LOS A. 1 
 LIBRARY
 
 By 
 
 HARRY L. GILL 
 
 TRACK TEAM COACH 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS 
 
 U. OF I. SUPPLY STORE 
 (CO-OP) 
 
 Champaign, III. 
 1922 
 
 53814 2 14 '
 
 PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 
 
 COPYRIGHT 1922 
 BY THE U. OF I. SUPPLY STORE 
 
 MILES & PARRIS, Printers, Champaign, Illinois
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 Interest in all forms of physical education is to- 
 day more marked than ever before, and the value 
 of training, such as a boy receives in track and field 
 athletics, is now recognized as of great importance 
 in his education, in teaching him the elements of 
 
 ^ sportsmanship, and in helping him to build a strong, 
 
 4><^ virile body which will be an asset to him through- 
 out his life. The college and ex-college track and 
 field athletes who enrolled for military or naval 
 
 * service in the great war were almost without excep- 
 tion found to be free from physical defects. 
 
 In the majority of cases the coaches charged 
 with the instruction of the young track athletes in 
 the schools in this country, have not had practical 
 experience in all of the events which are found on 
 
 J> the usual program. The author of these pages, who 
 has had considerable experience both as a competi- 
 tor and a coach, is pleased to offer the result of his 
 experience to such as these, hoping that the sugges- 
 tions may be of some value to them. 
 
 While the following chapters have been written 
 primarily for track and field coaches and athletes, 
 at the same time it is hoped that they may be of 
 some value to others who may be interested in track 
 
 and field athletics 
 
 3
 
 The author has endeavored to make his explana- 
 tions as clear as possible so that the novice may 
 understand the progressions in the form in the vari- 
 ous events. Further, since he has written these 
 suggestions for instructional purposes, he has 
 avoided historical narrative and has condensed his 
 material as much as possible. 
 
 The pictures have been taken of men in action 
 in the various events for the purpose of demonstrat- 
 ing the proper form by stages. 
 
 An athlete now and then will be found who may 
 excel in performance while using a different form 
 than the one described, but in the great majority 
 of instances the best results will be obtained by the 
 athlete who uses the standard form.
 
 SUGGESTIONS TO COACHES 
 
 There are four main points to be considered in 
 developing, coaching, and conditioning a track man 
 or track team. These are as follows : 
 
 1. The form in the different events and how to 
 teach it. 
 
 2. The selection of the men for the events in 
 which they can make the best records. 
 
 3. The kind and amount of work to be pre- 
 scribed for each athlete. 
 
 4. The care of the body, including bathing, mas- 
 sage, diet, and sleep. 
 
 The success of a track coach depends largely 
 upon his judgment and knowledge of the foregoing 
 items, as well as upon his ability to express him- 
 self, so that he will be easily understood by his 
 pupils. 
 
 In order to acquire this judgment and knowledge, 
 the young coach should practice the different events, 
 should study and carefully observe athletes in ac- 
 tion, and should consult the athletes relative to their 
 form and condition. Many of the best coaches of 
 the day have spent lots of time after they became 
 coaches in acquiring a knowledge of the events in 
 which they had never competed. 
 
 The man who has been a hurdler, pole-vaulter, 
 or sprinter should be able to tell at a glance what 
 mistakes a beginner makes, and if he is an experi-
 
 enced coach, he should have a good idea whether 
 the faults can be corrected and, if so, how. If the 
 pole vaulter's run is wrong or his method of carry- 
 ing the pole is bad, he notes the mistakes. Further, 
 he should be able to note wherein the athlete is 
 weak or undeveloped and to prescribe the right kind 
 of developmental exercises to correct the weakness. 
 
 In addition, it may be suggested that, unless 
 the coach is enthusiastic about his work and really 
 enjoys it, he will probably fail. Further than this, 
 the coach must be a leader and a good disciplinarian. 
 
 In high school and college athletics, correct in- 
 struction in the form in the different events is very 
 important, because the coach is continually con- 
 fronted with the problem of developing new men 
 to fill the vacancies which occur each season and, 
 likewise, because a majority of the candidates who 
 report for work are usually men who have had 
 little or no experience. 
 
 It is generally a good rule in teaching, especially 
 in teaching inexperienced men, to explain only one 
 point at a time and not to take up new lessons until 
 the details of the first have been mastered. This 
 Applies especially to such events as jumping, hur- 
 dling, and the weight events, where form counts for 
 so much and which is often difficult to acquire. 
 
 In this book, each of the regular track and field 
 events used in intercollegiate and interscholastic 
 competition is dealt with, both from the standpoint 
 of the fundamentals of the beginner and the final 
 Avork of the experienced athlete in preparation for 
 the contest. 
 
 6
 
 In dealing with the different events, the amount 
 of daily work prescribed for each individual (and 
 this is a very important item) is subject to a great 
 deal of variation. The work suggested in these 
 chapters may be considered as an average for a col- 
 lege man of nineteen or twenty years of age. For 
 high school boys from fifteen to eighteen years of 
 age, the work should be somewhat lighter. 
 
 It is always better that an athlete should be under- 
 worked, rather than overworked, but this should not 
 be construed as meaning that the coach should hesi- 
 tate to prescribe a fair amount of work for his 
 men. The athlete who is afraid of work usually 
 never amounts to much. He should be willing and 
 eager for work, and the coach should properly reg- 
 ulate his activities. It may be well said that, in the 
 practice of track athletics, the men do not need to 
 be driven, but they should be impressed with the 
 fact that they must exert themselves to the limit to 
 get the best results in competition. 
 
 In conclusion, the best age for boys to begin the 
 practice of track and field athletics is when they 
 are still young. At this time, they should lay the 
 foundation for future success by observing the laws 
 of health, by acquiring the proper functional devel- 
 opment, and by working by easy stages for stamina 
 and endurance. Championships are not easily won, 
 and the boy who would be a champion must be pre- 
 pared to work faithfully throughout a long prepara- 
 tory season, which may be several years in length, 
 and to forego the pleasures which will dissipate his 
 strength, in order to achieve success. 
 
 7
 
 TRAINING 
 
 I. VALUE OF MASSAGE FOR TRACK ATHLETES. 
 
 Following are arguments which one frequently 
 hears against the use of massage for athletes, i, If 
 you start it you will have to keep it up. 2, It weak- 
 ens the man massaged. 3, If a man is accustomed 
 to a massage before a contest he will not do well 
 if for some reason or other he fails to receive one. 
 4, It does not pay to coddle athletes. 
 
 As for the first, massage is of value in training 
 an athlete and should be kept up but if discontinued 
 it does not necessarily follow that the man affected 
 will be incapacitated for competition. As regards 
 the second, massage is passive exercise and does 
 not weaken a man any more than active exercise. 
 In fact it requires no exercise of the will- power 
 on the part of the subject and, if properly applied, 
 is beneficial. If the third contention is true then 
 the best remedy would be to see that the massage 
 is given before the contest. There is no reason why 
 a man should not always have a good rub-out pre- 
 paratory to his event. If he has been accustomed 
 to massages it is true that he w T ill probably note the 
 difference if he does not get one before the meet. 
 Fourth, some athletes are spoiled by too much at- 
 tention but this is the fault of the trainer. 
 
 Summary a good massage both before and after 
 an event is beneficial.
 
 II. KIND OF MASSAGE AND WHEN TO APPLY. 
 
 In the first place a massage should be pleasant to 
 the athlete. Too many rubbers think that unless 
 they pound and bruise the man who is on the table 
 that they are not doing him any good. In the sec- 
 ond place a massage should not be too long con- 
 tinued. It should start with the feet and progress 
 up toward the heart. Then the fingers, arms and 
 upper body should be rubbed. The fingers of the 
 masseur should follow the veins and the arteries. 
 It is well to use cocoa butter or some good massage 
 cream or liniment, but it should be remembered 
 that the value lies in the rubbing rather than in 
 the liniment. 
 
 The day of a meet the man should warm up un- 
 til he has a good sweat, then he should lie down 
 and relax all of his muscles and have the trainer 
 give him a good massage just before he goes out 
 for his event. After his events he should have 
 a rub-out to keep him from getting stiff. 
 
 If a man is over-trained and the coach desires 
 to lay him off for a day it is a good plan to have 
 him get a rub down but to take no work out. 
 
 III. COMMON TRACK AND FIELD INJURIES AND 
 
 THEIR TREATMENT. 
 
 i. Shin splints. This frequently occurs in sprint- 
 ers, runners, and hurdlers. The remedy is rest. In 
 addition, massage the afflicted part and apply hot 
 cloths or use warm antiphlogistine or paint the leg 
 with iodine or, better still, cover the sore spots with 
 
 9
 
 a layer of icthyol to the thickness of a stiver dollar. 
 Cover with paper to protect the clothing. 
 
 2. Pulled tendons. This is usually caused by 
 overwork or by straining a leg that has not been 
 properly warmed up. When this occurs in an ag- 
 gravated form the athlete will not be able to run 
 for several weeks. If the tear is but slight, by 
 reinforcing the strained part with adhesive tape, 
 he may be able to go through his distance. 
 
 The only thing that can be done for a man who 
 "breaks down behind" is to insist that he keep off 
 his toes, strap up the leg with adhesive tape and 
 apply hot applications and massage. 
 
 3. Sprained ankles. If the tendons are not torn 
 loose, the ankle should be exercised daily. As soon 
 as the injury occurs apply hot cloths to the ankle 
 and massage it. This stimulates circulation, aids 
 recovery and prevents adhesions forming. If the 
 ankle was turned outward when the sprain was 
 received, strap adhesive tape over the outside of the 
 ankle to prevent further injury, then walk and run 
 being careful not to twist the angle again. If the 
 tendons are torn at the attachment, then rest is nec- 
 essary and the ankle should be used as little as 
 possible. 
 
 4. Stone bruises. It is easier to prevent these 
 than to cure them after they have occurred. For 
 prevention wear a piece of soft rubber in the heels 
 of the running or jumping shoes. It is used by 
 hurdlers and jumpers in all of the larger univer- 
 sities. 
 
 10
 
 If a stone bruise occurs get a large bunion plas- 
 ter and place it on the foot in such a way that the 
 pressure will come outside of the sore spot. 
 
 5. Abrasion and nibbed spots. One of the 
 most common difficulties with track men is sore 
 feet. This can usually be prevented by a careful 
 selection of shoes. Not very many men should 
 wear shoes narrower than C and most of them 
 should wear shoes on the D or E last. The most 
 common injury is caused by wearing shoes which 
 are too short. If the shoe rubs wear either a 
 chamois pusher or a clean sock. Keep the foot 
 and socks clean and if the skin is rubbed off a toe, 
 cover the affected part with a bandage and a piece 
 of adhesive tape. 
 
 6. Miscellaneous. Wash cuts with an antiseptic 
 solution. Lysol is good. For boils keep the boil 
 covered with a hot poultice or place a wet towel 
 on the boil, and keep a hot water bottle on it. The 
 reason for this is that the agents in the blood, which 
 fight disease germs, such as the germs in a boil, 
 work better in a warm medium. 
 
 7. Training Diet. ' The diet should consist of 
 vegetables, fresh lean meat, such as roast beef or 
 steak, roast mutton or boiled chicken, toast or bread 
 with butter, fruits, cereals, boiled or poached eggs. 
 A sample day's diet would be as follows : 
 
 Breakfast Fruit, cereal (preferably rolled oats, 
 rolled wheat or other home cooked cereals), toast, 
 one glass of milk or cup of coffee. 
 
 11
 
 Luncheon Poached egg or plain omelets, mashed 
 or baked potatoes, lima beans or garden peas, bread 
 and butter, fruit, milk, tea or water. 
 
 Dinner Roast beef or mutton, lettuce salad, 
 creamed potatoes, bread and butter, custard pud- 
 ding or fruit, milk, tea or water. 
 
 8. // cpnstipated. Try to have the bowels move 
 every day at the same time. Drink plenty of water 
 and eat such foods as carrots, lettuce, asparagus, 
 turnips, celery and cabbage. Eat also fruits, figs, 
 primes, and cereals that contain bran. Avoid fried 
 and greasy foods, rich puddings, and pastry, fat 
 meats and new breads. 
 
 12
 
 EQUIPMENT 
 
 A great deal of care should be exercised in se- 
 lecting the equipment to be used by track and field 
 men. All of the members of the teams should be 
 provided with sweat shirts and fleece-lined drawers 
 of the same material, in addition to the regular 
 track suits, for use in cold weather. 
 
 The sprinters, runners and hurdlers should use 
 a light or medium weight running shoe with six 
 spikes set in the sole. Short and sharp spikes should 
 be used on hard and dry tracks, and full length 
 spikes are necessary when running on a soft track. 
 Hurdlers should wear a pad of sponge rubber, 
 about one-quarter of an inch thick, inside the heel 
 of the shoe to lessen the jar, and to prevent heel 
 bruises. If the hurdle races are on the grass, or 
 on slippery tracks, heel spikes should be worn. For 
 cross-country running a shoe which is very similar 
 to the jumping shoe is recommended. The cross- 
 country shoe has no spike in the heel. It is made 
 either with or without spikes in the sole, depending 
 upon whether they are to be used on the pave- 
 ment. 
 
 The jumpers, vaulters and weight men should 
 use the standard jumping shoe which has six spikes 
 in the sole and two in the heel. The heel has a re- 
 inforced counter to help in preventing the heel 
 from turning to the side. For men with weak 
 ankles the high top shoe is recommended. 
 
 13
 
 Special care should be exercised in fitting the 
 shoes. The majority of athletes should wear shoes 
 made on the "D" last. A great many men make 
 the mistake of wearing shoes which are too short. 
 When the shoe is laced on the foot, there should 
 be a space of about one-quarter of an inch between 
 the big toe and the end of the shoe. 
 
 The standard shot, javelin, 'hammer and discus 
 should be used. The brass covered shot and ham- 
 mer are best because they keep their shape and 
 resist wear better than the solid lead implements. 
 The hammer wire should be fastened to a swivel 
 set in the hammer head. This is to lessen the 
 chance of the wire breaking. It is well to keep 
 a supply of 36 piano wire on hand for handles. If 
 the double grips are used they should be made 
 triangular in shape just wide enough across the 
 top to fit the hand. One of the grips should be 
 one-half inch shorter than the other. If the single 
 grip is used it should be made triangular in shape 
 and of the width of the hand. For traveling pur- 
 poses special made leather bags are advised. 
 
