[Ml 13911^1 m$w %avaan# ^jtosov^ %bainih«^ ^Aavaaii^ y oxmm %7sa3AIM-3\^ ^•IIBRARYQ^ <$UIBRARY0^ ^OFCALIFOfy^ ^OF-CALIFO/fc^ ^Aavaaitt^ >&Aavaan# a\miver%. >- AWEUNIVERJ/a. ^fJMNVSOV^ ^lOSANCE ^UIBRARYQ^ ^i/OJIlVDJO^ ^OFCALIFO/?^ \ i %Aavaain^ ^lOSANGElfj^ %a3AIN(l]V^ ^lOSANCElfj^ o ^EUNIVERJ//, ^•UBRARY^ ^UIBRAR' %a3AINIHW^ ^\\EIJN!VER% ^UIBRARYQr ^/OJIWDJO^ ^OFCAIIFO/?^ ^•IIBRARYO^ ^OF-CALIFO^ AWEUNIVERS//- ^?AavaaiH^ %a3AINR- ^lOSANCEl o ^Aavaam^ ^JIJDNV-SOV^ %a3AINflB ^UIBRARYQa ^MIVERS/a ^lOSANCElfj^ ^•LIBRARY^ ^-LIBRARY a - - — - « £ !5©J 1^1 IMJ l.ifnl ip. ^rjMNV-soi^ ^ahvmih^ y 0AavaaiH^ ^HIBRARYQ^, ^l-LIBRARYO^ ^EUNIVERS/a I %A7vaarB^ ;lOS^CELFx- ^UIBRARY^ http://archive.org/details/persi ' ^•IIBRARY^ ^MEDM ersianpOOadam V c Tv! =5 -r" V PERSIA BY A PERSIAN PERSONAL EXPERIENCES, MANNERS, CUSTOMS, HABITS, RELIGIOUS AND SOCIAL LIFE IN PERSIA BY REV. ISAAC ADAMS, M. D. AUTHOR AND PUBLISHER OF "DARKNESS AND DAYBREAK" ISSUED IN FOUR LANGUAGES— ENGLISH, HOLLAND, GERMAN AND SWEDISH. 1900. ENTERED ACCORDING TO THE ACT OF CONGRESS ON THE TWENTY-FIRST DAY OF JUNE IN THE YEAR 1900 BY REV. ISAAC ADAMS, M. D., IN THE OFFICE OF THE LIBRARIAN OF CONGRESS AT WASHINGTON, D. C. DS za AZI3p (HIT: Bebtcateb O all who are interested in the advancement of the kingdom of our blessed Lord among the Heathens and Mohamme- dans. e PERSIA BY A PERSIAN. PREFACE. While out on lecture tours in this country, I have been asked many questions about the manners, customs, and peculiarities of my own people. These questions I have found it very difficult to answer in the little volume, "Darkness and Daybreak," so as to give anything like a clear picture either of the people or the country in the brief time that I had to answer them under such circumstances, and, hence this book which I now present to the public, with the earnest hope that it may find a welcome. I trust this work may serve a useful purpose in imparting fresh information and quickening an intelligent interest of a hopeful Christian effort, and I trust every reader will join us in the hope and prayer that no student of the Kingdom, no servant of Christ and His Church should fail to give serious and sympathetic attention to the spread of the gospel. Should it sometimes entertain you and your children; should it succeed in arousing a deeper interest in Christian mission work among the Mohammedan nations ; and should it sometimes prompt an earnest prayer on our behalf to the ever present God and Father whom we all try, though it may be in much human weakness and under vastly differ- ent circumstances, to love and to serve — then its object is accomplished. REV. ISAAC ADAMS, M. D. August ist, 1900. INTRODUCTORY. 7 INTRODUCTORY. I cannot begin to write a narrative of the facts connected with the history of my life, without giving all glory and praise to the most precious God, who has so wonderfully guided me, during the last twelve years especially. No words like those of the Scriptures can adequately express my heart's gratitude for all the ways by which He has led me, and you, dear reader, will magnify Him while reading as I did while writing this. Le us exalt His name forever; let the Lord be magnified, which taketh pleasure in the prosperity of His elect. Praise ye the Lord, for His name is excellent; His glory is above the heavens. I have been deeply tried ; yes, the Lord is with the righteous ; "Lo, I am with you." Surely he has been with me; His presence has gone before me and has given me strength and courage. He faileth not. I have heard His voice saying, ' 'Fear not, I will help thee. " And He has done so ; yea, in the deepest waters ; in all places His hand has led me and He has kept me. With David I can say, "God is my salvation." I will trust and not be afraid. I cried by reason of my affliction unto the Lord, and He answered me. The Lord stood by me and strengthened me, saying: "My strength is made perfect in weakness." From many dangerous snares hath the Lord preserved me ; in spite of all my inward rebellion, He hath carried on His good work in my heart, and notwithstanding all my unbelieving fears He hath given me a hope full of immortality. He hath set my feet upon a rock and estab- lished my goings and hath put a new song into my mouth ; even praises unto my God. The same grace and forbearance, the same wisdom and power that have brought me so far, will bring me on, though it be through fire and water, to a goodly heritage. I see no business in life but the work of Christ, neither do I desire any employment to all eternity but His service, and it is my prayer to Him, in whose hands the hearts of all men are like the rivers of water, that He might put into the hearts of those who love Him and His cause to enable me to continue in His serv- ice by bringing the knowledge of the only Redeemer Jesus Christ to the great multitude who know Him not. Persia b£ a Persian. PRICES Cloth Binding, Cover Design, Stamped in Gold Half Morocco, Marbled Edges, Hand made Half Morocco, Gilt Edges, Hand made Fall Morocco, Gilt Edges, Hand made $2.50 3.60 4.50 5.50 it Darkness and Daybreak," is the title of a most interesting and instructive book from the pen of Rev. Isaac Adams, a native missionary of Persia. It contains a com- prehensive description of the manners, customs, habits, religious and social life of Persians. The work contains 232 pages including 32 full page half-tone illustrations, printed in clear type, bound in fine silk cloth. Price 75 cents. If you want to awaken the missionary spirit, send to the author, Grand Rapids, Michigan, and get "Darkness and Daybreak. " — Agents wanted in every locality. Write for particulars to the author. Address Rev. Isaac Adams, m. d., 124 LAGKAVB STREET, GRAND RAPIDS, MICHIGAN. Tfacht und ■ m ^ — -^Tfforgen. GERMAN EDITION. PRICE 75 CENTS. Worker ^ ^ OCH DAGGRYNING About 250 pages. Also contains all the Illustrations that are in " Persia by a Persian." Price $1.25. 