrary, have proceeded EAST and SOUTHEAST. 
 They may be supposed, therefore, to bring their traditions more directly 
 from opposite portions of the continent, and from Asia, and it may be in- 
 ferred, from more unmixed and primitive sources. Some of these tradi- 
 tions are, at least, of a curious and striking character. They believe, like 
 the more southerly tribes, in the general tradition of a deluge, and of a 
 paradise, or land cf future Vliss. They have apparently, veiled the Great 
 
 201
 
 2Q2 TRADITIONS OP THE ARCTIDES. 
 
 Spirit, or creator of the globe, under the allegory of a gigantic bird. They 
 believe, that there was originally nothing visible but one vast ocean. 
 Upon this the bird descended from the sky, with a noise of his wings 
 which produced sounds resembling thunder. The earth, as he alighted, 
 immediately rose above the waters. This bird of creative power, then 
 made all the classes of animals, who were made out of earth. They all 
 had precedency to man. Man alorre, the last in the series, was created 
 from the integument of a dog. This, they believe, was their own origin, 
 and hence, as Mackenzie tells us, they will not eat the flesh of this animal, 
 as is done by the other tribes of the continent. To guard and protect 
 them, he then made a magic arrow, which they were to preserve with 
 great care, and hold sacred. But they were so thoughtless, they add, as 
 to carry it away and lose it, upon which the great bird took his flight, and 
 has never since appeared. This magic arrow is doubtless to be regarded 
 as a symbol of something else, which was very essential to their safety 
 and happiness. Indian history is often disguised under such symbolic 
 forms. 
 
 They have also a tradition that they originally came from a foreign 
 country, which was inhabited by a wicked people. They had to cross a 
 great lake, or water, which was shallow, narrow, and full of islands. 
 Their track lay also through snow and ice, and they suffered miserably 
 from cold. They first landed at the mouth of the Coppermine river. 
 The earth thereabouts was then strewed with metallic copper, which has 
 since disappeared. 
 
 They believe that, in ancient times, men lived till their feet were worn 
 out with walking, and their throats with eating. They represent their 
 ancestors as living to very great ages. They describe a deluge, in which 
 the waters spread over the whole earth, except the highest mountains, on 
 which their progenitors were saved. 
 
 Their notions of a future state coincide generally with the other stocks. 
 But their paradise is clothed with more imaginative traits. They oelieve, 
 that at death they pass immediately to another world, where there is a large 
 river of water to cross. They must embark in a stone canoe, and are 
 borne along into a wide lake, which has an island in its centre. This is 
 the island of the blest, and the object of the disembodied soul is to reach it 
 If their lives have been good, they will be fortunate, and make it. If bad, 
 they will sink ; but they will only sink to the depth of their chins, so that 
 they may be permitted to behold the happy land, and strive in vain to 
 reach it. Eternity is passed in this vain endeavour. 
 
 They have also some notion of the doctrine of transmigration. Such 
 are the traditionary notions of this numerous family of the Red Race, 
 which are sufficiently distinctive and peculiar, and while they resemble 
 in many traits, yet in others they contradistinguish them from the great 
 Algic race of the eastern part of the continent. The most advanced
 
 TRADITIONS OF THE ARCTIDES 203 
 
 branch of these tribes in their geograghical position, call themselves, as 
 reported by Capt. Franklin, People of the Rising Sun, or Saw-eesaw- 
 dinneh. 
 
 It seems singular, that the farther north we go, the greater evidences do \ 
 we behold of imagination, in the aboriginal race, together with some fore- 
 shadowings of future punishment. 
 
 HISTORICAL TRADITIONS OF THE CHIPPEWAS, ODJIB- 
 WAS, OR ODJIBWA-ALGONQUINS. 
 
 OF all the existing branches of the Algonquin stock in America, this 
 extensive and populous tribe appears to have the strongest claims to intel- 
 lectual distinction, on the score of their traditions, so far, at least, as the 
 present state of our inquiries extends. They possess, in their curious 
 fictitious legends and lodge-tales, a varied and exhaustless fund of tradition, 
 which is repeated from generation to generation. These legends hold, 
 among the wild men of the north, the relative rank of story-books; and 
 are intended both to amuse and instruct. This people possess also, the 
 art of picture writing, in a degree which denotes that they have been, 
 either more careful, or more fortunate, in the preservation of this very an- 
 cient art of th*i human race. Warriors, and the bravest of warriors, they 
 are yet an intellectual people. 
 
 Their traditions and belief, on the origin of the globe, and the existence 
 of a Supreme Being, are quite accordant with some things in our own 
 history and theory. They believe that the Great Spirit created material 
 M ;itter, and that he made the earth and heavens, by the power of his will. 
 He afterwards made animals and men, out of the earth, and he filled space 
 with subordinate spirits, having something of his own nature, to whom he 
 gave a part of his own power. He made one great and master spirit of 
 evil, to whom he also gave assimilated and subordinate evil spirits, to 
 execute his will. Two antagonist powers, they believe, were thus placed 
 in the world who are continually striving lor the mastery, and who have 
 power to affect the fortunes and lives of men. This constitutes the ground- 
 work of their religion, sacrifices and worship. 
 
 They believe that animals were created before men, and that they ongi 
 nally had rule on the earth. By the power of recromancy, some of 
 these animals were transformed to men, who, as soon as they assumed this 
 new form, began to hunt the animals, and make war against them. It is
 
 204 
 
 INDIAN TRADITIONS. 
 
 expected that these animals will resume their human shapes, in a future 
 state, and hence their hunters, feign some clumsy excuses, for their 
 present policy of killing them. They believe that all animals, and birds 
 and reptiles, and even insects, possess reasoning faculties, and have souls. 
 It is in these opinions, that we detect the ancient doctrine of transmigration. 
 
 Their most intelligent priests tell us, that their forefathers worshipped 
 the sun ; this luminary was regarded by them, as one of their Medas told 
 me, as the symbol of divine intelligence, and the figure of it is drawn in 
 their system of picture writing, to denote the Great Spirit. This symbol 
 very often occurs in their pictures of the medicine dance, and the wabeno 
 dance, and other sacred forms of their rude inscriptions. 
 
 They believe, at least to some extent, in a duality of souls, one of which 
 is fleshly, or corporeal, the other is incorporeal or mental. The fleshly soul 
 goes immediately, at death, to the land of spirits, or future bliss. The 
 mental soul abides with the body, and hovers round- the place of sepul- 
 ture. A future state is regarded by them, as a state of rewards, and not 
 of punishments. They expect to inhabit a paradise, filled with pleasures 
 for the eye, and the ear, and the taste. A strong and universal belief in 
 divine mercies absorbs every other attribute of the Great Spirit, except his 
 power and ubiquity ; and they believe, so far as we can gather it, 
 that this mercy will be shown to all. There is not, in general, a very 
 discriminating sense of moral distinctions and responsibilities, and the faint 
 out-shadowings, which we sometimes hear among them, of a deep and 
 sombre stream to be crossed by the adventurous soul, in its way to the 
 land of bliss, does not exercise such a practical influence over their lives, 
 as to interfere with the belief of universal acceptance after death. So 
 firm is this belief, that their proper and most reverend term for the Great 
 Spirit, is Gezha Monedo, that is to say, Merciful Spirit. Gitchy Monedo, 
 which is also employed, is often an equivocal phrase. The term Waz- 
 heaud, or Maker, is used to designate the Creator, when speaking of his 
 animated works. The compound phrase Waosemigoyan, or universal 
 Father, is also heard. 
 
 The great spirit of evil, called Mudje Monedo, and Matche Monito, is 
 regarded as a created, and not a pre-existing being. Subordinate spirits of 
 evil, are denoted by using the derogative form of the word, in sh by ; 
 which Moneto is rendered Monetosh. The exceeding flexibility of the 
 language is well calculated to enable them to express distinction of this 
 nature. 
 
 This tribe has a general tradition o a deluge, in which the earth was 
 covered with water, reaching above the highest hills, or mountains, but j 
 not above a tree which grew on the latter, by climbing which a man was 
 saved. This man was the demi-god of their fictions, who is called Mana- 
 bozho, by whose means the waters were stayed and the earth re-created. I 
 He employed for this purpose various animals who were sent to dive
 
 INDIAN TRADITIONS. 205 
 
 down for some of the primordial earth, of which a little was, at length, 
 brought up by the beaver, and this formed the germ or nucleus of the new, 
 or rather rescued planet. What particular allegories are hid under this 
 story, is npt certain ; but it is known that this, and other tribes, are much 
 in the habit of employing allegories, and symbols, under which we may 
 suspect, they have concealed parts of their historical traditions and be- 
 liefs. This deluge of the Algonquin tribes, was produced, as their 
 legends tell, by the agency of the chief of the evil spirits, symbolized by^a 
 great serpent, who is placed, throughout the tale, in an antagonistical posi- 
 tion to the demi-god Manabosho. This Manabozho, is the same, it is 
 thought, with the Abou, and the Michabou, or the Great Hare of elder 
 writers. 
 
 Of their actual origin and history, the Chippewas have no other certain 
 tradition, than that they came from Wabenong, that is to say, the land of the 
 EAST. They have no authentic history, therefore, but such remembered 
 events, as must be placed subsequent to the era of the discovery of the conti- 
 nent. Whether this tradition is to be interpreted as an ancient one, having 
 reference to their arrival on the continent, or merely to the track of their mi- 
 gration, after reaching it, is a question to be considered. It is only certain, 
 that they came to their present position on the banks of Lake Superior, from 
 the direction of the Atlantic seaboard, and were, when discovered, in the 
 attitude of an invading nation, pressing westward and northward. Their 
 distinctive name sheds no light on this question. They call themselves 
 Od-jib-wdg, which is the plural of Odjibwa, a term which appears to 
 denote a peculiarity in their voice, or manner of utterance. This word 
 has been pronounced Chippewa by the Saxon race in America, and is 
 thus recorded in our treaties and history. They are, in language, 
 manners and customs, and other characteristics, a well marked type of 
 the leading Algonquin race, and indeed, the most populous, important, 
 and wide spread existing branch of that family now on the continent. 
 The term Chippewa, may be considered as inveterately fixed by popular 
 usage, but in all disquisitions which have their philology or distinctive 
 cnaracter m view, tne true vernacular term of Od-jib-wa, will be found to 
 possess advantages to writers. The word Algonquin is still applied to a 
 small local band, at the Lake of Two Mountains, on the Utawas river, 
 near Montreal, but this^term, first bestowed by the French, has long been 
 a generic phrase for the entire race, who are identified by the ties of a 
 common original language in the United States and British America. 
 
 One of the most curious opinions of this people is their belief in the 
 mysterious and sacred character of fire. They obtain sacred fire, for all 
 national and ecclesiastical purposes, from the flint. Their national pipes 
 are lighted with this fire. It is symbolical of purity. Their notions of 
 the boundary between life and death, which is also symbolically the limit 
 of the material verge between this and a future state, are revealed in con-
 
 INDIAN TRADITIONS. 
 
 nection with the exhibition of flames of fire. They also make sacrifices 
 by fire of some part of the first fruits of the chase. These traits are to be 
 viewed, perhaps, in relation to their ancient worship of the sun, above no- 
 ticed, of which the traditions and belief, are still generally preserved. 
 The existence among them of the numerous classes of jossakeeds, or mut- 
 terers (the word is from the utterance of sounds low on the earth,) is a 
 trait that will remind the reader of a similar class of men, in early ages, 
 in the eastern hemisphere. These persons constitute, indeed, the Magii 
 of our western forests. In the exhibition of their art, and of the peculiar 
 notions they promulgate on the subject of a sacred fire, and the doctrine 
 of transmigration, they would seem to have their affiliation of descent 
 rather with the disciples of Zoroaster and the fruitful Persian stock, than 
 with the less mentally refined Mongolian hordes. 
 
 MYTHOLOGY, SUPERSTITIONS, AND RELIGION 
 OF THE ALGONQUINS. 
 
 THEIR SYSTEM OF MANITO WORSHIP, AS RECENTLY DISCLOSED BY THE CONFES- 
 SIONS OF ONE OF THEIR PROPHETS; THEIR LANGUAGES, AND CHARACTER OF THE 
 
 HANSLATIONS OF THE GOSPEL MADE INTO THESE DIALECTS; AND THE LEAD' 
 1IG MOTIVES OF CHRISTIANS AND PHILANTHROPISTS TO PERSEVERE IN THEIR 
 tHVILISATION AND CONVERSION.* 
 
 IT is known that the Indian tribes of this continent live in a state of 
 mental bondage to a class of men, who officiate as their priests and 
 soothsayers. These men found their claims to supernatural power on 
 early fastings, dreams, ascetic manners and habits, and often on some 
 real or feigned fit of insanity. Most of them affect a knowledge of 
 charms and incantations. They are provided with a sack of mystic im- 
 plements, the contents of which are exhibited in the course of their cere- 
 monies, such as the hollow bones of some of the larger anseres, small 
 carved representations of animals, cowrie and other sea-shells, &c. Some 
 of these men acquire a character for much sanctity, and turn their influ- 
 ence to political purposes, either personally or through some popular 
 warrior, as was instanced in the success of the sachems Buchanjahela, 
 Little Turtle and Tecumthe. 
 
 We have recently had an opportunity of conversing with one of this 
 
 class of sacred person, who has within late years embraced Christianity : 
 
 and have made some notes of the interview, which we will advert to for 
 
 ie purpose of exhibiting his testimony, as to the true character of thi* 
 
 * Net York Lit.& Theo. Review.
 
 MYTHOLOGY, SUPERSTITIONS, AND RELIGION 
 
 *n 
 
 class of impostors. Chusco, the person referred to, is an Ottawa Indian 
 who has long exercised the priestly office, so to say, to his brethren on 
 the northern frontiers. He is now a man turned of seventy. He is of 
 small stature, somewhat bent forward, and supports the infirmities of 
 age by walking with a staff. His sight is impaired, but his memory ac- 
 curate, enabling him to narrate with particularity events which transpired 
 more than half a century ago. He was present at the great convocation 
 of northern Indians at Greenville, which followed Gen. Wayne's victories 
 in the west an event to which most of these tribes look back, as an 
 era in their history. He afterwards returned to his native country in 
 the upper lakes, and fixed his residence at Michilimackinac, where in 
 late years, his wife became a convert to the Christian faith, and unit- 
 ed herself to the mission church on that island. A few years after, 
 the old prophet, who despised this mode of faith, and thought but little 
 of his wife's sagacity in uniting herself to a congregation of believers, felt 
 his own mind arrested by the same truths, and finally also embraced 
 them, and was propounded for admission, and afterwards kept on trial 
 before the session. It was about this time, or soon after he had been 
 received as an applicant for membership, that the writer visited his 
 lodge, and entered into a full examination of his sentiments and opinions, 
 contrasting them freely with what they had formerly been. We requested 
 him to narrate to us the facts of his conversion to the principles of Chris- 
 tianity, indicating the progress of truth on his mind, which he did in sub- 
 stance,through an interpreter, as follows : 
 
 " In the early part of my life I lived very wickedly, following the 
 META, the JEESTJKAN, and the WABENO, the three great superstitious ob- 
 servances of my people. I did not know that these societies were made 
 up of errors until my wife, whose heart had been turned by the mission- 
 aries, informed me of it. I had no pleasure in listening to her on this 
 subject, and often turned away, declaring that I was well satisfied with 
 the religion of my forefathers. She took every occasion of talking to 
 me on the subject. She told me that the Indian societies were bad, and ' 
 that all who adhered to them were no better than open servants of the 
 Evil Spirit. She had, in particular, four long talks with me on the sub- 
 ject, and explained to me who God was, and what sin was, as it is writ- 
 ten in God's book. I believed before, that there was One Great Spirit 
 who was the Master of life, who had made men and beasts. But she 
 explained to me the true character of this Great Spirit, the sinfulness of 
 the heart, and the necessity of having it changed from evil to good by 
 praying through Jesus Christ. By degrees I came to understand it. 
 She told me that the Ghost of God or Holy Spirit only could make the 
 heart better, and that the souls of all who died, without having felt this 
 power, would be burned in the fires. The missionaries had directed her 
 to speak to me and put words in her mouth ; and she said so much that,
 
 208 QF THE ALOONQUINS. 
 
 at length, I did not feel satisfied with my old way of life. Amongst other 
 things she spoke against drinking, which I was very fond of. 
 
 " I did not relish these conversations, but I could not forget them 
 When I reflected upon them, my heart was not as fixed as it used to be. 
 I began to see that the Indian Societies were bad, for I knew from my 
 own experience, that it was not a good Spirit that I had relied upon, j 
 determined that I would not undertake tojeesukd, or to look into futurity 
 any longer for the Indians, nor practice the Metals art. After a while I 
 began to see more fully that the Indian ceremonies were all bad, and I de- 
 termined to quit them altogether, and give heed to what was declared in 
 God's book. 
 
 " The first time that I felt I was to be condemned as a sinner, and that I 
 was in danger of being punished for sin by God, is clearly in my mind. 
 I was then on the Island of Bois Blanc, making sugar with my wife. I 
 was in a conflict of mind, and hardly knew what I was about. I walked 
 around the kettles, and did not know what I \valked for. I felt some- 
 times like a person wishing to cry, but I thought it would be unman- 
 ly to cry. For the space of two weeks, I felt in this alarmed and 
 unhappy mood. It seemed to me sometimes as if I must die. My 
 heart and my bones felt as if they would burst and fall asunder. My 
 wife asked me if I was sick, and said I looked pale. I was in an agony 
 of body and mind, especially during one week. It seemed, during this 
 time, as if an evil spirit haunted me. When I went out to gather sap, 
 I felt conscious that this spirit went with me and dogged me. It ap- 
 peared to animate my own shadow. 
 
 " My strength was failing under this conflict. One night, after I had 
 been busy all day, my mind was in great distress. This shadowy influ- 
 ence seemed to me to persuade me to go to sleep. I was tired, and I 
 wished rest, but I could not sleep. I began to pray. I knelt down and 
 prayed to God. I continued to pray at intervals through the night ; I 
 asked to know the truth. I then laid down and went to sleep. This 
 sleep brought me rest and peace. In the morning my wife awoke me, 
 telling me it was late. When I awoke I felt placid and easy in mind. 
 My distress had left me. I asked my wife what day it was. She told 
 me it was the Sabbath (in the Indian, prayer-day). I replied, * how I 
 wish I could go to the church at the mission ! Formerly I used to avoid 
 it, and shunned those who wished to speak to me of praying to God, but 
 now my heart longs to go there.' This feeling did not leave me. 
 
 " After three days I went to the mission. The gladness of my heart 
 continued the same as I had felt it the first morning at the camp. My 
 first feeling when I landed, was pity for my drunken brethren, and I 
 prayed that they might also be brought to find the true God. I spoke 
 to the missionary, who at subsequent interviews explained to me the 
 truth, thfc rite of baptism, and other principles. He wished, however, to
 
 MYTHOLOGY, SUPERSTITIONS, AND RELIGION 209 
 
 try me by my life, and I wished it also. It was the following autumn, 
 that I was received into the church." 
 
 We now turned his mind to the subject of intemperance in drinking, 
 understanding that it had been his former habit. He replied that he 
 had been one of the greatest drunkards. He had not been satisfied with 
 a ten days' drink. He would go and drink as long as he could get it. 
 He said, that during the night in which he first prayed, it was one of the 
 first subjects of his prayers, that God would remove this desire with his 
 other evil desires. He added, " God did so." When he arose that 
 morning the desire had left him. The evil spirit then tempted him by 
 suggesting to his mind " Should some one now enter and offer you 
 liquor, would you not taste it ?" He averred he could, at that moment, 
 firmly answer No ! It was now seven years since he had tasted a drop 
 of strong drink. He remarked that when he used first to visit the 
 houses of Christians, who gladly opened their doors to him, they were in 
 the habit of asking him to drink a glass of cider or wine, which he did. 
 But this practice had nearly ruined him. On one occasion he felt the 
 effects of what he had thus been prevailed on to drink. The danger he 
 felt himself to be in was such, that he was alarmed and gave up this prac- 
 tice also. 
 
 He detailed some providential trials which he had been recently ex- 
 posed to. He had observed, he said, that those of his people who had 
 professed piety and had subsequently fallen off, had nevertheless pros- 
 pered in worldly things, while he had found it very hard to live. He 
 was often in a state of want, and his lodge was so poor and bad, that it 
 would not keep out the rain. Both he and his wife were feeble, and 
 their clothes were worn out. They had now but a single blanket be- 
 tween them. But when these trials came up in his mind, he immedi- 
 ately resorted to God, who satisfied him. 
 
 Another trait in the character of his piety, may here be mentioned. 
 The autumn succeeding his conversion, he went over to the spot on the 
 island where he had planted potatoes. The Indian method is, not to 
 visit their small plantations from the time that their corn or potatoes are 
 hilled. He was pleased to find that the crop in this instance promised 
 to yield abundantly, and his wife immediately commenced the process of 
 raising them. " Stop !" exclaimed the grateful old man, " dare'you dig 
 these potatoes until we have thanked the Lord for them ?" They then 
 both knelt in prayer, and afterwards gathered the crop. 
 
 This individual appeared to form a tangible point in the intellectual 
 chain between Paganism and Christianity, which it is felt important to 
 examine. We felt desirous of drawing from him such particulars respect- 
 ing his former practice in necromancy and the prophetic art, as might lead 
 to correct philosophical conclusions. He had been the great juggler of 
 his tribe. He was now accepted as a Christian. What were his own 
 
 14
 
 210 
 
 conceptions of the power and arts he had practised ? How did these 
 things appear to his mind, after a lapse of several years, during which 
 his opinions and feelings had undergone changes, in many respects so 
 striking ? We found not the slightest avoiding of this topic on his part. 
 He attributed all his ability in deceptive arts to the agency of the Evil 
 Spirit ; and he spoke of it with the same settled tone that he had manifest- 
 ed in reciting other points in his personal experience. He believed that he 
 had followed a spirit whose object it was to deceive the Indians and 
 make them miserable. He believed that this spirit had left him and 
 that he was now following, in the affections of his heart, the spirit of 
 Truth. 
 
 Numerous symbols of the classes of the animate creation are relied 
 on by the Indian metays and-tca&cnos, to exhibit their affected power of 
 working miracles and to scrutinize the scenes of futurity. The objects 
 which this man had appealed to as personal spirits in the arcanum of his 
 lodge, were the tortoise, the swan, the woodpecker and the crow. He 
 had dreamed of these at his initial fast in his youth, during the period 
 set apart for this purpose, and he believed that a satanic influence was 
 exerted, by presenting to his mind one or more of these solemnly appro- 
 priated objects at the moment of ; his invoking them. This is the theory 
 drawn from his replies. We solicited him to detail the modus operandi, 
 after entering the juggler's lodge. This lodge resembles an acute pyra- 
 mid with the apex open. It is formed of poles, covered with tight- 
 drawn skins. His replies were perfectly ingenuous, evincing nothing of 
 the natural taciturnity and shyness of the Indian mind. The great ob- 
 ject with the operator is to agitate this lodge, and cause it to move and 
 shake without uprooting it from its basis, in such a manner as to induce 
 the spectators to believe that the power of action is superhuman. Af- 
 ter this manifestation of spiritual presence, the priest within is prepared 
 to give oracular responses. The only articles within were a drum and 
 rattle. In reply to our inquiry as to the mode of procedure, he stated 
 that his first essay, after entering the lodge, was to strike the drum and 
 commence his incantations. At this time his personal manitos assumed 
 their agency, and received, it is to be inferred, a satanic energy. Not 
 that he affects that there was any visible form assumed. But he felt, 
 their spirit-like presence. He represents the agitation of the lodge to 
 be due to currents of air, having the irregular and gyratory power of a 
 whirlwind. He does not pretend that his responses were guided by 
 truth, but on the contrary affirms that they were given under the influ- 
 ence of the evil spirit. 
 
 We interrogated him as to the use of physical apd mechanical means 
 in effecting cures, in the capacity of a meta, or a medicine man. He 
 referred to various medicines, some of which he thinks were antibilious 
 or otherwise sanatory. He used two bones in the exhibition of hif
 
 MYTHOLOGY, SUPERSTITIONS, AND RELIGION 211 
 
 physical skill, one of which was white and the other green. His arca- 
 num also embraced two small stone images. He affected to look into 
 and through the flesh, and to draw from the body fluids, as bile and blood. 
 He applied his mouth in suction. He characterized both the meta or 
 medicine dances and the wabeno dances by a term which may be trans- 
 lated deviltry. Yet he discriminated between these two popular insti- 
 tutions by adding that the meta included the use of medicines, good and 
 bad. The wabeno, on the contrary, consisted wholly in a wild exhibi- 
 tion of mere braggadocio and trick. It is not, according to him, an an- 
 cient institution. It originated, he said, with a Pottawattomie, who was 
 sick and lunatic a month When this man recovered he pretended that 
 he had ascended to heaven, and had brought thence divine arts, to aid his 
 countrymen. 
 
 With respect to the opinion steadfastly maintained by this venerable 
 subject of Indian reformation, that his deceptive arts were rendered effec- 
 tual in the way he designed, by satanic agency, we leave the reader to 
 form his own conclusions. In his mode of stating the facts, we concede 
 much to him, on the score of long established mental habits, and the 
 peculiarities arising from a mythology, exceeding even that of ancient 
 Greece, for the number, variety and ubiquity of its objects. But we per- 
 ceive nothing, on Christian theories, heterodox in the general position. 
 When the truth of the gospel comes to be grafted into the benighted 
 heart of a pagan, such as Chusco was, it throws a fearful light on the 
 objects which have been cherished there. The whole system of the 
 mythological agency of the gods and spirits of the heathen world and its 
 clumsy machinery is shown to be a sheer system of demonology, refera- 
 ble, in its operative effects on the minds of individuals, to the " Prince 
 of the power of the air." As such the Bible depicts it. We have not 
 been in the habit of conceding the existence of demoniacal possessions, 
 in the present era of Christianity, and have turned over some scores of 
 chapters and verses to satisfy our minds of the abrogation of these things. 
 But we have found no proofs of such a withdrawal of evil agency short 
 of the very point where our subject places it that is, the dawning of 
 the light of Christianity in the heart. We have, on the contrary, found in 
 the passages referred to, the declaration of the full and free existence of 
 such an agency in the general import, and apprehend that it cannot be 
 plucked out of the sacred writings. 
 
 The language of such an agency appears to be fully developed among 
 the northern tribes. Spirit-ridden they certainly are ; and the mental 
 slavery in which they live, under the fear of an invisible agency of evil 
 spirits, is, we apprehend, greater even than the bondage of the body. 
 The whole mind is bowed down under these intellectual fetters which 
 circumscribe its volitions, and bind it as effectually as with the hooks of 
 steel which pierce a whirling Hindoo's flesh. Whatever is wonderful,
 
 or 
 
 OP THE ALGONQU1NS. 
 
 past comprehension to their minds, is referred to the agency of a spirit 
 This is the ready solution of every mystery in nature, and of every re 
 finement of mechanical power in art. A watch is, in the intricacy of its 
 machinery, a spirit. A piece of blue cloth cast and blistered steel a 
 compass, a jewel, an insect, &c., are, respectively, a spirit. Thunder 
 consists, in their transcendental astronomy, of so many distinct spirits. 
 The aurora borealis is a body of dancing spirits, or rather ghosts of the 
 departed. 
 
 Such were the ideas and experiences of Chusco, after bis union with 
 the church ; and with these views he lived and died, having given 
 evidence, as was thought, of the reception of the Saviour, through 
 faith. 
 
 To give some idea of the Indian mythology as above denoted, it is 
 necessary to conceive every department of the universe to be filled with 
 invisible spirits. These spirits hold in their belief nearly the same rela- 
 tion to matter that the soul does to the body : they pervade it. They 
 believe not only that every man, but also that every animal, has a soul; 
 and as might be expected under this belief, they make no distinction 
 between instinct and reason. Every animal is supposed to be endowed 
 with a reasoning faculty. The movements of birds and other animals 
 are deemed to be the result, not of mere instinctive animal powers im- 
 planted and limited by the creation, without inherent power to exceed or 
 enlarge them, but of a process of ratiocination. They go a step farther, 
 and believe that animals, particularly birds, can look into, and are fami- 
 liar with the vast operations of the world above. Hence the great re- 
 spect they pay to birds as agents of omen, and also to some animals, 
 whose souls they expect to encounter in another life. Nay, it is the 
 settled belief among the northern Algonquins, that animals will fare bet- 
 ter in another world, in the precise ratio that their lives and enjoyments 
 have been curtailed in this life. 
 
 Dreams are considered bj- them as a means of direct communication 
 with the spiritual world ; and hence the great influence which dreams 
 exert over the Indian mind and conduct. They are generally regarded 
 as friendly warnings of their personal manitos. No labor or enterprise 
 is undertaken against their indications. A whole army is turned back 
 if the dreams of the officiating priest are unfavorable. A family lodge 
 has been known to be deserted by all its inmates at midnight, leaving the 
 fixtures behind, because one of the family had dreamt of an attack, and 
 been frightened with the impression of blood and tomahawks. To give 
 more solemnity to his office the priest or leading meta exhibits a sack 
 containing the carved or stuffed images of animals, with medicines and 
 bones constituting the sacred charms. These are never exhibited to the 
 common gaze, but, on a march, the sack is hung up in plain view. To 
 profane the medicine sack would be equivalent to violating the atlar.
 
 MYTHOLOGY, SUPERSTITIONS, AND RELIGION 213 
 
 Dreams are carefully sought by every Indian, whatever be their rank, 
 at certain periods of youth, with fasting. These fasts are sometimes 
 continued a great number of days, until the devotee becomes pale and 
 emaciated. The animals that appear propitiously to the mind during 
 these dreams, are fixed on and selected 'as personal manitos, and are 
 ever after viewed as guardians. This period of fasting and dream- 
 ing is deemed as essential by them as any religious rite whatever em- 
 ployed by Christians. The initial fast of a young man or girl holds the 
 relative importance of baptism, with this peculiarity, that it is a free- 
 will, or self-dedicatory rite. 
 
 The naming of children has an intimate connection with the system of 
 mythological agency. Names are usually bestowed by some aged per- 
 son, most commonly under the supposed guidance of a particular spirit. 
 They are often derived from the mystic scenes presented in a dream, and 
 refer to aerial phenomena. Yellow Thunder, Bright Sky, Big Cloud, Spirit 
 Sky, Spot in the Sky, are common names for males. Females are more 
 commonly named from the vernal or autumnal landscape, as Woman of 
 the Valley, Woman of the Rock, &c. Females are not excluded from par- 
 ticipation in the prophetical office or jugglership. Instances of their hav- 
 ing assumed this function are known to have occurred, although it is 
 commonly confined to males. In every other department of life they 
 are apparently regarded as inferior or inclusive beings. Names bestowed 
 with ceremony in childhood are deemed sacred, and are seldom pro- 
 nounced, out of respect, it would seem, to the spirit under whose favor 
 they are' supposed to have been selected. Children are usually called 
 in the family by some name which can be familiarly used. A male child 
 is frequently called by the mother, a bird, or young one, or old man, as 
 terms of endearment, or bad boy, evil-doer, &c., in the way of light re- 
 proach ; and these names often adhere to the individual through life. 
 Parents avoid the true name often by saying my son, my younger, or 
 my elder son, or my younger or my elder daughter, for which the language 
 has separate words. This subject of a reluctance to tell their names is 
 very curious and deserving of investigation. 
 
 The Indian " art and mystery" of hunting is a tissue of necromantic 
 or mythological reliances. The personal spirits of the hunter are invok- 
 ed to give success in the chace. Images of the animals sought for are 
 sometimes carved in wood, or drawn by the metas on tabular pieces of 
 wood By applying their mystic medicines to these, the animals are 
 supposed to be drawn into the hunter's path ; and when animals have 
 been killed, the Indian feels, that although they are an authorized and 
 lawful prey, yet there is something like accountability to the animal's 
 suppositional soul. An Indian has been known to ask the pardon of an 
 animal, which he had just killed. Drumming, shaking the rattle, and 
 dancing and singing, are the common accompaniments of all these super-
 
 214 OP THE ALGONQUINS. 
 
 stitious observances, and are not peculiar to one class alone. In the 
 wabeno dance, which is esteemed by the Indians as the most latitudina- 
 rian co-fraternity, love songs are introduced. They are never heard in 
 the medicine dances. They would subject one to utter contempt in the 
 war dance. 
 
 The system ofmanito worship has another peculiarity, which is illus- 
 trative of Indian character. During the fasts and ceremonial dances by 
 which a warrior prepares himself to come up to the duties of war, every- 
 thing that savors of effeminacy is put aside. The spirits which preside 
 over bravery and war are alone relied on, and these are supposed to be 
 offended by the votary's paying attention to objects less stern and manly 
 than themselves. Venus and Mars cannot be worshipped at the same 
 time. It would be considered a complete desecration for a warrior, 
 while engaged in war, to entangle himself by another, or more tender 
 sentiment. We think this opinion should be duly estimated in the gen- 
 eral award which history gives to the chastity of warriors. We would 
 record the fact to their praise, as fully as it has been done ; but we would 
 subtract something from the motive, in view of his paramount obligations 
 of a sacred character, and also the fear of the ridicule of his co-warriors. 
 
 In these leading doctrines of an oral and mystic school of wild philo- 
 sophy may be perceived the ground-work of their mythology, and the 
 general motive for selecting familiar spirits. Manito, or as the Chippe- 
 was pronounce it, mone'do, signifies simply a spirit, and there is neither 
 a good nor bad meaning attached to it, when not under the government 
 of some adjective or qualifying particle. We think, however, that so far 
 as there is a meaning distinct from an invisible existence, the tendency 
 is to a bad meaning. A bad meaning is, however, distinctly conveyed 
 by the inflection, osh or ish. The particle wee, added in the same rela- 
 tion, indicates a witch. Like numerous other nouns, it has its diminu- 
 tive in os, its plural in wug, and its local form in ing. To add " great," 
 as the Jesuit writers did, is far from deciding the moral character of the 
 spirit, and hence modern translators prefix gezha, signifying merciful. 
 Yet we doubt whether the word God should not be carried boldly into 
 translations of the scriptures. In the conference and prayer-room, the 
 native teachers use the inclusive pronominal form of Father, altogether. 
 Truth breaks slowly on the mind, sunk in so profound a darkness as the 
 Indians are, and there is danger in retaining the use of words like those 
 which they have so long employed in a problematical, if not a deroga- 
 tive sense. 
 
 The love for mystery and magic which pervades the native ceremo- 
 nies, has affected the forms of their language. They have given it a 
 power to impart life to dead masses. Vitality in their forms of utter- 
 ance is deeply implanted in all these dialects, which have been examin- 
 ed ; they provide, by the process of inflection, for keeping a perpetual
 
 MYTHOLOGY, SUPERSTITIONS, AND RELIGION 215 
 
 distinction between the animate and inanimate kingdoms. But where 
 vitality and spirituality are so blended as we see them in their doctrine 
 of animal souls, the inevitable result must be, either to exalt the princi- 
 ple of life, in all the classes of nature, into immortality, or to sink the lat- 
 ter to the level of mere organic life. Indian word-makers have taken 
 the former dilemma, and peopled their paradise not only with the souls 
 of men. but with the souls of every imaginable kind of beasts. Spir- 
 ituality is thus clogged with sensual accidents. The human soul 
 hungers, and it must have food deposited upon the grave. It suffers 
 from cold, and the body must be wrapped about with cloths. It is in 
 darkness, and jf light must be kindled at the head of the grave. It wan- 
 ders through plains ajid across streams, subject to the providences of 
 this life, in quest of its place of enjoyment, and when it reaches it, it 
 finds every species of sensual trial, which renders the place not indeed 
 a heaven of rest, but another experimental world very much like this. 
 Of punishments, we hear nothing ; rewards are looked for abundantly, 
 and the idea that the Master of life, or the merciful Spirit, will be alike 
 merciful to all, irrespective of the acts of this life, or the degree of moral 
 turpitude, appears to leave for their theology a belief in restorations or 
 universalism. There is nothing to refer them to a Saviour ; that IDEA 
 was beyond their conception, and of course there was no occasion for the 
 offices of the Holy Ghost. Darker and more chilling views to a theolo- 
 gian, it would be impossible to present. Yet it may be asked, what 
 more benign result could have been, or can now be, anticipated in the 
 hearts of an ignorant, uninstructed and wandering people, exposed to 
 sore vicissitudes in their lives and fortunes, and without the guidance oi 
 the light of Revelation ? 
 
 Of their mythology proper, we have space only to make a few re- 
 marks. Some of the mythologic existences of the Indians admit of 
 poetic uses. Manabozho may be considered as a sort of terrene Jove, 
 who could perform all things whatever, but lived some time on earth, 
 and excelled particularly in feats of strength and manual dexterity. All 
 the animals were subject to him. He also survived a deluge, which the 
 traditions mention, havin B climbed a tree on an extreme elevation during 
 the prevalence of the waters, and sent down various animals for some 
 earth, out of which he re-created the globe. The four cardinal points 
 are so many demi-gods, of whom the West, called KABETTN, has priority 
 of age. The East, North and South are deemed to be his sons, by a 
 maid who incautiously exposed herself to the west wind. IAGOO 
 (lagoo) is the god of the marvellous, and many most extravagant tales 
 of forest and domestic adventure are heaped upon him. KWASIND is 
 a sort of Samson, who threw a huge mass of rock such as the Cy- 
 clops cast at Mentor. WEENG is the god of sleep, who is represented to 
 have numerous small emissaries at his service, reminding us ot Pope's
 
 216 
 
 OF THE ALGONQUINS. 
 
 creation of gnomes. These minute emissaries climb up the forehead, 
 and wielding a tiny club, knock individuals to sleep. PAUGUK is death, 
 in his symbolic attitude. He is armed with a bow and arrows. It would 
 be easy to extend this enumeration. 
 
 The mental powers of the Indian constitutes a topic which we do not 
 design to discuss. But it must be manifest that some of their peculiari- 
 ties are brought out by their system of mythology and spirit-craft. War, 
 public policy, hunting, abstinence, endurance and courageous adventure, 
 form the leading topics of their mental efforts. These are deemed the 
 appropriate themes of men, sages and warriors. But their intellectual 
 essays have also a domestic theatre of exhibition. It is here that the 
 Indian mind unbends itself and reveals some of its less obvious traits. 
 Their public speakers cultivate a particular branch of oratory. They 
 are careful in the use of words, and are regarded as standards of purity 
 in the language. They appear to have an accurate ear for sounds, and 
 delight in rounding off a period, for which the languages afford great fa- 
 cilities, by their long and stately words, and multiform inflexions. A 
 drift of thought an elevation of style, is observable in their public speak- 
 ing u hich is dropt in private conversation. Voice, attitude aad motion, 
 are deemed of the highest consequence. Much of the meaning of their 
 expressions is varied by the vehement, subdued, or prolonged tone in 
 which they are uttered. In private conversation, on the contrary, all is 
 altered. There is an equanimity of tone, and easy vein of narration 
 or dialogue, in which the power of mimicry is most strikingly brought 
 out. The very voice and words of the supposed speakers, in their ficti- 
 tious legends, are assumed. Fear, supplication, timidity or boasting, 
 are exactly depicted, and the deepest interest excited. All is ease and 
 freedom from restraint. There is nothing of the coldness or severe for- 
 mality of the council. The pipe is put to its ordinary use, and all its 
 symbolic sanctity is laid aside with the wampum belt and the often reiter- 
 ated state epithets, u Nosa" and " Kosinan," i. e. my father and our father. 
 
 Another striking trait of the race is found in their legends and tales. 
 Those of the aboriginal race who excel in private conversation, become to 
 their tribes oral chroniclers, and are relied on for historical traditions 
 as well as tales. It is necessary, in listening to them, to distinguish 
 between the gossip and the historian, the narrator of real events, and 
 of nurspry tales. For they gather together everything from the fabu- 
 lous feats of Manebozho and Misshozha, to the hair-breadth escapes 
 of a Pontiac, or a Black Hawk. These narrators are generally men of 
 a good memory and a certain degree of humor, who have experienced 
 vicissitudes, and are cast into the vale of years. In the rehearsal of their 
 tales, transformations and transmigrations are a part of the machinery 
 relied on ; and some of them are as accurately adapted to the purposes 
 of amusement or instruction, as if Zoroaster or Ovid himself had been
 
 MYTHOLOGY, SUPERSTITIONS, AND RELIGION 217 
 
 consulted in their production. Many objects in the inanimate creation, 
 according to these tales, were originally men and women. And nume- 
 rous animals had other forms in their first stages of existence, which 
 they, as well as human beings, forfeited, by the power of necromancy and 
 transmigration. The evening star, it is fabled, was formerly a woman. 
 An ambitious boy became one of the planets. Three brothers, travel- 
 ling in a canoe, were translated into a group of stars. The fox, lynx, 
 hare, robin, eagle and numerous other species, retain places in the In- 
 dian system of astronomy. The mouse obtained celestial elevation by 
 creeping up the rainbow, which Indian story makes a flossy mass of 
 bright threads, and by the power of gnawing them, he relieved a captive 
 in the sky. It is a coincidence, which we note, that ursa major is called 
 by them the bear. 
 
 These legends are not confined to the sky alone. The earth also is a 
 fruitful theatre of transformations. The wolf was formerly a boy, who, 
 being neglected by his parents, was transformed into this animal. A 
 shell, lying on the shore, was transformed to the raccoon. The brains 
 of an adulteress were converted into the addikumaig , or white fish. 
 
 The power of transformation was variously exercised. It most com- 
 monly existed in magicians, of whom Abo, Manabosh or Manabozha, and 
 Mishosha, retain much celebrity. The latter possessed a magic canoe 
 which would rush forward through the water on the utterance of a charm, 
 with a speed that would outstrip the wind. Hundreds of miles were 
 performed in as many minutes. The charm which he uttered, consisted 
 of a monosyllable, containing one consonant, which does not belong to 
 the language ; and this word has no definable meaning. So that the 
 language of magic and demonology has one feature in common in all 
 ages and with every nation. 
 
 Man, in his common shape, is not alone the subject of their legends. 
 The intellectual creations of the Indians admit of the agency of giants 
 and fairies. Anak and his progeny could not have created more alarm 
 in the minds of the ten faithless spies, than do the race of fabulous 
 Weendigos to the Indian tribes. These giants are represented as canni- 
 bals, who ate up men, women and children. Indian fairies are of two 
 classes, distinguished as the place of their revels is either the land or 
 water. Land-fairies are imagined to choose their residence!? about pro- 
 montories, water-falls and solemn groves. The water, besides its appro- 
 priate class of aquatic fairies, is supposed to be the residence of a race of 
 beings called Nibanaba which have their analogy, except as to sex, in 
 the mermaid. The Indian word indicates a male. Ghosts are the ordi- 
 nary machinery in their tales of terror and mystery. There is, perhaps, 
 a glimmering of the idea of retributive justice in the belief that ghosts 
 and spirits are capable of existing in fire.
 
 INDIAN ARROW HEADS, &c. 
 
 BY far the most numerous relics of the Red Race, now found in those 
 parts of our country from which it has disappeared, fere the small stonef 
 with which they headed their arrows. Being made of the most durable 
 substances, they have generally remained in the soil, unaffected by time 
 and the changes of season. They most abound in those rich meadows 
 which border some of our rivers, and in other spots of peculiar fertility, 
 though of less extent, where the pasture, or other attractions, collected 
 game for the Red men. The stones most commonly used were quartz 
 and flint, which were preferred on account of the facility of shaping 
 them, the keenness of the points and edges, which they readily present 
 under the blows of a skilful manufacturer, as well as their superior hard- 
 ness and imperishable nature. Multitudes of specimens still exist, which 
 show the various forms and sizes to Avhich the Red men reduced stones of 
 these kinds : and they excite our admiration, by their perfect state of pre- 
 servation, as well by the skilfulness of their manufacture. 
 
 Other stones, however, were not unfrequently used : and a collection 
 which we have been making for many years, presents a considerable 
 variety of materials, as well as of sizes, shapes and colors. Hard sand- 
 stone, trap or graacke, jasper and chalcedony, appear occasionally ; 
 some almost transparent. One of the larger size is made of steatite, and 
 smooth, as if cut or scraped with a knife, contrary to the common method, 
 of gradually chipping off small fragments of more brittle stone, by light 
 blows often repeated. These arrow heads were fastened to the shaft, by 
 inserting the butt into the split end, and tying round it a string of deer's 
 sinews. A groove or depression is commonly observable in the stone, 
 designed to receive the string. But it is sometimes difficult to imagine 
 how the fastening was effected, as some perfect arrow-heads show no such 
 depressions, and their forms are not well adapted to such a purpose. This 
 peculiarity, however, is most frequently to be observed in specimens of 
 small size, the larger, and especially such as are commonly supposed to 
 have been the heads of spears, being usually well shaped for tying. 
 
 It is remarkable that some spots have been found, where such relics 
 were surprizingly numerous. In Hartford, Connecticut, about thirty- 
 years ago. many were picked up ^n a garden, at the corner of Front and 
 Mill streets. The spot was indeed on the bank of the Little River, pro- 
 bably at the head of Indian Canoe navigation : but yet no rational con- 
 jecture could be formed, to account for the^iiscovery, except one. It was con- 
 cluded that the place was an ancient burying ground. Many bits of coarse 
 earthen-ware were found, such as are common in many parts of the coun- 
 try. About two Tiiles below Middletown, Connecticut, on the slope of a 
 
 218
 
 INDIAN ARROW HEADS, ETC. 219 
 
 hill on the southern side of the Narrows, we discovered, some years since, 
 a great number of small fragments of white quartz, scattered thickly over 
 the surface of the ground, perhaps for half an acre. Among them were 
 several arrowheads of various forms, most of them imperfect, and many 
 pieces of stone, which at first sight resembled them, but, on cfoser inspec- 
 tion, seemed to have been designed for arrow heads, but spoiled in the 
 making. Some had one good edge, or a point or barb, while the other parts 
 of the same stones showed only the natural form and fracture. In many in- 
 stances, it was easy to see that the workman might well have been discour- 
 aged from proceeding any farther, by a flaw, a break or the nature of the 
 stone. Our conclusion was, that the spot had long been a place where 
 Indian arrow heads were made, and that we saw around us the refuse 
 fragments rejected by the workmen. Other spots have been heard of 
 resembling this. 
 
 If such relics were found nowhere else but in our own country, they 
 would be curious, and worthy of preservation and attention : but it is an 
 interesting fact, not however generally known, that they exist in many 
 other parts of the world. Stone arrow and spear heads have been found 
 in England for hundreds of years, and are believed to have been made 
 and used by the Britons, who, in respect to civilization, were nearly on a 
 level with our Indians. These relics are called by the common people 
 Celts, from the race whose memory they recal ; and particular accounts 
 of them are given, with drawings, in several antiquarian works. They 
 bear a striking resemblance to our Indian arrow heads ; and many of 
 them could be hardly, if at all, distinguished from those of America. 
 
 African arrows have been brought to this country, in which the points 
 were of the same forms and materials, and fastened in the same manner. 
 A.bout twelve years ago a vessel from Stonington was attacked by a party 
 of Patagonians, who threw arrows on board. One of these which we 
 procured, was pointed with a head of milky quartz, exactly corresponding 
 with specimens picked up in New England. 
 
 Among the relics found in excavating the low mounds on the plain of 
 Marathon, as, we were informed by one of our countrymen, who was at 
 Athens some years ago, there were spear heads made of flint, which, he 
 declared, were like those he had often seen ploughed up in his native 
 fields. These, it was conjectured, might have been among the weapons 
 of some of the rude Scythians in the Persian army, which met its defeat 
 on that celebrated battle ground. 
 
 A negro, from an obscure group of islands, just noi'th of New Guinea, 
 in describing the weapons in use among his countrymen, drew the forms 
 of spear heads, which he said were often made of stones ; and, when 
 shown specimens from our collection, declared that they were very much 
 like them. 
 
 It has been thought, that certain instruments would naturally be inven
 
 220 INDIAN ARROW HEADS, ETC. 
 
 ted by men in particular states of society and under certain circumstances, 
 as the result of their wants and the means at hand to supply them. It is 
 not, however, always easy to reconcile this doctrine with far-,ts. For ex- 
 ample, the black race of the islands north of New Holland, (of which so 
 little is yet known,) appear to require the use of the bow as much as any 
 other savage people, yet they are entirely ignorant of it, though it has 
 been thought one of the simple, most natural and most indispensable 
 instruments in such a condition of society. 
 
 We are therefore left in doubt, in the present state of our knowledge, 
 whether the manufacture and use of stone arrow heads have been so ex- 
 tensively diffused over the globe by repeated inventions, or by an inter- 
 coarse between portions of the human race long since ceased, or by both 
 causes. To whichever of these opinions we may incline, the subject 
 must still appear to us worthy of investigation, as the history of these 
 relics must necessarily be closely connected with that of different families 
 and races of men in every continent and in every zone. 
 
 We would invite particular attention to the position and circumstances 
 of Indian remains which may hereafter be found ; and would express a 
 wish that they might be recorded and made known. Our newspapers 
 offer a most favorable vehicle for the communication of such discoveries 
 and observations, and our editors generally must have taste and judgment 
 enough to give room for them. 
 
 It was remarked in some of our publications a few years ago, that no 
 unequivocal remains of the Red men had yet been discovered in the earth, 
 below the most recent strata of soil, excepting cases in which they had 
 been buried in graves, &c. Perhaps later observations may furnish evi- 
 dence of the longer presence of that race on our continent than such a 
 statement countenances. 
 
 One of the most interesting objects of enquiry, with some antiquaries, 
 is whether there are any ancient indications of Alphabetical writing in 
 our continent. A small stone found in the Grave-Creek Mound, and 
 others of a more doubtful character, are quite sufficient to awaken interest 
 and stimulate enquiry. 
 
 A few specimens of rude sculpture and drawing have been found in 
 different parts 01 the U. States ; and shells, ornaments, &c., evidently 
 brought from great distances. There may be others, known to individu- 
 als, of which antiquaries are not aware. After perusing the foregoing 
 pages, it will be easy to realize that all such remains may be worthy of 
 attention. Not only copies should be made and dimensions taken, but 
 descriptions should be written, local information and traditions collected, 
 measures taken to preserve the originals, and some notice given which 
 may reach persons interested in such subjects. E.
 
 INDIAN MUSIC, SONGS, AND POETRY. 
 
 No. I. 
 
 THE North American tribes have the elements of music and poetry. 
 Their war songs frequently contain flights of the finest heroic sentiment, 
 clothed in poetic imagery. And numbers of the addresses of the speak- 
 ers, both occasional and public, abound in eloquent and poetic thought. 
 " We would anticipate eloquence," observes a modern American writer, 
 " from an Indian. He has animating remembrances a poetry of lan- 
 guage, which exacts rich and apposite metaphorical allusions, even for 
 ordinary conversation a mind which, like his body, has never been 
 trammelled and mechanized by the formalities of society, and passions 
 which, from the very outward restraint imposed upon them, burn more 
 fiercely within." Yet, it will be found that the records of our litera- 
 ture, scattered as they are, in periodicals and ephemeral publications, 
 rather than in works of professed research, are meagre and barren, on 
 these topics. One of the first things we hear of the Indians, after their 
 discovery, is their proneness to singing and dancing. But however char- 
 acteristic these traits may be, and we think they are eminently so, it has 
 fallen to the lot of but few to put on record specimens, which may be ap- 
 pealed to, as evidences of the current opinion, on these heads. With fa- 
 vourable opoortunities of observation among the tribes, we have but to 
 add our testimony to tne difficulties of making collections in these depart- 
 ments, which shall not compromit the intellectual character of the tribes, 
 whose efforts are always oral, and very commonly extemporaneous. 
 These difficulties arise from the want of suitable interpreters, the remote- 
 ness of the points at which observations must be made, the heavy demands 
 made upon hours of leisure or business by such inquiries, and the incon- 
 venience of making notes and detailed memoranda on the spot. The 
 little that it is in our power to offer, will therefore be submitted as contri- 
 butions to an inquiry which is quite in its infancy, and rather with the 
 hope of exciting others to future labours, than of gratifying, to any extent, 
 an enlightened curiosity on the subject. 
 
 Dancing is both an amusement and a religious observance, among the 
 American Indians, and is known to constitute one of the most wide spread 
 traits in their manners and customs. It is accompanied, in all cases, with 
 singing, and, omitting a few cases, with the beating of time on instru- 
 ments. Tribes the most diverse in language, and situated at the greatest 
 distances apart, concur in this. It is believed to be the ordinary mode of 
 expressing intense passion, or feeling on any subject, and it is a custom 
 
 221
 
 222 INDIAN MUSIC, SONGS, AND POETRY. 
 
 which has been persevered in, with the least variation, through all the 
 phases of their history, and probably exists among the remote tribes, pre- 
 cisely at this time, as it did in the era of Columbus. It is observed to be 
 the last thing abandoned by bands and individuals, in their progress to 
 civilization and Christianity. So true is this, that it may be regarded as 
 one of the best practical proofs of their advance, to find the native in- 
 struments and music thrown by, and the custom abandoned. 
 
 Every one has heard of the war dance, the medicine dance, the wabeno 
 dance, the dance of honour (generally called the begging dance,) and 
 various others, each of which has its appropriate movements, its air, and 
 its words. There is no feast, and no religious ceremony, among them, 
 which is not attended with dancing and songs. Thanks are thus ex- 
 pressed for success in hunting, for triumphs in war, and for ordinary 
 providential cares. Public opinion is called to pressing objects by a 
 dance, at which addresses are made, and in fact, moral instructions and 
 advice are given to the young, in the course of their being assembled at 
 social feasts and dances. Dancing is indeed the common resource, when- 
 ever the mass of Indian mind is to be acted on. And it thus stands 
 viewed in its necessary connection with the songs and addresses, in the 
 ( room of the press, the newspaper, and the periodical. The priests and 
 prophets have, more than any other class, cultivated their national songs 
 and dances, and may be regarded as the skalds and poets of the tribes. 
 They are generally the composers of the songs, and the leaders in the 
 dance and ceremonies, and it is found, that their memories are the best 
 stored, not only with the sacred songs and chants, but also with the tradi- 
 tions, and general lore of the tribes. 
 
 Dancing is thus interwoven throughout the whole texture of Indian so- 
 ciety, so that there is scarcely an event important or trivial, private or 
 public, which is not connected, more or less intimately, with this rite. 
 The instances where singing is adopted, without dancing, are nearly con- 
 fined to occurrences of a domestic character. Among these, are wails for 
 the dead, and love songs of a simple and plaintive character. Maternal 
 affection evinces itself, by singing words, to a cheerful air, over the slum- 
 bers of the child, which, being suspended in a kind of cradle receives, at 
 the same time avibratory motion. Children have likewise certain chants, 
 which they utter in the evenings, while playing around the lodge door, 
 or at other seasons of youthful hilarity. Some of the Indian fables are 
 in the shape of duets, and the songs introduced in narrating their ficti- 
 tious tales, are always sung in the recital. 
 
 Their instruments of music are few and simple. The only wind in- 
 strument existing among them is the Pibbegwon, a kind of flute, resem- 
 bling in simplicity the Arcadian pipe. It is commonly made of two semi- 
 cylindrical pieces of cedar, united with fish glue, and having a snake skin, 
 in a wet state, drawn tightly over it, to prevent its cracking. The holes
 
 INDIAN MUSIC, SONGS, AND POETRY. 
 
 are eight in number, and are perforated by means of a bit of heated iron. 
 It is blown like the flagolet, and has a similar orifice or moutn piece. 
 
 The TAYWA'EGUN, (struck-sound -instrument,) is a tamborine, or one- 
 headed drum, and is made by adjusting a skin to one end of the section 
 of a moderate sized hollow tree. When a heavier sound is required, a 
 tree of larger circumference is chosen, and both ends closed with skins. 
 The latter is called MITTIGWUKEEK. i. e. Wood-Kettle-Drum, and is appro- 
 priately used in religious ceremonies, but is not, perhaps, confined to this 
 occasion. 
 
 To these may be added a fourth instrument, called the SHESHEGWON, or 
 Rattle, which is constructed in various ways, according to the purpose or 
 means of the maker. Sometimes it is made of animal bladder, from 
 which the name is derived, sometimes of a wild gourd ; in others, by at- 
 taching the dried hoofs of the deer to a stick. This instrument is em- 
 ployed both to mark time, and to produce variety in sound. 
 
 ORAL COMPOSITION. 
 
 Common as the Indian songs are, it is found to be no ordinary acqui- 
 sition to obtain accurate specimens of them. Even after the difficulties 
 of the notation have been accomplished, it is not easy to satisfy the re- 
 quisitions of a correct taste and judgment, in their exhibition. There is 
 always a lingering fear of misapprehension, or misconception, on the part 
 of the interpreter or of some things being withheld by the never sleep- 
 ing suspicion, or the superstitious fear of disclosure, on the part of the 
 Indian. To these must be added, the idiomatic and imaginative peculiari- 
 ties of this species of wild composition so very different from every no- 
 tion of English versification. In the first place there is no unity of theme, 
 br plot, unless it be that the subject, war for instance, is kept in the singer's 
 mind. In the next place both the narration and the description, when 
 introduced, is very imperfect, broken, or disjointed. Prominent ideas 
 flash out, and are dropped. These are often most striking and beauti- 
 ful, but we wait in vain for any sequence. A brief allusion a shinin g 
 symbol, a burst of feeling or passion, a fine sentiment, or a bold assertion, 
 come in as so many independent parts, and there is but little in the com- 
 position to indicate the leading theme which is, as it were, kept in mental 
 j fc ^serve, by the singer. Popular, or favourite expressions are often re- 
 peatet^; often transposed, and often exhibited with some new shade of 
 meaning. r ^ e structure and flexibility of the language- is highly favour- 
 able to this K' mc ^ f w ^ improvisation. But it is difficult to translate, and 
 next to impossiJ^ 6 to P reserve i ts spirit. Two languages more unlike in 
 all their leadinw characteristics, than the English and the Indian were 
 never brought into coi ntact- ^ e one monosyllabic, and nearly without 
 inflectionsthe other poly. s y llabic > potysynthetic and so full of inflections
 
 224 INDIAN MUSIC, SONGS, AND POETRY. 
 
 of every imaginative kind, as to be completely tra'nspositive the one 
 from the north of Europe, the other, probably, from Central Asia, it would 
 seem that these families of the human race, had not wandered wider 
 apart, in their location, than they have in the sounds of their language, 
 the accidence of their grammar and the definition of their words. So 
 that to find equivalent single words in translation, appears often as hope- 
 less as the quadrature of the circle. 
 
 The great store-house of Indian imagery is the heavens. The clouds, 
 the planets, the sun, and moon, the phenomena of lightning, thuno/er, elec- 
 tricity, aerial sounds, electric or atmospheric, and the endless variety pro- 
 duced in the heavens by light and shade, and by elemental action, these 
 constitute the fruitful themes of allusion in their songs and poetic chants. 
 But they are mere allusions, or broken description, like touches on the 
 canvass, without being united to produce a perfect object. The strokes 
 may be those of a master, and the colouring exquisite ; but without the 
 art to draw, or the skill to connect, it will still remain but a shapeless mass 
 In war excursions great attention is paid to the flight of birds, particularly 
 those of the carnivorous species, which are deemed typical of war and bra- 
 very, and their wing and tail feathers are appropriated as marks of honor, by 
 the successful warrior. When the minds of a war party have been roused 
 up to the subject, and they are prepared to give utterance to their feelings 
 by singing and dancing, they are naturally led to appeal to the agency 
 of this class of birds. Hence the frequent allusions to them, in their 
 songs. The following stanza is made up of expressions brought into con- 
 nection, from different fragments, but expresses no more than the native 
 sentiments : 
 
 The eagles scream on high, 
 
 They whet their forked beaks, 
 Raise raise the battle cry, 
 'Tis fame our leader seeks. 
 
 Generally the expressions are of an exalted and poetic character, but 
 the remark before made of their efforts in song, being discontinuous and 
 abrupt, apply with peculiar force to the war songs. To speak of a brave 
 man of a battle or the scene of a battle, or of the hovering of birds of 
 prey above it, appears sufficient to bring up to the warrior's mind, all the 
 details consequent on personal bravery or heroic achievement. It would 
 naturally be expected, that they should delight to dwell on scenes of car- 
 nage and blood : but however this may be, all such details are omitted or 
 suppressed in their war songs, which only excite ideas of noble daring. 
 
 The birds of the brave take a flight round the sky, 
 
 They cross the enemy's line, 
 Full happy am I that my body should fall, 
 
 Where brave men love to die.
 
 INDIAN MUSIC, SONGS, AND POETRY. 225 
 
 Very little effort in the collocation and expansion of some of their senti- 
 ments, would impart to these bold and unfettered raphsodies, an attractive 
 form, among polished war songs. 
 
 The strain in which these measures are sung, is generally slow and 
 grave in its commencement and progress, and terminates in the highest 
 note. While the words admit of change, and are marked by all the fluc- 
 tuation of extempore composition, the air and the chorus appear to be per- 
 manent, consisting not only of a graduated succession of fixed sounds, 
 but, always exact in their enunciation, their quantity, and their wild and 
 startling musical expression. It has always appeared to me that the In- 
 dian music is marked by a nationality, above many other traits, and it is 
 a subject inviting future attention. It is certain that the Indian ear is ex- 
 act in noting musical sounds, and in marking and beating time. But little 
 observation at their dances, will be sufficient to establish this fact. Nor 
 is it less certain, by attention to the philology of their language, that they 
 are exact in their laws of euphony, and syllabical quantity. How this 
 remark may consist with the use of unmeasured and fluctuating poetry 
 in their songs, it may require studied attention to answer. It is to be ob- 
 served, however, that these songs are rather recited, or chanted, than 
 sung. Increments of the chorus are not unfrequently interspersed, in the 
 body of the line, which would otherwise appear deficient in quantity ; and 
 perhaps rules of metre may be found, by subsequent research, which are 
 not obvious, or have been concealed by the scantiness of the materials, on 
 this head, which have been examined. To determine the airs and cho- 
 ruses and the character of the music, will prove one of the greatest facil- 
 ities to this inquiry. Most of the graver pieces, which have been written 
 out, are arranged in metres of sixes, sevens, and eights. The lighter 
 chants are in threes or fours, and consist of iambics and trochees irregu- 
 larly. Those who have translated hymns into the various languages, 
 have followed the English metres, not always without the necessity of elis- 
 ion, or employing constrained or crampt modes of expression. A worse 
 system could not have been adopted to show Indian sentiment. The mu- 
 sic in all these cases has been like fetters to the free, wild thoughts of the 
 native singer. As a general criticism upon these translations, it may be 
 remarked that they are often far from being literal, and often omit parts 
 of the original. On the other hand, by throwing away adjectives, in a great 
 degree, and dropping all incidental or side thoughts, and confining the 
 Indian to the leading thought or sentiment, they are, sometimes, rendered 
 more simple, appropriate, and effective. Finally, whatever cultivated 
 minds among the Indians, or their descendants may have done, it is quite 
 evident to me, from the attention I have been able to give the subject, 
 that the native compositions were without metre. The natives appear to 
 have sung a sufficient number of syllables to comply with the air, and 
 effected the necessary pauses, for sense or sound, by either slurring over, 
 
 15
 
 226 INDIAN MUSIC, SONGS, AND POETRY. 
 
 and thus shortening, or by throwing in floating particles of the language, 
 to eke out the quantity, taken' either from the chorus, or from the general 
 auxiliary forms of the vocabulary. 
 
 Rhyme is permitted by the similarity of the sounds from which the vo- 
 cabulary is formed, but the structure of the language does not appear to 
 admit of its being successfully developed in this manner. Its forrr.rf are 
 too cumbrous for regularly recurring expressions, subjected at once to the 
 laws of metre and rhyme. The instances of rhyme that have been ob- 
 served in the native songs are few, and appear to be the result of the for- 
 tuitous positions of words, rather than of art. The following juvenile 
 see-saw is one of the most perfect specimens noticed, being exact in both 
 particulars : 
 
 Ne osh im aun 
 Ne way be naun. 
 
 . 
 These are expressions uttered on sliding a carved stick down snow 
 
 banks, or over a glazed surface of ice, in the appropriate season ; and they 
 may be rendered with nearly literal exactness, thus : 
 
 My sliding stick 
 
 1 send quick quick. 
 
 Not less accurate in the rhyme, but at lines of six and eight feet, which 
 might perhaps be exhibited unbroken, is the following couplet of a war 
 Bong: 
 
 Au pit she Mon e tog 
 
 Ne mud wa wa wau we ne gdg. 
 
 The Spirit on high, 
 Repeats my warlike name. 
 
 In the translation of hymns, made during the modern period of mis- 
 sionary effort, there has been no general attempt to secure rhyme ; and as 
 these translations are generally due to educated natives, under the inspec- 
 tion and with the critical aid of the missionary, they have evinced a true 
 conception of the genius of the language, by the omission of this acci- 
 dent. Eliot, who translated the psalms of David into the Massachusetts 
 language, which were first printed in 1661, appears to have deemed it im- 
 portant enough to aim at its attainment : but an examination of the work, 
 now before us, gives but little encouragement to others to follow his ex- 
 ample, at least while the languages remain in their present rude and un- 
 cultivated state. The following is the XXIII Psalm from this version : 
 
 1. Mar teag nukquenaabikoo 
 
 shepse nanaauk God. 
 Nussepsinwahik ashkoshqut 
 nuttinuk ohtopagod
 
 INDIAN MUSIC, SONGS, AND POETRY. 227 
 
 2. Nagum nukketeahog kounoh 
 
 wutomohkinuh vvonk 
 Nutuss oounuk ut sampoi may 
 newutch cowesnonk. 
 
 3. Wutonkauhtamut pomushaon 
 
 muppooonk oonauhkoe 
 Woskehettuonk mo nukqueh tamco 
 newutch koovvetomah : 
 
 4. Kuppogkomunk kutanwohon 
 
 nish noonenehikquog 
 Koonochoo hkah anquabhettit 
 wame nummatwomog 
 
 5. Kussussequnum nuppuhkuk 
 
 weetepummee nashpea 
 Wonk woi God nootallamwaitch 
 pomponetupohs hau 
 
 6. QQniyeuonk monaneteonk 
 
 nutasukkonkqunash 
 Tohsohke pomantam wekit God 
 michem nuttain pish *. 
 
 This appears to have been rendered from the version of the psalms ap- 
 pended to an old edition of King James' Bible of 161 1, and not from the 
 versification of Watts. By comparing it with this, as exhibited below, 
 there will be found the same metre, eights and sixes, the same syllabical 
 quantity, (if the notation be rightly conceived,) and the same coincidence 
 of rhyme at the second and fourth lines of each verse ; although it re- 
 quired an additional verse to express the entire psalm. It could therefore 
 be sung to the ordinary tunes in use in Eliot's time, and, taken in con- 
 nection with his entire version, including the Old and New Testament, 
 evinces a degree of patient assiduity on the part of that eminent mission- 
 ary, which is truly astonishing : 
 
 The Lord is my shepherd, I'll not want ; 
 
 2. He makes me down to lie 
 In pastures green : he leadeth me 
 
 the quiet waters by. 
 
 3. My soul he doth restore aga < 
 and me to walk doth make 
 Within the paths of righteousness 
 E'en for his own name's sake. 
 
 Eliot employed the figure 8, set horizontally, to express a peculiar sound . otherwo* 
 he used the English alphabet in its ordinary powers.
 
 .NDIAN MUSIC, SONGS, AND POETRY. 
 
 4. Yea, though I walk in death's dark vale, 
 
 yet will 1 fear none ill ; 
 For thou art with me and thy rod 
 and staff me comfort still. 
 
 5. My table thou hast furnished 
 
 in presence of my foes ; 
 My head thou dost with oil annoint, 
 and my cup overflows. 
 
 6. Goodness and mercy all my life 
 
 shall surely follow me ; 
 And in God's house forevermore 
 my dwelling place shall be. 
 
 The harmony of numbers has always detracted from the plain sense, 
 and the piety of thought, of the scriptures, which is the probable cause of 
 so many failures on the subject. In the instance of this Psalm, it will be 
 observed, by a comparison, that Watts, who has so generally succeeded, 
 does not come up, in any respect, to the full literal meaning of the origi- 
 nal, which is well preserved, with the requisite harmony, in the old ver- 
 sion. 
 
