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PRE FACE. 
 
 This essay, from the pen of an eminent 
 continental engineer, was presented, after 
 translation into English, to the Institu- 
 tion of Civil Engineers of Great Britain 
 by L. F. Vernon Harcourt, M.I.C.E. 
 
 It was reprinted from the "Proceed- 
 ings" of the Institution in Van Nbs- 
 trancFs Magazine, Vol. XVIII. 
 
 The importance of the subject and 
 the eminence of the author justify the 
 belief that, in the compact form of the 
 Science Series, it will be an acceptable 
 addition to engineering literature. 
 
F O D^Eba^rO N S. 
 
 THE Author proposes to give a de. 
 scription of the principal methods 
 resorted to in making foundations. Al- 
 though these methods are applicable, in 
 general, to every sort of construction, 
 they possess a special importance in the 
 case of large bridges, on account of the 
 greatness of the load, the instability of 
 the soil, and the amount and flow of 
 water to be contended with. It is not 
 sufficient, moreover, that the bed of the 
 river and the ground upon which the 
 foundations of a pier rest are firm, they 
 must also be secured against scour, as 
 only harc^ rocks are unaffected by a rapid 
 stream. To ascertain the nature of the 
 soil on which foundations are to be laid 
 borings are generally taken, but they 
 sometimes prove deceptive, owing to 
 
6 
 
 their coming on some chance boulders, 
 or upon some adhesive clays which, 
 without being firm, stick to the auger, 
 and twist it, or arrest its progress, and 
 the specimens brought up, being crushed 
 and pressed together, look firmer than 
 they really are. To remedy these de- 
 fects some engineers have adopted a 
 hollow boring tool, down which water 
 is pumped and reascends, by an annular 
 cavity between the exterior surface of 
 the tool and the soil, with such velocity 
 that not only the detritus scraped off by 
 the auger, but pebbles also, are lifted by 
 it to the surface. This process is rapid, 
 and the specimens, which are obtained 
 without torsion, preserve their natural 
 consistency. 
 
 On stiff clay, marl, sand, or gravel, 
 the safe load is generally from 55 to 110 
 cwt. on the square foot, but a load of 
 165 to 183 cwt. has been put upon close 
 sand in the foundations of the Gorai 
 bridge, and on gravel in the Loch Ken 
 viaduct and at Bordeaux. In the bridge 
 at Nantes there is a load of 152 cwt. to 
 
7 
 
 the square foot on sand, but some settle- 
 ment has taken place. Under the cylin- 
 drical piers of the Szegedin bridge in 
 Hungary, the soil, consisting of clay in- 
 termixed with fine sand, bears a load of 
 133 cwt. to the square foot; but it was 
 deemed expedient to increase its sup- 
 porting power by driving some piles in 
 the interior of the cylinders, and also 
 to protect the cylinders by sheeting out- 
 side. Cylinders, moreover, sunk to a 
 considerable depth in the ground, possess 
 a lateral adherence, as is evident from 
 the weights required for sinking them, 
 which adds greatly to the stability of 
 the foundations. Taking into account 
 this auxiliary support, the loads of 159 
 and 117 cwt. per square foot, at the bot- 
 tom of the cylinders of the Charing 
 Cross and Cannon Street bridges re- 
 spectively, are not excessive. On a rocky 
 ground the Roquefavour aqueduct ex- 
 erts a pressure of 268 cwt. to the square 
 foot. 
 
 Foundations may be classed under two 
 heads: (l) Ordinary foundations, on 
 
8 
 
 land, or protected from any considerable 
 rush of water; (2) Hydraulic founda- 
 tions, in rivers, or in the sea. 
 
 ORDINARY FOUNDATIONS. 
 
 When the ground consists of rock, 
 hard marl, stiff clay, or fine sand, the 
 foundations can be laid at once on the 
 natural surface, or with slight excava- 
 tion, and with horizontal steps where the 
 ground slopes. At the edge of steep 
 descents, with dipping strata, it is neces- 
 sary to find layers which will not slip, 
 or, if there is such a tendency, to 
 strengthen the layers of rock by a wall, 
 especially when it is liable to undergo 
 decomposition by exposure to the air, or 
 to use iron bolts uniting the layers of 
 rock. On ground having only a super- 
 ficial hard stratum resting upon a soft 
 subsoil, buildings have sometimes been 
 erected by merely increasing the bearing 
 surface, and lightening the superstruc- 
 ture as much as possible; but generally 
 it is advisable to place the foundations 
 below all the soft soil. On an uneven 
 
9 
 
 surface of rock a layer of concrete spread 
 all over affords a level foundation. 
 Sometimes large buildings have been 
 securely built on quicksands, of two 
 great thickness to be excavated, by the 
 aid of excellent hydraulic mortar, and 
 by excavating separately the bed of each 
 bottom stone. Such a building will be 
 stable if its pressure on the foundation 
 is uniform throughout, and if it is placed 
 sufficiently deep to counterbalance the 
 tendency of the sand to flow back into 
 the foundations. Instances of this class 
 of foundations are to be found in sewers 
 built on water-bearing sands, which 
 sometimes give rise to as much difficulty 
 as foundations built in rivers; as for ex- 
 ample in the net-work of London sewers, 
 and in the Metropolitan railway. The 
 flowing in of sand with the water in 
 pumping, and consequent undermining 
 of the houses above, was prevented in 
 these cases by constructing brick or iron 
 sumps for the pumps in suitable places, 
 surrounding them by a filtering bed of 
 gravel, and using earthenware collecting 
 
10 
 
 pipes, thus localising the disturbance. 
 In the construction of the Paris sewers, 
 where the water-bearing strata could 
 not be excavated on account of the run- 
 ning in of the sand, the upper portion 
 only of the culvert was first constructed 
 (Fig. 1). A little trench was then dug 
 
 Fig, I. 
 
 SEWERS IN PARIS 
 
 out at the bottom, each side being sup- 
 ported by interlaced boards, and this 
 trench was then pumped dry in lengths 
 of about 110 yards at a time. When 
 one length was dry, a second row of 
 boards was beaten down on the top of 
 the first row, and at last it was possible 
 to excavate the soil in lengths of thirteen 
 feet, carefully shored up, in which the 
 lower portion and the invert could be 
 constructed, completing the section of 
 the culvert (Fig. 2). In this manner a 
 
culvert, nine feet ten fts 
 feet six inches high, ancf* 
 was constructed in eighty^Sve (lays. 
 The excavations for a sewer at Grenoble 
 were executed from below upwards, in 
 order to insure a continuous flow of the 
 water, and the sides were built as the ex- 
 cavation proceeded, a trench supported 
 by boards conveying the water, and the 
 invert was begun when the piers were 
 finished, commencing at the upper part; 
 semicircular troughs of cement having 
 been placed at the bottom of the excava- 
 tion to afford continuous drainage, over 
 which a layer of quick-setting concrete 
 was deposited (Figs. 3 and 4). 
 
 Fig. 3. 
 
 Fig, 4, 
 
 SEWERS AT GRENOBLE 
 
 One means of reaching a solid founda- 
 tion without removing the upper layer 
 of soft soil is by piling, but piles are lia- 
 
12 
 
 ble to decay in many soils. In Holland, 
 buildings on piles of larch, alder, and fir 
 have lasted for centuries, whilst in 
 Belgium large buildings have been en- 
 dangered by the decay of the piles on 
 which they rest. Sometimes columns of 
 masonry support the superstructure, but, 
 being placed farther apart than piles, it 
 is necessary to connect them with arches 
 at the surface for carrying the walls. 
 Piers, however, of -viaducts supporting a 
 heavy load must be carried down in one 
 mass to the solid ground, as in the case 
 of the viaduct of Otzaurte, on the Rio 
 Salera in Spain, where it was necessary 
 to get through sixty-five feet of silty 
 clay to lay the foundations of a pier 
 thirty-one feet long by thirteen feet 
 wide. In order to avoid getting out so 
 large an excavation in one piece, a well 
 was dug, four feet wide, and extending 
 across the whole width, thirteen feet, of 
 the pier, so as to divide it into two equal 
 portions (Fig. 5). A chamber, nine feet 
 ten inches high, was then driven at the 
 bottom, like a heading, as far as the 
 
13 
 
 limits of one-half of the foundation of 
 the pier, and built up with masonry. 
 
 Fig. 5. 
 
 OTZAURTE 
 
 The other half was similarly dealt with, 
 and the excavation and masonry were 
 carried up in successive lifts of nine feet 
 ten inches. The central well served as 
 a means of access for pumping out the 
 
14 
 
 water, for the removal of earthwork, and 
 for the supply of materials. 
 
 To avoid the difficulty and expense of 
 timbering deep foundations a lining of 
 masonry is sometimes sunk, by gradually 
 excavating the ground underneath, and 
 weighting the masonry cylinder, which 
 is eventually filled in with rubble stone, 
 concrete, or masonry, and serves as a 
 pier. 
 
 In India a similar system has been fol- 
 lowed for centuries for sinking wells. 
 The linings are made in radiating courses 
 of bricks or stones; the first length, from 
 five to ten feet high, being put on a cir- 
 cular wooden framework placed on the 
 surface of the ground. Very fine sand 
 is used for filling the joints, except for 
 the two or three top courses, which are 
 laid in mortar, and the whole construc- 
 tion is tightly bound together. It is 
 then gradually sunk by a man inside 
 undermining it, and another length is 
 placed on the top. As these operations 
 are generally conducted in the silty or 
 sandy bed of rivers which become dry 
 
15 
 
 in summer, there is no running water to 
 contend with, but water percolates into 
 the excavation, and then the natives use 
 a "jham," by which they remove the 
 earth from under water. Although the 
 external diameter of the wells has been 
 sometimes limited to five feet, the ad- 
 vantage of larger dimensions in securing 
 a vertical descent has been always recog- 
 nized. At the Western Jumna canal 
 rectangular linings were adopted with 
 advantage. At the Solani aqueduct hol- 
 low cubes with sides twenty feet long, 
 and at Dunowri oblong or square linings, 
 thirty feet long and twenty feet deep, 
 and subdivided into three or four com- 
 partments, were used. 
 
 When the stratum of soft soil is too 
 thick for the foundations to be placed 
 below it, the soil must be consolidated; 
 or the area of the foundation must be 
 sufficiently extended to enable the ground 
 to support the load. The ground may 
 be consolidated by wooden piles; but in 
 soils where they are liable to decay, pil- 
 lars of sand, or mortar, or concrete, 
 
16 
 
 rammed into holes previously bored, 
 may be used. Artificial foundations are 
 also formed by placing on the soft ground 
 either a timber framework, surrounded 
 occasionally by .sheeting, or a mass of 
 rubble stone, or a layer of concrete, or a 
 thick layer of fine sand spread in layers 
 eight to ten inches thick, which, owing 
 to its semifluidity, equalizes the pressure. 
 A remarkable example of this method 
 was afforded in the restoration, in 1844, 
 of the arched way at the Phillippeville 
 gate, at Charleroi, where the old pile- 
 work foundations had twice given way. 
 A trench was dug 3^ feet deep and 3 
 feet wider than the construction on each 
 side, and inclosed by little walls. Into 
 this cavity was put very fine sand, mod- 
 erately wetted, then a layer of concrete, 
 twenty inches thick, and upon this the 
 masonry was built, which has stood per- 
 fectly. When the bottom of the exca- 
 vation is silty, it is advisable to throw a 
 thick layer of sand over it before driving 
 piles, as the sand gives consistency to 
 the silt. 
 
17 
 
 A heavy superstructure is partially 
 supported on a soft foundation by the 
 upward pressure due to the depth below 
 the surface to which it is carried, in the 
 same manner that a solid floats in a 
 liquid when it displaces a volume of 
 water equivalent to its own weight. Ac- 
 cording to Rankine a building will be 
 supported when the pressure at its base 
 
 , /1 + sin 0\ 2 
 
 is wh ( : - 1 per unit of area, where 
 
 \1 sm <pj J 
 
 h is the depth of the foundation, w the 
 weight of the soft ground per unit of 
 volume, and ^ the angle of friction. 
 