 14
 
 CONSTRUCTION of TRACK AND FIELD 
 
 I. CHARACTER OF THE TRACK. 
 
 Most tracks are one-quarter of a mile long and 
 oval in shape. These tracks usually have one hun- 
 dred and twenty yards straight-a-way on the home 
 stretch for the hundred-yard dash and the high 
 hurdles. This necessitates running the two hundred 
 and twenty-yard dash and the low hurdles around 
 the turn, consequently some tracks are built with 
 a 22O-yard straight-a-way on one side. 
 
 This is highly desirable when it is possible to lay 
 out the long straight-a-way. On such tracks the 
 440 starts at the same place as the 220 and finishes 
 on the other side. 
 
 II. TRACK MEASUREMENTS. 
 
 The track is measured 12 inches from the pole. 
 The old method of measuring was to measure 18 
 inches from the pole, but, in order to make meas- 
 urements conform with the Olympic rules, the Na- 
 tional Collegiate Track Rules Committee adopted 
 this rule for measuring. Where possible it is de- 
 sirable to have the pole or inside edge of the track 
 marked with a narrow cement curb. This gives 
 a much neater appearance to the track, is more 
 durable, and is required by the rules if records are 
 accepted. 
 
 Iron finish posts should be firmly set in the 
 ground at the various finish stations, and iron 
 
 15
 
 stakes, marking the location of the hurdles, starts 
 of relays and touch-off zones should be permanent- 
 ly located. Great care should me taken in survey- 
 ing a track to get all of the measurements correct. 
 
 When relays are run in lanes all the way 
 around the track, great care must be exercised to 
 get the starting places and touch-off zones exact. 
 
 Never try to measure the lanes around a curve 
 with a tape measure. Always have the measure- 
 ments made by a surveyor. 
 
 III. CONSTITUTION OF THE TRACK. 
 
 No two tracks can be built just alike because the 
 difference in the terrain calls for different construc- 
 tion. When a track is being newly built and no ex- 
 pense is to be spared, it is advisable to excavate 
 to a depth of about two feet. A heavy layer of 
 coarse stone should be first laid and on top of this 
 place a deep layer of coarse cinders. This should 
 be rolled and packed until the track is level and 
 even. On top of this place two or three inches of 
 fine cinders, roll well, and add two inches of sifted 
 soft-coal ashes. This surface binds together well 
 and makes a very fast and exceptionally durable 
 track. If soft-coal ashes are not available, use a 
 top dressing of fine sifted cinders mixed with clay. 
 
 This will make an ideal track in fact, if done 
 properly and kept in good condition, there will be 
 none better in the country. It will have all the 
 advantages of a cinder track, in that it can not 
 become muddy when wet, and weeds will not grow 
 on it. It will have the appearance of a mixture 
 
 16
 
 of dirt and cinders, and when properly drained, 
 makes the best wet weather track. The same prep- 
 aration makes the finest runways for pole vaulting, 
 high jumping and broad jumping. 
 
 One of the distinctive features of such tracks 
 and runways is that they require less care than 
 any other type. It is easily leveled and only has 
 to be resurfaced about every five years, which pro- 
 cess is also very simple. Its only disadvantage is, 
 that in weather that is too dry, it gets too hard and 
 should be watered frequently. 
 
 The best way of keeping the track in good 
 condition is as follows : First, have a pile of sifted 
 ashes deposited near the track. If they stand here 
 over winter so much the better. Second, rake the 
 track and keep the surface level and smooth. Third, 
 sift the fine ashes, then sprinkle them over the track. 
 This can be done by scattering them with a shovel. 
 Fourth, rake the track, then float it, then roll it 
 with a heavy roller. After rolling, drag it with a 
 heavy plank which has a piece of carpet or canvas 
 nailed to the under side. To get a track in perfect 
 condition it is necessary to float, rake, roll and drag 
 it a good many times. When the cinders do not 
 pack readily it is necessary to mix clay with them. 
 Equal parts of clay and steam boiler cinders 
 screened through a ^4 -inch mesh will usually give 
 the best results. If a track is covered with a two- 
 inch layer, it will be five years before it needs a 
 second dressing. 
 
 The track should slope gradually toward the in- 
 side. Underneath the track, tile should be laid to 
 
 17
 
 carry off the water. These tile should empty into 
 a large drain on the edge of the field. Most tracks 
 are laid out around the athletic field and usually 
 this field is likewise drained. If so the large drain 
 pipe around the inside of the track can also be used 
 to carry off the water which drains from the field. 
 
 A good dirt track is just as fast a track, but is 
 cannot be used in wet weather, while most com- 
 position tracks are faster when moderately wet than 
 when dry. 
 
 IV. CONSTRUCTION OF THE FIELD. 
 
 The location of the pits, circles and javelin throw 
 line is shown on the diagram. The pits should be 
 dug out to a depth of one foot and filled with fine 
 sand and a little loam, shavings or sawdust mixed. 
 The high jump and pole vault pits should be about 
 14 feet square and the broad jump 6' x 14'. The 
 pits and runways for the broad jump and pole vault 
 ' should be so constructed that they may be ap- 
 proached from either direction. The runways for 
 the broad jump and pole vault should be built of 
 the same material as the track and a trifle higher 
 than the level of the field. For the convenience 
 of the contestants, when they are getting their take- 
 offs in the broad jump and the pole vault, it is 
 well to have two foot intervals marked on the sides 
 of the runways. 
 
 The runway for the high jump should be com- 
 posed of the same material as the track. A sod 
 take-off is satisfactory but it will not stand con- 
 
 18
 
 tinual practice. The approach should be a semi- 
 circle thirty feet in diameter and should be level. 
 
 For the purpose of marking the boundary of the 
 discus, hammer, and shot put rings, an iron band 
 painted white and sunk level with the ground is 
 very good. A piece of wood twelve feet long and 
 two inches wide and painted white should be used 
 to mark the javelin throw line. 
 
 19
 
 HOW TO RUN OFF A MEET 
 
 I. GENERAL. 
 
 The success of any track and field meet depends 
 upon three factors : first, weather conditions ; sec- 
 ond, class of the meet; and third, the method of 
 conducting the meet. No manager is responsible 
 for the weather; the class of competition is partly, 
 at least, out of his hands ; but he can and should see 
 to it that the meet is properly run off. 
 
 For a big meet, it is well to have one man abso- 
 lutely in charge of arrangements, grounds, program, 
 etc. The best executive is the man who gets others 
 to do the work. This is especially true of the ex- 
 ecutive in charge of a track or relay meet. Many 
 men fail in this capacity because they try to do 
 everything themselves. The following committees 
 should be appointed to look after each special 
 branch of the work: 
 
 i. Games Committee. This committee should 
 have general supervision of the meet the days of 
 the games. It should arrange for the officials, see 
 that they are all assigned badges and notified re- 
 garding their duties. Furthermore, this committee 
 should see that yarn is provided for the finish lines ; 
 Kelly pool balls for the clerk of the course, to use 
 when the contestants draw for places ; cross bars for 
 the pole vault and high jump ; stop watches, batons 
 for the relays ; rakes and spades for the jumping 
 
 20
 
 pits, hurdles, jumping standards, shot, discus, ham- 
 mer, javelin, etc. 
 
 This work should be subject to the approval of 
 the manager, but he should allow the committee 
 to do the work and see that they do it. 
 
 2. Program Committee. This committee should 
 get out the program, let the contract for printing, 
 look after the distribution of the programs, and 
 where advertising is solicited, secure what advertis- 
 ing is desired. 
 
 3. Grounds Committee. This committee usually 
 consists of the ground keeper and his assistants. If 
 there is no regular care-taker, then it is advisable 
 to place one man in charge of the work of getting 
 the track and grounds in shape. 
 
 4. Reception Committee. In the case of High 
 School meets and sometimes for big meets, com- 
 mittees are appointed to look after the visitors. This 
 committee should see that every visiting coach is 
 given his tickets, a program and numbers. Visiting 
 coaches always appreciate this very much because 
 it is always considerable trouble to hunt up the man- 
 ager in a strange place. Further, this eliminates 
 confusion the day of the meet. 
 
 II. OFFICIALS. 
 
 Great care should be exercised in choosing offi- 
 cials. In selecting officials, try to get men who not 
 only know the rules and have good judgment in en- 
 forcing them, but also pick men who will take an 
 interest in getting the events off on time. One man 
 
 21
 
 should be designated as head finish judge, one as 
 head tinier, one as head judge of the weights, one 
 as head judge of the jumps. 
 
 It is advisable to furnish each official with a 
 typewritten statement which will tell him where 
 to report, the time to report, and to whom he should 
 report. It is also well to give each official a pro- 
 gram and his ticket of admission. A great deal 
 depends upon the clerk of the course who looks 
 after the drawing for places and keeps the events 
 going on scheduled time. 
 
 III. GROUNDS. 
 
 Every precaution should be taken to see that the 
 grounds, are properly laid out and everything ar- 
 ranged in advance. The running lanes should be 
 marked out, the shot-put, discus, and hammer 
 throwing circles outlined, jumping pits spaded up 
 and the take-off boards properly set. 
 
 It is always advisable to have a surveyor check 
 up measurements, starting places, touch-off zones 
 and finish lines. Further, he should see that the 
 stands for the vaulting and jumping standards are 
 level. 
 
 Every precaution should be taken to see that 
 comfort of the spectators has been attended to and 
 to be sure that they will not be allowed upon the 
 track. One reason why track and field events have 
 not been popular in some sections is because the 
 spectators often do not know what is taking place. 
 The announcer should tell the spectators before the 
 start of the dashes, hurdles, and relays, the name 
 
 22
 
 of the contestant who is running in the first lane, 
 second lane, etc. Further, it is advisable to an- 
 nounce the name of the man putting the shot or 
 competing in the other field events, and after their 
 performances he should announce the results. This 
 is sometimes accomplished by having a stand on 
 the field to which is hung the number of the com- 
 petitor and after it the number of feet and inches 
 he jumped, threw the javelin, etc. 
 
 IV. CONTESTANTS. 
 
 The coaches are responsible for seeing that the 
 contestants are acquainted with the rules and that 
 they report promptly on time for their various 
 events. It is almost always best to run off the 
 meet on a time schedule. When this is done each 
 coach should be given a copy of the schedule, so 
 that he will know when his events occur. This 
 places the responsibility upon him and ensures that 
 the men will be on time for the events. 
 
 Coaches and trainers should never accompany 
 the contestants to the starting point or inner 
 grounds, for two reasons : one is that the men 
 should be taught to do their best without the assist- 
 ance of the coach during the event; and the other 
 is that keeping the coaches off the track and inner 
 grounds eliminates jockeying. 
 
 23
 
 SPRINTS 
 
 I. TRAINING. 
 
 A sprinter does not require so strenuous train- 
 ing as a distance runner. A distance run is a test 
 of endurance, and the sprint, especially the short 
 dash, a test of speed. At the same time it will pay 
 the sprinter to do some work both in the fall and 
 winter as well as in the spring. A good high school 
 or college sprinter is often on the football or bas- 
 ketball teams and sometimes on both, and he does 
 not have time or strength for work in sprinting 
 in the fall and winter. If he is not out for the 
 other teams he should practice sprinting nearly 
 every day in the fall, and in the winter he should 
 take plenty of calisthenic exercises, with special em- 
 phasis given to developing his abdominal muscles, 
 and practicing deep breathing. Care should be 
 taken in running on the boards not to get sore shins. 
 This is a common trouble for sprinters, especially 
 young sprinters. 
 
 II. THE START. 
 
 (a) The starting holes should be dug deep 
 enough to provide a good brace for the feet. % Dig 
 the holes with the spikes or with a putty knife and 
 be sure to make the back of the hole straight up 
 and down or nearly so. It is well to stamp the back 
 of the hole to make sure that it is solid. 
 
 (b) It is impossible to establish a definite rule 
 for the places where the holes are to be dug because 
 
 24
 
 this will vary with the length of the arms and legs 
 of the individuals. As a rule the front hole should 
 be about 12 inches from the starting mark and the 
 back knee should be about even with the ball of the 
 foot. 
 
 (c) The hands should touch the ground with the 
 thumbs and fingers toward the front, fingers well 
 together and hands about 18 inches apart. 
 
 (d.) When in a starting position, waiting for 
 the pistol, the back knee should be a few inches 
 higher than the ankle. The back is parallel with 
 the ground and the head is in a natural position. 
 It is well to look a few yards ahead, but it is not 
 advisable to try to look clear down the track. The 
 weight is mostly on the front foot and hands, and 
 the legs are relaxed. The push is mostly from the 
 front leg. If the start is with the left foot ahead 
 the right arm goes back and the left arm forward 
 as the right leg takes the first step. 
 
 (e) When called to the marks, place the feet 
 comfortably in the holes and rest the weight with 
 the right knee on the ground. When the command 
 "get set" is given, come up to the proper crouched 
 position and remember not to tighten up the mus- 
 cles, but to get fully set and then be mentally alert, 
 awaiting the starting signal. Do not try to beat 
 the gun or to anticipate the start. At the report 
 of the pistol drive forward with the front leg and 
 
 snap the arms into the running motion. 
 
 25
 
 III. THE FORM. 
 
 The first three or four steps should be short and 
 quick for the purpose of getting up momentum. If 
 the first steps are too long they will have a tendency 
 to cause the runner to straighten up too soon. He 
 should not be clear up until he has gone at least 
 ten yards. At the same time he should be careful 
 to get his legs under him. If the weight is leaned 
 too far forward, it would make the recovery more 
 difficult and will cause the runner to stumble. He 
 should ascertain by practice just how far forward 
 to lean his weight. 
 
 The sprinter should run well up on his toes, 
 in fact higher than in any other race. The leg 
 should come up with the toe pointed straight ahead, 
 and the foot should land well out in front. Lift the 
 legs straight up in front of the body, keeping them 
 in the same plane. Some runners acquire a reach- 
 ing motion with the hip which increases the length 
 of the stride. This is advantageous to sprinters 
 with short legs. This should not be discouraged 
 but few men can do it properly. 
 
 Keep the arms slightly bent at the elbow and 
 push them forward with a snap. The arm motion 
 is from the shoulder and not the elbow. There 
 should also be a good backward swing. The 
 swing of the arms should be a natural one, 
 but the naturalness should be in keeping with good 
 form. The arm-swing should be slightly across 
 the body and as high as the chest. In this motion 
 the left hand, for example, will reach in front to 
 
 26
 
 the middle of the chest on the downward step of 
 the right foot. When the left foot hits the ground 
 on the next step, the right hand will come to the 
 point where the left one had been on the preceding 
 stride. Some beginniners do not use the arms 
 enough in sprinting. 
 
 At the finish of a race use the arms vigorously, 
 lift the knees higher and do not chop the stride. The 
 body should lean slightly forward and the head 
 should be held in a natural position. 
 