 There is one species of oral composition existing among all the tribes, 
 which, from its peculiarities, deserves to be separately mentioned. I al- 
 lude to the hieratic chants, choruses and incantations of their professed 
 prophets, medicine men and jugglers constituting, as these men do, ad's, 
 tinct order in Indian society, who are entitled by their supposed skill, wis- 
 dom or sanctity, to exercise the offices of a priesthood. Affecting myp- 
 tery in the discharge of their functions, their songs and choruses ara 
 couched in language which is studiously obscure, oftentimes cabalistic, 
 and generally not well understood by any but professed initiates. 
 
 Nothing, however, in this department of my inquiries, has opened a 
 more pleasing view of society, exposed to the bitter vicissitudes of Indian 
 life, than the little domestic chants of mothers, and the poetic see-saws of 
 children, of which specimens are furnished. These show the universal- 
 ity of the sentiments of natural affection, and supply another proof, were 
 any wanting, to demonstrate that it is only ignorance, indolence and pov- 
 erty, that sink the human character, and create the leading distinctions 
 among the races of men. Were these affections cultivated, and children 
 early taught the principles of virtue and rectitude, and the maxims of in- 
 dustry, order and cleanliness, there is no doubt that the mass of Indian 
 society would be meliorated in a comparatively short period ; and by a 
 continuance of efforts soon exalted from that state of degradation, of 
 which the want of letters and religion have been the principal causes. 
 
 In presenting these specimens of songs, gathered among the recesses 
 of the forest, it is hoped it will not be overlooked, by the reader, that they
 
 INDIAN MUSIC, SONGS, AND POETRY. 229 
 
 are submitted as facts or materials, in the mental condition of the tribes, 
 and not as evidences of attainment in the arts of metre and melody, which 
 will hear to be admitted or even criticised by the side of the refined poetry 
 of civilized nations. And above all, not as efforts to turn Indian senti- 
 ments to account, in original composition. No such idea is entertained. 
 If materials be supplied from which some judgment maybe formed of the 
 actual state of these songs and rude oral compositions, or improvisations, 
 the extent of the object will have been attained. But even here, there is 
 less, with the exception of a single department, i. e. versification and com 
 position by cultivated natives, than it was hoped to furnish. And this 
 little, has been the result of a species of labour, in the collection, quite dis- 
 proportionate to the result. It is hoped at least, that it may indicate the 
 mode in which such collections may be made, among the tribes, and be- 
 come the means of eliciting materials more worthy of attention. 
 
 This much seemed necessary to be said in introducing the following 
 specimens, that there might not appear, to the reader, to be an undue esti- 
 mate placed on the literary value of these contributions, and translations, 
 while the main object is, to exhibit them in the series, as illustrations of 
 the mental peculiarities of the tribes. To dismiss them, however, with a 
 bare, frigid word for word translation, such as is required for the pur- 
 poses of philological comparison, would by no means do justice to them, 
 nor convey, in any tolerable degree, the actual sentiments in the minds of 
 the Indians. That the opposite error might not, at the same time, be run 
 into, and the reader be deprived altogether of this means of comparison, 
 a number of the pieces are left with literal prose translations, word for 
 word as near as the two languages will permit. Others exhibit both a 
 literal, and a versified translation. 
 
 All the North American Indians know that there is a God ; but their 
 priests teach them that the devil is a God, and as he is believed to be very 
 malignant, it is the great object of their ceremonies and sacrifices, to 
 appease him. 
 
 The Indians formerly worshipped the Sun, as the symbol of divine 
 intelligence. 
 
 Fire is an unexplained mystery to the Indian ; he regards it as a con- 
 nectinsr link between the natural and spiritual world. His traditionary 
 lore denotes this. 
 
 Zo-oister says : " When you behold secret fire, without form, shining 
 dashingly through the depths of the whole world hear the voice of 
 fire." One might suppose this t" have been uttered by a North Ameri- 
 can Indian.
 
 CHANT TO THE FIRE-FLY. 
 
 IN the hot summer evenings, the children of the Chippewa Algon- 
 quins, along the shores of the upper lakes, and in the northern latitudes, 
 frequently assemble before their parents' lodges, and amuse themselves by 
 little chants of various kinds, with shouts and wild dancing. Attracted 
 by such shouts of merriment and gambols, I walked out one evening, to 
 a green lawn skirting the edge of the St. Mary's river, with the fall in 
 full view, to get hold of the meaning of some of these chants. The air 
 and the plain were literally sparkling with the phosphorescent light of the 
 fire-fly. By dint of attention, repeated on one or two occasions, the fol- 
 lowing succession of words was caught. They were addressed to this 
 insect : 
 
 Wau wau tay see ! 
 
 Wau wau tay see! 
 
 E mow e shin 
 
 Tshe bwau ne baun-e wee ! 
 
 Be eghaun be eghaun ewee I 
 
 Wa Wau tay see ! 
 
 Wa wau tay see ! 
 
 Was sa koon ain je gun 
 
 Was sa koon ain je gun. 
 
 LITERAL TRANSLATION. 
 
 Flitting-white-fire-insect ! waving-white-fire-bug ! give me light before 
 I go to bed ! give me light before I go to sleep. Come, little dancing *- 
 white-fire-bug ! Come little flitting-white-fire-beast ! Light me with your 
 bright white-flame-instrument your little candle f. 
 
 Metre there was none, at least, of a regular character : they were the 
 wild improvisations of children in a merry mood. 
 
 * In giving the particle wa, the various meanings of " flitting," " waving," and 
 
 " dancing," the Indian idiom is fully preserved. The final particle see, in the term 
 
 wa wa tai see, is from the generic root agec, meaning a living creature, or created form, 
 
 )t man. By prefixing Ahw to the root, we have the whole class of quadrupeds, and 
 
 by pen, the whole class of birds, &c. The Odjibwa Algonquin term for a candle, was 
 
 on am je pn, is literally rendered from its elements" bright white flamed 
 
 It is by the very concrete character of these compounds that so much 
 
 img results from a few words, and so considerable a latitude in translation is given 
 
 to Indian words generally. 
 
 [t Fire-fly, fire-fly ! bright little thing, 
 Light me to bed, and my song I will sing. 
 Give me your light, as you fly o'er my head, 
 1 hat I may merrily go to my bed. 
 Give me your light o'er the grass as you creep, 
 That I may joyfully go to my sleep. 
 Come little fire-flycome little beast- 
 Come ! and I'll make you to-morrow a feast. 
 Come little candle that flies as I sing, 
 Bright little fairy-bug night's littlelung ; 
 Come, and I'll dance as you guide me along, 
 Come, and I'll pay you, my bug, with a song.] 
 
 230
 
 ETHNOLOGY. 
 
 SCHOOLCRAFT'S AMERICAN CYCLOPAEDIA, OR ETHNOLOGICAL 
 GAZETTEER OF THE INDIAN TRIBES OF THE AMERICAN 
 CONTINENT, NORTH AND SOUTH, COMPRISING THEIR HISTORY, 
 GEOGRAPHY, AND NOMENCLATURE, FROM THE DISCOVERY IN 
 1492, TO THE PRESENT PERIOD. 
 
 ADVERTISEMENT. 
 
 A PROSPECTUS for this work was issued in 1842. While the title is 
 slightly modified, the design and plan of its execution have 'not been 
 essentially changed. The principal object aimed at, under the general 
 idea of the history and geography of the Aboriginal Race, is to furnish a 
 general and standard reference-book, or short encyclopaedia of topics rela- 
 tive to the entire race, alphabetically arranged. By the insertion of the 
 name of each family of tribes, nation, sub-tribe, or important clan, the 
 occasion will be presented of noticing the leading or characteristic events, 
 in their history, numbers, government, religion, languages, arts or distinc- 
 tive character. 
 
 Where the scene or era of their expansion, growth and decay has 
 been so extensive, embracing as it does, the widest bounds and remotest 
 periods, their antiquities have also called for a passing notice. Nor could 
 any thing like a satisfactory accomplishment of the plan be effected, 
 without succinct notices of the lives and achievements of their principal 
 chiefs, rulers, and leading personages. 
 
 Language is an important means of denoting the intricate thread of 
 history in s.ivage nations. Mr. Pritchard considers it more important than 
 physiologic;! I structure and peculiarities. It is, at least, found often to 
 reveal ethnological affinities, where both the physical type, and the light 
 of tradition, afford but little aid. The words and names of a people, are 
 so mnnv cl'its to their thoughts and intellectual structure ; this branch of 
 the subject, indeed, formed the original germ of the present plan, which 
 was at first simply geographical, and has been rather expanded and built 
 upon, than, if we may so say, supplied the garniture of the edifice. In a 
 cl;iss of trnnspositive languages, which are very rich in their combinations, 
 and mo.U-sof concentrated description, it must needs happen, thnt the names 
 of places would often recall both associations and descriptions of deep 
 
 2C:
 
 232 ETHNOLOGY. 
 
 interest in contemplating the fate and fortunes of this unfortunate race. 
 Without intruding upon the reader disquisitions which would be out of 
 place, no opportunity has been omitted, from the consideration of their 
 names, to throw around the sites of their former or present residence, this 
 species of interest. 
 
 But half the work would have been done, it is conceived, to have con- 
 fined the work to North America ; and it must necessarily have lost, by 
 such a limitation, more than half its interest. We are just beginning in 
 truth to comprehend the true character and bearing of that unique type of 
 civilization which existed in Mexico, Peru, and Yucatan. The rude hand 
 with which these embryo kingdoms of the native race were overturned, 
 in consequence of their horrid idolatries, necessarily led to the destruction 
 of much of their monumental, and so far as their picture writing reached, 
 some of their historical materials, of both of which, we now feel the 
 want. It is some relief, to know, as the researches of Mr. Gallatin, 
 which are now in progress, demonstrate, that by far the greatest amount 
 of the ancient Mexican picture writings, as they are embraced in the 
 elaborate work of Lord Kingsborough, relate to their mythology and 
 superstitions, and are of no historical value whatever. And if the portions 
 destroyed in the Mexican and Peruvian conquests, were as liberally inter- 
 spersed with similar evidences of their wild polytheism, shocking man- 
 ners, and degraded worship, neither chronology nor history have so much 
 to lament. 
 
 The early, strong and continued exertions which were made by the 
 conquerors to replace this system of gross superstition and idolatry, by 
 the Romish ritual, filled Mexico and South America with missionr 
 of the Catholic Church, which were generally under the charge of zealouSj 
 and sometimes of learned and liberal-spirited superintendants, who hav& 
 accumulated facts respecting the character and former condition of tht 
 race. These missions, which were generally spread parallel to the sea 
 coasts of the Atlantic and Pacific, reaching inland along the banks of the 
 great rivers and plains, have confessedly done much to ameliorate the 
 manners and condition of the native race, to foster a spirit of industiy, and 
 to enlighten their minds. Still, it is< scarcely known, that numerous and 
 powerful tribes, stretching through wide districts of the Andes and the 
 Cordilleras, never submitted to the conqueror, and yet exist in their origi- 
 nal state of barbarism. 
 
 In this department of inquiry, the geographical and historical work of 
 De Alcedo, which, so far as the Spanish and Portuguese missions are 
 concerned, is both elaborate and complete in its details, has been taken as 
 a basis. No one can write of South America and its native tribes, without 
 reference to Humboldt. Other standard writers have been consulted, to 
 give this part of the work as much value as possible, not excepting the 
 latest voyages and travels. The design has been, without aiming at too
 
 ETHNOLOGY. 233 
 
 much, to compress a body of leading and characteristic facts, in the shortest 
 practicable compass, which should, at the same time, present an ethnologi- 
 cal view of the various families and groups of the race. 
 
 In each department of inquiry, which admitted of it, the author has 
 availed himself of such sources and opportunities of personal observation 
 and experience, as his long residence in the Indian territories, and his 
 study of the Indian history have afforded. And he is not without the hope, 
 that his inquiries and researches on this head may be found to be such as 
 to merit approval. 
 
 A. 
 
 As, often pronounced with the sound of we, before it, a particle which, 
 in geographical names, in the family of the Algonquin dialects, denotes 
 light, or the east. It is also the radix of the verb wab, to see, as well as of 
 the derivatives, a-ab, an eye-ball, and wabishka, a white substance, &c., 
 ideas which either in their origin or application, are closely allied. 
 
 ABACARIS, a settlement of Indians in the Portuguese possessions of the 
 province of Amazon. These people derive their name from a lake, upon 
 which they reside. It is a peculiarity of this lake, that it has its outlet 
 into the river Madiera which, after flowing out of the province turns about 
 and again enters it, forming, in this involution, the large and fertile island 
 of Topanambes. This tribe is under the instruction of the Carmelites. 
 They retain many of their early peculiarities of manners and modes of 
 of life. They subsist by the cultivation of maize, and by taking fish in the 
 waters of the Abacaris ; or Abacactes in addition to these means, they 
 rely upon tropical fruits. The latest notices of them come down to 1789. 
 But little is known of their numbers, or present condition. 
 
 ABACHES, or Apaches, an erratic tribe of Indians, who infest the prairies 
 of western Texas and New Mexico. They are supposed by some, to con- 
 sist of not less than 15,000 souls. They are divided into petty bands, 
 known under various names. They are the most vagrant of all the wild 
 hunter tribes of the general area denoted. They do not live in fixed abodes, 
 but shift about in search of game or plunder, and are deemed a pest by 
 the Santa Fe traders. They raise nothing and manufacture nothing. 
 Those of them who are east of the Rio del Norte, subsist on the baked 
 root of the mauguey, and a similar plant called Mezcal, and hence they 
 are called Mezcaleros. 
 
 Another division of them, and by far the greatest, rove west of that 
 stream, where they are called Coyoteros, from their habit of eating the 
 coyote, or prairie wolf. They extend west into California and Sonora. 
 They bear a bad character wherever they are known. If on the outskirts
 
 ETHNOLOGY. 
 
 of the ranches and haciendas, they steal cattle and sheep. If on the wide 
 and destitute plains which they traverse, they thieve and murder. Some- 
 times they are pursued and punished ; more frequently, they escape. The 
 Mexican authorities keep some sort of terms with them by treaties, which 
 the vagrants, however, break and disregard, whenever they are excited by 
 hunger, or the lust of plunder. For Indians bearing the name, formerly 
 from the U. States, see Apaches. 
 
 ABACO, one of the Bahama islands. The native inhabitants of this, and 
 the adjacent groupes of islands, were, early after the discovery, transported 
 to the main, to work in the mines. In 1788 this island, known to nautical 
 men as the locality of the Hole in the Wall, had a population of 50 whites, 
 and 200 Africans. 
 
 ABACOOCHE, or COOSA, a stream 1 rising in Georgia. It flows into 
 Alabama, and after uniting with the Tallapoosa, a few miles below We- 
 tumpka it forms the Alabama river. The word is, apparently, derived 
 from Oscooche, one of the four bands into which the Muscogees, were 
 anciently divided. 
 
 ABANAKEE, or Eastlanders, a distinct people, consisting of a plurality 
 of tribes, who formerly occupied the extreme north eastern part of the 
 United States. The word is variously written by early writers. See 
 Abenakies, Abernaquis, Wabunakies. 
 
 ABANCAY, the capital of a province of the same name 20 leagues from 
 Cuzco, in Peru. It is memorable for the victories gained in the vicinity 
 by the king's troops in 1542 and 1548 against Gonzalo Pizarro. It lies 
 in a rich and spacious valley, which was inhabited by the subjects of the 
 Inca, on the conquest. 
 
 ABASCA, or RABASCA, a popular corruption, in the northwest, of Atha- 
 basca, which see. 
 
 ABANES, an unreclaimed nation of Indians, living in the plains of St. 
 Juan, to the north of the Orinoco, in New Grenada. They are'of a docile 
 character, and good disposition, lending a ready ear to instruction, but 
 have not embraced the Catholic religion. They inhabit the wooded 
 shores of the river, and shelter themselves from the effects of a tropical sun, 
 in the open plains, by erecting their habitations in the small copse-wood. 
 They are bounded towards the west, by the Andaquies and Caberras, and 
 east by the Salivas. 
 
 ABANGOUI, a large settlement of the Guarani nation of Indians, on the 
 shores of the river Taquani. in Paraguay. This stream and its inhabi- 
 tants were discovered by A. Numez, in 1541. 
 ABECOOCHI, see Abacooche. 
 
 ABEICAS, an ancient name for a tribe of Indians, in the present erea of 
 the United States, who are placed in the earlier geographies, south of the 
 Alabamas and west of the Cherokees. They dwelt at a distance from the 
 large rivers, yet were located in the districts of the cane, out of the hard
 
 ETHNOLOGY. 235 
 
 substance of which they made a kind of knife, capable of answering the 
 principal' purposes of this instrument. They were at enmity with the Iro- 
 quois. 
 
 ABENAKIES, a nation formerly inhabiting a large part of the territorial 
 area of the states of New Hampshire and Maine. There were several 
 tribes, of this nation the principal of which were the Pcnobscots, the Nor- 
 redgewocks, and the Ameriscoggins. They were at perpetual hostilities 
 with the New England colonists. They had received missionaries, at an 
 early day, from the French in Canada, and acted in close concert with 
 the hostile Indians from that quarter. At length in 1724, the government 
 of Massachusetts organized an effective expedition against them, which 
 ascended the Kennebec, attacked the chief town of the Norredgewocks, and 
 killed a large number of their bravest warriors. Among the slain, was 
 found their missionary Sebastian Rasle, who had taken up arms in their 
 defence. There was found, among his papers, a copious vocabulary of 
 the language, which has recently been published under the supervision of 
 Mr. Pickering. In the year 1754, all the Abenakies, except the Penob- 
 scots, removed into Canada. This nation had directed their attention, al- 
 most exclusively, to hunting. At the mouth of the Kennebec they absolute- 
 ly planted nothing. Their lauguage, as observed by Mr. Gallatin, has 
 strong affinities with those of the Etchemins, and of the Micmacs, of New 
 Brunswick and Nova Scotia ; there are fewer resemblances in its vocabu- 
 lary to the dialects south of them. This nation appears to have been 
 called Tarrenteens, by the New England Indians. Their generic name 
 for themselves, if they had one, is unknown. The term Abenakie, is one 
 manifestly imposed by Algonquin tribes living west and south of them. 
 It is derived from wabanung, the east, or a place of light, and akee, land. 
 
 ABEKAS, a name applied, so late as 1750, to a band of the Muscogees, 
 living on the river Tombigbee, within the present area of Alabama. 
 
 ABERNAQUIS, a settlement of the expatriated Abenakies of New Eng- 
 land, in Lower Canada. They subsist themselves at this time in a great 
 measure by agriculture, and manifest a disposition to improve. From a 
 report made in 1839 by the American Board of Foreign missions of Bos- 
 ton who employ a missionary and teacher a'mong them, sixty persons 
 attend Protestant worship, of which number, 24 are church members. 
 Twenty of the youth attend a daily school. 
 
 ABIGIRAS, an Indian mission formerly under the charge of the order 
 of Jesuits, in the governmental department of Quito. It is situated on the 
 river Curasari, 30 leagues from its mouth, and 240 from Quito. It waa 
 founded in 1665 by father Lorenzo Lucero. 
 
 ABINGAS, or WABINGAS, a name for a band, or sub-tribe of the River 
 Indians, of the Mohegan, or Mohekinder stock, who formerly inhabited 
 the present area of Dutchess county, N. Y., and some adjacent parts of the 
 eastern shores of the Hudson, above the Highlands.
 
 236 ETHNOLOGY. 
 
 ABIPONES, an unreclaimed nation of Indians, who inhabit the south 
 shores of the river Bermejo, in the province of Tucuman, Buenos Ayres. 
 This nation is said, perhaps vaguely, to have formerly numbered 100,000 
 souls, but was, at the last accounts, about A.D. 1800, much reduced. 
 They present some peculiar traits, living as nearly in a state of nature as 
 possible. The men go entirely naked, subsisting themselves by hunting 
 and fishing, and passing much of their time in idleness or war. The wo- 
 men wear little ornamented skins called queyapi. Physically, the people 
 are well formed, of a lofty stature and bearing, robust and good featured. 
 They paint their bodies profusely, and take great pains to inspire hardi- 
 hood. For this purpose they cut and scarify themselves from childhood ; 
 they esteem tiger's flesh one of the greatest dainties, believing its proper- 
 ties to infuse strength and valor. In war they are most cruel, sticking 
 their captives on the top of high poles, where, exposed to the scorching 
 rays of the sun, they are left to die the most horrid death. 
 
 They have no knowledge of God, of laws, or of policy, yet they believe 
 in the immortality of the soul, and in a land of future bliss, where dancing 
 and diversions shall prevail. Widows observe celibacy for a year, during 
 which time they abstain from fish. The females occupy themselves in 
 sewing hides, or spinning rude fabrics. When the men are intoxicated 
 a prevalent vice they conceal their husbands' knives to prevent assassi- 
 nations. They rear but two or three children, killing all above this 
 number. i 
 
 ABISCA, an extensive mountainous territory of Peru, lying between the 
 Yetau and Amoramago rivers, east of the Andes, noted from the earliest 
 times, for the number of barbarous nations who occupy it. It is a wild 
 and picturesque region, abounding in forests, lakes and streams, and af- 
 fording facilities for the chase, and means of retreat from civilization, so 
 congenial to savage tribes. An attempt to subjugate these fierce tribes 
 made by Pedro de Andia in 1538, failed. The same result had attended 
 the efforts of the emperor Yupanqui. 
 
 ABITANIS, a mountain in the province of Lipas, in Peru. In the duet- 
 chuan tongue, it signifies the ore of gold, from a mine of this metal, which 
 is now nearly abandoned. 
 
 AfiiTTiBt, the name of one of the tributaries of Moose River, of James 1 
 
 Bay, Canada. Also a small lake in Canada West, near the settlement of 
 
 Frederick, in north latitude 48, 35' and west longitude 82 : also, a lake 
 
 north of lake Ncpissing, in the direction to Moose Fort. It is a term, ap- 
 
 parently derived from nibee, water, and \vab, light. 
 
 ABITIGAS, a fierce and warlike nation of Indians, in the province of 
 Tarma in Peru, of the original Quetche stock. They are situated 60 
 leagues to the east of the Andes. They are barbarians, roving from place 
 to place, without habits of industry, and delighting in war. They arc 
 numerous, as well as warlike ; but like all the non~agricultural tribes of
 
 ETHNOLOGY. 237 
 
 the region, they are often in want and wretchedness. They are bounded 
 on the south by their enemies the Ipilcos. 
 
 ABO, ABOUOR MicHABO,or the Great Hare, a personage rather of mytholo- 
 gical, than historical note, in the traditions of the Lake Algonquin tribes. 
 It is not clear, although probable, that he is to be regarded as identical 
 with Manabosho, or Nanabosho. 
 
 ABOJERG, a celebrated war and hereditary chief of the Chippevva nation, 
 who flourished during the last century; more commonly written Wabo- 
 jeeg, which see. 
 
 ABRAHAM, a chief of the Mohawks, who, after the fall of king Hendrick, 
 so called, at the battle of lake George, in 1755, between the English and 
 French armies, became the ruling chief of that nation. He was the 
 younger brother of Hendrick, and lived at the lower Mohawk Castle. 
 He was of small stature, but^ shrewd and active, and a fluent speaker. 
 Numbers of his speeches are preserved, which he delivered, as the ruling 
 chief of his tribe, in various councils, during the stormy era of 1775, 
 which eventuated in the American revolution. In the events of that era, 
 his name soon disappears : as he was then a man of advanced years, he 
 probably died at his village. It is not known that he excelled in war, and, 
 at all events, he was succeeded, about this time, in fame and authority, by 
 a new man in the chieftainship, who rose in the person of Thyendanegea, 
 better known as Joseph Brant. Abraham, or little Abraham, as he was 
 generally called, appears from his speeches and policy, to have thorough- 
 ly adopted the sentiments and policy of Sir William Johnson, of whom, 
 with his tribe generally, he was the friend and admirer. He was, as his 
 speeches disclose, pacific in his views, cautious in policy, and not in- 
 clined, it would seem, to rush headlong into the great contest, which was 
 then brewing, and into which, his popular successor, Brant, went heart 
 and hand. With less fame than his elder brother Hendrick, and with no 
 warlike reputation, yet without imputation upon his name, in any way, he 
 deserves to be remembered as a civilian and chieftain, who bore a respect- 
 able rank ; as one of a proud, high spirited, and important tribe. Little 
 Abraham was present at the last and final council of the Mohawks, with 
 the American Commissioners, at Albany, in September 1775, and spoke for 
 them on this occasion which is believed to have been the last peaceable 
 meeting between the Americans and the Mohawk tribe, prior to the war.
 
 
 [NoTE. Accents are placed over all words of North American origin, when known 
 
 Vowels preceding a consonant, or placed between two consonant*, are generally short: 
 following a consonant, or ending a syllable or word, they are generally long. Diphthong! 
 are used with their ordinary power.] 
 
 ABSECON. A beach of the sea coast of New Jersey, sixteen miles south- 
 west of Little Egg Harbor. The word is a derivative from Wabisee, a 
 Swan, and Ong, a Place. 
 
 ABSOROKA, a name for the Minnetaree tribe of Indians on the river Mis- 
 souri. They are philologically of the Dacotah family. See Minnetaree. 
 
 ABTJCEES, a mission of the Sucumbias Indians, in the province of duixos, 
 Quito, which was founded by the order of Jesuits. It is situated on the 
 shores of a small river, which enters the Putumago, in north latitude 
 36' longitude 79 2' west. 
 
 ABORRA, a town, in a rich valley of the same name, in New Grenada, 
 discovered in 1540, by Robledo. In its vicinity are ftfund many huacas, 
 or sepulchres of the Indians, in which great riches, such as gold ornaments, 
 are found deposited. There are, in the vicinity, some streams of saline 
 water, from which the Indians manufacture salt. 
 
 ABWOIN. or BWOIN, a name of the Chippewas, Ottawas, and other mod- 
 ern Algonquin tribes of the upper Lakes, for the Dacotah or Sioux na- 
 tion. It is rendered plural in ug. The word is derived from abwai, a 
 stick used to roast meat, and is said to have been given to this tribe, in re- 
 proach from the ancient barbarities practised towards their prisoners taken 
 captive in war. For an account of this tribe, see Dacotah and Sioux. 
 
 ABWOINAC; ABWOINA: Terms applied to the general area between the 
 Mississippi and Missouri, lying north of the St. Peter's, occupied by Sioux 
 tribes. In the earlier attempts of Lord Selkirk, to plant a colony in parts 
 of this region, the compound term Assinaboina, was, to some extent, but 
 unsuccessfully employed. The two former terms are derivatives from 
 Abwoin, a Sioux, and akee, earth ; the latter has the prefix assin, (ossin,) 
 a stone. 
 
 ACAQUATO, a settlement of Indians in the district of Tancitars, in Peru, 
 reduced in 1788, to fifteen families, who cultivated maize and vegetables. 
 
 ACAMBARO, a settlement of 490 families of Indians, and 80 of Mustea, 
 
 238
 
 ETHNOLOGY. 239 
 
 Belonging to the order of St. Francis, in the district of Zehya, in the 
 province and bishopric of Mechoacan, seven leagues S. of its capital. 
 
 ACAMISTLAHUAC, a settlement of 30 Indian families in the district of Tas 
 co, attached to the curacy of its capital, from whence it is two leagues E. 
 N. E. 
 
 ACHAMUCHITLAN, a settlement of 60 families of Indians in the district of 
 Texopilco, and civil division of Zultepec. They sell sugar and honey 
 the district also produces maize and vegetables. It is 5 leagues N. of its 
 head settlement. 
 
 ACANTEPKC. The head settlement of TLipa, embracing 92 Indian fami 
 lies, including another small settlement in its vicinity, all of whom main* 
 tain themselves by manufacturing cotton stuffs. 
 
 ACAPETLAHUALA, a settlement of 180 Indian families, being the principal 
 settlement of the district of Escateopan, and civil district of Zaquaepa. 
 
 ACARI, a settlement in a beautiful and extensive valley of Camana, in 
 Peru, noted for a lofty mountain called Sahuacario, on the skirts of which 
 the native Indians had constructed two fortresses, prior to their subjuga- 
 tion by the Spanish. This mountain is composed of " misshapen stones, 
 and sand," and is reported, at certain times of the year to emit loud 
 sounds, as if proceeding from pent up air, and it is thought to have, in 
 consequence, attracted the superstitious regard of the ancient Indian inhab- 
 itants. 
 
 ACATEPEC. There are five Indian settlements of this name, in Spanish 
 America. 
 
 1. A settlement comprising 860 Indian families, of the order of St. 
 Francis, in the district of Thehuacan. Forty of these families live on 
 cultivated estates stretching a league in a spacious valley, four leagues S. 
 S. W. of the capital. 
 
 2. A settlement in the district of Chinantla, in the civil jurisdiction of 
 Cogamaloapan. It is situated in a pleasant plain, surrounded by three 
 lofty mountains. The number of its inhabitants is reduced. The In- 
 dians who live on the banks of a broad and rapid river, which intercepts 
 the great ro;id to the city of Oxaca, and other jurisdictions, support 
 themselves b\ ferrying over passengers in their barks and canoes. It 
 is 10 leagues W. of its head settlement. 
 
 3. A settlement of 100 Indian families, in the same kingdom, situated be- 
 tween two high ridges. They are annexed to the curacy of San Lorenzo, 
 two leagues off 
 
 4. A settlement of' 39 Indian families annexed to, and distant one league 
 and a half N. of the curacy of Tlacobula. It is in a hot valley, skirted by 
 a river, which is made to irrigate the gardens and grounds on its borders. 
 
 5 A settlement of 12 Indian families in the mayorateof Xicayun of the 
 same kingdom. 
 
 ACATEPEQUE, ST. FRANCISCO, DE, a settlement of 140 Indian families in
 
 240 ETHNOLOGY. 
 
 the mayorate of St. Andres de Cholula, situated half a league S. of it 
 
 capital. 
 
 ACATLAN, six locations of Indians exist, under this name, in Mexico. 
 
 1. A settlement of 850 families of Indians in the alcaldia of this name, 
 embracing some 20 Spaniards and Mustees. In the vicinity are some ex- 
 cellent salt grounds. The climate is of a mild temperature, and the 
 surrounding country is fertile, abounding in fruits, flowers, and pulse, and 
 is well watered. It is 55 leagues E. S. E. of Mexico. 
 
 2. A settlement of 180 Indian families in Xalapa of the same kingdom, 
 (now republic.) It occupies a spot of clayey ground of a cold moist tem- 
 perature, in consequence of which, and its being subject to N. winds, 
 fruits, in this neighbourhood, do not ripen. Other branches of cultiva- 
 tion succeed from the abundance of streams of water, and their fertili- 
 zing effects on the soil. This settlement has the dedicatory title of St. 
 Andres. 
 
 3. SAN PEDRO, in the district of Malacatepec, and alcaldia of Nexapa~ 
 It contains 80 Indian families, who trade in wool, and the fish called bobo, 
 which are caught, in large quantities, in a considerable river of the dis- 
 trict. 
 
 4. ZITLALA. It consists of 198 Indian families, and is a league and a 
 half N. of its head settlement of this name. 
 
 5. SENTEPEC, a settlement 15 leagues N. E. of its capital. The tempe- 
 rature is cold. It has 42 Indian families. 
 
 6. ATOTONILCO, in the alcaldia mayor of Tulanzingo. It contains 115 
 Indian families, and has a convent of the religious order of St. Augus- 
 tine. It is 2 leagues N. of its head settlement. 
 
 ACATLANZENGO, a settlement of 67 Indian families of Xicula of the al- 
 cadia mayor of Nexapa, who employ themselves in the culture of cochi- 
 neal plants. It lies in a plain, surrounded on all sides by mountains. 
 
 ACAXEE, a nation of Indians in the province of Topia. They are re- 
 presented to have been converted to the catholic faith by the society of 
 Jesuits in 1602. They are docile and of good dispositions and abilities. 
 One of their ancient customs consisted of bending the heads of their dead 
 to their knees, and in this posture, putting them in caves, or under a rock 
 and at the same time, depositing a quantity of food for their supposed 
 journey in another state. They also exhibited a farther coincidence with 
 the customs of the northern Indians, by placing a bow and arrows with 
 the body of the dead warrior, for his defence. Should an Indian woman 
 happen to die in child-bed, they put the surviving infant to death, as hav- 
 ing been the cause of its mother's decease. This tribe rebelled against the 
 Spanish in 1612, under the influence of a native prophet, but they were 
 subdued by the governor of the province, Don Francisco de Ordinola. 
 
 ACAXETE, Santa Maria de, the head settlement of the district of Tepcaca, 
 on the slope of the sierra of Tlascala. It consists of 1 76 Mexican Indians,
 
 ETHNOLOGY. 241 
 
 7 Spanish families, and 10 Mustees and Mulatoes. In its vicinity there 
 is a reservoir of hewn stone, to catch the waters of the mountain, which 
 are thence conducted to Tepcaca, three leagues N. N. W. 
 
 ACAXUCHITLAN, a curacy consisting of 406 Indian families of the 
 bishopric of La Peubla de los Angelos. It is in the alcaldia of Tulanzingo, 
 lying 4 leagues E. of its capital. 
 
 ACAYUCA, the capital of a civil division of New Spain, in the province 
 of Goazacoalco, embracing, in its population, 296 families of Indians, 30 
 of Spaniards, and 70 of mixed bloods. It lies a little over 10U leagues S. 
 E. of Mexico, in lat. 17 53' N. 
 
 ACAZINGO, St Juan de, a settlement of the district of Tepcaca, consist- 
 ing of 700 families of Indians, 150 of Spaniards, 104 of Mustees, and 
 31 of Mulatoes. It is situated in a plain of mild temperature, well 
 watered, and has a convent and fountain, and a number of "very ancient 
 buildings." 
 
 Acc6cESAWs, a tribe of Indians of erratic habits, of Texas, whose prin- 
 cipal location was formerly on the west side of the Colorado, about 200 miles 
 S. W. of Nacogdoches. At a remoter period they lived near the gulf of 
 Mexico : they made great use of fish, and oysters. Authors represent the 
 country occupied, or traversed by them, as exceedingly fertile and beautiful, 
 and abounding in deer of the finest and largest kind. Their language is 
 said to be peculiar to themselves ; they are expert in communicating ideas by 
 the system of signs. About A. D. 1750 the Spanish had a mission among 
 
 them, but removed it to Nacogdoches. 
 
 & 
 
 ACCOMAC, a county of Virginia, lying on the eastern shores of Chesa- 
 peak bay. This part of the sea coast was inhabited by the Nanticokes, 
 who have left their names in its geography. We have but a partial vo- 
 cabulary of this tribe, which is now extinct. It has strong analogies, 
 however, to other Algonquin dialects. Aco, in these dialects, is a generic 
 term, to denote a goal, limit, or fixed boundary. Ahkee, in the Nanticoke, 
 is the term for earth, or land. Auk, is a term, in compound words of 
 these dialects, denoting wood. The meaning of accomac, appears to be 
 as far as the woods reach^ or, the boundary between meadow and wood- 
 lands. 
 
 ACCOMACS, one of the sub tribes inhabiting the boundaries of Virginia 
 on its discovery and first settlement. Mr. Jefferson states their numbers 
 in 1607 at 80. In 1669, when the legislature of Virginia directed a cen- 
 sus of the Indian population, within her jurisdiction, there appears no no- 
 tice of this tribe. They inhabited the area of Northampton county. They 
 were Nanticokes a people whose remains united themselves or at 
 least took shelter with the Lenapees, or Delawares. 
 
 ACCOHANOCS, a division or tribe of the Povvhetanic Indians, numbering 
 40, in 1607. They lived on the Accohanoc river, in eastern Virginia. 
 
 16
 
 242 ETHNOLOGY. 
 
 ACCOMF.NTAS, a band, or division of the Pawtucket Indians inhabiting 
 the northerly part of Massachusetts in 1674. (Gookin.) 
 
 'ACHAGUA, a nation of Indians of New Grenada, dwelling in the plains 
 of Gazanare and Meta, and in the woods of the river Ele. They are bold 
 and dexterous hunters with the dart and spear, and in their contests with 
 their enemies, they poison their weapons. They are fond of horses, and 
 rub their bodies with oil, to make their hair shine. They go naked 
 except a small azeaun made of the fibres of the aloe. They anoint their 
 children with a bituminous ointment at their birth, to prevent the growth 
 of hair. The brows of females are also deprived of hair, and immediately 
 rubbed with the juice ofjagua, which renders them bald ever after.. They 
 are of a gentle disposition but addicted to intoxication. The Jesuits for- 
 merly reduced many of them to the Catholic faith, and formed them into 
 settlements in 1661. 
 
 ACHAFALAYA, the principal western outlet of the Mississippi river. It is 
 a Choctaw word, meaning, ' ; the long river," from hucfia, river, andfalaya, 
 long. (Gallatin.) 
 
 ACKOWAYS, a synonym for a band of Indians of New France, now 
 Canada. See Acouez. 
 
 ACKEEKSEF.BE, a remote northern tributary of the stream called Rum 
 river, which enters the Mississippi, some few miles above the falls of St. 
 Anthony, on its left banks. It is a compound phrase, from Akeek, a 
 kettle, and seebe, a stream. It was on the margin of this stream, in a 
 wide and spacioug area, interspersed with beaver ponds, that a detachment 
 of Gen. Cass's exploring party in July 1820, encamped ; and the next 
 morning discovered an Indian pictorial letter, written on bark, detailing 
 the incidents of the march. 
 
 ACKEEKO, or the Kettle chief, a leading Sauc chief who exercised his 
 authority in 1820, at an important Indian village, situated on the right 
 banks of the Mississippi, at Dubuque's mines. 
 
 ACHQUANCHICOLA, the name of a creek in Pennsylvania ; it signifies in 
 the Delaware or Lenapee language, as given by Heckewelder, the brush- 
 net fishing creek. 
 
 ACHWICK, a small stream in central Pennsylvania. It denotes in the 
 Delaware language, according to Heckewelder, brushy, or difficult to 
 
 ACOBAMBA, a settlement in the province of Angaraes in Peru, near 
 which are some monumental remains of the ancient race, who inhabited 
 the country prior to its conquest by the Spanish. They consist, chiefly, 
 of a pyramid of stones, and the ruins of some well sculptured stone couches, 
 or benches, now much injured by time. 
 
 ACOLMAN, San Augustin de, a settlement of 240 families of Indians of 
 Tezcoco in Mexico. It is situated in a pleasant valley, with a benign tem- 
 perature, and has a convent of Augustine monks.
 
 ETHNOLOGY. 
 
 ACOMES, a fall in the river Amariscoggin, Maine, denoting, in the Indian, 
 RS is supposed, a rest, or place of stopping. From aco, a bound or point 
 
 AroMULco, a village of 12 Indian families in Zochicoatlan, New Spain^ 
 two leagues W. of its capital. 
 
 ACONTCHI, the name of a settlement of Indians formerly living on the 
 river Eno, in North Carolina. 
 
 ACOTITLAN, a settlement of 15 Indian families, in the alcaldia of Autlan, 
 Mexico. They employ themselves in raising cattle, making sugar and 
 honey, and extracting oil from the cacao fruit. * 
 
 ACOUEZ, a name forme.rly applied by the French to a band of Indians 
 in New France. Believed to be identical with Ackoways. 
 
 ACQUACKINAC, or ACQUACKINUNK, the Indian name of a town on the W. 
 side of the Passaic river, New Jersey, ten miles N. of Newark and 17 
 from New York. From aco, a limit, misquak, a red cedar, and auk, a 
 stump or trunk of a tree. 
 
 ACQUINOSHTO^EE, or United People, the vernacular name of the Iroquois 
 for their confederacy. It appears, from their traditions, communicated to the 
 Rev. Mr. Pyrlaus, a Dutch missionary of early date, that this term had 
 not been in use above 50 years prior to the first settlement of the country: 
 and if so, we have a late date, not more remote than 1559 for the origin 
 of this celebrated union. But this maybe doubted. Carder discovered 
 the St. Lawrence in 1534, and found them at the site of Montreal ; Verri- 
 zani, is said to have entered the bay of New York ten years before. Hud- 
 son entered the river in 1609. Jamestown was founded the year before. 
 The Pilgrims landed at Plymouth 14 years later. It is more probable 
 that the 50 years should be taken from the period of the earlier attempts 
 of the French settlements, which would place the origin of the confederacy 
 about A. D. 1500. (See Iroquois.) 
 
 ACTOPAN, or OCTUPAN, a town and settlement of the Othomies Indians, 
 situated 23 leagues N. N. E. of Mexico. Its population is put by Alcedo 
 in 1787, at 2750 families. These are divided into two parties, separated 
 by the church. It also contains 50 families of Spaniards, Mustees, and 
 Mulatoes. The temperature i mild, but the ground is infested with the 
 cactus, thorns and teasel, which leads the inhabitants to devote their atten- 
 tion to the raising of sheep and goats. In this vicinity are found numbers 
 of the singular bird, called zenzontla by the Mexican Indians. 
 
 ACTUPAN, a settlement of 210 families of Indians in the district of Xoci- 
 milco, Mexico. 
 
 ACUIAPAN, a settlement of 58 Indian families, in the alcaldia mayor of 
 Zultepec, annexed to the curacy of Temascaltepec. They live by dress- 
 ing hides for the market ib. 
 
 ACUILPA, a settlement of 92 Indian families, in the magistracy of Tlapa, 
 Mexico. It is of a hot and moist temperature, yielding grain, and the 
 white medicinal earth called chia, in which they carry on a trade.
 
 244 ETHNOLOGY. 
 
 Acuio, a considerable settlement of Spaniards, Mustees, Mulatoes, and 
 Negroes, 30 leagues W. of Cinaqua, in the curacy of Tauricato, Mexico ; 
 embracing 9 Indian families. 
 
 ACULA, SAN PKDRO DE, an Indian settlement of 305 families, four 
 leagues E. of Cozamaloapan, its capital. It is situated on a high hill, 
 bounded by a large lake of the most salubrious water, called Peuila by the 
 natives. This lake has its outlet into the sea through the sand banks of 
 Alvarado, and the lake is subject to overflow its banks in the winter season. 
 
 ACUTITLAN, an Indian settlement of 45 families, in the district of 
 Tepuxilco, Mexico, who trade in sugar, honey, and maize. It is five 
 leagues N. E. of Zultepec, and a quarter of a league from Acamuchitlan. 
 
 ACUTZIO, an Indian settlement of Tiripitio, in the magistracy of Valla- 
 dolid, and bishopric of Mechoacan, Mexico. It contains 136 Indian 
 families, and 1 1 families of Spaniards and Mustees. Six cultivated estates 
 in this district, producing wheat, maize, and other grains, employ most of 
 this population, who also devote part of their labour to the care of large 
 and small cattle. 
 
 ADAKS, or ADAIZE, a tribe of Indians, who formerly lived forty mile* 
 south west from Natchitoches, in the area of country, which now consti- 
 tutes a part of the republic of Texas. They were located on a lake, 
 which communicates with the branch of Red-river passing Bayou Pierre. 
 This tribe appears to have lived at that spot, from an early period. Their 
 language is stated to be difficult of acquisition, and different from all 
 others, in their vicinity. They were at variance with the ancient Natchez, 
 and joined the French in their assault upon them in 179S. They were 
 intimate with the Caddoes, and spoke their language. At the last dates, 
 (1812) they were reduced to twenty men, with a disproportionate number 
 of women. The synonyms for this now extinct tribe are, Adayes ; Adees; 
 Adaes ; Adaize. 
 
 ADARTO, a celebrated chief of the Wyandot nation, who was at the 
 height of his usefulness and reputation, about 1690. He was able in the 
 councils of his tribe, shrewd and wily in his plans, and firm and courage- 
 ous in their execution. The Wyandots, or Hurons as they are called by 
 the French, were then living at Michilimackinac, to which quarter they 
 had been driven by well known events in their history. The feud be- 
 tween them and their kindred, the Iroquois, still raged. They remained 
 the firm allies of the French ; but they were living in a state of expatri- 
 ation from their own country, and dependant on the friendship and cour- 
 tesy of the Algonquins of the upper lakes, among whom they had found 
 a refuge. Adario, at this period, found an opportunity of making him- 
 self felt, and striking a blow for the eventual return of his nation. 
 
 To understand his position, a few allusions to the history of the period 
 are necessary. 
 
 In 1687, the English of the province of New- York, resolved to avail
 
 ETHNOLOGY. 245 
 
 themselves of a recent alliance between the two crowns, to attempt a par- 
 ticipation in the fur trade of the upper lakes. They persuaded the Iro- 
 quois to set free a number of Wyandot captives to guide them through the 
 lakes, and open an intercourse with their people. Owing to the high 
 price and scarcity of goods, this plan was favored by Adario and his peo- 
 ple, and also by the Ottowas and Pottowattomis, but the enterprise failed. 
 Major McGregory, who led the party, was intercepted by a large body 
 of French from Mackinac, the whole party captured and their goods were 
 distributed gratuitously to the Indians. The lake Indians, who had, co- 
 vertly countenanced this attempt, were thrown back entirely on the French 
 trade, and subjected to suspicions which made them uneasy in their coun- 
 cils, and anxious to do away with the suspicions entertained of their fidel- 
 ity by the French. To this end Adario marched a party of 100 men 
 from Mackinac against the Iroquois. Stopping at fort Cadarackui to get 
 some intelligence which might guide him, the commandant informed him 
 that the governor of Canada, Denonville, was in hopes of concluding a 
 peace with the Five Nations, and expected their ambassadors at Montreal in 
 a few days. He therefore advised the chief to return. Did such a peace 
 take place, Adario perceived that it would leave the Iroquois to push the 
 war against his nation, which had already been driven from the banks of 
 the St. Lawrence to lake Huron. He dissembled his fears, however, be- 
 fore the commandant, and left the fort, not for the purpose of returning 
 home, but to waylay the Iroquois delegates, at a portage on the river where 
 he knew they must pass. He did not wait over four or five days, when 
 the deputies arrived, guarded by 40 young warriors, who were all sur- 
 prised, and either killed or taken prisoners. His next object was to shift 
 the blame of the act on the governor of Canada, by whom he told his pri- 
 soners, he had been informed of their intention to pass this way, and he 
 \vas thus prepared to lie in wait for them. They were much surprised at 
 this apparent act of perfidy, informing him. at the same time, that they 
 were truly and indeed on a message of peace. Adario affected to grow 
 mad with rage against Denonville, declaring that he would some time be 
 revenged on him for making him a tool, in committing so horrid a trea- 
 chery. Then looking steadfastly on the prisoners, among whom was 
 Dekanefora, the head chief of the Onondaga tribe, "Go," said he, "my 
 brothers, I untie your bonds, and send you home again, although our 
 nations be at war. The French governor has made me commit so blacic 
 an action, that I shall never be easy after it, until the Five Nations have 
 taken full revenge." The ambassadors were so well persuaded of the 
 perfect truth of his declarations, that they replied in the most friendly 
 terms, and said the way was opened to their concluding a peace between 
 their respective tribes, at any time. He then dismissed his prisoners, with 
 presents of arms, powder and ball, keeping but a single man (an adopted 
 Sl.awnee) to supply the place of the only man he had lost in the engage-
 
 246 ETHNOLOGY. 
 
 ment. By one bold effort he thus blew up the fire of discord between the 
 French a.id their enemies, at the moment it was about to expire, and laid 
 the foundation of a peace with his own nation. Adario delivered his 
 slave to the French on reaching Mackinac, who, to keep up the old en- 
 mity between the Wyandots and the Five Nations, ordered him to be shot. 
 On this Adario called up an Iroquois prisoner who was a witness of this 
 scene, and who had long been detained among them, and told him to es- 
 cape to his own country, and give an account of the cruelty of the 
 French, from whom it was not in his power to save a prisoner he had 
 himself taken. 
 
 This increased the rage of the Five Nations to such a pitch, that when 
 Mons. Denonville sent a message to disown the act of Adario, they put no 
 faith in it, but burned for revenge. Nor was it long before the French 
 felt the effects of their rage. On the 26th of July, 1688, they landed with 
 1200 men on the upper end of the island of Montreal, and carried des- 
 truction wherever they went. Houses were burnt, plantations sacked, and 
 men, women and children massacred. Above a thousand of the French 
 inhabitants were killed, and twenty-six carried away prisoners, most of 
 whom were burnt alive. In October of the same year, they renewed their 
 incursion, sweeping over the lower part of the island as they had previ- 
 ously done the upper. The consequences of these inroads were most dis- 
 astrous to the French, who were reduced to the lowest point of political 
 despondency. They burnt their- two vessels on Cadarackui lake, aban- 
 doned the fort, and returned to Montreal. The news spread far and wide 
 among the Indians of the upper lakes, who, seeing the fortunes of the 
 French on the wane, made treaties with the English, and thus opened the 
 way for their merchandise into the lakes. [Golden.] 
 
 Such were the consequences of a single enterprise, shrewdly planned 
 and vigorously executed. The fame of its author spread abroad, and he 
 was every where regarded as a man of address, courage and abilities. 
 And it is from this time, that the ancient feud between the Wyandots and 
 their kindred, the Five Nations, began to cool. They settled on the straits 
 of Detroit, where they so long, and up to the close of the late war (1814,) 
 exercised a commanding influence among the lake tribes, as keepers of the 
 general council fire of the nations. 
 
 La Hontan, in his Travels in New France, relates some conversations 
 with this chief, on the topic of religion, which may be regarded, almost 
 exclusively, as fabulous. 
 
 ABATES, ADAES, and ADEES, forms of orthography, occurring in various 
 writers, for the Adaize Indians, which see. 
 
 ADEQUATANGTE, a tributary of the eastern head waters of the river Sus- 
 quehanna in New- York. The word is Iroquois. 
 
 ADDEES, the number of this tribe, residing on the waters of Red River,
 
 ETHNOLOGY. 247 
 
 I 
 
 in Louisiana, in 1825, is stated, in an official report, from the war depart- 
 ment of that year, at twenty -seven. 
 
 ADOLES, a settlement of Indians in the province of Orinoco. They 
 were of the Saliva nation. The seltlerhent was destroyed by the Caribs 
 in 1684. 
 
 ADIKONDACKS, the name of the Iroquois tribes for the Algonquins. The 
 consideration of their history and characteristics, as a family of tribes, will 
 be taken up, under the latter term. 
 
 ADIRONDACK MOUNTALNS, a name bestowed, in the geological survey of 
 New York, upon the mountains at the source of the Hudson River. 
 
 ADIK, IA-BA. See laba Wadik. 
 
 ADIKIMTNIS, or Cariboo Island ; an island situated in the north eastern 
 part of lake Superior, which is invested with no other importance than it 
 derives from Indian mythology and superstition. It is small and has sel- 
 dom been visited. The Chippewas believe that this is one of the places 
 of residence of their local manitoes, and that it was formerly inhabited by 
 Michabo or Manabosho. Early travellers, who notice this belief, repre- 
 sent its shores to be covered with golden sands, but that these sands are 
 guarded by powerful spirits, who will not permit the treasure to be carried 
 away. Many fanciful tales are told of its having been once attempted, 
 when a huge spirit strode into the water, and reclaimed the shining trea- 
 sure. This is Carver's version, who, however, confounds it with another 
 contiguous island. Henry, who visited it in his search after silver mines, 
 in 1765, says that the Indians told him that their ancestors had once 
 landed there, being driven by stress of weather, but had great difficulty 
 in escaping from the power of enormous snakes. He calls it the Island 
 of Yellow Sands. It abounded certainly with hawks in his day, one of 
 whom was so bold as to pluck his cap from his head. He found nothing 
 to reward his search but a number of Cariboos, which is the American 
 reindeer, of which no less than 13 were killed, during his stay of three 
 days. He represented it to be 12 miles in circumference, low, and covered 
 with ponds, and to be sixty miles distant from the north shore of the lake. 
 He thinks it is perhaps the same island which the French called Isle dc 
 Pontchar train. 
 
 AFFAGOULA, a small village of Indians, of Louisiana, who were located 
 in 1783 near Point Coupe, on the Mississippi. 
 
 AGACES, a nation of Indians of the province of Paraguay. They are 
 numerous, valiant, and of a lofty stature. They were, in ancient times, 
 masters of the banks of the Paraguay, waging war against the Guavanies, 
 and keeping the Spaniards at bay, but were at last subjugated in 1542, by 
 Alvar Nunez Cabeza de Vaca, governor of the province. 
 
 AGARIATA, an Iroquois chief, who, having gone on an embassy of peace 
 about 1688, to Canada, the governor, Monsieur Coursel, being exaspe-
 
 248 ETHNOLOGY. 
 
 I 
 
 rated against him, on account of bad faith and a violation of a treaty, caused 
 him to be hanged in the presence of his countrymen. 
 
 AGAMENTIGCS, a mountain of considerable elevation, eight miles from 
 York harbour, Maine; also, a river of the same vicinity, which derives 
 its waters chiefly from the influx of Piscataqua bay. The termination 
 of the name in us, is foreign, and not in accordance with the Abenakie 
 dialects of this coast. 
 
 AGAMUNTIC. the name of a small lake, or pond^of Maine, which dis- 
 charges its waters through the west branch of the Chaudiere river. 
 
 AGAWAMS, a band of Indians of the Pokenoket, or Wampanoag type, 
 who formerly lived at various periods, in part in Sandwich, in part in 
 Ipswich, and in part in Springfield, Massachusets. The word is written 
 with some variety, in old authors, the chief of which, are, the addition of 
 another g, and the change of the penultimate a to o. 
 
 AGIOCOCHOOK, a name of the Indians, for the White Mountains of New- 
 Hampshire ; of which the penultimate ok, is the plural. This group is 
 also called, according to President Allen, Waumbek a word, which in 
 some of the existing dialects of the Algonquin, is pronounced Waubik, 
 that is, White Rock. 
 
 AGNALOS, a tribe of infidel Indians, inhabiting the mountains north of 
 the river Apure, in New Grenada. 
 
 AORTAS, a tribe of Indians, formerly very numerous, of the govrn- 
 ment of Santa Marta, to the north of the Cienegra Grande. They are, at 
 present, considerably reduced. 
 
 AGUA DE CULEBRA, San Francisco Xavier De La, a reduccion of Indians 
 of the Capuchins, of the province of Venezuela. The vicinity produces, 
 in abundance, cacao, yucao, and other vegetable productions. 
 
 AGUACAGUA, an Indian mission, on a branch of the Oronoco, called 
 Caroni. 
 
 AGUACATLAN, an Indian mission of Xala, in Mexico. In 1745, it 
 contained 80 families of Indians, who cultivated maize and French beans. 
 
 AGUALULCO, the capital of the jurisdiction of Izatlan, New Galicia, which 
 in 1745, contained 100 Indian families. 
 
 AGUANOS, a settlement in the province of Mainas, Quito, so called from 
 the Indians of whom it is composed. 
 
 AGUARTCO, an Indian mission of the Jesuits, on the shores of the river 
 Napo, of the province of Mainas. Quito. 
 
 AGDARINGUA, an ancient and large settlement of Indians of the Taironas 
 nation, in Santa Marta. 
 
 AGUILUSCO, a settlement of the district of Arantzan, in the province of 
 Mechoacan, which contains 36 Indian families. They subsist by sowing 
 eed, cutting wood, making saddle trees, and manufacturing vessels of fine 
 earthen ware.
 
 ETHNOLOGY. 249 
 
 AHAPOPKA, a lake of Florida, having its outlet through the Oclawaha 
 liver of the St. John's. 
 
 AHASIMUS, an ancient Indian name, for the present site of Jersey city, 
 Hudson county, New Jersey. 
 
 AHOME, or Ahoma, a nation of Indians, living on the banks of the river 
 Zaque, in the province of Cinaloa, of California. They are located four 
 leagues from the gulf, in extensive and fertile plains, and are said to be su- 
 perior, by nature, to the other Indians of New Spain. Some of their 
 customs denote this. They abhor poligamy, they hold virginity in the 
 highest estimation. Unmarried girls, by way of distinction, wea- a small 
 shell suspended to their neck, until the day of their nuptials, when it is 
 taken off by the bridegroom. They wear woven cotton. They bewail 
 their dead a year, at night and morning. They are gentle and faithful in 
 their covenants and engagements. 
 
 AHOUANDATB, a name for the tribe of the Wyandots, which is found on 
 ancient maps of the Colonies. 
 
 AHUACATLAN, the name of four separate settlements of Mexico, contain- 
 ing, respectively, 51, 13, 450, and 160 families of Indians. 
 
 AHUACAZALCA, Nueva Espana. At this place, 56 families of Indians 
 live by raising rice and cotton. It is in the district of San Luis de la 
 Costa. 
 
 AHUACAZINGO, in the district of Atengo, Nueva Espana, contains 46 
 Indian families. 
 
 AHHALICAN, of the same province, has 36 Indian families. 
 
 AHUATELCO, ib. Has 289 families, who cultivate wheat and raise cattle. 
 
 AHUATEMPA. ib. Has 39 families. 
 
 AHUATEPEC, ib. Has 32 families. 
 
 AHUAZITLA, ib. Has 36 families, who trade inchia, a white medicinal 
 earth, grain and earthen-ware. 
 
 AHWAHAWA, a tribe of Indians who were found in 1805 to be located 
 a few miles above the Mandans, on the south west banks of the Missouri. 
 They are believed to have been a band of the Minnitares. They numbered 
 at that date 200. They were at war with the Snake Indians. They claim 
 to have once been a part of the Crow nation. They professed to have been 
 long residents of the spot occupied. The name has not been kept up, 
 and does not appear in recent reports from that quarter. Their history 
 is, probably, to be sought in that of the Mandans and the Minnetares. 
 
 AIATTUALTEMPA, a settlement of Chalipa, Mexico, containing 36 Indian 
 families. 
 
 AIAHUALULCO, ib. Two settlements of this name, contain, respectively! 
 70 and 42 Indian families. 
 
 ATAPANGO, ib. contains 100 Indian families. 
 
 AIATEPEC, ib. has 45 families of natives. 
 
 AIAUTLA, ib. has 100 families.
 
 250 ETHNOLOGY. 
 
 AICHES, a settlement of Indians of Texas, situated on the main road to 
 
 Mexico. 
 
 AIECTIPAC, Mexico. Twenty-one Indian families reside here. 
 
 AINSR, a Chippewa chief of Point St. Ignace, Mechilimackinac county, 
 Michigan. The population of this band, as shown by the government 
 census rolls in 1840, was 193, of whom 33 were men, 54 women, and 106 
 children. They support themselves by the chase and by fishing. They 
 cultivate potatoes only. They^ receive, together with the other bands, an- 
 nuities 'Yom the government, in coin, provisions, salt, and tobacco, for 
 which purpose they assemble annually, on the island of Michilimackinac. 
 The name of this chief is believed to be a corruption from Hans. 
 
 AIOCHESCO, an Indian settlement of Chalipa, Mexico. Has 400 Indian 
 families. 
 
 AiocTm.AN, ib. Has 76 ditto. 
 
 AIOZINAPA, ib. Has 34 ditto. 
 
 AIOZINGO, ib. Has 120 ditto. 
 
 AIKICOS, a nation of Indians inhabiting the plains of Cazanare and 
 Meta in the new kingdom of Grenada, to the east of the mountains of 
 Bogota. They inhabit the banks of the river Ele. They are numerous 
 and warlike, and feared by all their neighbours, for their valour and dex- 
 terity in the use of arms. In 1662 Antonio de Monteverde, a Jesuit, es- 
 tablished a mission among them, and baptized numbers. 
 
 AISHQTJAGONABKE. A Chippewa chief, of some note, of a mild and dig- 
 nified carriage, living on Grand Traverse Bay, on the east shores of lake 
 Michigan. In 1836 he formed a part ol the delegation of Chippewa and 
 Ottowa chiefs, who proceeded to Washington city, and concluded a treaty 
 ceding their lands to the U. S. from Grand river on lake Michigan, to 
 Chocolate river on lake Superior. The name signifies, the first feather, or 
 feather of honour. The population of his village in 1840, as shown by 
 the census rolls, was 207, of whom 51 were men, or heads of families, 49 
 women, and 107 children. They receive annuities annually at Michili- 
 mackinac. They subsist by the chase, by planting corn, beans and pota- 
 toes, and by fishing. 
 
 AiSHKEBUG^KozH, or the Flat Mouth, called Guelle Platte, in the patois 
 of the Fur Trade. The Head chief of the band of the Chippewas. called 
 Mtikundwas or Pilligers, who are situated at Leech Lake, on the souices- 
 of the Mississippi. This band, it is estimated, can furnish 200 wnrriois. 
 they are a brave and warlike people, and are at perpetual war with their 
 western neighbours, the Sioux. They subsist by the chnse, and by tak- 
 ing white fish in the lake. Some corn and potatoes are also raised by the 
 womm ami the old and superannuated men of the band. They area fierce, 
 wild, untamed race, strong in their numbers, and proud and confiiK-ni in 
 their success in war, and the comparative ease with which they pmcu < a 
 subsistence from the chase. They adhere to their ancient religious cere-
 
 ETHNOLOGY. 
 
 monies and incantations, and are under the government of their native 
 priests, jossakeeds and seers. Aishkebugekozh, has for many years exer- 
 cised the political sway over them, leading them, .sometimes to war, and 
 presiding, at all times, in their councils. He is a shrewd man, of much 
 observation and experience in the affairs of the frontiers. He is of a 
 large, rather stout frame, broad shoulders and chest, and broad face, with 
 a somewhat stern countenance, denoting decision of character and capa- 
 city to command. Thin and extended lips, parted in a right line over a 
 prominent jaw, render the name, which his people have bestowed on him, 
 characteristic. By the term Kozh, instead of Odoan, the true meaning of 
 it is rather muzzle, or snout, than mouth, a distinction which the French 
 have preserved in the term Guette. 
 
 AIUINOS, a nation of Indians, of the government of Cinaloa, New Spain. 
 They live in the north part of the province. They formerly dwelt in 
 lofty mountains, to escape the effects of war with other nations. In 1624, 
 the Jesuits established a mission amongst them. They are docile, well in- 
 clined, and of good habits. 
 
 AIUTLA, a settlement of New Spain, containing 187 Indian families. 
 Another location of the same name contains 23 families. 
 
 AJOUES, a tribe of Indians of Louisiana, in its ancient extent, while it 
 existed under the government of the French. The word, as expressed in 
 English orthography, is lowas, and the tribe will be considered under that 
 head. 
 
 AKOSA, an Odjibwa chief, living on the peninsula of Grand Traverse 
 Bay, lake Michigan, known for his good will towards the mission esta- 
 blished near his village, by the American Board, in 1839. In the recess 
 periods of hunting, he is attentive on the means of instruction furnished 
 at that station. He enjoins on his children attendance at the school. He 
 bestows a punctual care in planting his corn-field and garden. He has 
 erected a good dwelling house of logs, and supplied it with several articles 
 of plain household furniture. He is of a mild and pleasing character, 
 and appreciates and acknowledges the superiority of agriculture and civi- 
 lization over the uncertainties of the chase. Without distinction in war, 
 or eloquence, or a genealogy of warriors to refer to, and consequently, of 
 but little general note or fame in his tribe, he is an active hunter, and 
 stable, temperate man, and may be regarded as a fair average specimen, 
 physically and mentally, of the race. The band of Akosa mustered 160 
 souls, on the pay rolls of 1840, of which number, 37 were men. 42 women, 
 and 39 children. They receive their annuities at Michilimackinac. 
 
 AICANSA, a synonym of Arkansas. 
 
 ALABAMA, one of the United States of America. The name is derived 
 from a tribe of Indians, who formerly inhabited the banks of the river of 
 the same name This river, on its junction with the Tombigbee, forms the 
 Mobile. The Alabama Indians, were succeeded in the occupancy of this
 
 252 ETHNOLOGY. 
 
 river by the Creeks, or Muscogees. They withdrew towards the west 
 In 1790 their descendants lived in a village, eligibly situated, on several 
 swelling- green hills on the banks of the Mississippi. No accounts of them 
 are given in recent reports. They appear to have continued their route 
 westward by the way of Ked River. The precise period of their cross- 
 ing the Mississippi is not known. They came to Red River about the 
 same time as the Bolixies and Appalaches. Their language is represented 
 to be the Mobilian, as denominated by Du Pratz, that is the Chacta. Part 
 of them lived, at the end of the 18th century, on Red River, sixteen miles 
 above Bayou Rapide. Thence they went higher up the stream, and set- 
 tled near the Caddoes, where they raised good crops of corn. An- 
 other party, of about 40 men, lived in Apalousas district, where they 
 cultivated corn, raised and kept horses, hogs and cattle, and exhibited a 
 quiet and pacific character. From a statement published in a paper, at 
 Houston, the seat of government of Texas, in 1840, their descendants 
 were then settled on the river Trinity, in that republic, where thpy arfe as- 
 sociated with the Coshattas, forming two villages, numbering two hundred 
 warriors, or about 1000 souls. They preserve, in this new location, the 
 pacific and agricultural traits noticed during their residence in Lousiana. 
 
 ALACHPA. an extensive level prairie, in Florida, about 75 miles west of 
 St. Augustine. The ancient Indian town of Alnchua, stood on its bor- 
 ders, but its inhabitants removed to a more healthful position at Cusco- 
 willa. 
 
 ALACLATZALA, a settlement in the district of St. Lewis, New Spain, con- 
 taining 125 Indian families. 
 
 ALAHUITZLAN, ib. a settlement having 270 Indian families. 
 
 ALAPAHA, one of the higher tributary streams of the Suwannee river, in 
 Florida. 
 
 Af,ACF, or ONALASKA, a long peninsula on the N. W. coast of America, 
 At its termination, are a number of islands, which form a part of the clus- 
 ter called the northern Archepelago. 
 
 ALEAHRADA, a settlement of Indians in the kingdom of Chile, situated 
 on the shores of the river Cauchupil. Also a settlement of New Spain, 
 containing 22 Indian families. 
 
 ALKMPIGON improperly written for Nipigon, a small lake north of lake 
 Superior. 
 
 ALFAXAIUCA, a settlement of New Spain, containing 171 Indian fami- 
 lies. 
 
 ALGANSEE, a township of the county of Branch, Michigan. It is a 
 compound derivative from Algonkin, gan, a particle denoting a lake, and 
 mushcodainse, a prairie. 
 
 Ar.oir, an adjective term used by the writer, to denote a genus or family 
 of tribes who take their characteristic from the use of the Algonquin Ian-
 
 ETHNOLOGY. 253 
 
 guage. It is a derivative from the words Algonquin, and Ake^ earth, or 
 land. 
 
 ALO >NQUIN, a nation of In luns who, on the discovery and settlement of 
 Canada, were found to occupy the north b;mks of the St. Lawrence be- 
 tween Quebec, Three Rivers, and the junction of the Utawas. Gluebec 
 itself is believed to be a word derived from this language, having its origin 
 in Kebic. the fearful rock or cliff When the Fiench settled at Quebec, 
 fifteen hundred fighting men of this nation lived between that nation and 
 Sillery. They were reputed, at this era, to be the most warlike an 1 power- 
 ful people in North America, and the most advanced in their policy and 
 intelligence. Golden speaks of them as excelling all others. On the ar- 
 rival of Champlain, who, although not the discoverer of the country, was 
 the true founder of the French power in Canada, they were supplied with 
 fire arms, and even led to war, by that chivalric officer, against their ene- 
 mies, the Iroquois. They were stimulated to renewed exertions in vari- 
 ous ways, by the arrival of this new power, and carried the terror of their 
 arms towards the south* and south-west. They were in close alliance 
 with the Wyandots, a people who, under the names of Quatoghies and 
 Hurons, on Carder's arrival in 1534, were seen as low down the St. 
 Lawrence as the island of Anticosti, and bay Chaleur. But as soon as 
 the Iroquois had been supplied with the same weapons, and learned their 
 use, the Algonquins were made to feel the effects of their courage, and 
 combined strength. The Wyandots were fiist defeated in a great battle 
 fought within two leagues of Gluebec. The Iroquois next prepared to 
 strike an effective blow against the collective tribes of kindred origin, 
 called Algonquins. Under the'pretence of visiti-ng the Governor of Ca- 
 nada, they introduced a thousand men into the valley of the St. Lawrence, 
 when, finding their enemies separated into two bodies, the one at the river 
 Nicolet. and the other at Trois Riviere, they fell upon them unawares, 
 and defeated both divisions. In this defeat the Nipercerinians (Nipes- 
 sings) and the Atawawas (Otlowas) who then lived on the hanks of the 
 St. Lawrence, participated. The former, who were indeed but the. Al- 
 gonquin" under their proppr name, drew off towards the north-west. 
 The Atawawas migrate^ 10 the great chain of the Manatoulines of lake 
 Huron, whence they have still proceeded further towards the west and south, 
 until they reached L'arbre Croche and Grand River of Michigan, their 
 present seats. The Quntoorhirs or Wyandots fled to the banks of the 
 same Lake (Huron) v;r:n nas lerived its name from the celebrity of their 
 flight to, and residence- on u* banks. 
 