 Mr. McAlpine, M. Inst. C.E., in build- 
 ing a high wall at Albany, U.S.A., suc- 
 ceeded in safely loading a wet clay soil 
 with two tons on the square foot, but 
 with a settlement depending on the 
 depth of the excavation. In order to 
 prevent a great influx of water, and con- 
 sequent softening of the soil, he sur- 
 rounded the excavation with a puddle 
 trench, ten feet high and four feet wide, 
 and he also spread a layer of course 
 gravel on the bottom. 
 
18 
 
 When the foundation is not homo- 
 geneous it is necessary to provide against 
 unequal settlement, either by increasing 
 the bearing surface where the ground is 
 soft, or by carrying an arch over the 
 worst portions. 
 
 HYDRAULIC FOUNDATIONS. 
 
 Under this head are comprised all 
 foundations in rivers, and where running 
 water has to be contended with. 
 
 Foundations are laid upon the natural 
 surface where it is rocky, also on beds of 
 gravel, sand, or stiff clay secured against 
 scour by aprons, sheeting, rubble stones, 
 or other means of protection. When 
 the foundations are to be pumped dry, 
 dams are resorted to if the depth of 
 water is less than ten feet, and are spe- 
 cially applicable to the abutments of 
 bridges, where the water is less deep 
 and rapid and the bank forms one side 
 of the dam. The dam can be made of 
 clay, or even earth free from stones and 
 roots, with slopes of 1 to 1 ; the width 
 at the top being about equal to the 
 
19 
 
 depth of water when the depth does not 
 exceed three feet in a current, or ten feet 
 in still water. The leakage of a dam 
 and the danger of breaches increase 
 rapidly in proportion to the head of 
 water. At Hollandsch Diep a great dam 
 of sand, protected from the waves by 
 fascines, had to keep out a head of 
 water of twenty-three feet at high tides 
 from the foundations. M. de la Gour- 
 nerie constructed a temporary dam of 
 silt, 4,265 feet long, at St. Nazaire, in 
 1849, to protect the shed of the floating 
 dock. The dam was thirteen feet high, 
 four feet wide at the top, with a pitched 
 slope of 1 in 3 towards the sea, and an 
 inner slope of 1 in 5. 
 
 Concrete makes a solid dam, but it is 
 expensive to construct and difficult to re- 
 move. A masonry dam 328 feet long 
 was built at Lorient in 1857. 
 
 A cofferdam with a double row of piles 
 takes up less space and is less liable to 
 be worn away or breached than an earth- 
 work dam. At the Auray viaduct a dam 
 was made of two rows of piles, with 
 
20 
 
 boards filling up the spaces between the 
 piles, the center of the dam being filled 
 with well-punned silt, and protected out- 
 side with rubble stones. It supported 
 the pressure of a head of water of from 
 five to eleven feet; its average cost was 
 1 Os. lOd. per lineal foot. The width 
 of a cofferdam is often as great as the 
 head of water; but if the cofferdam is 
 strutted inside, so that the clay merely 
 acts as a watertight lining, the width 
 need not exceed from four to six feet. 
 In a cofferdam of concrete at Marseilles 
 constructed for the basin of the graving 
 docks, the widths were calculated at 0.45 
 of the total height, the maximum width 
 has thus attained twenty feet. 
 
 In building the viaduct of Lorient, on 
 a foundation dry at low water, a single 
 row of strutted piles, 3^ feet apart, 
 planked from top to bottom on both 
 sides, was used (Fig. 6), and the space 
 between the planking, ten inches wide, 
 was filled with silt pressed down. When 
 the filling is so much reduced in thickness 
 the planks are carefully joined, and the 
 
21 
 
 Fig. 6, 
 
 LORIENT 
 
 clay is mixed with moss or tow, or some 
 times with fine gravel or pounded chalk. 
 As water leaks through joints and con- 
 nections, the ties are placed as high up 
 as possible, and the bottom is scooped 
 out or cleaned before the clay is put in. 
 When the sim^s of the part to be inclosed 
 are sufficiently close they may be effec- 
 tually supported by a series of stays, as 
 was done in making the dam for the con- 
 
22 
 
 struction of the apron of the Melun dam 
 (Fig. 7), where struts were put in at in- 
 tervals of 16j feet. 
 
 Fig. 7. 
 
 MELUN 
 
 The Grimsby Dock works, and the 
 Thames Embankment works, furnished 
 examples of cofferdams constructed to 
 bear the pressure of a great head of 
 water. For constructing the Zuider Zee 
 locks on the Amsterdam Canal a circular 
 dam, 525 feet in diameter, was erected, 
 consisting of a double row of sheet pil- 
 ing, the piles being one foot square and 
 fifty feet long, with walings attached. 
 Eventually, in consequence of accidents, 
 a third row was added, and the dam fur- 
 ther strengthened by sloping banks of 
 sand on both sides, the outer slope being 
 protected by clay and fascine work. The 
 head of water against the dam was oc- 
 casionally twenty feet. 
 
23 
 
 If large springs burst out in an exca- 
 vation they must be either stopped up 
 with clay or cement, or be confined with- 
 in a wooden, brick, or iron pipe in which 
 the water rises till the pressure is equal- 
 ized, and then it is stopped up as soon as 
 the masonry is sufficiently advanced and 
 thoroughly set. If, however, there is a 
 general leakage over the whole bottom 
 of the excavation it must be stopped by 
 a layer of concrete, incorporated with 
 the foundation courses (Fig. 8). 
 
 I Fig, 8, 
 
 Cofferdams or troughs o'f concrete had 
 been used on a large scale at Toulon and 
 Algiers for the construction of repairing 
 docks. 
 
 Where there is not space for a clay 
 dam, timber sheeting well strutted and 
 
24 
 
 caulked is used. For instance at the 
 Custom-house quay of Rio de Janeiro a 
 dam of square sheet piling, with coun- 
 terforts of cross sheet piling, and made 
 watertight by hoop iron let into grooves 
 in each pile, served to support the press- 
 ure of about twenty-three feet of water. 
 A similar structure, however, at the 
 West India Docks was floated away by 
 an equinoctial spring tide, owing to the 
 want of tenacity of the ground. When 
 the head of water is under five feet, 
 tarred canvas is sufficient to keep it out, 
 the canvas being weighted at the bot- 
 tom, and nailed to a beam at the top. It 
 is in every instance advisable to take out 
 the earth work for foundations in lengths. 
 
 In the construction of the Victoria 
 Docks a metallic cofferdam was used, 
 which was very easily displaced by float- 
 ing. 
 
 Hollow timber frames without a bot- 
 tom, and made watertight at the bottom 
 after being lowered by concrete or clay, 
 are suitable in water from six to twenty 
 feet deep on rocky beds, or where there 
 
25 
 
 is only a slight layer of silt. This meth- 
 od was resorted to by M. Beaudemoulin, 
 between 1857 and 1861, at the St. 
 Michael, Solferino, Change and Louis 
 Philippe bridges at Paris. The timber 
 frame at the St. Michael bridge was fif- 
 teen feet nine inches high, 125 feet long, 
 and nineteen feet eight inches wide at 
 the base, with a batter of 1 in 5 ; the up- 
 rights were six inches square, and 6j feet 
 apart; the framework was made of oak, 
 and the planks of deal (nine inches by 
 three inches), the spaces between them 
 being covered by small laths nailed on 
 to the planks. Fourteen crabs placed on 
 four boats supported the framing, and 
 let it down as it was built up; this was 
 weighted with stones to sink it on 
 the foundations prepared by dredging, 
 and the planks were then slipped between 
 the walings and beaten down lightly. 
 A toe of rubble stone outside supported 
 the pressure of the concrete inside. The 
 whole operation took ten days, and in 
 one month the masonry was finished up 
 to the plinth. The caisson, including 
 erection, coat 560. 
 
26 
 
 The caissons of the bridges at Vienna, 
 sunk twelve feet below water level, cost 
 2 18s. 6d. per lineal yard of circumfer- 
 ence. At the Point-du-Jour viaduct the 
 caissons were 131 feet long, and from 
 twenty-six to thirty-three feet wide, and' 
 from twenty- one to twenty-six feet high. 
 The long sides were put together flat on 
 the ground, and were lifted up to allow 
 of the short sides being fixed to them. 
 A few hours sufficed for depositing, the 
 caisson in its place. M. Picard in recon- 
 structing the Bezons bridge, after the 
 war of 1870, used caissons in two por- 
 tions, as the lower portion had to re- 
 main, whilst the upper portion was only 
 needed for a time. Some nails and 
 straps fastened the two parts together. 
 A layer of clay was placed under the 
 rubble toe outside, to prevent leakage 
 between the concrete and the planks. 
 This expedient was first adopted by M. 
 Desnoyers, in order to pump dry the 
 foundation which he carried down into 
 the clay, so as to build masonry walls on 
 the bottom without using concrete. At 
 
27 
 
 the Aulne viaduct in Brittany, MM. 
 Desnoyers and Arnoux made a caisson 
 seventy-five feet six inches by thirty-four 
 feet nine inches, and nearly twenty-three 
 feet high (Fig. 9), and, with the exeep- 
 
 Fig.9. 
 
 Qufaon 
 
 immersed \ afloat 
 
 AULNE 
 
 tion of the bottom portion, caulked be- 
 forehand. When it was deposited the 
 bottom planks were slid down between 
 the lower set of walings, and a toe of 
 puddled clay "A," protected from the 
 rush of the current by canvas, was put 
 round the bottom outside. The caisson 
 was so watertight that a Letestu pump 
 
working two or three hours each day 
 kept the foundations perfectly dry. 
 When the caisson, put together on a 
 stage supported on eight boats, was 
 ready for depositing, the sluice door's of 
 the Guily-Glas dam were opened, lower- 
 ing the caisson till the projecting pieces 
 " B " touched the ground, and by cutting 
 the beams fastening these projections to 
 the boats, the boats were set free. As 
 the tide rose the caisson floated, and the 
 boats were attached to its upper part, 
 which, by lightening, lifted it sufficiently 
 for the projecting pieces to be taken off. 
 The depositing was completed by open- 
 ing the sluices of the dam at high 
 water, and as the water fell the caisson, 
 weighted with rails, sank on the dredged 
 bottom. Thus by the help of water 
 alone a mass weighing seventy-four tons 
 was safely and accurately deposited. 
 The cost of one caisson was 740; and 
 the cost of the foundation below low 
 water did not exceed 1 12s. 6d. per 
 cubic yard. At Lorient large caissons, 
 from twenty-three to twenty-four feet 
 
29 
 
 high, were employed; but an interior 
 dam of concrete forming a permanent 
 part of the foundation was used instead 
 of an external toe of clay. At Quimperle 
 M. Dubreil made the caisson watertight 
 by a dam of clay inside, which necessi- 
 tated a somewhat larger caisson, but 
 admitted of the removal of the timber. 
 
 When a limit to the space occupied is 
 immaterial, as oil the large American 
 rivers, a sort of double-cased crib -work 
 dam is frequently adopted. M. Male- 
 zieux has {given various details of this 
 class of work, such as the cofferdam in 
 Lake Michigan to obtain the water sup- 
 ply for Chigaco. A caisson 200 feet 
 long and 98 feet wide, inclosed by 
 double watertight sides from thirteen 
 to nineteen feet high, was used at Mon- 
 treal on the St. Lawrence. The interval 
 between the two sides was about eleven 
 feet wide, and planked at the bottom so 
 that the caisson could be floated into- 
 place. When the caisson was sunk, 
 piles were driven in holes made in the 
 bed of the river to keep it in place, and 
 
30 
 
 the bottom was made watertight by a 
 lining at the sides of beams and clay. 
 These kinds of caissons are only suitable 
 where the bottom is carefully levelled. 
 Although iron caissons are generally 
 used for penetrating some distance into 
 the soil, there are instances of iron cais- 
 sons being merely deposited upon the 
 natural bed. M. Pluyette founded one 
 of the large piers at Nogent sur-Marne 
 in a plate iron caisson, which weighed 
 about seventy tons, and cost 3,600, 
 with a bed of concrete in it ten feet thick 
 and protected by rubble stone. Its 
 dimensions at the bottom were seventy- 
 two feet by 37f feet, with rounded cor- 
 ners and a batter of 1 in 15, 29^ feet 
 high, including a length of five feet, 
 which could be removed when the work 
 was finished. The thickness of the 
 plates was from J inch to J inch, and it 
 was strutted inside with timber. The 
 same system was adopted at Breme, 
 where caissons sixty-nine feet by 16^ 
 feet were used for the four ordinary 
 piers, and the width increased to 
 
31 
 
 feet for the pier on which the bridge 
 turns; their height was ll feet, and 
 the thickness of the plates f inch. The 
 operation of sinking the caissons from a 
 floating stage occupied about seven 
 hours. A layer of concrete nine feet 
 thick was spread over the bottom and 
 left for twelve weeks to set before the 
 water was pumped out. 
 