1(1 PERSIA BY A PERSIAN. Illustrations. PAGE. Frontispiece 1 Exiles on Their Way to Siberia 18 Four Brothers in Different Costumes 33 Paul John 34 Teachers and Helpers of the Authors Mission Work 40 Telegram Requesting Release of Isaac Adams 43 Funeral Procession of Jesse, Stepbrother of the Patriarch 49 Mar Gabriel and His Nephew 50 Prof. Garabed Thoumaian in Turkish Irons 54 Massacre at Sassoun 56 I. Yohannan and A. George 61 I. Yohannan in Native Costume 63 Sister of I. Yohannan and Her Baby 65 A Letter from Joseph While I was in Turkish Prison 66 School at Alkai 70 School at Karasanlovi 72 Medical Diploma of Isaac Adams 77 Nasreddin Shah Meeting Queen Victoria in 1889 ' 94 Present Shah, etc 98 One of the Seven Gates of Oroomiah City 102 A Young Officer 105 Lord at Oroomiah with His Friends 107 Plowing with Oxen 115 A Chained Gang 116 Bastinado 121 Cultivating the Vineyard 128 Baking Bread 136 Say-Yids Feasting 138 Women Cleaning Cabbage 146 Digging Ditches for Irrigation 154 ILLUSTRATIONS. n ILLUSTRATIONS— Continued. PAGE. Threshing Wheat 157 Plowing the Land with Eight Buffaloes 158 Buffalo Fight 159 Bankers or Sarafs 163 Five Gentlemen on a Hunting Trip 170 A Mohammedan Lady in Street Costume ; 175 A Persian Smoking Water Pipe 177 Veiled and Unveiled Women 179 Christian Persian Mother at the Side of the Cradle 190 Carrying Water and Reapers 204 A Mohammedan and One of His Wives 209 Young Christian Persian Lady and Indoor Costume 214 An Agreement with Patriarch and His Headmen to do Mission Work among His People. 220, 221 Nestorian Archbishop and Dr. Adams in Nestorian Priest Costume 226 Nestorian Christian Lady 229 Dr. Adams' Ordination Diploma 235 Paul John and Dr. Adams 238 Lord's Prayer Written in Eight Different Languages 245 School at Koom 247 Mohammed the Founder of Islam 262 Ommar 277 Mohammed and the Devil 299 David Bar Joseph in Hajj Costume 325 A Mohammedan Lady Smoking a Water Pipe 356 Dancing Dervishes 391 Mecca Certificate or a Passport to Heaven, Plate 1 397 Mecca Certificate or a Passport to Heaven, Plate II 399 Mecca Certificate or a Passport to Heaven, Plate III 400 Mecca Certificate or a Passport to Heaven, Plate IV 401 A Persian Lord and His Attendants 413 Water-carrier, on the Ass 417 High Class Dervish and Medicine Dervish 423 Dr. Adams and I. Yohannan 427 Dr. Adams' Mission School at Mart-Maryan 435 ' Adams Brothers, in American Costume 439 Jacob Adams in High-class Costume 443 A Highwayman 451 12 PERSIA BY A PERSIAN. ILLUSTRATIONS — Continued. PAGE. Abbas Effendi (or the Lord and Master as called by his Followers) 462 Two Kurdish Men and a Boy 491 Kurdish Sheiks 494 The Spiritual Head of all the Kurdish, Sheik-Sadik 496 Three Syrians of the Kurdistan Mountains 498 A Devil Worshiper Sheik 502 The Devil Worship Priest 507 Zoroaster at the Age of Thirty 510 Confirmation of a Youth among the Fire Worshipers, and Priest of Fire Worship- ers attending to Holy Fire 516 Idealized Portrait from a sculpture supposed to represent Zoroaster 519 Specimen of Ancient Syriac Language 534 CONTENTS. 13 Contents- PART I. PAGE. Personal History 17 Isaac Adams, Arrested 42 Memorials of Isaac Adams. Making Claims for Losses and Injuries Against the Turkish Government '. 44 Medical Missionary 57 Practice of Medicine in Persia 59 My Second Journey to America 60 Report of My School 68 PART II. History of Persia , 76 The Proclamation of Cyrus 79 Death of Cyrus 80 Cambyses 81 Darius Hystaspes 82 The Ionian Revolt 83 Xerxes 84 The Crossing of the Hellespont 85 At Thermopylae 85 Return of Xerxes 86 Darius and Alexander 87 Alexander in Jerusalem 87 Death of Darius and His Wife 89 Alexander at Babylon 90 Chosroes II 90 Teheran..... 96 The Court of Persia 102 The Noblemen 106 Shahr and the Urf 109 Land 114 Modes of Punishment, Executor — Cruelty, Highway Robbery, Execution 115 Bastinado, Disfiguring Evil Doers, How the Heads are Cut Off 117 to 122 Climate and Products 123 Mt. Ararat 125 Wines of Persia 127 The Condition and Needs of Persia 129 Products, and Methods of Disposing of Them 131 14 PERSIA BY A PERSIAN. CONTENTS— Continued. PAGE. Houses and Cities 133 How They Eat 137 Education 141 Mohammedan Women 144 Modes of Traveling 146 The Rural Districts 148 Agriculture 155 Cultivating the Ground 158 The Bazaar and Currency 160 Business Life 162 Nature's Poetry 165 Social and Home Life. . . , -- - 169 Smoking Water Pipes 176 Men's Costume 177 Women's Costume 178 The Race and Character , - 180 Sentimental Literature 181 The Passionate Love Songs 185 Social and Domestic Life in Persia 188 Girl's Life and Marriage 192 Dwelling Place of a Married Woman 200 Duties of Women in Persia 201 Women in the Chamber of Sickness and Death 206 Burial Services 210 Christianity the Only Hope for Women i ~~ 213 PART III. Nestorius 217 Introduction of Christianity among the Syrians or Nestorians 218 Their Courtship and Marriage 225 Preparations for the Wedding 228 Funeral Services 238 Nestorian Churches 234 Historical Mission Work 237 Printing Press 246 Bible Rules for Giving 250 Dr. Adams' Address in U. S. and Persia 250 Mohammed and Mohammedanism > 251 Birth of Mohammed and Life to Fortieth Year 251-256 The Story of the Prophets' Fortunes at Medina 268 The Character of Mohammed 279 His Speech, Gait, Habits in Eating, Moderation, Custom of Prayer, Refused to make personal use of Tithes, Food Relished, Women and Scents, Straightened Means at Medina, Appearance, Habits, etc., Seal of Prophecy, Hair, Mustache, Dress, Shoes, Toothpicks, Articles of Toilet, Armor, Miscellaneous, Horses, Riding Camels, Milch Camels, Milch Flocks, Servants, Houses, Properties 280-287, CONTENTS. 