 Before getting on the marks take several deep 
 breaths. Take time to do this and do not hurry to 
 get down. Let the others wait for you. The starter 
 will not give the "get set" signal until all men are 
 on their marks. Do not worry about breathing in 
 the race but breathe in a most natural way. After 
 a hard 220 take a couple of deep breaths. It will be 
 found refreshing. 
 
 Every sprinter should learn how to go a little 
 faster the last ten yards. To do this, redouble your 
 efforts, lift the knees higher and swing the arms 
 harder. A proper throw and twist of the body at 
 the finish is an advantage. This throw may be made 
 by leaning the chest and upper body forward when 
 breasting the tape. This motion must be timed ex- 
 actly or it will not be effective. 
 
 In starting a 220 dash around the curve usually 
 the three inner lanes are desirable because as a rule 
 the track is beaten better, and, then to, the sprinter 
 starts behind and can see how fast the field in front 
 of him are running the first 100 yards. In running 
 
 21
 
 on a curve do not run in the middle of the lane but 
 keep as close to the inside as possible. 
 
 Do not run trials except on Saturday and then in 
 competition. Do not run the full distance at top 
 speed. It is a good plan for 220 men to run the 
 first 120 yards at a good comfortable speed and then 
 sprint for the finish line. Practice plenty of starts 
 but do not do any jogging except to warm up. 
 
 IV. TRAINING FOR SPRING MEETS. 
 
 If the Sprinter is starting his preparation for the 
 spring meets he should precede as follows : The 
 first few days should be spent in taking easy runs 
 of about 100 yards up and down the track, running 
 at about a half mile gait. A few minutes' rest should 
 be taken before each run. In this work particular 
 attention should be given to running in good form. 
 At this time regular sprinting starts and high speed 
 work should not be taken. After several days of 
 this work and if the weather is warm, a few starts 
 may be taken with the pistol in addition to the above 
 work. No starts should be taken until the runner 
 is well warmed up. After two or three weeks of this 
 training the daily schedule for a week's work should 
 be as follows : 
 
 Monday Warm up by running up and clown the 
 track a few times. Then take four or five starts 
 with the pistol and sprint from 25 to 50 yards at 
 top speed. Follow this by taking two or three runs 
 of from 100 to 150 yards in length running three- 
 fourths of the distance at half milers gait and 
 sprinting the last fourth at top speed. This work is 
 
 28
 
 intended to develop finishing power and endurance. 
 If the man is training for both the 100 and 220 yard 
 dashes, he should be given considerable in 150, 220, 
 and 300 yards, but these runs should be at moderate 
 speed. 
 
 Tuesday Warm up as on Monday, run two 
 heats of 75 yards and then take a few more easy 
 runs up and down the track. 
 
 Wednesday: The same as Monday. 
 
 Thursday Warm up, take two or three starts 
 with the pistol and then run two dashes of from 50 
 to 60 yards. Then run 300 yards at about a quar- 
 ter mile gait. 
 
 Friday Warm up and take a few starts with the 
 pistol. 
 
 Saturday Trials. If the sprinter is running only 
 the 100 yards he should run two heats. If he runs 
 the 220 also, then he should run one heat of the 100 
 and one of the 220. Both trials should be under 
 competitive conditions. 
 
 A sprinter should have from one to two days rest 
 before a meet and if the meets are held on consec- 
 utive Saturdays the schedule of work outlined 
 above should be reduced. 
 
 V. COMMON FAULTS. 
 
 i." Not raising the back leg high enough at the 
 
 command "get set." 
 
 2. Not digging the holes deep enough. 
 ^. Making the first step too long.
 
 5* 
 
 6, 
 
 9- 
 
 Failing to swing one arm ahead and the other 
 
 back when leaving the mark. 
 
 Straightening up too soon. 
 
 Swinging the arms too much across the body. 
 
 Running with the toes turned out. 
 
 Kicking the feet up too high behind the body, 
 
 and leaning the body too far forward. 
 
 Throwing the head back and chopping the 
 
 stride. 
 
 Illustration 1
 
 Illustration I. Shows the position taken by the 
 sprinter at the command, "Take your marks." Note 
 that the position is comfortable, and the muscles 
 are relaxed. The runner will only need to raise 
 the back leg to come to a set position. 
 
 Illustration 2 
 
 Illustration 2. Shows the "Set" position. The 
 weight is mostly on the forward foot and hands. 
 The hands are about 12 inches in front of the left 
 foot. The right knee is slightly higher than the 
 right ankle. The back is parallel to the ground and 
 the head is in a natural position. The eyes are look- 
 
 31
 
 ing down the track a few feet. The sprinter is al- 
 ready to drive forward at the report of the pistol. 
 
 Illustration 3 
 
 Illustration 3. Shows the first movements of the 
 sprinter after the pistol is fired. The right arm is 
 coming back and the left arm is going forward. The 
 right foot is just starting forward for the first 
 step. Note how far the body is leaning forward. 
 
 32
 
 Illustration 4 
 
 Illustration 4. Shows the runner at the beginning 
 of the third step. Note how the arms are moving 
 in unison with the legs. Also note that the body is 
 slightly more erect than in Illustration 3. 
 
 33
 
 Illustration 5 
 
 Illustration 5. Shows the runner ten yards from 
 the starring mark. He is now getting into full 
 stride, but he has not yet straightened up quite so 
 much as he will be when he is in his natural sprint- 
 ing position. 
 
 34
 
 THE MIDDLE DISTANCE RUNS 
 
 I. PRELIMINARY TRAINING. 
 
 Since it requires a great deal of endurance to 
 run the middle distance races, the man who would 
 run the 440 and 880 should begin training several 
 months before the time of competition. An ideal 
 plan would be for the runner to start in the Fall 
 with cross country work. He should take easy 
 runs every other day and gradually increase the 
 distance. If possible, run in the country and keep 
 off the pavements. However, a moderate amount 
 of running on the pavements is better than running 
 indoors. After three months of cross-country run- 
 ning, in the Fall, the middle distance runner should 
 substitute gymnasium work for actual running. 
 Basket ball, in moderation, is excellent for middle 
 distance runners, as it adds variety to the training. 
 It should never take the place of actual running, 
 however. General calesthenics are splendid for 
 body building purposes and should be used through- 
 out the training season. 
 
 In the winter, if the weather permits, continue 
 cross-country runnihg during January and Febru- 
 ary. If the weather conditions make it inadvisable 
 to run outdoors, and an indoor track is available, 
 run on the indoor track. Of course, if the competi- 
 tor is training for indoor meets, the work indoors 
 will be more strenuous than if his work is prelim- 
 inary to the outdoor meets in the spring. 
 
 35
 
 Take a couple of weeks' rest between the winter 
 training period and the spring work outdoors. Out- 
 door training, when possible, should begin about 
 eight weeks before the first regular track meets are 
 scheduled. 
 
 II. OUTDOOR TRAINING SCHEDULE. 
 
 The kind and the amount of work given to the 
 individual members of the team will depend upon 
 their previous experience, and, the amount of pre- 
 liminary training which they have had. The aver- 
 age amount and kind would be about as follows : 
 The first week should be spent in light running, for 
 form, at distances of about a quarter mile. Run 
 two or three separate quarters each day, with suf- 
 ficient rest between each. Remember that these 
 should only be taken at a moderate pace, not jog- 
 ging and not sprinting, but just fast enough to ac- 
 quire a running stride. At this stage of the -work 
 the runners should run enough to get muscle sore- 
 ness to a slight degree. After the muscular sore- 
 ness of the first few days has passed away, the run- 
 ner's condition will permit of a slight increase in 
 the amount and severity of the work. 
 
 Since judgment of pace is a very important es- 
 sential in middle distance running, the runner 
 should begin early in the season to practice judg- 
 ing his pace at different distances. The coach should 
 time him in his daily work-outs so that the runner 
 will learn to judge his speeds within one second 
 of the actual running time for the various distances 
 over which he practices. This daily practice and 
 
 36
 
 timing of the runners should not be confused with 
 time trials. The time in this practice will be much 
 slower than the runner's racing speed if he is run- 
 ning his full distance. 
 
 It is a good plan to have the beginner run with 
 the experienced men since they will help to teach 
 the newcomers the pace and the form. 
 
 There are three kinds of running for training 
 purposes : first, running about three-fourths of the 
 actual distance at racing speed, for the purpose of 
 judging pace. For instance, in the 440 training, 
 the runner should run 300 yards at quarter mile 
 speed. For the "half mile he should run 600 or 660 
 yards at half mile speed. Second, running the full 
 distance of the race at a pace somewhat slower 
 than the athlete is capable of in actual competition. 
 This training is for the purpose of getting the run- 
 ner familiar with the distance of his race. Third, 
 running over distance at a pace slower than in either 
 of the other methods just described. This is excel- 
 lent work for developing endurance and finishing 
 power, and should be taken about twice a week. The 
 over distance work for a quarter miler would be 
 660 or 880 yards ; for a half miler, three-quarters 
 or a mile. 
 
 A day's work in mid-season would be about as 
 follows : Warm up by running up and down the 
 track several times. If the runner is a quarter 
 miler, he should run through 300 yards at a quar- 
 ter mile pace. He should then walk around and 
 rest for ten or fifteen minutes. When rested he 
 
 37 
 
 53814
 
 should run a lap at slow speed and then go to the 
 dressing room. For his next day's work he might 
 run the full distance, followed the next day by the 
 over distance, and the next the over distance. Each 
 day he should warm up as described above a few 
 sprints and some starts with the pistol should be 
 taken frequently. It is well to take a light work- 
 out on Friday and to run a time trial for the full 
 distance on Saturday. In case the runner is train- 
 ing for both the quarter and the half he should 
 work primarily over the longer distances. In all 
 of the training runs the runner should finish with 
 a sprint. The day's work should cover a period 
 of about an hour. It is a mistake to rush through 
 the training work. The day's work, it will be 
 noted, begins with light work and ends with light 
 work. The heavier training comes in between. 
 
 III. FORM. 
 
 The stride in the middle distance is much the 
 same as the sprinter's stride except that they are 
 much more relaxed and less vigorous. The stride 
 should not be so high upon the toes. The leg action 
 in middle distance running may be expressed as 
 throwing the foot well forward in landing. The 
 arms should be swung from the shoulders like the 
 arm movement in sprint running except that the 
 arms and body should be more relaxed throughout 
 the first part of the race. In the last part of the 
 race when the final effort is made, all of the arm 
 drive possible is necessary to assist the legs which 
 have become weakened by the strain. The ten- 
 
 38"
 
 dency in the last sprint is to chop the stride. It is 
 at this time that the arms should be used with the 
 maximum effort to maintain the full stride to the 
 finish. Do not use the reaching- and pulling move- 
 ment of the arms, but drive forward as in sprinting. 
 The breathing should be through both the mouth 
 and the nose. The head should be carried in a 
 natural position, otherwise the air passage will be 
 restricted. The inhalations should be full and 
 deep, for the more air which can be taken into the 
 lungs the better. 
 
 IV. RUNNING THE RACE. 
 
 In the 440, because it is very important that the 
 runner get a good position at the first turn, when 
 the pistol is fired the contestant should sprint for 
 the pole, being careful to avoid fouling. Do not 
 run on the outside on the turns because by so doing 
 one runs farther than necessary. If the runner 
 gets the pole and does not want the pace fast he 
 can "float" on the first and second turns, causing 
 the opponents to run outside to pass. If he does not 
 get the pole and the pace is not fast enough, he 
 should pass on the back stretch. Care should be 
 taken so as not to lose a stride. If possible get into 
 the lead before coming to the third turn, otherwise 
 your opponent may slow down so as to make you 
 lose a stride or run outside. When coming into 
 the stretch run in a straight line to the finish. 
 
 In the half mile it is usually better to run the 
 first quarter a trifle faster than the second quarter, 
 
 39
 
 but the pace should be about even. Judgment of 
 pace is very essential in the half mile run. 
 
 V. COMMON FAULTS. 
 
 1. Running too many time trials. 
 
 2. Misjudging the pace and either running the 
 first half of the race too fast or too slow. 
 
 3. Running wide on the turns. 
 
 4. Tensing the muscles throughout the race. 
 
 5. Throwing the head back and chopping the 
 stride at the finish. 
 
 VI. SUGGESTIONS. 
 
 Practice sprinting for the pole and do not let it 
 worry you if you are jostled. Learn to move up 
 through a pack of runners without going outside. 
 
 Work the arms hard on a finish. When finishing 
 do not look back. Do not throw the head back and 
 remember not to shorten the stride. 
 
 Middle distance runners should start from a 
 crouch. 
 
 40
 
 Illustration 1 
 
 Illustration i. The start of the 2-mile relay in 
 the 1920 Pennsylvania Relays where a new world's 
 record was made. Note the position of the runners 
 on the second stride after the pistol was fired. Each 
 man is endeavoring to get into full stride quickly 
 so that he may get a favorable position at the first 
 turn. In this race each team is composed of four 
 half milers. 
 
 41
 
 Illustration 2 
 
 Illustration 2. Shows a runner finishing a half 
 mile race in good form. Note the position of the 
 legs and arms. 
 
 42
 
 THE LONG DISTANCE RUNS 
 
 I. PRELIMINARY TRAINING. 
 
 Training for the mile and two-mile runs should 
 start long before the outdoor training season be- 
 gins ; that is, the preliminary training should ex- 
 tend over a long period of time. This preliminary 
 training, however, should be light and for the pur- 
 pose of developing strength and endurance. If the 
 athlete loses weight and gets up feeling tired in 
 the morning he should lighten his work. If the 
 man in question is to participate in several indoor 
 meets, then, of course, he will train much as he 
 would for outdoor meets. The following prelim- 
 inary training suggestions are primarily for begin- 
 ners, but most of the points mentioned will also be 
 found of value to seasoned runners as well. 
 
 Cross-country walking, followed by cross-coun- 
 try running, is invaluable in developing heart, lungs 
 and legs. Most beginners are too anxious to get 
 results quickly, and they walk and run too far. The 
 hikes and runs should be short at first and then 
 should gradually be lengthened, as improvement is 
 noticed. During the walks, practice deep breathing, 
 that is, take a full breath, inhaling slowly, hold it 
 for a few seconds and then exhale slowly. 
 
 General all-around calisthenics likewise are bene- 
 ficial. They should be taken each morning before 
 the morning bath, with the windows up, or in the 
 
 43
 
 gymnasium with the class. Ten or fifteen minutes 
 of these will suffice. The exercises taken should 
 be those which especially affect the upper body ; 
 the legs will get plenty of exercise in actual running 
 practice. 
 