 The methods employed for laying 
 foundations in the water, either on the 
 natural surface or after a slight amount 
 of dredging, have next to be considered. 
 
 A rubble mound foundation is some- 
 times employed for dams where any 
 settlement can be repaired by adding 
 fresh material on the top; also for land- 
 ing-piers in lakes by solidifying the 
 upper portion with concrete, and in 
 breakwaters where a masonry super- 
 structure is erected on the top. Such a 
 method, however, is not suitable where 
 a slight settlement would be injurious; 
 and in the sea the base of the mound is 
 generally less exposed to scour than in a 
 river. 
 
32 
 
 Another method consists in sinking a 
 framing, not made watertight, inside 
 which concrete is run, and the framing 
 remains as a protection for the concrete, 
 and is surrounded by a toe of rubble. If 
 the framing is of some depth iron tie- 
 rods are put in by divers after the bot- 
 tom has been dredged, to enable the 
 framing to support the pressure of the 
 concrete. When piles can be driven the 
 framing is fixed to, them. The piles, 
 five to eight feet apart, have a double 
 row of walings fixed to them, between 
 which close planking is driven, from ten 
 to fourteen inches wide, and from three 
 to five inches thick, and sometimes, 
 when the scour of a sandy subsoil has to 
 be prevented, the planks are grooved 
 and tongued, or have covering pieces 
 put on by divers, or are driven in close 
 panels. The insufficiency of a simple 
 framing of planks for foundations on 
 running sand was demonstrated by the 
 destruction of the Arroux bridge at 
 Digoin, and the Gue-Moucault bridge 
 over the Somme by the flood of Septem- 
 
ber 1866, in spite of the fascines and 
 rubble stone protecting their piers, owing 
 to the washing out of the underlying 
 sand through small interstices by the 
 rapid whirling current. The cost per 
 superficial yard of a casing formed with 
 piles and planks is about 1, including 
 the cost of driving 6j feet. 
 
 Open framing is sometimes used for 
 inclosing a mound of rubble stone. 
 These mounds require examination after 
 floods, and renewing t#l the mound has 
 become perfectly stable. 
 
 In permeable soils foundations of con- 
 crete inclosed in frames are frequently 
 employed, as, for instance, for the 
 foundations of the Saints Peres, Jena, 
 Austerlitz, and Alma bridges at Paris ; 
 but in silty and watertight soils founda- 
 tions in excavations pumped dry are 
 preferable. 
 
 The bed of the Rhone at Tarascon, 
 consisting of sand and gravel, in which 
 piles are difficult to drive, is subject to 
 scour in floods to a depth of 46 feet. 
 Foundations, however, were laid there, 
 
34 
 
 at considerable expense, by frames with 
 double linings, ten feet apart, in which 
 large blocks were placed with unhewn 
 stones on them; the ground was then 
 dredged inside the frames to twenty- 
 eight feet below low- water level, and 260 
 cubic yards of concrete were deposited 
 in twenty-four hours. 
 
 Lastly, concrete can be deposited in 
 situ for bridge foundations; and though 
 concrete blocks are only used in sea 
 works, bags of concrete, like those at 
 Aberdeen, by Mr. Dyce Cay, M. Inst. 
 G.E., might be sometimes employed, in- 
 stead of rubble stones, for forming the 
 base of piers or for preventing scour. 
 
 Piles are used where a considerable 
 thickness of soft ground overlies a firm 
 stratum, when the upper layer has suffi- 
 cient consistency to afford a lateral sup- 
 port to the piles, otherwise masonry piers 
 must be adopted. 
 
 The piles are usually placed from 2j 
 to 5 feet apart, center to center, and the 
 distance is occasionally increased to 6 
 feet for quays or other works only slight- 
 
'V*' OP THR 
 
 TT "?7* T^ ?" T 
 
 35 
 
 ly loaded. Sometimes under 
 or retaining walls the piles are driven 
 obliquely to follow the line of thrust. 
 The Libourne bridge rests on piles 2j 
 feet apart, and driven about forty feet in 
 sand and silt. At the Youlzie viaduct, 
 on the Paris and Mulhouse railway, some 
 piles were driven eighty feet without 
 reaching solid ground, and the ground 
 between the piles had to be dredged, and 
 replaced by a thick layer of concrete. 
 Piles which have not reached firm ground 
 sustain loads nevertheless, owing to the 
 lateral friction, as, for instance, in the 
 soft clay at La Rochelle and Rochefort 
 piles can support 164lbs. per square foot 
 of lateral contact, and 123 Ibs. in the silt 
 at Lorient. On the Cornwall railway, 
 viaducts were built upon piles, sixty-five 
 to eighty feet long, driven, in groups of 
 four fastened close together, by a four- 
 ton monkey with a small fall. A timber 
 grating is fastened to the top of the 
 piles, or a layer of concrete is deposited, 
 as at Dirschau, Hollandsch Diep, and 
 Dordrecht; or both grating and concrete, 
 
36 
 
 as the 'grating distributes the load and 
 strengthens the piles. Planking is 
 sometimes put on the framing which dis- 
 tributes the pressure, as at London 
 Bridge, but it is considered objectionable 
 as it prevents any connection between 
 the superstructure and the concrete, and 
 increases the chance of sliding. The 
 space between the piles from the river 
 bed to low water is sometimes filled with 
 rubble stones, and sometimes with con- 
 crete (Fig. 10), which is less liable B to 
 
 disturbance. When the ground is very 
 soft a filling of clay has been preferred 
 on account of its being lighter than con- 
 crete. 
 
3V 
 
 A mixed system of piling and water- 
 tight caissons, of rubble filling and con- 
 crete, was adopted at the Yernon bridge. 
 After the piles had been driven the 
 spaces between them were filled up to 
 half the depth of water with rubble 
 stones: a caisson ten feet high was then 
 placed on the top, and a bottom layer of 
 concrete deposited in it. In a month's 
 time the interior of the caisson was 
 pumped dry, the heads of the piles cut 
 off, and the filling with cement concrete 
 completed to low-water level. The cais- 
 son was cut off to the level of the grat- 
 ing as soon as the pier was well above 
 water. The foundation cost altogether 
 14 8s. per square yard of base of the 
 pier. 
 
 The heavy ram of Nasmyth moved by 
 steam, with a small fall, but giving sixty 
 to eighty blows per minute, enabled piles 
 to be driven thirty-three feet in a few 
 minutes, and with much less chance of 
 divergence or jumping than in driving 
 with less powerful engines. In certain 
 soils, in which there is a momentary re- 
 
38 
 
 sistance during pile-driving, it has been 
 proposed to bore holes in which the pile 
 should be afterwards driven. 
 
 At St. Louis the annular piles, 3^ feet 
 in diameter, made of eight pieces of 
 wood, used for guiding the pneumatic 
 caisson, were driven by the aid of the 
 hydraulic sand-pump working inside, the 
 invention of Mr. Eads 3 M. Inst. C.E. 
 
 The load that a pile driven home and 
 secure from lateral flexion can bear may 
 be estimated at from one-tenth to one- 
 eighth of the crushing load, which varies 
 between 5,700 and 8,500 Ibs. per square 
 inch. Thus, taking a fair load of 710 
 Ibs. per square inch, a small pile of seven 
 inches diameter will bear about twelve 
 tons, and a pile of eighteen inches diam- 
 eter will bear about eighty tons, and a 
 pile to bear the load of twenty-five tons 
 used as a unit by M. Perronet should be 
 about ten inches in diameter. Accord- 
 ing to M. Perronet a pile can support a 
 load of twenty-five tons as soon as it re- 
 fuses to move more than f inch under 
 thirty blows of a monkey, weighing 
 
39 
 
 eleven cwts. ninety Ibs., falling four feet 
 or under ten blows of the same monkey 
 falling twelve feet. At Neuilly, how- 
 ever, M. Perronet placed a load of fifty- 
 one tons on piles thirteen inches square, 
 but driving the pile till it refused to 
 move more than -f$- inch under twenty- 
 five blows of a monkey of the same 
 weight falling 4^ feet; but such a load 
 is unusual. At Bordeaux the driving 
 was stopped when the pile did not go 
 down more than -^- inch under ten blows 
 of a monkey, weighing 1,100 Ibs., falling 
 about fifteen feet, but one of the piers 
 settled considerably, the load on a pile 
 being twenty-two tons ; whereas at 
 Rouen, by insisting on M. Perronet's 
 rule, no settlement occurred. 
 
 From experiments made at the Orleans 
 viaduct, M. Sazilly concluded that piles 
 might support with security a load of 
 forty tons when they refuse to move 
 more than If inch under ten blows of a 
 monkey weighing fifteen cwts. and falling 
 about thirteen feet. 
 
 Various formulae have been framed for 
 
40 
 
 calculating the safe load on piles, which 
 are quoted in a paper by Mr. McAlpine, 
 M. Inst. C.E., on " The Supporting Pow- 
 er of Piles," and in a Paper on "The 
 Dordrecht Railway Bridge," by Sir John 
 Alleyne, Bart., M. Inst. C.E. If Weis- 
 bach's formula is applied to M. Perro- 
 net's rule it appears that, assuming a safe 
 load, the limiting set of the pile might 
 be 3j inches instead of f inch for ten 
 blows; and the formula shows that large 
 monkeys should be adopted in prefer- 
 ence to a large fall, and in this it agrees 
 with practice for preventing injury to 
 the piles. 
 
 In order to provide against the danger 
 of overturning in silty ground, the ground 
 is sometimes first compressed by loading 
 it with an embankment, which is cut 
 away after a few months at those places 
 where foundations are to be built. At 
 the Oust bridge it was even necessary to 
 connect the piers and abutments by a 
 wooden apron, which, for additional 
 security, was surrounded by concrete 
 (Fig. 11). The abutment was made 
 
41 
 
 Fig, II. 
 
 OUST VIADUCT 
 
 hollow to lighten it, and the embank- 
 ment, "R," had compressed the silty 
 ground to m ,n. The foundations cost 
 23 Is. 7d. per superficial yard for 
 depths of from thirty-three to forty -three 
 feet from the natural surface to the rock, 
 or 1 16s. lOd. per cubic yard, a high 
 price due to the difficulties met with and 
 the bad weather. At the bridge of 
 Bouchemaine, near Angers, the bending 
 of the piles, which traverse about twenty 
 feet of silt, was stopped by surrounding 
 them with great masses of rubble 
 stones. 
 
 Occasionally foundations on piles have 
 failed or suffered great sets or lateral 
 
42 
 
 displacements. At the Tours bridge, 
 many arches have fallen at successive 
 times; holes in the foundations had to 
 be refilled with lime, and below certain 
 arches a general bed of concrete was 
 afterwards established. 
 