 Of the Algonquins proper wno remained on the St. Lawrence, and who 
 are specifically entitled to that name, but a limited numbpr survive. 
 About the middle of the 17th century : they were reduced to a few villages 
 near Quebec, who were then said to be li wasted, an 1 wistinar a-.vay undei 
 the effects of ardent' spirits." Subsequently, they were collected, by the
 
 254 ETHNOLOGY. 
 
 Catholic Church, into a mission, and settled at the Lake of Two Moun- 
 tains, on the Utawas or Grand River of Canada, where they have been 
 instructed in various arts, and effectually civilized. There, their descend- 
 ants still remain. They are a tall, active, shrewd, lithe, energic race. 
 Parties of them have been engaged as voyagers and hunters, within mo- 
 dern times, and led in the prosecution of the fur trade into the remote for- 
 ests of the north-west. In these positions, they have manifested a degree of 
 energy, hardihood, and skill in the chase, far beyond that possessed by 
 native, unreclaimed tribes. The Algonquin women, at the Lake of Two 
 Mountains, make very ingenious basket and bead work, in which the 
 dyed quills of the porcupine, and various coloured beads of European 
 manufacture, are employed. They also make finger rings out of moose 
 hair, taken from the breast tuft of this animal, in which mottoes or devices 
 are worked. They have molodious soft voices, in chanting the hymns 
 sung at the mission. This tribe is called Odishkuaguma, that is, People- 
 at-the-end-of-the-waters, by the Odjibwas. They were called Adiron- 
 dacks, by the Six Nations. The term Algonquin, which we derive from 
 the French, is not of certain etymology. It appears at first to have been a 
 nom de guerre, for the particular people, or tribe, whose descendants are 
 DOW confined to the position at the Lake of Two Mountains. It was early 
 applied to all the tribes of kindred origin. And is now a generic term for 
 a family or primitive stock of tribes in North' America, who either speak 
 cognate dialects, or assimilate in the leading principles of their languages. 
 The number of these tribes still existing, is very large, and viewed in 
 the points of their greatest difference, the variations in the consonantal and 
 diphthongal sounds of their languages, are considerable. As a general 
 geographical area, these tribes, at various periods from about 1600, to the 
 present time, ethnographically covered the Atlantic coast, from the 
 northern extremity of Pamlico-sound to the Straits of Bellisle, extending 
 west and north-west, to the banks of the Missinipi of Hudson's Bay, and 
 to the east borders of the Mississippi, as low as the junction of the Ohio. 
 From this area, the principal exceptions are the Iroquois of New York, 
 the Wyandots west, and the Winnebagoes and small bands of the Doco- 
 tahs. The grammatical principles of these dialects, coincide. As a gene- 
 ral fact, in their lexicography the letters f, r and v are wanting. The 
 dialects derive their peculiarities, in a great measure, from interchanges 
 between the sounds of 1 and n, b and p. d and t, g end k, in some of which, 
 there is a variance even in distant bands of the saiuc tribe. The language 
 is transpositive. In its conjugations, the pronouns are incorporated with 
 the verb, either as prefixes or suffixes. Its substantives are provided with 
 adjective inflections, denoting size and quality. Its verbs, on the other 
 hand, receive substantive inflections. Gender is, as a rule, lost sight of, 
 in the uniform attempt, to preserve, by inflections, a distinction between 
 animate and inanimate, and personal or impersonal objects. It is remark-
 
 ETHNOLOGY. 255 
 
 able for the variety of its compounds, although the vocabulary itself, is 
 manifestly constructed from monosyllabic, roots. All its substantives 
 admit of diminutives, but, in no instance, of augmentatives. They also 
 admit of derogative and prepositional inflections. The comparison of 
 adjectives, is not, on the contrary, made by inflections, but by separate words. 
 There is no dual number, but in all the dialects, so far as examined, a 
 distinction is made in the plural of the first person, to denote the inclusion 
 or exclusion of the object. There is no distinction between the pronoun, 
 singular and plural, of the third person. The language has some redun- 
 dancies, which would be pruned off by cultivation. It has many liquid 
 and labial sounds. It has a soft flow and is easy of attainment. It is pe- 
 culiarly rich and varied, in its compound terms for visible objects, and 
 their motions or acts. Streams, mountains, vallies, and waters, in all their 
 variety of appearance, are graphically described. It is equally suited to 
 describe the phenomena of the heavens, the air, tempests, sounds, light, 
 colours, motion, and the various phases of the clouds and planetary bodies. 
 It is from this department, that a large portion of their peisonal names are 
 taken. 
 
 It is true that many of the grammatical principles of the Algonquin 
 languages, are also developed in other stocks. Yet these stocks are not 
 as well known. It was chiefly in the area of the Algonquin tribes, that 
 the British and French, and Dutch and Swedish colonists settled, and the 
 result of enquiry, through a long period, has accumulated most materials 
 in relation to this type of the American languages. Specific notices of 
 each of the subdivisions of this stock, will be given under the appropriate 
 names. 
 
 The general synonyms for this nation are but few. The principal dif- 
 ferences in the orthography, between the French and English writers 
 consist in the latter's spelling the last syllable quin, while the former em- 
 ploy kin. In old encyclopaedias and gazetteers, the phrase Algonquinen- 
 sis, is used. The term Abernaquis, is also a French mode of annotation 
 for the same word, but is rather applied at this time to a specific h;m I. 
 The word Algic, derived from the same root, has been applied by the 
 writer to the entire circle of the Algonquin tribes, in their utmost former 
 extent in North America. Mr. Gallatin has proposed the term " Algnnkin- 
 Lenape," as a philological denomination for this important family. Their 
 own n ime for the race, is a question of some diversity of opinion. Those 
 particular tribes, who were found on the Atl.mtic const between the Chpsn- 
 peak-bay and the Hudson, called themselves Lenapts. generally with the 
 prefixed or qualifying noun of Linno, or Lenno. Other tribes extending 
 over the largest area of the union, and of British America, inhabited hy 
 this stock, denote themselves as a race, by the term Anishinaba, that is, the 
 common people. 
 
 The term Lenape, signifies a male, and is identical in sense with the
 
 256 ETHNOLOGY. 
 
 Algonquin word laba. If Lenno, or Linno be, as some contend, a term 
 denoting original, they must be conceded to have had more forethought, 
 and a greater capacity for generalization, than other stocks have mani- 
 fested, by calling themselves, Original Men. If, however, it only implies, 
 is others acquainted with this language, assert, common or general, then it 
 here perceived to be a perfect identity in the meaning of the two terms. 
 
 ALGONAC, a village of the county of St. Clair, Michigan, which is 
 pleasantly situated on the banks of the river St. Clair. It is a term de- 
 rived from the word Algonquin, and akee, earth or land. 
 
 ALGONQUINENSIS, a term used in old gazetteers and geographical die 
 
 tionaries, for the Algonquins. 
 
 ALIETANS, a name for the Shoshones, or Snake Indians. See letans. 
 
 ALIBAMONS, or ALIBAMIS, ancient forms of orthography for the tribe of 
 the Alabamas. 
 
 ALINA, a settlement of Pinzandarc, New Spain, containing 20 Indian 
 families, who have a commerce in maize and wax. 
 
 AUPKONCK, an Indian village which, in 1659, stood on the east banks 
 of the river Hudson, between the influx of the Croton, then called by the 
 Dutch Saehkill, and the Indian village of Sing Sing. [Osinsing.] Anee- 
 bikong? place of leaves, or rich foliage. 
 
 ALLCA, an ancient province of the kingdom of Peru, south of Cuczo, in- 
 habited by a race of natives, who made a vigorous stand against Manco 
 Capac, the fourth emperor of the Incas, and called the conqueror. la 
 this defence, they were favoured by the rugged character of the country, 
 which abounds in woods, mountains, lakes, and gold and silver mines. 
 
 ALLEGAN, an agricultural and milling county of the state of Michigan, 
 bordering on the east shores of lake Michigan. It is a derivative word, 
 from Algonkin, and gan the penultimate syllable of the Odjibwa term 
 Sa-gi-e-gan, a lake. 
 
 ALLEGHANY, the leading chain of mountains of the United States east 
 of the Mississippi, also one of the two principal sources of the Ohio river. 
 Indian tradition attributes the origin of this name to an ancient race of In- 
 dians who were called Tallegewy, or Allegewy. This nation, tradition 
 asserts, had spread themselves east of the Mississippi and of the Ohio. 
 They were a warlike people, and defended themselves in long and bloody 
 wars, but were overpowered and driven south by a confederacy of tribes, 
 whose descendants still exist in the Algonquin and IioquoU stocks. Such 
 is the account of the Delawares. 
 
 ALMOLOTA, a settlement of Zultepec in New Spain, of 77 Indian familie* ; 
 also, in Metepec, in the same kingdom, of 156 families.
 
 ETHNOLOGY. 267 
 
 ALMOLOLOAIAN, a settlement in the district of Cohraa, New Spain, of 
 Indian families. 
 
 ALOTEPEC, ib. has 67 families. 
 
 ALOZOZINGO, ib. has 110 families. 
 
 ALPJZAGOA, ib. has 36 families. 
 
 ALPOIECA, ib. has 42 families. Another, same name, of 115 families. 
 
 ALPOIECAZFNGO, ib. has 140 families. 
 
 ALPONECA, ib. has 30 families. Another, same name, 77 families. 
 
 ALTAMAHA, a river of Georgia. 
 
 ALTOTONGA, the name of a settlement of Xalapa, in New Spain. Tbo 
 word signifies in the Mexican language, hot and saltish water, and this 
 comes from the intermingled qualities of two streams which originate in 
 a mountain near to each other, and form by their junction a river which 
 runs into the lake of Alchichica. 
 
 ALZOUI, a settlement of 190 Indian families, of Tlapa, in New Spain, 
 or Mexico. They are industrious, cultivating maize, cotton, French 
 beans and rice. 
 
 ALMOUCHICO, the Indian name for New England, on the map of 
 " Novi Belgii," published at Amsterdam in 1659. 
 
 AMACACHES, a nation of Indians of Brazil, of the province of Rio 
 Janiero. They inhabit the mountains south of the city. They are 
 numerous, and much dreaded, on account of the desperate incursions they 
 have made into the Portuguese settlements. Their weapons are darts, 
 and macanaw, a kind of club made of a very heavy wood. They poison 
 their arrows and lances. 
 
 AMALISTES, a band of Algonquins, living on the St. Lawrence, and num- 
 bering 500 in 1760. 
 
 AMANALCO, an Indian settlement of the district of Metepeque, Mexico, 
 of 1224 families. 
 
 AMAPAES, a barbarous nation of Indians in New Andalusia, to the west 
 of the river Orinoco, near the mountains of Paria. They are valiant and 
 hardy ; sincere and faithful in their engagements. They live by the 
 chace and by fishing. They make arms, which are tipped by vegetable 
 poisons. They are at war with the Isaperices. Their territory is called, 
 after them, Amapaya. 
 
 AMAriLCAN, a settlement of Tlapa, Mexico, containing 15 Indian 
 families. 
 
 AMATEPEC, an Indian settlement of Zultepec, Mexico, situated on the 
 top of a mountain, consisting of 80 families. Another settlement, of the 
 same name, in the district of Toltontepec, has 15 Indians families. Both 
 have a cold temperature. 
 
 AMATICLAN, a settlement of Huitepec, in Mexico, containing 43 Indian 
 families. 
 
 17
 
 ETHNOLOGY. 
 
 AMATINCHAN, a settlement of TUpa, Mexico, containing G2 Indian 
 
 families. 
 
 AUATLAN, a settlement of Tanzitaro, Mexico, containing 60 Indian 
 families. Another settlement of San Louis, has 380 famili- s. Another, 
 in the district of Cordova, has 220. Another, in Zacatlan 248. Ano- 
 ther, in Cozamaopan has 150. All these bear the same name, with the 
 prefix of the dedicatory patron, Santa Ana. 
 
 AMBOY, a bay of New Jersey. This pait of the state was occupied, in 
 ancient time, by a tribe or band of the Minci, who were called Siuhi- 
 
 kans. 
 
 AMEALCO, a settlement of Querataro, Mexico, containing 38 Indian 
 
 families. 
 
 AMECA, a settlement of Autlan, Mexico, containing 43 Indian families. 
 AMECAMECA, a settlement of Chalco, Mexico, containing 570 Indian 
 families. 
 
 AMECAQUE, a settlement of Calpa, Mexico, containing 275 Indian 
 families. 
 
 AMERICA ; no nation of Indians on this continent, had, so far as we know, 
 ever generalized sufficiently to bestow a generic name on the continent. 
 The Algonquin terms "Our Country," AINDANUKKYAX, and " The West," 
 KABEAN, were probably the most comprehensive which their intercoiiise 
 or ideas required. Equivalents for these phrases might be, peihaps, suc- 
 cessfully sought among all the most advapced tribes. The instances here 
 given are from the Odjibwa dialect. 
 
 AMICWAYS, or AMICAWAES, a tribe or family of Indians, who are spoken 
 of by the French writers as having formerly inhabited the Manatonline 
 chain of islands in lake Huron. The term is from Amik, a beaver. The 
 Ottowas settled here, after their discomfiture, along with the Adiiondacks, 
 on the St. Lawrence. 
 
 AMIK-EMINIS, the group of Beaver islands of Lake Michigan. The east- 
 ernmost of this group is called Amik-aindaud. or the Beaver-house. These 
 islands are inhabited by Chippewas. In 1840, they numbered 199 souls, 
 of whom 39 were men, 51 women, and 109 children. All were engaged 
 in the chase, or in fishing, and none in agriculture. Their chief was 
 called Kinwabekizze. 
 
 AMIKWUG, a wild roving nation northwest of the sources of the Missis- 
 sippi. See Beaver Indians. 
 
 AMILPA, a settlement of Xochimilco, in Mexico, containing 730 Indian 
 families, who nve by agriculture. 
 
 AMILTEPEO, a settlement of Juquila. M., containing 14 Indian families. 
 AMIXOCORES, a barbarous nation of Indians of Brazil. They inhabit 
 the woods and mountains south of Rio Janerio. They are cruel and 
 treacherous. They are at continual war with the Portuguese. Very little 
 is known of the territory they inhabit, or of their manners.
 
 ETHNOLOGY. 259 
 
 AMMOUGKAUGEN, a name used in 1659, for the southern branch of the 
 
 Piscataqua river. 
 
 . 
 AMOLA, or AMULA, a judicial district in Guadaxalara, Mexico. In the 
 
 Mexican tongue, it signifies the land of many trees, as it abounds in trees. 
 The change from o to u in the word, is deemed a corruption. 
 
 AMOLTEPEC, a settlement of Teozaqualco, Mexico, containing 96 Indian 
 families. 
 
 AMONOOSUCK, an Indian name which is borne by two rivers of New 
 Hampshire. Both take their rise in the White Mountains. The upper 
 Amonoosuck enters the Connecticut River, at Northumberland, near 
 upper Coos. The lower, or Great Amonoosuck, enters the same river 
 above the town of Haverhill, in lower Coos. 
 
 AMOPOCAN, a settlement of Indians of Cuyo, in Chili, situated along the 
 shores of a river. 
 
 AMOZAQUE, a settlement of Puebla de los Angelos, in a hot and dry tem- 
 perature, containing 586 Indian families. 
 
 AMPONES. a barbarous nation of Indians, in Paraguay. They inhabit 
 the forest to the south of the Rio de la Plata. They are of small 
 stature. They are divided into several tribes. They are courageous. 
 They live on wild tropical fruits, and on fish which are taken in certain 
 lakes. They preserve these by smoking. They enjoy a fine country and 
 climate. They find gold in the sand of their rivers, and have some traffic 
 with the city of Conception. Some converts have been made to the Cath 
 olic faith. 
 
 AMUES, a settlement and silver mine of San Luis de la Paz, in Mexico. 
 It has 43 Indian families, besides 93 of Mustees and Mullatoes. They 
 subsist by digging in the mines. 
 
 AMURCAS, a nation of barbarous Indians, descended from the Panches, 
 in New Grenada. They live in the forests to the south of the river Mag- 
 dalena. But little is known of them. 
 
 AMUSKEAG, the Indian name of a fall in the river Mernmack, New 
 Hampshire, 16 miles below Concord, and 7 miles below Hookset falls. 
 
 ANA, SANTA. Of the fifty-five names of places in Mexico, or New Spain, 
 mentioned by Alcedo, which bear this name, seven are the seat of a joint 
 population of 544 Indian families. Of these, 31 are in Zaqualpa ; 117 in 
 Zultepec; 124 in Toluca ; 134 in Cholula ; 18 in Yautepec ; 25 in 
 Mitla; 70 in Amaqueca; and 149 in Huehuetlan. . 
 
 ANAHUAC, the ancient Indian name of New Spain, or Mexico. The 
 valley of Mexico, or Tenochtitlan, is, according to Humboldt, situated in 
 the centre of the Cordillera of Anahuac. This valley is of an oval form. 
 Its length is 18| leagues, estimating from the entry of the Rio Tenango 
 into lake Chalco to the foot of the Cerro de Sincoque, and 12 leagues in 
 breadth, from St. Gabriel to the sources of the Rio de Escapusalco. Its 
 territorial extent is 244 square leagues, of which only 22 square leagues
 
 260 ETHNOLOGY. 
 
 are occupied by lakes, being less than a tenth of the whole surface. The 
 circumference of the valley, estimating around the crest of the mountains, 
 is 67 leagues. This crest is very elevated in most parts, and embraces the 
 great volcanoes of La Puebla, Popocatepetl, and Iztacchihuatl. There 
 are five Likes in this valley, oPwhich, that of Te/cuco is the largest. All 
 are much diminished in the quantity of w;.ter they yielJ, since the IGth 
 century, which is owing, in part, to the destruction of trees by the Span- 
 iards, but most directly to the canal of Hurhuetoco, cut through a moun- 
 tain by which the waters are drawn into the river Pan'u-o, anJ thus find 
 their way into the Atlantic. By this work, the city of Mexico itsr-lf was 
 freed from all effects of perioJical inundation, and the site enlarged and 
 rendered better suited to streets and carriages. The waters of lake Tez- 
 cuco are impregnated with muriate and carbonate of soda. Those of 
 Xochimilco are the most pure and limpid. HumbolJt found their specific 
 gravity to be 1.0009, when distilled water at the temperature of 54 
 Fahrenheit, was 1.000, and that of Tezcuco 1 0215. 
 
 Of the five lakes mentioned, Xochimilco and Chalco contain 6^ square 
 leagues; Tezcuco, 10 T V; San Christoval, 3^; and Zumpango, lf a . 
 The valley is a basin, surrounded by an elevated wall of porphyry moun- 
 tains. The bottom of this basin is 2,277 metres, or 7,468 feet above 
 the sea. 
 
 ANALCO, a settlement of Guadalaxara, in Mexico, containing 40 Indian 
 families 
 
 ANASAGUNTAKOOK, a band of the Abenaki, on the sources of the Andros- 
 coggin, in Maine. 
 
 ANCAMARES, a nation of Indians inhabiting the shores of the river Ma- 
 dera. They are very warlike and robust. In 1683 they attacked the 
 Portuguese, and compelled them to give up the navigation of the river. 
 They are divided into different tribes. The most numerous are the An- 
 camares, who inhabit the shores of the river Cayari. 
 
 ANCAS, a nation of Indians in Peru, who, on the 6th January, 1725, 
 were overwhelmed and destroyed by the ruins of a mountain which burst 
 forth by an earthquake. Fifteen thousand souls perished on that occasion. 
 
 ANCE, or RANGE'S band of Chippewas, living at Point St. Ignace, on 
 the straits of Michilimackinac, in Michigan. This band, in 1840, as de- 
 noted by the annuity pay rolls, numbered 193 ; of whom, 33 were men, 
 54 women, and 106 children. They subsist in part by hunting the small 
 furred animals still existing in the country, and in part by fishing. They 
 migrate from place to place, as the season varies, plant very little, and are 
 addicted to the use of ardent spirits. 
 
 ANCLOTE, an island on the southwest coast of Florida ; also, a river 
 flowing into the gulf at that locality, which is also called, in the Seminole 
 dialect, the Est-has-hotee.
 
 ETHNOLOGY. 261 
 
 ANCOTERES, a nation of infidel Indians inhabiting the forests of the r'iver 
 Napo, in Quito. They are numerous, savage, treacherous, and inconstant; 
 
 ANDASTKS, a nation formerly inhabiting the territory on the southern 
 shores of lake Erie, southwest of the Senecas. They were extirpated by 
 the Ir Kjuois. 
 
 ANDAIG WEOS, or CROW'S FLESH, a hereditary chief of the Chippewa 
 nation, living towards the close of the last century at the ancient Indian 
 village of La Pointe Chegoimegon, on lake Superior. He possessed quali- 
 ties, which, under a different phasis of society, would have developed 
 themselves in marked acts of benevolence. Numbers of anecdotes, favour- 
 able to his character, are related of him, and have been handed down by 
 tradition among the French residents on that remote frontier. Although 
 a warrior, engaged in frequent expeditions against the enemies of his tribe, 
 he opposed the shedding of the blood of white men who were encountered, 
 in a defenceless state, in the pursuits of trade. He also resisted the plun- 
 der of their property. He had a strong natural sense of justice, accom- 
 panied with moral energy, and gave utterance to elevated and ennobling 
 sentiments in his intercourse. 
 
 ' ANDRKAP, SAN. A settlement of Texupilco, in Mexico, containing 77 
 Indian families ; another of Toluco, of 134 ; another in Tlatotepec, of 33; 
 another in Tuxtla, of 1170; another in Guejozingo, of 15; another in 
 Papalotepec, of 20 ; another in Hiscoutepec, of 68 ; another in Tepehua- 
 can, of 40 ; all under the same dedicatory nama 
 
 ANDROSPOGGIN, the main western source of the river Kennebec, in 
 Maine. 
 
 ANGAGUA. SANTIAGO DE ; a settlement of Valladolid, Mexico, containing 
 22 Indian families. 
 
 ANGAMOCUTIRO, a settlement of the same district with the preceding, con- 
 taining 106 Indian families. 
 
 ANGARAES, a province of Peru, containing six curacies or parishes of 
 Indians. 
 
 ANGELKS, PUEBLA DE Los, the capitol of the province of TIaxcala, in New 
 Spain, or Mexico, founded in 1533. The entire number of Indian fami- 
 lies within this important jurisdiction is 3,200, which, at the ordinary rate 
 of the estimation of Indian population here, that is, five souls to a family, 
 gives an aggregate of 16,000. These are descendants of the ancient 
 Aztec -s. who inhabited the country on its conquest. 
 
 This is, however, but the population of the chief town or capital. The 
 entire intetidency of Pueblos de los Angeles contained, in 1793, 508,098 
 souls. Of this number, 373,752 were Indians of pure blood, divided into 
 187,531 males, and 186,221 females. There were also 77,908 of the 
 mix d race, divided into 37,318 males, and 40,590 females. But 54,980 
 were Spaniards, or whites, exclusive of 585 secuhr ecclesiastics, 446 
 monks, and 427 nuns.
 
 oc i:> ETHNOLOGY. 
 
 XOl* 
 
 T'his preponderance of the native Indian population is still more strik- 
 ing jin the government of Ilaxcala, which, of course, includes the capital 
 aboVe named. In 1793, it contained a population of 59,177 souls; of 
 which, 42,878 were Indians, divided into 21,849 males, and 21,029 
 females. The town is governed by a Cacique, and four Indian Alcaldes, 
 who represent the ancient heads of the four quarters, still called Teepecti- 
 pac, Ocotelalco, Gluiahtuitztlan, and Tizatlan. By virtue of a royal cedula 
 of 16th April, 1585, the whites have no seat in the municipality. The 
 Cacique, or Indian Governor, enjoys the honors of an alferez real. Not- 
 withstanding the zeal of a Spanish intendant general, the progress of the 
 inhabitants in industry and prosperity has been extremely slow. The se- 
 cret of this is, perhaps, revealed in the fact that four fifths of the whole 
 property belongs to mort-main proprietors, that is to say, to communities 
 of monks, to chapters, corporations, and hospitals. Their trade is also de- 
 pressed by the enormous price of carriage from the table lands, and the 
 want of beasts of burden. 
 
 The geology and antiquities of this part of Mexico, are equally interest- 
 ing. The intendency of Puebla is traversed by the high cordilleras of 
 Anahuac, which, beyond the 18th degree of latitude, spreads into a plain, 
 elevated from 1,800 to 2,000 metres above the level of the ocean, or from 
 5,905 to 6,561 feet. In this intendeny is also the Popocatepetl, the high- 
 est mountain in Mexico. Humboldt's measurement of this volcano makes 
 it 600 metres (1,968 feet,) higher than the most elevated summit of the 
 old continent. It is, indeed, only exceeded between Panama and Behring's 
 Straits, by Mt. St. Elias. 
 
 The table land of Puebla exhibits remarkable vestiges of ancient civil 
 ization. The fortifications of Tlaxcala are posterior in the date of theu 
 construction to the great pyramid of Cholula. This pyramid, or teocalli, 
 is the most stupendous monument erected by the race. Its squares are 
 arranged in exact accordance with the astronomical parallels. It is con 
 structed in stages or terraces, the highest of which is 177 feet above the. 
 plain. It has a base of 1423 feet. By a passage excavated into the nortr 
 side of it, a few years ago, it is found to be solid, and to consist of alternate 
 layers of brick and clay. Its centre has not, however, been reached, lu 
 height exceeds the third of the great Egyptian pyramids of the group of 
 Ghiza. In its base, however, it exceeds that of all other edifices found by 
 travellers in the old continent ; it is almost double that of the great pyra- 
 mid of Cheops. To conceive of the vastness of the structure, let the tra- 
 veller imagine a square four times the size of the Place Vendome, piled 
 up with brick, in terraces, twice the utmost height of the palace of the 
 Louvre. 
 
 The Indians of the province of Tlaxcala speak three languages, differ- 
 ing from one another, namely: the Mexican, Totonac, and Tlapanac. 
 The first is peculiar to the inhabitants of Puebla, Cholula, and Tlascalla ;
 
 ETHNOLOGY. 263 
 
 the second to the inhabitants of Zacatlan ; and the third is preserved in 
 the environs of Tlapa. The population of the entire intendency of Pue- 
 bla, in 1803, that is, ten years after the census above noted, had advanced 
 to 813,300 in an extent of 2,696 square leagues, giving 301 inhabitants to 
 the square league. Small as this may appear, it is four times greater than 
 that of Sweden, and nearly equal to that of the Kingdom of Arragon. 
 
 ANIALTS, a barbarous nation of South American Indians, in the llanos 
 of Casanare and Meta, in the new kingdom of Grenada. They are de- 
 scended from the Betoyes. They are very numerous, and of a gentle 
 nature. The Jesuits established a mission among them in 1722. 
 
 ANNACIOIS, or ANNACOUP, a barbarous nation of Indians, of the province 
 of Puerto Seguro, in Brazil. They inhabit the woods and mountains to 
 the west, and near the rivers Grande and Yucara. They are in a con- 
 stant state of warfare, night and day. They are irreconcileable enemies 
 of the Portuguese, whose colonies and cultivated lands they continually 
 Mafest, and which they destroyed in 1687. 
 
 ANNEMOSING, the name of the Otto was, and Chippewas, for the Fox 
 Islands, of lake Michigan. It is derived of Annemose, a young dog or 
 fox, and ing, a partich denoting place, or locality. 
 
 ANNEMIKEENS, a Chippewa hunter of Red River, in Hudson's bay, 
 who survived a con/Let with a grisly bear. After being terribly lacerated, 
 in his face and limby, but not deprived of consciousness, he affected death. 
 The animal then reized him gently by the neck, and dragged him to a 
 thicket, where ho was left, as it was thought, to be eaten when the calls 
 of hunger sho'j^! demand. From this position he arose, first setting up, 
 and binding pats of his lacerated flesh down, and afterwards rose, and 
 succeeded ir> reaching his wigwam, where, by skill in the use of simples, 
 his wound?, v/ere entirely healed. The name signifies little thunder, be- 
 ing a coTj/o'tnd from Annimikee, thunder, and the diminutive inflection 
 in us. 
 
 , a hammock brought to notice in the late war with the 
 s, in Florida. It is situated east of the Withlacooche river. 
 
 ANOLAIMA, a settlement of locaima, in New Granada, containing a 
 small, but indefinite population of Indians. 
 
 ANTALIS, a barbarous and warlike nation of Indians, in the kingdom 
 of Chile, to the west of Coquimbo. They valorously opposed the pro- 
 gress of the Inca Yupanqui, compelling him, in the end, to terminate 
 his conquests on the other side of the river Maule, the last boundary of 
 Peru. 
 
 ANTIQUITIES. See the articles Grave Creek, Marrietta, Circleville, &c. 
 
 ANTHONY ST. ; the falls of, being the fourth and lowermost of the per- 
 pendicular, or prominent falls of the Mississippi, and by far the greatest. 
 
 The first fall of this stream is the Kakabika, situated about half a day's 
 journey below Itasca lake ; the second is called Pukagama, and occurs be-
 
 264 ETHNOLOGY. 
 
 low the influx of the Leech lake branch. The third is below Elk river 
 and is passable in boats and canoes. St. Anthony's is the most consider 
 able of the series, and the only one which presents an abrupt plunge of 
 the stream from horizontal rocks. They were thus named by Hennepin, 
 about 1680. By the Dacotah Indians, who inhabit the country, they are 
 called Haha. It is at this point, that the Mississippi, which gathers its 
 waters from high table lands, and has its course, for several hundreds of 
 miles, through diluvions superimposed on the primitive, first plunges into 
 the great secondary formation. For more than a thousand miles, in its 
 way southward, its banks are rendered imposing and precipitous by this 
 formation. At or near the Grand Tower, and its adjunct precipice, on the 
 Missouri shore, this formation cease?, and the river enters the great delta, 
 which still confines it, for a like distance, before it expands itself, by it* 
 bifurcations, and final exit, in the Gulf of Mexico, at the Balize. 
 
 ANTONIO, SAN. The following statistical facts, denote the Indian popu- 
 lation, of sundry settlements, bearing this name, within the former govern* 
 ment of New Spain, now Mexico. In the limits of Tollman, 3i families ; 
 in Tampolomon, 128 ; in Toluca 51 ; in Metepec 261 ; in Coronango, 
 44 ; in Huehuetlan, 140 ; in Chapala, 27. 
 
 APACAHUND, or WHITE EYES, a Delaware chief of note, of the era of 
 the American revolution, who is frequently mentioned in documents of 
 the times. 
 
 APACES, SAN JUAN BAUTISTA DE, a settlement of Zekga in the province 
 and bishopric of Mechoacan, containing 135 Indian families. Another 
 settlement, of the same name, with the dedicatory title of Santa Maria, in 
 the district of Zitaguaro, contains 24 families. 
 
 APACHES, a nation of Indians, located between the Rio del Norte and the 
 sources of the Nuaces, who were reported, in 1817, at 3,500. In an 
 official report submitted to Congress, in 1837, their numbers " within 
 striking distance of the western frontier," are vaguely put at, 20,280.
 
 
 APALLACHIANS ; a nation of Indians who formerly inhabited the ex- 
 treme southern portion of the United States, and have left their name in 
 the leading range of the Apallachian mountains. In 1539 De Soto found 
 them in Florida, a term at that era comprehending also the entire area of 
 the present states of Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and other portions 
 of the southern territory. They were numerous, fierce, and valorous. 
 They were clothed in the skins of wild beasts. They used bows and 
 arrows, clubs and spears. They did not, as many nations of barbarians do, 
 poison their darts. They were temperate, drinking only water. They 
 did not make wars on slight pretences, or for avarice, but to repress at- 
 tacks, or remedy injustice. They treated their prisoners with humanity, 
 and like other persons of their households. They were long lived, some 
 persons reaching a hundred years. They worshipped the sun, to which 
 they sang hymns, morning and evening. These facts are to be gleaned 
 from the narrative. What were their numbers, how far they extended 
 their jurisdiction, what were their affiliations by language, customs, and 
 institutions with other tribes, cannot be accurately decided. Much that 
 is said of their civil and military polity, buildings, ceremonies and other 
 traits, applies to the Floridian Indians generally, and may be dismissed as 
 either vague, or not characteristic of the Appalachians. A quarto vol- 
 ume was published in London in 1666, by John Davies, under the title 
 of a " History of the Caribby Indians," in which he traces the caribs of 
 the northern groups of the West Indies, to the Apallachians, and relates 
 many incidents, and narrates a series .of surprising wars and battles, 
 reaching, in their effects, through the Mississippi valley up to the great 
 lakes, which have the appearance of fable. How much of this account, 
 which speaks of " cattle" and " herds," may be grafted on ancient tra- 
 ditions, it is impossible to tell. There are some proofs of such an an- 
 cient civilisation in the Ohio valley and other sections of the country, but 
 they are unconnected with any Indian traditions, which have survived, 
 unless we consider the mounds and remains of antique forts as monu- 
 mental evidences of these reputed wars. The Lenapee accounts of these 
 ancient wars with the Tallagees or Allegewy, may be thought to refer to 
 this ancient people, who had, if this conjecture be correct, extended 
 their dominion to the middle and northern latitudes of the present area 
 of the United States, prior to the appearance of the Algonquin and Iro 
 quies races. Mr. Irving has suggested the name of Apallachia, or Alle 
 
 gania, derived from the stock, for this division of the continent. 
 - 
 
 265
 
 L AIGTJ AGE. 
 
 LECTURES ON THE GRAMMATICAL STRUCTURE 
 
 THE course of lectures, of which the following are part, were delivered 
 before the St. Mary's committee of the Algic Society. Two of them only 
 have been published. They are here continued from the article " Indian 
 Languages," at page 202 of the "Narrative of the Discovery of the actual 
 Source of the Mississippi, in Itasca Lake," published by the Harpers, in 
 1834. The family of languages selected as the topic of inquiry, is the 
 Algonquin. All the examples employed are drawn from that particular 
 type of it which is called Chippewa, in our transactions with them, but 
 which they uniformly pronounce themselves, Od-jib-wa. These terms 
 are employed as perfect synonyms. The phrase " Odjibwa-Algonquin," 
 wherever it occurs, is intended to link, in the mind of the inquirer, the 
 species and the genus (if we may borrow a v term from natural history) of 
 the language, but is not fraught with, or intended to convey, any additional 
 idea. The three terms relate to one and the same people. 
 
 LECTURE III. 
 
 Observations on the Adjective Its distinction into two classes denoted by the presence 
 or absence of vitality Examples of the animates and inanimates Mode of their 
 conversion into substantives How pronouns are applied to these derivatives, and the 
 manner of forming compound terms from adjective bases, to describe the various natu- 
 ral phenomena The application of these principles in common conversation, and in 
 the description of natural and artificial objects Adjectives always preserve the dis- 
 tinction of number Numerals Arithmetical capacity of the language The unit 
 exists in duplicate. 
 
 1. It has been remarked that the distinction of words into animates and 
 inanimates, is a principle intimately interwoven throughout the. structure 
 of the language. It is, in fact, so deeply imprinted upon its grammatical 
 forms, and is so perpetually recurring, that it may be looked upon, not 
 only as forming a striking peculiarity of the language, but as constituting 
 the funrln mental principle of its structure, from which all other rules have 
 derived their limits, and to which they have been made to conform. No 
 class of words appears to have escaped its impress. Whatever concords 
 
 266
 
 LANGUAGE. 
 
 267 
 
 other laws impose, they all agree, and are made subservient in the estab- 
 lishment of this. 
 
 It might appear to be a useless distinction in the adjective, when the 
 substantive is thus marked ; but it will be recollected that it is in the 
 plural of the substantive only, that the distinction is marked. And we 
 shall presently have occasion to show, that redundancy of forms, are, to 
 considerable extent, obviated in practice. 
 
 For the origin of the principle itself, we need look only to nature, which en- 
 dows animate bodies with animate properties and qualities, and vice versa. 
 But it is due to the tribes who speak this language, to have invented one set of 
 adjective symbols to express the ideas peculiarly appropriate to the former, 
 and another set applicable, exclusively, to the latter ; and to have given 
 the words good and bad, black and white, great and small, handsome and 
 ugly, such modifications as are practically competent to indicate the ge- 
 neral nature of the objects referred to, whether provided with, or destitute 
 of the vital principle. And not only so, but by the figurative use of 
 these fcnms, to exalt inanimate masses into the class of living beings, or 
 to strip the latter of the properties of life a principle of much importance 
 to their public speakers. 
 
 This distinction is shown in the following examples, in which it will be 
 observed, that the inflection izzi, generally denotes the personal, and a&, 
 v,n, or wud, the impersonal forms. 
 
 Adj: 
 Bad 
 
 ; Inanimate. 
 Monaud ud 
 
 Adj : Animate. 
 Monaud izzi. 
 
 Ugly 
 Beautiful 
 Strong 
 Soft 
 
 Gushkoonaug wud 
 Bishegaindaug wud 
 Song un 
 Nok un 
 
 Gushkoonaug oozzi 
 Bishegaindaug oozzi. 
 S6ng izzi. 
 Nok izzi. 
 
 Hard 
 
 Mushkow au 
 
 Mushkow izzi. 
 
 Smooth 
 
 Shoiskw au 
 
 Shoisk oozzi. 
 
 Black 
 
 Mukkuddaw au 
 
 Mukkuddaw izzi. 
 
 White 
 
 Waubishk au 
 
 Waubishk izzi. 
 
 Yellow 
 
 Ozahw au 
 
 Ozahw izzi. 
 
 Red 
 
 Miskvv au 
 
 Miskw izzi. 
 
 Blue 
 
 Ozhahwushkw au 
 
 Ozhahwushkw izzi. 
 
 Sour 
 
 Sheew un 
 
 Sheew izzi. 
 
 Sweet 
 
 Weeshkob un 
 
 Weeshkob izzi. 
 
 Light 
 
 Naung un 
 
 Naung izzi. 
 
 It is not, however, in all cases, by mere modifications of the adjective, 
 that these distinctions are expressed. Words totally different io sound, 
 and evidently derived from radically different roots, are, in some few instan- 
 ces, employed, as in the following examples :
 
 LANGUAGE. 
 
 Adj: Inanimate. Adj : Animate. 
 
 Good Onisbeshin Minao. 
 
 Bad Monaudud Mudjee. 
 
 Large Mitshau Mindiddo. 
 
 Small Pungee Uggaushi. 
 
 Old Geekau Giti/zi. 
 
 It may be remarked of these forms, that although the impersonal will, in 
 some instances, take the personal inflections, the rule is not reciprocated, and 
 minno, and mindiddo, and gitizzi, and all words similarly situated, remain 
 unchangeably animates. The word pungee, is limited to the expression 
 of quantity, and its correspondent uggaushi, to size, or quality. Kishe- 
 da, (hot) is restricted to the heat of a fire ; keezhauta, to the heat of the 
 sun. There is still a third term to indicate the natural heat of the body, 
 Kizzizoo. Mitshau (large) is generally applied to countries, lakes, riv- 
 ers, &c. Mindiddo, to the body, and gitshee, indiscriminately. Onishi- 
 shin, and its correspondent onishishsha, signify, handsome or fair, as well 
 as good. Kwonaudj a. a, and kwonaudj ewun a. i. mean, strictly, hand- 
 some, and imply nothing further. Minno, is the appropriate personal 
 form for good. Mudgee and monaudud, may reciprocally change gen- 
 ders, the first by the addition of i-e-e, and the second by altering tid to 
 izzi. 
 
 2 Distinctions of this kind are of considerable importance in a practical 
 * point of view, and their observance or neglect, are noticed with scrupulous 
 exactness by the Indians. The want of inanimate forms to such words as 
 happy, sorrowful, brave, sick <fcc. creates no confusion, as inanimate nouns 
 cannot, strictly speaking, take upon themselves such qualities, and when 
 they do as they sometimes do, by one of those extravagant figures of 
 speech, which are used in their tales of transformations, the animate forms 
 answer all purposes. For in these tales the whole material creation may 
 be clothed with animation. The rule, as exhibited in practice, is limited, 
 with sufficient accuracy, to the boundaries prescribed by nature. 
 
 To avoid a repetition of forms, were the noun and the adjective both to 
 be employed in their usual relation, the latter is endowed with a pronomi- 
 nal, or substantive inflection. And the use of the noun, in its separate 
 form, is thus wholly superceded. Thus onishishin, a. i. and onishishsha, 
 a. a. become Wanishishing, that which is good, or fair, and Wanish- 
 ishid, he who is good or fair. The following examples will exhibit this 
 
 rule, under each of its forms. 
 
 
 Compound or Noun-Adjective Animate. 
 
 J 
 
 Black Mukkuddaw izzi Makuddaw izzid. 
 
 White Waubishk izzi Wyaubishk izzid. 
 
 Yellow Ozahw izzi Wazauw izzid. 
 
 Red Miskw izzi Mashk oozzid. 
 
 Strong Song izzi Song izzid.
 
 LANGUAGE. 269 
 
 Noun-Adjective Inanimate. 
 
 Black Mukkuddaw au Mukkuddaw aug. 
 
 White VVaubishk au Wyaubishk aug. 
 
 Yellow Ozahvv au Wazhauw aug. 
 
 Red Mishkw au Mishkw aug. /j| 
 
 The animate forms in these examples will be recognized, as exhibiting 
 a further extension of the rule, mentioned in the preceding chapter, by 
 which substantives are formed from the indicative of the verb by a permu- 
 tation of the votvels. And these forms are likewise rendered plural in 
 the manner there mentioned. They also undergo changes to indicate the 
 various persons. For instance onishisha is thus declined to mark the 
 person. 
 
 Wanishish-eyaun I (am) good, or fair. 
 
 Wunishish-eyun Thou (art) good, or fair. 
 
 Wanishish-id He (is) good or fair. 
 
 Wanishish-eyang We (are) good or fair (ex.) 
 
 Wanishish-eyung We (are) good a fair (in.) 
 
 Wanishish-eyaig Ye (are) good or fair. 
 
 Wanishish-idigj They (are) good or fair. 
 
 The inanimate forms, being without person, are simply rendered plural 
 by in, changing maiskvvaug, to maiskwaug-in, &c. &c. The verbal sig- 
 nification which these forms assume, as indicated in the words am, art, is, 
 are, is to be sought in the permutative change of the first syllable. Thus 
 o is changed to vva, muk to mak, waub to wy-aub, ozau to wazau, misk 
 to maisk, <fcc. The pronoun, as is usual in the double compounds, is 
 formed wholly by the inflections eyaun, eyun, &c. 
 
 The strong tendency of the adjective to assume a personal, or pronom- 
 ico-substantive form, leads to the employment of many words in a par- 
 ticular, or exclusive sense. And in any future practical attempts with the 
 language, it will be found greatly to facilitate its acquisition if the adjec- 
 tives are arranged in distinct classes, separated by this characteristic prin- 
 ciple of their application. The examples we have given are chiefly those 
 which may be considered strictly animate, or inanimate, admit of double 
 forms, and are of general use. Many of the examples recorded in the 
 original manuscripts employed in these lectures, are of a more concrete 
 character, and, at the same time, a more limited use. Thus shaugwewe, 
 is a weak person, nokaugumme, a weak drink, nokaugvvud, a weak, or 
 soft piece of wood. Sussagau, is fine, but can only be applied to per- 
 sonal appearance : beesau, indicates fine grains. Keewushkwa is giddy, 
 and keevvushkwabee, giddy with drink, both being restricted to the third 
 person. Songun and songizzi, are the personal and impersonal forms of 
 strong, as given above. But Mushkowaugumme, is strong drink. la 
 like manner the two words for hard, as above, are restricted to solid sub-
 
 270 
 
 LANGUAGE. 
 
 stances. Sunnuhgud is hard (to endure,) waindud, is easy (to perform.); 
 Sdngedaa is brave, Shaugedaa cowardly, keezhinzhowizzi, active, kizhe- 
 kau, swift, onaunegoozzi lively, minwaindum happy, gushkwaindum, sor- 
 rowful, but all these forms are confined to the third person of the indica- 
 tive, singular. Pibbigwau, is a rough or knotted substance. Pubbiggo- 
 ozzi, a rough person. Keenwau is long, or tall, (any solid mass.) Kay- 
 nozid is a tall person. Tahkozid a short person. Wassayau is light ; 
 wassaubizzoo, the light of the eye; wasshauzha, the light of a star, or any 
 luminous body. Keenau is sharp, keenaubikud, a sharp kni r e, or stone. 
 Keezhaubikeday, is hot metal, a hot stove, &c. Keezhaugummeda, is hot 
 water. Aubudgeeton, is useful, a useful thing. Wauweeug is frivolous, 
 any thing frivolous in word, or deed. Tubbushish, appears to be a gene- 
 ral term for low. Ishpimming is high in the air. Ishpau, is applied to- 
 any high fixture, as a house, &c. Ishpaubikau is a high rock. Taush- 
 kaubikau, a split rock. 
 
 These combinations and limitations meet the inquirer at every step; 
 They are the current phrases of the language. They present short, 
 ready, and often beautiful modes of expression. But as they shed light, 
 both upon the idiom and genius of the language, I shall not scruple to add 
 further examples and illustrations. Ask a Chippewa, the name for rock, 
 and he will answer awzhebik. The generic import of aubik, has been ex- 
 plained. Ask him the name for red rock, and he will answer miskwau- 
 bik, for white rock, and he will answer waubaubik, for black rock 
 mukkuddawaubik, for yellow rock, ozahwaubik, for green rock, oz- 
 hahwushkvvaubik, for bright rock, wassayaubik, for smooth rock, shois- 
 hkwaubik, <fcc. compounds in which the words red, white, black, yellow, 
 &c. unite with aubik. Pursue this inquiry and the following forms will 
 be elicited. 
 
 Impersonal. 
 
 Miskwaubik-ud. It (is) a red rock. 
 
 Waubaubik-ud. It (is) a white rock. 
 
 Mukkuddawaubik-ud. It (is) a black rock. 
 
 Ozahwaubik-ud. It (is) a yellow rock. 
 
 Wassayaubik-ud. It (is) a bright rock. 
 
 Shoiskwaubik-ud. It (is) a smooth rock. 
 
 Personal. 
 
 Miskwau bik-izzi. He (is) a red rock, 
 Waubaubik-izzi. He (is) a white rock. 
 Mukkuddawaubik-izzi. He (is) a black rock. 
 Ozahwaubik-izzi. He (is) a yellow roclc 
 Wassayaubik-izzi. He (is) a bright roclc 
 Shoiskwaubik-izzi. He (is) a smooth rock. 
 Add bun to these terms, and they are made to have passed away, pre-
 
 LANGUAGE. 271 
 
 fix tah to them, and their future appearance is indicated. The word "is" 
 in the translations, although marked with brackets, is not deemed wholly 
 gratuitous. There is, strictly speaking, an idea of existence given to these 
 compounds, by the particle au in aubic, which seems to be indirectly a 
 derivative from that great and fundamental root of the language iau. Bik, 
 is, apparently, the radix of the expression for " rock." 
 
 Let this mode of interrogation be continued, and extended to other ad- 
 jectives, or the same adjectives applied to other objects, and results equally 
 regular and numerous will be obtained. Minnis, we shall be told, is an 
 island : miskominnis, a red island ; mukkadclarninnis, a black island ; wau- 
 beminnis, a white island, &c. Annokwut, is a cloud ; miskwaunakwut, a 
 red cloud ; mukkuddawukwut, a black cloud ; waubahnokwut, a white 
 cloud ; ozahwushkwahnokwut, a blue cloud, &c. Neebe is the specific 
 term for water ; but is not generally used in combination with the adjec- 
 tive. The word guma, like aubo, appears to be a generic term for water, 
 or potable liquids. Hence the following terms : 
 
 Gitshee, Great. Gitshiguma, Great water 
 
 Nokun, Weak. N6kaugurna, Weak drink. 
 
 Mushkowau, Strong. Mushkowauguma, Strong drink. 
 
 Weeshkobun, Sweet. Weeshkobauguma, Sweet drink. 
 
 Sheewun, Sour. Sheewauguma, Sour drink. 
 
 Weesugun, Bitter. Weesugauguma, Bitter drink. 
 
 Minno, Good. Minwauguma, Good drink. 
 
 Monaudud, Bad. Mahnauguma, Bad drink. 
 
 Miskwau, Red. Miskwauguma, Red drink. 
 
 Ozahwau, Yellow. Ozahwauguma, Yellow drink. 
 
 Weenun, Dirty. Weenauguma, Dirty water. 
 
 Peenud, Clear. Peenauguma, Clear Water. 
 
 From minno, and from monaudud, good and bad, are derived the fol- 
 lowing terms. Minnopogwudl it tastes well; minnopogoozzi, he tastes 
 well. Mauzhepogwud, it tastes bad ; mawzhepogoozzi, he tastes bad. 
 Minnomaugwud, it smells geod ; minnomaugoozzi, he smells good ; mag- 
 ghemaugawud, it smells bad ; mawhemaugoozzi, he smells bad. The in- 
 flections gwud, and izzi, here employed, are clearly indicative, as in other 
 combinations, of the words it and him. 
 
 Baimwa is sound. Baimwawa, the passing sound. Minwawa, a 
 pleasant sound. Minwawa, a pleasant sound. Maunwawa, a disagree- 
 able sound. Mudwayaushkau, the sound of waves dashing on the shore. 
 Mudwayaunnemud, the sound of winds. Mudway au kooskau, the 
 sound of falling trees. Mudwakumigishin, the sound of a person falling 
 upon the earth. Mudwaysin, the sound of any inanimate mass foiling on 
 the earth. These examples might be continued ad infinitum. Every mo- 
 dification of circumstances almost every peculiarity of thought is ex-
 
 272 LANGUAGE. 
 
 pressed by some modification of the orthography. Enough has been given 
 to prove that the adjective combines itself with the substantive, the verb 
 and the pronoun that the combinations thus produced are numerous, 
 afford concentrated modes of conveying ideas, and oftentimes happy terms 
 of expression. Numerous and prevalent as these forms are, they do not, 
 however, preclude the use of adjectives in their simple forms. The use 
 of the one, or of the other appears to be generally at the option of the 
 speaker. In most cases brevity or euphony dictates the choice. Usage 
 results from the application of these principles. There may be rules rest- 
 ing upon a broader basis, but if so, they do not appear to be very obvious, 
 Perhaps the simple adjectives are oftenest employed before verbs and nouns, 
 in the first and second persons singular. 
 
 Ningee minno neebau-nabun, I have slept well. 
 
 Ningee minno weesin, I have eaten a good meal. 
 
 Ningee minno pimmoossay, I have walked well, or a good distance 
 
 Kagat minno geeghigud, It (is) a very pleasant day. 
 
 Kwunaudj ningodahs, I have a handsome garment 
 
 Ke minno iau nuh ? Are you well ? 
 
 Auneende ain deyun ? What ails you ? 
 
 Keezhamonedo aupadushsha- ( 
 
 wainenik, j God P ros P er y u - 
 
 Aupadush Shawaindaugoozze- > 
 
 5 Good luck attend you. 
 yun, ) 
 
 Aupadush nau kinwainzh pirn- 
 
 maudizziyun, May you live long. 
 
 Onauneegoozzin, Be (thou) cheerful. 
 
 Ne miuwaindum waubamaun, I (am) glad to see you. 
 Kwanaudj Kweeweezains, A pretty boy. 
 
 Kagat Songeedaa, He (is) a brave man. 
 
 Kagat onishishsha, She (is) handsome. 
 
 Gitshee kinozee, He fjs) very tall. 
 
 Uggausau bawizzi, She (is) slender. 
 
 Gitshee sussaigau, He (is) fine dressed. 
 
 Bishegaindaugooziwug meeg- 1 _, 
 
 wunugj D J They (are) beautiful feathers. 
 
 Ke daukoozzinuh ? Are you sick. 
 
 Monaududmaundun muskeekee, This (is) bad medicine. 
 Monaudud aindauyun, My place of dwelling (is) bad. 
 
 Aindauyaun mitshau, My place of dwelling is large, 
 
 Ne mittigwaub onishishsha, My bow (is) good. 
 
 Ne bikwukon monaududon, But my arrows (are) bad. 
 Ne minwaindaun appaukooz- / T 
 
 zegun, ( * love mild > or mixed, tobacca 

 
 LANGUAGE. 273 
 
 Kauweekau neezhikay ussa- 
 mail ne sugguswaunausee, 
 Monaudud maishkowaugumig, Strong drink (is) bad. 
 Keeguhgee baudjee"gonaun, It makes us foolish. 
 
 Gitshee Monedo nebee ogee ) m , ^ 
 
 I The Great Spirit made water, 
 ozheton. ^ 
 
 Inineewugdushween ishkada-)--. , ,., 
 
 v , >But man made whiskey, 
 
 waubo ogeo ozheWnahwaun. ) J 
 
 These expressions are put down promiscuously, embracing verbs and 
 nouns as they presented themselves; and without any effort to suppoit the 
 opinion which may, or may not be correct that the elementary forms 
 of the adjectives are most commonly required before verbs and nouns in 
 the first and second persons. The English expression is thrown into In- 
 dian in the most natural manner, and of course, without always giving 
 adjective for adjective, or noun for noun. Thus, God is rendered, not 
 " Monedo," but, " Geezha Monedo," Merciful Spirit. Good luck, is ren- 
 dered by the compound phrase " Shawaindaugoozzeyun," indicating, in a 
 very general sense the influence of kindness or benevolence on success in 
 life. " Songedaa is alone, a brave man ; and the word " Kagat," prefixed, 
 is an ad verb. In the expression "mild tobacco," the adjective is entirely 
 dispensed with in the Indian, the sense being sufficiently rendered by the 
 compound noun "appaukoozzegun," which always means the Indian 
 weed, or smoking mixture. " Ussamau," on the contrary, without the 
 adjective, signifies, " pure tobacco." *' Bikwakdn," signifies blunt, or 
 lumpy-headed arrows. Assowaun is the barbed arrow. Kwonaudj 
 kweeweezains, means, not simply "pretty boy," but pretty little boy] and 
 there is no mode of using the word boy but in this diminutive form' the 
 the word itself being a derivative, from kewewe, conjugal with the regular 
 diminutive in ains. " Onaunegoozzin" embraces the pronoun, verb and 
 adjective, be thou cheerful. In the last phrase of the examples, " man," is 
 rendered men (inineewug) in the translation, as the term man cannot be 
 employed in the general plural sense it conveys in this connection, in the 
 original. The word " whiskey," is rendered by the compound phrase 
 ishkodawaubo, literally, fine-liquor, a generic for all kinds of ardent 
 spirits. 
 
 These aberrations from the literal term, will convey some conceptions 
 of the difference of the two idioms, although, from the limited nature and 
 object of the examples, they will not indicate the full extent of this differ- 
 ence. In giving anythinglike the spirit of the original, much greater de- 
 viations, in the written forms, must appear. And in fact, not only the 
 structure of the language, but the mode and order of thought of the Indiana 
 is so essentially different, that any attempts to preserve the English idiom 
 to give letter for letter, and word for word, must go far to render the 
 
 translation pure nonsense. 
 
 18
 
 274 LANGUAGE. 
 
 2. Varied as the adjective is, in its changes it has no comparative in- 
 flection. A Chippewa cannot say that one substance is hotter or colder 
 than another ; or of two or more substances unequally heated, that this, or 
 that is the hottest or coldest, without employing adverbs, or accessory ad- 
 jectives. And it is accordingly by adverbs, and accessory adjectives, thai 
 the degrees of comparison are expressed. 
 
 Pimmaudizziwin, is a very general substantive expression, in indicating 
 the tenor of being or life. Izzhewabizziwin, is a term near akin to it, but 
 more appropriately applied to the acts, conduct, manner, or personal deport 
 ment of life. Hence the expressions : 
 
 Nin bimmaudizziwin, My tenor of life. 
 
 Ke bimmaudizziwin, Thy tenor of life. 
 
 O Pimmaudizziwin, His tenor of life, &c. 
 
 Nin dizekewabizziwin, My personal deportment. 
 
 Ke dizhewabizziwin, Thy personal deportment. 
 
 O Izzhewabizziwin, His personal deportment, &c. 
 
 To form the positive degree of comparison for these terms minno, good, 
 and mudjee, bad, are introduced between the pronoun and verb, giving 
 rise to some permutations of the vowels and consonants, which affect the 
 sound only. Thus : 
 
 Ne minno pimmaudizziwin, My good tenor of life. 
 
 Ke minno pimmaudizziwin, Thy good tenor of life. 
 
 Minno pimmaudizziwin, His good tenor of life. 
 
 Ne mudjee pimmaudizziwin, My bad tenor of life. 
 
 Ke mudjee pimmaudizziwin, Thy bad tenor of life. 
 
 Mudjee pimmaudizziwin, His bad tenor of life. 
 
 To place these forms in the comparative degree, nahwudj, more, is pre- 
 fixed to the adjective ; and the superlative is denoted by mahmowee, an ad- 
 verb, or an adjective as it is variously applied, but the meaning of which, 
 is, in this connexion, most. The degrees of comparison may be therefore 
 set down as follows : 
 
 Positive, Kisheda, Hot, (restricted to the heat of a fire.) 
 
 Coiiip. Nahwudj Kisheda, More hot. 
 Super. Mahmowee Kisheda, Most hot. 
 
 Your manner of life is good, Ke dizzihewabizziwin onishishin. 
 
 Ke dizzhewabizziwin nahwudj onis- 
 
 ( Ke dizzhew 
 Your manner of life is better, hishin 
 
 Your manner of life is best, 
 
 His manner of life is best, Odizzhewabizziwin mahmowee onto 
 
 { ishimne. 
 Litlle, Turtle was brave, Mikkenokons ?6ngedaabun 
 
 Ke dizzhewabizziwin mahmowee' 
 onishishin.
 
 LANGUAGE. 275 
 
 Tecumseh was braver, Tecumseh nahwidj songedaabun. 
 
 Pontiac was bravest, Pontiac mahmowee songedaabun. 
 3. The adjective assumes a negative form when it is preceeded by the 
 
 adverb. Thus the phrase songedaa, he is brave, is changed to, Kuh- 
 
 ween sdngedaasee, he is not brave. 
 
 Positive. Negative. 
 
 Neebwaukah, Kahvveen neebwaukah-see, 
 
 Ho is wise. He is not wise. 
 
 Kwonaudjewe, Kahvveen kwonaudjewe-see. 
 
 She is handsome, She is not handsome. 
 
 Oskineegee, Kahween oskineegee-see 
 
 He is young. He is not young. 
 
 Shaugweewee, Kahween Shaugweewee-see, 
 
 He is feeble. He is not feeble. 
 
 Geekkau, Kahween Geekkau-see, 
 
 He is old. He is not old. 
 
 Mushkowizzi, Kahvveen Mushkovvizzi-see, 
 
 He is strong. He is not strong. 
 
 From this rule the indeclinable adjectives by which is meant those ad- 
 jvrftives which do not put on the personal and impersonal forms by inflec- 
 tion, but consist of radically different roots form exceptions. 
 
 Are you sick? Ke dahkoozzi nuh? 
 
 You are not sick ! Kahween ke dahkoozzi-see ! 
 
 I am happy. Ne minvvaindum. 
 
 I am unhappy. Kahween ne minwuinduz-see 
 
 His manner of life is bad. Mudjee izzhewabizzi. 
 
 His manner of life is not bad. Kahween mudjee a izzhewabizzi-see. 
 
 It is large. Mitshau muggud. 
 
 It is not large. Kahween mitshau-seenon. 
 
 In these examples the declinable adjectives are rendered negative in see. 
 The indeclinable, remain as simple adjuncts to the verbs, and the latter 
 put on the negative form. 
 
 4. In the hints and remarks which have now been furnished respect- 
 ing the Chippewa adjective, its powers and inflections have been shown 
 to run parallel with those of the substantive, in its separation into animates 
 and inanimates, in having the pronominal inflections, in taking an in- 
 flection for tense (a topic, which, by the way, has been very cursorily 
 passed over,) and in the numerous, modification's to form the compounds. 
 This parallelism has also been intimated to hold good with respect to 
 number a subject deeply interesting in itself, as it has its analogy only in 
 the ancient languages, and it was therefore deemed best to defer giving ex- 
 amples till they could be introduced without abstracting the attention from 
 other points of discussion.
 
 276 LANGUAGE. 
 
 Miimo and mudjee, good and bad, being of the limited number of per- 
 sonal adjectives, which modern usage permits being applied, although 
 often improperly applied, to inanimate objects, they as well as a few other 
 adjectives, form exceptions to the use of number. Whether we say a good 
 man or a bad man, good men or bad men, the words minno and mudjee, 
 remain the same. But all the declinable and coalescing adjectives adjec- 
 tives which join on, and, as it were, melt into the body of the substantive, 
 take the usual plural inflections, and are governed by the same rules in 
 regard to their use, as the substantive, personal adjectives requiring per- 
 sonal plurals, &c. 
 
 Adjectives Animate. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Onishishewe mishemin, Good apple. 
 
 Kwonaudjewe eekvva, Handsome woman. 
 
 Songedaa inine, Brave man. 
 
 Bishegaindaugoozzi peenasee, Beautiful bird. 
 Ozahwizzi ahmo, Yellow bee. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 Onishishewe-wug mishemin-ug, Good apples. 
 
 Kwonaudjewe-wug eekwa-wug, Handsome women. 
 
 Songedaa-wug inine-wug, Brave men. 
 
 Bishegaindaugoozzi-wug peenasee-wug, Beautiful birds. 
 Ozahwizzi- wug ahm-Og, Yellow bees. 
 
 Adjectives Inanimate. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Onishishin mittig, Good tree. 
 
 Kwonaudj tshemaun, Handsome canoe. 
 
 Monaudud ishkoda, Bad fire. 
 
 Weeshkobun aidetaig, Sweet fruit. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 .-, 
 
 Onishishin-6n mittig-6n, Good trees. 
 
 K\vonaudjewun-6n tshemaun-un, Handsome canoes. 
 
 Monaudud-on ishkod-an, Bad fires. 
 
 Weeshkobun-6n aidetaig-in, Sweet fruits. 
 
 Peculiar circumstances are supposed to exist, in order to render the 
 IHC of the adjective, in this connexion with the noun, necessary and 
 proper. But in ordinary instances, as the narration of events, the noun 
 would precede the adjective, and oftentimes, particularly where a second 
 allusion to objects previously named became necessary, the compound ex- 
 pressions would be used. Thus instead of saying the yellow bee, way- 
 zahwizzid, would distinctly convey the idea of that insect, had the species 
 been before named. Under similar circumstances kainwaukoozzid, agau-
 
 LANGUAGE. 277 
 
 sbeid songaunermid, mushkowaunemud, would respectively signify, a tall 
 tree, a small fly, a strong wind, a hard wind. And these terms would be- 
 come plural in jig, which, as before mentioned, is a mere modification of 
 ig, one of the five general animate plural inflections of the language. 
 
 Kagat wahwinaudj abbenojeeug, is an expression indicating they are 
 very handsome children. Bubbeeweezheewug monetosug, denotes small 
 insects. Minno neewugizzi, is good tempered, he is good tempered. 
 Mawshininewugizzi, is bad tempered, both having their plural in wug. 
 Nin nuneenahwaindum, I am lonesome. Nin nuneenahwaindaurnin, we 
 (excluding you) are lonesome. Waweea, is a term generally used to 
 express the adjective sense of round. Kwy, is the scalp. ( Weenikwy his 
 scalp.) Hence Weewukwon, hat; Wayweewukwonid, a wearer of the 
 hat; and its plural Wayeewukwonidjig, wearers of the hats the usual 
 term applied to Europeans, or white men generally. These examples 
 go to prove, that under every form in which the adjective can be traced, 
 whether in its simplest or most compound state, it is susceptible of number. 
 
 The numerals of the language are converted into adverbs, by the in- 
 flection ing, making one, once, &c. The unit exists in duplicate. 
 
 Pazhik, One, general unit) . 
 
 i jAubeding, Once. 
 
 I ngoot, One, numerical unit) 
 
 Neesh, Two. Neeshing, Twice. 
 
 Niswee, Three. Nissing, Thrice. 
 
 Neewin, Four. Neewing, Four-times. 
 
 Naunun, Five. Nauning, Five-times. 
 
 N'goodwaswa, Six. N'goodwautshing, Six-times. 
 
 Neeshwauswi, Seven. Neeshwautshing, Seven-times. 
 
 Shwauswe, Eight. Shwautshing, Eight-times. 
 
 Shongusswe, Nine. Shongutshing, Nine-times. 
 
 Meetauswee, Ten. Meetaushing, Ten-times. 
 
 These inflections can be carried as high as they can compute numbers. 
 They count decimally. After reaching ten, they repeat, ten and one, tea 
 and two, &c. to twenty. Twenty is a compound signifying two tens, 
 thirty, three tens, &c., a mode which is carried up to one hundred T/i good- 
 wok. Wak, then becomes the word of denomination, combining with the 
 names of the digits, until they reach a thousand, meetauswauk, literally, te^ 
 hundred. Here a new compound term is introduced made by prefixing 
 twenty to the last denomination, neshtonnah duswak, which doubles the 
 last term, thirty triples it, forty quadruples it, <fcc., till the computation 
 reaches to ten thousand, n'goodwak dushing n'goodwak, one hundred 
 times one hurulred. This is the probaWe extent of all certain computation. 
 The term Gitshee, (great,) prefixed to the last denomination, leaves the 
 number indefinite. 
 
 There is no form of the numerals corresponding to second, third, fourth, 
 &c, They can only further say, nittum first, and ishkicaudj, last
 
 LECTURE IV. 
 
 Nature and principles of the pronoun Its distinction into preformative and subfor 
 tnative classes Persona! pronouns The distinction of an inclusive and exclusive form 
 in the number of the first person plural Modifications of the personal pronouns to im- 
 ply existence, individuality, possession, ownership, position and other accidents Declen- 
 sion of pronouns to answer the purpose of the auxiliary verbs Subformatives, how 
 employed, to mark the persons Relative pronouns considered Their application to the 
 causative verbs Demonstrative pronouns their separation into two classes, animates 
 and inanimates Example of their use. 
 
 PRONOUNS are buried, if we may so say, in the structure of the verb. 
 In tracing them back to their primitive forms, through the almost infinite 
 variety of modifications which they assume, in connexion with the verb, 
 substantive and adjective, it will facilitate analysis, to group them into 
 preformative and subformative, which include the pronominal prefixes 
 and suffixes, and which admit of the further distinction of separable and 
 inseparable. By separable is intended those forms, which have a mean- 
 ing by themselves, and are thus distinguished from the inflective and 
 subformative pronouns, and pronominal particles significant only, in con- 
 nection with another word. 
 
 1. Of the first class, are the personal pronouns Neen (I,) Keen (thou,) 
 and Ween or O (he or she ) They are declined to form the plural per 
 ions in the following manner : 
 
 Ii Neen. We Keen owind (in.) 
 
 We Neen owind (ex.) 
 
 Thou, Keen. Ye Keen owau. 
 
 He or She, Ween or O. They Ween owau. 
 