15 CONTENTS— Continued. PAGE. The Wives of Mohammed 287 Good Works 290 Fasting ^Z9Z" Hijrah J293 The Year of Elephant 293 Ramazan 293 Food 296 Eating 297 Bismillah 299 Creed 300 The Names of God 300 Azan 303 Ablution 804 Wuzu 306 Prayer 307 Salatu 'S-Safar 312 Salatu 'T-Tarawitr 312 Salatu 'T-Tasbih 313 Prayers for the Dead 313 Friday 314 Zakat 315 Hajj 318 Idu'L-Fitr 326 Idu'LAzha 330 The Performance of Religious Duties 333 The Dying 333 Visiting the Sick 334 Death, Arabic Maut; Wafat 334 Grave and Burial Ceremonies 340 Heaven 347 The Earth 348 Gabriel. 349 Mohammed's Journey to Paradise 350 Eternity of Punishment 352 Hell 353 Oath 353 Administration of an Oath 355 Beauty 356 Puberty 357 V- Marriage 358 The Validity of Marriage 359 The Legal Disabilities to Marriage 362 v The Religious Ceremony 365 Harem or Hareem 366 Concubine 374 Divorce 375 16 PERSIA BY A PERSIAN. CONTENTS— Continued. PAGE. Widows 381 Re-Marriage 381 Paradise , 382 Husbands 385 Priesthood 386 Fagir, or Darwesh 388 Al-Hajaru-L-Aswad 394 Mecca Certificate or a Passport to Heaven, Plate 1 396 Mecca Certificate or a Passport to Heaven, Plate II 398 Mecca Certificate or a Passport to Heaven, Plate III 402 Mecca Certificate or a Passport to Heaven, Plate IV 402 Persian Snake Charmer 408 Al-Hasan 409 Al-Husain 409 Islam and Christianity 425 Mohammedan Sects 440 Superstitions and Peculiarities among the Mohammedans. Sleeping, Swine, Spitting, Sneezing, Dogs, The Devil, Dreams, Hair, Hand, Evil Eye, Earrings and Noserings, Fai, Blasphemy 444, 452 Bab and Babism 453 A Message from Acca 470 To the Americans, A Declaration— He is God 477 Selected Precepts of El-Hak 477 American Pilgrims 478 Letter from Mrs. Getsinger to the Assembly in Chicago 481 Letter from Mrs. Kheiralla to the Assembly in Chicago 484 Letter from Mrs. Hearst 489 The Kurds 490 The Yezidees or Devil Worshipers 497 The Guebres or Fire Worshipers 509 History of Akhikar, the Wise Secretary of Saukherib, King of Ashur and Nineve 521 PART I. PERSONAL HISTORY. I was born in the northwestern part of Persia, on the twenty-eighth day of November, 1872, at Sangar, a village about two hours walk from Oroomiah city. The village contained about twenty-five Nestorian families, and as many houses. The surrounding villages were all Mo- hammedan, some of them lying not more than half an hour's distance away from Sangar. Thus the people in my village-home have had all their intercourse with Mohammedans, and in consequence had lost all knowledge of Christianity and had adopted instead Mohammedan cus- toms as well as their language, the national language of the Nestorians being Syriac, which is widely different from that of the Mohammedans. Together with the customs and language, the people of my home-village had also adopted all kinds of profanity. The keeping of the Sabbath day was entirely lost. People would plow and do other work in the field just as on any other day. Another very bad habit of the people at Sangar was the beating of their wives. It is quite common there to see a woman's head bruised and her clothing torn. Thus I was brought up, among ignorant and ill- influenced people. When about 6 years of age, my father and two other persons went to Russia for the trading business. They had but one passport for the three of them. After having remained in Russia for a short time, one of the men was obliged to return to Persia, he having been advised of sick- ness in his family. After some time, my father and his companion were to go on to another city in Russia. Upon entering the gates they were taken prisoners, the officer claiming that in the passport three men were mentioned, and they were but two. All explanation on the part of the travelers was unheeded, and their case was finally ended by sending them both to Siberia for life, and in all probability they are already dead, as we have never heard of them since. It was extremely sad for my poor mother to have been left with five children, all below 12 years of age; but this was not all. The lord of the village came with some forged notes, claiming tha£ my father owed him money and demanding pay. As my poor mother had nothing to pay with, he took possession of the land we owned and a part of our vineyard. My task in early boyhood was to do little chores at home and herd 17 IS PERSIA BY A PERSIAN. the cattle. Like most boys, I delighted in climbing trees, but once it happened that I fell from the top of a tree and broke my arm. Blood was gushing from my nose and ears, and I was carried home. The house was soon crowded with people, who decided to make bread and Mar- tooha and give it as a sacrifice to the poor. The Martooha is a mixture of flour, molasses and butter, and is received by those among whom it is distributed as an offering, with the greeting: '"May God restore him to health." But this was not all. My mother had also secretly, but solemnly, vowed that she would, in case of my recovery, have a lamb sacrificed to Mar-Obdishoo, a Nestorian saint, at the church built to his memory. When I was quite recovered, therefore, my mother, a number of friends Exiles on their way to Siberia accompanied by their friends up to this tower, where they bid their last farewell and are separated forever. and I, with a lamb, repaired to Mar-Obdishoo. The lamb was slain in the churchyard and its blood sprinkled on the altar of the church and in my face, while a number of little bells were rung in the church. I was then ordered to take the bells, and ringing them, cry out : "O, Mar- Obdishoo, Mar-Obdishoo, I thank you that you have let me regain my health !" The lamb was hereupon taken to a dwelling and boiled, and the PERSONAL HISTORY. 