 Floating caissons require a bottom 
 carefully levelled, on which to be lower- 
 ed. Labelye, in 1750, deposited the 
 caissons of old Westminster bridge on 
 the dredged bottom of the river; but 
 usually this kind of caisson is deposited 
 on piles cut off to one level. These cais- 
 sons have oak bottoms and movable 
 sides of fir, and enable the masonry piers 
 built inside to be lowered on piles pre- 
 viously driven. The oak bottom serves 
 as a platform for the pier, and the mova- 
 ble fir sides can be used again for other 
 caissons. At Ivry, with only two sets 
 of movable sides, the contractor was able 
 to put four caissons in place in one 
 month. The bottom, which consists of 
 a single or double platform, has timbers 
 projecting underneath which fit on to 
 the rows of piles. The movable sides 
 
43 
 
 are sometimes made in panels*which fit 
 into grooves both in the bottom framing 
 and in upright posts, placed about ten 
 feet apart, which are tenoned at the bot- 
 tom, and kept in place at the top by 
 transoms going across the caisson. The 
 different parts of the sides are tightly 
 pressed together by the bolt, A B (Fig. 
 12). In other instances, as at the bridge 
 
 Fig 12, 
 
 of Yal Benoit over the Meuse, the sides 
 butt against the vertical sides of the 
 bottom, against which they are pressed 
 by keyed bolts, D, placed at intervals of 
 five feet (Fig. 13). The caisson is kept 
 near the shore whilst the first courses of 
 masonry are being built in it; it is then, 
 
44 
 
 on a favorable opportunity, floated over 
 the site of the pier prepared to receive 
 it, and is gradually sunk by letting in 
 water. 
 
 At the Bordeaux bridge the caissons 
 had a height of twenty-six feet, and 
 were divided in cases by transverse rods. 
 This work, which comprises seventeen 
 arches, was founded in a great depth of 
 water, about the year 1820, by the engi- 
 neers Deschamps and Billandel. 
 
 Fig, 13. 
 
 Fig, 14. 
 
 1,4 
 
 VAL BENOIT 
 
 In sea works the laying of foundations 
 in the water is managed differently. 
 Thus artificial blocks of concrete may be 
 deposited by the help of divers, as at 
 
45 
 
 Dover pier; or much larger masses may 
 be moved by powerful machinery, as, 
 for instance, blocks of 150 to 200 tons 
 put down at Brest in 1868, and at Dublin 
 by Mr. Stoney, M. Inst. C.E. For small 
 landing piers, and for piers of bridges in 
 rivers not exposed to the breaking up of 
 ice, artificial blocks or metallic frame- 
 works may be placed under water on the 
 top of timber piles cut off level, a plan 
 adopted by Mr. Maynard, M. Inst. C.E., 
 on a foundation of screw piles. 
 
 Screw piles were introduced by Mr. 
 Mitchell, M. Inst. C.E., for securing 
 buoys. They can be applied with ad- 
 vantage to the construction of bollards 
 and beacons, on account of the resistance 
 they offer to drawing out; but as in the 
 process of screwing down the ground is 
 more or less loosened, judgment must be 
 used in employing them for mooring or 
 warping buoys. In foundations for 
 beacons they should be screwed down 
 from fifteen to twenty feet below the 
 level to which the shifting sand is liable 
 to be lowered. Even when all cohesion 
 
46 
 
 of the ground is destroyed in screwing 
 down a pile, a conical mass, with its 
 apex at the bottom of the pile and its 
 base at the surface, would have to be 
 lifted to draw the pile out. The re- 
 sistance to settlement is also increased 
 by the bearing surface of the screw; and 
 the screw pile is accordingly to be pre- 
 ferred to an ordinary pile in soft strata 
 of indefinite depth, or when the shocks 
 produced by ordinary pile-driving are 
 liable to produce a disturbance. The 
 screw pile has likewise the advantage of 
 being easily taken up. 
 
 Screw piles have been principally used 
 in England and in the United States. 
 They have usually one or two spirals pro- 
 jecting considerably from the shaft, these 
 spirals being cylindrical for soft ground 
 and conical for hard ground, and either 
 of wrought iron or of cast iron. The 
 shaft may be of wood or, by preference, 
 of iron, which must be pointed at the 
 end for hard ground, but cylindrical and 
 hollow when the ground is soft. The 
 screw will penetrate most soils except 
 
47 
 
 hard rock; it can get a short way into 
 compact marl through loose pebbles and 
 stones, and even enter coral reefs. A 
 screw pile turned by eight capstan bars, 
 twenty feet long, each moved by four or 
 five men, with a screw four feet in dia- 
 meter, passed in less than two hours 
 through a stratum of sand and clay more 
 than twenty feet thick, the surface of 
 which was about twenty feet below 
 water, and dug itself to a depth of about 
 one foot into an underlying schistous 
 rock. At the Clevedon pier screw piles 
 penetrated hard red clay to depths vary- 
 ing between seven and seventeen feet, 
 and although the screw had a pitch of 
 five inches they rarely went down more 
 than three inches in one turn. Mr. W. 
 Lloyd, M. Inst. C.E., has recorded an 
 unsuccessful use of screw piles, which in 
 the shifting sandy bed of a South 
 American river became twisted like a 
 corkscrew, and were overturned in the 
 first breaking up of the ice. At Ham- 
 burg screw piles, in sets of three and 
 joined at the top, are used as bollards. 
 
48 
 
 The piles are hollow wrought-iron tubes, 
 inch thick, furnished with a screw both 
 inside and out, with a pitch of one foot 
 (Fig. 14). To screw them down two 
 capstans were used to pull the two ends 
 of a rope wound round the head of the 
 pile, the force transmitted to the pile 
 being thirty times that applied at an arm 
 of the capstan, and towards the close, 
 when the pile had been forced down 
 nearly thirteen feet, seven men were re- 
 quired to work each capstan. At the 
 commencement each turn of the screw 
 produced a descent of ten inches, and 
 hardly nine inches at the end. A vessel 
 struck, in 1852, against one of these bol- 
 lards, and broke off the top without 
 shifting the piles. 
 
 Piles with discs, used in the first in- 
 stance at the Leven and Kent viaducts, 
 by Mr. Brunlees, M. Inst. C.E., differ 
 little from screw piles except in the 
 method of sinking them. This opera- 
 tion was performed by sending a jet of 
 water down a wrought-iron tube inside 
 the cast-iron pile, which washed away 
 
49 
 
 the silty sand from underneath the disc 
 and caused the pile to descend. The 
 sinking cost about 2s. 6d. per lineal foot, 
 whereas at Southport pier, where water 
 was obtained from the waterworks, and 
 ten piles were sunk per tide, the sinking 
 only cost 4jd. per lineal foot. Wooden 
 piles, with a cast-iron shoe carrying a 
 disc, might easily be sunk in the same 
 manner, the water pipe being carried 
 eccentrically through the disc. 
 
 Hollow wrought-iron piles have also 
 been forced down by blows of a monkey, 
 in silty and sandy ground interspersed 
 with boulders, to a depth of about sixty 
 feet; the thickness of the piles being 
 about one-nine inch, and the diameter 
 19 inches. On the Cambrian railway, 
 Mr. Conybeare, M. Inst. C.E., drove 
 wooden piles down below the surface, by 
 means of a lengthening piece of cast 
 iron on the top, a piece of wood or lead 
 being interposed between the monkey 
 and the cast iron. 
 
 Large masonry piers carried through 
 thick layers of soft ground to a solid bed 
 
50 
 
 may be constructed by various methods, 
 and constitute the best kind of founda- 
 tion in such a situation. 
 
 The method of cased wells is suitable 
 where the silt is sufficiently compact and 
 watertight to admit of pumping the well 
 dry, and where the depth of water is 
 small and can easily be kept out by a 
 cofferdam or a caisson without a bottom. 
 The well is sunk by the ordinary meth- 
 ods of sinking wells or driving headings 
 in silty ground. At the Auray viaduct, 
 a muddy stratum, twenty-six feet thick, 
 was got through by this method. In 
 building the abutment of a bridge over 
 the Yilaine, in Brittany, resting on six 
 pillars carried down fifty feet below the 
 water-level, the same method was adopt- 
 ed; but for the lower portion of the ex- 
 cavation a smaller framing had to be 
 sunk inside. A pillar fifty feet deep re- 
 quires about twenty days for the excava- 
 tion, and twelve days for building the 
 masonry. The cost is from 1 16s. lOd. 
 to 2 9s. per cubic yard of foundation 
 complete. When the pier is so wide as 
 
51 
 
 to render the strutting difficult, an outer 
 ring can be first lowered, which serves 
 afterwards as a casing for excavating 
 the inner portion. Where permeable 
 gravel or very liquid silt has to be tra- 
 versed it is necessary to resort to tubular 
 foundations. 
 
 Cylindrical foundations are sunk with 
 or without the aid of compressed air ac- 
 cording to circumstances. These foun- 
 dations possess the two great advantages 
 of being capable of being sunk to a con- 
 siderable depth, and of presenting the 
 least obstruction to the current. 
 
 In a clay soil the cylinder acts as a 
 movable cofferdam, which is sunk by 
 being weighted, and enables the foun- 
 dations inside to be built up easily and 
 cheaply. This method was first adopted 
 by Mr. Redman, M. Inst. C. E., .at 
 Gravesend ; and afterwards at the Char- 
 ing Cross and Cannon Street bridges ; 
 and also for the piers of the Victoria 
 bridge over the Thames. Iron cylinders 
 are preferred in certain cases to cylin- 
 ders of brick, masonry, or concrete, on 
 
52 
 
 account of the ease with which they are 
 lowered in deep water on to the river bed; 
 in spite of the disadvantages attaching to 
 them of high price, of the considerable 
 weights required for sinking them, and 
 lastly, of being only cases for the actual 
 piers. 
 
 In 1823, Sir Mark Brunei, in sinking 
 the wells of access to the Thames Tunnel 
 used linings of brickwork, 50 feet in di- 
 ameter, and resting on iron frames with 
 vertical tie-rods. At Rochefort, M. Guil- 
 lemain used linings of masonry resting 
 on plate-iron rings and strengthened by 
 iron chains; the wells were made some- 
 times 10 feet, sometimes 13 feet in diam- 
 eter, and it was found that the facility 
 and rate of descent of the larger linings 
 more than compensated for the additional 
 material. At Lorient the Caudan foot- 
 bridge was built on four large rectangu- 
 lar frames, sunk from 50 to 60 feet below 
 high water. When the ground is very 
 soft it has a tendency to run into these 
 tubular cofferdams when the water is 
 pumped out. 
 
53 
 
 The method of sinking wells in India 
 has been previously referred to. Mr. 
 Imrie Bell, M. Inst. C. E., added a pole 
 to the jham used by the natives to save 
 the trouble of diving, but even with this 
 addition the process was slow. The 
 foundations of the Poiney viaduct, on 
 the Madras railway, were put in by this 
 method. In more recent works the curb 
 was made of iron instead of wood, and 
 angular as in the case of the Jumna 
 bridge. The first lengths were short, 5 
 to 6 feet, to insure a vertical descent; then 
 a length of 10 feet, and afterwards 
 lengths of 13 and 16 feet were added. 
 
 At the Glasgow bridge the lining was of 
 cast-iron rings, being easier to lower in 
 mid-stream; but for the quays and docks 
 on the Clyde linings of brickwork and 
 concrete were adopted for the sake of 
 economy. Mr. Milroy, Assoc. Inst. C.E., 
 considers that with concrete, which can 
 be moulded to an edge at the bottom, all 
 metal additions may be omitted where 
 only silt oreand have to be traversed, 
 and that the bottom ring should be of 
 
54 
 
 iron for penetrating harder soils. In the 
 Clyde extension works the wells were 
 filled up with concrete, and a double row 
 of cylinders of 9 feet diameter were 
 adopted in preference to a single row of 
 12 feet. It would be possible in this ar- 
 rangement to take out the sand between 
 the adjacent cylinders and form them 
 into a solid mass by filling up these inter- 
 stices with concrete. Mr. Ransome used 
 cylinders of "apsenite" for the Hermitage 
 wharf on the Thames. 
 