 Here the plural persons are formed by a numerical inflection of the 
 singular. The double plural of the first person, of which both the rule 
 and examples have been incidentally given in the remarks on the substan- 
 tive, is one of those peculiarities of the language, which may, perhaps, 
 serve to aid in a comparison of it, with other dialects, kindred and foreign. 
 As a mere conventional agreement, for denoting whether the person ad- 
 dressed, be included, or excluded, it may be regarded as an advantage to 
 the language. It enables the speaker, by the change of a single conso- 
 nant, to make a full and clear discrimination, and relieves the narration 
 
 278
 
 INDIAN LANGUAGES. 279 
 
 from doubts and ambiguity, where doubts and ambiguity would otherwise 
 often exist. On the other hand, by accumulating distinctions, it loads the 
 memory with grammatical foims, and opens a door for improprieties of 
 speech. We are not aware of any inconveniencies in the use of a gene- 
 ral plural. But in the Indian it would produce confusion. And it is 
 perhaps to that cautious desire of personal discrimination, which is so ap- 
 parent in the structure of the language, that we should look for the rea- 
 son of the duplicate forms of this word. Once established, however, and 
 both the distinction, and the necessity of a constant and strict attention to 
 it, are very obvious and striking. How shall he address the Deity ? If 
 he say " Our father who art in heaven" the inclusive form of " our" 
 makes the Almighty one of the suppliants, or family. If he use the ex- 
 clusive form, it throws him out of the family, and may embrace, every liv- 
 ing being but the Deity. Yet, neither of these forms can be used well in 
 prayer, as they cannot be applied directly to the object addressed. It is 
 only when speaking of the Deity, under the name of father, to other per- 
 sons, that the inclusive and exclusive forms of the word " our" can be 
 used. The dilemma may be obviated, by the use of a compound descrip. 
 tive phrase W& 6 se mig o yun, signifying THOU WHO ART THE FA- 
 THER. OF ALL. Or, universal father. 
 
 In practice, however, the question is cut short, by those persons who 
 have embraced Christianity. It has seemed to them, that by the use of 
 either of the foregoing terms, the Deity would be thrown into too remote 
 a relation to them, and I have observed, that, in prayer, they invariably ad- 
 dress Him, by the term used by children for the father of a family, that is, 
 NOSA, ray father. 
 
 The other personal pronouns undergo some peculiar changes, when 
 employed as preformatives before nouns and verbs, which it is important 
 to remark. Thus neen, is sometimes rendered ne or nin, and sometimes 
 nim. Keen, is rendered ke or kin. In compound words the mere signs 
 of the first and second pronouns, N and K, are employed. The use of 
 ween is limited ; and the third person, singular and plural, is generally in- 
 dicated by the sign, O. 
 
 The particle suh added to the complete forms of the disjunctive pro- 
 nouns, imparts a verbal sense to them ; and appears in this instance, to be 
 a succedaneum for the substantive verb. Thus Neen, I, becomes Neensuh, 
 it is I. Keen, thou, becomes Keensuh, it is thou, and Ween, he or she, 
 Weensuh, it is he or she. This particle may also be added to the plural 
 forms. 
 
 Keenowind suh. It is we (in.) 
 
 Neenowind suh. It is we (ex.) 
 
 Keenowa suh. It is ye, or you. 
 
 suh. It is they.
 
 INDIAN LANGUAGES. 
 
 If the word aittah be substituted for sitA, a set of adverbial phrases are 
 
 formed. 
 
 Neen aittah wind, We &c. (ex.) 
 Keen aittah, I only. Keen aiuah windj We &c ^ 
 
 Keen aittah, Thou only. Keen aittah wau, You <fcc. 
 
 Ween aittah, He or she only. Ween aittah wau, They &c. 
 
 In like manner niUum first, and ishkwaudj last, give rise to the follow- 
 ing arrangement of the pronoun : 
 
 Neen nittum, I first 
 
 Keen nittum, You or thou first. 
 
 Ween nittum, He or she first. 
 
 Keen nittum ewind, We first, (in.) 
 
 Neen nittum ewind, We first, (ex.) 
 
 Keen nittum ewau, Ye or you first 
 
 Ween niltum ewau, They first 
 
 ISHKWAUDJ. 
 
 I 
 Neen ishkwaudj, I last, 
 
 Keen ishkwaudj, Thou last. 
 
 Ween ishkwandj, He or she last. 
 
 Keenowind ishkwaudj, We last (in.) 
 
 Neenowind ishkwaudj, We last (ex.) 
 
 Keenowau ishkwaudj, Ye or you last. 
 
 Weenowau ishkwaudj, They last. 
 
 The disjunctive forms of the pronoun are also sometimes preserved be- 
 fore verbs and adjectives. 
 
 NEEZHIKA. Alone, (an.) 
 
 Neen neezhika, I alone. 
 
 Keen neezhika, Thou alone. 
 
 Ween neezhika, He or she alone. 
 
 Keenowind neezhika, We alone (in.) 
 
 Neenowind neezhika, We alone (ex.) 
 
 Keenowau neezhika, Ye or you alone. 
 
 Weenowau neezhika, They alone. 
 
 To give these expressions a verbal form, the substantive verb, with its 
 pronominal modifications, must be superadded. For instance, / am alone, 
 &.C., is thus rendered : 
 
 Neen neezhika nindyau, I am alone, x aumin. 
 
 Keen neezhika keedyau, Thou art alone, x aum. 
 
 Ween neezhika lyau, He or she is alone, &c. X wug. 
 
 In the subjoined examples the noun ow, body, is changed to a verb, by
 
 281 
 
 the permutation of the vowel, changing ow to auw, which last takes the 
 letter d before it, when the pronoun is prefixed. 
 
 I am a man, Neen nin dauw. 
 
 Thou art a man, Keen ke dauw. 
 
 He is a man, Ween ah weeh. 
 
 We are men, (in.) Ke dauw we min. 
 
 We are men, (ex.) Ne dauw we min. 
 
 Ye are men, Ke dauw min. 
 
 They are men, Weenowau ah weeh wug. 
 
 In the translation of these expressions " man" is used as synonomous 
 with person. If the specific term inine, had been introduced in the origi- 
 nal, the meaning thereby conveyed would be, in this particular connexion. 
 I am a man with respect to courage &c., in opposition to effeminacy. It 
 would not be simply declarative of corporeal existence, but of existence in 
 a particular state or condition. 
 
 In the following phrases, the modified forms, or the signs only, of the 
 pronouns are used : 
 
 N' debaindaun, I own it. 
 
 Ke debaindaun, Thou ownest it. 
 
 O debaindaun, He or she owns H. 
 
 N' debaindaun-in, We own it (ex.) 
 
 Ke debaindaun-in, We own it (in.) 
 
 Ke debaindaun-ewau, Ye own it. 
 
 O debaindaun-ewau, They own it. 
 
 These examples are cited as exhibiting the manner in which the pre- 
 fixed and preformative pronouns are employed, both in their full and con- 
 tracted forms. To denote possession, nouns specifying the things pos- 
 sessed, are required ; and, what would not be anticipated, had not full 
 examples of this species of declension been given in another place, the 
 purposes of distinction are not effected by a simple change of the pronoun, 
 as / to mine, &c., but by a subformative inflection of the noun, which is 
 thus made to have a reflective operation upon the pronoun-speaker. It is 
 believed that sufficient examples of this rule, in all the modifications of 
 inflection, have been given under the head of the substantive. But as the 
 substantives employed to elicit these modifications were exclusively specific 
 in their meaning, it may be proper here, in further illustration of an im- 
 portant principle, to present a generic substantive under their compound 
 forms. 
 
 I have selected for this purpose one of the primitives. IE-AU. is the abstract 
 term for existing matter. It is in the animate form and declarative. Its inani- 
 mate correspondent is IE-EE. These are two important roots. And thry are
 
 282 
 
 INDIAN LANGUAGES. 
 
 found in combination, in a very great number of derivative words. It will 
 be sufficient here, to show their connexion with the pronoun, in the pro- 
 duction of a class of terms in very general use. 
 
 Poss. 
 
 Obj. 
 
 Singular. 
 Nin dye aum, Mine. 
 
 Kedye aum, 
 Odyeaum-un, 
 
 Animate Forms. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 Nin dye auminaun, 
 Ke dy auminaun, 
 Ke dye aumewau, 
 O dye aumewaun, 
 
 Thine. 
 His or Hers. 
 
 Inanimate Forms. 
 
 Ours, (ex.) 
 Ouis (in.) 
 Yours. 
 Theirs. 
 
 Poss. 5 
 
 Singular. 
 Nin dye eem, Mine. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 Nin dye eeminaun, Ours, (ex.) 
 Ke dye eeminaun, Ours, (in.) 
 
 Ke dy6 eem, Thine. Ke dye" eemewau, Yours. 
 
 Obj. O dye eem-un r His or Hers. O dye eemewaun, Theirs. Poss. in. 
 
 In these forms the noun is singular throughout. To render it plural, 
 as well as the pronoun, the appropriate general plurals vg and un or ig 
 and in. must be superadded. But it must be borne in mind, in making 
 these al litions, "that the plur.il inflection to inanimate nouns (which have 
 no objective case.) forms the objective case to animates, which have no 
 number in the third person." fp 30.] The particle un, therefore, which 
 is the appropriate plural for the inanimate nouns in these examples, is only 
 the objective mark of the animate. 
 
 The plural of I, is */, the plural of thou and he, wau. But as these 
 inflections would not coalesce smoothly with the possessive inflections, the 
 connective vowels i. anJ e. are prefixed, making the plural of I, inaun, 
 and of thou. &c. ewau. 
 
 If we strike from these declensions the root IE, leaving its animate and 
 inanimate forms AP, and KE, and adding the plural of the noun, we shall 
 then. t;tkin^ the animate declension as an instance, have the following 
 formula of the pronominal declensions. 
 
 f'nm 
 Sin;; 
 
 l'.a:i? of the 
 Noun. 
 
 P ness've 
 in Section 
 
 OL>i inrlec:. 
 to the 
 
 11OI1!) silltf. 
 
 Connect. 
 vowel. 
 
 P!u. inflec. 
 of the 
 pronoun. 
 
 Obj. 
 iaflfc. 
 n.pl.i 
 
 Plural 
 of the 
 Noun. 
 
 N- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 K, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ( ) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 " g- 
 
 () 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 To render this formula of general use, six variations, (five in addition
 
 INDIAN LANGUAGES. 283 
 
 to the above) of the possessive inflection, are required, corresponding to 
 the six classes of substantives, whereby aum would be changed to am, 
 eem, im, 6m, and oom, conformably to the examples heretofore given in 
 treating of the substantive. The objective inflection, would also be some- 
 times changed to een and sometimes to nan. 
 
 Having thus indicated the mode of distinguishing the person, number, 
 relation, and gender or what is deemed its technical equivalent, the mu- 
 tation words undergo, not to mark the di>tinctions of sex, but the presence 
 or absence of vitality, I shall now advert to the inflections which the pro- 
 nouns take for tense, or rather, to form the auxiliary verbs, have, had, 
 shall, will, may, &c. A very curious and important principle, and one, 
 which clearly demonstrates that no part of speech has escaped the trans- 
 forming genius of the language. Not only are the three great modi- 
 fications of time accurately marked in the* verbal forms of the Chippe- 
 was, but by the inflection of the pronoun they are enabled to indicate 
 some of the oblique tenses, and thereby to conjugate their verbs with ac- 
 curacy and precision. 
 
 The particle gee added to the first, second, and third persons singular of 
 the present tense, changes them to the perfect past, rendering I, thou, He, 
 I did have or had. Thou didst, hast or hadst, He, or she did 
 have, or had. If gah, be substituted for gee, the first future tense is 
 formed, and the perfect past added to the first future, forms the conditional 
 future. As the eye may prove an auxiliary in the comprehension of 
 forms, which are not familiar, the following tabular arrangement of them, 
 is presented. 
 
 First Person, I. 
 
 Nin gee, I did have had. 
 
 Nin gab, I shall will. 
 
 Nin gah gee, I shall have will have. 
 
 Second Person, Thou. 
 
 Ke gee, Thou didst hast hadst. 
 
 Ke gah, Thou shall wilt. 
 
 Ke gah gee, Thou shall have wilt have. 
 
 Third Person, He, or She. 
 
 O gee, He or she did has had. 
 
 O <rah. He or she did has had. 
 
 O " 
 
 O gah gee, He or she shall have will have. 
 
 The present and imperfect tense of the potential mood, is formed by 
 dau, and the perfect by gee, suffixed as in other instances. 
 
 First Person, I. 
 
 Nin dau, I may car, &c. 
 
 Nin dau gee, I may have can have, &c.
 
 INDIAN LANGUAGES. 
 
 Second Person. Thou. 
 
 Ke dau, Thou mayst canst, <kc. 
 
 Ke dau gee, Thou mayst have canst have, &c. 
 
 Third Person, He, or She. 
 O dau, He or she may can, &c. 
 
 O dau gee, He or she may have can have, &.c. 
 
 In conjugating the verbs through the plural persons, the singular 
 terms for the pronoun remain, and they are rendered plural by a retro- 
 spective action of the pronominal inflections of the verb. In this manner 
 the pronoun-verb auxiliary, has a general application, and the necessity 
 of double forms is avoided. 
 
 The preceding observations are confined to the formative or prefixed 
 pronouns. The inseparable suffixed or subformative are as follows 
 
 Yaun, My. 
 
 Yun, Thy. 
 
 Id, or d, His, or hers. 
 
 Yiiung, Our. (ex.) 
 
 Yung, Our. (in.) 
 
 Yaig, Your. 
 
 Waud, Their. 
 
 These pronoun? are exclusively employed as suffixes, and as suffixes 
 to the descriptive compound substantives, adjectives and verbs. Both 
 the rule and examples have been stated under the head of the substantive, 
 p. 43. and adjective, p. 81. Their application to the verb will be shown, 
 as we proceed. 
 
 2 Relative Pronouns. In a language which provides for the distinc- 
 tions of person by particles piefixed or suffixed to the verb, it will 
 scnrrelv ^e expected, that separate and independent relative pronouns 
 should exist, or if S'ich are to be found, their use, as separate parts of 
 speech, nvist. it will have been anticipated, be quite limited limited to 
 simple in'errojitory forms of expression, and not applicable to the indica- 
 tive, or declaratory- Such will be found to be the fact in the language 
 under review ; and it will be perceived, from the subjoined examples, that 
 in nil insttnces. requiring the relative pronoun who, other than the simple 
 interro^nto-y forms, this relation is indicated by the inflections of the verb, 
 or n IjK-tivp, &c. Nor does there appear to be any declension of the sep- 
 arate pronoun, corresponding to whose, and whom. 
 
 The word Ahwayniin. may be said to be uniformly employed in the 
 sense of irho, under the limitations we have mentioned. For instance. 
 Who is tlierp? Ahwaynain e-mah ai-aud? 
 
 Who spoke? Ahwaynain kau keegcedood? 
 
 Who tell you ? Ahwaynain kau ween dumoak ?
 
 INDIAN LANGUAGES. 
 
 Who are you ? Ahwaynain iau we yun 1 
 
 Who sent you ? Ahwaynain waynonik? 
 
 Who is your father? Ahwaynain kos? 
 Who did it? Ahwaynain kau todung? 
 
 Whose dog is it? Ahwaynain way dyid? 
 
 Whose pipe is that? Ahwaynain dopwaugunid en-eu ? 
 
 Whose lodge is it? Ahwaynain way weegevvomid? 
 
 Whom do you seek? Ahwaynain nain dau wau bumud? 
 Whom have you here? Ahwaynain oh omau ai auwaud? 
 Not the slightest variation is made in these phrases, between who, whose, 
 &*! whom. 
 
 Should we wish to change the interrogative, and to say, he who is there : 
 h". who spoke ; he who told you, &c., the separable personal pronoun ween 
 (he) must be used in lieu of the relative, and the following forms will be 
 elicited. 
 
 Ween, kau unndnik, He (who) sent you. 
 
 Ween, kau geedood, He (who) spoke. 
 
 Ween, a.z-aud e-mah, He (who) is there. 
 
 Ween, kau weendumoak, He (who) told you. 
 
 Ween, kau t6 dung, He (who) did it, &c. 
 
 If we object that, that in these forms, there is no longer the relative pro- 
 noun who, the sense being simply, he sent you, he spoke, &c., it is replied 
 that if it be intended only to say, he sent you, &c., and not he who senl 
 you, &c., the following forms are used. 
 
 Ke gee unndnig. He (sent) you. 
 
 Ainnozhid, He (sent) me. 
 
 Ainnonaud, He (sent) him, &c. 
 
 Iau e-mau, He is there. 
 
 Ke geedo, He (spoke.) 
 
 Kegeeweendumaug, He (told) you. 
 
 Ke to durn, He did it. 
 
 We reply, to this answer of the native speaker, that the particle kau 
 prefixed to a verb denotes the past tense, that in the former series of terms, 
 in which this particle appears, the verbs are in the perfect indicative, 
 and in the latter, they are in the present indicative, marking the dif 
 ference only between sent and send, spofce and speak, &c. And that there 
 is absolutely no relative pronoun, in either series of terms. We further 
 observe, that the personal pronoun ween, prefixed to the first set of terms, 
 may be prefixed with equal propriety, to the second set, and that its use 
 or disuse, is perfectly optional with the speaker, as he may wish to give 
 additional energy or emphasis to the expression. To th-se positions, 
 after reflection, discussion and examination, we receive an assent, and thus 
 the uncertainty is terminated.
 
 286 INDIAN LANGUAGES. 
 
 sons are made happy, and, in like manner, the suffixed personal pronouns 
 plural, mark the distinctions between we, ye, they, &c. For it is a rule 
 of the language, that a strict concordance must exist between the number 
 of the verb, and the number of the pronoun. The termination of the verb 
 consequently always indicates, whether there be one or many objects, to 
 which its energy is directed. And as animate verbs can be applied only 
 to animate objects, the numerical inflections of the verb, are understood to 
 mark the number of persons. But this number is indiscriminate, and 
 leaves the sense vague, until the pronominal suffixes are superadded. 
 Those who, therefore, contend for the sense of the relative pronoun 
 "who," being given in the last mentioned phrase, and all phrases similarly 
 formed, by a succedaneum, contend for something like the following form 
 of translation : He makes them happy him! or Him he (meaning 
 who) makes them happy. 
 
 The equivalent for what, is Waygonain. 
 
 What do you want ? Waygonain wau iauyun 1 
 
 What have you lost? Waygonain kau wonetdyun ? 
 
 What do you look for? Waygonain nain dahwaubundamunt 
 
 What is this? Waygonain ewinain maundun? 
 
 What will you have? Waygonain kau iauyun ? 
 
 What detained you ? Waygonain kau oon dahme egoyun ? 
 
 What are you making? Waygonain wayzhetdyun? 
 
 What have you there? Waygonain e-mau iauyun ? 
 
 The use of this pronoun, like the preceding, appears to be confined to 
 simple interrogative forms. The word auneen, which sometimes supplies 
 its place, or is used for want of the pronoun which, is an adverb, and has 
 considerable latitude of meaning. Most commonly it may be considered 
 as the equivalent for how, in what manner, or at what time. 
 What do you say? Auneen akeeddyun ? 
 
 What do you call this? Auneen aizheneekaudahmun maun- 
 
 dun? (i.) 
 
 What ails you ? Auneen aindeeyun ? 
 
 What is your name? Auneen aizheekauzoyun? 
 
 Which do you mean ; this or that? (an.) Auneen ah-ow afnud, woh-ow gamau 
 
 ewidde ? 
 Which do you mean; this or that? (in.) Auneen ch-eu ewaidumun oh-oo 
 
 Which boy do you mean ? Auneen ah o\v-ainud 1 
 
 By adding to this word, the particle de, it is converted into an adverb of 
 place, and may be rendered where. 
 
 Where do you dwell? Auneende aindauyun? 
 
 Where is your son ? Auneende ke gwiss ? 
 
 Where did you see him? Auneende ke waubumud?
 
 INDIAN LANGUAGES. 287 
 
 We now wish to apply the principle thus elicited to verbs causative, and 
 other compound terms to the adjective verbs, for instance and to the 
 other verbal compound expressions, in which the objective and the nomi- 
 native persons, are incorporated as a part of the verb, and are not prefixes 
 to it. This may be shown in the causative verb, To make Happy. 
 
 Mainwaindumeid, He (who) makes me happy. 
 
 Mainwaindumeik, He (who) makes thee happy. 
 
 Mainwaindumeaud, He (who) makes him happy. 
 
 Mainwairidumeinung, He (who) makes us happy, (inclusive.) 
 
 M linwaindumeyaug, He (who) makes us happy, (exclusive.) 
 
 Mainwaindumeinnaig, He (who) makes ye. or you happy. 
 Mainwaindumeigowaud, He (who) makes them happy. 
 And so the forms might be continued, throughout all the objective 
 persons. 
 
 Mainwaindumeyun, Thou (who) makest me happy, &c. 
 
 The basis of these compounds is minno, good, and aindum, the mind. 
 Hence minwaindum, he happy. The adjective in this connexion, can- 
 not be translated " good," but its effect upon the noun, is to denote that 
 state of the mind, which is at rest with itself. The first change from this 
 simple compound, is to give the adjective a verbal form ; and this is 
 effected by a permutation of the vowels of the first syllable a rule of very 
 extensive application and by which, in the present instance, the phrase 
 he happy, is changed to he makes happy, (mainwaindum.) The next step 
 is to add the suffix personal pronouns, id, ik, aud, &c., rendering the ex- 
 pressions, he makes me happy, &c. But in adding these increments, the 
 vowel e, is thrown between the adjective-verb, and the pronoun suffixed, 
 making the expression, not mainwaindum-yun, but mainwaindumeyun. 
 Generally the vowel e in this situation, is a connective, or introduced 
 merely for the sake of euphony. And those who maintain that it is here 
 employed as a personal pronoun, and that the relative who, is implied by 
 the final inflection ; overlook the inevitable inference, that if the marked 
 e, stands for me in the first phrase, it must stand for thee in the second, he 
 in the third, us in the fourth, &c. As to the meaning and office of the 
 final inflections id, ik, &c. whatever they may, in an involuted sense 
 imply, it is quite clear, by turning to the list of suffixed personal pronouns 
 and animate plurals, thai they mark the persons, 1, thou, he, &c., we, ye, 
 they, &c. 
 
 Take for example, minwamdumeigowaud. He (who) makes them 
 happy. Of this compound, minwaindum, as before shown, sigi ifies he. 
 makes happy. But as the verb is in the singular number, it implies that 
 but one. person is made happy, and the suffixed personal pronouns singular, 
 mark the distinctions between me, thte, and he, or him. 
 
 Mmwaindum-e-ig is the vero plural, and implies that several per-
 
 288 INDIAN LANGUAGES. 
 
 becomes quite necessary in writing- the language. And in the following 
 sentences, the substantive is properly employed after the pronoun. 
 
 This dog is very lean, Gitshee bukaukdoozo woh-o\v annemoosh. 
 
 These dogs are very lean, Gitshee bukauddoozowug o-goo annem- 
 oosh ug. 
 
 Those dogs are fat, Ig-eu annemooshug ween-in-oawug. 
 
 That dog is fat, Ah-ow annemoosh vveen-in-ao. 
 
 This is a handsome knife, Gagait onishishin maundun mokomahn. 
 
 These are handsome knives. Gagait wahwinaudj o-noo mokomahnun. 
 
 Those are bad knives, Monaududon in-emvaidde mokomahnun. 
 
 Give me that spear, Meezhishin eh-eu ahnitt. 
 
 Give me those spears, Meezhishin in-eu unnewaidde ahnitteen. 
 
 That is a fine boy, Gagait kwonaudj ah-ow kweewezains. 
 
 Those are fine boys, Gagait wahwinaudj ig-euwaidde kwee- 
 
 wezainsug. 
 
 This boy is larger than that, Nahwudj mindiddo woh-ow kweewezains 
 
 ewaidde dush. 
 
 That is what I wanted, Meeh-eu wau iauyaumbaun. 
 
 This is the very thing I wanted, Mee-suh oh-oo wau iauyaumbaun. 
 
 In some of these expressions, the pronoun combines with an adjective, 
 
 as in the compound words, ineuwaidde, and jgeuwaidde, those yonder, (in.) 
 
 and those yonder (an.) Compounds which exhibit the full pronoun in co- 
 alescence with the word Ewaidde yonder. 
 
 CHRONOLOGY. 
 
 Columbus discovered the West Indies Oct. 12, 1492. 
 
 Americo Vespucio, discovered the coast of South America, 1497. 
 
 Cabot discovered the North American coast 1497. 
 
 De Leon discovered Florida 1512. 
 
 Cortes, enters the city of Mexico, after a seige, Aug. 13, 1521. 
 
 Verrizani, is said to have entered the bay of New York, 1524. 
 
 Cartier discovered the St. Lawrence, 1534. 
 
 Jamestown, in Virginia, is founded, 1608. 
 
 Acknowledged date of the settlement of Canada, 1 008. 
 
 Hudson discovers the river bearing his name, 16. J. 
 
 The Dutch build a fort near Albany, 1614. 
 
 The Pilgrims land at Plymouth Dec. 22, 1620. 
 
 New Amsterdam taken from the Dutch by the Duke of York and Albany 
 
 and named New York 1664. 
 
 La Salle discovers the Illinois in upper Lonisaina 1678. 
 discovers Lower Louisiana, and is killed 1085.
 
 
 THE ERA OF THE ARRIVAL OF THE FRENCH IN 
 THE UPPER LAKES. 
 
 KF-WA-KONS, a chief of the straits of St. Mary's, told me, during an in- 
 terview, in 1327, that but seven generations of red men had passed away, 
 since the French first appeared on those straits. If we take the date of 
 Cartier's first visit to the St. Lawrence, as the era of their acquaintance 
 with this nation, A. D. 1534, wo should have 56 years as the period of an 
 Indian generation. Should we take, instead of this, the time of La Salle's 
 first arrival on the upper lakes, 1778, there would, on the contrary, be but 
 a fraction over 22 years for a generation. But neither of these periods, 
 can be truly said to coincide with the probable era of the chief's historical 
 reminiscences. The first is too early, the last too late. An average of 
 the two, which is required to apply the observation properly, gives 38 
 years as the Indian generation. This nearly assimilates it to the results 
 among Europeans, leaving 8 years excess. Further data would probably 
 reduce this ; but it is a department in which we have so little material, 
 that we must leave it till these be accumulated. It may be supposed that 
 the period of Indian longevity, before the introduction of ardent spirits, 
 was equal, perhaps, a little superior, to that of the European ; but it did 
 not exceed it, we think, by 8 years. 
 
 Ke-wa kons, whom I knew very well, .was a man of shrewd sense, and 
 respectable powers of observation. He stated, at the same interview, that 
 his tribe, who were of the Odjibwa type of the Algonquins, laid aside their 
 Akeeks, or clay cooking-vessels, at that time, and adopted in lieu of them, 
 the light brass kettle, which was more portable and permanent. And 
 from that time, their skill in pottery declined, until, in our day, it is en- 
 tirely lost. It is curious to reflect, that within the brief period of 150 
 years, a living branch of coarse manufacture among them, has thus been 
 transferred into an object of antiquarian research. This fact, should make 
 historians cautious in assigning very remote periods of antiquity to the 
 monumental evidences of by-gone generations. 
 
 It is by such considerations that we get a glimpse of some of the gene- 
 ral principles which attended the early periods of discovery and settlement, 
 in all parts of the continent. Adventurers came to find gold, or furs, to amass 
 wealth, get power, or to perform mere exploits. Nobody cared much for 
 the native race, beyond the fact of their being the medium to lead to these 
 
 19 289
 
 9U FLIGHT OF THE SHAWNEES. 
 
 specified objects. There were none, to record accurately, their arts, and 
 other peculiarities, which now excite intense interest. They died away 
 very fist, whole tribes becoming extinct within a generation or two. The 
 European fabrics, then introduced, were so much superior to their own, 
 that they, at once, discontinued such rude arts as they practised, at least in 
 our northern latitudes. New adventurers followed in the track of Colum- 
 bus, Amerigo, Cabot, and their compeeis and followers, who, in the lapse 
 of time, picked up, from the soil, pieces of course pottery, pestles and such 
 like things, and holding them up, sai.i, "See these! here are evidences 
 of very great skill, and very high antiquity." 
 
 It is not the intention by any means, to assert, that there were not anti- 
 quities of a far higher era, and nobler caste, but merely to impress upon in- 
 quirers, the necessity of discriminating the different eras in the chronology 
 of our antiquities. All Indian pottery, north of the capes of Florida and 
 the Gulf of Mexico, is of, or preceding the era of the discovery ; but there 
 is found in graves, a species of pottery, and vitrified ware, which was in- 
 troduced, in the early stages of traffic, by Europeans. Of this transition 
 era between the dying away of the Indian arts, and the introduction of the 
 European, are the rude pastes, enamel and glass beads, and short clay 
 pipes of coarse texture, found in Indian cemeteries, but not in the tumuli. 
 In place of these, our ancient Indi.ms used wrought and unwrought sea 
 shells of various species, and pipes carved out of seatites and other soft 
 materials. 
 
 Mr. Anderson remarks in his biography of Catharine Brown, that 
 " the Cherokees are said to possess a language, which is more precise and 
 powerful than any into which learning has poured richness of thought, or 
 genius breathed the enchantments of fancy and eloquence." 
 
 David Brown, in one of his letters, in the same volume, terms his peo- 
 ple the Tsallakee, of which we must therefore take " Cherokee," to be a 
 corruption. It is seen by the Cherokee alphabet, that the sound of r does 
 not occur in that language. 
 
 FAITH. 
 
 When Chusco was converted to Christianity at the mission of Michi- 
 linackinac, he had planted a field of potatoes on one of the neighbouring 
 islands in lake Huron. In the f;ill he went over in his canoe, with his 
 aged wife, to dig them a labour which the old woman set unceremoni- 
 ously about, as soon as they got into the field. " Stop !" cried the little old 
 man, who had a small tenor voice and was bent nearly double by age, 
 "dare you begin to dig, till we have thanked the Lord for their growth." 
 They then both knelt down in the field, while he lifted up his voice, in 
 his native language, in thanks.
 
 
 
 SHINGABA-WOSSINS, OR IMAGE STONES. 
 
 THE native tribes who occupy the borders of the great lakes, are very 
 ingenious in converting to the uses of superstition, such masses of loose 
 rock, or boulder stones, as have been fretted by the action of water into 
 shapes resembling the trunks of human bodies, or other organic forma. 
 
 There appears, at all times, to have been a ready disposition to turn 
 such masses of rude natural sculpture, so to call them, to an idolatrous 
 use ; as well as a most ingenious tact, in aiding the effect of the natural 
 resemblance, by dots or dabs of paint, to denote eyes, and other features, 
 or by rings of red ochre, around their circumference, by way of orna- 
 ment. 
 
 In the following figures, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, some of these masses are repre- 
 sented. 
 
 Number 3. was brought to the office of the Indian Agent at Michili- 
 mackinac in 1839, and placed among objects of apalagous interest to 
 visitors. It consisted of a portion of a vein or mass of gneiss or granite, 
 from which both mica and feldspar were nearly absent, existing only in 
 trace, while the quartzy portion predominated, and had, by its superior 
 hardness, resisted the elemental action. The mode of the formation of such 
 masses is very well known to geologists, resulting, in almost every case, 
 from the unequal degree of hardness of various parts of a mass, sub- 
 mitted to an equal force of attrition, such as is ordinarily given by the 
 upheaving and rolling force of waves on a lake, or ocean beach. To the 
 natives, who are not pione to reason from cause to effect, such productions 
 appear wonderful. All that is past comprehension, or wonderful, is 
 Attributed by them to the supernatural agency of spirits. The hunter or 
 
 291
 
 292 SHINGABA WOSSINS, OR IMAGE STONEb. 
 
 warrior, who is travelling along the coast, and finds one of these self- 
 sculptured stones, is not sure that it is not a diiect interposition uf his 
 God, or guardian Manito, in his favour. He is habitually a believer in 
 the most subtle forms of mysterious power, which he acknowledges to be 
 oftep delegated to the native priests, or necromanceis. HP is not stag- 
 gered by the most extraordinary stretch of fancy, in the theo;y of the 
 change or transformation of animate into inanimate oljects, and vice 
 versa. All things, " in heaven and earth," he believes to he sulject to 
 this subtle power of metamorphosis. But, whatever be the pi ecise ope- 
 rating cause of the respect he pjys to the imitative rolled stones, which 
 he calls Shingaba-vvossins. and also by the general phrase of Muz-in-in- 
 a-wun, or images ; he is not at liberty to pass them without hazatdirig- 
 something, in his opinion, of his chance of success in life, or the foitune 
 of the enterprize in hand. 
 
 If the image be small, it is generally taken with him and secreted in 
 the neighborhood of his lodge. If large and too heavy for this purpose, 
 it is set up on the shore, generally in some obscure nook, where an offer- 
 ing of tobacco, or something else of less value, may be made to it, or 
 rather through it, to the spirit. 
 
 In 182U one of these stones (No. 2.) was met by an expedition of the 
 government sent north, that year, for the purpose of interior discovery 
 and <\pffvation, at the inner Thunder Bay island, in Lake Huron. It was 
 a massy stone, rounded, with a comparatively broad base and entablature 
 but not otherwise remarkable. It was set up, under a tree on the island, 
 which was small, with the wide and clear expanse of the lake in phi in 
 view. The island was one of those which were regarded as deseit, and 
 was probably but seldom stopped at. It was. indeed, little more than i few 
 acres of boulJers and pebbles, accumulated on a limestone leef, and bear- 
 ing a few stunted trees and shrubs. The water of the lake must, in high 
 storms, have thrown its spray over this imaged stone. It was, in fine, one 
 of those private places which an Indian might be supposed to have se- 
 lected for his secret worship. 
 
 In No. 3. is figured an object of this kind, which was found in 1832, 
 in the final ascent to the source of the Mississippi, on the right cape, in 
 ascending this stream into lac Traverse at the distance of about 1000 
 miles above the falls of St. Anthony. 1 landed at the point to see it, hav- 
 ing heard, from my interpreter, that such an object was set up and dedi- 
 cated to some unknown Manito there. It was a pleasant level point of 
 land shaded with trees, and bearing luxuriant grass and wild shiubbeiy 
 and flowers. In the middle of this natural parterre the stone was placed, 
 and was overtopped by this growth, and thus concealed hv it. A ring of 
 red paint encircled it, at the first narrowed point of its ciicuniferem-e, to 
 give it the resemblance of a human neck ; and theie weir some rude, 
 dabs to denote other features. The Indian is not precise in the matter of
 
 SH1NGABA WOSSINS, OR IMAGE STONES. 293 
 
 proportion, either in his d ra wing, or in his attempts at statuary. He seizes 
 upon some minute and characteristic trait, which is at once sufficient to de- 
 note the species^ and he is easily satisfied about the rest. Thus a simple 
 cross, with a strait line from shoulder to shoulder, and a dot, or circle 
 above, to serve/or a head, is the symbol of the human frame ; and without 
 any adjunct of feet, or hands, it could not have been mistaken for any 
 thing else certainly for any other object in the animal creation. 
 
 MNEMONIC SYMBOLS OF THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 PRELIMINARY REMARKS. SYMBOLICAL REPRESENTATIONS AND HIEROGLYPHICS, ONE OF TH* 
 
 EARLIEST OBSERVED TRAITS IN THE CUSTOMS AND ARTS OF THE AMERICAN ABORI- 
 
 | 
 GINES ; BUT THIS ART NOT SUSPECTED TO HAVE A SYSTEMATIC FORM AMONG THE RUDE 
 
 HbNTER TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA, UNTIL THE YEAR 1820, WHEN IT WAS DIS- 
 COVERED ON THE SOURCE OF THE MISSISSIPPI. THIS INSTANCE GIVEN, WITH A. DRAW- 
 ING : THE HINT PURSUED. 
 
 THE practice of the North American tribes, of drawing figures and 
 pictures on skins, trees, and various other substances, has been noticed 
 by travellers and writers from the earliest times. Among the more north- 
 erly tribes, these figures are often observed on that common substitute for 
 the ancient papyrus, among these nations, the bark of the betula papyracea, 
 or white birch: a substance possessing a smooth surface, easily impressed, 
 very flexible, and capable of being preserved in' rolls. Often these devi- 
 ces are cut, or drawn in colours on the trunks of trees, more rarely on 
 rocks or boulders. According to Golden and Lafitou records of this rude 
 character were formerly to be seen on the blazed surface of trees, along some 
 of the ancient paths and portages leading from the sources of the Atlan- 
 tic rivers into the interior, or in the valley of the St. Lawrence ; but 
 these, after satisfying a transient curiosity, have long since yielded to the 
 general fate of these simple and unenduring monuments. Pictures and 
 symbols of this kind are now to be found only on the unreclaimed bor- 
 ders of the great area west of the Alleghanies and the Lakes, in the 
 wide prairies of the west, or along the Missouri and the upper Missis- 
 sippi. It is known that such devices were in use, to some extent, at the era 
 of the discovery, among most of the tribes, situated between the latitudes 
 of the capes of Florida, and Hudson's Bay, although they have been 
 considered as more particularly characteristic of the tribes of the Algon- 
 quin type. In a few instances, these pictorial inscriptions have been found 
 to be painted or stained on the faces of rocks, or on loose boulders, and 
 still more rarely, devices were scratched or pecked into the surface, as is 
 found to be the case still at Dighton d.ud V euau^o. Those who are intent
 
 294 ART OF PICTURE WRITING. 
 
 on observations of this kind, will find figures and rude hieroglyphics in 
 variably at the present time, on the grave posts which mark the places 
 of Indian sepulchre at the west and north. The nations who rove over 
 the western prairies, inscribe them on the skins of the buffalo. North of 
 latitude 42, the bark of the birch, which furnishes at once the mate- 
 rial of canoes, tents, boxes, water-dippers, and paper, constitutes the com- 
 mon medium of their exhibition. Tablets of hard wood are confined to 
 such devices as are employed by their priests and prophets, and medicine- 
 men and these characters uniformly assume a more mystical or sacred 
 import. But the recent discovery, on one of the tributaries of the Sus- 
 quehanna, of an Indian map, drawn on stone, with intermixed devices, a 
 copy of which appears in the 1st volume of the collections of the Histor- 
 ical Committee of the American Philosophical Society, proves that stone 
 was also employed in that branch of inscription. This discovery was on 
 the area occupied by the Lenapees. 
 
 Golden, in his history of the Five Nations, * informs us that when, in 
 1696, the Count de Frontenac marched a well appointed army into the 
 Iroquois country, with artillery and all other means of regular military 
 offence, he found, on the banks of the Onondaga, now called Oswego 
 river, a tree, on the trunk of which the Indians had depicted the French 
 army, and deposited two bundles of cut rushes at its foot, consisting of 
 1434 pieces an act of defiance on their part, which was intended to in- 
 form their invaders, that they would have to encounter this number of 
 warriors. In speaking in another passage of the general traits of the 
 Five Nations, he mentions the general custom prevalent among the Mo- 
 hawks going to war, of painting, with red paint, on the trunk of a tree, 
 such symbols, as might serve to denote the object of their expedition. 
 Among the devices was a canoe pointed towards the enemies' country. 
 On their return, it was their practice to visit the same tree, or precinct, 
 and denote the result : the canoe bein% in this case, drawn with 
 
 o / ' 
 
 its bows in the opposite direction. Lafitou, in his account of the nations 
 of Canada, makes observations on this subject to which we shall more 
 particularly refer hereafter, which denote the general prevalence of the 
 custom in that quarter. Other writers, dating as far back as Smith and 
 de Bre, bear a passing testimony to the existence of this trait among the 
 northern tribes. Few have however done more than notice it, and none 
 are known to have furnished any amount of connected details. 
 
 A single element in the system attracted early notice. I allude to the 
 institution of the Totem, which has been well known among the Al- 
 gonquin tribes from the settlement of Canada. By this device, the early 
 missionaries observed, that the natives marked their division of a tribe 
 into clans, and of a clan into families, and the distinction was thus very 
 clearly preserved. Affinities were denoted and kept up, long after tradi- 
 * London, 1747, p. 190.
 
 THE ART OP PICTURE WRITING. 295 
 
 tion hid fi.led in its testimony. This distinction, which is marked with 
 much of the certainty of heraldic bearings in the feudal system, was seen 
 to mark the arms, the lodge, and the trophies of the chief and warrior. 
 It was likewise employed to give identity to the clan of which he was a 
 member, on his ad-je-da-teg or grave-post. This record went but little 
 farther ; a few strokes or geometric devices were drawn on these simple 
 monuments, to denote the number of men he had slain in battle. 
 
 It hus not been suspected in any notices to which I have had access, 
 that there was a pictorial alphabet, or a series of homophonous figures, in 
 which, by the juxtaposition of symbols representing acts, as well as objects 
 of action, and by the intioduction of simple adjunct signs, a series of dis- 
 junctive, yet. generally connected ideas, were denoted ; or that the most prom- 
 inent incidents of life and death could be recorded so as to be transmitted 
 from one generation to another, as long at least as the monument and the 
 people endured. Above all, it was not anticipated that there should have 
 been found, as will be observed in the subsequent details, a system of sym- 
 bolic notation for the songs and incantations of the Indian metas and 
 priests, making an appeal to the memory for the preservation of language. 
 
 Persons familiar with the state of the western tribes of this continent, 
 particularly in the higher northern latitudes, have long been aware that 
 the sons'? of the Indian priesthood, and wabenoes, were sung from a kind 
 of pic-tori;)! notation, made on bark. It is a fact which has often come to 
 the observation of military officers performing duties on those frontiers, 
 and of persons exercising occasional duties in civil life, who have passed 
 through their territories. But there is no class of persons to whom the 
 fact of such notations being made, is so well known, as the class of Indian 
 traders and interpreters who visit or reside a part of the season at the 
 Indian villages. I have never conversed with any of this latter class of 
 persons to whom the fact of such inscriptions, made in various ways, was 
 not so familiar as in their view to excite no surprise or even demand re- 
 m:irk. 
 
 My attention was first called to the subject in 1820. In the summer 
 of that v^ar I was on an exploring journey through the lake country. At 
 the month of the smull river Huron, on the banks of Lake Superior, 
 /here vvns an Indi.in grave fenced around with saplings, and protected 
 with much care. At. if? head stood a post, or tabular stick, upon which 
 ivns dnwn the figure of the animal which was the symbol of the clan to 
 ivhich thf 'lec.pased chief belonged. Strokes of red paint were added to 
 lennte. ci'her the number of war parties in which he had been engaged,, 
 jr the number of scalps which he had actually taken from the enemy. 
 Tru- hrerprrtpr who accompanied us, and who was himself tinctured with 
 Indian Moo I. a'lve the Litter, as the true import of these marks. 
 
 ( >n i'iittiii<j the river St. Louis, which flows into the head of the lake 
 at the Fon 1 du Lac, to cross the summit dividing its waters from those of
 
 296 THE ART OF PICTURE WRITING. 
 
 the Mississippi, the way led through heavy and dense woods and swamps, 
 and the weather proved dark and rainy, so that, for a couple cf days to- 
 gether, we had scarcely a glimpse of the sun. 
 
 The party consisted of sixteen persons, with two Indian guides ; bul 
 the latter, with all their adroitness in threading the maze, were completely at 
 fault for nearly an entire day. At night we lay down on ground elevated 
 but a few inches above the level of the swamp. The next morning as 
 we prepared to leave the camp, a small sheet of birch bark containing de- 
 vices was observed elevated on the top of a sapling, some 8 or 10 feet 
 high. One end of this pole was thrust firmly into the ground leaning in 
 the direction we were to go. On going up to this object, it was found, 
 with the aid of the interpreter, to be a symbolic record of the circum- 
 stances of our crossing this summit, and of the night's encampment at this 
 spot. Each person was appropriately depicted, distinguishing the soldiers 
 from the officer in command, and the latter from the scavans of the party. 
 The Indians themselves were depicted without hats, this being, as we no- 
 ticed, the general symbol for a white man or European. The entire 
 record, of which a figure is annexed, accurately symbolized the circum- 
 stances, and they were so clearly drawn, according to their conventional 
 rules, that the intelligence would be communicated thereby to any of their 
 people who might chance to travel or wander this way. This was tho i 
 object of the inscription. 
 
 Fig. No. 1. represents the subaltern officer in command of tne party 
 of the U. S. troops. He is drawn with a sword to denote his official
 
 THE ART OF PICTURE WRITING. 29*7 
 
 rank. No. 2 denotes the person who officiated in quality of Secretary. 
 He is represented holding a book. No. 3 denotes the geologist and min- 
 eralogist of the party. He is drawn with a hammer. Nos. 4 and 5 are 
 attaches ; No. 6, the interpreter. 
 
 The group of figures marked 9 represents eight infantry soldiers, each 
 cf whom, as shown in group No. 10, was armed with a musket. No. 15 
 denotes that they had a separate fire, and constituted a separate mess. 
 Figures 7 and 8 are the two Chippewa guides, the principal of whom, 
 called Chamees, or the Pouncing-hawk, led the way over this dreary sum- 
 mit. These are the only human figures on this unique bark letter, who 
 are drawn without a hat. This was the characteristic seized on, by them, 
 and generally employed by the tribes, to distinguish the Red from the white 
 race. Figures 1 1 and 12 represent a prairie hen, and a green tortoise, 
 which constituted the sum of the preceding day's chase, and were eaten 
 at the encampment. The inclination of the pole, was designed to show 
 the course pursued from that particular spot : there were three hacks in 
 it, below the scroll of bark, to indicate the estimated length of this part 
 of the journey, computing from water to water, that is to say, from the 
 head of the portage Aux Couteaux on the St. Louis river, to the open shores 
 of Sandy lake, the Ka-ma-ton-go-gom-ag of the Odjibwas. 
 
 The story was thus briefly and simply told ; and this memorial was 
 set up by the guides, to advertise any of their countrymen, who might 
 chance to wander in that direction, of the adventure for it \vas evident, 
 both from this token, and from the dubiousness which had marked the 
 prior day's wanderings, that they regarded the passage in this light, and 
 were willing to take some credit for the successful execution of it. 
 
 Before we had penetrated quite to this summit, we came to another 
 evidence of their skill in this species of knowledge, consisting of one of 
 those contrivances which they denominate Man-i-to-wa-teg, or Manito 
 Poles. On reaching this our guides shouted, whether from a supersti- 
 tious impulse, or the joy of having found a spot they certainly could rec- 
 ognize, we could not tell. We judged the latter. It consisted of eight 
 poles, of equal length, shaved smooth and round, painted with yellow 
 ochre, and set so as to enclose a square area. It appeared to have been, 
 one of those rude temples, or places of incantation or worship, known to 
 the metas, or priests, where certain rites and ceremonies are performed. 
 But it was not an ordinary medicine lodge. There had been far more 
 care in its construction. 
 
 On reaching the village of Sandy lake, on the upper Mississippi, the 
 figures of animals, birds, and other devices were found, on the rude cof- 
 fins, or wrappings of their dead, which were scaffolded around the pre- 
 sincts of the fort, and upon the open shores of the lake. Similar devices, 
 were also observed, here, as at other points in this region, xipon their
 
 298 THE ART OF PICTURE WRITING. 
 
 arms, war-clubs, canoes, and other pieces of moveable property, as well 
 as upon their grave posts. 
 
 In the descent of the Mississippi, we observed such devices painted on 
 a rock, below and near the mouth of Elk river, and at a rocky island 
 in the river, at the Little Falls. In the course of our descent to the Falls 
 at St. Anthony, we observed another bark letter, as the party now began 
 to call these inscriptions, suspended on a high pole, on an elevated bank 
 of the river, on its west shore. At this spot, where we encamped for the 
 night, and which is just opposite a point of highly crystalized hornblende 
 rock, called the Peace Rock, rising up through the prairie, there were left 
 standing the poles or skeletons of a great number of Sioux lodges. It is 
 near and a little west of the territorial boundary of the Sioux nation ; and 
 on inspecting this scroll of bark, we found it had reference to a ncgocia- 
 tion for bringing about a permanent peace between the Sioux and Chippe- 
 was. A large party of the former, from St. Peter's, headed by their chief, 
 had proceeded thus far, in the hope of meeting the Chippewa hunters, 
 on their summer hunt. They had been countenanced, or directed in this 
 step, by Col. Leaven worth, the commanding officer of the new post, just 
 then about to be erected. The inscription, which was read off at once, by 
 the Chippewa Chief Babesacundabee, who was with us, told all this ; it 
 gave the name of the Chief who had led the party, and the number of 
 his followers, and gave that chief the first assurance he had, that his mis- 
 * sion for the same purpose, would be favourably received. 
 
 After our arrival at St. Anthony's Falls, it was found that this system 
 of picture writing was as familiar to the Dacotah, as we had found it 
 among the Algonquin race. At Prairie du Chien, and at Green Bay, 
 the same evidences were observed among the Monomonees, and the Win- 
 nebagoes, at Chicago among the Pottowottomies, and at Miohilimakinac, 
 among the Chippewas and Ottawas who resort, in such numbers, to that 
 Island. While at the latter place, on my return, 1 went to visit the grave 
 of a noted chief of the Monomonee tribe, who had been known by his 
 French name of Toma, i. e. Thomas. He had been buried on the hill 
 west of the village ; and on looking at his Ad-je-da-tig or gravu post, 
 it bore a pictorial inscription, commemorating some of the prominent 
 achievements of his life. 
 
 These hints served to direct my attention to the subject when I returned 
 to the country in 1822. The figures of a deer, a bear, a turtle, and a crane, 
 according to this system, stand respectively for the names of men, and 
 preserve the language very well, by yielding to the person conversant 
 with it, the corresponding words, of Addick, Muckwa, Mickenock, and 
 Adjeejauk. Marks, circles, or dots, of various kinds, may symbolize the 
 number of warlike deeds. Adjunct devices may typify or explain adjunct 
 acts. If the system went nd farther, the record would yield a kind of in- 
 formation both gratifying and useful to one of his countrymen who had
 
 THE ART OP PICTURE WRITING. 299 
 
 no letters and was expert in the use of symbols ; and the interpretation 
 of it, would be easy and precise in proportion as the signs were general, 
 conventional, and well understood. There was abundant evidence in my 
 first year's observation, to denote that this mode of communication was in 
 vogue, and well understood by the northern tribes ; but it hardly seemed 
 susceptible of a farther or extended use. It was not till I had made a 
 personal acquaintance with one of their Medas a man of much intelli- 
 gence, and well versed in their customs, religion, and history, that a more 
 enlarged application of it appeared to be practicable. I observed in the 
 hands of this man a tabular piece of wood, covered over on both sides, 
 with a series of devices cut between parallel lines, which he referred to, 
 as if they were the notes of his medicine and mystical songs. I heard 
 him sing these songs, and observed that their succession was fixed and 
 uniform. By cultivating his acquaintance, and by suitable attention and 
 presents, such as the occasion rendered proper, he consented to explain 
 the meaning of each figure, the object symbolized, and the words attached 
 to each symbol. By this revelation, which was made with closed doors, 
 I became a member or initiate of the Medicine Society, and also of the 
 Wabeno Society. Care was taken to write each sentence of the songs 
 and chants in the Indian language, with its appropriate devices, and to 
 subjoin a literal translation in English. When this had been done, and 
 the system considered, it was very clear that the devices were mnemonic 
 that flfty person could sing from these devices, very accurately, what he 
 had previously committed to memory, and that the system revealed a cu- 
 rious scheme of symbolic notation. 
 
 All the figures thus employed, as the initiatory points of study, related 
 exclusively to either the medicine dance, or the wabeno dance ; and each 
 section of figures, related exclusively to one or the other. There was no 
 intermixture or commingling of characters, although the class of subjects 
 were sometimes common to each. It was perceived, subsequently, that 
 this classification of symbols extended to the songs devoted to war, to 
 hunting, and to other specific topics. The entire inscriptive system, reach- 
 ing from its first rudimental characters, in the ad-je-da-tig, or grave board, 
 to the extended roll of bark covered with the incriptions of their magi- 
 cians and prophets, derived a new interest from this feature. It was easy 
 to perceive that much comparative precision was imparted to interpreta- 
 tions in the hands of the initiated, which before, or to others, had very 
 little. An interest was thus cast over it distinct from its novelty. And 
 in truth, the entire pictorial system was thus invested with the character 
 of a subject of acurate investigation, which promised both interest and in- 
 struction. 
 
 It has been thought that a simple statement of these circumstances, 
 would best nnswer the end in view, and might well occupy the place of a 
 more formal or profound introduction. In bringing forward the elements
 
 300 THE ART OF PICTURE WRITING. 
 
 of the system, after much reflection, it is thought, however, that a few re- 
 marks on the general character of this art may not be out of place. For, 
 simple as it is, we perceive in it the native succedaneum for letters. It ia 
 not only the sole graphic mode they have for communicating ideas, but it 
 is the mode of communicating all classes of ideas commonly entertained 
 by them such as their ideas of war, of hunting, of religion, and of 
 magic and necromancy. So considered, it reveals a new and unsuspected 
 mode of obtaining light on their opinions of a deity, of the structure or 
 cosmogony of the globe, of astronomy, the various classes of natural ob- 
 jects, their ideas of immortality and a future state, and the prevalent no- 
 tions of the union of spiritual and material matter. So wide and varied, 
 indeed, is the range opened by the subject, that we may consider the In- 
 dian system of picture writing as the thread which ties up the scroll of 
 the Red man's views of life and death, reveals the true theory of his 
 hopes and fears, and denotes the relation he bears, in the secret chambers 
 of his own thoughts, to his Maker. What a stoic and suspicious temper 
 would often hold him back from uttering to another, and what a limited 
 language would sometimes prevent his fully revealing, if he wished, 
 symbols and figures can be made to represent and express. The Indian 
 is not a man prone to describe his god, but he is ready to depict him, by a 
 symbol. He may conceal under the figures of a serpent, a turtle, or a 
 t wolf, wisdom, strength, or malignity, or convey under the picture of the 
 sun, the idea of a supreme, all-seeing intelligence. But he is not pre- 
 pared to discourse upon these things. What he believes on this head, he 
 will not declare to a white man or a stranger. His happiness and success 
 in life, are thought to depend upon the secrecy of that knowledge of the 
 Creator and his system in the Indian view of benign and malignant 
 agents. To reveal this to others, even to his own people, is, he believes, 
 to expose himself to the counteracting influence of other agents known 
 to his subtle scheme of necromancy and superstition, and to hazard suc- 
 cess and life itself. This conduces to make the Red man eminently a 
 man of fear, suspicion, and secrecy. But he cannot avoid some of these 
 disclosures in his pictures and figures. These figures represent ideas 
 whole ideas, and their juxtaposition or relation on a roll of bark, a tree, or 
 a rock, discloses a continuity of ideas. This is the basis of the system. 
 
 Picture writing is indeed the literature of the Indians. It cannot be 
 interpreted, however rudely, without letting one know what the Red man 
 thinks and believes. It shadows forth the Indian intellect, it stands in the 
 place of letters for the Unishinaba. * It shows the Red man in all pe- 
 riods of our history both as he was, and as he is ; for there is nothing 
 more true than that, save and except the comparatively few instances 
 where they have truly embraced experimental Christianity, there has not 
 
 * A generic term denoting the common people of the Indian race.
 
 
 ; 
 
 GRAVE CREEK MOUND. 
 
 THIS gigantic tumulus, the largest in the Ohio valley, was opened some 
 four or five years ago, and found to contain some articles of high antiquarian 
 value, in addition to the ordinary discoveries of human bones, &c. A 
 rotunda was built under its centre, walled with brick, and roofed over, and 
 having a long gallery leading into it, at the base of the mound. Around 
 this circular wall, in the centre of this heavy and damp mass of earth, with 
 its atmosphere of peculiar and pungent character, the skeletons and other 
 disinterred articles, are hung up for the gratification of visitors, the whole 
 lighted up with candles, which have the effect to give a strikingly sepul- 
 chral air to the whole scene. But what adds most to this effect, is a kind 
 of exuded flaky matter, very white and soft, and rendered brilliant by 
 dependent drops of water, which hangs in rude festoons from the ceiling. 
 To this rotunda, it is said, a delegation of Indians paid a visit a year or 
 two since. In the " Wheeling Times and Advertiser" of the 30th August 
 1843, the following communication, respecting this visit, introducing a 
 short dramatic poem, was published. 
 
 "An aged Cherokee chief who, on his way to the west, visited the ro- 
 tunda excavated in this gigantic tumulus, with its skeletons and other 
 relics arranged around the walls, became so indignant at the desecration 
 and display of sepulchral secrets to the white race, that his companions 
 and interpreter found it difficult to restrain him from assassinating the 
 guide. His language assumed the tone of fury, and he brandished his 
 knife, as they forced him out of the passage. Soon after, he was found 
 prostrated, with his senses steeped in the influence of alcohol. 
 
 "'Tis not enough! that hated race 
 
 Should hunt us out, from grove and place 
 
 And consecrated shore where long 
 
 Our fathers raised the lance and song 
 
 Tis not enough ! that we must go 
 
 Where streams and rushing fountains flow 
 
 Whose murmurs, heard amid our fears, 
 
 Fall only on a strangers ears 
 
 'Tis not enough! that with a wand, 
 
 They sweep away our pleasant land, 
 
 And bid us, as some giant-foe, 
 
 Or willing, or unwilling go\ 
 
 But they must ope our very graves 
 
 To tell the dead they too, are slaves."
 
 NAMES OF THE AMERICAN LAKES. 
 
 ONTARIO, is a word from the Wyandot, or, as called by the Iroquois, 
 Quatoghie language. This tribe, prior to the outbreak of the war against 
 them, by their kindred the Iroquois, lived on a bay, near Kingston, which 
 was the ancient point of embarkation and debarkation, or, in other words, 
 at once the commencement and the terminus of the portage, according to 
 the point of destination for all, who passed into or out of the lake. From 
 such a point it was natural that a term so euphonous, should prevail among 
 Europeans, over the other Indian names in use. The Mohawks and their 
 confederates, generally, called it Cadaracqui which was also their name 
 for the St. Lawrence. The Onondagas, it is believed, knew it, in early 
 times, by the name of Oswego.* Of the meaning of Ontario, we are left 
 in the dark by commentators on the Indian. Philology casts some light 
 on the subject. The first syllable, on, it may be observed, appears to be 
 the notarial increment or syllable of Onondio, a hill. Tarak, is clearly, 
 the same phrase, written darac, by the French, in the Mohawk compound 
 of Cadaracqui; and denotes rocks, i. e. rocks standing in the water. IP 
 the final vowels io, we have the same term, with the same meaning whirl 
 they carry in the Seneca, or old Mingo word Ohio.f It is descriptive of 
 an extended and' beautiful water prospect, or landscape. It possesses all 
 the properties of an exclamation, in other languages, but according to the 
 unique principles of the Indian grammar, it is an exclamation-substan- 
 tive. How beautiful ! [the prospect, scene present.] 
 
 Erie is the name of a tribe conquered or extinguished by the Iroquois. 
 We cannot stop to inquire into this fact historically, farther than to say, 
 that it was the policy of this people to adopt into their different tribes of 
 the confederacy, the remnants of nations whom they conquered, and that 
 it was not probable, therefore, that the Erie* were annihilated. Nor is it 
 probable that they were a people very remote in kindred and language 
 from the ancient Sinondovvans, or Senecas, who, it may be supposed, by 
 crushing them, destroyed and exterminated their name only, while they 
 strengthened their numbers by this inter-adoption. In many old maps, 
 this lake bears the name of Erie or "Oskwago." 
 
 Huron, is the nom de guerre of the French, for the "Yendats," as 
 they are called in some old authors, or the Wyandots. Charlevoix tells 
 us that it is a term derived from the French word hure, [a wild boar,] and 
 was applied to this nation from the mode of wearing their hair, "duelles 
 Hures!" said the first visiters, when they saw them, and hence, according 
 to this respectable author, the word Huron. 
 
 * Vide a Reminiscence of Oswego. 
 
 t The sound of i in this word, as in Ontario, is long e in the Indian. 
 
 302
 
 NAMES OF THE AMERICAN LAKES. OA r, 
 
 OUU 
 
 When this nation, with their confederates, the Algonquins, or Adiron- 
 daks, as the Iroquois called them, were overthrown in sever A! decisive 
 battles on the St. Lawrence, between Montreal and Quebec, and compelled 
 to fly west; they at first took shelter in this lake, and thus transferred their 
 name to it. With them, or at least, at the same general era, came some 
 others of the tribes who made a part of the people called by th<; French, 
 Algonquins. or Nipercineans, and who thus constituted the several tiibes, 
 speaking a closely cognate language, whose descendants are regarded by 
 philologists, as the modern Lake- Algonquins. 
 
 The French sometimes called this lake Mer douce, or the Placid sea. 
 The Odjibwas and some other northern tribes of that stock, call it Cttowa 
 lake. No term has been found for it in the Iroquois language, unless it 
 be that by which they distinguished its principal seat of trade, negociation 
 and early rendezvous, the island of Michilimackinac, which they called 
 Tiedonderaghie. 
 
 Michigan is a derivative from two Odjibwa-Algonquin words, signify- 
 ing large, i. e. large in relation to masses in the inorganic kingdom, and 
 a lake. The French called it, generally, during the earlior periods of 
 their transactions, the lake of the Illinese, or Illinois. 
 
 Superior, the most northwesterly, and the largest of the series, is a term 
 which appears to have come into general use, at a comparatively early 
 era, after the planting of the English colonies. The French bestowed 
 upon it, unsuccessfully, one or two names, the last of which was Traci, 
 after the French minister of this name. By the Odjibwa-Algonquins, 
 who at the period of the French discovery, and who still occupy its 
 borders, it is called Gitch-Igomee, or The Eig Sea-water; from Gitchee, 
 great, and guina, a generic term for bodies of water. The term IGOMA, 
 is an abbreviated form of this, suggested for adoption. 
 
 The poetry of the Indians, is the poetry of naked thought. They 
 have neither ryhme, nor metre to adorn it. 
 
 Tales and traditions occupy the place of books, with the Red Race. 
 They make up a kind of oral literature, which is resorted to, on long 
 winter evenings, for the amusement of the lodge. 
 
 The love of independence is so great with these tribes, that they have 
 never been willing to load their political system with the forms of a regu- 
 *ar government, for fear it might prove oppressive. 
 
 To be governed and to be enslaved, are ideas which have been con- 
 founded by the Indians.
 
 GEOGRAPHICAL TERMINOLOGY OF THE U. STATES, 
 
 DERIVED FROM THE INDIAN LANGUAGE. 
 These Extracts are made from " Cyclopaedia Indiaensis " a MS. "work in preparation. 
 
 No. I. 
 
 HUDSON RIVER. By the tribes who inhabited the area of the present 
 County of Dutchess, and other portions of its eastern banks, as low down 
 as Tappan, this river was called Shatemuc which is believed to be a de- 
 rivative from Shata, a pelican. The Minisi, who inhabited the west banks, 
 below the point denoted, extending indeed over all the east half of New 
 Jersey, to the falls of the Raritan, where they joined their kindred the 
 Lenni Lenape, or Delawares proper, called it Mohicanittuck that is to 
 say, River of the Mohicans. The Mohawks, and probably the other 
 branches of the Iroquois, called it Cahohatatea a term of which the in- 
 terpreters who have furnished the word, do not give an explanation. The 
 prefixed term Caho, it may be observed, is their name for the lower and 
 principal falls of the Mohawk. Sometimes this prefix was doubled, with 
 the particle Aa, thrown in between. Hatatea is clearly one of those de- 
 scriptive and affirmative phrases representing objects in the vegetable and 
 mineral kingdoms, which admitted as we see, in other instances of their 
 compounds, a very wide range. By some of the more westerly Iro- 
 quois, the river was called Sanataty. 
 
 ALBANY. The name by which this place was known to the Iroquois, 
 at an early day, was Schenectady. a term which, as recently pronounced 
 by a daughter of Brant, yet living in Canada, has the still harsher sound 
 of Skoh-nek-ta-ti, with a stress on the first, and the accent strongly on 
 the second syllable, the third and fourth being pronounced rapidly and 
 short. The transference of this name, to its present location, by the Eng 
 lish, on the bestowal on the place by Col. Nichols, of a new name, derived 
 from the Duke of York's Scottish title, is well known, and is stated, 
 with some connected traditions, by Judge Benson, in his eccentric memoir 
 before the New York Historical Society. The meaning of this name, as 
 derived from the authority above quoted, is Beyond the Pines, having 
 been applied exclusively in ancient times, to the southern end of the 
 ancient portage path, from the Mohawk to the Hudson. By the Minci, 
 who did not live here, but extended, however, on the west shore above 
 Coxackie, and even Coeymans, it appeare to have been called Gaishtinic. 
 The Mohegans, who long continued to occupy the present area of Rens- 
 selear and Columbia counties, called it Pempotawuthut, that is to say, the 
 City or Place of the Council Fire. None of these terms appear to have 
 
 304
 
 GEOGRAPHICAL TERMINOLOGY OF THE U. STATES. 3Q5 
 
 found favour with the European settlers, and, together with their prior 
 names of Beavenvyck and Fort Orange, they at once gave way, in 1664, 
 to the present name. A once noted eminence, three miles west, on 
 the plains, i. e. Trader's Hill, was called Isutchera, or by prefixing the 
 name for a hill, Yonondio Isutchera. It means the hill of oil. Norman's 
 Kill, which enters the Hudson a little below, the Mohawks called 
 Towasentha, a term which is translated by Dr. Yates, to mean, a place 
 of many dead. 
 
 NIAGARA. It is not in unison, perhaps, with general expectation, to find 
 that the exact translation of this name does not entirely fulfil poetic pre- 
 conception. By the term O-ne-aw-ga-ra, the Mohawks and their co-tribes 
 described on the return of their war excursions, the neck of water which 
 connects lake Erie with Ontario. The term is derived from their name 
 for the human neck. Whether this term was designed to have, as many 
 of their names do, a symbolic import, and to denote the importance of this 
 communication in geography, as connecting the head and heart of the 
 country, can only be conjectured. Nor is it, in this instance, probable. 
 When Europeans came to see the gigantic falls which marked the strait, 
 it was natural that they should have supposed the name descriptive of that 
 particular feature, rather than the entire river and portage. We have 
 been assured, however, that it is not their original name for the water-fall, 
 although with them, as with us, it may have absorbed this meaning. 
 
 BUFFALO. The name of this place in the Seneca, is Te-ho-sa-ro-ro. Its 
 import is not stated. 
 
 DETROIT. By the Wyandots, this place is called Teuchsagrondie ; 
 by the Lake tribes of the Algic type, Wa-we-a-tun-ong : both terms sig- 
 nify the Place of the turning or Turned Channel. It has been remarked 
 by visiters who reach this place at night, or in dark weather, or are other- 
 wise inattentive to the courses, that owing to the extraordinary involutions 
 of the current the sun appears to rise in the wrong place. 
 
 CHICAGO. This name, in the Lake Algonquin dialects, to preserve the 
 same mode of orthography, is derived from Chicagowunzh, the wild 
 onion or leek. The orthography is French, as they were the discoverers 
 and early settlers of this part of the west. Kaug, in these dialects is a 
 porcupine, and She kaug a polecat. The analogies in these words are 
 apparent, but whether the onion was named before or after the animal, 
 must be judged if the age of the derivation be sought for. 
 
 TUSCALOOSA, a river of Alabama. From the Chacta words tushka, a 
 warrior, and luxa black. [Gallatin.] 
 
 ARAGISKE, the Iroquois name for Virginia. 
 
 ASSARIGOA, the name of the Six Nations for the Governor of Virginia. 
 
 OWKNAGUNGAS, a general name of the Iroquois for the New England 
 Indians. 
 
 OTESEONTEO, a spring which is the head of the river Delaware. 
 
 20
 
 306 GEOGRAPHICAL TERMINOLOGY OF THE U. STATES. 
 
 O.vroxAGON ; a considerable river of lake Superior, noted from early 
 times, for the large muss of native copper found on its batiks. This name 
 is said to have been derived from the following incident, it is known 
 that there is a small bay and dead water for some distance within its 
 mouth. In and out of this embayed water, the lake alternately flows, ac- 
 cording to the influence of the winds, and other causes, upon its level. 
 An Indian woman had left her wooden dish, or Onagon, on the sands, at 
 the shore of this little bay, where she had been engaged. On coraing 
 back from her lodge, the outflowing current had carried ofF her valued 
 utensil. Nia Nin-do-nau-gon ! she exclaimed, for it was a curious piece 
 of workmanship. That is to say Alas ! my dish ! 
 
 CuuAH-NAH-wFfAH-HAH, or Valley of the Mountains. A new pnss in the 
 Rocky Mountains, discovered within a few years. It is supposed to be 
 in N. latitude about 40. The western end of the valley gap is 30 miles 
 -wide, which narrows to 20 at its eastern termination, it then turns oblique 
 to the north, and the opposing sides appear to close the pass, yet there is 
 a narrow way quite to the foot of the mountain. On the summit there is 
 a large beaver pond, which has outlets both ways, but the eastern stream 
 dries early in the season, while there is a continuous flow of water west 
 In its course, it has several beautiful, but low cascades, and terminates in a 
 placid and delightful stream. This pass is now used by emigrants. 
 