 Basketball is one of the best games for distance 
 runners. -Most boys like to play basketball, and 
 they get splendid training for endurance while play- 
 ing this game. 
 
 If the runner has a gymnasium to train in, he, 
 should start his preliminary training in January, 
 following the suggestions just mentioned, and, be- 
 sides, he should practice starts frequently. Too 
 much starting on the boards will produce sore 
 shins, and this should be avoided. A splendid rule 
 to follow, right from the start, is to enter some kind 
 of competition every Saturday afternoon. At the 
 first such events as short dashes will suffice. Later 
 the distances should be gradually lengthened. For 
 variety, sometimes let the competition consist of 
 participation in some other track or field event. The 
 main thing is to get into the habit of doing one's 
 best every Saturday afternoon in competition. The 
 runner should never run himself out at any other 
 time during the week. 
 
 II. TRAINING FOR THE SPRING MEETS. 
 
 About two months before the main competitions, 
 the regular outdoor training should commence. For 
 the first few days the work should be as follows : 
 Warm up by running up and down the track a few 
 times and give special attention to the correct run- 
 
 44
 
 ning form. Follow this by running from one to 
 two miles with an easy stride. Care should be taken 
 not to set too fast a pace. The runner should not 
 finish exhausted. The work in training for dis- 
 tance runs should be so regulated that strength and 
 condition will be acquired gradually. After the 
 muscular soreness caused by the first few days 
 of work has disappeared, the amount and kind of 
 work may be slightly increased. At this time sprint- 
 ing may be added and also easy runs of from 3 to 
 4 miles may be taken by two-milers and from 2 to 
 3 miles by milers. 
 
 After about four weeks of work the following is 
 suggested as an average week's schedule for a miler. 
 The two miler should run about twice as far as the 
 miler in training, but the pace should be commen- 
 surate with the distance covered. 
 
 Monday : Warm up by running up and down the 
 track for a few minutes and then take a slo\v mile. 
 For instance, a man who can run a mile in about 
 4:40 should run the distance in about 5:10. Follow 
 this by walking around the track until rested and 
 then take two or three runs of one hundred yards 
 in length at fairly good speed. 
 
 Tuesday : Warm up as on Monday and then run 
 three-quarters of a mile at a mile pace. It is .a 
 good plan to time the runner in this work and to 
 test his judgment of pace at the finish by question- 
 ing him regarding his idea of the time made in the 
 run. He should be able to judge his pace within 
 
 45
 
 two or three seconds. Finish the day's work the 
 same as on Monday. 
 
 Wednesday : After warming up as on "the pre- 
 ceding days, run a mile at a fairly good pace. A 
 4:40 man should run it in about 4:55. Finish up 
 the work as before. 
 
 Thursday: Warm up and then run two half 
 miles in about 2 :2o or 2 125 each. A good rest should 
 be taken between runs. Finish as on the other 
 days. 
 
 Friday: Warm up and then take a few sprint- 
 ing starts and then some light running around the 
 track. 
 
 Saturday: Run a trial. Warm up as before a 
 race. 
 
 III. RUNNING THE RACE. 
 
 The legs should be lifted well out in front and 
 the foot should land without chopping the stride. 
 Run well on the toes and in training exaggerate 
 the springing on the toes, but, of course, do not 
 overdo this in a race. If unable to keep upon the 
 toes and if the weight comes down on the heel the 
 runner should persevere in his efforts to run on 
 his toes for eventually the calves will become strong 
 enough to bear the weight. Usually, the longer the 
 race, the shorter the stride. Strive to acquire the 
 proper stride in practice, so that it will be natural 
 to run that way in the race. 
 
 The body should be held slightly forward. Do 
 not lower the head, as it obstructs the breathing. 
 
 46
 
 The arms should not be held too high, nor should 
 the muscles of the arms be contracted, as in sprint- 
 ing. Do not swing the arms back of the legs, nor 
 far enough in front to cause the runner to wobble. 
 
 IV. PACE. 
 
 Judgment of pace is essential in distance runners. 
 Men should know how fast they can run each quar- 
 ter to get the best results. It has been proven that 
 better time can be made by running a good fast 
 pace all the way, rather than by running the first 
 half very fast and the last half necessarily slower, 
 or by running the first half slowly and the second 
 half at top speed. 
 
 A 4 140 man should run his quarters somewhat as 
 follows : First quarter, 68 ; second, 75 ; third, 69 ; 
 and fourth, 68. A ten minute man in the two mile 
 should run his halves about as follows : First half, 
 2 :3<D ; second, 2 :35 ; third, 2 130 ; and fourth, in 2 125. 
 When the record was established for the mile in 
 the Western Conference the quarters were as fol- 
 lows : First quarter, 62 seconds ; first half, 2 min- 
 utes 8 seconds; three quarters, 3 minutes 13 sec- 
 onds; mile, 4 minutes 15 2-5 seconds. 
 
 The finish is important in distance running. A 
 runner must know his sprinting ability, and know 
 when to start his sprint for the tape. The average 
 distance is 120 yards, though some men can sprint 
 as far as 220 yards. One thing to keep in mind 
 
 is that a man should never make two sprints. 
 
 47
 
 V. GENERALSHIP. 
 
 In planning a distance race, for instance a mile, 
 it is always advisable to follow pace, providing the 
 opponent sets it properly and assuming that the 
 runner has a good sprint, for it is harder to run 
 the race in front than just behind. These things, 
 however should be kept in mind : First, do not fol- 
 low a man who has a poor stride; second, if possi- 
 ble, two teammates should run together ; third, do 
 not get into the second division of the field. 
 
 When to set pace: i. If opponent has a good 
 sprint and your man does not. 
 
 2. If pace is not fast enough to enable your man 
 to run his distance. 
 
 3. When your man has a sprint, but finds the 
 pace too fast for him, he should go out in front and 
 set the pace with the idea of slowing it down. 
 
 How to pass opponent in sprint home. Go by 
 him fast, for two reasons: first, because this keeps 
 your opponent from knowing that you are going 
 by him, and consequently he will not be able to pre- 
 vent you from taking the pole ; second, that, by 
 doing so, you may discourage the other man, who 
 thinks you are fresh when he is tired. 
 
 VI. COMMON FAULTS. 
 
 1. Running flat-footed. 
 
 2. Not making the proper use of the arms. 
 
 3. Running the first part of the race too fast. 
 
 4. Starting the sprint too soon. 
 
 48
 
 5. Looking back. 
 
 6. Running outside on the turns. 
 
 
 Illustration 1 
 
 Illustration I. Shows long distance runner in full 
 stride. The body is leaned slightly forward, the 
 head is in a natural position and the arms are swung 
 from the shoulder- joint forward and back with the 
 
 49
 
 elbow slightly bent. Note that the arm swing is 
 only slightly across the body so that the hands come 
 to about the same point in front of the body. Also 
 note that the toe of the foot is pointed out straight 
 ahead and is fully extended at the time of landing. 
 It is apparent that the runner's muscles are fully 
 relaxed.
 
 RELAY RACING 
 
 I. DISTANCE. 
 
 The most common relays are as follows : 
 
 1. One-half mile relay each man runs 220 yards. 
 
 2. One mile relay each man runs 440 yards; 
 
 3. Two mile relay each man runs one-half mile. 
 
 4. Four mile relay each man runs one mile. 
 
 5. Sprint medley first man runs runs 220 yards, 
 the second, 220 yards, the third 440 yards, and the 
 fourth 880 yards. 
 
 6. Distance medley first man runs 440 yards, 
 the second, half mile, the third, three-quarters, and 
 the fourth, one mile. 
 
 7. Shuttle relay each man runs one hundred 
 yards back and forth that is, two men of each 
 team are stationed at each end of the one hundred 
 yard course, number one and three at one end, and 
 two and four at the other. Number one runs 100 
 yards and passes the baton to number two who in 
 turn passes to three. Three passes to four and he 
 finishes. 
 
 II. How TO PLACE MEN IN RELAYS. 
 
 The usual plan is to run the second best man 
 first or third, the poorest man second and the best 
 man last. This will vary under the following con- 
 ditions : 
 
 51
 
 1. In the mile relay there is a big advantage in 
 getting the pole, consequently it pays to start a 
 good man. Further, the man who starts should be 
 strong and not easily tripped or he will lose out in 
 the fight for the pole on the first turn. 
 
 2. It makes a good deal of difference to some 
 men whether they are running in front or behind. 
 For the man who cannot run well when behind, 
 either because he does not judge pace well or be- 
 cause he gets faint hearted when touched off be- 
 hind, place him so that he gets away with either an 
 even start, or if possible with better than an even 
 start. Some men do not do their best when out 
 in front all alone. These men should be placed 
 where they are sure to have to run their best to 
 win. 
 
 3. If a man gets too nervous waiting for the 
 stick it may be well to start him first. 
 
 4. Figure on what the opponents will do in the 
 relays, and then decide whether you can run them 
 off their feet by starting your good men first. This 
 sometimes will work in distance relays because in- 
 experienced men will often run themselves out in 
 the first part of their distance in trying to make up 
 ground lost by teammates. 
 
 III. PASSING THE BATON. 
 
 The baton is about one foot long and one inch 
 in diameter and it is passed in a sixty-foot zone. 
 Thirty feet of this touch-off zone is on each side 
 of the finish line. As a rule the men line up on the 
 
 52
 
 back line to start their run and the stick is received 
 at about the middle line. This gives the rest of the 
 distance to make sure of the pass or to get the baton 
 in case of a miss. Since relay racing is intended 
 as a test of running ability, and not of ability to 
 carry or pass the baton, the rules committee fa- 
 vored anything that would lessen the chances of a 
 team being disqualified for dropping the baton. 
 However, since the rules require that a baton be 
 carried, a great deal of attention should be given 
 to the exchange. Many teams lose a great deal of 
 time in making the exchange. 
 
 Some points to consider in passing the baton are 
 as follows: 
 
 1. Practice having the starter judge correctly 
 the speed of the runner. The pass should be timed 
 so that the man can barely reach the baton. 
 
 2. Take the baton in the right hand from the 
 previous man, and as soon as the stick is received 
 change it into the other hand. 
 
 3. When reaching back for the baton reach with 
 the back of the hand toward the ground. 
 
 4. The runner should pass the stick with his left 
 hand. 
 
 5. The chief responsibility of making a good 
 pass is on the man who delivers the baton. 
 
 IV. RECEIVING THE RELAY BATON. 
 
 As the runner approaches, the man who is to re- 
 ceive the baton should start his run slowly and 
 should be careful to time his speed with that of the 
 
 53
 
 runner. If the man who touches him off has a 
 strong finish he can plan to get the baton on the 
 far side of the middle line. If the approaching run- 
 ner shows signs of tiring rapidly the man who is 
 waiting should be careful, and not start too fast. 
 One common fault of men receiving the baton is 
 that they do not run a straight course while the ex- 
 change is being made, and consequently they fre- 
 quently either cause their teammates to bump into 
 them or they run into their opponents. The rea- 
 son why such men do not run on a straight line is 
 that running while looking backward has a tendency 
 to make them run on a curve. 
 
 The last runner down the home stretch finishes 
 just as in the quarter. The other man must plan 
 on the station occupied by their teammates in the 
 terms of the exchange. For instance, a team draws 
 the fourth lane from the pole. This means that 
 each succeeding runner must receive the baton in 
 that lane. He cannot cross in and take the pole 
 even if his team is in the lead. Such being the case 
 some men plan to have the runner run through the 
 men occupying lanes one and two and thus pass the 
 baton to the next man in front of the middle line 
 and near the pole. This, of course, does away with 
 the necessity of the first runner leaving the pole. 
 This, however, is wrong because it violates the spirit 
 of the rule, and besides it is hard to run through 
 the line in this way without causing a spill. 
 
 Try out your men in short distances and see in 
 what order they run best. Give men plenty of prac- 
 
 54
 
 tice in closing up the gap, especially in distance run- 
 ning. The rule in this is for the man to gradually 
 go after the competitor, and not to try to overtake 
 him too soon. 
 
 In shuttle relays it is better to have the men 
 touch off rather than to pass the baton although this 
 requires good officiating to see that men do not 
 start before they are touched. In this race the men 
 being touched gain a little by being in motion when 
 touched. Of course, they must be behind the line 
 at the time of being touched. If the half-mile re- 
 lay is run in lanes, be sure to caution your men to 
 run close to the inside line. The first and second 
 lanes are the best, preferably the second, because 
 the man who has the pole is forced to run out from 
 the curb while the man in second lane can run al- 
 most on the line. There is an advantage in having 
 the field in front. 
 
 55
 
 Illustration 1 
 
 Illustration i shows the method of passing the ba- 
 ton. The man receiving the baton is well in his 
 stride and the man who is passing it is just able 
 to reach the other which makes the fastest possi- 
 ble exchange. Note that the receiver is reaching 
 back with the palm of his right hand upward, and 
 that he is watching the stick pass into his hand. The 
 incoming runner is handing the other the baton with 
 his left hand. He will keep a straight course as 
 he finishes so as not to interfere with the other con- 
 testants. The men receiving the batons have a 
 tendency to veer to the right of their course. This 
 should be avoided. 
 
 56
 
 THE HIGH HURDLES 
 
 I. HIGH HURDLES. 
 
 1. Regulations. The standard distance in an out- 
 door high hurdle race is 120 yards. In this 
 race there are ten hurdles set as follows: 15 
 yards from the start to the first hurdle, ten yards 
 between the hurdles; and 15 yards from the last 
 hurdle to the finish line. In indoor meets 
 the distance is usually as long as the building will 
 permit. In indoor races, the start to the first 
 hurdle is always 15 yards, and the distance 
 between hurdles is always 10 yards. The distance 
 from the last hurdle to the finish line varies. For 
 instance, in a 5o-yard race there would be 15 yards 
 to the first hurdle, and 10 yards between hurdles. 
 There would be four flights of hurdles but the dis- 
 tance from the last hurdle to the finish would be 5 
 yards. In a 75-yard high hurdle race there would 
 be 6 flights of hurdles and 10 yards to the finish. 
 The regulation hurdle is 3^2 feet high, the bases are 
 not less than 20 inches broad, the top bar has a 
 length of 42 inches and a width of at least 3 inches 
 and is painted white. The minimum weight is ap- 
 proximately 18 pounds. The hurdles are adjust- 
 able so that they may also be used for low hurdle 
 races. 
 
 2. Qualifications, (a) Tall, rangy men usually 
 make the best hurdlers. 
 
 57
 
 (b) A high hurdler should have a fairly long 
 stride and a fair amount of speed. 
 