 The Dutch engineers have often used 
 oval-shaped iron tubes sunk by dredging 
 inside. Thus in the bridge on the North 
 Sea Canal the piers are elliptical; the one 
 on which the opening portion turns hav- 
 ing axes of 23 and 18 feet, and the others 
 axes of 39 J and 14 feet. The horizontal 
 flanges and ribs were larger where the 
 radius of curvature is increased, and the 
 vertical ribs are not continuous, but ar- 
 ranged so as to overlap. The bridge 
 over the Yssel, on the Utrecht and Co- 
 logne railway, rests upon cylinders which 
 were sunk by internal dredging 17f feet 
 below the river bed. 
 
XkilFOB^i 
 
 In France sinking cylinder^^t^^^ss^ 
 ing is not often resorted to in rivers, pos- 
 sibly owing to a failure of this system 
 at Perpignan, where the sinking of a 
 masonry cylinder by dredging was stop- 
 ped by boulders, and compressed air had 
 to be used. However, the foundations 
 of bridges at Rivesaltes, and over the 
 Saone at Lyons, and the jetty made at 
 Havre in 1861, were executed by this 
 method. For the walls of the wet dock 
 of Bordeaux rectangular wells have also 
 been sunk by dredging. 
 
 The extension of the system must 
 depend chiefly on improvements in the 
 dredging machinery, of which the suc- 
 cessive steps in advance already attained 
 may be noted. 
 
 The jham was suspended by Kennard's 
 sand pump. With this machine a well, 
 12^ feet in diameter, was sunk in the 
 Jumna 8 to 10 inches per hour by four- 
 teen workmen. As the Kennard pump 
 was not able to work in the compact clays 
 and conglomerate met with in rebuilding 
 the bridges over the Beas and the Sutlej 
 
56 
 
 Bull's dredger was adopted, which con- 
 sists of a semi-cylindrical case with jaws 
 opening in two quadrants, like the Amer- 
 ican dredger of Morris and Cummings. 
 
 Mr. Stone, M. Inst. C.E., however, 
 mentions that when it met with a hard 
 stratum a descent of only 2 feet 10 inches 
 was accomplished in three months, 
 whereas in the upper layer the progress 
 was much more rapid- than with the sand- 
 pump. 
 
 Next came Mr. Milroy's " excavator,' 
 consisting of an octagonal frame from 
 which are suspended eight triangular 
 spades. These spades are forced vertical- 
 ly into the ground and are then lifted by 
 chains so as to come together and inclose 
 the earth, which can then be raised and 
 discharged. 
 
 At the Glasgow bridge the progress 
 was, on an average, 11^ feet per day, 
 and the maximum 20 feet. At Planta- 
 tion Quay the average for a cylinder was 
 about 4 feet per day, but these cylinders 
 were impeded in their sinking by tongues 
 and grooves, so that double this rate 
 
57 
 
 might be reckoned on for unconnected 
 cylinders. Another machine is the 
 "screw pan" used at the Loch Ken 
 viaduct, a conical perforated vessel, the 
 diameter at the top being 2 feet, and 
 furnished at the bottom with a screw 
 which enters the ground when turned. 
 
 The sand and mud entering the vessel 
 are retained by little leather valves when 
 the instrument is lifted. It works well 
 in silt and clay ; in harder soils a smaller 
 vessel is needed. 
 
 Lastly there is the "boring head" used 
 by Mr. Bradford Leslie, M. Inst. C.E.^ 
 at the Gorai bridge. A revolving plane 
 with blades underneath, able to disinte- 
 grate hard clays and compact sand, is 
 worked inside the cylinder, and at the 
 same time the excavated material is 
 drawn up and removed from the cylinder 
 by a siphon. To maintain an upward 
 pressure in the siphon the level of the 
 water in the cylinder is always kept 
 higher than in the river. The boring- 
 head made one revolution in about one 
 minute and a half or two minutes, and 
 
58 
 
 excavated through clayey and sandy silt 
 at a rate of about 1 foot per hour. One 
 advantage possessed by this system is 
 that the rate of progress is independent 
 of the depth. The side piers of the 
 Gorai bridge were sunk 124 feet below 
 the surface, and the river piers 98 feet 
 below low-water level. The only bridge 
 the foundations of which have been car- 
 ried down as deep as those of the Gorai 
 bridge is the J3t. Louis bridge over the 
 Mississippi; but the method of com- 
 pressed air used in this work, looking at 
 the difficulties and loss of life attending 
 it, would have been impracticable with 
 coolie labor at Gorai. The system of 
 sinking by dredging is generally to be 
 preferred to the compressed air system, 
 except where numerous obstacles, such 
 as boulders or embedded trees, are met 
 with. 
 
 The friction between cylinders and 
 the soil depends on the nature of the 
 soil and the depth of sinking. For cast 
 iron sliding through gravel the co-effi- 
 cient of friction is between 2 and 3 tons 
 
59 
 
 on the square yard for small depths, and 
 reaches 4 or 5 tons where the depth is 
 between 20 and 30 feet. In certain ad- 
 hesive soils it would be more. In sinking 
 the brick and concrete cylinders in the 
 silt of the Clyde it was found to amount 
 to about 3j tons per square yard. 
 
 Passing on to the consideration of the 
 pneumatic systems, the process of Dr. 
 Potts was one of the first employed for 
 sinking tubular foundations by the help 
 of air. The cylinder in process of being 
 sunk was connected with a vessel in 
 which a vacuum was produced, and a 
 communication between them being sud- 
 denly made a shock was produced by the 
 rush of air. By this means Mr. Cowper, 
 M. Inst. C.E., succeeded in driving down 
 cylinders 5 feet at a time. The only 
 novelty in the system was using air for 
 applying a downward pressure on the 
 cylinder, as dredging had still to be re- 
 sorted to for removing the earth from 
 the inside, and, moreover, there was a 
 considerable influx of the surrounding 
 soil, and frequent divergencies from the 
 
60 
 
 perpendicular. Mr. Bramwell, M. Inst. 
 C.E., observing the effects produced by 
 the rush of air out of the cylinder, in an 
 aqueous soil, suggested sinking by forc- 
 ing water from the interior of the cylin- 
 der towards its external surface, a pro- 
 cess which would disintegrate the earth 
 lubricate the sliding cylinder, and pre- 
 vent the influx of the soil. The diffi- 
 culties of the Potts process increase with 
 the size of the cylinder; and for sinking 
 the cylinders, 10 feet in diameter, of the 
 Shannon bridge it was abandoned after 
 an unsuccessful attempt. 
 
 The method of compressed air for 
 enabling operations to be conducted 
 under water is merely a modification of 
 the diving-bell; but the application of it 
 to a cylinder forced down by undermin- 
 ing was first made, in 1839, at Chalons 
 for working a coal seam rendered inac- 
 cessible by the infiltrations of the Loire. 
 After having begun the shaft by beating 
 down a cylindrical lining of sheet iron, 
 3| feet in diameter, it occurred to the 
 engineer, M. Triger, to cover over the 
 
61 
 
 top of the cylinder, and by forcing air in 
 to drive out the water and admit the 
 workmen. An air chamber was formed 
 at the top with double doors, serving as 
 a sort of lock for the passage in and out 
 of the cylinder of men and materials 
 without giving an outlet to the com- 
 pressed air, and a pipe running up the 
 cylinder carried off the water from the 
 bottom. In 1845 M. Triger sank another 
 cylinder, 6 feet in diameter, in the same 
 way, and suggested the employment of 
 the method for the foundations of 
 bridges. 
 
 The first bridge foundations of this 
 kind were carried out, in the years 1851- 
 52, at the Rochester bridge on the Med- 
 way, which has masonry piers each sup- 
 ported on fourteen cylinders, 6 feet 11 
 inches in diameter, filled with concrete. 
 Having begun with the Potts process till 
 on alighting on old foundations it proved 
 useless, Mr. Hughes, M. Inst. C.E., con- 
 ceived the notion of reversing the cur- 
 rent of air, and sinking the cylinders by 
 the help of compressed air. The success 
 
62 
 
 of this method recalled to mind earlier 
 suggestions in the same direction, such 
 as the patent of Lord Cochrane, in 1830, 
 for excavating foundations by com- 
 pressed air, and the suggestion of M. 
 Colladon of Geneva to Sir M. Brunei to 
 try to stop the rush of water into the 
 Thames Tunnel by forcing in air. 
 
 At the Chepstow bridge foundations 
 the late Mr. I. K. Brunei, Yice-President 
 Inst. C.E., abandoned the Potts process 
 on coming upon an embedded tree, and 
 resorted to compressed air, which he also 
 subsequently employed in commencing 
 the foundations of the iron cofferdams 
 used for the piers of the Saltash bridge. 
 
 The various details of the compressed 
 air system are given in the descriptions 
 of the works in which it has been em- 
 ployed. Theoretically, when the lower 
 edge of the cylinder has reached a depth 
 of h feet below the surface of the water, 
 the pressure required for driving the 
 
 O -I A 
 
 water out of the excavations is -V- atmos- 
 
 h 
 
 pheres; but frequently the intervention 
 
63 
 
 of the ground between the bottom of 
 the river and the excavation enables the 
 work to be carried on at a less pressure, 
 as Mr. Brunei did at Saltash. A con- 
 siderably greater pressure would be re- 
 quired if the water had to be forced 
 from the excavation through the soil 
 below the river bed; but this is avoided 
 by placing a pipe inside to convey away 
 the water, and M. Triger has found that 
 the lifting of the water was facilitated 
 by the introduction of bubbles of air 
 into the pipe at a certain height. 
 
 Pressures of 2 or even up to 3 atmos- 
 pheres do not injure healthy and sober 
 men, and suit best men of a lymphatic 
 temperament, but prove injurious to men 
 who are plethoric or have heart disease. 
 It is advisable to avoid working in hot 
 weather, and each workman should not 
 work more than four hours per day, or 
 more than six weeks consecutively. At 
 Harlem, ISTew York, however, workmen 
 have remained ten hours under a pressure 
 of 50 feet, and even 80 feet of water. 
 On the other hand, at St. Louis under a 
 
64 
 
 pressure of little more than 3 atmos- 
 pheres several men were paralyzed or 
 died, and the period of work was gradu- 
 ally reduced from four hours to one 
 hour. From experiments on animals M. 
 Bart has found that the accidents caused 
 by a sudden removal of pressure are due 
 to the escape of the excess of gas ab- 
 sorbed by the blood. Beyond 6 atmos- 
 pheres any sudden return to the normal 
 pressure is attended with danger; the 
 usual rule now is to allow one minute 
 per atmosphere. The cylinders subjected 
 to pressure should be furnished with 
 safety valves, pressure gauges, and alarm 
 whistles, as explosions occasionally oc- 
 cur. 
 
 Iron rings from 6 feet to 13 feet in 
 diameter are cast in one piece, and a 
 caoutchouc washer is introduced at the 
 joints between the rings ; cylinders of 
 larger diameter are cast in segments, 
 and cylinders of smaller diameter than 6 
 feet are rarely used. The thickness is 
 usually 1-J- inch, increased to Ij inch or 
 1-J inch were exposed to blows, in coni- 
 
65 
 
 cal joining lengths, and in the bottom 
 length. 
 
 When two cylinders have to be sunk 
 close together it is best to sink them al- 
 ternately, as they tend to come together 
 when sunk at the same time. At Macon, 
 where there was only an interval of 3j 
 feet between two cylinders, one of the 
 cylinders was seen to rise suddenly as 
 much as 6 feet when the other was forced 
 down. Sometimes where cylinders of 
 small diameter have to be used the ex- 
 cavations are extended beyond the cylin- 
 der at the bottom, and filled with con- 
 crete to give a greater bearing surface; 
 this plan was adopted at Harlem bridge, 
 New York, and by the late Mr. Cubitt, 
 Vice-President Inst. C.E., at the Black- 
 friars railway bridge. Another way of 
 accomplishing the same object is by en- 
 larging the lower rings of the cylinder, 
 and putting in a connecting conical 
 length, as was done by Sir John Hawk- 
 shaw, Past-President Inst. C.E., at the 
 Charing Cross and Cannon Street 
 bridges. 
 