 AQUIDNKCK. The Narragansett name for Rhode Island. Roger Wil- 
 liams observes, that he could never obtain the meaning of it from the na- 
 tives. The Dutch, as appears by a map of Novi Belgii published at Am- 
 sterdam in 1659, called it Roode Eylant, or Red Island, from the autum- 
 nal colour of its foliage. The present term, as is noticed, in Vol. III. of 
 the Collections of the R. I. Hist. Soc. is derived from this. 
 
 IXCAPATCHOW, a beautiful lake in the mountains at the sources of the 
 river Hudson. [Charles F. Hoffman, Esq.] 
 
 HOUSATOMC ; a river originating in the south-western part of Massa- 
 chusetts, and flowing through the State of Connecticut into Long Island 
 Sound, at Stratford It is a term of Mohegan origin. This tribe on retiring 
 eastward from the banks of the Hudson, passed over the High-lands, into 
 this inviting valley. We have no transmitted etymology of the term, 
 and must rely on the general principles of their vocabulary. It appears 
 to have been called the valley of the stream beyond the Mountains, from 
 on. the notarial sign of wudjo, a mountain, atun, a generic phrase for 
 stream or channel, and ic, the inflection for locality. 
 
 WKA-NTJD-NEC. The Indian name, as furnished by Mr. O'Sullivan, 
 [D. Rev.] for Saddle Mountain, Massachusetts. It appears to be a deriva- 
 tive-from Wa-we-a, round, i. e. any thing round or crooked, in the inani- 
 mate creation. 
 
 MA-HAI-WI: ; The Moheran term, as given by Mr. Bryant [N. Y. E. P.] 
 for Great Harrington, Berkshire County, Massachusetts.
 
 GEOGRAPHICAL TERMINOLOGY OP THE U. STATKtf. 307 
 
 This was not the name of a particular tribe, but a 
 geographical term applied, it should seem, to that part of the shores of the 
 North Atlantic, which is swept by the tide setting into, and around th*> 
 peninsula of Cape Cod, and the wide range of coast trending southerly 
 It became a generic word, at an early day, for the tribes who inhabited thi& 
 coast. It is said to be a word of Narragansett origin, and to signify the 
 Blue Hills. This is the account given of it by Roger Williams, who 
 was toici, by the Indians, that it had its origin from the appearance of 
 an island off the coast. It would be more in conformity to the general 
 requisitions of ethnography, to denominate the language the New Eng- 
 land-Algonquin, for there are such great resemblances in the vocabulary 
 and such an identity in grammatical construction, in these tribes, that \ve 
 are constantly in danger, by partial conclusions as to original supremacy, 
 of doing injustice. The source of origin was doubtless west and south 
 west, but we cannot stop at the Narragansetts, who were themselves deriva- 
 tive from tribes still faither south. The general meaning given by Wil- 
 liams seems, however, to be sustained, so far as can now be judged. The 
 terminations in ell, and set, as well as those in at and ok, denoted locality 
 in these various tribes. We see also, in the antipenultimate Chu, the root 
 of Wudjo, a mountain. 
 
 TA-HA-WUS, a very commanding elevation, several thousand feet above 
 the sea, which has of late years, been discovered at the sources of the 
 Hudson, and named Mount Marcy. It signifies, he splits the sky. 
 [Charles F. Hoffman, Esq.] 
 
 MONG, the name of a distinguished chief of New England, as it appears 
 to be recorded in the ancient pictorial inscription on the Dighton Rock, 
 in Massachusetts, who flourished before the country was colonized by the 
 English. He was both a war captain, and a prophet, and employed the 
 arts of the latter office, to increase his power and influence, in the former. 
 By patient application of his ceremonial arts, he secured the confidence 
 of a large body of men, who were led on, in the attack on his enemies, 
 by a man named Pi/J-hu. In this onset, it is claimed that he killed forty 
 mon, and lost three. To the warrior who should be succesful, in this en- 
 terprize, he had promised his younger sister. [Such are the leading events 
 symbolized by this inscription, of which extracts giving full details, as in- 
 terpreted by an Indian chief, now living, and read before the Am. Ethno- 
 logical Society, in 1843, will be furnished, in a subsequent number.] 
 
 TIOGA. A stream, and a county of the State of New- York. From 
 Teoga, a swift current, exciting admiration. 
 
 DIONDEROGA, an ancient name of the Mohawk tribe, for the site at the 
 mouth of the Schoharie creek, where Fort Hunter was afterwards built 
 [Col. W. L. Stone.] 
 
 AOIOUCHICO, a generic name of the Indians for New England, as printed
 
 W AMERICAN ANTIQUITIES, ETC. 
 
 on the Amsterdam map of 1659, in which it is stated that it was thus " by 
 d inwoonders genaemt." (So named by the natives.) 
 
 IROCOISIA, a name bestowed in the map, above quoted, on that portion of 
 the present state of Vermont, which lies west of the Green Mountains, 
 Stretching along the eastern bank of Lake Champlain. By the applica- 
 tion of the word, it is perceived that the French were not alone in the use 
 they made of the apparently derivative term "Iroquois," which they 
 gave to the (then) Five Nations 
 
 NAMES OF THE SEASONS. 
 
 The following are tne names of the four seasons, in the Odjibwa 
 tongue : 
 
 Pe-bon, Winter, From Kone, Snow. 
 
 Se-gvvun, Spring, u Seeg, Running water. 
 
 Ne-bin, Summer, " Anib, A leaf. 
 
 Ta-gwa-gi, Autumn, " Gwag, The radix of behind &c. 
 By adding the letter g to these terms, they are placed in the relation of 
 verbs in the future tense, but a limited future, and the terms then denote 
 next winter, &c. Years, in their account of time, are counted by winters. 
 There is no other term, but pe-boan, for a year. The year consists of 
 twelve lunar months, or moons. A moon is called Geezis, or when 
 spoken of in contradistinction to the sun, Dibik Geezis, or night-sun 
 The cardinal points are as follows. 
 
 North, Ke \va din-ung. 
 
 South, O sha wan-ung. 
 
 East, Wa bun-ung. 
 
 West, Ka be un-ung. 
 
 a. Kewadin is a compound derived from Ke-wa, to return, or come 
 home, and nodin, the wind. b. Oshauw is, from a root not apparent, but 
 which produces also ozau, yellow, &c. c. Waban is from ab, or wab, light 
 d. Kabeun, is the name of a mythological person, who is spoken of, in 
 their fictions, as the father of the winds. The inflection ung, or oong, in 
 each term, denotes course, olace, or locality.
 
 WESTERN COUNTRY, 
 
 ADDRESSED TO THE LATE WILLIAM L. STONE, EDITOS OT THE KBW YORK 
 COMMERCIAL ADVERTISER. 
 
 I. 
 
 WHEELING (Va.), August 19th, 1843. 
 
 I HAVE just accomplished the passage of the Alleghany mountains, in 
 the direction from Baltimore to this place, and must say, that aside from 
 the necessary fatigue of night riding, the pass from the Cumberland 
 mountains and Laurel Hill is one of the easiest and most free from 
 danger of any known to me in this vast range. An excellent railroad 
 now extends from Baltimore, b}' Frederick and Harper's Ferry, up the 
 Potomac valley and its north branch quite to Cumberland, which is 
 seated just under the mountains, whose peaks would seem to bar all 
 farther approach. The national road finds its way, however, through a 
 gorge, and winds about where " Alps on Alps arise," till the whole vast 
 and broad-backed elevation is passed, and we descend west, over a 
 smooth, well constructed macadamized road, with a velocity which is 
 some compensation for the toil of winding our way up. Uniontown is 
 the first principal place west. The Monongahela is crossed at Browns- 
 ville, some forty miles above Pittsburgh, whence the road, which is 
 everywhere well made and secured with fine stone bridges, culverts and 
 viaducts, winds around a succession of most enchanting hills, till it 
 enters a valley, winds up a few more hills, and brings the travellers out, 
 on the banks of the Ohio, at this town 
 
 309
 
 310 LETTERS ON THE ANTIQUITIES 
 
 The entire distance from the head of the Chesapeake to the waters 
 of the Ohio is not essentially different from three hundred miles. We 
 Were less than two days in passing it, twenty-six hours of which, part 
 night and part day, were spent in post-coaches between Cumberland and 
 this place. Harper's Ferry is an impressive scene, but less so than it 
 would be to a tourist who had not his fancy excited by injudicious 
 descriptions. To me, the romance was quite taken away by driving 
 into it with a tremendous clattering power of steam. The geological 
 structure of this section of country, from water to water, is not without 
 an impressive lesson. In rising from the Chesapeake waters the strati- 
 fied rocks are lifted up, pointing west, or towards the Alleghanies, and 
 after crossing the summit they point east, or directly contrary, like the 
 two sides of the roof of a house, and leave the inevitable conclusion 
 that the Alleghanies have been lifted up by a lateral rent, as it were, at 
 the relative point of the ridge pole. It is in this way that the granites 
 and their congeners have been raised up into their present elevations. 
 
 I did not see any evidence of that wave-like or undulatory structure, 
 which was brought forward as a theory last year, in an able paper for 
 warded by Professor Rogers, and read at the meeting of the British Asso- 
 ciation for the Advancement of Science at Manchester. No organic 
 remains are, of course, visible, in this particular section, at least until 
 we strike the coal and iron-stone formation of Pittsburgh. But I have 
 been renewedly impressed with the opinion, so very opposite to the 
 present geological theory, that less than seven thousand years is suffi- 
 cient, on scientific principles, to account for all the phenomena of fossil 
 plants, shells, bones and organic remains, as well as the displacements, 
 disruptions, subsidences and rising of strata, and other evidences of 
 extensive physical changes and disturbances on the earth's surface. And 
 I hope to live to see some American geologist build up a theory on just 
 philosophical and scientific principles, which shall bear the test of truth. 
 
 But you will, perhaps, be ready to think that I have felt more interest 
 in the impressions of plants in stone, than is to be found in the field of 
 waving corn before the eye. 1 have, however, by no means neglected 
 the latter ; and can assure you that the crops of corn, wheat and other 
 grains, throughout Maryland, Pennsylvania and Western Virginia, are 
 excellent. Even the highest valleys in the Alleghanies are covered 
 with crops of corn, or fields of stacked wheat and other grains. Gene- 
 rally, the soil west of the mountains is more fertile. The influence of 
 the great western limestones, as one of its original materials, and of the 
 oxide of iron, is clearly denoted in heavier and more thrifty cornfield* 
 along the Monongahela and Ohio valleys. 
 
 Of the Ohio River itself, one who had seen it in its full flow, in April 
 and May, would hardly recognize it now. Shrunk in a volume far 
 below its noble banks, with long spits of sand and gravel running almost
 
 OF THE WESTERN COUNTRY. 311 
 
 across it, and level sandy margins, once covered by water, where armies 
 might now manoeuvre, it is but the skeleton of itself. Steamboats of a 
 hundred tons burden now scarcely^reep along its channel, which would 
 form cockboats for the floating palaces to be seen here in the days of 
 its vernal and autumnal glory. 
 
 Truly yours, 
 
 HENRY R. COLCRAFT 
 
 II. 
 
 GRAVE CREEK FLATS (Va.), August 23, 1843. 
 
 I HAVE devoted several days to the examination of the antiquities of 
 this place and its vicinity, and find them to be of even more interest 
 than was anticipated. The most prominent object of curiosity is the 
 great tumulus, of which notices have appeared in western papers ; but 
 this heavy structure of earth is not isolated. It is but one of a series 
 of mounds and other evidences of ancient occupation at this point, of 
 more than ordinary interest. I have visited and examined seven mounds, 
 situated within a short distance of each other. They occupy the summit 
 level of a rich alluvial plain, stretching on the left or Virginia bank of 
 the Ohio, between the junctions of Big and Little Grave Creeks with 
 that stream. They appear to have been connected by low earthen 
 entrenchments, of which plain traces are still visible on some parts of 
 the commons. They included a well, stoned up in the usual manner, 
 which is now filled with rubbish. 
 
 The summit of this plain is probably seventy-five feet above the 
 present summer level of the Ohio. It constitutes the second bench, or 
 rise of land, above the water. It is on this summit, and on one of the 
 most elevated parts of it, that the great tumulus stands. It is in the 
 shape of a broad cone, cut off at the apex, where it is some fifty feet 
 across. This area is quite level, and commands a view of the entire 
 plain, and of the river above and below, and the west shores of the 
 Ohio in front. Any public transaction on this area would be visible to 
 multitudes around it, and it has, in this respect, all the advantages of the 
 Mexican and Yucatanese teocalli. The circumference of the base has 
 been stated at a little under nine hundred feet ; the height is sixty-nine 
 feet. 
 
 The most interesting object of antiquarian inquiry is a small flat stone, 
 inscribed with antique alphabetic characters, which was disclosed on the 
 opening of the large mound. These characters are in the ancient rock 
 alphabet of sixteen right and acute angled single stokes, used by the 
 i and other early Mediterranean nations, and which is the parent
 
 312 LETTERS ON THE ANTIQUITIES 
 
 of the modern Runic as well as the Bardic. It is now some four or fire 
 years since the completion of the excavations, so far as they have; been 
 made, and the discovery of this relib. Several copies of it soon got 
 abroad, which differed from each other, and, it was supposed, from the 
 original. This conjecture is true ; neither the print published in the 
 Cincinnati Gazette, in 1839, nor that in the American Pioneer, in 1843, 
 is correct. I have terminated this uncertainty by taking copies by a 
 scientific process, which does not leave the lines and figures to the 
 uncertainty of man's pencil. 
 
 The existence of this ancient art here could hardly be admitted, other- 
 wise than as an insulated fact, without some corroborative evidence, in 
 habits and customs, which it would be reasonable to look for in the 
 existing ruins of ancient pccupancy. It is thought some such testimony 
 has been found. I rode out yesterday three miles back to the range of 
 high hills which encompass this sub-valley, to see a rude tower of stone 
 standing on an elevated point, called Parr's point, which commands a 
 view of the whole plain, and which appears to have been constructed 
 as a watch-tower, or look-out, from which to descry an approaching 
 enemy. It is much dilapidated. About six or seven feet of the work 
 is still entire. It is circular, and composed of rough stones, laid with- 
 out mortar, or the mark of a hammer. A heavy mass of fallen wall lies 
 around, covering an area of some forty feet in diameter. Two similar 
 points of observation, occupied by dilapidated towers, are represented to 
 exist, one at the prominent summit of the Ohio and Grave Creek hills, 
 and another on the promontory on the opposite side of the Ohio, in 
 Belmont county, Ohio. 
 
 It is known to all acquainted with the warlike habits of our Indians, 
 that they never have evinced the foresight to post a regular sentry, and 
 these rude towers may be regarded as of cotemporaneous age with the 
 interment of the inscription. 
 
 Several polished tubes of stone have been found, in one of the lesser 
 mounds, the use of which is not very apparent. One of these, now on 
 my table, is 12 inches long, 1| wide at one end, and 1$ at the other. It 
 is made of a fine, compact, lead blue steatite, mottled, and has been 
 constructed by boring, in the manner of a gun barrel. This boring is con- 
 tinued to within about three-eighths of an inch of the larger end, through 
 which but a small aperture is left. If this small aperture be looked 
 through, objects at a distance are more clearly seen. Whether it had 
 this telescopic use, or others, the degree of art evinced in its construe- 
 lion is far from rude. By inserting a wooden rod and valve, this tube 
 Would be converted into a powerful syphon, or syringe. 
 
 I have not space to notice one or two additional traits, which serve to 
 awaken new interest at this ancient point of aboriginal and apparently 
 mixed settlement, and must omit them till my next.
 
 OF THE WESTERN COUNTRY. 313 
 
 III. 
 
 GRAVE CREEK FLATS, August 24, 1843. 
 
 THE great mound at these flats was opened as a place of public resort 
 about four years ago. For this purpose a horizontal gallery to its centre 
 was dug and bricked up, and provided with a door. The centre was 
 walled round as a rotunda, of about twenty-five feet diameter, and a 
 shaft sunk from the top to intersect it ; it was in these two excavations 
 that the skeletons and accompanying relics and ornaments were found. 
 All these articles are arranged for exhibition in this rotunda, which is 
 lighted up with candles. The lowermost skeleton is almost entire, and 
 in a good state of preservation, and is put up by means of wires, on the 
 walls. It has been overstretched in the process so as to measure six 
 feet ; it should be about five feet eight inches. It exhibits a noble frame 
 of the human species, bearing a skull with craniological developments 
 of a highly favorable charcter. The face bones are elongated, with a 
 long chin and symmetrical jaw, in which a full and fine set of teeth, 
 above arid below, are present. The skeletons in the upper vault, where 
 the inscription stone was found, are nearly all destroyed. 
 
 It is a damp and gloomy repository, and exhibits in the roof and walls 
 of the rotunda one of the most extraordinary sepulchral displays which 
 the world affords. On casting the eye up to the ceiling, and the heads 
 of the pillars supporting it, it is found to be encrusted, or rather fes- 
 tooned, with a white, soft, flaky mass of matter, which had exuded from 
 the mound above. This apparently animal exudation is as white as 
 snow. It hangs in pendent masses and globular drops ; the surface is 
 covered with large globules of clear water, which in the reflected light 
 have all the brilliancy of diamonds. These drops of water trickle to the 
 floor, and occasionally the exuded white matter falls. The wooden 
 pillars are furnished with the appearance of capitals, by this substance. 
 That it is the result of a soil highly charged with particles of matter, 
 arising from the decay or incineration of human bodies, is the only 
 theory by which we may account for the phenomenon. Curious and 
 unique it certainly is, and with the faint light of a few candles it would 
 not require much imagination to invest the entire rotunda with sylph- 
 lita forms of the sheeted dead. 
 
 An old Cherokee chief, who visited this scene, recently, with his 
 companions, on his way to the West, was so excited and indignant at 
 the desecration of the tumulus, by this display of bones and relics to the 
 gaze of the white race, that he became furious and unmanageable ; his 
 friends and interpreters had to force him out, to prevent his assassinating 
 the guide ; and soon after he drowned his senses in alcohol. 
 
 That this spot was a very ancient point of settlement by the hunter
 
 314 LETTERS ON THE ANTIQUITIES 
 
 race in the Ohio valley, and that it was inhabited by the present red 
 race of North American Indians, on the arrival of whites west of the 
 Alleghanies, are both admitted facts ; nor would the historian and anti- 
 quary ever have busied themselves farther in the matter had not the 
 inscribed stone come to light, in the year 1839. I wns informed, yes- 
 terday, that another inscription stone had been found in one of the 
 smaller mounds on these flats, about five years ago, and have obtained 
 data sufficient as to its present location to put the Ethnological Society 
 on its trace. If, indeed, these inscriptions shall lead us to admit that 
 the continent was visited by Europeans prior to the era of Columbus, it 
 is a question of very high antiquarian interest to determine who the 
 visitors were, and what they have actually left on record in these antique 
 tablets. 
 
 I have only time to add a single additional fact. Among the articles 
 found in this cluster of mounds, the greater part are commonplace, in 
 our western mounds and town ruins. 1 have noticed but one which 
 bears the character of that unique type of architecture found by Mr. 
 Stephens and Mr. Catherwood in Central America and Yucatan. With 
 the valuable monumental standards of comparison furnished by these 
 gentlemen before me, it is impossible not to recognize, in an ornamental 
 stone, found in one of the lesser mounds here, a specimen of similar 
 workmanship. It is in the style of the heavy feather-sculptured orna- 
 ments of Yucatan the material being a wax yellow sand-stone, dark- 
 ened by time. I have taken such notes and drawings of the objects 
 above referred to, as will enable me, I trust, in due time, to give a con- 
 nected account of them to our incipient society. 
 
 IV. 
 
 t 
 
 MASSILLON, Ohio, August 27th, 1843. 
 
 SINCE my last letter I have traversed the State of Ohio, by stage, to 
 this place. ID coming up the Virginia banks of the Ohio from Mounds- 
 ville, I passed a monument, of simple construction, erected to the 
 memory of a Captain Furman and twenty-one men, who were killed by 
 the Indians, in 1777, at that spot. They had been out, from the fort at 
 Wheeling, on a scouting party, and were waylaid at a pass called the 
 narrows. The Indians had dropped a pipe and some trinkets in the 
 path, knowing that the white men would pick them up, and look at 
 them, and while the latter were grouped together in this act, they fired 
 and killed every man. The Indians certainly fought hard for the pos- 
 session of this valley, aiming, at all times, to make up by stratagem what 
 they lacked in numbers. I doubt whether there is in the history of the
 
 OF THE WESTERN COUNTRY. 315 
 
 spread of civilisation over the world a theatre so rife with partisan 
 adventure, massacre and murder, as the valley of the Ohio and the 
 country west of the Alleghany generally presented between the break- 
 ing out of the American revolution, in '76, and the close of the Black 
 Hawk war in 1832. The true era, in fact, begins with the French war, 
 in 1744, and terminates with the Florida war, the present year. A 
 work on this subject, drawn from authentic sources, and written with 
 spirit and talent, would be read with avidity and possess a permanent 
 interest. 
 
 The face of the country, from the Ohio opposite Wheeling to the 
 waters- of the Tuscarawas, the north fork of the Muskingum, is a series 
 of high rolling ridges and knolls, up and down which the stage travels 
 slowly. Yet. this section is fertile and well cultivated in wheat and 
 corn, particularly the latter, which looks well. This land cannot be 
 purchased under forty or fifty dollars an acre. Much of it was originally 
 bought for seventy-five cents per acre. It was over this high, wavy land, 
 that the old Moravian missionary road to Gnadenhutten ran, and I pur- 
 sued it to within six miles of the latter place. You will recollect this 
 locality as the scene of the infamous murder, by Williamson and his 
 party, of the non-resisting Christian Delawares under -the- ministry of 
 
 r J i a J 
 
 Heckewelder and Ziesberger. 
 
 On the Stillwater, a branch of the Tuscarawas, we first come to level 
 lands. This stream was noted, in early days,"for its beaver and other 
 furs. The last beaver seen here was shot on its banks twelve years 
 ago. It had three legs, one having, pfrobably been caught in a ttap or 
 been bitten off. It is known that not only the beaver, but the otter, 
 wolf and fox, will bite off a foot, to escape the iron jaws of a trap. It 
 has been said, but I know not on what good authority, that the hare 
 will do the same. 
 
 We first struck the Ohio canal at Dover. It is in every respect a 
 well constructed work, with substantial locks, culverts and viaducts. It 
 is fifty feet wide at the top, and is more than adequate for all present 
 purposes. It pursues the valley of the Tuscarawas up to the summit, 
 by which it is connected with the Cuyahuga, whose outlet is at Cleve- 
 land. Towns and villages have sprung up along its banks, where before 
 there was a wilderness. Nothing among them impressed me more than 
 Ihe town of Zoar, which is exclusively settled by Germans. There 
 seems something of the principles of association one of the fallacies of 
 the age in its large and single town store, hotel, &c., but I do not 
 know how far they may extend. Individual property is helH. The, 
 evidences of thrift and skill, in cultivation and mechanical and mill work, 
 are most striking. Every dwelling here is surrounded with fruit and 
 fruit trees. The botanical garden and hot-house are on a large scale, 
 and exhibit a favorable specimen of the present state of horticulture.
 
 
 316 LETTERS or* THE ANTIQUITIES 
 
 One of the assistants very kindly plucked for one some fine fruit, and 
 voluntarily offered it. Zoar is quite a place of resort as a ride for the 
 neighboring towns. 1 may remark, en passant, that there is a large 
 proportion of German population throughout Ohio. They are orderly, 
 thrifty ami industrious, and fall readily into our political system and 
 habits. Numbers of them are well educated in the German. They 
 embrace Lutherans as well as Roman Catholics, the latter predomi- 
 nating. 
 
 Among the towns which have recently sprung up on the line of the 
 canal, not the least is the one from which I date this letter. The name 
 of the no od French divine (Massillon) was, affixed to an uncultivated 
 spot, by some Boston gentlemen, some twelve or fourteen years ago. 
 It is now one of the most thriving, city-looking, business places in the 
 interior of Ohio. . In the style of its stores, mills and architecture, il 
 reminds the visitor of that extraordinary growth and spirit which marked 
 the early years of the building of Rochester. It numbers churches for 
 Episcopalians, Baptists, JVethodists and Presbyterians, and also Lu- 
 therans and Romanists. About three hundred barrels of flour can be 
 turned out per diem, by its mills. It is in the greatest wheat-growing 
 county in Ohio (Stark), but is not the county-seat, which is at Canton 
 
 V. 
 
 DETROIT, Sept. 15th, 1843. 
 
 IN passing from the interior of Ohio toward Lake Erie, the face of the 
 country exhibits, in the increased size and number of its boulder stones, 
 evidences of the approach of the traveller toward those localities of 
 sienites and other crystalline rocks, from which these erratic blocks and 
 water-worn masses appear to have been, in a remote age of our planet, 
 removed. The soil in this section has a freer mixture of the broken 
 down slates, of which portions are still in place ou the shores of Lake 
 Erie. The result is a clayey soil, less favorable to wheat and Indian 
 corn. We came down the cultivated valley of the Cuyahoga, and 
 reached the banks of th'^ lake at the fine town of Cleveland, which is 
 elevated a hundred feet, or more, above it, and commands a very ex- 
 tensive view of the lake, the harbor and its ever-busy shipping. A day 
 was employed, by slag", in this section of my tour, and the next carried 
 me, by stt-umboat, to this ancient French capital. Detroit has many 
 intereMiajr historical associations, and appears destined, when its railroad 
 is finish; d, to lie the chief thoroughfare for travellers to Chicago and thft 
 
 .. 
 
 v:i'.l..-\. A.* my attention has, however, been more taken
 
 OP THE WESTERN COUNTRY. 317 
 
 up, on my way, with the past than the present and future condition of 
 the West, the chief interest which the route has excited must necessarily 
 arise from the same source. 
 
 Michigan connects itself in its antiquarian features with that charac- 
 tf r of pseudo-civilisation, or modified barbarianism, of which the works 
 and mounds and circumvallations at Grave Creek Flats, at Marietta, at 
 Circleville and other well known points, are evidences. That this 
 improved condition of the hunter state had an ancient but partial con* 
 nection with the early civilisation of Europe, appears now to be a fair 
 inference, from the inscribed stone of Grave Creek, and other traces of 
 European arts, discovered of late. It is also evident that the central 
 American type of the civilisation, or rather advance to civilisation, of the 
 red race, reached this length, and finally went down, with its gross idol- 
 atry and horrid rites, and was merged in the better known and still ex- 
 isting form of the hunter state which was found, respectively, by Cabot, 
 Cartier, Verrezani, Hudson, and others, who first dropped anchor on our 
 coasts. 
 
 There is strong evidence furnished by a survey of the western coun- 
 try that the teocalli type of the Indian civilisation, so to call it, devel- 
 oped itself from the banks of the Ohio, in Tennessee and Virginia, west 
 and north-westwardly across the sources of the Wabash, the Musking- 
 urn and other streams, toward Lake Michigan and the borders of Wis- 
 consin territory. The chief evidences of it, in Michigan and Indiana, 
 consist of a remarkable series of curious garden beds, or accurately fur- 
 rowed fields, the perfect outlines of which have been preserved by the 
 grass of the oak openings and prairies, and even among the heaviest for- 
 ests. These remains of an ancient cultivation have attracted much atten- 
 tion fron observing settlers on the Elkhart, the St. Joseph's, the Kala- 
 mazoo and Grand river of Michigan I possess some drawings of these 
 anomalous remains of by-gone industry hi the hunter race, taken in for- 
 mer years, which are quite remarkable. It is worthy of remark, too, 
 that no large tumuli, or teocalli, exist in this particular portion of the 
 West, the ancient population of which may therefore be supposed to 
 have been borderers, or frontier bands, who resorted to the Ohio valley 
 as their capital, or place of annual visitation. All the mounds scattered 
 through Northern Ohio, Indiana and Michigan, are mere barrows, or re- 
 positories of the dead, and would seem to have been erected posterior to 
 the fall or decay of the gross idol worship and the offer of human sacri- 
 fice. I have, within a day or two, received a singular implement or or- 
 nament of stone, of a crescent shape, from Oakland, in this State, which 
 connects the scattered and out-lying remains of the smaller mounds, 
 and traces of ancient agricultural labor, with the antiquities of Grave 
 Creek Flats
 
 318 LETTERS ON THE ANTIQUITIES 
 
 VI. 
 
 
 DETROIT, Sept. 16th, 1843. 
 
 THE antiquities of Western America are to be judged of by isolat- 
 ed and disjointed discoveries, which are often made at widely distant 
 points and spread over a very extensive area. The labor of comparison 
 and discrimination of the several eras which the objects of these discov- 
 eries establish, is increased by this diffusion and disconnection of the 
 times and places of their occurrence, and is, more than all, perhaps, hin- 
 dered and put back by the eventual carelessness of the discoverers, and 
 the final loss or mutilation of the articles disclosed. To remedy this evil, 
 every discovery made, however apparently unimportant, should in this 
 era of the diurnal and periodical press be put on record, and the objects 
 themselves be either carefully kept, or given to some public scientific in- 
 stitution. 
 
 An Indian chief called the Black Eagle, of river Au Sables (Michigan), 
 discovered a curious antique pipe of Etruscan ware, a few years ago, at 
 Thunder Bay. This pipe, which is now in my possession, is as remark- 
 able for its form as for the character of the earthenware from which it 
 is. made, differing as it does so entirely from the coarse earthen pots and 
 vessels, the remains of which are scattered so generally throughout 
 North America. The form is semi-circular or horn-shaped, with a qua- 
 drangular bowl, and having impressed in the ware ornaments at each angle. 
 I have never before, indeed, seen any pipes of Indian manufacture of 
 baked clay, or earthenware, such articles being generally carved out of 
 steatite, indurated clays, or other soft mineral substances. It is a pecu- 
 liarity of this pipe that it was smoked from the small end, which is rounded 
 for the purpose of putting it between the lips, without the intervention 
 of a stem. 
 
 The discoverer told me that he had taken it from a very antique grave. 
 A large hemlock tree, he said, had been blown down on the banks of the 
 river, tearing up, by its roots, a large mass of earth. At the bottom of the 
 excavation thus made he discovered a grave, which contained a vase, 
 out of which he took the pipe with some other articles. The vase, he 
 said, was broken, so that he did not deem it worth bringing away. The 
 other articles he described as bones. 
 
 Some time since I accompanied the chief Ki'vakonce, to get an an- 
 cient clay pot, such as the Indians used when the Europeans arrived on 
 the continent. He said that he had discovprecl two such pots, in an en- 
 tire state, in a cave, or crevice, on one of the rocky islets extending 
 north of Point Tessalon, which is the northern cape of the entrance of 
 the Straits of St. Mary's into Lake Huron. From this locality he had 
 removed one of them, and concealed it at a distant point. We travelled
 
 OP THE WESTERN COUNTRY. 319 
 
 in canoes. We landed on the northern shore of the large island of St. 
 Joseph, which occupies the jaws of those expanded straits. He led me 
 up an elevated ridge, covered with forest, and along a winding narrow 
 path, conducting to some old Indian cornfields. All at once he stopped 
 in this path. " We are now very near it," he said, and stood still, look- 
 ing toward the spot where he had concealed it, beneath a decayed trunk. 
 He did not, at last, appear to be willing to risk his luck in life such is 
 Indian superstition by being the actual discoverer of this object of vene- 
 ration to a white man, but allowed me to make, or rather complete, the 
 re-discovery. 
 
 With the exception of being cracked, this vessel is entire. It corres- 
 ponds, in material and character, with the fragments of pottery usually 
 found. It is a coarse ware, tempered with quartz or feld-spar, and such 
 as would admit a sudden fire to be built around it. It is some ten inches 
 in diameter, tulip-shaped, with a bending lip, and without supports be- 
 neath. It was evidently used as retorts in a sand bath, there being no 
 contrivance for suspending it. I have forwarded this curious relic entire 
 to the city for examination. I asked the chief who presented it to me, 
 and who is a man of good sense, well acquainted with Indian traditions, 
 how long it was since such vessels had been used by his ancestors. He 
 replied, that he was the seventh generation, in a direct line, since the 
 French had first arrrived in the lakes. 
 
 vn 
 
 DETROIT, Sept. 16th, 1843. 
 
 THERE was found, in an island at the west extremity of Lake Huron, 
 an ancient repository of human bones, which appeared to have been gath- 
 ered from their first or ordinary place of sepulture, and placed in this 
 rude mausoleum. The island is called Isle Ronde by the French, and is 
 of small dimensions, although it has a rocky basis and affords sugar ma- 
 ple and other trees of the hard wood species. This repository was first 
 disclosed by the action of the lake against a diluvial shore, in which the 
 bones were buried. At the time of my visit, vertebrae, tibiae, portions of 
 crania and other bones were scattered down the fallen bank, and served 
 to denote the place of their interment, which was on the margin of the 
 plain. Some persons supposed that the leg and thigh bones denoted an 
 unusual length ; but by placing them hip by hip with the living speci- 
 men, this opinion was not sustained. 
 
 All these bones had been placed longitudinally. They were arranged in 
 order, in a wide grave, or trench. Contrary to the usual practice of the pre- 
 sent tribes of red men, the <kr letons were laid north and south, i uaked
 
 320 LETTERS ON THE ANTIQUITIES 
 
 several of the most aged Indian chiefs in that vicinity for information re- 
 specting these bones by what tribe they had been deposited, and why 
 they had been laid north and south, and not east and west, as they upi- 
 formly bury. But, with the usual result as to early Indian traditions, 
 they had no information to offer. Chusco, an old Ottawa prophet, since 
 dead, remarked that they were probably of the time of the Indian bones 
 found in the caves on the island of Michilimackinac. 
 
 In a small plain on the same island, near the above repository, is a long 
 abandoned Indian burial-ground, in which the interments are made in the 
 ordinary way. This, I understood from the Indians, is of the era of the 
 occupation of Old Mackinac, or Peekwutinong, as they continue to call 
 jt a place which has been abandoned by both whites and Indians, sol- 
 diers and missionaries, about seventy years. I caused excavations to be 
 made in these graves, and found their statements to be generally verified 
 by the character of the articles deposited with the skeletons ; at least 
 they were all of a date posterior to the discovery of this part of the coun- 
 try by the French. There were found the oxydated remains of the brass 
 mountings of a chiefs fusil, corroded fire steels and other steel imple- 
 ments, vermillion, wampum, and other cherished or valued articles. I 
 sent a perfect skull, taken from one of these graves, to Dr. Morton, the 
 author of " Crania," while he was preparing that work. No Indians 
 have resided on this island within the memory of any white man or In- 
 dian with whom I have conversed. An aged chief whom I interrogated, 
 called Saganosh, who has now been dead some five or six years, told me 
 that he was a small boy when the present settlement on the island of 
 Michilimackinac was commenced, and the English first took post there, 
 and began to remove their cattle, &c., from the old fort on the peninsula, 
 and it was about that time that the Indian village of Minnisains, or Isle 
 Ronde, was abandoned. It had before formed a link, as it were, in the 
 traverse of this part of the lake (Huron) in canoes to old Mackinac. 
 
 The Indians opposed the transfer of the post to the island of Michili- 
 mackinac, and threatened the troops who were yet in the field. They 
 hac} no cannon, but the commanding officer sent a vessel to Detroit for 
 one. This vessel had a quick trip, down and up, and brought up a 
 gun, which was fired the evening she came into the harbor. This pro- 
 duced an impression. I have made some inquiries to fix the date of this 
 transfer of posts, and think it was at or about the opening of the era of the 
 American revolution, at which period the Britis't garrison did not feel 
 itself safe in a mere stockade of timber on the main shore. This stock- 
 ade, dignified with the name of a fort, had not been burned on the taking 
 of it, by surprise, and the massacre of the English troops by the Indians, 
 during Pontiac's war. This massacre, it will be recollected, was in 1763 
 twelve years before the opening of the American war.
 
 OP THE WESTERN COUNTRY. 321 
 
 VIII. 
 
 DETROIT, Oct. 13th, 1843. 
 
 THE so-called copper rock of Lake Superior was brought to this place, 
 a day or two since, in a vessel from Sault Ste-Marie, having been trans- 
 ported from its original locality, on the Ontonagon river, at no small labor 
 and expense. It is upwards of twenty-three years since I first visited 
 this remarkable specimen of native copper, in the forests of Lake Supe- 
 rior. It has been somewhat diminished in size and weight, in the mean- 
 time, by visitors and travellers in that remote quarter ; but retains, very 
 well, its original character and general features. 
 
 I have just returned from a re-examination of it in a store, in one of 
 the main streets of this city, where it has been deposited by the present 
 proprietor, who designs to exhibit it to the curious. Its greatest length 
 is four feet six inches ; its greatest width about four feet ; its maximum 
 thickness eighteen inches. These are rough measurements with the rule. 
 It is almost entirely composed of malleable copper, and bears striking 
 marks of the visits formerly paid to it, in the evidences of portions which 
 have from time to time been cut off. There are no scales in the city 
 large enough, or other means of ascertaining its precise weight, and of 
 thus terminating the uncertainty arising from the several estimates here- 
 tofore made. It has been generally estimated here, since its arrival, to 
 weigh between six and seven thousand pounds, or about three and a half 
 tons, and is by far the largest known and described specimen of native 
 copper on the globe. Rumors of a larger piece in South America are 
 apocryphal. 
 
 The acquisition, to the curious and scientific world, of this extraordi- 
 nary mass of native metal is at least one of the practical results of the 
 copper-mining mania which carried so many adventurers northward, into 
 the region of Lake Superior, the past summer (1843). The person who 
 has secured this treasure (Mr. J. Eldred) has been absent, on the busi- 
 ness, since early in June. He succeeded in removing it from its diluvial 
 bed on the banks of the river, by a car and sectional railroad of two links, 
 formed of timber. The motive power was a tackle attached to trees, 
 which was worked by men, from fourteen to twenty of whom were 
 employed upon it. These rails were alternately moved forward, as the 
 car passed from the hindmost. 
 
 In this manner the rock was dragged four miles and a half, across ft 
 rough country, to a curve of the river below its falls, and below the 
 junction of its forks, where it was received by a boat, and conveyed to 
 the mouth of the river, on the lake shore. At this point it was put on 
 board a schooner, and taken to the falls, or Sault Ste-Marie, and thence, 
 having been transported across the portage, embarked for Detroit. TUe 
 
 21
 
 322 LETTERS ON TIIK ANTIQUITIES 
 
 entire distance to this place is a little within one thousand miles ; tUree 
 hundred and twenty of which lie beyond St. Mary's. 
 
 What is to be its future history and disposition remains to be seen. It 
 will probably find its way to the museum of the National Ins.itute in the 
 new patent office at Washington. This would be appropriate, and it is 
 stated that the authorities have asserted their ultimate claim to improbably 
 under the 3d article of the treaty of Fond du Lac, of the 5th of August, 
 1826. 
 
 I hve no books at hand to refer to the precise time, so far as known, 
 when this noted mass of copper first became known to Europeans. 
 Probably a hundred and eighty years have elapsed. Marquette, and his 
 devoted companion, passed up the shores of Lake Superior about 1668, 
 which was several years before the discovery of the Mississippi, by that 
 eminent missionary, by the way of the Wisconsin. From the letters of 
 D'Ablon at Sault Ste-Marie, it appears to have been known prior to the 
 arrival of La Salle. These allusions will be sufficient to show that the 
 rock has a historical notoriety. Apart from this, it is a specimen which 
 is, both mineralogically and geologically, well worthy of national pre- 
 servation. 
 
 It is clearly a boulder, and bears marks of attrition from the action 
 of water, on some parts of its rocky surface as well as Ihe metallic 
 portions. A minute mineralogical examination and description of it are 
 required. The adhering rock, of which there is less now than in 1820, 
 is apparently serpentine, in some parts steatitic, whereas the copper ores 
 of Keweena Point on that lake, are found exclusively in the amygdaloids 
 and greenstones of the trap formation. A circular depression of opaque 
 crystalline quartz, in the form of a semi-geode, exisis in one face of it ; 
 other parts of the mass disclose the same mineral. Probably 300 Ibs. of 
 the metal have been hacked off, or detached by steel chisels, since it has 
 been known to the whites, most of this within late years. 
 
 IX. 
 
 DETROIT, Oct. 16th, 1843. 
 
 IN the rapid development of the resources and wealth of the West, 
 there is no object connected with the navigation of the upper lakes of 
 raore prospective importance than the improvement of the delta, or flats 
 of the St. Clair. It is here that the only practical impediment occurs to 
 the passage of heavy shipping, between Buflalo and Chicago. This 
 delta is formed by deposits at the point of discharge of the river St. Clair, 
 into Lake St. Clair, and occurs at the estimated distance ot about thirty-
 
 OP THE WESTERN COUNTRY. 
 
 six miles above the city. Thn flats are fan-shaped, and spread, I am 
 inclined to think, upwani of fifteen miles, on the line of their greatest 
 expansion. 
 
 There are three princ'pal channels, hesides sub-channels, which carry 
 a depth of from four to six fathcirs to the very point of their exit into 
 the lake, where there is a bar in each. This bar, as is shown by the 
 chart of a survey made by officers Macomb and Warner, of the topogra- 
 phical engineers, in 1842, is very similar to the bars at the mouths of the 
 upper lake rivers, and appears to be susceptible of removal, or improve- 
 ment, by similar means. The north channel carries nine feet of water 
 over this bar, the present season, and did the same in 1842, and is the 
 one exclusively used by vessels and steamboats. To the latter this tor- 
 tuous channel, which is above ten miles farther round than the middle 
 channel, presents no impediment, besides the intricacies of the bar, but 
 increased distance. 
 
 It is otherwise, and ever must remain so, to vessels propelled by sails. 
 Such vessels, coming up with a fair wind, find the bend so acute and 
 involved at Point aux Chcnes, at the head of this channel, as to bring the 
 wind directly ahead. They are, consequently, compelled to cast anchor, 
 and await a change of wind to turn this point. A delay of eight or ten 
 days in the upward passage, is not uncommon at this place. Could the 
 bar of the middle channel, which is direct, be improved, the saving in 
 both time and distance above indicated would be made. This is an 
 object of public importance, interesting to all the lake States and Territo- 
 ries, and would constitute a subject of useful consideration for Con- 
 gress. Every year is adding to the number and size of our lake 
 vessels. The rate of increase which doubles our population in a given 
 number of years must also increase the lake tonnage, and add uew 
 motives for the improvement of its navigation. 
 
 Besides the St. Clair delta, I know of no other impediment in the 
 channel itsel-f, throughout the great line of straits between Buffalo and 
 Chicago, which prudence and good seamanship, and well found vessels, 
 may not ordinarily surmount. The rapids at Black Rock, once so formi- 
 dable, have long been obviated by the canal dam. The straits of Detroit 
 have b'een well surveyed, and afford a deep, navigable channel at all 
 times. The rapids at the head /of the river St. Clair, at Port Huron, 
 have a sulficiency of water for vessels of the largest class, and only 
 require a fair wind for their ascent. 
 
 The straits of Michilimackinac are believed to be on the same water 
 level as Lakes Huron and Michigan, and only present the phenomenon 
 of a current setting east or west, in compliance with certain laws of ths 
 reaction of water driven by winds. Such are the slight impediments on 
 this extraordinary line of inland lake navigation, which is carried on at 
 an average altitude of something less than 600 feet above the tide level
 
 LETTERS ON THE ANTIQUITIES 
 
 of the Atlantic. When this line of commerce requires to be diverted 
 north, through the straits of St. Mary's into Lake Superior, a period rap- 
 idly approaching, a short canal of three-fourths of a mile will be required 
 at the Sault Ste-Marie, and some excavation made, so as to permit ves- 
 sels of heavy tonnage to cross the Lar in Lake George of those straits. 
 
 - 
 
 X. 
 
 DUNDAS, Canada West, Oct. 26th, 1843. 
 
 FORTUNATELY for the study of American antiquities the aborigines 
 have, from the earliest period, practised the interment of their arms, 
 utensils and ornaments, with the dead, thus furnishing evidence of the par- 
 ticular state of their skill in the arts, at the respective eras of their history. 
 To a people without letters there could scarcely have been a better in- 
 dex than such domestic monuments furnish, to determine these eras ; and 
 it is hence that the examination of their mounds and burial -places 
 assumes so important a character in the investigation of history. Here- 
 tofore these inquiries have been confined to portions of the continent 
 south and west of the great chain of lakes and the St. Lawrence ; but 
 the advancing settlements in Canada, at this time, are beginning to dis- 
 close objects of this kind, and thus enlarge the field of inquiry. 
 
 I had, yesterday, quite an interesting excursion to one of these ancient 
 places of sepulture north of the head of Lake Ontario. The locality is 
 in the township of Beverly, about twelve miles distant from Dundas. 
 The rector of the parish, the Rev. Mr. McMurray, had kindly made 
 arrangements for my visit. We set out at a very early hour, on horse- 
 back, the air being keen, and the mud and water in the road so com- 
 pletely frozen as to bear our horses. We ascended the mountain and 
 passed on to the table land, about four miles, to the house of a worthy 
 parishioner of Mr. McM., by whom we were kindly welcomed, and after 
 giving us a warm breakfast, he took us on. with a stout team, about six 
 miles on the Guelph road. Diverging from this, about two miles to the 
 left, through a heavy primitive forest, with occasional clearings, we came 
 to the spot. It is in the 6th concession of Beverly. 
 
 We were now about seventeen miles, by the road, from the extreme 
 head of Lake Ontario, at the town of Hamilton, Burlington Bay ; and on 
 one of the main branches of the bright and busy mill-stream of the valley 
 of Dundas. As this part of the country is yet encumbered with dense 
 and almost unbroken masses of trees, with roads unformed, we had fre- 
 quently to inquire our way, and at length stopped on the skirts of an 
 elevated beech ridge, upon wnich the trees stood as large and thickly as
 
 OF THE WESTERN COUNTRY. 325 
 
 in other parts of the forest. There was nothing at first sight to betoken 
 that the hand of man had ever been exercised there. Yet this wooded 
 ridge embraced the locality we were in quest of, and the antiquity of 
 interments and accumulations of human bones on this height is to be 
 inferred, from their occurrence amidst this forest, and beneath the roots 
 of the largest trees. 
 
 It is some five or six years since the discovery was made. It happened 
 from the blowing down of a large tree, whose roots laid bare a quantky 
 of human bones. Search was then made, and has been renewed at sub- 
 sequent times, the result of which has been the disclosure of human ske- 
 letons in such abundance and massive quantities as to produce astonish- 
 ment. This is the characteristic feature. Who the people were, and 
 how such an accumulation should have occurred, are questions which 
 have been often asked. And the interest of the scene is by no means 
 lessened on observing that the greater part of these bones are deposited, 
 not in isolated and single graves as the Indians now bury, but in wide 
 and long trenches and rude vaults, in which the skeletons are piled lon- 
 gitudinally upon each other. In this respect they resemble a single de- 
 posit, mentioned in a prior letter, as occurring on Isle Ronde^ in Lake 
 Huron. And they would appear, as is the case with the latter, to be 
 re-interments of bodies, after the flesh had decayed, collected from their 
 first places of sepulture. 
 
 No one not the oldest inhabitant remembers the residence of In- 
 dians in this location, nor does there appear to be any tradition on the 
 subject. It is a common opinion among the settlers that there must 
 have been a great battle fought here, which would account for the accu- 
 mulation, but this idea does not appear to be sustained by an examina- 
 tion of the skulls, which, so far as I saw, exhibit no marks of violence. 
 Besides, there are present the bones and crania of women and children, 
 with implements and articles of domestic use, such as are ordinarily depo- 
 sited with the dead. The supposition of pestilence, to account for the 
 number, is subject to less objection ; yet, if admitted, there is no imagi- 
 nable state of Indian population in this quarter, which could have pro- 
 duced such heaps. The trenches, so far as examined, extend over the 
 entire ridge. One of the transverse deposits, I judged, could not include 
 less than fifteen hundred square feet. The whole of this had been once 
 dug over, in search of curiosities, such as pipes, shells, beads, &c., of 
 which a large number were found. Among the evidences of interments 
 here since the discovery of Canada, were several brass kettles, in one of 
 which were five infant skulls. 
 
 Could we determine accurately the time required for the growth of a 
 beech, or a black oak, as they are found on these deposits, of sixteen, 
 eighteen and twenty inches and two feet in diameter, the date of the 
 abandonment or completion of the interments might be very nearly fixed.
 
 326 ANTIQUITIES OF THE WESTERN COUNTRY. 
 
 The time of the growth of these species is, probably, much less, in the 
 temperate latitudes, and in fertile soils, than is commonly supposed. I 
 am inclined to think, from a hasty survey, that the whole deposit is the 
 result of the slow accumulation of both ordinary interment, and the peri- 
 odical deposit or re-interment of exhumed bones brought from contigu- 
 ous hunting camps and villages. To this, pestilence has probably added. 
 The ridge is said to be the apex or highest point of the table lands, and 
 would therefore recommend itself, as a place of general interment, to the 
 natives. Bands, who rove from place to place, and often capriciously 
 abandon their hunting villages, are averse to leaving their dead in such 
 isolated spots. The surrounding country is one which must have afforded 
 all the spontaneous means of Indian subsistence, in great abundance. 
 The deer and bear, once very numerous, still abound. 
 
 We passed some ancient beaver dams, and were informed that the 
 country east and north bears similar evidences of its former occupation by 
 the small furred animals. The occurrence of the sugar maple adds 
 another element of Indian subsistence. There are certain enigmatical 
 walls of earth, in this vicinity, which extend several miles across the 
 country, following the leading ridges of land. Accounts vary in repre- 
 senting them to extend from five to eight miles. These I did not see, 
 but learn that they are about six feet high, and present intervals as if for 
 gates. There is little likelihood that these walls were constructed for 
 purposes of military defence, remote as they are from the great waters, 
 and aside from the great leading war-paths. It is far more probable that 
 they were intended to intercept the passage of game, and compel the deer 
 to pass through these artificial defiles, where the hunters lay in wait for 
 them. 
 
 Ancient Iroquois tradition, as preserved by Golden, represents this 
 ection of Canada, extending quite to Three Rivers, as occupied by 
 the Adirondacks ; a numerous, fierce, and warlike race, who carried on 
 n determined war against the Iroquois. The same race, who were 
 marked as speaking a different type of languages, were, at an early day, 
 called by the French by the general term of Algonquins. They had 
 three chief residences on the Utavvas and its sources, and retired north- 
 westwardly, by that route, on the increase of the Iroquois power. Who- 
 ever the people were who hunted and buried their dead at Beverly, it is 
 manifest that they occupied the district at and prior to the era of the dis- 
 covery of Canada, and also continued to occupy it, after the French had 
 introduced the fur trade into the interior. For we find, in the manufac- 
 tured articles buried, the distinctive evidences of both periods. 
 
 The antique bone beads, of which we raised many, in situ, with crania 
 and other bones, from beneath the roots of trees, are in every respect 
 similar to those found in the Grave Creek mound, which have been irr.- 
 nroperly called " Ivory." Amulets of bone and shell, and pipes office
 
 THE LONE LIGHTNING. 327 
 
 steatite and indurated red clay, are also of this early period, and are 
 such as were generally made and used by the ancient inhabitants prior to 
 the introduction of European wrought wampum or seawan, and of beads 
 of porcelain and glass, and ornamented pipes of coarse pottery. I also 
 examined several large marine shells, much corroded and decayed, which 
 had been brought, most probably, from the shores of the Atlantic. 
 
 Having made such excavations as limited time and a single spade 
 would permit, we retraced our way to Dundas, which we reached after 
 nightfall, a little fatigued, but well rewarded in the examination of an 
 object which connects, in several particulars, the antiquities of Canada 
 with those of the United States '
 
 ERA OF THE SETTLEMENT OF DETROIT, AND THE 
 STRAITS BETWEEN LAKES ERIE AND HURON. 
 
 THE following papers, relative to the early occupancy of these straits, 
 were copied from the originals in the public archives in Paris, by Gen. 
 Cass, while he exercised the functions of minister at the court of France. 
 The first relates to an act of occupancy made on the banks of a tributary 
 of the Detroit river, called St. Deny's, probably the river Aux Canards. 
 The second coincides with the period usually assigned as the origin of the 
 post of Detroit. They are further valuable, for the notice which is inci- 
 dentally taken of the leading tribes, who were then found upon these straits. 
 
 It will be recollected, in perusing these documents, that La Salle had 
 passed these straits on his way to " the Illinois," in 1679, that is, eight 
 years before the act of possession at St. Deny's, and twenty-two years 
 before the establishment of the post of Detroit. The upper lakes had 
 then, however, been extensively laid open to the enterprise of the mis- 
 sionaries, and of the adventurers in the fur trade. Marquette, accom- 
 panied by Alloez, had visited the south shore of Lake Superior in 1668, 
 and made a map of the region, which was published in the Lettres Edi- 
 fiantes. This zealous and energetic man established the mission of St. 
 Ignace at Michilimackinac, about 1669 or 1670, and three years after- 
 wards, entered the upper Mississippi, from the Wisconsin. Vincennes, 
 on the Wabash, was established in 1710 ;* St. Louis, not till 1763.t 
 
 CANADA, 7th June, 1687. 
 A renewal of the. taking possession of the territory upon the Straits [De- 
 
 troii] between Lakes Erie and Huron, by Sieur de la Duranlhaye 
 Oliver Morel, Equerry, Sieur de la Ditranthaye, commandant in the name 
 
 of the King of the. Territory of the 'Ottawns, Miamis, Poltawalamies, 
 
 Sioux, and other tribes under the orders of Monsieur, the Marquis de 
 
 Denonsville, Governor General of New France. 
 
 This day, the 7th of June, 16S7, in presence of the Rev'd Father An- 
 geleran, Head of the Missions with the OttawasJ of Michilimackinac, the 
 
 * Nicollet's Report. t Law's Historical Dis. 
 
 This is, manifestly, an error. The writer of this act of possession appears to 
 have mistaken the bank of the St. Mary's, one of the tributaries of the Miami of th 
 Lakes, in the Miami country, for the Sault de Ste- Marie, at the outlet of Lake Su- 
 perior. The latter position was occupied, at the earliest dates, to which tradition 
 reaches, by a branch of the Al ? onquins, !o whom the French give the name, from 
 the f ,11s of the river at that locality, of Saulteitx. They are better known, at this day 
 under the name of Chippewas and Odjibwas 
 
 328
 
 SETTLEMENT OP DETROIT, ETC. 329 
 
 Miamis of Sault Ste-Marie, the Illinois, and Green Bay, and of the 
 Sioux of Mons. de Ja Forest, formerly commandant of Fort St. Louis on 
 the Illinois, of Mons. de Lisle, our Lieutenant, and of Mons. de Beau* 
 vais, Lieutenant of Fort St. Joseph, on the Straits [Detroit] between 
 Lakes Huron and Erie. We declare to all whom it may hereafter con- 
 cern, that we have come upon the banks of the river St. Deny's, situat 
 ed three leagues from Lake Erie, in the Straits of the said Lakes Eri 
 and Huron, on the south of said straits, and also at the entrance on the 
 north side, for and in the name of the King, that we re-take possession 
 of the said posts, established by Mons. La Salle for facilitating the voy- 
 ages he made or caused to be made in vessels from Niagara to Michili- 
 mackinac, in the years ****** at each of which we have taused to 
 be set up anew a staff, with the arms of the King, in order to make the 
 said renewed taking possession, and ordered several cabins to be erected 
 for the accommodation of the French and the Indians of the Shawnees 
 and Miamis, who had long been the proprietors of the said territory, 
 but who had some time before withdrawn from the same for their greater 
 advantage. 
 
 The present act passed in our presence, signed by our hands, and by 
 Rev. Father Angeleran, of the society of Jesuits, by MM.Dela Forest, 
 De Lisle and De Beauvais, thus in the original : 
 
 Angeleran, Jesuite. 
 
 De la Duranthaye [la Garduer]. 
 
 De Beauvais, and 
 
 De la Forest. 
 
 Compared by me with the original in my hands, Councillor Secretary 
 of the King, and Register in Chief of the Royal Council at Quebec, sub- 
 scribed, and each page paraphe. 
 
 Collated at Quebec, this llth September, 1712. 
 
 [Signed] , BYON ET VANDREITIL. 
 
 Memoir of Monsieur de la Mothe Cadillac, relative to the establishment of 
 Detroit, addressed to the Minister of Marine, \4th September, 1704 : 
 
 La Mothe Cadillac renders an account of his conduct relative to the esta- 
 blishment of Detroit, by questions and answers. It is the Minister who 
 questions, and La Mothe who answers : 
 Q. Was it not in 1699 that you proposed to me an establishment in 
 
 the Straits which separate Lake Erie from Lake Huron ? 
 A. Yes, my Lord. 
 Q. What were the motives which induced you to wish to fortify a 
 
 place there, and make an establishment ? 
 
 A. I had several. The first was to make a strong post, which should 
 
 not be subject to the revolutions of other posts, by fixing there a number
 
 THE CHOCTAW INDIANS. 
 
 of French and Savages, in order to curb the Iroquois, who had constant* 
 ly annoyed our colonies and hindered their prosperity. 
 
 Q. At what time did you leave Quebec to go to Detroit ? 
 
 A. On the 8th of March, 1701. I reached Montreal the 12th, 
 when we were obliged to make a change. * * * * I left La Chine the 5th 
 of June with fifty soldiers and fifty Canadians Messrs. De Fonty, Cap- 
 tain, Duque and Chacornach, Lieutenants. I was ordered to pass by the 
 Grand River of the Ottawas, notwithstanding my remonstrances. I 
 arrived at Detroit the 24/A July and fortified myself there immediately ; 
 had the necessary huts made, and cleared up the grounds, preparatory to 
 its being sowed in the autumn. 
 
 Compare these data, from the highest sources, with the Indian tradi- 
 tion of the first arrival of the French, in the upper lakes, recorded at 
 page 107, ONEOTA, No. 2. 
 
 THE CHOCTAW INDIANS. 
 
 The Vicksbnrg Sentinel of the 18th ult., referring to this tribe of 
 Indians, has the following : " The last remnant of this once powerful 
 tribe are now crossing our ferry on their way to their new homes in the 
 far West. To one who, like the writer, has been familiar to their bronze 
 inexpressive faces from infancy, it brings associations of peculiar sadness 
 to see them bidding here a last farewell perhaps to the old hills which 
 gave birth, and are doubtless equally dear to him and them alike. The 
 first playmates of our infancy were the young Choctaw boys of the then 
 woods of Warren county. Their language was once scarcely less fami- 
 liar to us than our mother- English. We know, we think, the character 
 of the Choctaw well. We knew many of their present stalwart braves 
 in those days of early life when the Indian and white alike forget dis- 
 guise, but in the unchecked exuberance of youthful feeling show the real 
 character that policy and habit may afterwards so much conceal ; and 
 we know that, under the stolid stoic look he assumes, there is burning in 
 the Indian's nature a heart of fire and feeling, and an all-observing keen- 
 ness of apprehension, that marks and remembers everything that occurs, 
 and every insult he receives. Cunni-at a hah ! They are going away ! 
 With a visible reluctance which nothing has overcome but the stern 
 necessity they feel impelling them, they have looked their last on the 
 graves of their sires the scenes of their youth and have taken up their 
 slow toilsome march, with their household gods among them, to their 
 new home in a strange land. They leave names to many of our rivers, 
 towns and counties ; and so long as our State remains, the Choctaws, 
 who once owned most of her soil, will be remembered."
 
 A SYNOPSIS OF CARTIER'S VOYAGES OF DISCOVERY 
 AT NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 FIRST VOYAGE. 
 
 / 
 
 FORTY-TWO years had elapsed from the discovery of America by Colum- 
 bus, when Jacques Cartier prepared to share in the maratime enterprise 
 of the age, by visiting the coast. Cartier was a native of Normandy, and 
 sailed from the port of St. Malo, in France, on the 20th April, 1534. It 
 will be recollected that the conquest of Mexico had been completed 13 
 years previous. Cartier had two small vessels of GO tons burden and 61 
 men each. The crews took an oath, before sailing, " to behave them- 
 selves truly and faithfully in the service of the most Christian king," Fran- 
 cis I. After an unusually prosperous voyage of 20 days, he made cape 
 " Buona Vista" in Newfoundland, which he states to be in north latitude, 
 48 30'. Here meeting with ice, he made the haven of St. Catherine's, 
 where he was detained ten days. This coast had now been known sinco 
 the voyage of Cabot, in 1497, and had been frequently resorted to, by 
 fishing vessels. Jean Denis, a native of Rouen, one of these fishermen, 
 is said to have published the first chart of it, in 1506. Two years after 
 wards, Thomas Aubert, brought the first natives from Newfoundland to 
 Paris, and this is the era, 1508, commonly assigned as the discovery of 
 Canada. The St. Lawrence remained, however, undiscovered, nor does 
 it appear that any thing was known, beyond a general and vague know- 
 ledge of the coast, and its islands. The idea was yet entertained, indeed, 
 it will be seen by subsequent facts, that America was an island, and that a 
 passage to the Asiatic continent, existed in these latitudes. 
 
 On the 21st May, Cartier continued his voyage, sailing " north and by 
 east" from cape Buona Vista, and reached the Isle of Birds, so called 
 from the unusual abundance of sea fowl found there, of the young of 
 which the men filled two boats, " so that" in the quaint language of the 
 journal, " besides them which we did eat fresh, every ship did powder 
 and salt five or six barrels." He also observed the god wit, and a larger 
 and vicious bird, which they named margaulx. While at this island, 
 they descried a polar bear, which, in their presence leapt into the sea, and 
 
 331
 
 332 CARTIER'S VOYAGES OF DISCOVERY. 
 
 thus escaped. On their subsequent passage to the main land, they 
 again encountered, as they supposed, the same animal swimming towards 
 land. They manned their boats, and ' ; by main strength overtook her, 
 whose flesh was as good to be eaten, as the flesh of a calf two years 
 old." This bear is described to be, "as large as a cow, and as white as a 
 
 swan." 
 
 On the 27th he reached the harbour of " Carpunt" in the bay ' ; Les 
 Chastaux." latitude 51, where he was constrained to lay by, on account 
 of the accumulation of ice, till the 9th of June. The narrator of the voy- 
 age takes this occasion to describe certain parts of the coast and waters of 
 Newfoundland, the island of St. Catherine, Blanc Sablon, Brest, the Isle 
 of Birds, and a numerous group of Islands called the Islets. But 
 these memoranda are not connected with any observations or discoveries 
 of importance. Speaking of Bird and Brest Islands, he says, they afford 
 "great store of god wits, and crows, with red beaks and red feet," who 
 " make their nests in holes underground, even as conies." Near this lo- 
 cality "there is great fishing." 
 
 On the 10th June, he entered a port in the newly named island of 
 Brest, to procure wood and water. Meantime, boats were dispatched to 
 explore among the islands, which were found so numerous " that it was not 
 possible they might be told, for they continued about 10 leagues beyond 
 the said port." The explorers slept on an island. The next day they 
 continued their discoveries along the coast, and having passed the islands, 
 found a haven, which they named St. Anthony: one or two leagues be- 
 yond, they found a small river named St. Servansport, and here set up a 
 cross. About three leagues further, they discovered another river, of 
 larger size, in which they found salmon, and bestowed upon it the name 
 of St. Jacques. 
 
 While in the latter position, they descried a ship from Rochelle, on a 
 fishing voyage, and rowing out in their boats, directed it to a port near at 
 hand, in what is called " Jaques Cartier's Sound," ' which," adds the nar- 
 rator, " I take to be one of the best, in all the world." The face of the 
 country they examined, is, however, of the most sterile and forbiddingchar- 
 acter, being little besides " stones and wild crags, and a place fit for wild 
 beasts, for in all the North Island," he continues," I did not see a cart load 
 of good earth, yet went I on shore, in many places, and in the Island 
 of White SanJ. (Blanc Sablon,) there is nothing else but moss arid small 
 thorns, scattered here and there, withered and dry. To be short, I be- 
 lieve that this was the land that God allotted to Cain." 
 
 Immediately following this, we have the first description of the natives. 
 The men are dpscril>ed as being '-of an indilferent good stature and big- 
 ness, but wild and unruly. They wear their hair tied on the top, like a 
 wreath of hay. and put a wooden pin within it. or any other such thing in- 
 stead of a nail, and withthem, they bind certain birds feathers. They are
 
 CAUTIKIVS VOYAQKS, OF DISCOVERY. 333 
 
 ,-cIothed with beast skins, as well the men is women, but that the women go 
 somewhat straiter ami closer in their garments, than the men do, with their 
 waists girded. They paint themselves with certain roan colouis; their 
 boits ;ire in ide of the bark of birch trees, with the which they fish, and take 
 great store of seals. An.] as far as we c>mll iui.lerst;inj, since our coming 
 thither, trut is not their habitation, but they come from the main lanJ, out of 
 hotter* countries to catch the said, seals, anJ other necessaries for their liv- 
 ing." 
 
 From this exploratory trip, the boats returned to their newly named har- 
 bour of B.est, on the 13th. On the 14th, being the Sabbath, service was 
 read, and the next day Cartier continued his voyage, steering southerly, 
 along the coast, which still wore a most barren and cheerless aspect 
 Much of this part of the narrative is taken up with distances and sound- 
 ings, anJ the naming of capes and islands of very little interest at the 
 present day. They saw a few huts upon the cliffs on the 18th, and 
 named this part of the coast " Les Granges," but did not stop to form any 
 acquaintance with their tenants. Cape Royal was reached and named 
 the day prior, and is said to be the "greatest fishery of cods theie possibly 
 may be, for in less than an hour we took a hundred of them." On the 
 24th they discovered the island of St. John. They saw myriads of birds 
 upon the group of islands named " Margaulx," five leagues westward 
 of which they discovered a large, fertile, and well-timbered island, to 
 which the name of " Brion" was given. The contrast presented by the 
 soil and productions of this island, compared with the bleak and waste 
 shores they had before encountered, excited their warm admiration ; and 
 with the aid of this excitement, they here saw " wild corn," peas, goose- 
 berries, strawberries, damask roses, and parsley, "with other sweet and 
 pleasant herbs." They here also saw the walrus, bear, and wolf. 
 
 Very little is to be gleaned from the subsequent parts of the voyage, 
 until they reached the gulf of St. Lawrence. Mists, head winds, barren 
 rocks, sandy shores, storms and sunshine, alternately make up the land- 
 scape presented to view. Much caution was evinced in standing ofT 
 and on an iron bound coast, and the boats were often employed in ex- 
 ploring along the main land. While thus employed near a shallow 
 stream, called the " River of Boats," they saw natives crossing the stream 
 in their canoes, but the wind coming to blow on shore, they were com- 
 pelled to retire to their vessels, without opening any communication with 
 them. On the following day, while the boats were traversing the coast, 
 they saw a native running along shore after them, who made signs as they 
 supposed, directing them to return towards the cape they had left. But 
 as soon as the boat turned he fled. They landed, however, and putting a 
 
 *I underscore the word " hotter," to denote the prevalent theory. They were search- 
 ing for China or the East India.
 
 334 CARTIER'S VOYAGES OF DISCOVERY. 
 
 knife and a woollen girdle on a staff, as a good-will offering, returned to 
 their vessels. 
 
 The character of this part of the Newfoundland coast, impressed them as 
 being greatly superior to the portions which they had previously seen, 
 both in soil and temperature. In addition to the productions found at 
 Brion's Island, they noticed cedars, pines, white elm, ash, willow, and what 
 are denominated "ewe-trees." Among the feathered tribes they mention 
 the "thrush and stock-dove." By the latter term the passenger pigeon is 
 doubtless meant. The " wild corn" here again mentioned, is said to be 
 "like unto rye," from which it may be inferred that it was the zizania, 
 although the circumstance of its being an equatic plant is not mentioned. 
 In running along the coast Cartier appears to have been engrossed with 
 the idea, so prevalent among the mariners of that era, of finding a pas- 
 sage to India, and it was probably on this account that he made such a 
 scrupulous examination of every inlet and bay, and the productions of the 
 shores. Wherever the latter offered anything favourable, there was a 
 strong dispositiorf to admiration, and to make appearances correspond with 
 the theory. It must be recollected that Hudson, seventy-five years later, 
 in sailing up the North River, had similar notions. Hence the application 
 of several improper terms to the vegetable and animal productions of the 
 latitudes, and the constant expectation of beholding trees bending with 
 fruits and spices, " goodly trees" and "very sweet and pleasant herbs." 
 That the barren and frigid shores of Labrador, and the northern parts of 
 Newfoundland, should have been characterised as a region subject to the 
 divine curse, is not calculated to excite so much surprise, as the disposition 
 with every considerable change of soil and verdure, to convert it into a 
 land of oriental fruitfulness. It docs not appear to have been sufficiently 
 borne in mind, that the increased verdure and temperature, were, in a great 
 measure, owing to the advancing state of the season. He came on this 
 coast on the 10th of May, and it was now July. It is now very well 
 known that the summers in high northern latitudes, although short, are at- 
 tended with a high degree of heat. 
 