19 meat given to those in attendance ; the head and skin, however, together with a small quantity of meat, belonged to the janitor as his fee. Some of the meat was also taken back to Sangar, upon our return, to be distributed there. I was not allowed one morsel of it. When about 13 years of age, a buffalo out of the herd of cattle I was watching, ran among some heaps of cut wheat in a field where farmers were threshing. In doing so, the buffalo broke the Dach, or sign, which the lord of the village had set upon the heaps of wheat. Upon perceiv- ing this, the lord called me to him in a very friendly manner, holding out to me a very beautiful cane and promising me the cane if I came. I did so, though hesitatingly. Suddenly I was rudely seized by some servants who held me firmly, while others subjected me to an application of the bastinado, so cruelly, that both my feet bled profusely and I was not able to walk for about two months. After this sad experience I left the village clandestinely and repaired to Wazerawa where my aunt and all the relatives of my mother lived. My aunt received me gladly, and, having lost a child of about my age, bade me remain with her and would not hear of my leaving. After I had been with her for about one year the rest of our family followed to Wazerawa. At Sangar we had owned an orchard near the dwelling where we lived. It had been my delight to climb into the fruit trees and eat fruit to my heart's content. Near my aunt's dwelling, at Wazerawa, there also was an orchard but it belonged to a neighbor. This difference in ownership, however, made very little difference to me, and I tried to continue my orchard practice here also. Of course, I well knew that I deserved punishment for climbing into a neighbor's tree and appropri- ating some of the fruit, consequently I did my tree-climbing after dark, in the evening., One dark night, as I sat in the very top of a fine apple tree, feeling quite secure from detection, I suddenly heard a voice below me calling out : "What are you doing up there ?" I replied that I had been late for supper, for which my uncle would whip me. I had, therefore, tried to hide from him. He ordered me to come down, but my pockets were filled with apples from the tree, and so I hesitated, pondering how to escape the well-deserved punishment. Finally I told the neighbor I would come down if he would promise not to chastise me. He did so ; and I came down, delivered up my stolen apples and went home. My uncle now began to employ me by sending me out to his vineyard to watch it. I had very good times doing this, as I was very 20 PERSIA BY A PERSIAN. liberal, I would stand out in the road and ask people passing by to come in and help themselves to some grapes, and quite often I pressed my re- quest so urgently as to almost compel people to come in and eat grapes. Occasionally I would fill a basket with grapes and hand out some to every person who happened to pass by. My motive in doing this was that I considered it an injustice that I alone should have so many fine grapes, while so many others had none. The' principal reason for my liberality, however, was my sociability. I liked to be in company with other human beings and hated seclusion. The neighbors surrounding my uncle's vineyard were all Mohammedans with whom I dared not communicate, and I, therefore, sought, by being liberal, to enjoy the company of, and intercourse with, fellow-beings such as I myself was. The vineyard was a very quiet, secluded spot, and I could not even force myself into liking it. When my mother and the rest of the family moved to Wazerawa, I consequently left my uncle's and joined a num- ber of other young lads in taking care of herds of cattle and flocks of sheep. While being thus occupied one day, a boy, Benyamin Bar Younan by name, a relative to Kasha Sayad, a native preacher, employed by the Presbyterian mission in Persia, met me. lie remained with me for some time, repeating to me stories from the Bible, among others the parable of the rich man and Lazarus. When he had left me I could not help but think over and over again what I had heard. A few days later we met a second time. I addressed him with this question : "Suppose a man should like to go to heaven, what must he do ?" He replied : "He must not eat or drink anything for three clays, but keep on in prayer all this time, and then be good and do good afterwards." "Then," said I, "the people must be very foolish not to prefer to be like Lazarus in this life, when heaven and its blessedness last forever." I then asked where he had found those stories, and what other knowledge he had of heaven. He told me it was all written in a book called Bible, which he claimed to be a very holy book, even called it God's book ; but also told me that, if I wished to learn more about these things, I should have to go and see his uncle, Kasha Sayad. I followed this advice, for I was eager to learn more, and to Kasha Sayad I am greatly indebted for what knowledge I received by my early acquaintance with him. Through his influence I was enabled to attend the missionary school, where my hungry and thirsty soul was fed on the precious word of God. Reading my Testament, and not being able to comprehend very much of it at PERSONAL HISTORY. 