66 
 
 The cylinders at Bordeaux were forced 
 down by MM. Nepveu and Eiffel, in 
 1859-60, by strong beams of wrought 
 iron, moved up or down by the pistons 
 of four hydraulic presses, having 11 feet 
 length of stroke and exerting a pressure 
 of 60 to 70 tons; the force could be ap- 
 plied at pleasure, and regulated accord- 
 ing to circumstances. At Argenteuil, 
 where cylinders 12 feet in diameter had 
 to be sunk, the concreting inside was 
 carried on during the sinking, leaving 
 only a circular shaft in the center, 3 feet 
 7 inches in diameter, lined with wooden 
 framing, and enlarged at the bottom to 
 a conical shape by a sort of cage of in- 
 clined beams butting against the bottom 
 of the shaft (Fig. 18). The cylinders 
 were sunk 50 feet on the average below 
 low-water level, through mud, sand, 
 gravel, and clay, on to marl or limestone, 
 and four screw-jacks of 20 tons power 
 supported the bottom ring by means of 
 flat, iron straps. After the sinking was 
 completed the chamber at the bottom 
 was filled with cement concrete, poured 
 
67 
 
 around iron pipes placed near the sides 
 so as to maintain the pressure of air 
 during the operation. When this layer 
 of concrete was set the pipes were closed 
 with cement, the normal pressure re- 
 stored, and the shaft filled up with con- 
 crete. Concrete deposited under com- 
 pressed air appears to set quicker, and to 
 increase somewhat in strength, provided 
 it is deposited in thin layers allowing 
 the excess of water to escape. At 
 Szegedin this was effected by mixing 
 very dry bricks with the concrete. At 
 Perpignan the foundations of a bridge 
 over the Tet had been commenced by 
 sinking a masonry cylinder by dredging 
 inside, but large stones being unexpect- 
 edly met with the method of compressed 
 air had to be resorted to. The masonry 
 cylinder, 3j feet thick and 13 feet out- 
 side diameter, with a batter outwards of 
 1 in 100, was lined inside with neat 
 cement, and was covered with a plate- 
 iron top -J- inch thick. The sinking was 
 assisted when necessary by letting out 
 air; the depth attained was about 26 
 
68 
 
 feet. The cylinder was filled with con- 
 crete, which for the first 6 feet was de- 
 posited under pressure. The success at- 
 tending this experiment has led M. 
 Basterot to recommend the deliberate 
 application of compressed air to masonry 
 cylinders for depths of less than 33 feet 
 below water, and he estimates the cost 
 of such a cylinder, 13 feet in diameter, 
 sunk by this method 26 feet deep and 
 filled in, at 340. 
 
 The foundations of the piers of the 
 Kehl bridge were accomplished by the 
 engineers, MM. Fleur Saint-Denis and 
 Yuigner, by a combination of the princi- 
 ples of the compressed air process, the 
 sinking of a pier by its own weight, the 
 sinking by dredging, and the cofferdam 
 system. As the bed of the Rhine at 
 Kehl consists of large masses of gravel 
 liable to be disturbed to a depth of 55 
 feet below low-water level, it was deem- 
 ed advisable to carry the foundations 
 down about 70 feet below low water. 
 For the two central piers the chamber of 
 excavation was divided into three 
 
69 
 
 caissons, the length of each being 18 
 feet 4 inches, the width of the founda- 
 tion. For the piers forming the abut- 
 ments for the swing bridges there were 
 four caissons, each 23 feet long, the 
 breadth of all the caissons being 19 feet. 
 The plate iron forming the caissons was 
 | inch thick at the top, and ^ inch thick 
 at the sides, and strengthened by flanges 
 and gussets. The top was strengthened 
 by double T beams for supporting the 
 weight of the masonry above. There 
 were three shafts to each caisson, two 
 being air shafts, 3^ feet in diameter, one 
 being in use whilst the other was being 
 lengthened or repaired; the other shaft 
 in the center was oval, open at the top 
 and dipping into the water in the foun- 
 dations at the bottom, so that the water 
 could rise in it to the level of the river. 
 In this shaft a vertical dredger with 
 buckets was always working, and the 
 laborers had only to dig, to regulate the 
 work, and remove any obstacles. The 
 screw-jacks controlling the rate of de- 
 scent had a power of 15 tons, and were 
 
70 
 
 in four pairs. The wooden framing 
 serving as a cofferdam was erected above 
 the chamber of excavation; it was use- 
 ful at the commencement for getting be- 
 low the water, but might subsequently 
 have been dispensed with. It was also 
 found by experience that the caissons 
 were sunk better in one division than in 
 several divisions, and doors of communi- 
 cation were accordingly made through 
 the double partitions. The iron linings 
 to the air shafts were removed before 
 the shaft was filled up. The shaft con- 
 taining the dredger was at first made of 
 iron, but afterwards of brick for the sake 
 of economy. The sinking occupied 
 sixty-eight days for one abutment, and 
 thirty-two days for the other, giving a 
 daily rate of 1 foot 1 inch and 1 foot 8 
 inches respectively. The sinking of 
 the caissons for the intermediate piers 
 took twenty to thirty days, which gives 
 a daily rate of two feet 7J inches (Fig. 
 15). 
 
 For large works, where the load on the 
 foundations is considerable, carrying 
 
TT 
 
 KEHL 
 
 down the foundations to a hard bottom 
 is much better than piling. The dredger 
 used at Kehl cannot be regarded as uni- 
 versally applicable. Some soils are not 
 suitable for dredging, and in other cases 
 
72 
 
 the small amount of excavation renders 
 the addition of an extra shaft inexpe- 
 dient, as for instance at Lorient. The 
 chamber of excavation is almost invaria- 
 bly made of plate iron, but, unlike those 
 at Kehl, with the iron beams above the 
 ceiling, instead of below, so that the fill- 
 ing in may be accomplished more easily. 
 The cutting edge is always strengthened 
 by additional plates. At Lorient the 
 thickness was 2^- inches, with several 
 plates stepped back so as to form a sort 
 of edge; the sides were about -J inch 
 thick at the bottom, and -^ inch at the 
 top, and the roof was curved a little to 
 increase its strength. At Vichy the 
 plates were about J inch thick. At La 
 Youlta, Hollandsch Diep, and Lucerne, a 
 sort of masonry lining was placed against 
 the iron plates, and kept in place by 
 gusset plates, to afford greater rigidity 
 against the pressure of the earth. At 
 St. Maurice wooden struts were substi- 
 tuted for angle-iron flanges; and at 
 Yichy struts were put in at the base of 
 the caisson, and also half-way up to sup- 
 
port the sides. In consequence of these 
 modifications, the caisson at Lucerne 
 (oof feet by 13f feet) weighed only 28 
 tons; the caisson at St. Maurice (32f 
 feet by 14^ feet) weighed 14 tons; 
 whereas at Kehl, a caisson, 23 feet by 
 19 feet, weighed 34 tons; at Lorient 
 (391- feet by 11 J feet) weighed 27 tons; 
 and at Riga (64^ feet by 16 feet) weigh- 
 ed 45f tons. The height of the chamber 
 of excavation should be about 8 feet 10 
 inches. Frequently the cofferdam casing 
 is of iron, as at Kehl, which protects the 
 newly-built masonry from friction; and 
 the upper portion of the casing can be 
 removed when the work is completed. 
 In a sea bed, with a silty bottom, special 
 precautions must be taken against over- 
 turning, as variations in weight, accord- 
 ing to the depth of immersion, are added 
 to the effects of the current. Some di- 
 vergence from the perpendicular at Lo- 
 rient was due partly to this cause, but 
 partly also to the absence of supporting 
 screw-jacks. At Lorient there^were two 
 air locks, each connected with two shafts, 
 
74 
 
 in which balanced skips went up and 
 down (Fig. 16). On the top of the bot- 
 
 L'O'RIENT 
 
 torn caisson a casing of sheet iron, from 
 T 8 ^" to i ncn thick, and weighing about 
 15 tons, was erected in successive rings. 
 At the Nantes bridges, built in 1863 by 
 M. M. Gouin for the railway of Roche- 
 sur-Yon, twenty-two caissons were erect- 
 ed, and the depth of the concrete foun- 
 

 dations varied from 39 to #2 feet. The 
 same firm were the contractors for the 
 pneumatic foundations at Hollandsch 
 Diep for three piers, two being carried 
 about 80 feet below high-water level, 
 and the other 65 feet. As the river bed 
 was very soft down to 50 feet below 
 high water, and injury from storms 
 might be apprehended, it was necessary 
 to perform the first part of the sinking 
 as rapidly as possible. The working 
 chambers, and the lower' 16 feet of the 
 caisson, and the shafts for 23 feet in 
 height, were erected on the bank, and 
 masonry built on the horizontal projec- 
 tions of the chambers. Each caisson waa 
 then slid down an inclined plane to low- 
 water mark, and at high water two boats 
 fastened together removed them to their 
 proper site, where they were deposited 
 and gradually sunk into the ground. 
 The excavation, the building up of the 
 masonry, and the addition of successive 
 lengths to the caisson, were carried on 
 simultaneously. As the earthwork was 
 easily removed, the caissons sank at a 
 
76 
 
 rate of from 1-J- foot to 3j feet per day. 
 The first two piers were each completed 
 in forty-five days from the launching of 
 the caissons. 
 
 The Americans have adopted the 
 pneumatic system for some large works, 
 and introduced improvements. At the 
 St. Louis bridge the foundations were 
 carried to a greater depth than had ever 
 been previously attained; and at East 
 River bridge compressed air was used in 
 wooden caissons of large dimensions. 
 The particulars of the St. Louis bridge 
 have been given by Mr. Francis Fox, M. 
 Inst. C.E. The hydraulic sand pumping 
 tube of Mr. Eads must only be recorded. 
 The following details of the East River 
 bridge are derived from the treatise of 
 M. Malezieux, previously referred to. 
 The Brooklyn pier was to be carried 50 
 feet and the New York pier 75 feet be- 
 low high water. To provide against un- 
 equal sinking, owing to the variable 
 nature of the soil, consisting of stiff clay 
 mixed with blocks of trap rock, Mr. 
 Roebling decided to place the bottom of 
 
77 
 
 the piers upon a thick platform of timber 
 which formed the roof of the working 
 chamber (Fig. 17). The sides were also 
 
 F'g. 17, 
 
 BROOKLYN 
 
 made of wood, as being easier than iron 
 to launch and deposit on the exact site. 
 The roof consisted of five tiers of beams, 
 1 foot deep, of yellow pine, placed one 
 above the other .and crossed, the beams 
 being tightly connected by long bolts. 
 The working chamber was 167 feet by 
 102 feet, and 10 feet clear height. The 
 side walls had a V section, with a cast- 
 iron edge covered with sheet iron; the 
 walls had a batter inside outwards of 1 
 to 1, and 1 in 10 on the outside. Five 
 transverse wooden partitions, 2 feet thick 
 
at the bottom, served to regulate the 
 sinking. When the caisson had been 
 put in place, twelve tiers of beams were 
 added on the roof of the chamber of the 
 Brooklyn pier, and nineteen on that of 
 the New York pier, so that the top rose 
 above water, and the masonry could be 
 built without a cofferdam lining. The 
 excavation, to the extent of 19,600 cubic 
 yards, was performed in five months by 
 Morris & Cumming's scoop dredger, 
 working in two large shafts, dipping into 
 the water at the bottom, and open 
 above. When hard soil was met with 
 these shafts were shut, and the excava- 
 tion performed by manual labor under 
 compressed air. In the New York cais- 
 son the total number of shafts was nine. 
 The blocks of trap rock impeded the 
 progress considerably; they had to be 
 discovered by boring, and shifted or 
 broken before the caisson reached them. 
 When under 26 feet of water they could 
 be blown up; this enabled the rate of 
 progress, which had been 6 inches per 
 week, to be doubled or trebled. When 
 
the caisson had reached a compact soil, 
 it was possible to reduce the pressure to 
 two-thirds of an atmosphere in excess of 
 the normal pressure, and water had oc- 
 casionally to be poured into the open 
 shafts to maintain the proper water-level 
 in them. By frequent renewal of the 
 air, a supply was furnished for one 
 hundred and twenty men and for the 
 lights; and the temperature was kept 
 nearly constant throughout the year at 
 86 within the caisson, whilst in the open 
 air it varied from 108 to 0. As the 
 load increased as the caisson went down, 
 the roof of the Brooklyn caisson was 
 eventually supported by seventy-two 
 brick piers, so that the caisson might 
 not become deeply embedded in the 
 event of a sudden escape of air* In the 
 New York caisson two longitudinal par- 
 titions were added, which served the 
 same purpose. 
 