 On the 3d of July Cartier entered the gulf to which the name of St. 
 Lawrence has since been applied, the centre of which he states to be in 
 latitude 47 30'. On the 4th he proceeded up the bay to a creek called 
 St. Martin, near bay De Chaleur, where he was detained by stress of wea- 
 ther eight days. While thus detained, one of the ship's boats was sent 
 a-head to explore. They went 7 or 8 leagues to a cape of the bay, where 
 they descried two parties of Indians, "in about 40 or 50 canoes," crossing 
 the channel. One of the parties landed and beckoned them to follow 
 their example, "making a great noise" and showing "certain skins upon 
 pieces of wood" i. e. fresh stretched skins. Fearing their numbers, the 
 seamen kept aloof. The Indians prepared to follow them, in two canoes, 
 in which movement they were joined by five canoes of the other party, 

 
 CARTIER'S VOYAGKS OK DISCOVERY. 3i3o 
 
 < who were coming from the sea side." They approached in a fiendly 
 manner, "dancing- and making many signs of joy, saying in their tongue 
 Nape ton lumen assu.ith."* The seamen, however, suspectel their in- 
 tentions, and finding it impossible to dude them by flight, two shots were 
 discharged among them, by which they were so terrified, that they fled 
 precipitately ashore, "making a great noise." After pausing awhile, thf 
 "wild men" however, re-embarked, and renewed the puisuit, but after 
 coming alongside, they were frightened back by the strokes of twc 
 lances, which so disconcerted them that they fled in haste, and made no 
 further attempt to follow. 
 
 This appears to have heen the first rencontre of the ship's crew with 
 the natives. On the following day, an interview was brought on, by the 
 approach of said "wild men" in nine canoes, which is thus described. 
 " We being advertised of their coming, went to the point where they were 
 with our boats: but so soon as they saw us they began to flee, making 
 signs that they came to traffic with us, showing us such skins as they 
 clothed themselves withal, which are of small value. We likewise made 
 signs unto them, that we wished them no evil, and in sign thereof, two of 
 our men ventured to go on land to them, and carry them knives, with 
 other iron wares, and a red hat to give unto their captain. Which, when 
 they saw, they also came on land, and brought some of their skins, and so 
 began to deal with us, seeming to be very glad to have our iron wares and 
 other things, dancing, with many other ceremonies, as with their hands to 
 cast sea water on their heads. They gave us whatever they had, not 
 keeping any thing, so that they were constrained to go back again naked, 
 and made us signs, that the next clay, they would come again and bring 
 more skins with them." 
 
 Observing a spacious bay extending beyond the cape, where this inter- 
 course had been opened, and the wind proving adverse to the vessels quit- 
 ting their harbour, Carder despatched his boats to examine it, under an ex- 
 pectation that it might afford the desired passage for it is at all times to 
 be observed that he was diligently seeking the long sought passage to the 
 Indies. While engaged in this examination, his men discoveied "the 
 smokes and fires" of" wild men" (the term constantly used in the narrative 
 to designate the natives.) These smokes were upon a small lake, communi- 
 cating with the bay. An amiable interview took place, the natives presenting 
 cooked seal, and the French making a suitable return " in hatchets, knives 
 and beads. J; After these preliminaries, which were conducted with a good 
 deal of caution, by deputies from both sides, the body of the men ap- 
 proached in their canoes, for the purpose of trafficking, leaving most of 
 
 * In Mr. Gallatin's comparative vocabulary, " Napew" means man, in the Shcsh- 
 atapoosh or Labrador. It is therefore fair to conclude that these were a party of Shesh- 
 atapoosh Indians, whose language proves them to be of *.he kindred of the great Algon- 
 quin <amily.
 
 336 CARTIER'S VOYAGES OF DISCOVERY. 
 
 their families behind. About 300 men women and children were esti- 
 mated to have been seen at this place. The)' evinced their friendship by 
 singing and dancing, and by rubbing their hands upon the arms of their 
 European visitors, then lilting them up towards the heavens. An opinion 
 is expressed that these people, (who were in the position assigned to the 
 Micmacs in 1600 in Mr. Gallatin's ethnological map,) might very easily 
 be converted to Christianity. " They go," says the narrator, " from place 
 to place. They live only by fishing. They have an ordinary time to fish 
 for their provisions. The country is hotter than the country of Spain, and 
 the fairest that can possibly be found, altogether smooth and level.' 1 To 
 the productions before noticed, as existing on Brion's island &c., and which 
 were likewise found here, he adds, " white and red roses, with many other 
 flowers of very sweet and pleasant smell." "There be also," says the 
 journalist, "many goodly meadows, full of grass, and lakes, wherein 
 plenty of salmon be." The natives called a hatchet cochi, and a knife 
 bacon* It was now near the middle of July, and the degree of heat ex- 
 perienced on the excursion induced Cartier to name the inlet, Baie du 
 Chaleur a name it still retains. 
 
 On the 12th of July Cartier left his moorings at St Martin's creek, and 
 proceeded up the gulf, but encountering bad weather he was forced into a 
 bay, which appears to have been Gaspe. where one of the vessels lost her 
 anchor. They were forced to take shelter in a river of that bay, and 
 there detained thirteen days. In the mean while they opened an inter- 
 course with the natives, who were found in great numbers engaged in 
 fishing for makerel. Forty canoes, and 200 men women and children 
 were estimated to have been seen, during their detention. Presents of 
 " knives, combs, beads of glass, and other trifles of small value," were 
 made to them, for which they expressed great thankfulness, lifting up their 
 hands, and dancing and singing. 
 
 These Gaspe Indians are represented as differing, both in nature and 
 language, from those before mentioned They presented a picture of 
 abject poverty, were partially clothed in "old skins," and lived without the 
 use of tents. They may, says the journalist, "very well and truly be 
 called wild, because the're is no poorer people in the world, for I think, 
 all they had together, besides their boats and nets, was not worth five 
 sous." They shaved their heads, except a tuft at the crown ; sheltered 
 themselves at night under their canoes on the bare ground, and ate their 
 provisions very partially cooked. They were wholly without the use of 
 salt, and "ate nothing that had any taste of salt." On Cartier's first land- 
 ing among them, the men expressed their joy, as those at bay Chaleur had 
 done, by singing and dancing. But they had caused all their women, 
 
 * Koshee and Bahkon. These are not the terms for a hatchet and a knife in the Mic 
 mac, nor in the old Algonquin, nor in the Wyandot.
 
 CARTIER'S VOYAGES OF DISCOVERY. 337 
 
 except 2 or 3, to flee into the woods By giving a comb and a tin bell to 
 each of the women who had ventured to remain, the avarice of the men was 
 excited, and they quickly caused their women, to the number of about 20, 
 to sally from the woods, to each of whom the same present was made. 
 They caressed Cartier by touching and rubbing him with their hands; 
 Ihey also sung and danced. Their nets were made of a species of indi- 
 genous hemp ; they possessed also, a kind of " millet" called u kapaige," 
 beans called u Sahu," and nuts called "Cahehya." If any thing was 
 exhibited, which they did not know, or understand, they shook their 
 heads saying "Nohda." It is added that they never come to the sea, ex- 
 cept in fishing time, which, we may remark, was probably the cause of 
 \heir having no lodges, or much other property about them. They would 
 naturally wish to disencumber their canoes as much as possible, in these 
 summer excursions, that they might freight them back with dried fish. 
 The language spoken by these Gaspe Indians is manifestly of the Iroquois 
 type. "Cahehya," is, with a slight difference, the term for fruit, in the 
 Oneida. 
 
 On the 24th July, Cartier set up a cross thirty feet high, inscribed, 
 " Vive le Roy de Frame" The natives who were present at this cere- 
 mony, seem, on a little reflection, to have conceived the true intent of it, 
 and their chief complained of it, in a " long oration," giving them to under- 
 stand "that the country was his, and that we should not set up any cross, 
 without his leave." Having quieted the old chief's fears, and made use 
 of a little duplicity, to get him to come alongside, they seized two of the na- 
 tives for the purpose of taking them to France, and on the next day set sail, 
 up the gulf. A fter making some further examinations of the gulf, and being 
 foiled in an attempt to enter the mouth of a river, Cartier turned his thoughts 
 on a return. He was alarmed by the furious tides setting out of the St. 
 Lawrence ; the weather was becoming tempestuous, and under these cir- 
 cumstances he assembled his captains and principal men, ' : to put the ques- 
 tion as to the expediency of continuing the voyage." They advised him 
 to thh effeti . That, considering that easterly winds began to prevail " that 
 there was nothing to be gotten" that, the impetuosity of the tides was such 
 " That they did but fall," and that storms and tempests began to reign and 
 moreover, that they must either promptly return home, or else remain where 
 they were till spring, it was expedient to return. With this counsel he 
 complied. No time was lost in retracing their outward track, along the 
 Newfoundland coast. They reached the port of " White Sands," on the 
 9th of August. On the 15th, being "the feast of the Assumption of Our 
 Lady," after service, Cartier took his departure from the coast. He en- 
 countered a heavy storm, of three days continuance, "about the middle of 
 the sea," and reached the port of St. Malo, on the 5th of September, after an 
 absence of four months and sixteen days. 
 
 This comprises the substance of the first voyage of discovery, of which 
 
 22
 
 338 CARTI Fill's VOYAGES OF DISCOVERY. 
 
 we have knowledge, ever made within the wate:s of the St. L:\wrence. 
 The Newfoundland and Nova Scotia coasts, together with the shores of 
 the North Atlantic generally, had heen discoveied by Cabot, 37 years before. 
 The banks of Newfoundland ha.l been rescued to, as is known preity freely 
 for the purpose of fishing, for 26 years of this period, and the natives had 
 been at least, in one' instance, taken to Emope. But the existence of the 
 St. Lawrence appears not to have been known. Cartier, is, therefore, the 
 true discoverer of Canada, although he was not its founder. The latter hon- 
 our was reserved for another. In the two succeeding voyages made by Car- 
 tier, of which it is proposed to make a synopsis, his title as a discoverer, is 
 still more fully established. 
 
 SECOND VOYAGE. 
 
 A. D. 1535, May, 19th, Cartier left St. Malo, on his second voyage of 
 discovery, " to the islands of Canada, Hochelaga, and Saguenay," with 
 three ships the " Hermina" of 100 to 120 tons the "little Hermina" 
 of 60 tons, and the " Hermerillon" of 40 tons, commanded by separate 
 masters, acting under his orders as " General." He was accompanied by 
 several gentlemen and adventurers, among whom the narrator of the 
 voyage mentions, "Master Claudius de Pont Briand, son to the Lord of 
 Montceuell, and cup-bearer to the Dauphin of France ; Charles of Pome- 
 rais, and John Powlet." He suffered a severe gale on the outward 
 passage, in which the ships parted company. Caitier reached the coast 
 of Newfoundland on the 7th July, and was not rejoined by the other ves- 
 sels till the 26th, on which day the missing vessels entered "the port of 
 White Sands" in the bay des Chasteaux, the place previously designated 
 for their general rendezvous. 
 
 On the 27th he continued his voyage along the coast, keeping in 
 sight of land, and consequently running great risks, from the numerous 
 shoals he encountered in seeking out anchorages. Many of the islands 
 and headlands named in the previous voyage, were observed, and names 
 were bestowed upon others, which had before escaped notice. Soundings 
 and courses and distances, are detailed with the tedious prolixity, and pro- 
 bably, with the uncertainty of the era. Nothing of importance occurred 
 until the 8th of August, when Cartier entered the gulf, where he had pre- 
 viously encountered such storms, and which he now named ST. LAW- 
 RENCF. From thence on the 12th, he pursued his voyage westward 
 "about 25 leagues" to a cape named "Assumption," which appears to 
 have been part of the Nova Scotia coast. It is quite evident that the idea 
 of a continuous continent was not entertained by Cartier at this period, 
 although the Cabots had discovered and run ^own the coast nearly 40 
 years before ( 1 49".) He constantly speaks of his discoveries as "islands"
 
 CARTIER'S VOYAGES OP DISCOVERY. 339 
 
 and the great object of anxiety seems to have been, to find the long 
 sought " passage' 1 so often mentioned in his journals. 
 
 The two natives whom he had seized on the previous voyage, now told 
 him, that cape Assumption was a part of the "southern coast," or main, 
 that there was an island north of the passage to " Honguedo" where 
 they had been taken the year before, and that "two days journey from 
 the said cape, and island, began the kingdom of Saguenay." 
 
 In consequence of this information, and a wish to revisit "the land he 
 had before espied," Cartier turned his course towards the north, and re- 
 entering the Gulf of St. Lawrence, came to the entrance of the river, 
 which is stated to be "about thirty leagues" across. Here, the two na- 
 tives told him, was the commencement of " Saguenay," that it was an 
 inhabited country, and produced " red copper." They further informed 
 him, that this was the mouth of the " great river of Hochelaga, and ready 
 way to Canada," that it narrowed in the ascent towards Canada, the 
 waters becoming fresh; that its sources were so remote that they had 
 never heard of any man who had visited them, and that boats would be 
 required to complete the ascent. 
 
 This information appears to have operated as a disappointment on Car- 
 tier, arid he determined to explore northward from the gulf, " because he 
 would know" to use the quaint language of the narrator, " if between the 
 lands towards the north any passage might be discovered." No such 
 passage could however be found, and after devoting ten or twelve days to 
 re-examinations of points and islands before but imperfectly discovered, or 
 to the discovery of others, he returned to the river St. Lawrence, which 
 he began to ascend : and on the 1st Sept. he came to the entrance of the 
 Saguenay river, which is described as a bold and deep stream, entering 
 the St. Lawrence, between bare, precipitous rocks, crowned with trees. 
 Here they encountered four canoes of Indians, who evinced their charac- 
 teristic caution and shyness. On being hailed, however, by the two cap- 
 tive natives, who disclosed to them, their names, they came along side. 
 But the journal records no further particulars of this interview. They 
 proceeded up the river next day. The tides are noticed as being " very 
 swift and dangerous," and the " current" is described as equalling that at 
 Bordeaux. Many tortoises were seen at the "Isle of Condres," and a 
 species of fish, which are described of equalling a porpoise in size, with a 
 head resembling a greyhound's, and of unspotted whiteness. It may be 
 vague to offer a conjecture from such a description as to the species of 
 fish intended, but as the natives reported them to be " very savoury and 
 good to be eaten," it may be inferred, that the sturgeon was meant. 
 Many of the descriptions of the animal productions of America, given by 
 Cartier, appear to be drawn up, rather with a view to excite wonder, iu 
 an age when wonders were both industriously sought, and readily credited, 
 than to convey any accurate idea of their true characters and properties.
 
 340 CA.RTIERS VOYAGES OF DISCOVERY. 
 
 On the 7th of Sept. they reached the island now called Orleans, where, 
 it is said "the countiy of Canada beginneth." This island is stated to be 
 ten leagues long, and five broad, being inhabited by natives who lived ex- 
 clusively by fishing. Having anchored his vessels in the channel, he 
 made a formal landing in his boats, taking the two captives, Domaigaia, 
 and Taignoagny, as interpreters. The natives at first fled, but healing 
 themselves addressed in their own tongue, and finding the caplivt-s to be 
 their own countiyinen, friendly intercourse at once ensued. The natives 
 evinced their joy by dancing, and "showing many sorts of ceremonies." 
 They presented Cartier, '-eels and other sorts of fishes, with two or three 
 burdens of great millet, wherewith they make their bread, and many 
 great mush mellons." This " great millet" appears to have been zea 
 mais, which is here for the first time noticed, amongst the noithern In- 
 dians. The report of the arrival of their lost countrymen D and T. 
 seemed to have put all the surrounding villages in commotion, and Car- 
 tier found himself thronged with visitors, to whom he gave presents, 
 trifling in themselves, but of much value in the eyes of the Indians. The 
 utmost harmony and good feeling appear to have prevailed. 
 
 On the following day Donnacona, who is couiteously styled the Lord of 
 Agouhanna, visited the ships, with 12 boats, or canoes ten of which how- 
 ever, he directed to stay at a distance, and with the other two and 16 men 
 approached the vessels. A friendly conference ensued. The chief, when 
 he drew near the headmost vessel began "to frame a long oration, 
 moving all his body and members after a strange fashion." When he 
 reached Cartier's ship, the captives entered into fiee discourse with him, 
 imparting the observations they had made in France, and the kind treat- 
 ment they had experienced. At this recital Donnacona was so much 
 pleased, that he desired Cartier to reach him his arm. that he might 
 kiss it. He not only kissed it, but " laid it about his neck, for so they use 
 to do, when they will make much qf one." Cartier then entered into the 
 chief's boat, "causing bread and wine to be brought," and after eating 
 and drinking with him and his followers, the interview terminated in 
 mutual satisfaction. 
 
 The advanced state of the season, and the determination to visit Hoche- 
 laga (now Montreal) before the ice formed, admonished Caitier to look 
 for a harbour, which would afford a safe anchorage for his largest ves- 
 sels during the winter. He selected " a little river and haven," opposite 
 the head of the island, to which he gave the name of " Santa Croix," 
 
 * O 
 
 being in the vicinity of Donnac-ona's village. No time was lost in bring- 
 ing up and mooring the vessels, and driving piles into the harbour for 
 their better security. While engaged in this work, further acquaintance 
 was made with the natives, and their opinion of Cartier's visit, began to 
 manilest itself, by which it appeared, that the friendship established with 
 him was rather apparent, than real About this time Taignoagny and
 
 CARTIER'S VOYAGES OF DISCOVERY. 341 
 
 Domaigaia were suffered to return to their villages, and it soon became 
 apparent, that the knowledge they had acquired of the French, would be 
 wielded to put their countrymen on their guard against encroachments 
 upon their soil. Taignoagny, in particular, rendered himself obnoxious 
 to the French, by his sullen and altered conduct, and the activity he after- 
 wards manifested in thwarting Cartier's design of visiting the island of 
 Hochelaga, although it. appears, he had, previous to leaving tho vessels, 
 promised to serve as a guide on the expedition. 
 
 Donnacona himself opposed the projected visit, by argument, by artifice, 
 and finally, by the extraordinary resource of human gifts. His aversion 
 to it first evinced itself by keeping aloof, and adopting a shy and suspicious 
 demeanour. Cartier finding this chief, with T. and D. and a numerous 
 retinue in his vicinity, " under a point or nook of land," ordered a part of 
 his men to follow him, and suddenly presented himself in the midst of 
 them. After mutual salutations, Taignoagny got up and addressed him, 
 in behalf of Donnacona, complaining that they came armed, to which 
 Cartier replied that, it was the custom of his country, and a custom he 
 could not dispense with. The bustle and heat of the introduction being 
 over, Cart:er played the part of a politic diplomatist, and was met by Don- 
 nacona and his counsellors on his own grounds, and the whole interview, 
 though it resulted in what is called " a marvellous steadfast league of 
 friendship" can only be looked upon, as a strife, in which it is the object 
 of both parties to observe the most profound dissimulation. This 
 "league" was ratified by the natives, with three loud cries, "a most hor- 
 rible thing to hear" says the narrator. 
 
 On the very next day Donnacona, attended with T. and D. and 10 or 
 12 " of the chiefest of the country, with more than 500 persons, men, wo- 
 men and children." came on board of the vessels, at their moorings, to 
 protest against the intended voyage of exploration. Taignoagny opened 
 the conference, by saying to Cartier, that Donnacona regretted his design 
 of visiting Hochelaga, and had forbid any of his people from accompany- 
 ing him, because the river itself " was of no importance." Cartier replied 
 that his decision was made, and urged the speaker to go with him, as he 
 had promised, offering to make the voyage every way advantageous to 
 him. A prompt refusal, on the part of T. and the sudden withdrawal of 
 the whole collected multitude, terminated this interview. 
 
 On the next day Donnacona re-appeared with all his followers, bring- 
 ing presents of fish, singing and dancing. He then caused all his people 
 co pass to one side, and drawing a circle in the sand, requested Cartier 
 and his followers, to enter into it. This arrangement concluded, he be- 
 gan an address, " holding in one of his hands a maiden child ten or 
 twelve years old," whom he presented to Cartier, the multitude at 
 the same time giving three shouts. He then brought forward two mal& 
 children, separately, presenting them in the same manner, and his people
 
 342 CARTIER'S VOYAGES OF DISCOVERY. 
 
 at each presentation, expressing their assent by shouts. Taignoagny, who 
 by this time had drawn upon himself the epithet of " crafty knave" told 
 the "captain" (as Cartier is all along termed,) that one of the children 
 was his own brother, and that the girl was a daughter of Donnacona's 
 <o\vn sister," and that this presentation, was made to him, solely with a 
 view of dissuading him from his expedition. Cartier persisted in saying, 
 that his mind was made up, and could not be altered. Here, Domai- 
 gaia interposed, and said, that the children were offered as " a sign and 
 token of good will and security," and not with any specific purpose of 
 dissuading him from the expedition. High words passed between the two 
 liberated captives, from which it was evident that one, or the other, had 
 either misconceived or misrepresented the object of the gift. Cartier how- 
 ever, took the children, and gave Donnacona "two swords and two cop- 
 per basins," for which he returned thanks, and " commanded all his peo- 
 ple to sing and dance," and requested the captain to cause a piece of 
 artillery to be discharged for his gratification Cartier readily improved 
 this hint, to show them the destructive effects of European artillery, 
 and at a signal, ordered twelve pieces, charged with ball, to be fired into the 
 contiguous forest, by which they were so astounded that they " put them' 
 selves to flight, howling, crying, and shrieking, so that it seemed hell 
 was broke loose." 
 
 These attempts to frustrate the purposed voyage, having failed, the na- 
 tives endeavoured to put the captain's credulity to the test, and operate 
 upon his fears. For this purpose three natives were disguised to play the 
 part of "devils," wrapped in skins, besmeared, and provided with horns. 
 Thus equipped they took advantage of the tide, to drop down along side 
 Cartier's vessels, uttering words of unintelligible import as they passed, 
 but keeping their faces steadfastly directed toward the wood. At the 
 same time Donnacona, and his people rushed out of the wood to the 
 shore, attracting the attention of the ships' crews in various ways, and 
 finally seized the mock "devils" at the moment of their landing, and 
 carried them into the woods, where their revelations were uttered. 
 
 The result of this clumsy trick, was announced by Taignoagny and 
 Domaigaia, who said, that their god " Cudruaigny had spoken in Hoche- 
 laga" importing ill tidings to the French, and that he had sent these 
 three men to inform them that, there was so much ice and snow in the 
 country, that whoever entered it, must die. After some interrogatives 
 pro and con, in the course of which the power of " his Priests" was oddly 
 contrasted by the French commander with that of the "devils," both 
 Taignoagny and Domaigaia coincided in finally declaring that Donna- 
 cona, " would by no means permit that any of them should go with him 
 to Hochelaga," unless he would leave hostages in his hands. 
 
 All these artifices appear to have had but little effect on Cartier's plan. 
 He told his freed interpreters, that if they would not go willingly, they
 
 CAUTIER'S VOYAGES op DISCOVERY. 
 
 might slay, and he would prosecute the voyage without thf>m. Accord- 
 ingly, having finished mooring his vessels, on the 19th September he set 
 out to explore the upper portions of the river, taking hij smallest vessel 
 and two boats with fifty mariners, and the supernumerary gentlemen of his 
 party. A voyage of ten days brought him to an expansion of the river, 
 which he named the lake of Arigolesme, but which is now known under 
 the name of St. Peter. Here the shallowness of the water, and rapidity 
 of the current above, induced him to leave the " Hermerillon," and he 
 proceeded with the two boats arid twenty-eight armed men. The fertility 
 of the shore, the beauty and luxuriance of the forest trees, mantled as 
 they often were, with tlve vine loaded with clusters of grapes, the variety 
 of water fowl, and above all the friendly treatment they every where re- 
 ceived from the Indians, excited unmingled admiration. One of the 
 chiefs whom they encountered presented Cartier with two children, his 
 son and daughter, the latter of whom, being 7 or 8 years old, he accepted. 
 On another occasion he was carried ashore by one of a party of hunters, 
 as "lightly and easily as if he had been a child of five years old." 
 Presents of fish were made, at every point, where he came in contact 
 with the natives, who seemed to vie with each other in acts of hospitality. 
 
 These marks of welcome and respect continued to be manifested during 
 the remainder of the journey to Hochelaga, where he arrived on the 2d 
 of October. A multitude of both sexes and all ages had collected on the 
 shore to witness his approach, and welcome his arrival. They expressed 
 their joy by dancing, " clustering about us, making much of us, bringing 
 their young children in their arms only to have our captain and his com- 
 pany touch them." Cartier landed, and spent half an hour in receiving 
 their caresses, and distributed tin beads to the women, and knives to some 
 of the men, and then " retured to the boats to supper." The natives 
 built large fires on the beach, and continued dancing, and merry making 
 all night, frequently exclaiming Aguiaze, which is said to signify "mirth 
 and safety." 
 
 Early the next morning Cartier having " very gorgeously attired him- 
 self," and taking 20 mariners, with his officers and supernumeraries, 
 landed for the purpose of visiting the town, taking some of the natives for 
 guides. After following a well beaten path, leading through an oak 
 forest, for four or five miles, he was met by a chief, accompanied by a re- 
 tinue, sent out to meet him, who by signs gave him to understand, that 
 he was desired to rest at that spot, where a fire had been kindled, a piece 
 of civility, which it may be supposed, was something more than an empty 
 compliment on an October morning. The chief here made " a long- dis- 
 course," which, of course, was not understood, but they inferred it was 
 expressive of " mirth and friendship." In return Cartier gave him 2 
 hatchets, 2 knives and a cross, which he made him kiss, and then put it 
 around his neck.
 
 344 CARTIER'S VOYAGES OP DISCOVERY. 
 
 This done the procession advanced, without further interruption, to the 
 "city of Hoch >laga, !> which is described as seated in the midst of culti- 
 vated fields, at toe distance of a league from the mountain. It was secured 
 by three ramparts "one within another," about 2 rods in height, "cun- 
 ningly joined together after their fashion," with a single gate "shut with 
 piles and stakes and bars." This entrance, and other parts of the walls, 
 had platforms above, provided with stones for defensive operations. The 
 ascent to these platforms was by ladders. 
 
 As the French approached, great numbers came out to meet them. 
 They were conducted by the guides, to a large square enclosure in the 
 centre of the town, " being from side to side a good stone's cast." They 
 were first greeted by the female part of the population, who brought their 
 children in their arms, and rushed eagerly to touch or rub the faces and 
 arms of the strangers, or whatever parts of their bodies they could ap- 
 proach. The men now caused the females to retire, and seated them- 
 selves formally in circles upon the ground ; as if, says the narrator, 
 "some comedy or show" was about to be rehearsed. Mats were then 
 brought in by the women, and spread upon the ground, for the visitors to 
 sit upon. Last came the " Lord and King' 1 Agouhanna, a palsied old 
 man, borne upon the shoulders of 9 or 10 attendants, sitting on a " great 
 stng skin." They placed him near the mats occupied by Cartier and his 
 party. This simple potentate " was no whit better apparelled than any of 
 the rest, only excepted, that he had a certain thing made of the skins 
 of hedgehogs, like a red wreath, and that was instead of his crown." 
 
 After a salutation, in which gesticulation awkwardly supplied the place 
 of language, the old chief exhibited his palsied limbs, for the purpose of 
 being touched, by the supposed celestial visitants. Cartier, although he 
 appeared to be a man of sense and decision, on other occasions, was not 
 proof against the homage to his imputed divinity; but quite seriously fell 
 to rubbing the credulous chiefs legs and arms. For this act, the chief 
 presented him his fretful "crown." The blind, lame, and impotent, of 
 the town were now brought in. and laid before him, " some so old that the 
 hair of their eyelids came down and covered their cheeks," all of whom 
 he touched, manifesting his own seriousness by reading the" Gospel of 
 St. John, and " praying to God that it would please him to open the 
 hearts of this poor people, and to make them know his holy word, and 
 that they might receive baptism and Christendom." He then read a por- 
 tion of the catholic service, with a loud voice, during which the natives 
 were " marvellously attentive, looking up to heaven and imitating us in 
 gestures." Some presents of cutlery and trinkets were then distributed, 
 trumpets sounded, and the party prepared to return to their boats. When 
 about to leave their place, the women interposed, inviting them to partake 
 of tho victuals they had prepared a compliment which was declined, 
 "because the meats had no savour at all of salt." They were followed
 
 CAR-TIER'S VOYAGES OF DISCOVERY. 345 
 
 out of the town by "divers men and women," who conducted the whole 
 party to the top of the mountain, commanding a wide prospect of the plain, 
 the river and its islands, and the distant mountains. Transported with a 
 scene, which has continued to afford delight lo the visitors of all alter times, 
 Cartier bestowed the name of " Mount Royal :! upon this eminence a 
 name which has descended, with some modifications, to the modern city. 
 Having satisfied their curiosity, and obtained such information respecting 
 the adjoining regions, as their imperfect knowledge of the Indian lan- 
 guage would permit, they returned to their boats, accompanied by a pro- 
 miscuous throng of the natives. 
 
 Thus ended, on the 3rd Oct. 1535, the first formal meeting between the 
 French and the Indians of the interior of Canada, or what now began to 
 be denominated New France. As respects those incidents in it, in which 
 the Indians are represented as looking upon Cartier in the light of a 
 divinity, clothed " r ith power to heal the sick and restore sight to the blind, 
 every one will yield the degree of faith, which his credulity permits. 
 The whole proceeding bears so striking a resemblance to " Christ heal- 
 ing the sick, 1 ' that it is probable the narrator drew more largely upon his 
 New Testament, than any certain knowledge of the faith and belief of a 
 savage people whose traditions do not reach far, and whose language, 
 granting the most, he but imperfectly understood. As respects the de- 
 scription of a city with triple walls, those who know the manner in which 
 our Indian villages are built, will be best enabled to judge how far the 
 narrator supplied by fancy, what was wanting in fact. A " walled 
 city" was somewhere expected to be found, and the writer found no better 
 place to locate it. Cartier no sooner reached his boats, than he hoisted 
 sail and began his descent, much to the disappointment of the Indians. 
 Favoured by the wind and tide, he rejoined his " Pinnace" on the follow- 
 ing day. Finding all well, he continued the descent, without meeting 
 much entitled to notice, and reached the " port of the Holy Cross," on 
 the 1 Uh of the month. During his absence the ships' crews had erected 
 a breastwork before the vessels, and mounted several pieces of ships' can- 
 non for their defence. Donnacona renewed his acquaintance on the fol- 
 lowing day, attended by Taignoagny, Domaiga, and others, who were 
 treated with an appearance of fiiendship, which it could hardly be ex- 
 pected Cartier could sincerely feel. He, in return visited their village 
 of Stadacona, and friendly relations being thus restored, the French pre- 
 pared for the approach of winter. 
 
 Winter came in all its severity. From the middle of Nov. to the 
 middle of March, the vessels were environed with ice " t\vo fathoms 
 thick," and snow upwards of four feet deep, re-.ching above the sides of 
 the vessels. And the weather is represented as being "extremely raw 
 and bitter." In the midst of this severity, the crews were infected with 
 <* a range and cruel disease," the natural consequence of a too licentious
 
 346 CARTIER'S ITOYAGES OF DISCOVERY. 
 
 intercourse with the natives The virulence of this disorder exceeded 
 any thing that they had before witnessed, though it is manifest, from the 
 journal, that it was in its virulence only, that the disease itself presented 
 any ue\v features. A complete prostration of strength marked its com- 
 mencement, the legs swelled, the "sinews shrunk as black as any coal." 
 The infection became general, and excited the greatest alarm. iNot more 
 than 10 petsons out of 1 10 were in a condition to afford assistance to the 
 sick by the middle of February. Eight had already died, and 5U were 
 supposed to be past recovery. 
 
 Cutier, to prevent his weakness being known, as well as to stop further 
 infection, interdicted all inteicouise with the natives. He caused that 
 " every one :-hould devoutly prepare himself by prayer, and in remem- 
 brance of Christ, caused his image to be set upon a tree, about a flight 
 shot from the foil, amid the ice and snow, giving alt men to understand 
 that on the Sunday following, service should be said there, and that whoso- 
 ever could go, sick or whole, should go thither in procession, singing 
 the seven psalms of David, and other Litanies, praying, &c/' 
 
 The disorder, however, continued to spread till there were not "above 
 three sound men in the ships, and none was able to go under hatches 
 to draw diink for himself, nor for his fellows." Sometimes they were 
 constrained to bury the dead under the snow, owing to their weakness 
 and the severity of the frost, which rendered it an almost incredible labour 
 to penetrate the ground. Every artifice was resorted to by Caitier, to 
 keep the true state of his crews from the Indians, and he sought unremit- 
 tingly for a remedy against the disorder. 
 
 In this his efforts were at last crowned with success, but not till he had 
 lost 25 of his men. By using a decoction of the bark and leaves of a cer- 
 tain tree, which is stated to be -'the Sassafras tree,"* the remainder of his 
 crews were completely recovered. The de'coction was drank freely, and 
 the dregs applied externally, agreeably to the directions of Domaigaia, to 
 whom he was indebted for the information, and who caused women 
 to bring branches of it, and " therewithal shewed the way how to use it." 
 
 The other incidents of the winter were not of a character to require no- 
 tice. Mutual distrust existed. Cartier was in constant apprehension 
 of some stratagem, which the character and movements of his sivage 
 neighbours gave some grounds for. He was detained at the bay of the 
 Holy Cross till the 6th May, 1536. The narrator takes the opportunity 
 of this long season of inaction to give descriptions of the manners and cus- 
 toms, ceremonies and occupations of the Indians, ami to detail the informa- 
 tion derived from them, and from personal observations respecting the geo- 
 graphical features and the productions of the country. 
 
 * As the tree \a afterwards stated to be " a> bijr as any oak in France," it was proba 
 bly the box elder, and not the sassafras, which never attained to much size.
 
 CARTIER'S VOYAGES OF DISCOVERY. 347 
 
 Touching the faith of the Indians, it is said, they believed no .vbit in 
 God, but in one whom tljpy call Cudruiagni," to whom, they say, thev 
 are often indebted for a foreknowledge of the weather. And when he is 
 angry, his displeasure is manifested by casting dust in their ey^s. They 
 believe that, after death, they go into the stars, descending by d purees to- 
 wards the horizon, arid are finally received into certain green fields, 
 abounding in fruits and flowers. 
 
 They are represented as possessing all property in common, and as 
 being " indifferently well stored" with the useful "commodities" of the 
 country clothing themselves imperfectly in skins, wearing hose and shoes 
 of skins in winter, and going barefooted in summer. The men labour 
 little, and are much addicted to smoking. The condition of the women i* 
 one of drudgery and servitude. On them the labour of tilling the grounds, 
 &,c., principally devolves. The young women live a dissolute life, until 
 marriage, and married women, after the death of their husbands, are con- 
 demned to a state of perpetual widowhood. Polygamy is tolerated. Both 
 sexes are represented as very hardy, and capable of enduring the most in- 
 tense degree of cold. In this there is little to distinguish the native 
 of 1536 from that of the present day, if we substitute the blanket for the 
 muttatos* and except the remark respecting the condition of widows, the 
 accuracy of which, as it was made upon slight acquaintance, may be rea- 
 sonably doubted. It may also be remarked, that the condition of young 
 women, as described by Cartier, was more degraded and vitiated than it is 
 now known to be among any of the North American tribes. 
 
 The geographical information recorded respecting the St. Lawrence 
 and its tributaries is generally vague and c-onfu^ed. But may be referred 
 to as containing the first notice published by the French of the Great 
 Lakes. Cartier was told by Donnacona and others that the river origi- 
 nated so far in the interior, that "there was never man heard of that found 
 out the end thereof," that it passed through ' two or three great lakes," and 
 that there is " a sea of fresh water," alluding, probably, to Superior. 
 
 At what time the ice broke up. is not distinctly told. It is stated that 
 "that year the winter was very long." and a scarcity of food was felt 
 among the Indians, so much so, that they put a high price upon their ven 
 ison, &c . and sometimes took it back to their camps, rather than part with 
 it "any thing cheap." Donnacona and many of his people withdrew 
 themselves to their hunting grounds, under a pretence of being absent 
 a fortnight, but were absent two months. Cartier attributed this long 
 absence to a design of raising the country, and attacking him in his fortified 
 positions a design which no cordiality of friendship on the part of D. 
 would prevent his entertaining, and which the latter gave some colour to 
 
 Roue of beaver skins. Eight skins of two year old beaver are reqa red to mak 
 such a robe.
 
 348 CARTIER'S VOYAGES OF Disc<VERYt 
 
 bv neo-leotino- to visit Cartier on his return with jrieat numbers of native* 
 
 j 
 
 not before seen, and by ev iding the attempts in ide to renew an inte. course, 
 by feigniny sickness as the. cause of his neglect. Caitier felt his own 
 weakness, from the de;ith of so m my of his crew anil the sickness of others, 
 anJ has recorded for \r-s government on this occasion the proverb, that 
 " he th.it tikes hetxl and shields himself from all men, may hope to escape 
 from some." He determined to abandon one of his vessels, that he might 
 completely mm and re-fit the others, ami appeirs to have been diligent in 
 makin^ ea Iv p epiratio:is to returii. While thus engaged, Donnacona. 
 (April 'J2.) appeared with a threat number of m< n at Stadacona, arid John 
 Po\vlet, " who being best believe. I of those people," he sent to reconnoitre 
 them in their piincip.il villages, reported that he siw so many people, that 
 "one coiiU not stir for another, and such men as they were never wont to 
 see '' Taignoagny, whom he siw on this occasion, requested him to be- 
 seech C.irtier to tike off kl a lord of the country," called Agonna, who 
 prolnbly stool in the way of his own advancement. Cartier availed him- 
 self of this request to bring on an interview with T.iignoagny, and by flat- 
 tering his hopes, finally succeeded in the execution of a project he appears 
 to have previously enfitained. This was nothing less than the seizure 
 of Donnacona. Taignoigny, Dom iig ti.i. (his previous captives,) and "two 
 more of the chiefest men," whom, with the children before received, mak- 
 ing ten persons in all, he conveyed to France. 
 
 This seizure was made on the 3d of May, being " Holy rood day." at a 
 time when Ca.tier had completed bis preparations for sailing. He took 
 formal possession of the country, under the name of New France, by 
 erecting a cross ''thirty-five feet in height," bearing a fihield with the arms 
 of France, and the following insciiption : 
 
 " Francisciis primiim del gratia Frincorum Rex regnat," 
 
 a sentence upon which this unjustifiable outrage formed a practical com- 
 ment. Throe days afterwards he siiled from the port of the Holy Cross, 
 leaving crowds of the natives to bewail the loss of their chiefs. And 
 whose kin Iness led them to send on board a supply of provisions, when 
 they run I they could not effect their liberation. Finding the current of 
 the St. Liwrencf much swoln, he came to anchor at the isle of Filberds, 
 near I he entrance of the Sagnenay. where he was detained nine days. In 
 the mprtntime many of the natives of Sagnenay visited the sjiips, and find 
 inr Dnnna.-oim a prisoner, they p evented him three packs of beaver. Or 
 the I7th .M '\\ he nude an unsuccessful attempt to proceed, but WHS forced 
 back an 'I de'aine I four days longer, waiiinsr "till the fierceness of the wa 
 ters" n-p-v just. He entered and p-sse'l out of the gulph on the 2lst. bui 
 enoo-nte ino- r.dversp win Is.diJ not take his final departure from the New- 
 foundlan j coast til! the I'Jth June. He then took advantage of a favorable
 
 CARTfERS VtfVAGES OF DISCOVERY. 349 
 
 wind, and performed the homeward voyage in 17 days. He entered the 
 port of St. Malo, July 6, 1536, naviug been absent less than 14 months, 8 
 of which had been passed in the St Lawrence. 
 
 THIRD VOYAGE. 
 
 THE reports and discoveries of Cartier were so well received by the 
 King of France (Francis I ), that he determined to colonize the newly 
 discovered country, and named John Francis de la Roche, Lord of Rob- 
 erval, his "Lieutenant and Governor in the countries of Canada and 
 Hochelaga." Cartier retained his former situation as " Captain General 
 and leader of the ships," and to him was entrusted the further prosecution 
 of discoveries. Five vessels were ordered to be prepared at St. Malo, and 
 measures appear to have been taken to carry out settlers, cattle, seeds, 
 and agricultural implements. Much delay, however, seems to have 
 attended the preparations, and before they were completed, Donnacona 
 and his companions, who had been baptized, paid the debt of nature. A 
 little girl, ten years old, was the only person surviving out of the whole 
 number of captives. 
 
 It is seldom that a perfect harmony has prevaifed between the leaders 
 of naval and land forces, in the execution of great enterprises. And 
 though but little is said to guide the reader in forming a satisfactory opi- 
 nion on the subject, the result in this instance proved that there was a 
 settled dissatisfaction in the mind of Cartier respecting the general ar- 
 rangements for the contemplated voyage. Whether he thought himself 
 neglected in not being invested with the government of the country he 
 had discovered, or felt unwilling that another should share in the honors 
 of future discoveries, cannot now be determined. It should be recollected, 
 that the conquest of Mexico had then but recently been accomplished 
 (1520), and it is not improbable that Cartier, who had taken some pains 
 to exalt Donnacona into another Montezuma, thought himself entitled 
 to receive from Francis, rewards and emoluments in some measure cor- 
 responding to those which his great rival, Charles, had finally bestowed 
 upon Cortez. 
 
 Whatever were the causes, four years elapsed before the ships were 
 prepared, and M. La Roche, on visiting the vessels in the road of St. 
 Malo, ready for sea, then informed Cartier that his artillery, munitions, 
 and " other necessary things" which he had prepared, were not yet arriv- 
 ed from Champaigne and Normandy. Cartier, in the meantime, had 
 received positive orders from the King to set sail. In this exigency, it 
 was determined that Cartier should proceed, while the King's Lieuten- 
 ant should remain " to prepare a ship or two at Honfleur, whither he 
 thought his things were come." 
 
 This arrangement concluded, La Roche invested Cartier with full
 
 3f,o CARTIER'S "VOYAGES OF DISCOVERY. 
 
 powers to act until his arrival, and the latter set sail with five ships, 
 " well furnished and victualled for two years," on the 23d of May, 1540. 
 Storms and contrary winds attended the passage. The ships parted com- 
 pany, and were kept so long at sea, that they \\ ere compelled to water 
 the cattle, &c., they took out for breed, with cider. At length, the ves- 
 sels re-assembled in the harbor of Carpunt in Newfoundland, and after 
 taking in wood and water, proceeded on the voyage, Cartier uot deem- 
 ino- it advisable to wait longer for the coining of La Roche. He reached 
 the little haven of Saincte Croix (where he wintered in the former voy- 
 age), on the 23d of August. His arrival was welcomed by the natives, 
 who crowded around his vessels, with Agona at their head, making 
 inquiries after Donnacona and his companions in captivity. Cartier 
 replied, that Donnacona was dead, and his bones rested in the ground 
 that the other persons had become great lords, and were married, and 
 settled in France. No displeasure was evinced by the intelligence of 
 Donnacona's death. Agona, on the contrary, seemed to be well pleased 
 with it, probably, as the journalist thinks, because it left him to rule in his 
 stead. He took off his head-dress and bracelets, both being of yellow 
 leather edged with wampum, and presented them to Cartier. The lat- 
 ter made a suitable return to him and his attendants in small presents, 
 intimating that he had brought many new things, which were intended 
 for them. He returned the chieftain's simple " crown." They then 
 ate, drank, and departed. 
 
 Having thus formally renewed intercourse with the natives, Cartier 
 sent his boats to explore a more suitable harbor and place of landing. 
 They reported in favor of a small river, about four leagues above, where 
 the vessels were accordingly moored, and their cargoes discharged. Of 
 the spot thus selected for a fort and harbor, as it was destined afterwards 
 to become celebrated in the history of Canada, it may be proper to give 
 a more detailed notice of Cartier's original description. The river is 
 stated to be fifty paces broad, having three fathoms water at full tide, 
 and but a foot at the ebb, having its eiitrance towards the south, and its 
 course very serpentine. The beauty and fertility of the lands bordering 
 it, the vigorous growth of trees, and the rapidity of vegetation, are highly 
 and (1 believe) very justly extolled. Near it, there is said to be " a high 
 and steep cliff," which it was necessary to ascend by " a way in manner 
 of a pair of stairs," and below it, and between it and the river, an inter- 
 val sufficiently extensive to accommodate a fo; : . A work of defence 
 was also built upon the cliff, for the purpose of keeping the " nether 
 fort and the ships, and all things that might pass, as well by the great, as 
 by this small river." Upon the cliff a spring of pure water was discov- 
 ered near the fort, ;< adjoining whereunto," says the narrator, " we found 
 good store of stones, which we esteemed to the diamonds" (limpid 
 <?artzV At the foot of the cliff, facing the St. Lawrence, they found
 
 CARTIER'S VOYAGES OF DISCOVERY. 35 
 
 iron, and at the water's edge " certain leaves of fine gold (mica) as thick 
 as a man's nail." 
 
 The ground was so favorable for tillage, that twenty men labored at 
 an acre and a half in one day. Cabbage, turnip, and lettuce seed, sprung 
 up the 1 eighth day. A luxurious meadow was found along the river, and 
 the woods were clustered with a species of the native grape. Such were 
 the natural appearance and advantages of a spot which was destined to 
 be the future site of the city and fortress of Quebec,* "but to which 
 he gave the name of Charlesbourg Royal.' " 
 
 Cartier lost no time in despatching two of his vessels to France, under 
 command of Mace Jollobert and Stephen Noel, his brother-in-law and 
 nephew, with letters to the king, containing an account of his voyage 
 and proceedings, accompanied with specimens of the mineral treasures he 
 supposed himself to have discovered ; and taking care to add " how 
 Mons. Roberval had not yet come, and that he feared that by occasion 
 of contrary winds and tempests, he was driven back again into France." 
 These vessels left the newly discovered town and fort of " Charlesbourg 
 Royal" on the 2d of September. And they were no sooner despatched, 
 than Cartier determined to explore the " Saults" or rapids of the St. 
 Lawrence, which had been described to him, and partly pointed out, dur- 
 ing his ascent to the mountain of Montreal. Leaving the fort under the 
 command of the Viscount Beaupre, he embarked in two boats on the 7th 
 of September, accompanied by Marline de Painpont and other " gentle- 
 men," with a suitable complement of mariners. The only incident re- 
 corded of the passage up, is his visit to " the Lord of Hochelay " a chief 
 who had presented him a little girl, on his former visit, and evinced a 
 friendship during his stay in the river, which he was now anxious to 
 show that he preserved the recollection of. He presented the chief a 
 cloak " of Paris red," garnished with buttons and bells, with two basins 
 of" Laton" (pewter), and some knives and hatchets. He also left with 
 this chief two boys to acquire the Indian language. 
 
 Continuing the ascent, he reached the lower " Sault" on the llth of 
 the month, and, on trial, found it impossible to ascend it with the force 
 of oars. He determined to proceed by land, and found a well-beaten 
 path leading in the desired course. This path soon conducted him to an 
 Indian village, where he was well received, and furnished with guides 
 to visit the second " Sault." Here he was informed that there was 
 another Sault at some distance, and that the river was not navigable a 
 piece of information that meant either that it was not navigable by the 
 craft Cartier had entered the river with, or was intended to repress his 
 further advance into the country. The day being far spent, he returned 
 to his Loats, where four hundred natives awaited his arrival. He ap- 
 
 * Queiy Is not the word Quebec a derivative from the Algonquin phrase /uiir 
 a term uitered in passing by a dange r ou3 and rocky co.ut .'
 
 352 CARTIER'S VOYAGES OF D.SCOVERY. 
 
 peased their curiosity, by interchanging Civilities, and distributing small 
 presents, and made all speed to return to Charlesbourg Royal, where he 
 learned that the natives, alarmed by the formidable defences going on, 
 had intermitted their customary visits, and evinced signs of hostility. 
 This inference was confirmed by his own observations on the downward 
 passage, and he determined to use the utmost diligence and precaution 
 to sustain himself in his new position. 
 
 The rest of this voyage is wanting. Hackluyt has, however, pre- 
 served tvro letters of Jacques Noel, a relative of Cartier, written at St. 
 Malo in 1587, with the observations of latitude, courses, and distances, 
 made by " John Alphonso of Xanctoigne," who carried out La Roche, 
 Lord of Roberval, to Canada, in In42,and a fragment of Roberval's nar- 
 rative, which indicated the sequel of Oartier's third and last voyage. 
 From the latter, it appears that Roberval entered the harbor of Belle 
 Isle in Newfoundland, on the 8th of June, 1542, on his way to Canada; 
 and while there, Cartier unexpectedly entered the same harbor, on his 
 return to France. He reported that he was unable " with his small 
 company" to maintain a footing in the country, owing to the incessant 
 hostility of the natives, and had resolved to return to France. He pre- 
 sented the limpid quartz, and gold yellow mica, which he had carefully 
 cherished, under a belief that he bad discovered in these resplendent 
 minerals, the repositories of gold and diamonds. An experiment was 
 made the next day, upon what is denominated " gold ore," by which 
 term the journalist does not probably refer to the " mica," considered, 
 in an age in which mineralogy had not assumed the rank of a science, as 
 " leaves of gold," but to pieces of yellow pyrites of iron, which it is men- 
 tioned in the description of the environs of *' Charlesbourg Royal" Cartier 
 had discovered in the slate rock. And the ore was pronounced " good" 
 a proof either of gross deception, or gross ignorance in the experi- 
 menter. Cartier spoke highly of the advantages the country presented 
 for settlement, in point of fertility. He had, however, determined to 
 leave it. He disobeyed Roberval's order to return, and " both he and 
 his company" secretly left the harbor, and made the best of their way to 
 France, being " moved," as the journalist adds, " with ambition, be- 
 cause they would have all the glory of the discovery of these part* to 
 themselves." 
 January 21st, 1829.
 
 THE INFLUENCE OF ARDENT SPIRITS. 353 
 
 THE INFLUENCE OF ARDENT SPIRITS ON THE CONDI- 
 TION OF THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS. 
 
 *N ADDRESS READ BEFORE THE CHIPPEWA COUNTY TEMPERANCE SOCIETY, AT 
 
 SAULT STE-MARIE, MAY 8th, 1832. 
 
 THE effects of intemperance on the character of nations and individu- 
 als have been often depicted, within a few years, in faithful colors, and 
 by gifted minds. " Thoughts that breathe and words that burn" were 
 once supposed to be confined, exclusively, to give melody to the lyre, 
 and life to the canvass. But the conceptions of modern benevolence 
 have dispelled the illusion, and taught us that genius has no higher ob- 
 jects than the promotion of the greatest amount of good to man that 
 these objects come home to the " business and bosoms" of men in their 
 every day avocations that they lie level to every capacity, and never 
 assume so exalted a character, as when they are directed to increase the 
 sum of domestic happiness and fireside enjoyment 
 
 " To mend the morals and improve the heart." 
 
 It is this consideration that gives to the temperance effort in our day, 
 a refined and expansive character 
 
 " Above all Greek, above all Roman fame" 
 
 which has enlisted in its cause sound heads and glowing hearts, in all 
 parts of our country which is daily augmenting the sphere of its influ- 
 ence, and which has already carried its precepts and examples from the 
 little sea-board village,* where it originated, to the foot of Lake Superior. 
 And I have now the pleasure of seeing before me a society, assembled on 
 their first public meeting, who have " banded together," not with such 
 mistaken zeal as dictated the killing of Paul, or assassinating Caesar, but 
 for giving their aid in staying the tide of intemperance which has been 
 rolling westward for more than three centuries, sweeping away thou- 
 sands of white and red men in its course which has grown with the 
 growth of the nation, and strengthened with its strength, and which 
 threatens with an overwhelming moral desolation all who do not adopt 
 the rigid maxim 
 
 " Touch not, taste not, handle not." 
 
 The British critic of the last century little thought, while moralizing 
 upon some of the weaknesses of individual genius, that he was uttering 
 maxims which would encourage the exertions of voluntary associations 
 of men to put a stop to intemperance. It was as true then as now, that 
 " in the bottle, discontent seeks for comfort, cowardice for courage, and 
 bashfulness lor confidence." It was as true then, as "now, thatthe " neg- 
 
 * Andover. 
 23
 
 354 ' rHK INFLUENCE OF ARDENT SPIRITS 
 
 liger.ee and irregularity ' which are the fruits of this habit," if long coo- 
 tinued, will render knowledge useless, wit ridiculous, and genius con- 
 temptible." "Who," he exclaims, "that ever asked succors from 
 Bacchus, was able to preserve himself from being enslaved by his aux- 
 iliary ?' ; * And is there a species of servitude more pernicious in its in- 
 fluence, more degrading in its character, more destructive of all physical 
 and intellectual power, than the slavery of inebriation! The rage of 
 the conflagration the devastation of the flood the fury of the tempest,, 
 are emblematic of the moral fury of the mind under the influence of 
 alcohol. It is equally ungovernable i:i its power, and destructive in its 
 effects. But its devastations are more to b^> deplored, because they are 
 the devastations of human faculties of intellectual power of animal 
 energy of moral dignity of social happiness of temporal health of 
 eternal felicity. 
 
 Intemperance is emphatically the parent of disease, mental and phy- 
 sical. Its direct effects are to blunt the faculty of correct thinking, and 
 to paralyze I he power of vigorous action. Nothing more effectually 
 takes away from the human mind, its ordinary practical powers of dis- 
 crimination and decision., without which m.m is like a leaf upon the tem- 
 pest, or the chaff before the wind. Dr. Darwin has aptly compared the 
 effects of spirituous liquors upon the lungs to the ancient fable of Pro- 
 metheus stealing fire from heaven, who was punished for the theft by 
 a vulture gnawing on the liver/f A striking allegory : but one which is 
 not inaptly applied to characterize the painful and acute diseases which 
 are visited upon the inebriate. Dr. Rush was an early advocate of the 
 cause. He likened the effects of the various degrees of alcohol, in spir- 
 ituous drinks, to the artificial mensuration of heat by the thermometer, 
 and took a decided stand in pointing out its poisonous effects upon the 
 system, in t: e generation of a numerous class of diseases, acute and 
 chronic. 
 
 If unhealthy food had been the cause of such disorders, the article 
 would be rigidly shunned. No man would choose to eat twice of the 
 cicuta ; to use bread having a portion of lime in it ; or to drink frequently 
 of a preparation of sugar of lead. Even the intemperate would fear to 
 drink of alcohol, in its state of chemical purity, for its effects would cer- 
 tainly be to arrest the functions of life. Yet he will drink of this pow- 
 erful drug, if diluted with acids, saccharine and coloring matter, water 
 and various impurities, under the disguised names of wine, brandy, rum, 
 malt liquors, whisky, cordials, and mixed potations, which all tend to 
 pamper the natural depravity of the human heart, and poison its powers 
 of healthful action. 
 
 Alcohol is one of the preparations which were brought to light in the 
 
 * Dr. Johnson. T Zoonomia-
 
 ON THE INDIAN RACE. 355 
 
 age of the Alchemysts when the human tnind had run mad in a philo- 
 sophic research after two substances which were not found in nature the 
 philosopher's stone, and the universal panacea. One, it was believed, 
 was to transmute all substances it touched^inlo gold, and the other, to cure 
 all diseases. The two great desires of the world wealth and long life, 
 were thus to be secured in a way which Moses and the Prophets had 
 never declared. A degree of patient ascetic research was devoted to the 
 investigation of natural phenomena, which the world had not before wit- 
 nessed ; and modern science is indebted to the mistaken labors of this 
 race of chemical monks, for many valuable discoveries, which were, for 
 the most part, stumbled on. So far as relates to the discovery of the 
 alcoholic principle of grains, a singular reversal of their high anticipa- 
 tions has ensued. They sought for a substance to enrich mankind, but 
 found a substance to impoverish them : they sought a power to cure all 
 diseases, but they found one to cause them. Alcohol is thus invested 
 with great talisman ic power : and this power is not to create, but to 
 destroy not to elevate, but to prostrate not to impart life, but death. 
 
 How extensive its uses are, as a re-agent and solvent, in medicine and 
 the arts or if its place could be supplied, in any instances, by other sub- 
 stances are questions to be answered by physicians and chemists. But 
 admitting, what is probable to my own mind, that its properties and uses 
 in pharmacy and the arts are indispensable in several operations, in the 
 present state of our knowledge does this furnish a just plea for its ordi- 
 nary use, as a beverage, in a state of health 1 No more than it would, 
 that because the lancet and the probe are useful in a state of disease, 
 they should be continued in a state of health. And do not every class 
 of men who continue the use of ardent spirits, waste their blood by a diur- 
 nal exhaustion of its strength and healthy properties, more injurious than 
 a daily depletion ; and probe their flesh with a fluid too subtle for the 
 physician to extract ? 
 
 The transition from temperate to intemperate drinking, is very easy. 
 And those who advocate the moderate use of distilled spirits are indeed 
 the real advocates of intemperance. No man ever existed, perhaps, who 
 thought himself in danger of being enslaved by a practice, which he, at 
 first, indulged in moderation. A habit of relying upon it is imperceptibly 
 formed. Nature is soon led to expect the adventitious aid, as a hale 
 man, accustomed to wear a staff, may imagine he cannot do without it, 
 until he has thrown it aside. If it communicates a partial energy, it is 
 the energy of a convulsion. Its joy is a phrenzy. Its hope is a phan- 
 tom. And all its exhibitions of changing passion, so many melancholy 
 proofs of 
 
 "the reasonable soul run mad." 
 
 Angelic beings are probably exalted above all human weaknesses.'
 
 355 THE INFLUENCE OF AFDKNT M.KiTS 
 
 But if there be anything in their survey ot oni artion<? which causes 
 them to weep, it is the sight of a drunken lather m the domestic circle. 
 Instructed reason, and sound piety, have united their voices in decry- 
 in** the evils of intemperance. Physicians have described its effects in 
 deranging the absorbent vessels of the stomach, and changing the heal- 
 thy organization of the system. Moralists have portrayed its fatal influ- 
 ence on the intellectual faculties. Divines have pointed o t its destruc- 
 tive powers on the soul. Poetry, philosophy and science, have mourned 
 the numbers who have been cut down by it. t'omiron sense has raised 
 up its voice against it. It is indeed 
 
 " a monster of so frightful mien. 
 
 That to be hated, nee-la bul to be ttcn.'' 
 
 Like the genie of Arabic fable, it has risen up, where it was least 
 expected, and stalked through the ;nost secret and the most public 
 apartments. And wherever it has appeart-d, it has prostrated the human 
 mind. It has silenced the voice of eloquence in the halls of justice and 
 legislation. It has absorbed the brain of the scientific lecturer. It has 
 caused the sword to drop from the hand of the military leader. It has 
 stupefied the author in his study, and the pastor in his desk. It has 
 made the wife a widow in her youth, and caused the innocent child to 
 weep upon a father's grave. We dare not look beyond it. Hope, who 
 has attended the victim of intemperance through all the changes of his 
 downward fortune, and not forsaken him in any other exigency, has 
 forsaken here. Earth had its vanities to solace him, but eternity has 
 none. 
 
 " Wounds of the heart care, disappoint nrunt. loss, 
 Love, joy, and friendship's fa'ne, and fortune's cross, 
 The wound that mars the flesh the instant pain 
 That racks the palsied limb, or fever'd brain, 
 All all the woes that life can fed or miss, 
 All have their hopes, cures, palliatives, but thit 
 This only mortal canker of the mind, 
 Grim Belial's lust attempt on human kind." 
 
 If such, then, are the effec t? of ardent spirits upon the condition of civi- 
 lized man, who has the precepts of instructed reason to enlighten him, 
 and the consolations of Christianity to support him, what must be the 
 influence of intemperate habits upon the aboriginal tribes ? I propose 
 to offer a few considerations upon this subject. And in so doing I dis- 
 claim all intention of imputing to one nation of the European stock, more 
 than the other, the national crime of having introduced ardent spirits 
 among the American Indians. Spaniards, Portuguese, Swedes, Dutch, 
 Italians, Russians, Germans, French and English, all come in for a share 
 of the obloquy. They each brought ardent spirits to the New World 
 a proof, it may be inferred, of their general use, as a drink in Europe, at 
 the era of the discovery. Whatever other articles the first adventurers 
 took to operate upon the hopes and fears of the new found people, distilled
 
 ON THE INDIAN RACE. 357 
 
 or fermented liquor appears to have been, in no instance, overlooked or for- 
 gotten. It would he easy to show the use made of them in the West In- 
 dies, and in the southern part of our hemisphere. But our object is con- 
 fined to the colonies planted in the North. And in this portion of the 
 continent the English and French have been the predominating powers. 
 It had been well, if they had predominated in everything else if they 
 had only been rivals for courage, wisdom and dominion. If they had 
 only fought to acquire civil power conquered to spread Christianity 
 negotiated to perpetuate peace. But we have too many facts on record 
 to show, that they were also rivals in spreading the reign of intempe- 
 rance among the Indians ; in gleaning, with avaricious hand, the furs from 
 their lodges ; in stimulating them to fight in their battles, and in leaving 
 them to their own fate, when the battles were ended. 
 
 Nor do we, as Americans, affect to have suddenly succeeded to a better 
 state of feelings respecting the natives than our English ancestry pos- 
 sessed. They were men of sterling enterprise ; of undaunted resolution ; 
 of high sentiments of religious and political liberty. And we owe to them 
 and to the peculiar circumstances in which Providence placed us, all that 
 we are, as a free and a prosperous people. But while they bequeathed to 
 us these sentiments as the preparatives of our own national destiny, they 
 also bequeathed to us their peculiar opinions respecting the Indian tribes. 
 And these opinions have been cherished with obstinacy, even down to 
 our own times. The noble sentiments of benevolence of the 19th century 
 had not dawned, when we assumed our station in the family of nations. 
 If they were felt by gifted individuals, they were not felt by the body of 
 the nation. Other duties the imperious duties of self- existence, national 
 poveity, wasted resources, a doubtful public credit, a feeble population, 
 harassing frontier wars, pressed heavily upon us. But we have seen 
 all these causes of national depression passing away, in less than half a 
 century. With them, it may be hoped, have passed away, every obsta- 
 cle to the exercise of the most enlarged charity, and enlightened philan- 
 thropy, respecting the native tribes. 
 
 Nationality is sometimes as well characterized by small as by great 
 things by names, as by customs. And this may be observed in the 
 treatment of the Indians, so far as respects the subject of ardent spir- 
 its. Under the French government they were liberally supplied with 
 brandy. Under the English, with Jamaica rum. Under the Americans, 
 with whisky. These constitute the fire, the gall, and the poison ages of In- 
 dian history. Under this triple curse thej* have maintained an existence 
 in the face of a white population. But it has been an existence merely. 
 Other nations are said to have had a golden age. But there has been no 
 golden age for them. If there ever was a state of prosperity among 
 them, which may be likened to it, it was when their camps were crowned 
 with temporal abundance when the races of animals, furred and unfur-
 
 THE INFLUENCE OF ARDENT SPIRITS 
 
 red, placed food and clothing within the reach of all and when they 
 knew no intoxicating drink. To counterhalance these advantages, they 
 were, however, subject to many evils. They were then, as they are 
 now, indolent, improvident, revengeful, warlike. Bravery, manual 
 strength, and eloquence, were the cardinal virtues. And their own feuds 
 kept them in a state of perpetual insecurity and alarm. The increased 
 value given to furs, by the arrival of Europeans, created a new era in 
 their history, and accelerated their downfall. It gave an increased energy 
 and new 9bject to the chase. To reward their activity in this employ- 
 ment, ardent spirits became the bounty, rather than the price. A two- 
 fold injury ensued. The animals upon whose flesh they had subsisted 
 became scarce, and their own constitutions were undermined with the 
 subtle stimulant. 
 
 Historical writers do not always agree : but they coincide in their tes- 
 timony respecting the absence of any intoxicating drink among the north- 
 ern Indians, at the time of the discovery. It is well attested that the 
 Azteeks, and other Mexican and Southern tribes, had their pulque, and 
 other intoxicating drinks, which they possessed the art of making from 
 various native grains and fruits. But the art itself was confined, with 
 the plants employed, to those latitudes. And there is no historical evi- 
 dence to prove that it was ever known or practised by the tribes situated 
 north and east of the Gulf of Mexico. Dr. Robertson, an able and faith- 
 ful describer of Indian manners, fully concurs with the Jesuit authors, in 
 saying that no such beverage was known in the north, until Europeans 
 found it for their pecuniary interest to supply it. After which, intoxica- 
 tion became as common among the northern as the southern tribes.* 
 
 Three hundred and forty years ago there was not a white man in 
 America. Columbus discovered the West India Islands ; but Cabot and 
 Verrizani were the discoverers of North America. Cartier and Hudson 
 followed in the track. The first interview of Hudson with the Mohegan 
 tribes, took place at the mouth of the river which now bears his name. 
 It is remarkable as the scene of the first Indian intoxication among them. 
 He had no sooner cast anchor, and landed from his boat, and passed a 
 friendly salutation with the natives, than he ordered a bottle of ardent 
 spirits to be brought. To show that he did not intend to offer them 
 what he would not himself taste, an attendant poured him out a cup of 
 the liquor, which he drank off. The cup was then filled and passed to 
 the Indians. But they merely smelled of it and passed it on. It had 
 nearly gone round the circle untasted, when one of the chiefs, bolder 
 than the rest, made a short harangue, saying it would be disrespectful to 
 return it untasted, and declaring his intention to drink off the potion, if he 
 hould be killed in the attempt. He drank it off. Dizziness and stu- 
 
 * Robertson's History of America.
 
 ON THE INDIAN RACE. 359 
 
 por immediately ensued. He sank down and fell into a sleep the sleep 
 of death, as his companions thought. But in due time he awoke de- 
 clared the happiness he had experienced from its effects asked again 
 for the cup, and the whole assembly followed his example.* 
 
 Nor was the first meeting with the New England tribes very dissimi- 
 lar. It took place at Plymouth, in 1620. Massasoit, the celebrated 
 chief of the Pokanokets, came to visit the new settlers, not long after 
 their landing. He was received by the English governor with military 
 music and the discharge of some muskets. After which, the Governor 
 kissed his hand. Massasoit then kissed him, and they both sat down 
 together. " A pot of strong water," as the early writers expressed it, 
 was then ordered, from which both drank. The chief, in his simplicity, 
 drank so great a draught that it threw him into a violent perspiration 
 during the remainder of the interview.! 
 
 The first formal interview of the French with the Indians of the St. 
 Lawrence is also worthy of being referred to, as it appears to have been 
 the initial step in vitiating the taste of the Indians, by the introduction of 
 a foreign drink. It took place in 1535, on board one of Cartier's ships, 
 lying at anchor near the Island of Orleans, forty-nine years before the 
 arrival of Amidas and Barlow on the coast of Virginia. Donnaconna, a 
 chief who is courteously styled the " Lord of Agouhanna," visited the 
 ship with twelve canoes. Ten of these he had stationed at a distance, 
 and with the other two, containing sixteen men, he approached the ves- 
 sels. Wi en he drew nea* the headmost vessel, he began to utter an 
 earnest address, accompanied with violent gesticulation. Cartier hailed 
 his approach in a friendly manner. He had, the year before, captured 
 two Indians on the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and he now addressed the chief 
 through their interpretation. Donnaconna listened to his native lan- 
 guage with delight, and was so much pleased with the recital they gave, 
 th-.it b.3 requested Cartier to reach his arm over the side of the vessel, 
 that he might kiss it. He was not content with this act of salutation, 
 but fondled it, by drawing the arm gently around his neck. His watch- 
 ful caution did not, however, permit him to venture on board. Cartier, 
 willino- to five him a proof of his confidence, then descended into the 
 chiefs canoe, and ordered bread and wine to be brought. They ate and 
 drank together, all the Indians present participating in the banquet, 
 which appears to have been terminated in a temperate manner.J 
 
 But like most temperate beginnings in the use of spirits, it soon led to 
 intemperance in its most repulsive forms. The taste enkindled by wine, 
 was soon fed with brandy, and spread among the native bands like a 
 wildfire. It gave bir h to disease, discord, and crime, in their most 
 
 * ffpckeweldpr's Account of the Indians, 
 t Purchas' Pi'atrims, Part iv., ^ook x. 
 *-Hackluyt's Vo.ages.
 