21 first, I would kneel down and pray to God, and say : "Oh Lord, if Thou art God, make Thyself manifest and show me also myself." Then again at times it seemed almost impossible to me to trust fully in an invisible God. Upon entering- the mission school I encountered the enmity and hatred of my relatives, who were all dissatisfied with this step ; but, by the grace of God and through the kindness of Kasha Sayad, I was enabled to attend also the high school at Oroomiah City. Here I attended until the winter of 1887, when I was requested by Kasha Peria, a native missionary, who had been educated at Hermans- burg, Germany, and received his support from there, to go and teach one of his schools at Satlovi. I took charge of a school of about twenty- five children, and found the work very interesting, especially as I visited the children's parents in the evenings, and, to their great delight, read to *hem from the Bible. I did not try to give any explanation, but simply read from ten to fifteen consecutive chapters. On Saturdays I went to the neighboring villages with my Bible, read from it to the people and conversed with them on the Christian religion and Christ's love to sin- ners. Returning from such work towards evening one Saturday, I met a Mohammedan and passed without saluting him. He stopped me, and roughly inquired why I had not greeted him. I told him I had neglected the courtesy because I did not know in what language to address him. To explain this, I must inform the reader that not all Mohammedans speak the same language. It is also dangerous to address Mohammedans, as I found by the following experience which I had had some time previous. I had met two Mohammedans on my way and saluted them both in a friendly manner. Presently there came a Christian. I stopped immediately and spoke to him. Upon perceiving this the two Moham- medans quickly returned, stopped me, and, one placing himself on my right side, and the other on the left, each dagger in hand, they said they would immediately kill me if I did not at once return their saluta- tion. I complied with their request so eagerly that I bowed three times to their once. In this instance the Mohammedan was not satisfied, but insisted that I had failed to greet him through disrespect and threatened also to kill me, accompanying this threat by a drawn dagger, the point of which he pressed to my breast so hard that I even felt the point pen- etrating my skin. But at this moment we saw a caravan approaching, whereupon the Mohammedan withdrew his dagger and contemptuously said that he had only tried to scare me. I was so excited that I could not speak for four or five hours, was 22 PERSIA BY A PERSIAN. taken to a village near by and remained there until Monday ; then I returned and continued my work.* In the summer of 1887 I entered Oroomiah College Mission School, in connection with which there is also an industrial school. At the latter, carpenter's work, shoemaking and hatmaking were taught. I, in con- nection with my other studies, entered the shoemaking department, and under the direction of Oosta Ayraham learned that trade. After a few weeks, during which Mr. Ayraham had become acquainted with me and my circumstances, he took more pains with me than with any other of his pupils, so that in the examination at the end of the term I made a good showing. The college term ended in July ; this permitted me to devote all my time to my trade in the industrial school. In the fall of 1888, Mr. Ayra- ham left his position. A Mohammedan took his place. During the vacancy the school was left in my charge. I had possession of the keys, and the whole property was in my care. The new teacher gave no satis- faction ; he appeared to be dishonest, and was soon discharged. I then again filled the position until another teacher could be found. After the closing of the college term, I kept the industrial school in operation. I was in charge of from ten to fifteen boys, and the work progressed nicely in the interest of the mission. During this time I was also elected elder in the church at Wazerawa, and while at college I spent every Sunday at Wazerawa and Dizza, teaching Sunday-school. I was also robbed several times and had several dangerous encounters with highwaymen, one of which has left a scar on my right eye to this day. In the spring of 1889, I was sent by the missionaries to teach school at Ardishai. I had here forty pupils on an average, coming from about six different villages. The instruction was to be given in four different languages, viz: Persian, Turkish, Chaldean and Syriac. But I must confess I was rather severe in my treatment with the pupils. I gen- erally kept about a half-dozen switches in the school-room, and it was not at all uncommon for me to whip children until they bled. I kept all doors and windows closed, to stifle the screams of the poor children while being chastised, but the boys nevertheless managed to make them- selves be heard for about two blocks. I thought then that I had to do *This Mohammedan's name was Samat of Baranduz. Before my encounter with him he had already killed not less than sixty persons. He was about 40 years of age and was later on killed by other robbers. PERSONAL HISTORY. 23 this, since the parents in place of administering- the proper punishment at home, would come and tell me that their children had sinned and entreated me to punish them for it. One day as 1 rang the bell, it appeared to me that the pupils had made up their minds to have their own way about coming-. The rule was that, upon hearing the bell ring, every pupil should drop everything and come right into the school-room and quietly take his seat. I said nothing, but waited. When they came in, about five minutes later, I shut all doors and windows and ordered them to stand side by side with their backs against the wall. I then took a switch, rushed around the room and struck them again and again across their bare legs and feet (their shoes and slippers always were left standing out in the hall). Soon legs and feet began to bleed,, and of course they screamed piteously. But this I would not have. To stop it I struck some of them, who had fallen to the floor, across their backs, and threatened to* treat them all in the same manner if they did not immediately cease their noise. By this outrage I