 (c) His body and leg muscles should be supple 
 and pliant. A good test for suppleness is as fol- 
 lows : Stand erect and bend forward with knees 
 straight until the hands touch the floor. Next, 
 raise one leg in front of the body and then the other 
 to the side in the same manner that the legs are 
 used in hurdling. Many men who try for the 
 sprints but find that they are not quite fast enough 
 for the dashes later try out for the hurdles and are 
 successful. 
 
 3. The Stride. The majority of hurdlers take 
 eight strides to the first hurdle. It may be neces- 
 sary to start with a different foot in front from 
 the one you are used to starting with, but it is bet- 
 ter to change feet in most cases rather than to take 
 either seven or nine strides. Sometimes it pays 
 to vary this rule but not often. Anyway it is well 
 to practice with either foot in front, because it may 
 be necessary to change feet in the starting position 
 if a hurdler gets set back for a false start. Other- 
 wise the start is the same as in the sprints. 
 
 All hurdlers take three strides in between the 
 hurdles. It never pays to take five. The average 
 distance in jumping the hurdle is seven feet before 
 reaching it, and about five feet on the other side. In 
 order to leave the ground this far back the hurdler 
 must have speed enough to carry him over. For 
 that reason it never pays to run up to a hurdle in 
 a half-hearted manner. The best hurdlers take 
 
 58
 
 oft" about 8 feet from the hurdle, and land about 4 
 feet iu front. 
 
 4. The form over the hurdle. As the take-off foot 
 hits the ground on the last step before the hurdle, 
 the front leg is thrown forward and straight ahead 
 of the body. As it clears the hurdle the back of the 
 heel is downward. The take-off foot follows and 
 the knee is turned to the side with the heel held 
 close behind. Simultaneous with the raising of the 
 front leg, the shoulders and upper trunk are dipped 
 forward. The arm which is on the same side as 
 the back leg is thrown forward with the dip of the 
 body. The other arm swings back similar to the 
 arm motion in a sprinting stride. As the hurdler 
 crosses the top of the hurdle the front leg is snap- 
 ped straight down, and the back leg is jerked for- 
 ward, throwing the foot ahead in position for the 
 first stride. Care should be exercised to keep the 
 body turned straight to the front. Special effort 
 should be taken to make the first stride after clear- 
 ing the hurdle a long one since the tendency is to 
 land on both feet at the same time ; this results in 
 a loss of distance and makes it difficult for the 
 hurdler to reach the next hurdle in three strides. 
 The hurdler should strive to clear the hurdle as 
 closely as possible without knocking it over. A very 
 good practice consists of trying to knock a stick, 
 which has been placed on the top of the hurdle, 
 off with the seat. In clearing a high hurdle the 
 head should not be raised higher from the ground 
 than in running. By standing a few feet to the 
 
 59
 
 side the coach may detect whether the hurdler is 
 taking the hurdle too high. 
 
 5. Training and Practice, Beginners should prac- 
 tice over one low hurdle. When they have made 
 satisfactory progress in stride and form, they should 
 try two and then three hurdles, set at the regula- 
 tion distance apart. Sometimes early in the season, 
 if track and weather conditions are adverse, it is 
 well to shorten the distance. After form and stride 
 are acquired, several hurdles should be used but it 
 is not advisable to run over the full flight very 
 often. Always start the regulation 15 yards from 
 the first hurdle and practice frequently the 1 5-yard 
 sprint to the finish line. In practicing for form 
 over the hurdle approach it with an easy pace, take 
 the hurdle with regular form, then proceed to the 
 next hurdle with five quick strides. Follow this 
 procedure until several barriers have been hur- 
 dled. This practice is only to be followed when 
 warming up or when working for form and should 
 never be used in racing. 
 
 Hurdle races are won in the last three hurdles, 
 so learn to keep your form and speed, and do not 
 let a competitor run you off your stride. Keep your 
 mind on your own race and do not watch your op- 
 ponent. Remember you will be disqualified if you 
 knock down more than two hurdles, and besides 
 you are apt to trip if you do not clear the bar in 
 a clean-cut manner. 
 
 The following is suggested as an average day's 
 schedule of work for a man training for the high 
 
 60
 
 hurdles. First, warm up by trotting up and down 
 the track. In this work get well up on the toes and 
 lift the knees high, using a springing stride. Next 
 go over several hurdles, using a short stride, and 
 practice form. Then take about three heats going 
 over from 4 to / hurdles in each heat. Practice 
 starting with the pistol. If there are several hur- 
 dlers they should practice running together. Finish 
 up the track work by running from 150 to 300 yards 
 at a brisk pace. The distance will depend upon the 
 individual differences in conditions. It is well to 
 devote a few minutes to the special exercises for 
 suppleness and agility. 
 
 Do not hurdle for two days before a race. It is 
 well to practice sprinting instead. 
 
 6. Common Faults. 
 
 (a) Failing to acquire the proper stride. 
 
 (b) Taking off too close to the hurdle. 
 
 (c) Turning the front foot to the side as it clears 
 the h*9dle. 
 
 (d) Sailing over the hurdle and trailing the rear 
 leg. 
 
 (e) Failure to turn the rear foot to the side. 
 
 (f) Failure to dip the body forward. 
 
 (g) Turning the body to the side as the hurdler 
 goes over. 
 
 (h) Holding the anus straight out to the side. 
 
 61
 
 Illustration 1 
 
 Illustration i. Shows the stride to the hurdle. 
 The right foot is pointed straight ahead, the chest 
 is bent forward so that it almost touches the knee. 
 The head will not be any farther from the ground 
 when the hurdle is being cleared than in a running 
 stride. Note that the left arm moves forward with 
 the right foot. The take-off has been made about 
 7 feet from the hurdle. 
 
 62
 
 Illustration 2 
 
 Illustration 2,. The body is still leaning forward. 
 The right leg is just beginning its downward snap. 
 The left leg is turned well to the side, and the 
 left toe is pointed outward. The left foot and leg 
 are just being snapped forward. The left arm is 
 coming back and the right arm is going ahead.
 
 Illustration 3 
 
 Illustration 3. The snap down of the right leg 
 and the forward throw of the left leg are just being 
 made which, if properly done, will bring the hur- 
 dler's right foot to the ground about three to three 
 and a half feet from the hurdle. 
 
 64 
 
 ;.
 
 Illustration 4 
 
 Illustration 4. This shows the hurdler making 
 the first stride between hurdles. Note position of 
 the arms with relation to the legs. An effort should 
 be made to make this stride as long as possible. Note 
 that the body throughout the stride over the hurdle 
 as well as in the strides between the hurdles is held 
 straight to the front.
 
 THE LOW HURDLES 
 
 1. Regulations. The standard distance in an out- 
 door low hurdle race is 220 yards. " In this race 
 there are ten hurdles, 2,^/2 feet high set as follows : 
 20 yards to the first hurdle, 20 yards between each 
 and 20 yards to the finish. The low hurdle dis- 
 tance indoors is not .uniform. Sometimes the low 
 hurdles are used on indoor tracks with high hurdle 
 intervals. The same rules apply both to high and 
 low hurdle racing. 
 
 2. Qualifications. The same qualifications re- 
 quired of a high hurdler are likewise desired for 
 a low hurdler with these points in addition, namely : 
 that a man must possess, a great amount of speed 
 and stamina to run a full flight of low hurdles. 
 
 3. Stride. The standard number of steps taken 
 tb the first hurdle is ten, and seven steps are taken 
 in between. If a man rises from his left foot he 
 should take his position for a start with his left 
 foot in front. That is, the first step should be 
 with the right foot. In counting the steps in be- 
 tween hurdles the jump over the hurdle is not 
 counted. When a hurdler takes seven strides be- 
 tween hurdles he takes off from the same foot 
 each time. An exceptionally long and powerful 
 stride is required to run the hurdles in seven strides 
 over the full distance. The proper use of the arm 
 swing as described under sprint running will be a 
 
 66
 
 valuable aid to a low hurdler in increasing his 
 stride, especially between the last three or four hur- 
 dles when he begins to tire. If a man has only an 
 average stride he should take eight strides between 
 hurdles. This necessitates hurdling off of first one 
 foot and then the other. At first, hurdlers find that 
 it is awkward to take the hurdle with the wrong 
 foot, but by persistent effort this may be overcome, 
 and in the course of a season's practice a hurdler 
 should be able to take the hurdle with one foot as 
 well as another. All low hurdlers should spend 
 some time in practicing how to take off with the 
 wrong foot because in a race they may be thrown 
 out of their stride and thus not be able to cover 
 the distance between hurdles with the usual number 
 of steps. Young or immature hurdlers may be 
 obliged to use eleven steps to the first hurdle and 
 nine steps between the barriers, but this should be 
 changed as early as possible in their athletic career. 
 4. The Form. The general principles of form in 
 taking the low hurdles are the same as in the high 
 hurdles with these differences: It is not neces- 
 sary to dip the body forward a great deal or to 
 raise the back leg so high. The best hurdlers take 
 off about seven feet in front of the hurdle and land 
 about three feet on the other side. In case a hur- 
 dler has difficulty in using seven steps between hur- 
 dles he should take a longer stride over the hurdle. 
 The heels of the take-off foot hits the ground before 
 the spring over the hurdle is taken, but on landing, 
 the weight of the body should be on the ball of the 
 
 67
 
 foot and the heel should not touch the ground with 
 any force. 
 
 5. Training and Practice. The practice for the 
 low hurdler should be about the same as outlined 
 for the men training to run the high hurdles, with 
 the exception that he should train over longer dis- 
 tances, using about three to seven hurdles for prac- 
 tice and running over the full flight once a week. 
 His runs for conditioning should be from 220 yards 
 to 440 yards. In case a man is working for both 
 high and low hurdles he should divide his work 
 equally between the two. 
 
 6. Common Faults. 
 
 (a) Chopping the stride. 
 
 (b) Sailing too high over the hurdle. 
 
 (c) Watching opponents. 
 
 (e) Running the first half of the race too fast. 
 
 (f) Turning the front foot to the side as it clears 
 the hurdle.
 
 Illustration 1 
 
 Illustration I. The above illustration shows the 
 low hurdler midway in his stride over the hurdle. 
 His form is very similar to that used in the high 
 hurdle, but with the exception that his body is not 
 bent forward quite so much and his trailing leg is 
 not turned so much to the side. 
 
 69
 
 HIGH JUMP 
 
 In most all track and field events there is a rec- 
 ognized standard form, but in the high jump there 
 are great variations of form. If one were to watch 
 a big meet he would probably see a number of dif- 
 ferent styles of jumping and likely would conclude 
 that there was no standard form in jumping. The 
 so-called scissprs, style of jumping with the back to 
 the bar or setting up is the easiest to acquire but 
 should be discouraged because very few ever have 
 done well with this form. However, there are two 
 forms of high jumping more commonly used than 
 the others, and these are undoubtedly the best be- 
 cause in these styles of jumping the body is raised 
 as little as possible from the ground and the lever- 
 age of arms, body and legs is used to the best ad- 
 vantage. 
 
 To distinguish between the two forms, the author 
 calls one the Eastern form and the other the West- 
 ern, for the first has been more prevalent in the 
 East and the second in the West. 
 
 II. THE EASTERN STYLE. 
 
 If the jumper takes off from his left foot, measure 
 back from 23 to 27 feet from the standard which 
 Avill be on his right as he approaches the bar. This 
 distance will vary with the stride of the individual 
 jumper. The start is made from 12 to 15 feet back 
 of the mark which has been determined as just out- 
 
 70
 
 lined. The jumper should approach this mark and 
 step on it with his jumping foot (in this case his 
 left foot) ; four long springy strides should carrry 
 him from this mark to the take off which should be 
 3 to 4 feet from the bar. The jumper should swing 
 around so as to bring his right side next to the bar. 
 The speed should be increased in the last two steps 
 and he should settle down on the last step for the 
 spring. As the jumping foot lands on the take-off 
 mark, swing the right leg up diagonally across the 
 bar. As the leg swings up the body inclines back- 
 ward. Simultaneously with the swing of the right 
 leg the left arm is thrown forward and upward. As 
 the body rises in the air the head and shoulders are 
 thrown sideward and downward. This throws the 
 hips up and ahead of the body. The position of the 
 jumper is now with his left side to the bar, at the 
 moment of crossing. From this position the jump- 
 ing leg is cut sharply backward and downward. 
 This turns the jumper so that he lands on the jump- 
 ing foot facing the bar. The left arm which is 
 thrown up with the swing of the right leg is thrown 
 downward as the hips are thrown upward, and is 
 then again raised enough to clear the bar. 
 
 71
 
 Pit 
 
 Take-off 
 
 Western ? 
 Form. / 
 
 Eastern 
 Form. 
 
 I 
 
 Check* 
 
 & j* 
 
 V * 
 
 High Jump. 
 
 72
 
 III. THE WESTERN FORM. 
 
 Use the same distance as in the Eastern form, but 
 in this style of jumping, if the jumper takes off from 
 the left foot he should start from the left side at 
 about a 45 degree angle from the bar. As the left 
 foot strikes the ground at the take off mark, lean 
 the body back and swing the right foot (which is 
 the foot farthest from the bar) upward so that the 
 body will be parallel to the bar, with the bar under 
 the left arm pit. As the body crosses the bar a for- 
 ward roll is made by turning the body face down- 
 ward landing on the same foot the jump is made 
 from, with the bar on the left side. Some jumpers 
 using this style roll over the bar landing on the 
 right foot when jumping from the left. 
 
 Care should be exercised so that the head and 
 shoulders are not being thrown over too soon, giving 
 the jump the form of a dive which is not permitted 
 by the rules. 
 
 IV. TRAINING AND PRACTICE 
 
 Beginners should always work at a height which 
 they can easily clear, for two reasons, one being 
 that if the jumper thinks of clearing the height, 
 rather than his form, he will not perfect his form, 
 and the other is that continual straining of the jump- 
 ing leg is harmful. 
 
 Jumpers should take other exercises along with 
 their training. Such work as sprinting, hurdling 
 and javelin throwing are excellent. 
 
 V. COMMON FAULTS 
 
 i. Running too hard at the bar. 
 
 73
 
 2. Failure to get an even stride. 
 
 3. Rising too far from the bar or too close. Sug- 
 gestion : watch from the side and see if the body 
 is at the greatest height as it crosses the bar. 
 