 360 THE INFLUENCE OP ARDENT SPIRITS 
 
 shocking forms. Too late the government and the clergy saw their 
 error, and attempted to arrest it ; but it was too deeply seated among 
 their own countrymen, as well as among the Indians. Every effort 
 proved unsuccessful ; and the evil went on until the Canadas were 
 finally transferred to the British crown, with this " mortal canker" 
 burning upon the northern tribes. Those who have leisure and curiosity 
 to turn to the early writers, will see abundant evidence of its deep and 
 wide-spread influence. It became the ready means of rousing to action 
 a people averse to long continued exertion of any kind. It was the 
 reward of the chase. It was the price of blood. It was the great bar to 
 the successful introduction of Christianity. It is impossible that the 
 Indian should both drink and pray. It was impossible then, and it is 
 impossible now : and the missionary who entered the forest, with the 
 Bible and crucifix in one hand, and the bottle in the other, might say, 
 with the Roman soliloquist, who deliberated on self-murder, 
 
 * My bane and antidote are both before me : 
 While this informs me I shall never die, 
 Tint in a moment brings me to my end." 
 
 National rivalry, between the English and French governments, gave 
 a character of extreme bitterness to the feelings of the Indians, and served 
 to promote the passion for strong drink. It added to the horrors of war, 
 and accumulated the miseries of peace. It was always a struggle be- 
 tween these nations which should wield the Indian power ; and, so far 
 as religion went, it was a struggle between the Catholic and Protestant 
 tenets. It was a power which both had, in a measure, the means of 
 putting into motion : but neither had the complete means of controlling it, 
 if we concede to them the perfect will. It would have mitigated the 
 evil, if this struggle for mastering the Indian mind had terminated with a 
 state of war, but it was kept up during the feverish intermissions of 
 peace. Political influence was the ever-present weight in each side of the 
 scale. Religion threw in her aid ; but it was trade, the possession of 
 the fur trade, that gave the preponderating weight. And there is noth- 
 ing in the history of this rivalry, from the arrival of Roberval to the 
 death of Montcalm, that had so permanently pernicious an influence as 
 the sanction which this trade gave to the use of ardent spirits. 
 
 We can but glance at this subject ; but it is a glance at the track of a 
 tornado Destruction lies in its course. The history of the fur trade is 
 closely interwoven with the history 1 of intemperance among the Indians. 
 We know not how to effect the separation. Look at it in what era you 
 will, the barter in ardent spirits constitutes a prominent feature. From 
 Jamestown to Plymouth from the island of Manhattan to the Lake of 
 the Hills, the tralfic was introduced at the earliest periods. And we 
 cannot now put our finger on the map, to indicate a spot where ardent 
 spirits is not known to the natives. Is it at the mouth of the Columbia,
 
 ON THE INDIAN RACE. 361 
 
 the sources of the Multnomah, or the Rio del Norde the passes of the 
 Rocky Mountains on Peace River, or the shores of the Arctic Sea? it is 
 known at all these places. The natives can call it by name, and they 
 place a value on its possession. We do not wish to convey the idea that 
 it is abundant at these remote places. We have reason to believe it is sel- 
 dom seen. But we also believe that in proportion as it is scarce in pro- 
 portion as the quantity is small, and the occasion of its issue rare, so is 
 the price of it in sale, and the value of it in gift, enhanced. And just so 
 far as it is used, it is pernicious in effect, unnecessary in practice, unwise 
 in policy. 
 
 The French, who have endeared themselves so much in the affections 
 of the Indians, were earlier in Canada than the English upon the United 
 States' coast. Cartier's treat of wine and bread to the Iroquois of the 
 St. Lawrence, happened eighty-five years before the landing of the Pil- 
 grims. They were also earlier to perceive the evils of an unrestrained 
 trade, in which nothing was stipulated, and nothing prohibited. To pre- 
 vent its irregularities, licenses were granted by the French government 
 to individuals, on the payment of a price. It was a boon to superannu- 
 ated officers, and the number was limited. In 1685, the number was 
 twenty- five. But the remedy proved worse than the disease. These 
 licenses became negotiable paper. They were sold from hand to hand, 
 and gave birth to a traffic, which assumed the same character in tempo- 
 ral affairs, that " indulgences" did in spiritual. They were, in effect, 
 licenses to commit every species of wrong, for those who got them at 
 last, were generally persons under the government of no high standard 
 of moral responsibility ; and as they may be supposed to have paid well 
 for them, they were sure to make it up by excessive exactions upon the 
 Indians. Courier du bois, was the term first applied to them. Merchant 
 voyageur, was the appellation at a subsequent period. But whatever 
 they were called, one spirit actuated them the spirit of acquiring wealth 
 by driving a gainful traffic with an ignorant people, and for this purpose 
 ardent spirits was but too well adapted. They transported it, along with 
 articles of necessity, up long rivers, and over difficult portages. And 
 when they had reached the borders of the Upper Lakes, or the banks of 
 the Sasketchawine, they were too far removed from the influence of 
 courts, both judicial and ecclesiastical, to be in much dread of them. 
 Feuds, strifes, and murders ensued. Crime strode unchecked through 
 the land. Every Indian trader became a legislator and a judge. His 
 word was not only a law, but it was a law which possessed the property 
 of undergoing as many repeals and mutations as the interest, the pride, 
 or the passion of the individual rendered expedient. If wealth was ac- 
 cumulated, it is not intended to infer that the pressing wants of the In- 
 dians were not relieved that the trade was not a very acceptable and 
 important one to them, and that great peril and expense were not encoun-
 
 362 THE INFLUENCE OF ARDENT SPIRITS 
 
 tered, and a high degree of enterprise displayed in its prosecution. But 
 it is contended, that if real wants were relieved, artificial ones were cre- 
 ated that if it substituted the gun for the bow, and shrouds and blan- 
 kets in the place of the more expensive clothing of beaver skins, it also 
 substituted ardent spirits for water intoxication for sobriety disease 
 for health. 
 
 Those who entertain the opinion that the fall of Quebec, celebrated in 
 England and America as a high military achievement, and the conse- 
 quent surrender of Canada, produced any very important improvement 
 in this state of things, forget that the leading principles and desires of the 
 human heart are alike in all nations, acting under like circumstances. 
 The desire of amassing wealth the thirst for exercising power the 
 pride of information over ignorance the power of vicious over virtuous 
 principles, are not confined to particular eras, nations, or latitudes. They 
 belong to mankind, and they will be pursued with a zeal as irrespective 
 of equal and exact justice, wherever they are not restrained by the enno- 
 bling maxims of Christianity. 
 
 Whoever feels interested in looking back into this period of our com- 
 mercial Indian affairs, is recommended to peruse the published statistical 
 and controversial volumes, growing out of the Earl of Selkirk's scheme* 
 of colonization, and to the proceedings of the North West Company. 
 This iron monopoly grew up out of private adventure. Such golden 
 accounts were brought out of the country by the Tods, the Frobishers, 
 and the M'Tavishes, and M'Gillvrays, who first visited it, that every 
 bold man, who had either talents or money, rushed to the theatre of 
 action. The boundary which had been left to the French, as the limit 
 of trade, was soon passed. The Missinipi, Athabasca, Fort Chipewyan, 
 Slave lake, Mackenzie's and Copper Mine Rivers, the Unjigah and the 
 Oregon, were reached in a few years. All Arctic America was penetrated. 
 The British government is much indebted to Scottish enterprise for the ex- 
 tension of its power and resources in this quarter. But while we admire the 
 zeal and boldness with which the limits of the trade were extendt-d, we 
 regret that a belief in the necessity of using ardent spirits caused them to 
 be introduced, in any quantity, among the North West tribes. 
 
 Other regions have been explored to spread the light of the gospel. 
 This was traversed to extend the reign of intemperance, and to prove 
 that the love of gain was so strongly implanted in the breast of the white 
 man, as to carry him over regions of ice and snow, woods and waters, 
 where the natives had only been intruded on by the Musk Ox and the 
 Polar bear. Nobody will deem it too much to say, that wherever the 
 current of the fur trade set, the nations were intoxicated, demoralized, 
 depopulated. The terrible scourge of the small pox, which broke out 
 in the country north west of Lake Superior in 1782, was scarcely more 
 fatal to the natives, though more rapid and striking in its effects, than the
 
 ON THE INDIAN RACE. 363 
 
 power of ardent spirits. Nor did it produce so great a moral affliction. 
 For those who died of the varioloid, were spared the death of ebriety. 
 Furs were gleaned with an iron hand, and rum was given out with an iron 
 heart. There was no remedy for the rigors of the trade ; and there was no 
 appeal. Beaver was sought with a thirst of gain as great as that which 
 carried Cortez to Mexico, and Pizarro to Peru. It had deadened the 
 ties of humanity, and cut asunder the cords of private faith.* Like the 
 Spaniard in his treatment of Capolicon, when the latter had given him 
 the house full of gold for his ransom, he was himself basely executed. 
 So the northern chief, when he had given his all, gave himself as the vic- 
 tim at last. He was not, however, consumed at the stake, but at the 
 bottle. The sword of his executioner was spirits his gold, beaver skins. 
 And no mines of the nrecious metals, which the world has ever produced, 
 have probably been more productive of wealth, than the fur-yielding 
 regions of North America. 
 
 But while the products of the chase have yielded wealth to the white 
 man, they have produced misery to the Indian. The latter, suffering for 
 the means of subsistence, like the child in the parable, had asked for 
 bread, and he received it ; but, with it, he received a scorpion. And it 
 is the sting of the scorpion, that has been raging among the tribes for 
 more than two centuries, causing sickness, death, and depopulation in its 
 track. It is the venom of this sting, that has proved emphatically 
 
 " the blight of human bliss! 
 
 Curse to all slates of man. but most to this." 
 
 Let me not be mistaken, in ascribing effects disproportionate to their cause, 
 or in overlooking advantages which have brought along in their train, a 
 striking evil. I am no admirer of that sickly philosophy, which looks 
 back upon a state of nature as a state of innocence, and which cannot 
 appreciate the benefits the Indian race have derived from the discovery 
 of this portion of the world by civilized and Christian nations. But 
 while I would not, on the one hand, conceal my sense of the advantages, 
 temporal and spiritual, which hinge upon this discovery, I would not, on 
 the other, disguise the evils which intemperance has caused among 
 them ; nor cease to hold it up, to the public, as a great and destroying 
 evil, which was early introduced which has spread extensively which 
 is in active operation, and which threatens yet more disastrous conse* 
 quences to this unfortunate race. 
 
 Writers have not been wanting, who are prone to lay but little stress 
 upon the destructive influence of ardent spirits, in diminishing the native 
 population, and who have considered its effects as trifling in comparison 
 to the want of food, and the enhanced price created by this want.~f The 
 
 # The murder of Wadin. the cold-blooded assassination of Keveny,and the shoot- 
 ing of temple, are appealed 1o. as justifying the force of this remark. 
 
 t The North American Review. Sanford's History of the United States, before 
 the Revolution.
 
 364 THE INFLUENCE OF ARDENT SP^'.TS 
 
 abundance or scarcity of food is a principle in political economy, which 
 is assumed as the primary cause of depopulation. Aud, as such, we see 
 no reason to question its soundness. If the value of labor, the price of 
 clothing and other necessary commodities, can be referred to the varying 
 prices of vegetable and animal food, we do not see that the fact of a 
 people's being civilized or uncivilized, should invalidate the principle ; 
 and when we turn our eyes upon the forest we see that it does not. A 
 pound of beaver, which in 1730, when animal food was abundant, was 
 worth here about a French crown, is now, when food is scarce and 
 dear, worth from five to six dollars ; and consequently, one pbund of 
 beaver now will procure as much food and clothing as five pounds of the 
 like quality of beaver then. It is the failure of the race of furred ani- 
 mals, and the want of industry in hunting them, that operate to produce 
 depopulation. And what, we may ask, has so powerful an effect in 
 destroying the energies of the hunter, as the vice of intemperance ? 
 Stupefying his mind, and enervating his body, it leaves him neither the 
 vigor to provide for his temporary wants, nor the disposition to inquire 
 into those which regard eternity. His natural affections are blunted, and 
 all the sterner and nobler qualities of the Indian mind prostrated. His 
 family are neglected. They first become objects of pity to our citizens, 
 and then of disgust. The want of wholesome food and comfortable 
 clothing produce disease. He falls at last himself, the victim of disease, 
 superinduced from drinking. 
 
 Such is no exaggerated picture of the Indian, who is in a situation to 
 contract the habit of intemperance. And it is only within the last year 
 or eighteen months it is only since the operation of Temperance princi- 
 ples has been felt in this remote place, that scenes of this kind have be- 
 come unfrequent, and have almost ceased in our village, and in our set- 
 tlement. And when we look abroad to other places, and observe the 
 spread of temperance in the wide area from Louisiana to Maine, we may 
 almost fancy we behold the accomplishment of Indian fable. It is related, 
 on the best authority, that among the extravagances of Spanish enter- 
 prise, which characterized the era of the discovery of America, the na- 
 tives had reported the existence of a fountain in the interior of one of the 
 islands, possessed of such magical virtues, that whoever bathed in its 
 Waters would be restored to the bloom of youth and the vigor of man- 
 hood. In search of this wonderful fountain historians affirm, that Ponce 
 de Leon and his followers ranged the island. They only, however, drew 
 upon themselves the charge of credulity. May we not suppose this tale 
 of the salutary fountain to be an Indian allegory of temperance ? It 
 will, at least, admit of this application. And let us rejoice that, in the 
 era of temperance, we have found the spring which will restore bloom 
 to the cheeks of the young man, and the panacea that will remove dis- 
 ease from the old.
 
 ON THE INDIAN RACK. 365 
 
 f 
 
 When we consider the effects which our own humble efforts as inha- 
 bitants of a distant post have produced in this labor of humanity, have 
 we not every encouragement to persevere ? Is it not an effort sanctioned 
 by the noblest affections of our nature by the soundest principles of 
 philanthropy by the highest aspirations of Christian benevolence ? Is 
 it not the work of patriots as well as Christians ? of good citizens as well 
 as good neighbors ? Is it not a high and imperious duty to rid our land 
 of the foul stain of intemperance ? Is it a duty too hard for us to accom- 
 plish ? Is there anything unreasonable in the voluntary obligations by 
 which we are bound ? Shall we lose property or reputation by laboring 
 in the cause of temperance ? Will the debtor be less able to pay his 
 debts, or the creditor less able to collect them ? Shall we injure man, 
 woman or child, by dashing away the cup of intoxication ? Shall we 
 incur the charge of being denominated fools or madmen ? Shall we vio- 
 late any principles of morality, or any of the maxims of Christianity ? 
 Shall we run the risk of diminishing the happiness of others, or putting 
 our own in jeopardy ? Finally, shall we injure man shall we offend 
 God ? 
 
 If neither of these evils will result if the highest principles of virtue 
 and happiness sanction the measure if learning applauds it, and religion 
 approves it if good must result from its success, and injury cannot 
 accrue from its failure, what further motive need we to impel us onward, 
 to devote our best faculties in the cause, and neither to faint nor rest 
 till the modern hydra of intemperance be expelled from our country ? 
 
 VENERABLE INDIAN CHIEF. 
 
 THE Cattaraugus (N. Y.) Whig, of a late date, mentions that Gov. 
 Blacksnake, the Grand Sachem of the Indian nation, was recently in that 
 place. He resides on the Alleghany Reservation, about twenty miles 
 from the village ; is the successor of Corn Planter, as chief of the Six 
 Nations a nephew of Joseph Brant, and uncle of the celebrated Red 
 Jacket. He was born near Cayuga Lake in 1749, being now ninety-six 
 years of age. He was in the battle of Fort Stanwix, Wyoming, &c., and 
 was a warm friend of Gen. Washington during the Revolution. He was 
 in Washino-ton's camp forty days at the close of the Revolution was, 
 appointed chief by him, and now wears suspended from his neck a beau- 
 tiful silver medal presented to him by Gen. Washington, bearing dato 
 1796.
 
 FATE OF THE RED RACE IN AMERICA: 
 
 THE POLICY PURSUED TOWARDS THEM BY GOVERNMENT, AND 
 
 THE PRESENT CONDITION OF THE TRIBES WHO HAVE 
 
 REMOVED WEST OP THE MISSISSIPPI.* 
 
 THE removal of the Indian Tribes within our State boundaries, to the 
 west of the Mississippi, and their present condition and probable ulti- 
 mate fate, have been the topic of such frequent speculation, misunder- 
 standing, and may we not add, misrepresentation, within a few years 
 past, both at home and abroad, that we suppose some notice of them, 
 and particularly of the territory they occupy, and the result, thus far, 
 of their experiment in self-government, drawn from authentic sources, 
 may prove not unacceptable to the public. 
 
 The nomadic and hunter states of society never embraced within 
 themselves the elements of perpetuity. They have ever 'existed, in- 
 deed, like a vacuum in the system of nature, which is at every moment 
 in peril, and subject to be filled up and destroyed by the in-rushing of 
 the surrounding element. Civilisation is that element, in relation to 
 non-agricultural and barbaric tribes, and the only question with respect 
 "to their continuance as distinct communities has been, how long they 
 could resist its influence, and at what particular era this influence 
 should change, improve, undermine, or destroy them. It is proved by 
 history, that two essentially different states of society, with regard to 
 art and civilisation, cannot both prosperously exist together, at the same 
 time. The one which is in the ascendant will absorb and destroy the 
 other. A wolf and a lamb are not more antagonistical in the system 
 of organic being, than civilisation and barbarism, in the great ethno- 
 logical impulse of man's diffusion over the globe. In this impulse, bar- 
 barism may temporarily triumph, as we see it has done by many striking 
 examples in the history of Asia and Europe. But such triumphs have 
 been attended with this remarkable result, that they have, in the end, 
 reproduced the civilisation which they destroyed. Such, to quote no 
 other example, was the effect of the prostration of the Roman type of 
 civilisation by the warlike and predatory tribes of Northern Europe. 
 Letters and Christianity were both borne down, for a while, by this irre- 
 sistible on-rush ; but they were thereby only the more deeply implanted 
 
 Democratic Review, 1844. 
 
 366
 
 INDIAN POL1CV. 367 
 
 in the stratum of preparing civilisation ; and in due time, like the grain 
 that rots before it reproduces, sprang up with a vigor and freshness, 
 which is calculated to be enduring, and to fill the globe. 
 
 Civilisation may be likened to an absorbent body, placed in contact 
 with an. anti-absorbent, for some of the properties of which it has 
 strong affinities. It will draw these latter so completely out, that, to 
 use a strong phrase, it may be said to eat them up. Civilisation is found 
 to derive some of the means of its perfect development from letters and 
 the arts, but it cannot permanently exist without the cultivation of the 
 soil. It seems to have been the fundamental principle on which the 
 species were originally created, that they should derive'their sustenance 
 and means of perpetuation from this industrial labor. Wherever agri- 
 cultural tribes have placed themselves in juxtaposition to hunters and 
 erratic races, they have been found to withdraw from the latter the 
 means of their support, by narrowing the limits of the forest and plains, 
 upon the wild animals of which, both carnivorous and herbivorous, hun- 
 ters subsist. When these have been destroyed, the grand resources of 
 these hunters and pursuers have disappeared. Wars, the introduction of 
 foreign articles or habits of injurious tendency, may accelerate the period 
 of their decline a result which is still further helped forward by inter- 
 nal dissensions, and the want of that political foresight by which civil 
 nations exist. But without these, and by the gradual process of the 
 narrowino- down of their hunting grounds, and the conversion of the 
 dominions of the bow and arrow to those of the plough, this result 
 must inevitably ensue. There is no principle of either permanency or 
 prosperity in the savage state. 
 
 It is a question of curious and philosophic interest, however, to ob- 
 serve the varying and very unequal effects, which different types of 
 civilisation have had upon the wild hordes of men with whom it has 
 come into contact. And still more, perhaps, to trace the original eftici 
 ency, or effeminacy of the civil type, in the blood of predominating 
 races, who have been characterized by it. In some of the European 
 stocks this type has remained nearly stationary since it reached the 
 chivalric era. In others, it had assumed a deeply commercial tone, and 
 confined itself greatly to the drawing forth, from the resources of new- 
 countries, those objects which invigorate trade. There is no stock, 
 having claims to a generic nationality, in which the principle of progress 
 has, from the outset, been so strongly marked, as in those hardy, brave 
 and athletic tribes in the north of Europe, for whom the name of Teu- 
 tons conveys, perhaps, a more comprehensive meaning, than the com- 
 paratively later one of Saxons. The object of this race appears con- 
 tinually to be, and to have been, to do more than has previously been 
 done ; to "ive diffusion and comprehension to designs of improvement, 
 and thus, by perpetually putting forth new efforts, on the globe, to carry
 
 368 INDIAN POLICY. 
 
 on man to als highest destiny. The same impulsive aspirations of the 
 spirit of progress, the same energetic onwardness of principle which 
 overthrew Rome, overthrew, at another period, the simple institutions 
 of the woad-stained Britons ; and, whatever other aspect it bears, we 
 must attribute to the same national energy the modern introduction of 
 European civilisation into Asia. 
 
 When these principles come to be applied to America, and to be tested 
 by its native tribes, we shall clearly perceive their appropriate and distinc- 
 tive effects. In South America, where the type of chivalry marked the 
 discoverers, barbarism has lingered among the natives, without being 
 destroyed, for three centuries. In Canada, which drew its early 
 colonists exclusively from the feudal towns and seaports, whose inhabit- 
 ants had it for a maxim, that they had done all that was required of 
 good citizens, when they had done all that had been previously done, the 
 native tribes have remained perfectly stationary. With the exception 
 of slight changes in dress, and an absolute depreciation in morals, they 
 are essentially at this day what they were in the respective eras of Car- 
 tier and Champlain. In the native monarchies of Mexico and Peru, 
 Spain overthrew the gross objects of idolatrous worship, and intercalated 
 among these tribes the arts and some of the customs of the 16th century. 
 With a very large proportion of the tribes but little was attempted be~ 
 yond military subjugation, and less accomplished. The seaboard tribes 
 received the ritual of the Romish church. Many of those in the inte 
 rior, comprehending the higher ranges of the Andes and Cordilleras, re- 
 main to this day in the undisturbed practice of their ancient superstitions 
 and modes of subsistence. It is seen from recent discoveries, that there 
 are vast portions of the interior of the country, unknown, unexplored 
 and undescribed. We are just, indeed, beginning to comprehend the 
 true character of the indigenous Indian civilisation of the era of the disco- 
 very. These remarks are sufficient to show how feebly the obligations 
 of letters and Christianity have been performed, with respect to the red 
 men, by the colonists of those types of the early European civilisation, 
 who rested themselves on feudal tenures, m'litary renown, and an eccle- 
 siastical system of empty ceremonies. 
 
 It was with very different plans and principles that North America 
 was colonized. We consider the Pilgrims as the embodiment of the 
 true ancient Teutonic type. Their Alaric and Brennus were found in 
 the pulpit and in the school-room. They came with high and severe 
 notions of civil and religious liberty. It was their prime object to sus- 
 tain themselves, not by conquest, but by cultivating the soil. To escape 
 an ecclesiastical tyranny at home, they were willing to venture them- 
 selves in new climes. But they meant to triumph in the arts of peace. 
 They embarked with the Bible as their shield and sword, and they laid 
 its principles at the foundation of all their institutions, civil, literary, in-
 
 INDIAN POLICY. 369 
 
 dusirial, and ecclesiastic. They were pious and industrious themselves f 
 and they designed to make the Indian tribes so. They bought their 
 lands and paid for them, and proceeded to establish friendly neighbor- 
 hoods among the tribes. Religious truth, as it is declared in the Gos- 
 pel, was the fundamental principle of all their acts. In its exposition 
 and daily use, they followed no interpretations of councils at variance 
 with its plain import. This every one was at liberty to read. 
 
 Placed side by side with such an enlightened and purposed race, what 
 had the priests of the system of native rites and superstitions to expect ? 
 There could be no compromise of rites no partial conformity no giving 
 up a part to retain the rest as had been done in the plains of Central 
 America, Mexico and Yucatan. No toleration of pseudo-paganism, as 
 had been done on the waters of the Orinoco, the Parana and the Para- 
 guay. They must abandon the system at once. The error was gross 
 and total. They must abjure it. They had mistaken darkness for light ; 
 and they were now offered the light. They had worshipped Lucifer 
 instead of Immanuel. This the tribes who spread along the shores of 
 the North Atlantic were told, and nothing was held back. They 
 founded churches and established schools among them. They trans- 
 lated the entire Bible, and the version of David's Psalms, and the 
 Hymns of Dr. Watts, into one of their languages. Two types of the 
 human race, more fully and completely antagonistical, in all respects, 
 never came in contact on the globe. They were the alpha and omega 
 of th<> ethnological chain. If, therefore, the Red Race declined, and 
 the white increased, it was because civilisation had more of the prin- 
 ciples of endurance and progress than barbarism ; because Christianity 
 was superior to paganism ; industry to idleness ; agriculture to hunting ; 
 letters to hieroglyphics^ truth to error. Here lie the true secrets of 
 the Red Men's decline. ^i 
 
 There are but three principal results which, we think, the civilized 
 world could have anticipated for the race, at the era of the discovery. 
 1. They might be supposed to be subject to early extermination on the 
 coasts, where they were found. A thousand things would lead to this, 
 which need not be mentioned. Intemperance and idleness alone were 
 adequate causes. 2. Philanthropists and Christians might hope to re 
 claim them, either in their original positions on the coasts, or in agri- 
 cultural communities in adjacent parts. 8. Experience and forecast 
 might indicate a third result, in which full success should attend 
 neither of the foregoing plans, nor yet complete failure. There was % 
 nothing, exactly, in the known history of mankind, to guide opinion. 
 A mixed condition of things was the most probable result. And this, 
 it might be anticipated, would be greatly modified by times and seasons, 
 circumstances and localities, acting on particular tribes. Nothing less 
 could have been expected but the decline and extinction of some tribe, 
 
 24
 
 370 INDIAN POL CY. 
 
 whilst the removal of others, to less exposed positions, would be found 
 to tell upon their improvement. The effects of letters and Christianity 
 would necessarily he slow ; but they were effects, which the history of 
 discovery and civilisation, in other parts of the world, proved to be 
 effective and practical. What was this mixed condition to eventuate 
 in ? how long was it to continue ? Were the tribes to exercise sove- 
 reign political jurisdiction over the tracts they lived on ? Were they to 
 submit to the civilized cock*, and if so, to the penal code only, or also 
 to the civil ? Or, if not, were they to exist by amalgamation with the 
 European stocks, and thus contribute the elements of a new race ? 
 These, and many other questions, early arose, and were often not a little 
 perplexing to magistrates, legislatures, and governors. It was evident 
 the aboriginal race possessed distinctive general rights, but these existed 
 contemporaneously, or intermixed with the rights of the discoverers. 
 How were these separate rights to be defined ? How were the weak 
 to be protected, and the strong to be restrained, at points beyond the 
 ordinary pale of the civil law ? If a red man killed a white, without 
 the ordinary jurisdiction of the courts, could he be seized as a criminal ? 
 And if so, were civil offences, committed without the jurisdiction of 
 either territory, cognizable in either, or neither ? Could there be a 
 supremacy within a supremacy ? And what was the limit between 
 State and United States laws ? Such were among the topics entering 
 into the Indian policy. It was altogether a mixed system, and like most 
 mixed systems, it worked awkwardly, confusedly, and sometimes badly. 
 Precedents were to be established for new cases, and these were per- 
 petually subject to variation. Legislators, judges, and executive officers 
 were often in doubt, and it required the wisest, shrewdest, and best mea 
 in the land to resolve these doubts, and to lay down rules, or advice, for 
 future proceeding in relation to the Red Race. It will be suffic : ?nt to 
 oear cut the latter remark, to say, that among the sages who jeemed 
 this subject important, were a Roger Williams, a Penn, a Frnnklin, a 
 Washington, a Jefferson, a Monroe, a Crawford, and a Calhoun. 
 
 It must needs have happened, that where the Saxon race went, the 
 principles of law, justice, and freedom, must prevail. These principles, 
 as they existed in England at the beginning of the sixteenth century, 
 were transferred to America, with the Cavaliers, the Pilgrims, and the 
 Quakers, precisely, as to the two first topics, as they existed at home. 
 Private rights were as well secured, and public justice as well awarded 
 here, as there. But they also brought over the aristocratic system, 
 which was upheld by the royal governors, who were the immediate re- 
 presentatives of the crown. The doctrine was imprescriptible, that the 
 fee of all public or unpitented lands was in the crown, and all inhabit- 
 ants of the realm owed allegiance and fealty to the crown. This doc- 
 trine, when applied to the native tribes of America, left them neither
 
 INDIAN POLICY. 
 
 fee-simple in the soil, nor political sovereignty over it. It cut them 
 down to vassals, but, by a legal solecism, they were regarded as a sort 
 of free vassals. So long as the royal governments remained, they had 
 the usufruct of the public domain the right of fishing, and hunting, and 
 planting upon it, and of doing certain other acts of occupancy ; but this 
 right ceased just as soon, and as fast, as patents were granted, or the public 
 exigency required the domain. The native chiefs were quieted with 
 presents from the throne, through the local officers, and their ideas of in- 
 dependence and control were answered by the public councils, in which 
 friendships were established, and the public tranquillity looked after. 
 Private purchases were made from the outset, but the idea of a public 
 treaty of purchase of the soil under the proprietary and royal governors, 
 was not entertained before the era of William Penn. 
 
 It remained for the patriots of 1775, who set up the frame of our pre- 
 sent government, by an appeal to arms, to award the aboriginal tribes 
 the full proprietary right to the soil they respectively occupied, and to 
 guarantee to them its full and free use, until such right was relinquished 
 by treaty stipulations. So far, they were acknowledged as sovereigns. 
 This is the first step in their political exaltation, and dates, in our re- 
 cords, from the respective treaties of Fort Pitt, September 17, 1778, 
 and of Fort Stanwix, of October 22, 1784. The latter was as early 
 after the establishment of our independence, as these tribes the Six 
 nations, who, with the exception of the Oneidas, sided with the parent 
 country could be brought to listen to the terms of peace. They were 
 followed by the Wyandots, Delawares, and Chippewas, and Ottowas, 
 in January, 1785 ; by the Cherokees, in November of the same year ; 
 and by the Choctaws and Shawnees, in January, 1786. Other western 
 nations followed in 1789 ; the Creeks did not treat till 1790 And from 
 this era, the system has been continued up to the present moment. It 
 may be affirmed, that there is not an acre of land of the public domain 
 of the United States, sold at the land offices, from the days of General 
 Washington, but what has been acquired in this manner. War, in which 
 we and they have been frequently involved, since that period, has con- 
 veyed no territorial right. We have conquered them, on the field, not 
 to usurp territory, but to place them in a condition to observe how much 
 more their interests and permanent prosperity would be, and have ever 
 been, promoted by the plough than the sword. And there has been a 
 prompt recurrence, at every mutation from war to peace, punctually, to 
 that fine sentiment embraced in the first article of the first treaty ever 
 made between the American government and the Indian tribes, namely, 
 that all offences and animosities " shall be mutually forgiven, and buried 
 in deep oblivion, and never more be had in remembrance."* 
 
 * Treaty of Fort Pitt, 177S.
 
 372 INDIAN POLICY. 
 
 The first step to advance the aboriginal man to his natural and just 
 political rights, namely, thrt acknowledgment ot' his riyfu tj the toil, we 
 have mentioned ; but those that were to succeed it were more difficult 
 and complex in their bearings. Congress, from the earliest traces ol 
 their action, as they appear in their journals and public acts, confined the 
 operation of the civil code to the territory actually acquired by negotia- 
 tion, and treaties duly ratified by the Senate, and proclaimed, agreeably 
 to the Constitution, by the President. So much of this public territory 
 as fell within the respective S/o,'e lines, fell, by the terms of our politi- 
 cal compact, under State laws, and the jurisdiction of the State courts ; 
 and as soon as new tracts of the Indian territory, thus within State boun- 
 daries, were acquired, the State laws had an exact corresponding exten- 
 sion until the whole of such Indian lands had been acquired. This pro- 
 vided a definite and clear mode of action, and if it were sometimes the 
 subject of doubt or confliction, such perplexity arose from the great ex- 
 tension of the country, its sparsely settled condition, and the haste or 
 ignorance of local magistrates. And these dilficulties were invariably 
 removed whenever the cases came into the Supreme Court of the United 
 States. 
 
 Without regard to the area of the States^ but including and having 
 respect only to the territories, and to the vast and unincorporated wil- 
 derness, called the " Indian country," Congress provided a special code 
 of laws, and from the first, held over this part of the Union, and holds 
 over it now, full and complete jurisdiction. This code was designed 
 chiefly to regulate the trade carried on at those remote points between 
 the white and red men, to preserve the public tranquillity, and to provide 
 for the adjudication of offences Citizens of the United States, carrying 
 the passport, license, or authority of their government, are protected by 
 their papers thus legally oblained ; and the tribes are held answerable for 
 their good treatment, and if violence occur, for their lives. No civil 
 process, however, has efficacy in such positions ; and there is no com- 
 pulsory legal collection of debts, were it indeed practicable, on the Indian 
 territories. The customs and usages of the trade and intercourse, 
 as established from early times, prevail there. These customs are 
 chiefly founded on the patriarchal system, which was found in vogue on 
 th^ settlement of the country, and they admit of compensations and 
 prvileges founded on natural principles of equity and right. The Indian 
 criminal code, whatever that is, also prevails there. The. only excep- 
 tion to it arises from cases of Americans, maliciously killed within the 
 " Indian country," the laws of Congress providing, that the aggressors 
 should be surrendered into the hands of justice, and tried by the nearest 
 United States courts. 
 
 These preliminary facts will exhibit some of the leading features of 
 the mixed system alluded to. Its workings were better calculated for
 
 INDIAN POLICY. 373 
 
 the early stages of society, while population was sparse and the two 
 races, as bodies, kept far apart, than for its maturer periods. As the in- 
 tervening lands became ceded, and sold, and settled, and the tribes them- 
 selves began to put on aspects of civilisation, the discrepancies of the sys- 
 tem, and its want of homogeneousness and harmony, became more appa- 
 rent. Throughout the whole period of the administrations of Washington, 
 and John Adams, and Jefferson, a period of twenty years, the low state of 
 our population, and the great extent and unreclaimed character of the 
 public domain, left the Indians undisturbed, and no questions of much 
 importance occurred to test the permanency of the system as regards 
 the welfare of the Indians. Mr. Jefferson foresaw, however, the effect 
 of encroachments beyond the Ohio, and with an enlightened regard for 
 the race and their civilisation, prepared a new and consolidated code of 
 all prior acts, with some salutary new provisions, which had the effect to 
 systematize the trade and intercourse, and more fully to protect the rights 
 of the Indians. This code served, with occasional amendments, through 
 the succeeding administrations of Madison, Monroe, and John Quincy 
 Adams, into that of General Jackson, when, in 1834, the greatly ad- 
 vanced line of the frontiers, the multiplied population, and necessarily 
 increased force of the Indian department, and the large amount of Indian 
 annuities to be paid, called for its thorough revision, and a new general 
 enactment was made. 
 
 Previously, however, to this lime, during the administration of Mr. 
 Monroe, it was perceived that the Indian tribes, as separate communi- 
 ties, living in, and surrounded by, people of European descent, and gov- 
 erned by a widely different system of laws, arts, and customs, could not 
 he expected to arrive at a state of permanent prosperity while thus lo- 
 cally situated. The tendency of the Saxon institutions, laws, and juris- 
 prudence, was to sweep over them. The greater must needs absorb 
 the less. And there appeared, on wise and mature reflection, no rea- 
 sonable hope to the true friends of the native race, that they could sus- 
 tain themselves in independency or success as foreign elements in the 
 midst of the State communities. It was impossible that two systems of 
 governments, so diverse as the Indian and American, should co-exist on 
 the same territory. All history proved this. The most rational hope 
 of success for this race, the only one which indeed appeared practical 
 on a scale commensurate with the object, was to remove them, with 
 their own consent, to a position entirely without the boundaries of the 
 State jurisdictions, where they might assert their political sovereignty, 
 and live and develope their true national character, under their own 
 
 laws. . 
 
 The impelling cause for the action of the government, during Mr. 
 Monroe's administration, was the peculiar condition of certain tribes, liv- 
 in<r on their own original territories, within the State boundaries, and
 
 374 INDIAN POLICY. 
 
 who were adverse to further cessions of such territory. The question 
 assumed its principal interest in the State of Georgia, within which por- 
 tions of the Creek and Cherokee tribes were then living. About ten 
 millions of acres of lands were thus in the occupancy of these two tribes. 
 As the population of Georgia expanded and approached the Indian set- 
 tlements, the evils of the mixed political system alluded to began strong- 
 ly to evince themselves. In the progress of the dispersion of the human 
 race over the globe, there never was, perhaps, a more diverse legal, po- 
 litical, and moral amalgamation attempted, than there was found to ex- 
 ist, when, in this area, the descendants from the old Saxons, north-men 
 and Hugenots from Europe, came in contact with the descendants (we 
 speak of a theory) of the idle, pastoral, unphilosophic. non-inductive race 
 of central Asia, living in the genial climate and sunny valleys of Georgia 
 and Alabama. 
 
 The American government had embarrassed itself by stipulating at an 
 early day, with the State of Georgia, to extinguish the Indian title with- 
 in her boundaries, at the earliest practicable period, when it could be done 
 " peaceably and on reasonable conditions." The Indians, as they ad- 
 vanced in agriculture, became averse to sell. The Georgians, as they 
 increased in numbers, became importunate for the territory to which they 
 had, in this event, the reversionary right. The President was frequently 
 importuned by the State authorities. The Indians were frequently 
 brought to consider the subject, which was one that increased its impor- 
 tance with years. 
 
 We have deemed it proper to put this matter in its right attitude in 
 relation to the great question of Indian removal ; and as furnishing, as it 
 did, reasons for the early consideration and action of the government. 
 It is not our intention to pursue the Georgia question disjunctively we 
 have neither time nor space for it here, and will only further premise, 
 that it is susceptible of some very different views from those often pre- 
 mised of it.* That it was one of the prominent considerations which 
 led the administration of Monroe to take up betimes the general question 
 of the Indian tribes, is well known and remembered, and apparent from 
 a perusal of the public documents of the era. 
 
 Governed by such considerations, Mr. Monroe communicated a spe- 
 cial message to Congress on the 27th of January, 1825, recommending 
 the removal of all the tribes within the States and Territories, and pro- 
 viding for their future " location and government." This is the official 
 date and foundation of the plan of removal, which has been so generally, 
 
 * We have only space to say here, that the cession of the Georgia lands was siA- 
 seq icntly made by the Lower Creeks under the chieftaincy of General M'lntosh, 
 who was the first to affix his signature to it. For this act he paid the penalty of nis 
 life ; the Upper Creeks and their adherents, having assembled in arms, surrounded 
 his house, and fired three hundred balls into it, killing its unhappy, but distinguish- 
 ed inmate.
 
 INDIAN POLICY. 375 
 
 and may we not add, so successfully and propitiously to the best inte- 
 rests of the tribes, carried into effect. " Being deeply impressed with 
 the opinion," observes this venerated statesman, who has, years since, 
 gone to join the patriot spirits who achieved our independence " that 
 the removal of the Indian tribes from the land which they now occu- 
 py, within the limits of the several States and Territories, to the coun- 
 try lying westward and northward thereof, within our acknowledged 
 boundaries, is of very high importance to the Union, and may be accom- 
 plished on conditions, and in a manner, to promote the interests and hap- 
 piness of those tribes, the attention of the government has been long 
 drawn, with great solicitude, to the object. 
 
 44 For the removal of the tribes within the limits of the State of Geor- 
 gia, the motive has been peculiarly strong, arising from the compact with 
 that State, whereby the United States are bound to extinguish the In- 
 dian title to the lands within it, whenever it may be done peaceably, and 
 on reasonable conditions. 
 
 " In the fulfilment of this compact, I have thought that the United 
 States should act with a generous spirit, that they should omit nothing 
 which should comport with a liberal construction of the instrument, and 
 likewise be in accordance with the just rights of those tribes. From the 
 view which I have taken of the subject, I am satisfied that, in the dis- 
 charge of these important duties, in regard to both the parties alluded to, 
 the United States will have to encounter no conflicting interests with 
 either : on the contrary, that the removal of the tribes from the Territo- 
 ries which they inhabit, to that which was designated in the message at 
 the commencement of the session, which would accomplish the object 
 for Georgia, under a well digested plan for their government and civili- 
 sation, in a mode agreeable to themselves, would not only shield them 
 from impending ruin, but promote their welfare and happiness. Experi 
 ence has clearly demonstrated that, in their present state, it is impossible to 
 incorporate them, in such masses, in any form whatever, into our system. It 
 has also demonstrated, with equal certainty, that without a timely anticipa- 
 tion of, and provision against, the dangers to which they are exposed, under 
 causes which it will be difficult, if not impossible, to control, their degrada- 
 tion and extermination will be inevitable." 
 
 We have underscored the last two sentences, because they express 
 in forcible and just language, the experience of the American govern- 
 ment, in relation to the subject, after an experiment of fifty years, dating 
 from '75, and lie, indeed, at the foundation of the present Indian policy. 
 It is also the experience of sound and calm observers, who have watch- 
 ed the operation of our laws and customs upon the isolated Indian com- 
 munities in the States. Every year has exemplified the futility of rais- 
 ing them up to the European standard in industry, in intelligence or cha- 
 racter, while thus situated ; nor, indeed, has it been practicable to shield
 
 376 INDIAN POLICY. 
 
 them effectually against the combined effects of intemperance, personal 
 sloth, and of popular and vulgar contumely. 
 
 Mr. Calhoun, whose report on the subject was transmitted to Con- 
 gress, with the message above named, communicates the details essen- 
 tial to the execution of the proposed plan. He states the whole num- 
 ber of Indians to be removed from the States and Territories, excluding 
 those located west and north of Lake Michigan and the Straits of St. 
 Mary's, at 97,000 souls, who occupy about 77 millions of acres of land. 
 The country proposed for their location is that stretching immediately 
 west, beyond the boundaries of the States of MISSOURI and ARKANSAS, 
 having the River Arkansas running through its centre from west to east, 
 the Missouri and Red rivers respectively as the northern boundary, and 
 the vast grassy plains east of the Rocky Mountains, as its western 
 limit. 
 
 The map which we publish of this territory, is drawn on the basis of 
 one which was published by Congress in 1834, in illustration of the re- 
 port of the committee on Indian affairs of May 30th of that session. It 
 embraces all the locations of tribes to that period. 
 
 The plan proposed the gratuitous grant of the country to the respec- 
 tive tribes, and their removal to it at government expense. It embraces 
 the transference to it, of their schools established by religious societies, and 
 supported, in part, by the civilisation fund, and all their means of moral 
 and religious culture. It is based on the pursuit of agriculture, the me- 
 chanic arts, and the raising of cattle and stock. It invests the tribes 
 with full power of making and executing all their laws and regulations, 
 civil and criminal. It stipulates military protection, to keep the sur- 
 rounding tribes at peace. It leaves them their political sovereignty ; 
 being without the boundary of the States, under their own chiefs and 
 local governors, with such aids as are necessary to enable the various 
 tribes to associate and set up the frame of an associated government to 
 be managed by themselves, and as subsequently proposed in Congress, 
 to be represented in that body whenever the system shall be perfected 
 so as to justify this measure. It proposed, as the basis of removal, a 
 solemn act of Congress, guaranteeing the country to them, and exclud- 
 ing its future incorporation into the States. A second location, in the 
 northern latitudes, was proposed for the Indians west of Michigan, where 
 a further body of 32,266 souls were estimated to reside. 
 
 Such were the general principles of Mr. Monroe's plan, submitted in 
 1825, and subsequently adopted by Congress, in its essential features. 
 It has now been in operation EIGHTEEN YEARS, and it is proposed, in 
 bringing this paper to a close, briefly to examine the condition and pros- 
 pects of the expatriated tribes, in the country to which they have been 
 transferred. 
 
 By a report from the proper department, transmitted to Congress with
 
 INDIAN POLICY. 377 
 
 the President's messa-o in 1836, the result of the first ten years' expe- 
 riment is shown to have been the actual migration of 40,000 from 
 their original seats, east, to the allotted Indian territory, west of the Mis- 
 sissippi. Of this number, 18,000 were Creeks, 15,000 Choctaws, 6,000 
 Cherokees, 2,000 Chippewas, Oltawas, and Pottowattomies, 1,300 
 Shawnees, 800 Delawares, 500 Quapaws, 400 Seminoles, 600 Kicka- 
 poos, 400 Senecas, and an average of, say 250 each, of Appalachicolas, 
 Weas, Piankashaws, Peorias and Kaskaskias. In this statement, small 
 fractions over or under, are omitted. A location and permanent home 
 has been provided for seventeen tribes and parts of tribes ; a number 
 which, in the succeeding seven years, we speak from documents before 
 us, has been largely augmented. The whole body of the Cherokees, of 
 the Creeks, or Muscogees, of the Chickasaws and Choctaws, &c. , and 
 also, with the exception of one principal band, of the Seminoles, have 
 been removed. Portions of other tribes, not then full, have joined their 
 kindred ; and some whole tribes, who had not before come into the ar- 
 rangement, and ceded their lands east, as the Miamas of the Wabash, 
 and the Wyandots of Sanduskey, have since accepted locations in the 
 Indian territory. The Chickasaws are all located with their affiliated 
 countrymen, the Choctaws ; and numbers of the ancient Iroquois con- 
 federacy, the Six Nations of New York, as well as the ancient Mohe- 
 gans and Munsees, have, within a few years, selected locations south of 
 the Missouri. The entire number of red men now concentrated on those 
 plains and valleys, where winter scarcely exerts any severity of power, 
 may be set down at 77,000 souls, leaving, from the official report of 
 1841, but 21,774 of the original estimated number of 1825, to be remov- 
 ed ; exclusive of those west of the straits of Michilimachinac and St. 
 Mary's. 
 
 From the documents accompanying the annual report transmitted to 
 Congress by the President, in December, 1840, the amount of funds 
 invested by the government in stocks, for the Indians, was $2,580,000, 
 on which the annual interest paid to them was $131,05. Twenty-four 
 of the tribes had permanently appropriated, by treaty, $60,730 per an- 
 num, for the purpose of education. The number of schools maintained, 
 and the number of pupils actually taught, are not furnished. It is grati- 
 fying to know, from this source, that civilisation, agriculture, and the 
 mechanic arts, are making a rapid progress, and that education and 
 Christianity are walking hand-in-hand. Planting and raising cattle are 
 adopted generally. Portions of the most advanced tribes have devoted 
 themselves to the mechanic arts, supplying themselves, to a limited ex- 
 tent, with smiths, wheelwrights, carpenters, and joiners, and some other 
 branches. Spinning and hand-loom weaving are practised to some ex- 
 tent. There are native merchants, among the three principal southern 
 tribes, who ship thew own cotton and other products to market, and sup-
 
 378 INDIAN POLICY. 
 
 ply their people, in return, with such products of the East and West In- 
 dies, and other parts of the world, as they require. A large part of the 
 contracts, particularly for Indian corn, required to subsist the United 
 States troops in that quarter of the Union, is furnished by native con- 
 tractors. Their legislation is performed in representative councils, and 
 is well adapted to the actual and advancing state of society. Many of 
 their leading men are well educated ; some of them classically ; and the 
 general moral anJ intellectual tone and habits of the tribes, are clear' y 
 and strikingly on the advance. It requires, it is believed, h,ut time and 
 perseverance in civil associations, to lead them to the same results ar- 
 rived at by other barbarous nations, and to demonstrate to them the 
 value and importance of a general political confederation, founded on the 
 principles of equal rights and equal representation, supported by public 
 virtue and intelligence. 
 
 Having sketched the cause of the decline of that portion of the North 
 American Indians, who were seated along: the Atlantic, and the plan 
 proposed for checking it, we shall now, with the map and documentary 
 evidence before us, devote a few moments to the present condition and 
 prospects of the more prominent tribes. 
 
 1. The Choctaws, beginning at the extreme south of the territory, are 
 the first in position. They occupy the country above the State of Ar- 
 kansas, extending from the Arkansas to the Red river, following up the 
 Canadian branch of the former, comprising an area of about 150 miles 
 in breadth, by 200 in length. They are bounded by Texas south-west. 
 The country is well adapted for grain and the raising of stock, in its 
 middle and northern parts, and for cotton on the south. Many of the 
 natives have large fields, where, but a few years since, the forest was 
 untouched. Saw mills, grist mills, and cotton gins, are either erecting 
 or erected throughout the country. Salt is manufactured by an intelli- 
 gent Choctavv. Iron ore has been found, and specimens of gold have 
 been picked up in various places. 
 
 This tribe is governed by a written constitution and laws. Their ter- 
 ritory is divided into three districts, each of which elects, once in four 
 years, a ruling chief, and ten representatives. The general council, 
 thus constituted, and consisting of thirty councillors, meets annually, on 
 the first Monday in October. Voters must be Choctaws, of age, and 
 residents of the districts. The three chiefs have a joint veto power 
 on all laws passed ; but two-thirds of the council may re-pass them after 
 such rejection. 
 
 The council of thirty appoint their own speaker and clerk, and keep 
 a journal. They meet in a large and commodious council-house, fitted 
 up with seats for members and spectators, and committee rooms. Their 
 sessions are, usually, about ten days in duration. They are paid two 
 dollars per diem for their services, out of public funds.
 
 INDIAN POLICY. 379 
 
 In addition to this evidence of capacity for self-government, there are 
 judicial districts established, the right of trial by jury is secured, and 
 there is an appeal to the highest tribunal. All the males, of a special 
 age, are subject to do military duty : for this purpose the territory is 
 subdivided into thirty two captaincies, the whole being placed under the 
 orders of a general. The council has passed many good and wholesome 
 laws ; among them, one against intemperance and the sale of ardent 
 spirits. The collection of debts is at present not compulsory, being 
 regulated by questions of credit, punctuality, and honor, which are to be 
 adjusted between the buyer and seller. The country is too sparsely 
 settled, and the popular odium against incarceration too strong, to permit 
 a resort to it. Thus, it will be seen, this tribe exhibit in their frame 
 of government the elements of a representative republic, not a pure 
 democracy, with perhaps sufficient conservative power to guard against 
 sudden popular effervescence. 
 
 The Choctaws have twelve public schools, established by treaty 
 stipulations with the United States. There are several missionaries 
 amongst them, of the Presbyterian and Methodist denominations, whose 
 labors are reported by the public agents to be beneficial, and calculated 
 to advance their condition. There are four public blacksmith shops, 
 two of which are exclusively worked by the natives. The strikers, or 
 assistants, at all the shops, are natives. Shops have also been erected, 
 in various parts of the nation, which are occupied only in the spring and 
 summer, in planting and crop time. The mechanics in these are na- 
 tives, who are paid, not by the individuals requiring aid, but out of public 
 funds. The nation has an academy located in Scott county, Kentucky, 
 at which 125 students were taught in 1839 and 1840. This institution 
 is now in the process of being established in their own territory. This 
 tribe we learn by the Secretary of War's report, appropriated $18,000 
 of their annuities, in 1843, to educational purposes. 
 
 2. Chickasaws. This tribe is of the same lineage as the Choctaws ; 
 and, by a compact with the latter, they occupy the same territory, and 
 live intermixed with them. It constitutes a part of this compact, that 
 the Chickasaws are to concentrate their population, and form a fourth 
 election district, which shall be entitled to elect ten representatives, and 
 three senatorial chiefs, to the national Council. The aggregate amount 
 of the vested funds of this tribe, in 1840, was $515,230 44; of which 
 $146,000 is devoted to orphans. The annual interest paid by the gov- 
 ernment is $27,063 83. They participate equally in the advantages of 
 the Choctaw academy, and have had many of their youth educated at 
 that institution. 
 
 3. Next, in geographical position, to the united Choctaws and Chick- 
 asaws, are 'the^Muskogees, who are more generally known under the 
 name of Creeks. They occupy a territory one hundred and fifty mile*
 
 380 i.VbJAN POLICY. 
 
 :n length, by ninety ; n breadth. Tney are bounded on the south by the 
 Canadian fork of the Arkansas, and by the district of the Seminoles, 
 which lies between the main branch of this stream and its north fork. 
 Their territory reaches to a point opposite the junction of the Neosho, 
 and is protracted thence north to the Cherokee boundary. It is a rich 
 tract, well adapted to the growth of corn, vegetables, and esculents, 
 and the raising of stock. It is not as abundantly watered by running 
 streams as some of the tracts, or rather, it is a characteristic of its 
 smaller streams that they run dry, or stand in pools, during the latter 
 part of summer. In place of these, it has some good spiings. The 
 main and the north fork of the Canadian are exemptions from the effects 
 of summer drouth. In point of salubrity, the country is not inferior to 
 other portions of the Indian territory. 
 
 The government of the Creeks is still essentially the same which 
 they exercised on the banks of the Chattahoochee and the plains of 
 Georgia. They exist in chieftainships, each head of which has his own 
 local jurisdiction, civil and criminal. Each ruling chief has his village 
 and his adherents ; and the condition of things partakes of what we shall 
 be understood by designating feudal traits. They have no written con- 
 stitution ; their laws are, however, now reduced in part to writing. 
 General councils, or conventions, not exact in the period of their occur- 
 rence, consider and decide all general questions. At these, the chief- 
 tainships are all entitled to representation. Local questions, of right 
 and police, come before the local chiefs, and are settled according to 
 usage. They adhere to the original mode of working common or town 
 fields, at which it is the duty of all to assist, both in the original clear- 
 ing and in the annual labor of planting and reaping. There are also in- 
 dividuals, possessing slaves, who manage pretty extensive plantations. 
 More corn is raised by this tribe than by any other now located West. 
 Over and above their own wants, they have for several years had a 
 large amount for sale and exportation. Less attention has been paid to 
 the raising of stock, for which, indeed, the country has been deemed less 
 propitious ; but this branch of industry has of late years attracted more 
 attention. 
 
 The Creeks had, for many years prior to their removal, been divided 
 into upper and lower towns a distinction which has been transferred to 
 the West. Opothleyoholo is the chief of the Upper, and Roly Mcln- 
 tosh of the Lower Creeks. These two chieftainships embrace the lesser 
 ones, and divide the nation into two parties. It was the Lower towns, 
 headed by the father of the present chif (whose tragic death we have 
 mentioned), that ceded the Georgian territory, and thus sided in the 
 policy of that State. The condition in which this tribe existed, in por- 
 tions of Georgi.i, Alabama, and Mississippi, was, in other respects, pecu- 
 liar. In emerging, as they were well in the process of doing, from the
 
 INDIAN POLICY. 381 
 
 hunter to the agricultural state, the institution of slavery, by which they 
 were surrounded, and in which they participated, gave a peculiar de- 
 velopment to their industry. Chiefs, who were averse to work them- 
 selves, employed slaves, and thus the relation of planter and slave 
 was established long before the question of their removal occurred. The 
 effects of this were to exalt a portion of the nation above, and to depress 
 others below, the average standing. The disparity which took place in 
 laborious habits and in wealth, also impressed itself on education, dress, 
 manners, and in brination generally. Although the idea of slavery was 
 well known to the red race from the earliest times, and they all have a 
 word for it, in their native vocabularies, and practised it on their pri- 
 soners, yet the result we are considering was accelerated by an admix- 
 ture of European blood in their chieftains. Hence it is that this 
 tribe, and one or two others in the south, have for years been able to 
 put forth intelligent chiefs to transact their public business, who have 
 astonished the circles at Washington. Yet, if they were followed to 
 the huts of the common people, at home, there was a degree of igno- 
 rance and barbarity, even below the standard of our leading northern 
 tribes. Two kinds of testimony, respecting the condition of the southern 
 tribes, both very different, and both true, could therefore be given. 
 
 The Creeks came west, soured and disappointed, and but little dis- 
 posed for the effort before them. They had suffered in various ways, 
 and they had left the southern slopes and sunny valleys of the southern 
 Alleganies with " a longing, lingering look." They had never mani- 
 fested a general interest in schools, and none whatever in religion. The 
 latter is still the prevalent feeling. It is believed there is not a mission- 
 ary now tolerated among them. There is a more friendly feeling towards 
 education Neither had they made much advance in mechanic arts. 
 The chiefs were too proud, the common people too indolent, to learn the 
 use of the saw or the hammer. Some change, in this respect, is 
 thought to have ensued. Mechanics are employed for their benefit and 
 at their charges, by the government, which must introduce the elements 
 of mechanical industry. They dress in a rather gaudy, but picturesque 
 manner. Th^y live in comfortable houses of squared or scored logs, 
 fitted up with useful articles of furniture, and they employ beasts of 
 burthen and'of pleasure. It is the evidence of the government agents, 
 that the signs of advancing thrift and industry are among them. Time 
 alone, it is believed, is necessary, with a perseverance in present efforts, 
 to carry them onwards to civilisation and prosperity.* 
 
 4. Seminoles. This tribe is of the language and lineage of the 
 Creeks. They are appropriately placed on a tract within the general 
 
 * This tribe has, the past year (1843), passed a law expelling all white men 
 wh'. play at cards, from the limits of the nation, whether they have Indian 
 wives or not. '
 
 382 INDIAN POLICY. 
 
 area of the latter, bounded on the south by the Canadian fork of tne 
 Arkansas, and by the lands of the Choctaws and Chickasaws. The 
 tract has an extent of seventy miles from east to west, and is fully ade- 
 quate to their wants. A blacksmith's shop is maintained for them ; 
 they are furnished with agricultural implements, and have been gratui- 
 tously subsisted, as other tribes, one year, at the public expense. It is 
 thought to be unfavorable to their progress, that they have been allowed 
 to migrate with their slaves, who are averse to labor and exei t a para- 
 lysing influence on their industry. This tribe is far behind the other 
 southern tribes in civilisation and manners. They occupied, while in 
 Florida, a region truly tropical in its climate, and which yielded spon- 
 taneously no unimportant part of their subsistence, in the arrowroot and 
 in sea fish. Their chief product thus far, in the west, has been corn. 
 They live under the authority of local chiefs, who, as in all their past 
 history, exercise influence in proportion to their talents and courage. 
 Their withdrawal from scenes and situations which served as nurseries 
 of idle, savage habits, and their association with the other leading tribes, 
 who are now bent on supporting themselves exclusively by agriculture, 
 have been favorable. They have been at peace since their arrival on 
 the waters of the Arkansas ; and it is anticipated that they will, by ex- 
 ample and emulation, assimilate themselves in industry with the pre- 
 existing tribes. It has already been demonstrated that they will sus- 
 tain themselves in their new field of labor. But few of their numbers 
 from the last accounts not exceeding 100* now remain in Florida. 
 
 5. Cherokees. This tribe is prominent among the native stocks in 
 the United States, and is foremost in the efforts it has made to take rank 
 among civilized nations. In this effort it has passed through some 
 severe and tragic ordeals from internal dissensions, from which it would 
 seem, that in proportion as the prize is brought within their grasp, are 
 the trials multiplied which delay its seizure. And, notwithstanding its 
 strong claims to consideration on this head, they have, it must be ad- 
 mitted, much to attain. The original position of the Cherokees, in 
 the valleys and the western spurs of the Alleganies, and remote from 
 the disturbing causes which agitated the other tribes, was highly favor- 
 able to their increase and advance. No tribe in North America had 
 remained so completely undisturbed, by red or white men, up to the 
 year 1836. They were early, and to a considerable extent, cultiva- 
 tors ; and whatever they were in ancient tirr~^, they have been a 
 nation at peace, for a long period. Soon after the close of the late 
 war of 1812, a portion of this tribe went over the Mississippi, and, by 
 a compact with government, placed themselves between the waters of 
 the White river and the Arkansas. This advance formed the nucleus 
 
 Secretary of. War's report, 1843.
 
 INDIAN POL!CY. 383 
 
 of that political party, who have mingled in their recent assemblies 
 under the name of Western Cherokees, and who deemed themselves 
 to be entitled to some rights and considerations above the Eastern 
 Cherokees. The principal dissensions, however, grew out of the 
 question of the cession of the territory east of the Mississippi. This 
 was a broad question of sale or no sale, emigration or non-emigration. 
 At the head of the affirmative party was Ridge ; at the head of the 
 negative, Ross. The latter, in addition to his being the leading chief 
 and most prominent man, was in a large majority, and, for a time, 
 successfully resisted the measure. The former drew a numbei of 
 the best educated chiefs and men to his side. Availin^ himself of 
 
 O 
 
 the temporary absence of his antagonist, Ross, from the country, he 
 ceded the country, and sealed the fate of his tribe east of the Mis- 
 sissippi. It was a minority treaty, but the consideration was ample ; 
 it secured large prospective advantages, besides a large and rich domain 
 in the West. It was, therefore, sustained by the government ; the U. S. 
 Senate ratified it, adding some further immunities and further compensa- 
 tion, at the instance of Ross. The tribe was removed, but it went west 
 with a deadly feud. In the end, Ridge, like Mclntosh, paid for his 
 temerity with his life. A representative government was set up, consist- 
 ing of a house of delegates or representatives, annually chosen by dis- 
 tricts ; a senatorial council, with powers of revision or co-action, and an 
 executive elective head. A code of laws has been adopted, and a 
 judiciary created to carry them into effect. This system, which has been 
 in operation some six or seven years, has been found adequate to 
 sustain itself through scenes of severe trial ; and it must be regarded 
 as one which, modified as it may be, is destined to endure. 
 
 The territory of the Cherokees is between that of the Creeks and 
 Osages. It is ample beyond their wants, fertile, and generally well 
 watered. The Arkansas crosses it centrally ; it has the Ncosho and 
 the State of Arkansas as its eastern boundary. It is well adapted to 
 the cereal grains. Corn, wheat and oats succeed well, together with 
 melons and culinary vegetables of all descriptions. The Cherokees 
 have been long accustomed to husbandry. They own large stocks of 
 horses, cattle, hogs and sheep. They occupy substantial and comforta- 
 ble houses. Many of their females spin and weave, and numbers of 
 their people are clothed in their own manufactures. Well improved 
 farms extend through their settlements. A number of their merchants 
 are natives, who buy and sell produce, and import foreign merchandise. 
 Reading and writing are common attainments. They have schools and 
 churches. They have mills for grinding grain. They manufacture salt 
 to a limited extent. The country yields stone coal and gypsum. The 
 prairies, which are interspersed through the tract, yield a fine summer 
 range for ca.tle, and produce a species of grass, which, when property
 
 384 INDIAN POL,; 
 
 cured, is little inferior to timothy. With a country which has thus the 
 elements of prosperity in itself, and an intelligent and industrious popu- 
 lation, this tribe must, ere long, present the gratit'ying spectacle of a 
 civilized race. 
 
 6. The Osages. This tribe is indigenous, and formerly owned a 
 large part of the territory which is now assigned to others. Their habits 
 and condition have been, however, but little benefited hy the use which 
 they have made of their annuities. Great exertions have been made by 
 the local agents to induce them to give up their erratic mode of life, 
 and become agriculturists. To this end stock and agricultural imple- 
 ments have been furnished them, and other facilities given, but without 
 any general effects. Among these may be named the building of mills, 
 and the erection of well built cabins for their chiefs. There is no tribe 
 to which the term predatory may be so appropriately applied as to the 
 Osages. They have, from an early day, been plunderers on that fron- 
 tier, among red and white men. Possessing a large territory, formerly 
 well supplied with the deer, elk and buffalo, powerful in numbers, cou- 
 rageous in spirit, and enjoying one of the finest climates, these early 
 predatory habits have been transmitted to the present day. They are 
 loth to relinquish this wild license of the prairies the so-called free- 
 dom of the roving Indian. But it is a species of freedom which the 
 settlement of Missouri and Arkansas, and the in-gathering of the semi- 
 civilized tribes from the south and the north, has greatly restricted. 
 Game has become comparatively scarce. The day of the hunter is well 
 nigh past in those longitudes. When to this is added the example of 
 the expatriated Indians, in tillage and grazing, their field labors in 
 fencing and erecting houses, their improved modes of dress, their 
 schools, and their advanced state of government and laws, the hope 
 may be indulged that the Osages will also be stimulated to enter for the 
 prize of civilisation. 
 
 Such are the six principal tribes who form the nucleus, or, to use a 
 military phrase, the right wing of the expatriated aboriginal population, 
 as the bands are arranged in their order from south to north, in the 
 trans-Ozark or Indian territory. It would afford us pleasure to devote 
 some separate considerations to each of the remaining nineteen tribes and 
 half tribes, or remnants and pioneers of tribes, who make up this impos- 
 ing and interesting colony, where, for the first time since the settlement 
 of the Continent, the Indian race is presented ir ; an independent, com- 
 pact, and prosperous condition. But it would manifestly extend this 
 article beyond its just limits, and we must therefore generalize our re- 
 maining notices. 
 
 We still, however, adhere to a geographical method. The Senecas 
 from Sandusky, and the mixed Senecas and Shawnees, are situated 
 northeast of the Cherokees, and between the latter and the western
 
 INb.AN POLICY. 
 
 boundary of Missouri. They possess a hundred thousand acres of choice 
 lands. The Sanduskies number 251 souls ; the mixed band, 222. They 
 are represented as farmers and stock-raisers, frugal, industrious, and less 
 addicted to intemperance than their neighbors. They cultivated, in 
 1839, from two hundred and fifty to three hundred acres of corn. They 
 have a blacksmith's shop, under treaty stipulations, and possess good 
 stocks of horses, cattle, and hogs. The Quapaws adjoin the Senecas 
 and Shawnees on the north, and, as the latter, have their lands fronting 
 on the Neosho. This band formerly owned and ceded the south banks 
 of the Arkansas from its mouth as high as the Canadian fork. They are 
 indolent, much addicted to'the use of ardent spirits, and depressed in 
 numbers. They have a tract of 96,000 acres. They cultivate, generally, 
 about one hundred acres of corn, in a slovenly manner. Part of their 
 numbers are seated on the waters of Red River, and the Indian predilec- 
 tion for rowing is nourished by the frequent habit of passing to and fro. 
 This erratic habit is an unerring test of the hunter state. 
 
 The Piankashaws and Weas are of the Miami stock, and came from 
 the waters of the Wabash. They are located on 255 sections, immedi- 
 ately west of the western boundary of Missouri, and about 40 miles 
 south of the Konza. Their population is 334, of which 222 are Weas. 
 Immediately west of them are the Peorias and Kaskaskias of the Illinois 
 family. They number 132, and possess 150 sections, which gives an 
 average of more than a square mile to each soul. Still west of these, 
 are the Ottowas of Ohio, about 200 in number, and above them, a small 
 band of 61 of the Chippewas of Swan Creek and Black River in Michi- 
 gan. These locations are all on the sources of the Osage River. The 
 lands are fine, partly woods and partly prairie, and are easily cultivated. 
 These six fragmentary bands are not dissimilar in their habits of living 
 and the state of their advance in agriculture. They subsist themselves 
 by raising corn and cattle and hogs. They evince an advancing condi- 
 tion, and are surrounded by circumstances eminently favorable to it. 
 
 The Shawnees are placed at the junction of the Konza with the Mis- 
 souri, extending south and west. They number a little short of 1300, 
 and own a territory of ten thousand square miles, or 6,400,000 acres. 
 They are cultivators and graziers in an advanced state of improvement. 
 Hunting may be occasionally resorted to as a sport or amusement, but it 
 has, years since, been abandoned as a source of subsistence. Indeed, 
 the failure of the game in that region would have rendered the latter im- 
 perative, had not their improved habits of industry led to it. This tribe 
 have essentially conquered their aversion to labor. They drive oxen 
 and horses trained to the plough. They split rails and build fences. 
 They erect substantial cabins and barns. They have old corn in theit 
 cribs from year to year They own good saddle-horses and saddles, and 
 
 25
 
 386 INDIAN POLICY. 
 
 Other articles of caparison, and a traveller or visitor will find a good meal, 
 a clean bed, and kind treatment in their settlements. 
 