 .In the siltysand which was frequently 
 met with, a discharge pipe, up which 
 the sand was forced by compressed air, 
 proved very useful, discharging a cubic 
 
80 
 
 yard in about two minutes. The New 
 York caisson (170 feet by 102 feet) was 
 sunk in five months ; the earthwork re- 
 moved amounted to 26,000 cubic yards. 
 The cheapness of wood in America per- 
 mits a much freer use of it there than 
 could be attempted in Europe. 
 
 When the watertight nature of the 
 lower soil in the foundations of the East 
 River bridge is considered, coupled with 
 the inconveniences experienced in work- 
 ing under compressed air, as shown at 
 the St. Louis bridge, it seems probable 
 that in some future large work it may be 
 possible to commence sinking a large 
 caisson with compressed air, and after a 
 better stratum is reached open all the 
 shafts. The operation could then be 
 completed by pumping out the small 
 amount of water that might come in, 
 and excavating in the ordinary way, as 
 is often done in England, on a small 
 scale, where the excavation to sink the 
 cylinders to a water-tight stratum is per- 
 formed by divers. If, as M. Morandiere 
 suggests, the air-lock was placed close 
 
81 
 
 over the working chamber, or even in- 
 side it, which would save constant 
 alterations and allow of its being "of 
 larger dimensions, it would be desirable 
 to have a special air-lock at the top, so 
 that in the event of an accident the men 
 might run up the shaft without the delay 
 occasioned by passing through the air- 
 lock. At Bordeaux the air-lock was 
 formed by fixing one circular plate at 
 the top and another at the bottom of 
 one of the rings of the cast-iron cylinder, 
 so that it was unnecessary to remove it 
 each time that an additional ring was 
 added. To save loss of air the air-lock 
 should be opened very seldom, or made 
 very small if required to be opened 
 often. At Argenteuil the air-lock had 
 an annular form (Fig. 18) with two com- 
 partments C, C', each having an exter- 
 nal and an internal door. One compart- 
 ment was put in communication with the 
 interior to be filled with the excavated 
 material, whilst the other was being 
 emptied by the outer door, so that the 
 loss of air was diminished without any 
 
ARGENTEUIL 
 
 interruption to the work. Sometimes a 
 double air-lock with one large and one 
 small compartment is used; the large 
 one being only opened to let gangs of 
 workmen pass, and the small one just 
 big enough to admit a skip and to con- 
 tain a little crane for moving it. By 
 having a small air-lock opened frequent- 
 
S3 
 
 ly, any sudden alterations in pressure 
 are diminished. A more complete ar- 
 rangement was adopted at Nantes (Fig. 
 20). There a sheet-iron cylinder was 
 placed on the top of the double shaft in 
 which the skips worked, having at one 
 side a crescent-shaped chamber, a, serv- 
 ing to pass four men, and also on either 
 side two concrete receivers, d, d* ', having 
 doors above and below. There was also 
 a shoot below for turning the concrete 
 into the foundations, and a box, b, c, 
 holding a little wagon which emerges at 
 c after having been filled from an upper 
 door, b. This last contrivance resembles 
 that devised at Vichy by M. Moreaux 
 (Fig. 19). The cast-iron box L, N, going 
 
 M 
 VICHY 
 
 across a segment of the air chamber, has 
 three orifices, L, M, N, and a drawer 
 with two compartments slides inside it. 
 If these compartments are at M and N % 
 
84 
 
 the left one at M is filled whilst the 
 other at N is emptied. Then by a rack 
 movement the drawer is pushed back till 
 
 Fig's 20. 
 
 NANTES 
 
 the compartment to the right comes to 
 the center of the box, that is to say, into 
 the air-lock, and the other is emptied 
 outside at L. At Rotterdam, M. 
 Michaelis put a little inclined trough at 
 the bottom of the principal air-lock, and 
 closed it at each extremity by a valve, so 
 that it both formed a little independent 
 air-lock and also a shoot for the excava- 
 
85 
 
 tion. Mr. Smith employed the same sys- 
 tem at the Omaha bridge over the 
 Missouri. By not permitting the earth- 
 work to enter the principal air-lock, it 
 was possible to keep six great glazed 
 bull's-eyes clean, by which both the day- 
 light was admitted and at night the light 
 was thrown from a reflector. The use 
 of lamps inside, smoking and giving a 
 bad light, was thus dispensed with. 
 
 The Author next proposes to give 
 some details of the cost of foundations 
 constructed by the help of compressed 
 air. At Moulins cast-iron cylinders, 8 
 feet 2j inches in diameter, with a filling 
 of concrete and sunk 33 feet below water 
 into marl, cost 1'2 18s. 6d. per lineal 
 foot, or 6 2s. for the ironwork, and 6 
 16s. 6d. for sinking and concrete. At 
 Argenteuil, with cylinders 11 feet 10 
 inches in diameter, the sinking alone cost 
 8 13s. 2d. per lineal foot, and one 
 cylinder was sunk 53 J feet in three hun- 
 dred and ninety hours; and at Orival, 
 7 12s. 5d., where the cylinder was sunk 
 49 feet in twenty days. At Bordeaux, 
 
86 
 
 with the same sized cylinders, a gang of 
 eight men conducted the sinking of one 
 cylinder, and usually 34 cubic yards were 
 excavated every twenty-four hours. The 
 greatest depth reached was 55f feet be- 
 low the ground, and 71 feet below high 
 water. In the regular course of work- 
 ing, a cylinder was sunk in from nine to 
 fifteen days, and the whole operation, 
 including preparations and filling with 
 concrete, occupied on the average twenty- 
 five days. One cylinder, or a half pier, 
 cost on the average 2,320, of which 
 300 was for sinking. M. Morandiere 
 estimates the total cost of a cylinder 
 sunk like those at Argenteuil, at a depth 
 of 50 feet, at 1,440. 
 
 Considering next the cost of piers of 
 masonry on wrought-iron caissons of ex- 
 cavation; the foundations of the Lorient 
 viaduct over the Scorff cost the large 
 sum of 4 19s. per cubic yard, owing to 
 difficulties caused by the tides, the labor 
 of removing the boulders from under- 
 neath the caisson, and the large cost of 
 plant for only two piers. The founda- 
 
87 
 
 tions of the Kehl bridge cost still more, 
 about 5 16s. per cubic yard; but this 
 cannot be regared as a fair instance, be- 
 ing the first attempt of the kind. 
 
 The foundations of the Nantes bridges, 
 sunk 56 feet below low- water level, cost 
 about 3 Is. per cubic yard. The aver- 
 age cost per pier was as follows: 
 
 Caisson (41 feet 4 inches by 14 feet 5 
 
 inches), 50 tons of wrought-iron at 24 1,200 
 Cofferdam, 3 tons of wrought-iron at 12 36 
 Excavation, 916 cubic yards at 18s. 4d. . 840 
 
 Concrete 860 
 
 Masonry, plant, &c 384 
 
 3,320 
 
 One pier of the bridge over the Meuse 
 at Rotterdam, with a caisson of 222 tons 
 and a cofferdam casing of 94 tons, and 
 sunk 75 feet below high water, cost 
 14,550, or 2 17s. 5d. per cubic yard. 
 
 The Vichy bridge has five piers built 
 on caissons, 34 feet by 13 feet, and the 
 abutments on caissons 26 feet by 24 feet. 
 The foundations were sunk 23 feet in the 
 ground, the upper portion consisting of 
 shingle and conglomerated gravel, and 
 
88 
 
 the last 10 feet of marl. The cost of the 
 bridge was as follows: 
 
 Interest for eight months and deprecia- 
 
 tion of plant worth 4,000 800 
 
 Cost of preparations, approach bridge 
 
 and staging 1,007 
 
 Caissons, No. 7, 150| tons at 23 6s 3,513 
 
 Sinking 2,017 
 
 Concrete and masonry 1,089 
 
 Contractor's honus and general expenses 1,254 
 
 9,680 
 
 The cost per cubic yard of foundation 
 below low water was 3 8s. 7d., of which 
 the sinking alone cost 15s. 3d. in gravel, 
 and 19s. in marl. At St. Maurice the 
 cost per cubic yard of foundation was 3 
 5s. 6d., exclusive of staging. 
 
 The Author has treated of the subject 
 of tubular foundations at some length, 
 because they are the most effectual 
 means at the disposal of engineers for 
 carrying foundations to great depths be- 
 low water. Economical considerations 
 render it desirable to adopt pumping or 
 dredging when possible; but compressed 
 air is very serviceable where boulders or 
 
89 
 
 other obstacles are met with, or where, 
 as at Vichy, the ground is conglomerated 
 and unsuitable for dredging. In cases 
 where the proper course to be adopted is 
 a matter of doubt, the success at the 
 Gorai bridge, and the power of resorting 
 to the aid of divers, if necessary, would 
 encourage an attempt being made to dis- 
 pense with compressed air, which at 
 great depths, such as 100 feet under 
 water, is attended with danger. The 
 Tet bridge, moreover, furnishes an exam- 
 ple of the possibility of resorting at last 
 to compressed air if found indispensa- 
 ble. 
 
 In soft ground of unknown depth the 
 best methods for making foundations 
 are those already described; but it is 
 sometimes advisable in small works to 
 adopt more economical methods. Two 
 distinct cases have to be considered : 
 1. Where the soil is firm, but liable to be 
 scoured to great depths; 2. Where the 
 soil is soft as well as exposed to consid- 
 erable scour. 
 
 Regemortes gained a reputation by 
 
90 
 
 his method of dealing with an instance 
 of the first of these two cases at Moulins, 
 where several bridges had been destroyed 
 one after another by scour in floods, 
 owing to the piles on which they rested 
 being unable to penetrate far enough 
 into the film sand composing the bed of 
 the Allier. 
 
 Regemortes, in 1750, renounced the 
 idea of finding a stable foundation far 
 down, and built on the surface, rendering 
 it secure from scour by covering it with 
 a masonry apron. The apron, having a 
 uniform thickness of 6 feet (Fig. 21), 
 
 Fig. 21. 
 
 9,10; 15.9'' 62', 4. 
 
 * * 
 
 MOULINS 
 
 was laid on the dredged and levelled 
 bed, dried by diverting the stream, or, in 
 some places, by inclosing it with timber 
 and pumping out the water. The infil- 
 tration through the bottom was stopped 
 
91 
 
 by depositing a layer of clay all over, 
 and then lowering caulked timber panels 
 in it. This method has, however, been 
 much simplified by the introduction of 
 hydraulic concrete. The apron at the 
 West Viaduct at Amsterdam consists of 
 a layer of concrete, 4 feet thick, placed 
 on piling, and protected at the ends by 
 sheeting. The apron of the Guetin 
 canal bridge, constructed by M. Jullien 
 in 1829, is 69 feet wide, 5 feet 5 inches 
 thick, and 1,640 feet long. The concrete 
 was carried down to a depth of 11^ feet 
 at each end between two rows of sheet- 
 ing 6j feet apart. Another form of 
 apron was adopted at the Ain bridge 
 (Fig. 22), with a single row of sheeting 
 at each end, 26^ feet from the facing of 
 the bridge at the lower end, and 11 J 
 feet at the upper end. The lower or 
 down-stream ends of the apron were al- 
 ways the most secured against scour, irf 
 the belief that a cavity would be formed 
 below by the scouring away of the sand, 
 but that above the currents would bring - 
 down sand and fill up any hollows that 
 
92 
 
 fcafite 
 
93 
 
 might have been scoured out. The in- 
 vestigations however, of MM. Minard 
 and Marchall on the floods of the Loire 
 and the Allier in 1856 indicated that the 
 upper end of the apron is most exposed 
 to scour and requires most protection, as 
 the river bed close to the lower end is 
 protected by the apron, whereas at the 
 upper end the river bed is exposed to the 
 full force of the current where the ob- 
 structions of the piers produce whirl- 
 pools. The apron of the Ain bridge 
 cost 7 15s. 9d. per square yard of clear 
 roadway above, or nearly as much as the 
 bridge which it supports. 
 