 4. Sitting up over the bar instead of getting a lay 
 out. 
 
 5. Failing to get the turn which will bring the back 
 to the bar at the moment of landing. 
 
 6. Keeping the body rigid instead of relaxed. 
 
 "WESTERN FORM" 
 
 Illustration 1
 
 Illustration i. Shows the jumper taking oft" from 
 the left foot in the Western Form. Note that he 
 is approaching from the left side of the bar, while 
 in the Eastern Form he approaches from the right. 
 Note also that the take oft foot is nearest to the bar 
 while in the other form the take off foot is farthest 
 away from the bar. As the jumper makes the spring 
 from the ground, the right leg and left arm are 
 swung up at the same time. 
 
 75
 
 Illustration 2 
 
 Illustration 2. Shows the jumper midway in his 
 rise to the bar. He is just ready to kick the right 
 foot out to "the right and over the bar. The right 
 leg and left arm are the parts of the body first over 
 the bar. The left leg will immediately follow the 
 right. When these motions are completed the 
 jumper will be lying on his left side over the bar 
 and facing away from the direction of his approach. 
 At this point the forward roll over the bar begins. 
 
 76
 
 Illustration 3 
 
 Illustration 3. Shows the jumper just clearing 
 the bar. The face and body are turned nearly 
 facing the ground. The right leg is being thrown 
 up and the left leg thrown downward.
 
 Illustration 4. Shows the jumper just about to 
 land. His left leg is coming down and the right 
 is still high in the air. He is facing parallel to the 
 bar and his arms are being used to assist in giving 
 him an easy landing. 
 
 78
 
 "EASTERN FORM" 
 
 Illustration 1 
 
 Illustration i. Shows the jumper taking off from 
 the left foot in the Eastern form. The right leg 
 and left arm swing up together. As soon as the 
 left foot has left the ground in the spring, the shoul- 
 ders and head are thrown to the left and downward. 
 This throws the hips up and ahead and gives him 
 what is known as the lay-out. Along with this the 
 left leg is swung up in a manner similar to the 
 right. When these motions are completed the 
 jumper will be lying on his left side over the bar, 
 facing the direction of the approach. 
 
 79
 
 Illustration 2 
 
 Illustration 2.. The jumper is now lying on his 
 side directly over the bar. When in this position 
 the jumper holds with his right leg and cuts his left 
 leg sharply backward and downward. The foot 
 crosses the .bar with the heel ahead. This motion 
 turns the jumper right side up and lands him on 
 the jumping foot. If this cut of the leg is not made 
 the jumper will land on his side. 
 
 80
 
 B 
 
 Illustration 3 
 
 Illustration 3. Shows how the downward and 
 backward cut of the left leg turns the jumper over 
 as he comes down. He will land on his left foot 
 facing or nearly facing his approach to the bar. 
 
 81
 
 THE BROAD JUMP 
 
 I. TAKE-OFF BOARD AND PIT. 
 
 The take-off board is 8 inches wide and level 
 with the ground and the jump must be made with- 
 out touching the ground in front of the board. 
 
 The pit should be at least six feet wide and rilled 
 with sand or soft dirt. The landing surface should 
 be level with the take-off board. 
 
 II. THE TAKE-OFF. 
 
 Measure off 38 feet from the take-off board, then 
 run through and see if the distance between the 38- 
 foot mark and the take-off can be covered in six 
 running strides. If 38 feet is too far, shorten the 
 distance and if too short move it back. After de- 
 termining this mark make note of it, and make use 
 of the same distance every night in practice. When 
 this mark is about right make another mark six 
 strides back! of the first. Then start back of the 
 mark farthest from the take-off, running with easy 
 strides and hit this mark with the right foot (that 
 is if the jump is to be made from the right foot), 
 then run through and see if the right foot conies 
 on both the second mark and the take-off. If after 
 several trials the right foot does not land on the 
 second mark after six strides in between the marks, 
 then the first mark should be changed and if after 
 hitting the second mark, with the right foot, it does 
 not hit the take-off board after six strides, then 
 
 82
 
 this mark also must be moved. Since the run, is 
 the most important thing, great care should be exer- 
 cised in getting the take-off correctly. The whole 
 run should be about 100 feet. Some men have to. 
 run farther than others to get up speed. The run 
 should gradually increase in speed; but the distance 
 between the second mark and the take-off should 
 be covered at top speed. Do not start too hard but 
 be sure to get up full speed. The last stride should 
 be a few inches shorter than the preceding strides, 
 to assist the jumper to rise high in the air. 
 
 Different runways will require different measure- 
 ments for marks. Running with or against the wind 
 likewise make a difference in the length of the 
 strides. In cold weather the stride "will not be so 
 long as in warm weather. In cold weather work 
 on the take-off and do not do much jumping. 
 
 36 ft AQft 
 
 L 
 ' 
 
 ft 
 
 L. ... _. .. 
 
 ft 
 
 L 
 
 
 R R n 
 
 ** % " * 
 
 *' 
 
 T* *" 
 
 ^ 
 
 CHetk M-f Check M-H. Takeoff 
 
 Run for Broad Jump. 
 
 III. FORM IN JUMPING. 
 
 The form most commonly used, if taking off with 
 the right foot, is to raise the left knee up high and 
 then bring the other up, and then shoot both out as 
 far as possible. The arms should be raised with 
 the jump, held over the head while the body is in 
 mid-air and then pulled dpwn at the finish. Some 
 men finish with the arm's forward. 
 
 83
 
 Some men use what is called the hitch kick form 
 in the air. 
 
 This is performed as follows : The left foot 
 moves forward, and then the right foot, as he travels 
 through the air, thus executing one running stride 
 with each foot in mid-air. Following this both 
 feet are brought forward together for the landing. 
 This gives the appearance of running through the 
 air. Since these movements are made while the 
 man is in the air, the arms and body must give 
 assistance. Most jumpers who use this form can- 
 not get high up in the air. The ideal form is the 
 one where the hitch kick and the high rise are both 
 attained. Some men acquire the hitch kick form 
 naturally. They should have the principles of this 
 form explained to them and should be encouraged 
 to master this style of jumping. Others have great 
 difficulty in learning this form and they should be 
 allowed to use the other style. 
 
 IV. TRAINING. 
 
 Do not jump too much, as it will injure the jump- 
 ing leg. Three or four times a week and six to ten 
 times a night is sufficient. In practice, the jumper 
 should strike with his jumping foot a little bit back 
 of the take-off line. Then when he gets into com- 
 petition he will be running harder and will reach 
 out more. The measurement is taken to the nearest 
 break of the ground, whether inside or outside of 
 the pit, consequently care should be taken not to 
 fall back on the hands or buttocks. However, most 
 beginners make the mistake of lighting with the 
 
 84
 
 feet under them rather than out in front of them. 
 If the feet are placed well out in front in landing, 
 the momentum should keep the body from falling 
 back. 
 
 If the jumper takes off from the right foot he 
 will come down flat-footed on the last step before 
 the take-off. The left hits the ground and conse- 
 quently it is advisable to wear rubber padding in 
 the heels of the jumping shoes to prevent stone 
 bruises. 
 
 Sprinters usually make good broad jumpers. A 
 good jumper will spring from 3^ to 4^4 feet in 
 the air. Some coaches place a hurdle or a bar in 
 the pit to teach men to get height. This is not 
 advisable. 
 
 V. COMMON FAULTS. 
 
 1. Not getting an even stride to the take-oft'. 
 
 2. Not allowing for the effect on the stride of cold 
 weather, a heavy track or a head wind. 
 
 3. Not springing high enough into the air. 
 
 4. Not getting knees up and the feet out far enough 
 in landing, thus causing them to plunge head 
 first forward. 
 
 5. Touching the ground behind them with their 
 hands. 
 
 85
 
 Illustration 1 
 
 Illustration i shows the jumper about midway in 
 the jump. The knees are well up in front of the 
 body and are, ready -to be shot forward as soon 
 as the jumper nears the landing. The arms are 
 forward and are being used to maintain the balance 
 of the body in the air. The arms will be brought 
 down sharply just before the landing to assist in 
 throwing the body forward. 
 
 86
 
 THE POLE VAULT 
 
 I. PRELIMINARY TRAINING. 
 
 Exercise on the horizontal bar, parallel bar and 
 climbing rope are excellent for preliminary training 
 for pole vaulters. Dips from the leaning rest and 
 pull-ups on the bar should be practiced. Vaulting 
 in a big meet is more or less of an endurance feat 
 and consequently a vaulter should not neglect his 
 preliminary training. The pole vault is an acrobatic 
 event, and the exercises mentioned above should 
 be followed throughout the training period along 
 with sprinting to develop speed and strength. These 
 are splendid exercises to be used in addition to the 
 actual vaulting. 
 
 II. THE POLE AND TAKE-OFF. 
 
 Sixteen foot bamboo poles are the best. They 
 should be well taped especially where the hands 
 grasp them. In choosing a pole select one with a. 
 good balance. Poles which taper rapidly at one 
 end will not balance well. If there are too many 
 cracks in the pole it is a pretty good sign that it is 
 old and too dried out. Do not have a spike in the 
 end of the pole used out-of-doors. The spring in 
 the pole helps to snap the runner over the bar, but 
 care should be taken not to get one that is too lim- 
 ber. A pole that bends too much is likely to break 
 and will not snap the vaulter at the right time. 
 
 87
 
 For a take-off board, set a board on one edge in 
 the ground, and dig a hole about 6 inches deep. Slant 
 the dirt back from the hole towards the runway so 
 that the pole will slide into the hole easily. A blunt 
 end of the pole is preferable to a sharp end. 
 
 III. THE RUN. 
 
 Measure off a take-off mark about 55 feet from 
 the take-off board, and see if the vaulter can cover 
 this distance in eight running strides. The vaulter 
 should learn to go through his run with a medium, 
 long and even stride. The run is measured from 
 the take-off board to give a definite mark for meas- 
 urement but the vaulter leaves the ground about 
 ten feet back of the take-off board. This means 
 that he should cover about 45 feet in eight running 
 strides. If the vaulter comes too close to the take- 
 off in running eight strides from the 55-foot mark, 
 then the latter should be moved back. If this does 
 not bring him close enough move the mark closer 
 up. To practice getting this run, stand several 
 yards back of the 55-foot mark then run through, 
 step on the mark and take eight strides at nearly 
 top speed, and then note where the take-off step 
 comes. To determine where this mark should be, 
 grasp the pole at the same height as when vaulting. 
 Place the end of the pole in the hole and raise the 
 hands over the head. Stand with body back so that 
 the hands come a trifle in front of the head. See 
 Plate 2. Mark the position of the feet. This mark 
 will be known as the take-off, the 55-foot mark as 
 check mark, and the go-foot mark as the start. 
 
 88
 
 \* 
 
 
 
 X m' '~ie iff"tf-!ttf- 
 
 55/K 
 
 L. 
 
 
 
 Cheek M-t Check H-Z To/t-aff 
 
 The entire run should be about 95 feet long. After 
 determining the check mark, measure back 40 feet. 
 Stand with both feet on this mark, step off with the 
 right foot and run to the check mark, taking eight 
 strides, gradually increasing the speed. The vaulter 
 should land on the check mark on his take-off foot. 
 If he steps over, move the starting mark back and 
 vice versa. The above directions are for a vaulter 
 who takes off from his left foot. It is important 
 that the take-off be learned before vaulting is at- 
 tempted. Allowance should be made for the wind, 
 cold weather and the condition of the runways. If 
 the runways are slow, the weather cold, or if the 
 vault is against the wind, the run should be 
 shortened. 
 
 IV. THE VAULT. 
 
 If the vault is made from the left foot the pole 
 should be carried on the right side. The hands 
 grasp the pole with the thumbs pointing towards the 
 upper end of the pole, and about two feet apart. 
 The pole should be carried with the point straight 
 ahead and slightly elevated. In carrying the pole 
 the body should not be turned to the side, but should 
 be faced to the front as much as possible. Some 
 
 89
 
 of the best vaulters are able to clear the bar by 
 holding- the pole with the upper hand as much as 
 a foot lower than the cross bar when vaulting at 
 their greatest heights. This, however, requires 
 great strength in the arms and shoulders and per- 
 fect form. It is well to use a hold on the pole above 
 the cross bar when vaulting at a low height and 
 then to take hold only a few inches above this when 
 vaulting at greater heights. It is well to use about 
 the same height of grasp for all vaults since any 
 great variation will change the run and the form. 
 On low heights the standards should be moved back 
 so that the bar is about one foot from the take-off 
 hole. As the bar is moved higher the standards 
 should be brought closer until the bar is almost ver- 
 tically even with the hole when the vaulter attempts 
 his highest heights. The reason for this is that as 
 the height is increased the arc of the swing is more 
 perpendicular than in the case of a vault over a 
 low height. 
 
 As the pole hits the take-off hole the lower hand 
 should be shifted close to the upper hand. Simul- 
 taneously with this movement the hands are raised 
 above the head. These movements are both executed 
 as the left foot hits the take-off. The feet should 
 swing past the pole upward and straight ahead. The 
 feet should be swung as high as possible. As the 
 momentum of the vault begins to lessen, the pull- 
 up of the arms begin. In pulling up, the body is 
 slightly turned to the right to avoid hitting the bar 
 with the hip and to enable the vaulter to push up 
 
 90
 
 to a hand stand. From the hand stand the body is 
 arched over with the chest towards the bar. At 
 the moment of clearing the bar, the pole should be 
 pushed back and the arms thrown upward. Sug- 
 gestion : The coach may note the point of the 
 greatest height by standing at one side. He can 
 adjust the standards accordingly. 
 V. COMMON FAULTS. 
 
 1. Holding the pole with left thumb down. 
 
 2. Carrying pole diagonally across the body. 
 
 3. Chopping or missing the stride when approach- 
 ing the take-off. 
 
 4. Not getting the shift. 
 
 5. Over running take-off when vaulting. 
 
 6. Going over with back to the bar. 
 
 7. Not completing swing before pull-up is made. 
 
 8. Throwing body. for distance rather than height. 
 In the illustrations of the pole vault the vaults 
 
 were made at a height of 10 feet, 6 inches, with 
 exception to illustration 6, which accounts for the 
 fact that the top hand is higher than the bar. The 
 lower hand should have been shifted close to the 
 upper hand. 
 
 91
 
 Illustration 1 
 
 Illustration i. Shows the vaulter in position to 
 start his run for the take-off. The pole is held on 
 his right side. This means that he should take-off 
 with his left foot. Note the position of the hands 
 with the thumbs held toward the top end of the 
 pole. Most vaulters carry the pole with the hands 
 farther apart. The front end of the pole is ele- 
 vated and points straight ahead. 
 