 Next in position to the Shawnees are the Delawares, the descend- 
 ants of the ancient Lenno Lenapees of Pennsylvania. Allies and kin- 
 dred in their ancient position, they are still in juxtaposition in their new. 
 Their tract begins at the junction of the Konza and Missouri on the 
 north, and after running up the former to the Konza reserve, extends 
 north and west so ;is to embrace it on the north. It contains about 
 2450 square miles, or 2,208,000 acres. They number, at the last dates 
 to which we have referred, 826 souls, and are on the increase. In point 
 of habits, industry, and improvement, they are perhaps not inferior to 
 any of the northern stocks. Shielded from intemperance by their posi- 
 tion, out of the State limits, where they are exclusively under the influ- 
 ence and protection of Congress laws, this tribe, together with the entire 
 circle of Indian communities on that frontier, has been for some years 
 in a favourable position for recovering and developing their true energies. 
 They have, within a few years, received into their protection a small 
 band (182) of the Monceys, and a smaller one, of 74, of the Stockbridges : 
 the latter, we need hardly inform the intelligent reader, are descendants 
 of the ancient Mohegans, and the former of the Minsi and Minnisinks, 
 who, at the era of the colonization of " Nova Belgica" and New York, 
 were respectively located on the east and the west banks of the Hudson. 
 The Stockbridges are civilized ; the Munsees less so, but industrious. 
 Both are poor, and without funds. 
 
 Immediately succeeding the Delawares are the Kickapoos, an erratic 
 race, who, under various names, in connection with the Foxes and Sacs, 
 have, in good keeping with one of their many names,* skipped over half 
 the continent, to the manifest discomfort of both German and American 
 philologists and ethnographers, who, in searching for the so-called " Mas- 
 cotins," have followed, so far as their results are concerned, an ignis 
 fatuus. The Kickapoos have 12,000 square miles, or 768,000 acres. 
 It is a choice, rich tract, and they are disposed, with the example of the 
 Delewares and Shawnees, to profit by it. They raise corn and cattle, 
 hogs and horses, and are prosperous. Their numbers, in 1840, were 
 470. There is a tract of 200 square miles, on the Great and Little 
 Namaha, assigned to the metifs, or descendants of mixed blood, of the 
 lowas, Otoes, and Missouris. These separate the removed and semi- 
 civilized tribes, south and west of the Missouri, from the wild indige- 
 nes we mean the Otoes, the Pawnees, the Oniahaws, and the Sioux, 
 who extend over vast tracts, and exist without any sensible improve- 
 ment in their condition. The same remark may be applied to the Kon- 
 zas, who are, however, hemmed in between the Delawares and the 
 
 * This is said, by one interpretation, to mean Rabbit's Ghost
 
 INDIAN POLICY. 3g7 
 
 Shawnees, except on their western borders. It is no part of our purpose 
 to consider these tribes, as, over and above the influence of contiguous 
 examples, they constitute no part of the evidence affecting the general 
 question of the plan of removal. 
 
 That this evidence, as now briefly sketched, is favorable, and indeed 
 highly favorable, to the general condition and prosperity of the removed 
 tribes, is, we apprehend, clearly manifest. Not only have they been 
 placed beyond the wasting influence of causes which oppressed them, 
 within the circle of the State communities ; but they have received in 
 exchange for their eastern lands, a territory which, as a whole, is highly 
 fertile and salubrious. It is a territory which has required little compa- 
 rative labor to cultivate, made up as it is of mixed forests and prairies. 
 It is also, viewed in ei/enso, well watered, having those noble streams, 
 the Red River, the Arkansas, the Konza, the Platte, and the Missouri, 
 with their tributaries, running through it. The range which it affords 
 for cattle and stock, and the abundance of wild hay, of a nutritious qual- 
 ity, has proved very favorable to an incipient agricultural population, and 
 greatly mitigated the ordinary labors of farming in northern climates. 
 There are no latitudes in North America more favorable to the growth 
 of corn. The cotton plant has been introduced by the Choctaws and 
 Chickasaws, on the banks of Red river. It is a region abounding in salt 
 springs and gypsum beds, both which must hereafter be fully developed, 
 and will prove highly advantageous. It is above the first or principal 
 rapids of the great streams running down the plateau of the Rocky Moun- 
 tains, and consequently affords sites for water-mills, which are scarce 
 and almost unknown on the lower Arkansas. There is, indeed, a com- 
 bination of circumstances, which are calculated to favor the General 
 Government plan, and foster the Indians in a general attempt at civilisa- 
 tion and self-government. And we look with interest, and not without 
 anxiety, at the result of the experiment. 
 
 We are aware that there are trials before them, arising from great 
 diversity of feelings and opinions, and states of civilisation. Some of 
 the tribes are powerful, advanced, and wealthy ; some feeble and poor. 
 Education has very unequally affected them. Laws are in their embryo 
 state. The Gospel has been but partially introduced. In clothing the 
 native councils with some of the powers of a congress, and regulating 
 their action by constitutional fixity, there is great care and deliberation 
 required, not, at once, to grasp too much. There is perhaps yet greater 
 danger in enlarging the authority of the chiefs and sagamores into some- 
 thin^ like presidential dimensions. The natives have great powers of 
 imitation ; and it is to be feared that they will content themselves by 
 imitating things which they do not fully understand or appreciate. , The 
 national character of the Indians is eminently tuspicious. There is a 
 fear to trust others, even themselves. Delegated power is narrowly
 
 388 
 
 INDIAN POLICY. 
 
 watched, ai.d often begrudged when given. The acts of tneir public 
 men ore uniformly impugned. The thought seems hardly to be enter- 
 tained by the common Indians, that an officer may be guided by right 
 and honest motives. The principle of suspicion has, so to say, eaten out 
 the Indian heart. The jealousy with which he has watched the white 
 man, in all periods of his history, is but of a piece with that with which he 
 watches his chiefs, his neighbors, and his very family. Exaltation of 
 feeling, liberality of sentiment, justness of reasoning, a spirit of conces- 
 sion, and that noble faith and trust which arise from purity and virtue, 
 are the characteristics of civilisation ; and we should not be disappointed 
 if they do not, all at once, grow and flourish in these nascent communi- 
 ties. Still, our hopes predominate over our fears. Where so much has 
 been accomplished as we see by the Cherokees, the Choctaws, and 
 Chickasaws, and our most advanced northern tribes, we expect more. 
 From the tree that bear blossoms, we expect fruit. 
 
 We have no expectation, however, that without some principles of 
 general political association, the tribes can permanently advance. To 
 assume the character and receive the respect of a commonwealth, they 
 must have the political bonds of a commonwealth. Our Indian tribes have 
 never possessed any of these bonds. They are indeed the apparent rem- 
 nants of old races, which have been shivered into fragments, and never 
 found the capacity to re-unite. The constant tendency of all things, 
 in a state of nature, has been to divide. The very immensity of the con- 
 tinent, its varied fertility and resources, and its grand and wild features, 
 led to this. Hitherto, the removed tribes in the West have opposed an 
 associated government. They have stoutly and effectually resisted and 
 rejected this part of the government scheme. They fear, the agents 
 say, it is some plan to bring them under the civil yoke. Time, reflec- 
 tion, and education must tend to correct this. More than all, their civil 
 dissensions must tend to show the necessity of a more enlarged and gen- 
 eral frame of government, in which some individual rights must be yield- 
 ed to the public, to secure the enjoyment of the rest. We think there 
 is some evidence of the acknowledgment of this want, in their occasional 
 general councils, at which all the tribes have been invited to be present. 
 During the last year (1843) such a convocation was held at Tahlequah, 
 the seat of the Cherokee government. At this, there were delegates 
 present from the Creeks, Chickasaws, Delawares, Shawnees, Pianka- 
 shaws, Weas, Osages, Senecas, Stockbridges, Ottowas, Chippewas, 
 Peorias, Pottowattomies, and Seminoles. The result of these delibera- 
 tions, we are informed, was a compact in which it was agreed : 
 
 1 . To maintain peace and friendship among each other. 
 
 2. To abstain from the law of retaliation for offences. 
 
 3. To provide for improvements in agriculture, the arts, and manu- 
 factures.
 
 INDIAN POLICY. 389 
 
 4. To provide against any cession of their territory, in any form. 
 
 5. To punish crimes, committed by one tribe, in the bounds of 
 another. 
 
 6. To provide for a general citizenship among the contracting parties. 
 
 7. To suppress the use or introduction of ardent spirits. 
 
 These are very mixed principles, containing no basis of a government ; 
 yet, futile as they are, we apprehend they contain no effective power 
 for their enforcement. A law without a penalty is like a rope of sand. 
 Any of these parties might nullify either of these acts, by neglecting 
 to enforce it. It is, we apprehend, the mere expression of the popular 
 will, in a council, without any binding obligation of the whole, or a ma- 
 jority of the tribes, to compel obedience from the delinquent members. 
 It may, however, lead to further deliberations ; and we cannot but regard 
 the movement as one which betokens political forethought and purpose. 
 
 Our greatest apprehensions, we must confess, before closing this paper, 
 arise from the peculiar geographical position of the Indian territory with 
 relation to our own. And this could not, perhaps, have been anticipated 
 twenty years ago, when the plan was formed. Our population is on the 
 broad move west. Nothing, it is evident, will now repress them this side 
 of the Pacific. The snowy heights of the Rocky Mountains are already 
 scaled ; and we but apply the results of the past to the future, in saying 
 that the path which has been trod by a few, will be trod by many. Now, 
 the removed tribes are precisely in the centre of this path. From the 
 mouth of the Platte, or the Konza, the great highway to the Oregon 
 must run west. Whether this new tide of emigration will be successful 
 or unsuccessful, will those who compose it spare to trample on the red 
 man ? Will they suddenly become kind to him, to whom they have 
 been unkind ? Will they cease to desire the lands which their children 
 want ? Will they consent to see the nation separated by an Indian 
 state ? Will they award honors, nay, justice, to that state ? Twenty 
 years will answer these questions. 
 
 CHOCTAWS. An appropriation of $113,000 has been made by Con- 
 gress for the removal and subsistence of the Choctaws now in Missis- 
 sippi. There are upwards of six thousand in our state, comprising 
 about eleven hundred families. These are under Colonels Johnson and 
 Fisher. The half of the money due the Indians, and lo be paid after 
 their landing in their new homes in the West, is to be funded. This 
 will effectually prevent all speculation, and enable the Indians to obtain 
 and hold what is due them. Those now in the state are guarded against 
 all coercive measures for their removal, and left free to go West or 
 remain in their homes in Mississippi. Southern Reformer.
 
 
 NURSERY AND CRADLE SONGS OF THE FOREST. 
 
 The tickenagun, or Indian cradle, is an object of great pride with an 
 Indian mother. She gets the finest kind of broad cloth she possibly can 
 to make an outer swathing band for it, and spares no pains in ornament- 
 ing it with beads and ribbons, worked in various figures. In the lodges 
 of those who can afford it, there is no article more showy and pretty than 
 the full bound cradle. The frame of the cradle itself is a curiosity. It 
 consists of three pieces. The vertebral board, which supports the back, 
 the hoop or foot-board, which extends tapering up each side, and the arch 
 or bow. which springs from each side, and protects the face and head. 
 These are tied together with deer's sinews or pegged. The whole struc- 
 ture is very light, and is carved with a knife by the men, out of the linden 
 or maple tree. 
 
 Moss constitutes the bed of the infant, and is also put between the child's 
 feet to keep them apart and adjust the shape of them, according to custom. 
 A one-point blanket of the trade, is the general and immediate wrapper of 
 the infant, within the hoop, and the ornamented swathing band is wound 
 around the whole, and gives it no little resemblance to the case of a small 
 mummy. As the bow passes directly above the face and eyes, trinkets 
 are often hung upon this, to amuse it, and the child gets its first ideas of 
 ornament from these. The hands are generally bound down with the 
 body, and only let out occasionally, the head and neck being the only part 
 which is actually free. So bound and laced, hooped and bowed, the little 
 fabric, with its inmate, is capable of being swung on its mother's back, and 
 carried through the thickest forest without injury. Should it even fall no 
 injury can happen. The bow protects the only exposed part of the frame. 
 And when she stops to rest, or enters the lodge, it can be set aside like any 
 other household article, or hung up by the cradle strap on a peg. Nothing, 
 indeed, could be better adapted to the exigencies of the forest life. And in 
 such tiny fabrics, so cramped and bound, and bedecked and trinketed, 
 their famous Pontiacs and King Philips, and other prime warriors, were 
 once carried, notwithstanding the skill they afterwards acquired in wield- 
 ing the lance and war club. 
 
 The Indian child, in truth, takes its first lesson in the art of endurance, 
 in the cradle. When it cries it need not be unbound to nurse it. If the 
 mother be young, she must put it to sleep herself. If she have younger 
 isters or daughters they share this care with her. If the lodge be roomy 
 and high, as lodges sometimes are, the cradle is suspended to the top poles 
 
 390
 
 CRADLE SONGS OF THE FOREST. 
 
 to be Swung. If not, or the weather be fine, it is tied to the limb of a 
 tree, with small cords made from the inner bark of the linden,'and a vi- 
 bratory motion given to it from head to foot by the mother or some atten- 
 dant. The motion thus communicated, is that of the pendulum or com- 
 mon swing, and may be supposed to be the easiest and most agreeable 
 possible to the chikl. It is from this motion that the leading idea of the 
 cradle song is taken. 
 
 1 have often seen the red mother, or perhaps a sister of the child, lei- 
 surely swinging a pretty ornamented cradle to and fro in this way, in 
 order to put the child to sleep, or simply to amuse it. The following spe- 
 cimens of these wild-wood chaunts, or wigwam lullabys, are taken from 
 my notes upon this subject, during many years of familiar intercourse with 
 the aboriginals. If they are neither numerous nor attractive, placed side 
 by sidd with the rich nursery stores of more refined life, it is yet a plea- 
 sant fact to have found such things even existing at all amongst a people 
 supposed to possess so few of the amenities of life, and to have so little 
 versatility of character. 
 
 Meagre as these specimens seem, they yet involve no small degree of 
 philological diligence, as nothing can be more delicate than the inflexions 
 of these pretty chaunts, and the Indian woman, like her white sister, gives 
 a delicacy of intonation to the roughest words of her language. The 
 term wa-wa often introduced denotes a wave of the air, or the circle des- 
 cribed by the motion of an object through it, as we say, swing, swing, a 
 term never applied to a wave of water. The latter is callec tegoo, or if it 
 be crowned with foam. beta. 
 
 In introducing the subjoined specimens of these simple see saws of the 
 lodge and forest chaunts, the writer felt, that they were almost too frail of 
 structure to be trusted, without a gentle hand, amidst his rougher materials. 
 He is permitted to say, in regard to them, that they have been exhibited to 
 Mrs. Elizabeth Oakes Smith, herself a refined enthusiast of the woofs r 
 and that the versions from the original given, are from her chaste ai 
 
 truthful pen. 
 
 In the following arch little song, the reader has only to imagine a ptay- 
 ful <ri, 1 trying to put a restless child to sleep, who pokes its little head, wrth, 
 Muck hair and keen eyes over the side of the cradle, and the girl sings, 
 imitating its own piping tones. 
 
 Ahwanain? (Who is this?) 
 
 Ahwanain? (Who is this?) 
 
 Wa yau was sa (Giving light-meaning the light of the eye) 
 
 Ko pwasod. (On the top of my lodge.) 
 
 Who is this ? who is this? eye-light bringing, 
 To the roof of the lodge ?
 
 392 CRADLE SONGS OP THE FOREST. 
 
 And then she assumes the tone of the little screech owl, and answers 
 Kob kob kob (It is I the little owl) 
 
 Nim be e zhau (Coming,) 
 
 Kob kob kob (It is I the little owl) 
 
 Nim be e zhau (Coming,) 
 
 Kit che kit che. (Down ! down !) 
 
 It is I, it is I, hither swinging, (\va vva) 
 Dodge, dodge, baby dodge ; 
 
 And she springs towards it and down goes the little head. This u 
 repeated with the utmost merriment upon both sides. 
 
 Who is this, who is this eye-light bringing 
 
 To the roof of my lodge ? 
 It is I, it is I, hither swinging, 
 
 Dodge, dodge, baby dodge. 
 
 Here is another, slower and monotonous, but indicating the utmoat 
 maternal content : 
 
 Swinging, swinging, lul la by, 
 
 Sleep, little daughter sleep, 
 'Tis your mother watching by, 
 
 Swinging, swinging she will keep, 
 Little daughter lul la by. 
 
 'Tis your mother loves you dearest, 
 
 Sleep, sleep, daughter sleep, 
 Swinging, swinging, ever nearest, 
 
 Baby, baby, do not weep; 
 Little daughter, lul la by. 
 
 Swinging, swinging, lul la by, 
 
 Sleep, sleep, little one, 
 And thy mother will be nigh 
 
 Swing, swing, not alone ^ 
 Little daughter, lul la by. 
 
 This of course is exceedingly simple, but be it remembered these 
 chaunts are always so in the most refined life. The ideas are the same, 
 that of tenderness and protective care only, the ideas being few, the lan- 
 guage is in accordance. To my mind it has been a matter of extreme 
 interest to observe how almost identical are the expressions of a fleet ion in 
 all states of society, as though these primitive elements admit of no pro- 
 gress, but are perfect in themselves. The e-we-yea of the Indian woman 
 is entirely analogous to the lul la by of our language, and will be seen to 
 be exceedingly pretty in itself.
 
 CRADLE SONGS OP THE FOREST. 
 
 2. The original words of this, with their literal import, are also added, 
 to preserve the identity. 
 
 (a.) 
 
 Wa wa wa wa wa we yea, (Swinging, twice, lullaby.) 
 Nebaun nebaun nebaun, (Sleep thou, thrice.) 
 Nedaunis-ais, e we yea, (Little daughter, lullaby.) 
 Wa wa wa wa wa wa, (Swinging, thrice.) 
 Nedaunis-ais, e we yea, (Little daughter lullaby.) 
 
 (b.) 
 
 Keguh, ke gun ah wain e ma, (Your mother cares for you.) 
 Nebaun nebaun nebaun, e we yea, (Sleep, thrice, lullaby.) 
 Kago, saigizze-kain, nedaunis-ais, (Do not fear, my little daughter.) 
 Nebaun nebaun nebaun, (Sleep, thrice.) 
 Kago, saigizze-kain, wa wa, e we yea, (third line repeated.) 
 
 (') 
 
 Wa wa wa wa wa we yea, (Swinging, twice, lullaby.) 
 
 Kaween neezheka kediausee, (Not alone art thou.) 
 
 Ke kan nau wai, ne me go, suhween, (Your mother is caring for you.) 
 
 Nebaun nebaun neJaunis-ais, (Sleep, sleep, my little daughter 1 .) 
 
 Wa wa wa wa wa we yea, (Swinging, &c. lullaby.) 
 
 Nebaun nebaun nebaun, (Sleep ! sleep ! sleep.*) 
 
 THE HARE AND THE LYNX. 
 
 3. The story of the Wabose, (Hare,) and the Pighieu, (Lynx,) will at 
 once remind the reader of the so often recited tale of little Red Riding 
 Hood, in which the reciter imitates the tone of the wolf, and the little nur- 
 sery listener hears with a growing amazement, and starts as if he felt 
 the real wolf's teeth at the close. 
 
 This story is partly spoken and partly sung. The Teller imitating al- 
 ternately the Hare, and its enemy, the Lynx. 
 
 There was once, she says, a little Hare living in the lodge with its grand- 
 mother, who was about to send it back to its native land. When it had 
 but a little way, a Lynx appeared in the path, and began to sing, 
 
 * These translations are entirely literal the verbs to " sleep" and to " fear," requir- 
 ing the imperative mood, second person, present tense, throughout. In rendering the term 
 " wa-wa" in the participial form some doubt may exist, but this has been terminated by the 
 idea of the existing motion, which is clearly implied, although the word is not marked 
 by the usual form of the participle in ing. The plirasc lul-la-by, is the only one in our 
 language, which conveys the evident meaning of the choral term e-we-yea. The sub- 
 stantive verb is wanting, in the first line of b. and the third of c. in the two forms o r 
 the verb, to care, or take care of a person ; but it is present in the phrase " kediausee" 
 in the second line of c. These facts are stated, not that they are of the slightest inte- 
 rest to the common reader, but that they may be exanvned by philologists, or person* 
 curious in the Indian grammar.
 
 394 CRADLE SONGS OF THE FOREST. 
 
 Where pretty white one? 
 Where little white one, 
 Where do you go ? 
 
 Tshwee! tshwee! tshwee! tshwee! cried the Hare, and ran back to 
 its grandmother. " See, grandmother," said the timid little creature, 
 " what the Lynx is saying to me," and she repeated the song. " Ho ! 
 Nosis," that is to say, courage my grandchild, run along, and tell him you 
 are going home to your native land: so the Hare went back and be- 
 gan to sing, 
 
 To the point of land I roam, 
 For there is the white one's home, 
 Whither I go. 
 
 Then the Lynx looked at the trembling Hare, and began to sing, 
 
 Little white one, tell me why 
 Like to leather, thin and dry, 
 Are your pretty ears ? 
 
 Tshwee! tshwee! tshwee! tshwee! cried the Hare, and she ran back 
 to her grandmother, and repeated the words. " Go Nosis, and tell him 
 your uncles fixed them so, when they came from the South." So 
 the Hare ran back and sang, 
 
 From the south my uncles came, 
 And they fixed my ears the same, 
 Fixed my slender ears. 
 
 and then the Hare laid her pink ears upon her shoulders, and was about 
 to go on, but the Lynx began to sing again, 
 
 Why, why do you go away ? 
 Pretty white one, can't you stay ? 
 Tell me why your little feet, 
 Are made so dry and very fleet? 
 
 Tshwee! tshwee! tshwee! tshwee! said the poor little Hare, and she 
 ran back again to the lodge to ask again. " Ho ! Nosis !" said the grand- 
 mother, who was old and tired. ' : do not mind him, nor listen to him, nor 
 answer him, but run on." 
 
 The Hare obeyed, and ran as fast as she could. When she came to 
 the spot where the Lynx had been, she looked round, but there was no 
 one there, and she ran on. But the Lynx had found out all about the 
 little Hare, and knew she was going across to the neck of. land ; and he 
 had nothing to do but reach it first, and waylay her ; which he did : and 
 when the innocent creature came to the place, and had got almost home, 
 the Lynx sprang out of the thicket and eat her up. j
 
 CRADLE SONGS OP THE FOREST. 395 
 
 The original chant, omitting the narrative part as given above, ruus in 
 this fashion, word for word. 
 
 Lynx. Tah kau (where ah !) 
 
 Tah hau (where ah!) 
 
 Wa bose (little white one) 
 
 Wa bose (little white one) 
 
 Ke te e zha (are you going?) 
 
 Hare. Na kwa flushing (to the point of land) 
 
 Ain dah nuk e aum baun (in my native country) 
 In de e zha (I go.) 
 
 Lynx. Au neen (what!) 
 
 Au neen (what!) 
 
 A nau be kaus o yun aig (causes it,) 
 Kish ke mun ing (why like stripes of leather) 
 
 Ish o tow ug a una, (are your ears ?) 
 
 Hare. Nish ish sha ug (my uncles,) 
 
 sha wun e nong (when from the south) 
 Ke e zha waud (they came,) 
 Ningeeaizhegoobuneeg (they did fix me so.) 
 
 Lynx. Tah kau (where ah !) 
 
 Tah kau (where ah !) 
 
 Wa bose (little white one,) 
 
 Wa bose (little white one,) 
 
 Ke de e zha (are you going?) 
 
 Au neen ( why ?) 
 Na naub o kos o yun (look they so,) 
 
 Kish ke mun a, (like dry bits of leather,) 
 
 1 izh e zida una, (your feet ha ! ) 
 
 4. THE KITE AND THE EAGLE. 
 
 This is a specimen of Indian satire. The coward is boastful when 
 ihere is no danger : pretension succeeds in the absence of real merit f A 
 Kite was boasting how high he could fly, and ventured to speak dis- 
 paragingly of the eagle, not knowing that the latter overheard him. He 
 began to sing in a loud voice, 
 
 I upward fly 
 I ! I alone disdain the air 
 Till I hang as by a hair 
 
 Poised in the sky. 
 
 The Eagle answers disdainfully, looking down from a branch far 
 above the Kite,
 
 396 CRADLE SONGS OP THE FOREST. 
 
 Who mounts the sky ? 
 Who is this, with babbling tongue 
 As he had on the storm-cloud hung, 
 
 Who flies so high ? 
 
 The Kite in a shrinking, feeble voice, 
 The great Khakake 
 I've sometimes thought he flew so high 
 That he must see within the sky 
 The dawn awake. 
 
 The Eagle despises him, and yet cannot forbear to answer. 
 
 I spurn you all, ye prating throng 
 How often have I passed ye by 
 When my broad pinions fleet and strong, 
 Soared up where leapt the thunder cry ! 
 Nor ye with feeble wing might dare, 
 Those hill-tops high, to mount in air. 
 
 and he soared off, up, up into the sky till the boaster could not behold 
 him. But no sooner was the Kite left alone to himself than he began to 
 ing again so as to be heard on every side, 
 
 I upward fly 
 I, I alone disdain the air 
 Till I hang as by a hair 
 
 Poised in the sky. 
 
 Laterally thus. 
 
 Kite. Neen a (I alone) 
 
 Neen a (I alone) 
 
 Ta wa e ya (can go up) 
 
 Bai bwau > . . r . 
 
 (so as to seem as if hanging 
 
 > . 
 / (s 
 \ 
 
 ( 
 * 
 
 As shau dau , . 
 
 i ( b y a hair 
 
 Wa ke ge naun * 
 
 O shau wush ko geezhig oong a (from the blue sky.) 
 Eagle. Au wa nain (Who is this?) 
 
 Au wa nain (Who is this ?) 
 
 Tshe mud je wa wa (with babbling tongue, who boasts) 
 Ke pim o saing. (of flying so high ?) 
 
 Kite (shrinkingly) replies, " Oh I was only singing of the great Kha- 
 kake, it is he who is said to fly so high." 
 
 Eagle disdainfully replies, " Tshe mud je wa wa, that is great bab- 
 bler. or bad-tongue, you are below my notice," &.C., and sonrs aloft. 
 
 Kite, resuming its boasting tone, as soon a* the eagle is out of hearing,
 
 CRADLE SONGS OP THE FOHEST. 397 
 
 Neen a (I alone &c., the whole being a 
 
 Neen a repetition of the first part.) 
 
 Ta we ya 
 
 Bai bwau 
 
 As shau dau 
 
 Wa ke ge naun, 
 
 O shau wush ko, geezhig oong a. 
 
 5. THE RAVEN AND WOODPECKER. 
 
 A still farther view of Indian manners and opinions is hid under thit 
 simple chant. Opinion among the forest race, makes the whole animated 
 creation cognizant and intelligent of their customs. 
 
 A young married woman is supposed to go out from the lodge, and 
 busy herself in breaking up dry limbs, and preparing wood, as if to lay 
 in a store for a future and approaching emergency. 
 
 A raven, perched on a neighbouring tree, espies her, at her work, and 
 begins to sing ; assuming the expected infant to be a boy. 
 In dosh ke zhig o mun 
 In dosh ke zhig o mun 
 In dosh ke zhig o mun 
 
 My eyes! my eyes! my eyes! Alluding to the boy (and future man) 
 killing animals as well as men, whose eyes will be left, as the singer anti- 
 cipates, to be picked out by ravenous birds. So early are the first notions 
 of war implanted. 
 
 A woodpecker, sitting near, and hearing this song, replies ; assuming 
 the sex of the infant to be a female. 
 
 Ne mos sa mug ga 
 Ne mos sa mug ga 
 Ne mos sa mug ga. 
 
 My worms ! my worms ! my worms ! Alluding to the custor' of the 
 female's breaking up dry anu Jozy wood, out of which, it could pick Us 
 favourite food, being the mosa or wood-worm. 
 
 Want of space induces the writer to defer, to a future number, the re 
 mainder of his collection of these cradle and nursery chants. They con- 
 stitute in his view, rude as they are. and destitute of metrical attractions, 
 a chapter in the history of the human heart, in the savage phasis, which 
 deserves to be carefully recorded. It has fallen to his lot, to observe more 
 perhaps, in this department of Indian life, than ordinary, and he would not 
 acquit himself of his duty to the race, were he to omit these small links 
 out of their domestic and social chain. The tie which binds the mother 
 to the child, in Indian life, is a very strong one, and it is conceived to 
 admit of illustration in this manner. It is not alone in the war-path and
 
 398 CRADLE SONGS OF THE FOREST. 
 
 the council, that the Red Man is to be studied. To appreciate his whole 
 character, in its true light, he must be followed into his lodge, and viewed 
 in his seasons of social leisure and retirement. If there be any thing 
 warm and abiding in the heart or memory of the man, when thus at ease, 
 surrounded by his family, it must come out here ; and hence, indeed, the 
 true value of his lodge lore, of every kind. 
 
 It is out of the things mental as well as physiological, that pertain to 
 maternity, that philosophy must, in the end, construct the true ethnological 
 chain, that binds the human race, in one comprehensive system of unity. 
 
 
 
 LANGUAGES OF THE PACIFIC ISLANDS. 
 
 The Polynesian languages, like those of the Algonquin group of North 
 America, have inclusive and exclusive pronouns to express the words 
 we, ours, and us. They have also causative verbs such as, to make afraid, 
 to make happy, &c., but while there appears this analogy in grammatical 
 principles, there are some strong points of disagreement, and there appears 
 to be no analogy whatever in the sounds of the language. There are 
 eight well characterized dialects in the Polynesian family. They are the 
 Tahitian, the Owyhee, [Hawaiian] Marquesan, or Washingtonian, Aus- 
 tral island, Hervey island, Samoan, Tongatabu, and New Zealand. In 
 seven of these, the name for God is Atua, in the eighth, or Tongua dialect, 
 it is Otua. Great resemblances exist in all the vocabularies. Much of 
 the actual difference arises from exchanges of the consonants r and 1, 
 h and s, and a few others. They possess the dual number. The scheme 
 of the pronouns is very complete, and provides for nearly all the recondite 
 distinctions of person. Where the vocabulary fails in words to designate 
 objects which were unknown to them before their acquaintance with 
 Europeans, the missionaries have found it to fall in better with the genius 
 of the language, to introduce new words from the Greek, with some modi- 
 fications. Thus they have introduced hipo for horse, arenio for lamb, 
 areto for bread, and baplizo for baptism. 
 
 To continue faithful during a course of prosperity, says Xenophon, hath 
 nothing wonderful in it, but when any set of men continue steadily attached 
 to friends in adversity, they ought, on that account, to be eternally re- 
 membered. 
 
 There are but two sources only, says Polybius, from whence any real 
 benefit can be derived, our own misfortunes and those that have happened 
 to other men. 
 
 One wise counsel, says Euripides, is better than the strength of many.
 
 EARLY SKETCHED )P INDIAN WOMEN. 309 
 
 tau M-d*,.'fe M < From "New England Prospect." 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 OP THEIR WOMEN, THEIR DISPOSITIONS, EMPLOYMENTS, USAGE BY THEIR HU83A.VUS, THEIR 
 APPAKELL, AND MODESTY. 
 
 To satisfie the curious eye of women-readers, who otherwise might 
 thinke their sex forgotten, or not worthy a record, let them peruse these 
 few lines, wherein they may see their owne happinesse. if weighed in the 
 womans ballance of these ruder Indians, who scorne.the tuterings of their 
 wives, or to admit them as their equals, though their qualities and indus- 
 trious deservings may justly claime the preheminence, and command bet- 
 ter usage and more conjugall esteeme, their persons and features being 
 every way correspondent, their qualifications more excellent, being more 
 loving, pittifull, and modest, milde. provident, and laborious than their 
 lazie husbands. Their employments be many: First their building of 
 houses, whose frames are formed like our garden-arbours, something 
 more round, very strong and handsome, covered with close-wrought mats 
 of their owne weaving, which deny entrance to any drop of raine, though 
 it come both fierce and long, neither c.\a the piercing North winde, findo 
 a crannie, through which he can conveigh his cooling breath, they be 
 warmer than our English houses ; at the top is a square hole for the 
 smoakes evacuation, which in rainy weather is covered with a pluver* 
 these bee such smoakie dwellings, that when there is good fires, they are 
 not able to stand upright, but lie all along under the srnoake, never using 
 any stooles or chaires, it being as rare to see an Indian sit on a stoole at 
 home, as it is strange to see an English man sit on his heels abroad. 
 Their houses are smaller in the Summer, when their families be dispersed, 
 by reason of heate and occasions. In Winter they make some fiftie or 
 thereescore foote long, fortie or fiftie men being inmates under one roofe ; 
 and as is their husbands occasion these poore tectonists are often troubled 
 like snailes, to carrie their houses on their backs sometimes to fishing- 
 places, other times to hunting places, after that to a planting-place, where 
 .t abides the longest : an other work is their planting of corne, wherein 
 they e.xceede our English husband-men, keeping it so cleare with their 
 Clamme shell-hooes, as if it were a garden rather than a corne-field, not 
 suffering a choaking weede to advance his audacious head above their in- 
 fant corne, or an undermining worme to spoile his spumes. Their corne 
 being ripe, they gather it, and drying it hard in the Sunne, conveigh it to 
 their barnes, which be great holes digged in the ground in .forme of a 
 brasse po/, seeled with rinds of trees, wherein they put their corne, cover- 
 ing it from the inquisitive search of their gurmandizing husbands, who 
 would eate up both their allowed portion, and reserved seede, if they 
 knew where to finde it. But our hogges having found a way to un- 
 hindg-e their harne doores. and robbe their garners, they are glad to im
 
 400 
 
 EARLY SKETCHES OF INDIAN WOMEN. 
 
 plore their husbands helpe to roule the bodies of trees over their holes, to 
 prevent those pioners, whose theeverie they as much hate as their flesh. 
 An other of their employments is their Summer processions to get Lob- 
 sters for their husbands, wherewith they baite their hookes when theygoe 
 a fishing for Basse or Codfish. This is an every dayes walke, be the 
 weather cold or hot, the waters rough or calme, they must dive sometimes 
 over head and eares fora Lobster, which often shakes them by their hands 
 with a churlish nippe, and bids them adiew. The tide being spent, they 
 trudge home two or three miles, with a hundred weight of Lobsters at 
 their backs, and if none, a hundred scoules meete them at home, and a 
 hungry belly for two days after. Their husbands having caught any fish, 
 they bring it in their boates as farre as they can by water, and there leave 
 it; as it was their care to catch it, so it must be their wives paines to fetch 
 it home, or fast: which done, they must dresse it and cooke it, dish it, and 
 present it, see it eaten over their shoulders ; and their loggerships having 
 filled their paunches, their sweete lullabies scramble for their scrappes. 
 In the Summer these Indian women when Lobsters be in their plenty 
 and prime, they drie them to keepe for Winter, erecting scaffolds in the 
 hot sun-shine, making fires likewise underneath them, by whose smoake 
 the flies are expelled, till the substance remains hard and drie. In this 
 manner they drie Basse and other fishes without salt, cutting them very 
 thinne to dry suddainely, before the flies spoile them, or the raine moist 
 them, having a speciall care to hang them in their smoakie houses, in the 
 night and dankish weather. 
 
 In Summer they gather flagges, of which they make Matts for houses, 
 and Hempe and rushes, with dying stufie of which they make curious 
 baskets, with intermixed colours and portracturcs of antique Imagerie. 
 these baskets be of all sizes from a quart to a quarter, in wnich they carry 
 their luggage. In wintertime they are their husbunds Caterers, trudging 
 to the Clamm bankes for their belly timber, and their Porters to lugge 
 home their Venison which their lazinesse exposes to the Woolves till they 
 impose it upon their wives shoulders. They likewise sew their husbands 
 shooes, and weave coates of Turkie feathers, besides all their ordinary 
 household drudgerie which daily lies upon them. * * 
 
 ***** [Of the treatment of 
 
 babes the writer says] : The young Infant being greased and sooted, wrapt 
 in a beaver skin, bound to his good behaviour with his feeteupon a board 
 two foote long and one foote broade, his face exposed to all nipping 
 weather ; this little Pappouse travells about with his bare footed mother 
 to paddle in the ice Clammbanks after three or foure dayes of age have 
 sealed his passeboard and his mothers recoverie. For their carriage it is 
 very civill, smiles being the greatest grace of their mirth ; their musick 
 is lullabies to quiet their children, who generally are as quiet as if they 
 had neither spleene or lungs. To hear one of these Indians unseene, a
 
 EARLY SKETCHES OP INDIAN WOMEN. 401 
 
 good eare might easily mistake their untaught voyce for the warbling of 
 
 a well tuned instrument. Such command have they of their voices 
 
 * * * * 
 
 Commendable is their milde carriage and obedience to their husbands, not- 
 withstanding all this their customarie churlishnesse and salvage inhu- 
 manitie, not seeming to delight in frownes or offering to word it with their 
 lords, riot presuming to proclaime their female superiority to the usurping 
 of the least title of their husbands charter, but rest themselves content un- 
 der their helplesse condition, counting it the womans portion : since the 
 English, arrivall comparison hath made them miserable, for seeing the 
 kind usage of the English to their wives, they doe as much condemne 
 their husbands for unkindnesse, and commend the English for their love. 
 As their husbands commending themselves for their wit in keeping their 
 wives industrious, doe condemne the English for their folly in spoyling 
 good working creatures. These women resoit often to the English 
 houses, where pares cum paribus congregates*, in Sex I meane, they do 
 somewhat ease their miserie by complaining and seldome part without a 
 releefe: If her husband come to seeke for his Squaw and beginne to blus- 
 ter, the English woman betakes her to her armes which are the war- 
 like Ladle, and the scalding liquors, threatening blistering to the naked 
 runnaway, who is soon expelled by such liquid comminations. In a word 
 to conclude this womans historie, their love to the English hath deserved 
 no small esteeme, ever presenting them some thing that is either rare or 
 desired, as Strawberries, Huvtlebenies, Rasberries, Gooseberries, Cher- 
 ries, Plummes, Fish, and other such gifts as their poore treasury yeelds 
 them. But now it may be, that this relation of the churlish and inhu- 
 mane behaviour of these ruder Indians towards their patient wives, may 
 confirme some in the beliefe of an aspersion, which I have often heard 
 men cast upon the English there, as if they should learne of the Indians 
 to use their wives in the like manner, and to bring them to the same sub- 
 jection, as to sit on the lower hand, and to carrie water and the like 
 drudgerie : but if my own experience may out-ballance an ill-grounded 
 scandalous rumour, I doe assure you, upon my credit and reputation, that 
 there is no such matter, but the women finde there as much love, respect, 
 and ease, as here in old England. I \v\\\ not deny, but that some poore 
 people may carrie their owne water, and doe not the poorer sort in Eng- 
 land doe the same; witnesse your London Tankard-bearers, and your 
 countrie-cottagers ? But this may well be knowne to be nothing, but the 
 rancorous venome of some that beare no good will to the plantation. For 
 what neede they carrie water, seeing every one hath a Spring at his 
 doore, or the Sea by his house? Thus much for the satisfaction of 
 women, touching this entrenchment upon their prerogative, as also con 
 cerning the relation of these Indians Squawes. 
 
 * Equals assembled with equals. 
 26
 
 PAWNEE BARBARITY. 
 
 THAT the tribes west of the Missouri, and beyond the pale of the 
 ordinary influence of civilization, should retain some shocking customs, 
 which, if ever prevalent among the more favoured tribes east of the Mis- 
 sissippi and the Alleghenies. have long disappeared, may be readily con- 
 ceived. Wild, erratic bands, who rove over immense plains on horseback, 
 with bow and lance, who plunge their knives and arrows daily into the 
 carcasses of the buffalo, the elk and the deer, and who are accustomed to 
 sights of blood and carnage, cannot escape the mental influence of these 
 sanguinary habits, and must be, more or less, blunted in their conceptions 
 and feelings. Where brute life is so recklessly taken, there cannot be the 
 same nice feeling and sense of justice, which some of the more favoured 
 tribes possess, with respect to taking away human life. Yet, it could 
 hardly have been anticipated, that such deeds as we are now called upon 
 to notice, would have their place even in the outskirts of the farther "Far 
 West," and among a people so sunk and degraded in their moral propen- 
 sities, as the Pawnees. But the facts are well attested. 
 
 In the fierce predatory war carried on between the Pawnees and Sioux, 
 acts of blood and retaliation, exercised on their prisoners, are of frequent 
 occurrence. In the month of Febuary, 1838, the Pawnees captured a 
 Sioux girl only fourteen years of age. They carried her to their camp 
 on the west of the Missouri, and deliberated what should be done with 
 her. It is not customary to put female captives to death, but to make 
 slaves of them. She, however, was doomed to a harder fate, but it was 
 carefully concealed from her, for the space of some sixty or seventy day? 
 During all this time she was treated well, and had comfortable lodging t 
 and food, the same as the rest enjoyed, On the 22nd of April, the chif fs 
 held a general council, and when it broke up, it was announced that i er 
 doom was fixed, but this was still carefully concealed from her. This 
 doom was an extraordinary one, and so far as the object can be deduced, 
 from the circumstances and ceremonies, the national hatred to their ene.nies 
 was indulged, by making the innocent non-combatant, a sacrifice to the 
 spirit of corn, or perhaps, of vegetable fecundity. 
 
 When the deliberations of the council were terminated, on that day, 
 she was brought out, attended by the whole council, and accompanied on 
 a visit from lodge to lodge, until she had gone round the whole circle. 
 When this round was finished, they placed in her hands a small billet of 
 wood and some paints. The warriors and chiefs then seated themselves 
 in a circle. To the first person of distinction she then handed this billet 
 of wood and paint; he contributed to this offering, or sort of mrrificia) 
 
 402
 
 PAWNEE BARBARITY. 403 
 
 charity some wood and paint, then handed it to the next, who did likewise, 
 and he passed it to the next, until it had gone the entire rounds, and each 
 one had contributed some wood and some paint. She was then conducted 
 to the place of execution. For this purpose they had chosen an open 
 grassy glade, near a cornfield, where there were a few trees. The spot 
 selected was between two of these trees, standing about five feet apart, m 
 .he centre of which a small fire was kindled, with the wood thus ceremo- 
 niously contributed. Three bars had been tied across, from tree to tree, 
 above this fire, at such a graded height, that the points of the blaze, 
 when at its maximum, might just reach to her feet. Upon this scaffold 
 she was compelled to mount, \then a warrior at each side of her held fire 
 under her arm pits. When this had been continued as long as they sup- 
 posed she could endure the torture, without extinguishing life, at a given 
 signal, a band of armed bow-men let fly their darts, and her body, at 
 almost the same instant, was pierced with a thousand arrows. These 
 were immediately withdrawn, 1 and her flesh then cut with knives, from 
 her thighs, arms and body, in pieces not longer than half a dollar, and put 
 into little baskets. All this was done before life was quite extinct. 
 
 The field of newly planted corn reached near to this spot. This corn 
 had been dropped in the hill, but not covered with earth. The principal 
 chief then took of the flesh, and going to a hill of corn, squeezed a drop 
 of blood upon the grains. This was done by each one, until all the 
 grains put into the ground, had received this extraordinary kind of sprink- 
 ling. 
 
 This horrible cruelty took place in the vicinity of Council Blufis. 
 Offers to redeem the life of the prisoner had been made by the traders, in 
 a full council of eighty chiefs and warriors, but they were rejected. The 
 original narrator was an eye witness. He concludes his description by 
 adding, that his wife's brother, a Pawnee, had been taken prisoner by fhe 
 Sioux, in the month of June following,- and treated in the same manner. 
 Truly, it may be said that the precincts of the wild roving Red man, are 
 "full of the abodes of cruelty." 
 
 Hunting and war are arts which require to be taught. The Indian 
 youth, if they were not furnished with bows and arrows, would never 
 learn to kill. The same time spent to teach them war and hunting, if 
 devoted to teach them letters, would make them readers and writers. Ed- 
 ucation is all of a piece. 
 
 Example is more persuasive than precept in teaching an Indian. Tell 
 him that he shouia neve* touch a.cohol, --tnd he may not see clearly why ; 
 but show him, by your mvariiib.e practice, that you never Jo, and he may 
 be led to confide in your admonitions.
 
 404 "THE LOON LTON TIIK LAKK.' 
 
 " 
 
 ' THE LQOX UPON THE LAKE. 
 
 BY E. F. HOFFMA.f. 
 IFrom the Chippewa.*] 
 
 I LOOKED across the water, 
 
 I bent o'er it and listened, 
 I thought it was my lover, 
 
 My true lover's paddle glistened. 
 
 Joyous thus his light canoe woufcl the silver ripples wake. 
 But no ! it is the Loon alone the loon upon the lake. 
 Ah me ! it is the loon alone the loon upon the lake. 
 
 I see the fallen maple 
 
 Where he stood, his red scarf waving, 
 Though waters nearly bury 
 
 Boughs they then were newly laving. 
 I hear his last farewell, as it echoed from the brake. 
 But no, it is the loon alone the loon upon the lake, 
 Ah me ! it is the loon alone the loon upon the lake. 
 
 * Nenemoshain nindenamdum 
 Meengoweugish abowaugoda 
 Anewahwas mongoduga, &c.,&c. 
 
 TO A BIRD, SEEN UNDER MY WINDOW IN THE GARDEN. 
 
 / 
 
 Bjr the late Mr. H. R. SCHOOLCRAPT, who was a grand daughter of the war chief 
 
 WABOJKEO. 
 
 Sweet little bird, thy notes prolong, 
 
 And ease my lonely pensive hours; 
 I love to list thy cheerful song, 
 
 And hear thee chirp beneath the f.owera. 
 
 The time allowed for pleasures sweet, 
 
 To thee is short as it is bright, 
 Then sing ! rejoice ! before it fleet, 
 
 And cheer me ere you take your flight
 
 ODJIBWA SONG. 
 
 THE following song, taken from the oral traditions of the north, is con 
 nected with a historical incident, of note, in the Indian wars of Canada, 
 lu I7f>9, great exertions were made by the French Indian department, 
 under Gen. Montcalm, to bring a body of Indians into the valley of the 
 lower St. Lawrence, and invitations, for this purpose reached the utmost 
 shores of Lake Superior. In one of the canoes from that quarter, which 
 was left on their way down, at the lake of Two Mountains, near tne 
 mouth of the Utawas, while the warriors proceeded farther, was a Chip- 
 pewa girl called Paig-wain-e-osh-e, or the White Eagle, driven by the 
 wind. While the party awaited there, the result of events at Gluebec, she 
 formed an attachment for a young Algonquin belonging to the French 
 mission of the Two Mountains. This attachment was mutual, and gave 
 origin to the song, of which the original words, with a literal prose trans- 
 lation, are subjoined: 
 
 I. 
 
 la indenaindum 
 la indenaindum 
 Ma kow we yah 
 Nin denaindum we. 
 
 Ah me! when I think of him when I think of him my sweetheart, 
 my Algonquin. 
 
 II. 
 
 Pah bo je aun 
 Ne be nau be koning 
 Wabi megwissun 
 Nene mooshain we 
 
 Odishquagumee. 
 
 As I embarked to return, he put the white wampum around my neck 
 a pledge of truth, my sweetheart, my Algonquin. 
 
 III. 
 
 Keguh wejewin 
 Ain dah nuk ke yun 
 , Ningee egobun 
 Nene mooshain we 
 
 Odishquagumee. 
 
 I shall go with you, he said, to your native country I shall go with 
 you, my sweetheart my Algonquin. 
 ' J 405
 
 ODJIBWA SONG. 
 IV. 
 
 Nia! nin dc nah dush. 
 Wassah wud gushuh 
 Aindahnuk ke yaun 
 Ke yau ninemooshai wee 
 
 Odishquagumee. 
 
 Alas! I replied my native country is far, far away my sweetheart; 
 my Algonquin. 
 
 V. 
 
 Kai aubik oween 
 Ain aube aunin 
 Ke we naubee 
 Ne ne mooshai we 
 
 Odishquagumee. 
 
 When I looked back again where we parted, he was still looking 
 after me, my sweetheart ; my Algonquin. 
 
 VI. 
 
 A pee nay we ne bow 
 Unishe bun 
 Aungwash agushing 
 Ne ne mooshai we 
 
 Odishquagumee. 
 
 He was still standing on a fallen tree that had fallen into the water 
 my sweetheart ; my Algonquin. 
 
 VII. 
 
 Nia ! indenaindum 
 Nia ! in denaindum 
 Ma kow we yuh 
 Nin de nain dum we 
 
 Odishquagumee. 
 
 Alas ! when I think of him when I think of him It is when I 
 think of him ; my Algonquin. 
 
 Eloquence on the part of the speakers, is not so much the result of 
 superior force of thought, as of the strong and clear positions of right, in 
 which they have been placed by circumstances. It is the force of truth, 
 by which we are charmed. 
 
 An Indian war song, sung in public, by the assembled warriors on the 
 outbreak of hostilities, is a declaration of war.
 
 407 
 
 NIAGARA, AN ALLEGORY. 
 
 An old grey man on a mountain lived, 
 
 He, had daughters four mid one, 
 And a tall bright lod^e of the, betula bark 
 
 That glittered in the sun. 
 
 He lived on the very highest top, 
 
 For he was a hunter free. 
 Where he could spy on the clearest day, 
 
 Gleams of the distant sea. 
 
 Come out come out ! cried the youngest one, 
 
 Let us off to look at the sea. 
 And out they ran in their gayest robes, 
 
 And skipped and ran with glee. 
 
 Come Su,* come Mi,f come Hu,J come Sa, 
 
 Cried laughing little Er.|| 
 Let us go to yonder broad blue deep, 
 
 Where the breakers foam and roar. 
 
 And on they scampered by valley and wood, 
 
 By earth and air and sky. 
 Till they came to a steep where the bare rocks stood, 
 
 In a precipice mountain high. 
 
 Inyfi !K cried Er, here's a dreadful leap, 
 
 But we are gone so far, 
 That if we flinch and return in fear, 
 
 Nos,+* he will cry ha ! ha! 
 
 Now each was clad in a vesture light, 
 
 That floated far behind, 
 With sandals of frozen water drops, 
 
 And wings of painted wind. 
 
 And down they plunged with a merry skip, 
 
 Li'.-e birds that skirn the plain ; 
 And hey! they cried, let us up and try 
 
 And down the steep again. 
 
 And up and down the daughters skipped, 
 
 Like ijrirls on a holiday, 
 And laughed outright, at the sport and foam. 
 
 They called Niagara. 
 
 If ve would see a sight so rare, 
 
 Where nature's in her glee, 
 Go. view the ppot in the wide wild west, 
 
 The land of the brave and free. 
 
 But mark their shapes are only seen 
 
 In fancy's deepest play. 
 But she plainly shews their wings and feet 
 
 In the dancing sunny spray. 
 
 Superior. t Michigan. t Huron. $ St. Claro. |] Eri* 
 
 An exclamation of wonder and surprize. Odj. Ian. ( * My father. ib
 
 A PSALM, 
 
 OR SUPPLICATION FOR MERCY, AND A CONFESSION OF SIN, ADDRESSED 
 TO THE AUTHOR F LIFE, IN THE ODJIBWA-ALGONQUIN TONGUE. 
 
 BY THE LATE MRS. HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT. 
 
 1. Gaitshe minno pimaudizzeyun, Gezha Monedo, gezhigong aibeyun 
 
 2. Keen, maumauwaikumig waozhemigoyun. 
 
 3. Keen, kah ozhieeyong, keen gaugegaikumig, kai nuhwauneme- 
 yong, aikoobemaudizzeyong. 
 
 4. Keen, kainuhwaubaimeyong, geezhig tibbikuk tibishko. 
 
 5. Keen, Keozheahn-geezhik-geezis, dibbik-geezis, aunungug gia. 
 
 6. Keen, kegeozhetoan ishe kimmewung, gia tshe annimikeeaug, tshe 
 sai sai yung, tshe sogepoog gia. 
 
 7. Keen kau ozhciyong tshe unnewegauboweyaung, kakinnuk kau 
 ozheudjig akeeng. 
 
 8. Kee, gemishemin odjechaugwug, wekaukaine bosigoog. Kee 
 gemishemin kebauzhigo kegwiss Jesus Christ, tshe oonjenehood neeno- 
 wind. 
 
 9. Mozhug issuh nemudjee-inaindumin, kngait mozhug nemudjee-eki- 
 domin ; nahwudj neminwaindumin tshe mudjee-dodumaung. 
 
 10. Kagaitego me kaisoondje izhauyaungebun mudjee Moneto. 
 
 11. Showainemishinaum, Gezha Monedo. 
 
 12. Showainemishinaum, Jesus Christ. 
 
 13. Maishkoodjetoan ne mudjee-odai-enaunin. 
 
 14. Meezhishenaun edush oushke odaiyun. 
 
 15. Apaidush nah saugeigsayun, gia dush todumaung kau izhe gugeek- 
 wayun. 
 
 16. Me ozhissinaum odaiyun tshe minwaindumaung, tshe annahme 
 autogoyun. 
 
 17. Showainim neendunahwaitmaugunenaunig unishenaubaig. 
 
 18. Showainim kukinnuh menik pemaudizzejig akeeng. 
 
 19. Showainemishenaum kaidokoo pemaudizzeyong, appe dush nee- 
 boy on g. 
 
 20. Showainemishenaum neen jeechaugonaunig tshe izhowaud keen. 
 
 21. Kaugegaikumig edush tshe menawaunegooz eyong ozaum ne 
 mudje-pemaudizzewin auno unnahmeyauyongin. 
 
 22. Kauween edush kewee pemaudizzewin, kishpin aitah appainemo- 
 yong Kegwiss Jesus Christ. 
 
 23. Aioetainemud kegwiss Showainemishenaum. Kunnah gai kunnah 
 
 408
 
 \ 
 
 A PSALM. 403 
 
 TRANSLATION. 
 
 I. ;Great good author of Life, Gezha Monedo, abiding in the heavens 
 2 Thou hast made all things. 
 
 O 
 
 3. Thou art the giver, Thou, the everlasting preserver of life. 
 
 4. Thou hast guarded me, by day and by night. 
 
 5. Thou hast made the sun and moon, and the stars. 
 
 6. Thou makest the rain, the thunder, the hail, and the snows. 
 
 ,,7. Thou didst make man to stand upright, and has placed him over all 
 that is on the earth. 
 
 8. Thou hast given us souls, that will never die. Thou hast sent thy 
 son Jesus Christ to die for us. 
 
 9. Continually are our thoughts evil, and truly, our words are evil con- 
 tinually. 
 
 10. V 7 erily, we deserve punishment with the Spirit of Evil. 
 
 I 1. Show pity on us, Gezha Monedo. 
 
 12. Show pity on us, Jesus Christ. 
 
 13. Reform our wicked hearts. 
 
 14. Give us new hearts. 
 
 15. May we love thee with all our hearts, and by our acts obey thy 
 preempts, (or sayings,) 
 
 16. Give us hearts to delight in prayer. 
 
 17. Show mercy to all our kindred r unishenaubaig, or common people, 
 ms exclusively the Red Men.) 
 
 13. Show mercy to all who live on the earth. 
 
 19. Pity us, and befriend us, living and dying. 
 
 20. And receive our souls to thyself. 
 
 21. Ever to dwell in thine abiding place of happiness. 
 
 22. Not in our own frail strength of life, do we ask this ; but alone in 
 the name of Jesus Christ. 
 
 23. Grant us thy mercy, in the name of thy Son. So be it ever. 
 Those who take an interest in the structure of the Indian languages, 
 
 may regard the above, as an improi:ised specimen of the capacity of this 
 particular dialect for the expression of scripture truth. The writer, who 
 from early years was a member of the church, had made a translation of 
 the Lords prayer, and, occasionally, as delicate and declining health per- 
 mitted, some other select pieces from the sacred writings, and hymns, of 
 which, one or two selections may, perhaps, hereafter be made. 
 
 The distinction between the active and passive voice, in the Odjibwa 
 language, is formed by the inflection ego. 
 
 Ne sageau, I love. 
 
 Ne sageau-eyo, I am loved.
 
 
 TRADITIONARY WAR SONGS 
 
 OF THE 
 
 ODJIBWA ALGONQUINS. 
 
 WHOEVER has heard an Indian war song, and witnessed an Indian war 
 dance, must be satisfied that the occasion wakes up all the fiie and energy 
 of the Indian's soul. His flashing eye his muscular energy, as he 
 begins the dar.ce his violent gesticulation as he raises his war-cry the 
 whole frame and expression of the man, demonstrate this. And long 
 before :"t comes to his turn to utter his stave, or portion of the chant, his 
 mind has been worked up to the most intense point of excitement: his 
 imagination has pictured the enemy the ambush and the onset the vic- 
 tory and the bleeding victim, writhing under his prowess: in imagination 
 he has already stamped him under foot, and torn off his reeking scalp: 
 he has seen the eagles hovering in the air, ready to pounce on the dead 
 carcass, as soon as the combatants quit the field. 
 
 It would require strong and graphic language to give descriptive ut- 
 terance, in the shape of song, to all he has funded, an. I seen and feels on 
 the subject. He, himself, makes no such effort. Physical excitement 
 has absorbed his energies. He is in no mood for calm and connected 
 descriptions of battle scenes. He has no stores of measured rhymes to 
 fall back on. All he can do is to utter brief, and often highly symbolic 
 expressions of courage of defiance of indomitable rage. His feet 
 stamp the ground, as if he would shake it to its centre. The inspiring 
 drum and mystic rattle communicate new energy to every step, while 
 they serve, by the observance of the most exact time, to concentrate his 
 energy. His very looks depict the spirit of rage, and his yells, uttered 
 quick, sharp, and cut off by the application of the hand to the mouth, are 
 startling and horrific. 
 
 Under such circumstances, a few short and broken sentences are- 
 enough to keep alive the theme in his mind ; and he is not probably con- 
 scious of the fact, that, to an unimpassioned and calm listener, with note 
 book in hand, there is not sufficient said to give co! erence to the son<j. 
 And that such a song, indeed, under the best auspices, is a mere wild 
 rhapsody of martial thought, poured out from time to time, in detached 
 sentences, which are. so to say, cemented into lines by a flexible chorus- 
 and known tune. The song and the music are all of a piece. ViviJ; 
 and glowing, and poetic pictures will float in such a train,, an;! ^ften strikft 
 
 410
 
 TRADITIONARY \VAR SONGS. 411 
 
 the imagination by their graphic tru'h and boldness ; but the poet must 
 look elsewhere for finished melody, and refined and elaborate composition. 
 The Indian is to be viewed here, as elsewhere, as being in the highest 
 state of his physical, not of his mental phasis. Such glimmerings may 
 however be picked out of these warlike rhapsodies, as denote that he is of 
 a noble and independent tone of thinking. We shall at least enable the 
 reader to judge. The following specimens, which have been derived from 
 actors in the depths of the forest, consist of independent songs, or stanzas, 
 each of which is sung by a different or by the same warrior, while the 
 dance is in progress. The words have been taken down from a young 
 Chippewa warrior of lake Superior, of the name of Che che-gwy-ung. 
 It will be perceived that there is a unity in the theme, while each warrior 
 exercises the freest scope of expression. This unity I have favoured by 
 throwing out such stanzas as mar it, and afterwards arranging them 
 together. 
 
 WAR SONG. 
 
 a. In beginning this song the warrior has turned his eyes to the clouds. 
 O sha wan ong (From the place of the south) 
 
 Un dos' e wug, (They come,) repeat. 
 
 Pe na' se wug, (The birds, i. e. the warlike birds.) 
 
 Ka bairn wai wa dung-ig. (Hear the sound of their passing screami 
 
 on the air.) 
 
 b. The idea of ravenous birds hovering in the sky, still prevails 
 Tod of to be (I wish to change myself to be) 
 
 Pe na' se. (A bird.) 
 
 Ka dow we a we yun-. (His swift body to be like him.) 
 
 c. The warrior now rises above all thoughts of fear. 
 
 Ne wa be na, (I cast it away.) 
 
 Ne ow a. (My body.) 
 
 Ne wa be na, (Repeats.) This is a high symbolical boast of per- 
 
 Ne ow a. sonal bravery. 
 
 d. He appeals to the Great Spirit for extraordinary power. 
 Na bun a kum ig, (On the front part of the earth,) 
 Tshe ba be wish' em ug. (First shines [strikes] the light.) 
 In do main' em ik, (Such power to me,) 
 
 Mon- e do, (My God,) 
 
 3ha wa ncm id. (In thy mercy give !) 
 
 By the boldness of this figure he claims the omnipotent power 
 f i to see and discover his enemies.
 
 412 TRADITIONARY WAR SONGS. 
 
 e. He upbraids such of his people as hold back, and do not join in the 
 dance that is to say, enlist in the war. 
 
 Wa go nain-, e win ? (Why do ye, warriors,) 
 
 A be yun ah, (Stand back '?) 
 
 Wa wos is se, we yun. (Ye who bear the mark of the Awasccs.) 
 
 The Avvasee is a kind of fish, which is the Mem of a clan. 
 
 / He declares his full purpose to enter into the war. 
 
 Ne m je, e yeh ! (I go to the spot the war path !) 
 
 Ne ma je, e yeh ! (Repeats.) 
 
 Ne me kun ah, e yeh ! (My war path !) 
 
 Ge zhig neen wa tin, (My sky is fair and clear.) The com- 
 mon phrase to denote good fortune. 
 
 Hoh ! Ne monedo netaibua- (Let others linger. Onward I my 
 turn o win. God ! my right !) 
 
 In presenting these specimens of the original words of some of our 
 western warriors, we are permitted to give the anne.xed veisions ol them 
 from the pen of one of our most gifted writers. 
 
 WAR-SONG" Pe-na se-wug." 
 
 (From the Algonquin of Sclioolcraft.) 
 
 BY C. F. HOFFMAN. 
 
 Hear not ye their shrill-piping 
 
 screams on the air ? 
 Up ! Braves for the conflict 
 
 prepare ye prepare! 
 Aroused from the canebrake, 
 
 far south by your drum, 
 With beaks whet from carnage, 
 
 the Battle Birds come. 
 
 Oh God of my Fathers, 
 
 as swiftly as they, 
 I ask but to swoop 
 
 from the hills on my prey: 
 Give this frame to the winds, 
 
 on the Prairie below, 
 But my soul like thy bolt 
 
 I would hurl on the foe I
 
 TRADITIONARY WAR SONGS. 413 
 
 HI. 
 
 On the forehead of Earth 
 
 strikes the Sun in his might, 
 Oh gift me with glances 
 
 as searching as light. 
 In the front of the onslaught, 
 
 to single each crest, 
 Till my hatchet grows red 
 
 on their bravest and best. 
 
 Why stand ye hack idly, 
 
 ye Sons of the Lakes ? 
 Who boast of the scalp-locks, 
 
 ye tremble to take. 
 Fear-dreamers may linger, 
 
 my skies are all bright 
 Charge charge on the War-Path, 
 
 FOR GoD AND THE RlGHT. 
 
 Take the following additional example, of a death song. These stan- 
 zas have all been actually sung on warlike occasions, and repeated in my 
 hearing 1 . They have been gleaned from the traditionary songs of the 
 Chippewas of the north, whose villages extend through the region of lake 
 Superior, and to the utmost sou ires of the Mississippi. Those bands are 
 Ihe hereditary foes of their western neighbours, the Dacotnhs or Sioux, 
 who are generally called by them, by way of distinction, Na do wa' sees, 
 that is to say, >UR ENKMIKS. The allusions in the songs are exclusively to 
 them. In writing the original, I omit the chorus, as it is not susceptible 
 of translation, and would increase considerably the space occupied. 
 
 DEATH SONG. 
 
 1. In opening this song the warrior is to be contemplated as lying 
 wounded on the field of battle. 
 
 A' be tuh ge' zhig, (Under the centre of the sky,) 
 
 Ne ba bairn w;V wa. (I utter my bairn wa wa. 
 
 Baimwawa. is the sound of passing thunders, which will convey a 
 just idea of the violence of this figure. 
 
 2. His thoughts revet t to the star of his destiny. 
 
 Ain dah' so gezhig (Every day. thou star !) 
 
 Ke ga ir"n 'd bom in. \ (I gaze at you.) 
 It is tho monnW s.ar that is here alluded to.
 
 414 TRADITIONARY WAR SONGS. 
 
 3. He sees the birds of carnage hovering over the field. 
 
 A' be tuh geezh-ig (The half of the day) 
 
 Ai be yaun (I abide gazing) 
 
 Pe n& se wug (Ye warlike birds.) 
 
 4. He keeps the flight o/ these birds before his mind and hears their 
 shrill cries. 
 
 Pe misk wosh e wug (They fly round the circuit of the sky.) 
 
 Pe na\' se wug (The birds circling) 
 
 A' be tuh geezh ig oag. (Round half the circuit of the sky.) The 
 
 meaning is, approaching him in circle, 
 more nearly, as life becomes fainter in 
 him. 
 
 6. This figure is continued. He lies bleeding. 
 
 A' zha waush e wug (They cross the enemy's line) 
 
 Pe n& se wug. (The birds.) 
 
 6. He feels that he is called to another world. 
 
 A pit she Mon e doag (The high gods) 
 
 Ne mud wa\ wa (My praise) 
 
 Wa we ne goag. (They sound.) 
 
 7. He is content and willing to go. 
 
 K& gait', ne min wain' dum (Full happy* I) 
 
 Ne bun ai kum ig (To lie on the battle-field) 
 
 Tshc ba be wish e naun. (Over the enemy's line.) 
 
 DEATH-SONG" A' be tuh g6 zhig." 
 
 (From the Algonquin of Schoolcraft.) 
 
 BY C. F. HOFFMAN. 
 
 I. 
 
 Under the hollow sky, 
 Stretched on the Prairie lone, 
 
 Centre of glory, I 
 Bleeding, disdain to groan, 
 
 But like a battle cry 
 Peal forth my thunder moan, 
 Baim-wd-wd ! 
 
 n. 
 
 Star Morning-Star, whose ray 
 Still with tho dawn 1 see,
 
 TRADITIONARY WAR SONGS. 415 
 
 Quenchless through half the day 
 Gazing thou seest me 
 
 Yon birds of carnage, they 
 Fright not my gaze from thee I 
 Baim-iod-wd ! 
 
 in. 
 
 Bird, in thine airy rings 
 Over the foeman's line, 
 
 Why do thy flapping wings 
 Nearer me thus incline? 
 
 Blood of the Dauntless brings* 
 Courage, oh Bird to thine ! 
 Baim-wd-wd ! 
 
 Hark to those Spirit-notes ! 
 Ye high Heroes divine, 
 Hymned from your god-like throats 
 That Song of Praise is mine ! 
 
 Mine whose grave-pennon floats! 
 Over the foeman's line ! 
 Bairn -wd-wd !
 
 416 
 
 WAR-RONO. 
 
 WAR SONG. 
 
 Where are my foes? say, warriors, where? No forest is so black, 
 That it can hide from my quick eye, the vestige of their track : 
 There is no lake so boundless, no path where man may go, 
 Can shield them from my sharp pursuit, or save them from my blow. 
 The winds that whisper in the trees, the clouds that spot the sky, 
 Impart a soft intelligence, to show me where they lie, 
 The very birds that sail the air, and scream as on they go, 
 Give me a clue my course to tread, and lead me to the foe. 
 
 The sun, at dawn, lifts up his head, to guide me on my way, 
 The moon, at night, looks softly down, and cheers me with her ray. 
 The war-crowned stars, those beaming lights, my spirit casts at night, 
 Direct me as I thread the maze, and lead me to the fight. 
 In sacred dreams within my lodge, while resting on the land, 
 Bright omens of success arise, and nerve my warlike hand 
 "Where'er I turn, where'er I go, there is a whispering sound, 
 That tells me I shall crush the foe, and drive him from my ground. 
 
 The beaming WEST invites me on, with smiles of vermil hue, 
 And clouds of promise fill the sky, and deck its heavenly blue, 
 There is no breeze there is no sign, in ocean, earth or sky, 
 That does not swell my breast with hope, or animate my eye. 
 If to the stormy beach I go, where heavy tempests play. 
 They tell me but. how warriors brave, should conquer in the fray. 
 All nature fills n y heart with fires, that prompt me on to go, 
 To rush with ra^t;, and lifted spear, upon my country's foe.
 
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