soon had the room quieted, and the pupils were always on time afterwards. This, however, was not the only mode of punishment. Sometimes I would order the tallest boy in the room to take the boy who was to be chastised, on his back, holding him by his hands, and then bend over to keep his feet from the ground. I would then take my switch and lash the boy across his legs and back. Still another severe chastisement is to have the pupil fold his arms tightly and then sit down upon the floor. A stick is now passed through under his arms in front of his body, his legs are then lifted over the stick and he is thus left in a helpless position, so that the teacher may strike him wherever he pleases. Occasionally I was afraid inwardly of some of the boys, as they were older and taller than I was, but somehow I overcame the sensation, and never had any trouble in this direction. I was not the originator or inventor of any of these cruel modes of punishment. I had myself learned them by seeing them practiced, and many times at the high-school I myself had been ordered to hold a boy across my back, being somewhat taller and stronger than some of the rest. But now I have a different way of administering punishment in my schools; not with a switch, but with love and kindness, and I think I can accomplish more with kind words and acts than with the rod. This is one of the changes I have experienced since having come to America. Besides teaching languages, I also gave instruction from the Bible, in arithmetic and geography. I also visited the parents of the pupils, 24 PERSIA BY A PERSIAN. together with the minister of the village, and on Sabbath day I had a large class of ladies in the Sunday-school. I would also pay visits to other villages and preach to them in a very simple manner, only repeating to the people the story of the cross. While engaged in this manner one day, I read in my Bible the 12th chapter of Genesis. This gave me much thought, especially the passage where the Lord said to Abraham, ''Get thee out of thy country and from thy kindred and from thy father's house into a land that I will show thee." My strain of thought on this matter ran in this channel: "If Abraham obeyed this command of the Lord, and I am now worship- ing the same Lord as Abraham then was why should I not follow his example, now reading the same command?" I consulted Kasha Sayad, and informed him of my intention to go nnewhere where I could prepare for Christian work. His opinion was, that it would not be a wise step for me to take, and bade me go to a missionary and lay the matter before him. I did so, and the missionary gave me many reasons why I should abandon such thoughts ; but I was determined to rather listen to God's promises than man's advices and go, whither He should direct me. In July, 1889, I left Oroomiah with not more than what amounts to five dollars in the United States, and not knowing where I should finally land. I traveled westward, but it was a long and tedious journey. As I had no means to hire a horse or mule I was obliged to walk, and for the sake of convenience I often traveled during the night, it being much cooler. After nineteen days of traveling, I readied the first railway in the Caucasus in Russia. I reached the first railway station at Akistafa. From here I was given free transportation to Tiflis. There some Christians helped me on to Valadikokas. After having arrived at this place I tried to work and go to school, but after a few weeks they urged me to go to Berlin, as -they thought I might succeed better in both. After seven or eight days travel I reached the boundary line of Russia. Here I bought a ticket to Berlin, while my passport was in the office for examination. Soon I was informed that I could not leave Russia, as my passport was defective. I was imprisoned for three days without food or drink, after which I was ordered to telegraph to St. Petersburg for a permit to leave the country. I did so, and was obliged to pay an exorbitant sum for the dispatch. But no answer came from St. Peters- burg. I was now informed that I would be sent to Siberia. It seemed a little hard to me at first, but thinking of the errand upon which I had PERSONAL HISTORY. 25 set out on my journey, I concluded that the Lord wanted me there, if He would allow me to be sent there. I consequently told the officers that I was ready and willing to go. The officers obviously knew not what to make of this, for they stared at me as though they considered me a lunatic. They wished to know why I was so ready and willing to go to such a dismal country as Siberia. I told them that if my Lord and God desired me to go there, I certainly was most willing to go, as I sincerely believed that He was in Siberia as well as in Berlin ; that years ago my father had been sent there without cause, and I might perchance ( J meet him there. When they saw I cared so little whither I went, they even helped me on to Berlin. Here I was in Berlin, the great German capital, not being able to speak or even understand a word of the language. But through God's kind providence I encountered a young man who was able to speak five or six different languages, namely Turkish, Syriac, German, etc. He grew very friendly to me, took me to his room, provided me with a good place to live, and for several days showed me the sights in the city. He incidentally spoke of me to a friend who became so interested as to ex- press a desire to see me. We consequently took supper at the house 01 tins friend, Mr. L. H. O. Schmidt, west 62 Maasrein Strasse No. 31 Pa. Berlin, one evening, and by means of an interpreter I made this gentle- man acquainted with my whole history. Mr. Schmidt, perhaps noticing a sad expression which had perchance overspread my