 92
 
 Illustration 2 
 
 Illustration 2.. Shows the vaulter marking his 
 take-oft". His hands are held in the same position 
 which they will be in after the shift is made and 
 when the vaulter leaves the ground. Note that the 
 feet are about 12 inches behind a line drawn per- 
 pendicular from the hands to the ground. It is 
 very important that the take-oft" be marked at the 
 proper distance from the hole. 
 
 93
 
 Illustration 3 
 
 Illustration 3. The vaulter has just left the 
 ground from his right foot and is in the middle of
 
 the "pendulum swing." The hands are well above 
 the head and the vaulter is facing squarely to the 
 front. The swing should be prolonged as much 
 as possible to allow the feet to swing high above 
 the shoulders. After the body passes the pole the 
 turning motion of the body begins. 
 
 F I ^ 
 
 Illustration 4
 
 > Illustration 4. Shows the vaulter near the end 
 
 *,of the "pendulum swing." The feet are well above 
 
 the shoulders and the turning motion is just being 
 
 made. The pull-up with the arms is just being made 
 
 at this time. 
 
 Illustration 5
 
 Illustration 5. Shows the vaulter facing the bar 
 at the completion of the turning motion. The pull- 
 up ends with a hand stand at which point the feet 
 are at their highest elevation. As the feet drop, the 
 vaulter makes his final push up and away from the 
 pole. Ordinarily the vaulter should land facing 
 the bar, but in some instances the turning motion 
 continues which causes the vaulter to land facing 
 away from the bar. The position in landing is not 
 important but it is essential that the vaulter swing 
 his legs straight ahead and face the bar at the time 
 he pushes ahead. 
 
 Illustration 6. Shows vaulter clearing the bar 
 in perfect form at 13 feet. Note that he is just 
 pushing away from the hand stand and the body 
 is arched over the bar. The height is about as high 
 as it is possible to make with thejength of grip on 
 the pole. 
 
 97
 
 THE SHOT PUT 
 
 I. IMPLEMENT AND CIRCLE. 
 
 The weight of the shot for interscholastic meets 
 is 12 pounds, and for intercollegiate, 16 pounds. 
 
 The diameter of the circle is 7 feet. 
 
 A brass shot is generally used. 
 
 Toe board 4 inches high and with a circumfer- 
 ence of 4 feet and firmly fastened to ground. 
 
 II. FORM. 
 
 Hold the shot with fingers slightly apart with 
 thumb in front. Hold it with ends of fingers and 
 the thumb with the weight resting on the portion 
 of the hand where the fingers join the palm. It is 
 a mistake to hold the shot with the fingers together 
 and with the weight resting on the heel of the hand. 
 
 The arm position varies with different men. For 
 most men the shot should be held in front of the 
 shoulder, with the elbow down at the side. The el- 
 bow should pass close to the side in putting and 
 should keep in line with the direction of the throw. 
 This results in a push which is the best way to get 
 a good drive. 
 
 Preliminary Practice Position: Place the right 
 foot in the ring far enough back so that the left 
 may reach the toe board. Then practice putting 
 with the reverse without the hop, as follows: 
 
 The position of the left shoulder is in line with 
 99
 
 the throw. Turn to get right shoulder behind the 
 put. Reverse the feet by quickly changing, so that 
 the right foot will be where the left was and the 
 left where the right formerly was. The arm push 
 follows the shoulder throw. Throw the weight of 
 the shoulders and body against the shot at the same 
 time making a sharp spring from the left to the right 
 foot. 
 
 Beginners should watch the position of the hand 
 and strive for a wrist snap. Do not jerk the arm 
 but follow the put well through. 
 
 The left arm gives balance both at the beginning 
 and end of the put. 
 
 At the start, the head turns half way around to 
 get the shoulder motion and then it is turned so 
 that the eyes follow the shot. 
 
 Travel and turn: Hop on right foot and land on 
 the right. Then land left foot quickly, reverse and 
 continue through. 
 
 Take position at the back of circle with the right 
 foot at right angles to the throw and with left shoul- 
 der and side toward the front. Swing the left foot 
 back and forward a couple of times, swinging left 
 foot behind right foot on the preliminary swings, 
 then hop on right foot and land on both feet. Do 
 not jump high. Avoid pause in center of the circle 
 and keep relaxed to end of delivery. 
 
 Start slowly and get the greatest speed from the 
 time of landing in the middle of the ring to the end 
 of the delivery. 
 
 100
 
 III. PRACTICE. 
 
 Always warm up with just the delivery from the 
 reverse and then work on the hop and turns. 
 
 Work about thirty minutes a day but be careful 
 not to injure the arm with over- work. As a rule 
 when the arm gets sore it is because the man em- 
 ploys a throwing motion rather than the putting 
 form. 
 
 Since a great deal depends upon the legs it is well 
 to practice sprints and jumps. It is a .good rule 
 to work only on form during the week and then try 
 for distance every Saturday in competition. 
 
 IV. SUGGESTIONS. 
 
 Up and down movements of the shot at the start 
 do not do any good. 
 
 A quick pull back of the right shoulder just be- 
 fore starting the put and reverse will add several 
 inches to the put. 
 
 The top of the toe board must not be touched by 
 any part of the body. 
 
 For preliminary practice take regular calisthenic 
 exercises each day and throw the medicine ball. 
 
 V. COMMON FAULTS. 
 
 1. Holding shot in the heel of the hand. 
 
 2. Putting without the reverse. 
 
 3. Hopping too high, which causes a pause in the 
 middle of the ring. 
 
 101
 
 Illustration 1
 
 Illustration i. Shows first position at the back 
 of the ring. Note the position of the arm and the 
 method of holding the shot. 
 
 Illustration 2
 
 Illustration 2. The left leg is swung backward 
 and forward two or three times preliminary to mak- 
 ing the hop. The left foot is behind the right as 
 the hop is started. The left foot swings forward 
 to assist in the hop. In the hop the right foot should 
 remain close to the ground and should land at about 
 the center of the ring. 
 
 Illustration 3
 
 Illustration 3. Shows the position in the front 
 of the ring after the hop. The thrower is now in 
 position to deliver the shot. Note that the position 
 of the hand and arm are very similar to the position 
 in Illustration No. i. The thrower is leaning well 
 back and his arm and shoulder are squarely behind 
 the shot. 
 
 105
 
 Illustration 4 
 Illustration 4. Shows the position of arm and
 
 body at the moment of delivering the shot. Note 
 that the thrower is on his left foot until after the 
 shot has left his hand. Also note that the arm is 
 fully extended, making a perfect follow through 
 which ends with a snap of the wrist and fingers 
 against the shot. 
 
 Illustration 5 
 
 Illustration 5. Shows position after the reverse 
 with the weight on the right leg. The left leg and 
 arm are used for balance. 
 
 107
 
 THE DISCUS THROW 
 
 I. IMPLEMENT AND CIRCLE. 
 
 The discus is 8^ inches in diameter and i^4 
 inches thick, and weighs 4 pounds 6 2/5 ounces. 
 
 The circle from which the throw is made is 8 
 feet 21/2 inches in diameter. The toe board is not 
 used but a clearly defined white line should mark 
 the circumference of the circle. 
 
 II. FORM. 
 
 (a) Throw with reverse without the turn. 
 
 Hold the discus with the hand flat, fingers slightly 
 apart, and with the first joint of the fingers over 
 the edge. This depends somewhat on the grip of 
 the contestant. A man with a big hand and strong 
 fingers can take a lighter hold. The thumb is not 
 over the edge. 
 
 In leaving the hand the discus should spin off the 
 first fingers. 
 
 The angle at which the discus leaves the hand 
 depends upon the position of the hand or arm. The 
 arm turns to the left, and the back of the hand 
 should be up. In a perfect throw the performer 
 can see the front edge slightly above the back. To 
 get a high throw there should be a low arm dip and 
 vice versa for a low throw. At first the throw 
 should be taught with a reverse without the turn 
 across the ring. To do this, the man should stand 
 facing -the direction in which the throw is to be 
 108
 
 made, with feet apart. Swing the discus back and 
 forth two or three times, steadying it with the left 
 hand at the top of each swing. As the arm swings 
 back, step forward with the left foot, then deliver 
 by changing from the left to the right foot. That 
 is, the right is shifted to the position formerly oc- 
 cupied by the left and the left to the spot where the 
 right was before the turn. This reverse enables 
 the thrower to stay within the circle and helps to 
 prevent fouling and enables the thrower to get his 
 body weight behind the throw. 
 
 The throw is accomplished by the turn of the 
 body which really throws the arm. The arm is held 
 loosely and relaxed but straight at the elbow. 
 
 (b) Throw with single turn. 
 
 Start at the back of the ring facing the throw 
 with both heels just inside of the back of the circle. 
 
 1. Left foot steps forward as the arm swings 
 back. 
 
 2. Right foot crosses left with a forward step. 
 Turn on the balls of the feet. 
 
 3. Left foot advances forward almost to the 
 front of the circle. This is a quick step. This com- 
 pletes the first part of the turn. The rest of the 
 turn is executed by the reverse, which occurs after 
 the discus has left the hand. 
 
 (c) Position of the hands and arms. 
 
 The left arm is held well back at the reverse to 
 help maintain the balance. 
 
 The right arm is always back until the final de- 
 livery. Most men make the mistake of not drag- 
 109
 
 ging the arm behind as the body turns. The arm 
 should be loose, and the steps are as if it were away 
 from the arm. 
 
 At the start, hold the discus with the back of the 
 hand towards the ground. The arm is then in posi- 
 tion to throw with no unnecessary motions and there 
 is no twist in coming out. This seems awkward 
 at first, but men who learn this way improve faster 
 than those who hold the discus with the hand upper- 
 most at the start. 
 
 III. PRACTICE. 
 
 To warm up, take several practice throws with 
 just the reverse and then go through the turn. If 
 only training for this event, take practice starts and 
 jumps ; for a great deal of a discus thrower's success 
 depends upon the strength of his legs and the speed 
 with which he can move them. Do not practice 
 too long at a time. Seldom practive over -half an 
 hour or about twenty throws. Each man, however, 
 should find out how much work he can stand, and 
 he should always remember that it is better to un- 
 derwork than to overwork. 
 
 Frequently a discus man will lose his form in 
 the middle of the season. When this occurs start 
 all over again and go through the practice slowly. 
 
 IV. SUGGESTIONS. 
 
 If throwing with the wind, make a higher throw 
 
 with a lower dip of the arm. If throwing against 
 
 the wind, throw lower by not allowing the arm to 
 
 dip with the throw, and by holding the thumb lower. 
 
 110
 
 Itjs advisable to practice throwing the discus both 
 with, against, and across the wind. 
 
 Always try to perfect the form in practice, rather 
 than to make a record. Best throws are oftentimes 
 made with apparently the least effort. 
 
 It sometimes pays to practice for two or three 
 months and then lay off for awhile. 
 
 Discus Throw. 
 
 Travel across Circle. 
 
 in
 
 Practice throwing in competition every Saturday, 
 'if possible. One good way is to have handicap 
 contests. 
 V. COMMON FAULTS. 
 
 1. The discus is not held tightly enough by the 
 finger tips. 
 
 2. The back of the hand is not help up at the 
 moment of delivery, and this causes the discus 
 to sail at an improper angle. 
 
 3. The first turn is made too rapidly. 
 
 4. The arm is not far enough behind the body at 
 the time that the reverse is begun. 
 
 5. The throw is made without a reverse. 
 
 6. The discus is thrown off the little finger instead 
 of being spun off the first finger. 
 
 112
 
 Illustration 1 
 113
 
 Illustration i. Position of thro\yer at the back 
 of the ring making the preliminary arm swings. 
 With the backward swing of the right arm the left 
 foot steps forward, making the first movement of 
 the body turn. Note the method of gripping the 
 discus and supporting it at the top of the swing 
 with the left hand. 
 
 Illustration 2
 
 Illustration 2. The thrower has stepped forward 
 with his left foot and is starting to pivot on the 
 left toe. The right foot will come to the spot 
 marked X. The pivot will then be continued until 
 the thrower is in position to step near the front 
 edge of the ring with the left foot. Note the posi- 
 tion of the throwing arm which is trailing well be- 
 hind the body.
 
 Illustration 3 
 
 Illustration 3. The thrower has finished the pivot 
 and has stepped to the front of the ring with the 
 116
 
 left foot from which position the delivery is made. 
 The illustration shows the throwing arm just as 
 it swings around, making the throw. Note' the po- 
 sition of the discus as it spins off the forefinger. 
 Also note that at the time of delivery the thrower 
 is standing on his left foot. The reverse of the 
 feet follows immediately. 
 
 117
 
 Illustration 4 
 
 Illustration 4. This shows the position of the 
 118
 
 thrower just after the discus has left his hand. His 
 throwing arm is swinging around. Note that the 
 arm is fully extended and the foot reverse is be- 
 ginning. 
 
 Illustration 5 
 
 Illustration 5. The thrower has completed the 
 reverse by shifting his weight from his left leg to 
 the right. The left leg is thrown around behind 
 him to control his balance and thus prevent him 
 from falling forward and out of the ring. The arms 
 also assist in maintaining the balance. 
 119
 
 THE HAMMER THROW 
 
 I. IMPLEMENTS AND CIRCLE. 
 
 The weight of the hammer for Interscholastic 
 use is twelve pounds; for Intercollegiate use, six- 
 teen pounds. 
 
 The length is not over four feet. The wire con- 
 necting the handles and the shot is number 36 piano 
 wire. 
 
 The circle is seven feet in diameter and should 
 be a well defined mark. An iron band l l /2 inches 
 wide and ^4 mcn thick driven flush with the 
 ground and painted white makes a good ring. 
 
 Handles: I. Heavy tinner's wire. Right hand 
 grip l / 2 inch shorter than left. 
 
 2. Single handle of heavier wire. Some of the 
 best throwers use the heavy single wire. To do 
 this they wrap the wire with tape so that they will 
 not cut their hands, and then grip with the right 
 hand over the left. 
 
 The best hammers have a swivel so that the wire 
 will not twist easily. A ball-bearing swivel is the 
 best. 
 
 Short men should use handles 3 feet 9 inches, 3 
 feet 10 inches, or 3 feet n inches long, depending 
 upon the height of the individual. The thrower, 
 however, should use just as long a handle as pos- 
 sible. Beginners should learn to throw a light ham- 
 mer with a short handle. 
 
 120
 
 II. FORM. 
 
 First learn to swing the hammer around the head, 
 and deliver while standing in the front of the 
 circle. 
 