 In certain instances the movable bed 
 of a river has been sufficiently consoli- 
 dated at the site of a work by merely a 
 thick layer of rubble stones thrown in, 
 giving time for the stones to take their 
 final settlement during floods. Lastly, a 
 movable bed can be consolidated by a 
 wooden stockade ; one of these was 
 made, in 1820, below Amboise bridge, 
 like the one Perronet had put down un- 
 der the Orleans bridge in 1761, and both 
 have stood perfectly. 
 
94 
 
 The second case of a soil both soft 
 and liable to scour has next to be con- 
 sidered. Where considerations of ex- 
 pense forbid going down to the solid, 
 the following methods have been 
 adopted : 
 
 (1) The ground is sometimes consoli- 
 dated by driving a number of piles close 
 together, or by covering it with rubble 
 stones with or without fascine-work, so 
 as to form a kind of superficial crust 
 capable of bearing the structure. It is, 
 however, generally advisable to break 
 through the superficial stratum, and to 
 produce a compression extending down 
 a considerable depth by a large weight 
 of earth, as was done for the railway 
 bridge crossing Lake Malar at Stockholm, 
 where there is a thickness of 69 feet of 
 silt under 79 feet of water. A large 
 embankment of sand was tipped in and 
 inclosed by sheeting, within which close 
 rows of piles were driven, and then a 
 water-tight caisson was lowered on a 
 platform sunk 3J feet below the water, 
 in which the foundations were com- 
 menced. 
 
95 
 
 (2) Another method is to increase the 
 bearing surface at the base by large 
 footings, or by timber platforms, layers 
 of concrete, bedding courses of masonry, 
 or rubble stone. 
 
 (3) The weight of the superstructure 
 can be diminished by forming hollow 
 cells in the masonry, or by using iron 
 girders instead of stone arches. 
 
 (4) In heterogeneous strata the weight 
 must be distributed as much as possible 
 in proportion to the bearing power at 
 different points. 
 
 (5) It is advisable sometimes to in- 
 close the site of the foundations with 
 sheeting, walls, &c., not only as a pro- 
 tection against scour, but also to prevent 
 the running-in of the soil from the sides 
 when a weight is brought on it. 
 
 The Cubsac suspension bridge over the 
 Dordogne furnishes a good example of 
 a successful surmounting of difficulties 
 in foundations. The suspended roadway 
 was made as light as possible; the piers 
 were hollow and perforated cast-iron 
 columns, resting on a stone base sup- 
 
96 
 
 ported by piles from 40 to 62 feet long, 
 and 2 feet 7J inches apart. The abut- 
 ments and anchorage masonry were built 
 with arched openings and light inverts, 
 and the embankments at each end were 
 of light limestone blocks arranged in 
 rough arches so as to form hollow spaces 
 in the mass. 
 
 Although in this enumeration of the 
 different kinds of foundations bridges 
 have generally been chosen for examples, 
 the methods described would be applica- 
 ble to other works, such as large locks, 
 graving docks, and quay walls. 
 
 The difficulties attending the laying of 
 lighthouse foundations, and the means 
 adopted to surmount them, are fully de- 
 tailed in descriptions of these works. 
 
 In sea works the chief difficulties are 
 encountered above the foundations where 
 the sea breaks against the structure, and 
 accordingly the methods of protection 
 adopted do not come within the limits of 
 this Paper. But the valuable addition 
 to the methods of foundations used for 
 these works by the introduction of con- 
 
97 
 
 crete blocks, which can be formed of al- 
 most any size, and deposited by divers, 
 must not be overlooked. 
 
 The effect of pumping or hammering 
 action referred to by Mr. W. Parkes and 
 Sir John Coode (vol. xxxvi., Minutes of 
 Proceedings Inst. O.E., pp. 234 and 240) 
 is due to the immersion and emersion 
 during the oscillation of waves. Perhaps 
 to this cause may be partially attributed 
 the fall of a quay wall at Yevey in the 
 present year. This wall was founded 
 with a base of concrete contained in 
 metallic boxes resting on high timber 
 piles. 
 
 M. Croizette Desnoyers has framed a 
 classification of the methods of founda- 
 tions most suitable for different depths, 
 and also an estimate of the cost of each. 
 These estimates, however, must be con- 
 sidered merely approximate, as unfore- 
 seen circumstances produce considerable 
 variations in works of this nature. 
 
98 
 
 Per cubic yard. 
 
 Depths. s. s. 
 
 Foundations on piles J 3Q 33 f . .. 13 to 1 8 
 
 ofthe gZ P nd eSS : < ! n 33 to 50 feet - - 18 to 30 
 ' 33 to 50 feet " ' " 30 to 37 
 
 . by junder20feet...l2tol8 
 
 26 to 33 j favorable circumstances. 18 to 55 
 feet 1 unfavorable ............ 61 to 73 
 
 [20 to 33 ft. small 
 
 Foundations on con- J amount of silt. 18 to 37 
 crete under water . ] 26 to 33 ft. large 
 
 [ amount of silt.37 to 49 
 Foundations by means of compressed 
 
 air under favorable circumstances ... 55 to 67 
 
 Foundations by means f Lorient viaduct. . 99 
 
 of compressed air I Kehl bridge ...... 122 
 
 under unfavorable f Argenteuil bridge 140 
 conditions .......... (. Bordeaux bridge. 165 
 
 When the foundations consist of dis- 
 connected pillars or piles the above 
 prices must be applied to the whole 
 cubic content, including the intervals be- 
 tween the parts, but of course for an 
 equal cost solid piers are the best. 
 
 For pilework foundations the square 
 yard of base is probably a better unit 
 than the cubic yard. Thus the founda- 
 tions of the Vernon bridge, with piles 
 
99 
 
 from 24 to 31 ^eet long, and with cross 
 timbering, concrete, and caisson, cost 14 
 7s. 7d. per square yard of base. Accord- 
 ing to estimates made by M. Picquenot, 
 if the foundations had been put in by 
 means of compressed air the cost would 
 have been 32 15s. Yd.; with a caission, 
 not watertight, sunk down, 13 12s. 2d.; 
 with concrete poured into a space inclosed 
 with sheeting, 12 15s. 7d.; and by 
 pumping 17 3s. 2d. per square yard of 
 base. 
 
 M. Desnoyers gives the following 
 recommendations with regard to the 
 choice of methods: 
 
 (1) In still water to construct the 
 foundations by means of pumping for 
 depths under 20 feet. In greater depths 
 to construct ordinary works on piles if 
 the ground is firm or has been consoli- 
 dated by loading it with earth; other- 
 wise to employ pumping, and if a per- 
 meable stratum is met with to build on 
 it with a broad base. For important 
 works, if the soil is watertight, it is- 
 advisable to adopt the method of pump- 
 
100 
 
 ing inside a framing, carrying down the 
 foundations to greater depths than 33 
 feet by the well-sinking method. If the 
 soil, however, is permeable, dredging 
 and concrete deposited under water must 
 be resorted to; compressed air being 
 employed for depths greater than 33 
 feet. 
 
 (2) In mid-stream compressed air mus 
 be resorted to for foundations more than 
 33 feet below water. In less depths the 
 foundations of ordinary works are put 
 in by means of dams or watertight 
 frames if the nature of the silt admits of 
 pumping out the water; but if the silt 
 is permeable a mass of concrete is poured 
 into the site inclosed by sheeting. 
 When, however, an important work has 
 to be executed, it is desirable to use 
 pumps sufficient to overcome the infiltra- 
 tions. If a permeable and easily-dredged 
 stratum lies between the hard bottom 
 and the silt the method of a watertight 
 casing, with a dam at the bottom, should 
 be adopted. To complete these recom- 
 mendations open cylindrical foundations 
 
101 
 
 must be included. These may be re- 
 sorted to, instead of compressed air r 
 when the soil is readily dredged or 
 watertight enough to allow of pumping, 
 and also frequently in the place of piles 
 or the well-sinking method. The com- 
 pressed air system is essentially a last 
 resource, applicable to a bed exposed to 
 scour, and also either difficult to dredge 
 or with boulders or other obstacles im- 
 bedded in it. 
 
 In conclusion, a chronological list of 
 works is added to show .at what periods 
 the principal steps in advance were 
 made. 
 
 The system of rubble mounds is the 
 most ancient; and dams of earth came 
 into vogue in the seventeenth century.. 
 In 1500-1507, the "Notre Dame "bridge 
 at Paris was founded on piles surrounded 
 with heavy rubble stones. In 1716 the 
 Blois bridge was built on piles and a 
 platform at low-water level. The 
 method of constructing a foundation by 
 means of an apron was introduced by 
 Regemortes at Moulins in 1750. At 
 
102 
 
 the same time Labelye built the founda- 
 tions of the old Westminster bridge by 
 sinking caissons in the dredged bed of 
 the Thames, a similar process having 
 been adopted, in 1686, for the pier of the 
 Tuileries bridge next the right bank of 
 the Seine. In 1756 Des Essarts invented 
 a saw for cutting off piles under water, 
 which enabled a caisson to be deposited 
 on piles for the Saumur bridge, a method 
 thenceforward adopted for the bridges 
 at Paris till 1857, also for the Sevres, Ivry, 
 and Bordeaux bridges, and old Black- 
 friars bridge was built in the same way. 
 
 In the year 1818 Yicat discovered the 
 properties of hydraulic mortars, and the 
 adoption of a concrete foundation depos- 
 ited inside sheeting soon followed; also 
 the bottomless frame system with con- 
 crete at the bottom, first used by Beau- 
 demoulin for several bridges at Paris, 
 and adopted for the bridge over the 
 Cher. 
 
 In 1833-40 Poirel employed for the 
 first time artificial blocks of concrete at 
 Algiers harbor. He also used caissons 
 
FTC: 
 
 _ _ J p 
 with a bottom of 
 liquid concrete in situ. 
 
 M. Triger first used compressed air at 
 the Chalons coal mine in 1839; and Dr. 4 
 Potts introduced his system in 1845. 
 
 The tubular method of foundations 
 was next introduced, and under various 
 forms is continually becoming more uni- 
 versally adopted. The following are 
 the dates of some of the works for which 
 it was used: 
 
 Gravesend cofferdam. Mr. J. B. Red- 
 man 1342 
 
 Rochester bridge. Mr. Cubitt 1851 
 
 Saltash bridge. Mr. I. K. Brunei. . . . 1854-57 
 
 Kehl bridge. Messrs. Fleur St. Denis 
 
 and Vuigner 1853-59 
 
 Charing Cross bridge. Sir J. Hawk- 
 shaw 1860 
 
 Cannon Street bridge. Sir J. Hawk- 
 shaw 1863 
 
 Victoria bridge. Sir Charles Fox 1863 
 
 In 1867 Kennard's sand-pump was used 
 for the foundations of the Jumna bridge. 
 
 The "boring-head" was used by Mr. 
 Leslie in 1867-70 at the Gorai bridge, 
 
104 
 
 and at the same time Mr. Milroy intro- 
 duced his "excavator." 
 
 Lastly, between 1870 and 1873 the 
 Americans laid the foundations of the 
 St. Louis and East River bridges, whilst 
 Mr. Stoney, by depositing, huge blocks 
 in the Liffey, and Mr.^Dyce t?ay, by de- 
 positing concrete in situ in large masses 
 at the Aberdeen break-water, extended 
 the methods of employing concrete in 
 river and sea works. 
 
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