countenance, bade me be of good cheer, for the Lord would certainly guide me and provide for me. To encourage me still more, he asked me to sit between himself and Mrs. Schmidt, as that, he thought, would make me feel more at home with them. When we arose to take our departure from this hospitable house, Mr. Schmidt requested us to linger a few moments longer, and left the room. A few moments later he re-entered, and handed over to me a sum of money sufficient to go from Berlin to New York, at the same time remarking that he were quite certainyeven if I remained in Berlin at present, I would certainly desire to see America in a few years Hence, and so in his opinion it would be much better for me and my cause to r n there at cnce. He also handed me a letter to a minister at Hamb' ' by which I was introduced, and he requested to receive me and for me to all necessary requisites for a passage to New York C I left Berlin and reached Hamburg at about 11 o'clock being able to explain to any one where I wished to go. T search for .he dwelling of the minister to whom my If 26 PERSIA BY A PERSIAN. tion was addressed. I found the place at last, but the valet insisted upon seeing my letter before he would allow me to go into his house, fearing probably that I might be some thief or robber trying to get admission. I, however, refused to have my letter examined, as I mistrusted its being returned to me. There was nothing left for me to do but to go back to the depot. Here I found every door locked and all the lights ex- tinguished, and set out to walk the streets until morning. But even in this I was disturbed by patrolmen, who would not allow it. At last I found a place where there was a cavity under the sidewalk, next to a basement window. I crept into this hole, and doubling up as well ;js I could soon fell asleep. When I awoke I was so stiff and numb, from the chilly air and my inconvenient position, I could scarcely move. I got up and out and ran along the streets to get warm. After finding that the blood in my body was once more circulating freely, I returned to my hiding place and slept until daylight. I now returned to the minister's dwelling, and he himself answering my rap at the door, I handed him my letter. He was greatly surprised at seeing me and learning who I was, and said that he had been aware of my coming', but had not ex- pected that I would arrive on that train. He kindly ushered me into the house, however, and after having washed, arranged my toilet and break- fasted, he went with me to the steamer that was to take me to New York City. After procuring tickets we learned that the steamer would not leave until two days later. I remained with the reverend gentleman these two days, he proving very kind and generous to me. Our con- versations, however, were very limited, as it had to be carried on entirely by making use of the natural language — motions, signs, groans, ex- pressions of the face, etc. After two days, I boarded an ocean steamer for New York City. On the first and second day of the voyage the weather was fine and the sea tranquil and calm; but soon it became rough and I had an experience such as I had never heard of before — I grew sea-sick. During my misery I sometimes really took it for granted that all good Christian people had done for me ever since I had left home had been done merely for the urpose of severely punishing me for having been too bold and forward, I asked the JLord in prayer to grant that the ship might capsize and nd so all my sufferings be ended. : ng our ocean voyage all passengers on board of the steamer ited. When my turn came I had hidden away, thinking my cut off. I was compelled, however, to ccme forward PERSONAL HISTORY. 27 and allow the operation to be performed on me, whereupon I found that it was not so bad after all. Eighteen days after having gone aboard the steamer we arrived in New York City. In Castle Garden we were asked to show our money, there being a law that every person must have at least twenty-five dollars, to live on until able to find work, should he wish to enter the country ; the company was obliged to take back any passenger who did not possess that amount. When my turn came to go through the gate, just when prepared to show the money I had (amounting to about twenty-eight cents), the officer was handed a letter by a boy. He stepped just a little to one side to quickly peruse the letter, but in the meantime I opened the gate and passed through unnoticed, and was soon lost in the crowd to any searching eye., I walked into the park and sat down. While looking around I suddenly espied a black man not far off. This was a great curiosity to me who had never before seen colored people. I felt very much inclined to step nearer so as to get a better view of the man, but I -dared not. Upon noticing many people passing by him without scarcely taking any notice of him, I also took heart and ap- proached the black man. Seeing that his face, neck and arms were all black, I concluded that this could not possibly be a human being. Since then I have met many negroes, have even lived among them for a year in Virginia, and have learned to esteem some of them as thoroughly, consecrated Christians. Here I was once more all alone in a foreign country, without home, friends, acquaintances, or even means wherewith to support myself, al- most utterly helpless, as I could not even make myself understood. For three days and nights I walked the streets of the great me tropoli s with an empty stomach. Towards the close of the third day I found a morsel of bread in an ash barrel. I took it out, cleaned it as well as I could, and then soaked it in some water and ate it. Not long after I also met a man who could understand oriental languages. This man proved a great blessing to me, for he had soon learned my situation. Feeling compassion for me, he fed me and then took me to the "Home of Children's Aid Society," No. 247 East Forty-fourth street, corner Second avenue. The superintendent of the home, after hearing the circumstances, was gladly willing to admit me for a few days and try to procure me some work, it being against the rules of the institution to permanently admit persons of my age. In connection with this home there is also a brush shop where crippled boys are employed. 