 Next practice the single turn, and then later the 
 double turn. Some throwers succeed in executing 
 the triple turn, but they are exceptional. Nearly any 
 experienced thrower can throw farther with the 
 triple turn, but it is harder to stay in the ring than 
 when the throw is made with the double turn. Stand 
 with the back towards the direction of the throw 
 with feet spread about fifteen to eighteen inches 
 apart. See illustrations. Swing the hammer around 
 the head with a turning motion of the hips, making 
 the lowest point of the swing come in front of the 
 right foot. At this point of the swing the arms 
 should be fully extended, and the hammer head 
 should pass close to the ground. See illustration 
 number 2. As the hammer head nears the lowest 
 point of the swing the body-turns are executed as 
 follows: The right foot is swung around in front 
 of the left foot to a position about two feet behind 
 the position originally held by the right foot. Mean- 
 while the body pivots on the left toe. Simultane- 
 ously with the placing of the right foot, the left foot 
 is stepped back to a position even with the right. 
 See illustration number 3. This completes the first 
 turn and places the thrower in a similar position to 
 the one previously occupied in the back of the ring. 
 The knees should be slightly bent throughout the 
 turn. 
 
 121
 
 In using the double turn these movements are 
 duplicated and should bring the thrower to the front 
 of the ring in position for final delivery. In using 
 the triple turn the distance used in turning must be 
 shorter each time. 
 
 While making the turns remember to keep the 
 arms and body straight. Do not pause between 
 turns. The turns should be made with a continu- 
 ous motion. This will give the thrower the neces- 
 sary lead in the turning so as to enable him to 
 maintain a steady pull on the hammer in making 
 the throw. 
 
 In making the delivery the position of the feet 
 is the same as that taken by the thrower in the 
 back of the ring. As the hammer comes around 
 in the final swing turn on the balls of both feet 
 facing the direction of the throw. Keep the arms 
 fully extended to give the proper follow through. 
 When the hammer leaves the hands the legs are 
 crossed. See illustration number 4. It is well to 
 hold this position momentarily to secure balance 
 and prevent fouling. Do not leave the circle until 
 the throw is marked. In practice the thrower 
 should always pause a reasonable length of time 
 before leaving the ring so as to accustom himself 
 to the conditions of competition. 
 III. PRACTICE. 
 
 A great deal of practice is required to throw the 
 
 hammer properly, and one should practice about 
 
 an hour a day when learning the form. All forms 
 
 of calisthenics and selected gymnastic work, as 
 
 122
 
 well as sprinting and jumping practice, are good 
 for preliminary training. 
 
 Experienced throwers do not require a great 
 deal of preliminary practice. 
 
 Beginners should first learn to turn by jumping 
 around, but as soon as possible should learn how 
 to pivot. 
 IV. COMMON FAULTS. 
 
 1. Throwing with the arms bent at the elbows. 
 
 2. Pausing between the turns. 
 
 3. Throwing over the left shoulder instead of turn- 
 ing the body ahead of the throw. 
 
 4. Stepping out of the ring with the right foot as 
 the hammer leaves the hands. This may be cor- 
 rected by leaning back against the throw and 
 by holding a crossed-leg position. 
 
 5. Traveling out of the ring on the thrower's left. 
 To correct this, bring the hammer to its low point 
 in the swing in front of the left foot rather than 
 in front of the right. 
 
 6. Making too great a circle with the hands when 
 swinging the hammer around the head. 
 
 123
 
 Hammer Throw. 
 
 Travel across Ctrc/e 
 
 124
 
 Illustration 1 
 
 Illustration i. Shows first position taken by the 
 thrower. The hammer is laid out at arms length 
 at the thrower's right. Note that the handles are 
 gripped between the first and second joints of the 
 fingers. The delivery will be from the spot marked 
 X. 
 
 125
 
 Illustration 2 
 
 Illustration 2.. Shows the thrower making the 
 preliminary swings around his head. As the ham- 
 mer swings around, the weight is shifted from the 
 126
 
 right to the left foot with each complete circle of 
 the hammer. The hips turn with a twisting motion. 
 The hammer head is at its lowest point straight 
 out in front of the right foot, and the elbows are 
 straight at this point of the swing. 
 
 Illustration 3 
 
 Illustration 3. Shows the position of the thrower 
 just as he has completed the first body turn. His 
 127
 
 weight is mostly on the left foot on which he is go- 
 ing to pivot, and his right foot is just beginning to 
 step around to make the second turn. Note that the 
 arms are straight and that the thrower is leaning 
 well back against the weight of the hammer. Also 
 that he has advanced about halfway across the 
 ring in making his first body turn.
 
 Illustration 4 
 
 Illustration 4. Shows the position of the thrower 
 129
 
 at the instant of the delivery. Xote how he has 
 turned on his toes to give him the full reach of the 
 body and arms in the delivery. He can now step 
 sideward with his right foot to maintain his bal- 
 ance after the delivery. Some throwers step to 
 the, side with the left foot for the same purpose. 
 Note that in delivering the hammer both feet are 
 on the ground with the weight equally distributed. 
 
 130
 
 THE JAVELIN THROW 
 
 I. IMPLEMENT AND THROW LINK. 
 
 The javelin weighs one pound and three-quarters 
 and is one inch in diameter. It is 8 feet 6 inches 
 long and has a balance grip about three feet from 
 the forward end. 
 
 The javelin must be held by the grip and be 
 thrown from behind a take-off line which consists 
 of a board three inches wide and twelve feet long 
 sunk flush with the ground. Stepping over or on 
 this line constitutes a foul. 
 
 II. THE FORM. 
 
 Grip the javelin with the thumb and the first 
 and second fingers. Some men hold it with the 
 whole hand but throw with the thumb and the first 
 two fingers. The javelin should be on top of the 
 thumb. 
 
 There are two ways of. holding the arm in throw- 
 ing: (i) on top of the shoulder, and (2) carried 
 back to the rear. With either method the arm 
 moves back at the end of the run. 
 
 The throwing motion is much the same as in 
 throwing a baseball. It is thrown with a snap of 
 the arm. The back should be used as much as' 
 possible to help with the throw. The chief thing 
 of importance is to get the hand right over the 
 top of the shoulder so that the force will pull 
 through the center of the javelin. 
 131
 
 To get the proper approach every step should 
 be measured so that no thought about the step will 
 be necessary when throwing in a meet. 
 
 In preliminary practice, start with the reverse 
 and make several short throws. Use a short run 
 at first and keep adding to it. It is well to stop 
 about a foot short of the finish line, for in compe- 
 tition the contestant will have a tendency to step 
 farther, and care must be exercised not to step over 
 the line. 
 
 The run should be about 45 or 50 feet long. In 
 covering this distance the thrower should grad- 
 ually increase the speed of his run as he approaches 
 the scratch line. When he reaches a point about 
 15 feet from the scratch line he should be running 
 at top speed. This is the place where the criss- 
 cross or hop is started. The criss-cross is executed 
 as follows: turn the body to the left and shift the 
 right foot around behind the left foot. This will 
 permit him to extend his arm behind him, thus en- 
 abling him to get the full force of his arm and 
 body into the throw. Next, he steps forward with 
 his left foot and springs from his left foot to the 
 right foot as the javelin is delivered. This is the 
 reverse which is similar to the reverse in the discus 
 except that his speed carries him forward several 
 feet. The left leg may be used to assist in main- 
 taining the balance as the throw is completed to pre- 
 vent the thrower from fouling. 
 
 If the hop is used it should start at the same 
 place as the criss-cross. It is performed by hopping 
 132
 
 on the right foot, then by reaching forward with 
 the left and this step is followed by the reverse. 
 
 After the reverse is made, whether from the 
 criss-cross or the hop, the thrower may sometimes 
 save himself from falling by running to the left 
 along the scratch line. 
 
 Run for Jave/t'n TTtrov. 
 
 Cr/88- cross 
 
 Run for Jave//ti Tfyrout. 
 
 III. PRACTICE. 
 
 The practice throws should always be made with 
 an easy motion. Do not continually try for distance 
 but work always for form, and the distance will 
 take care of itself in competition. 
 
 Javelin throwers often injure their arms and such 
 an injury, like a baseball player's injury in the arm, 
 may always bother. 
 
 It is not well for a shot putter to throw the jave- 
 lin very much. Some good shot putters have been 
 injured by throwing the javelin. 
 133
 
 Take plenty of time in warming up and do not 
 throw after the arm feels dead. Javelin throwers 
 should practice sprinting and above all they should 
 practice the run, criss-cross, and reverse both with 
 and without the javelin. 
 
 IV. SUGGESTIONS. 
 
 Since all throws are measured from the base line 
 at right angles to the hitting point, strive to throw 
 as straight as possible. In throwing with the re- 
 verse, the javelin travels over the hypotenuse of 
 the right triangle. 
 
 Each individual will possess difference in step 
 and reverse. Strive to work out such details as 
 the run, length of step at criss-cross, and reverse 
 to fit individual differences. 
 
 Jumping shoes with heel spikes should be used 
 especially on the sod. 
 
 134
 
 Illustration 1 
 
 135
 
 Illustration I. Shows the methods of carrying 
 the javelin at the side of the thrower. The javelin 
 is pointing straight ahead with point slightly ele- 
 vated. As the throw is made the hand is turned 
 over with the back downward. This brings his 
 hand and arm into position for the overhand 
 throw. 
 
 136
 
 Illustration 2 
 137
 
 Illustration -2. Shows the method of carrying the 
 javelin with the hand above the shoulder. As the 
 hop is made preliminary to the throw, the hand 
 and arm are dropped back into the same position 
 as described in Illustration No. I for the overhand 
 throw. 
 
 Illustration 3 
 
 Illustration 3. Shows the thrower just at the 
 landing of the hop. The right hand is turned with 
 the back down. The arm is being extended back- 
 ward for the overhand throw. The left foot is 
 just starting the forward step. The throw is begun 
 when the left stride is complete. 
 
 138
 
 Illustration 4 
 
 Illustration 4. Shows the thrower making the 
 cross step which many throwers use in place of the 
 hop. The arm is extended backward and the back 
 of the hand turned downward the same as if the 
 hop were used. 
 
 139
 
 Illustration 5 
 
 Illustration 5. The thrower has stepped forward 
 with left foot from the top of cross step, and is in 
 position to make the throw which will be much the 
 same as throwing a baseball overhand. Care must 
 be taken at this point to keep the javelin pointed 
 straight ahead and slightly elevated at front end. 
 140
 
 The thrower should get his back and shoulder into 
 the effort as much as possible. The reverse of the 
 feet follows immediately after the throw is made. 
 
 Illustration 6 
 
 Illustration 6. The javelin has just left the 
 thrower's hand. The ' arm is fully extended and 
 the reverse is just beginning. Note the angle at 
 which the javelin leaves the hand. 
 141
 
 Illustration 7 
 
 Illustration j. The javelin has been thrown and 
 
 the thrower is just completing the reverse. His 
 
 weight is on the right foot, and the left is used to 
 
 assist in maintaining the balance. Sometimes the 
 
 142
 
 thrower prevents a foul by running to the left along 
 the throw-line. Following the throw the arm is 
 whipped across the body in a similar manner to the 
 form of a baseball thrower. 
 
 143
 
 CROSS COUNTRY RUNNING 
 
 Cross country running when properly conducted, 
 is a splendid exercise for general development. 
 Cross country running was originally considered of 
 value in developing distance runners for track con- 
 tests, but it is now recognized as a separate sport 
 with its dual and intercollegiate championship 
 meets. The season is properly in the fall and early 
 winter. The distances covered in cross country 
 races are from 3 to 7 miles. The cross country 
 runs in the United States are quite generally road 
 races. The courses in so far as possible should be 
 laid out on the sod and cinders ; dirt roads are far 
 better than pavements. 
 
 Regular track suits are usually worn, but in cold 
 weather sweat shirts and gloves should be worn. 
 Camphorated oil and wintergreen should be rubbed 
 on the legs. If the weather is very cold it is well 
 to wear fleece-lined drawers. It is best to wear 
 socks under the shoes. Cross country men fre- 
 quently get blisters on their feet. In this case they 
 should not be opened but should be painted with 
 compound tincture of benzoin. 
 
 TRAINING FOR CROSS COUNTRY RUNNING. 
 
 Early in the season the work should consist of 
 
 foing over the full course three times a week as 
 ollows : 
 
 If training for a five-mile race start by running 
 about a mile,then walk until rested, run again, then 
 
 144
 
 walk and so on until the distance is covered. As 
 the season advances the amount of running should 
 be increased, and the amount of walking decreased 
 until the runner is able to cover the full distance 
 without difficulty. The practice runs should be 
 taken four or five times a week, later in the season. 
 In the early season it is well to appoint an experi- 
 enced man as leader to set a moderate pace and 
 to see that none of the runners overwork. 
 
 The same relative practices should prevail in 
 training for cross country running as in long dis- 
 tance running. The runner training for a five- 
 mile run should arrange his work as follows : 
 
 One night he should run from three to four miles 
 at about his five-mile pace. On another night he 
 should run the five miles at a somewhat slower pace. 
 On another night he should run farther than the 
 full distance, for instance, about six or seven miles 
 at an easy pace. 
 
 Judging the pace is very important in cross coun- 
 try*running. As in the distance run, the pace should 
 be even. The runner should learn from practice 
 just how fast a pace he can maintain. If he goes 
 much faster or slower than his normal pace he will 
 not be able to make his best time. In the practice 
 runs it is well to increase the speed for the last quar- 
 ter mile and to sprint at the finish. When the run- 
 ner is following his proper pace in a five-mile race, 
 he will- usually feel quite distressed at the end of 
 his first two miles. At about this point he gets 
 his second wind, his strength returns and he runs 
 145
 
 much easier for the next two miles. For the last 
 mile he must exert all of his will power to make 
 the best possible finish. 
 
 The form in cross-country running is much the 
 same as in distance running, except that the stride 
 is shortened and the runner lands farther back on 
 the ball of his foot. The arms should be carried 
 naturally at the side and should be completely re- 
 laxed except in the finish of the run when they 
 should be swung vigorously to assist the legs. In 
 running up hill the runner should lean well for- 
 ward and should shorten his strides. In going down 
 hill the body is held more erect, and the feet are 
 thro\vn along in an easy stride. The air should be 
 taken into the lungs through the nose and mouth 
 in long, even breaths. 
 
 In the progress of the race it is well for the run- 
 ner to keep his mind on matters foreign to the race, 
 and not to think about how tired he is. Runners 
 prefer going over a cross-country course where the 
 scene is continually changing, to running five m^es 
 on a track. 
 
 2142 
 
 146
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY 
 
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 This book is DUE on the last date stamped below. 
 
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 MAP 2 8 1951 
 
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 DEC 1774 
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