28 PERSIA BY A PERSIAN. I was directed there and soon set to work. The superintendent was pleased and wished to retain me, so I worked during the day and at- tended a night school in the evening, where I studied the English language. But I could not remain in this place always.* So I told the superin- tendent that I would rather work in the open air and not be confined so much within a building. Thereupon he sent me to a farm in New Jersey. I was there about two weeks when I was taken ill and had to give this up, the work being too hard for me as it consisted chiefly of chopping wood, it being in the midst of winter. In consequence of this experience I returned to my former occupation in the brush factory. One day a lady called upon the superintendent and asked him if he could not recommend some one to her as a waiter. I happened to be in the room just then and the superintendent pointed me out to her. The lady inquired whether I would be willing to accept the position. I cheer- fully answered in the affirmative and immediately accompanied her to her home. I could now make myself understood in English, somewhat, and the lady promised to give me further instruction. She was a sister to a physician, Dr. J. H. Cooley, and resided at Plainfield, New Jersey. I was in her service for three months and was pleased with my work, which consisted in waiting at the table and helping in the kitchen. Dr. Cooley also had a sanitarium, where patients were housed and taken care of. I am much indebted to the doctor for kindness in treating me as pleasantly as he did. After three months stay at Plainfield, I deemed it advisable to go to New York City, there to improve my education ; it being, however, two months previous to the beginning of a new term in any of the schools, I took recourse to Mr. Mathews,* at that time superintendent of *320 14th Street, Brooklyn, N. Y., Sept. 13th, '99. Rev. Isaac Adams. Dear Bro. — I should have been pleased to have met you and shaken you by the hand. I sincerely hope that when you visit our city again that I shall have that pleasure. I sat up last night till nearly 12 o'clock reading that very touching and instructive book, "Darkness and Day- break," and my heart went up involuntarily to "Our Father" for His blessings on your efforts to lead your people into the blessed and glorious light of the children of God. You have the promise "That His word shall not return void, but shall accomplish that whereunto it was sent." Preach the Word. Walk in the light. If thine eye be single, thy whole body shall be full of light. I shall be glad to hear from you at any time. Yours, with a single eye, WM. H. MATHEWS. PERSONAL HISTORY. 29 the "Children's Aid Society," for a place on a farm. A few days later another boy and I were sent to a farm in Orange county, New Jersey, with letters of recommendation for our introduction. We unhappily left the train at a station twelve miles this side of our place of destina- tion. We did the best we could under the circumstances, however, stop- I ping at the depot over night and starting out afoot next morning. Finally we arrived at the place where my companion had to leave me, as he was to work on some other farm. W T e parted and I trotted on alone. Presently I met a man coming towards me who inquired whither I was going. I showed him the address on my letter. He inquired further, what I intended to do there. After having told him, he informed me that this farmer had moved away, but that he had been looking for some help, and I might come and work for him. I inquired about the hire, and he offered fifteen dollars per month. I asked whether or not any churches were in his neighborhood. He said there were plenty of those things round about, whereupon I inquired into his religious views. He informed me of being a Roman Catholic by birth and education, "but," said he, sneeringly, "I have not been inside of a church for forty years." I hereupon offered to work for him for twelve dollars a month, pro- vided he would not compel me to work on Sundays. He was satisfied, and I entered upon my duties. Later on I learned that the man I had been sent to, lived on the neighboring farm, and was a very nice man ; not a very ugly fellow, as my present master had claimed at our first meeting. My occupation on this farm consisted in cutting grass and milking cows, of which the farmer owned forty-five heads. Eighteen of them I had to milk, which at first caused such a strain upon the knuckles of my hands and on. my wrists that I would wake up at night from pain in those parts ; but I soon became accustomed to it, and then so much more enjoyed drinking my fill of the fresh milk, of which I was very fond. When once I had mentioned in a letter to my relatives at home that my work, among other things, consisted in milking cows, they wonderingly inquired in their next letter where in America the women might be and what they did, as in Persia all this kind of work is left to the women to perform. For the first two weeks all went well with me on this farm. On Sunday I attended a Methodist Church. On the third Sunday, however, the farmer called me and ordered me to turn the crank on the grind- stone for him, as he wished to sharpen his knife. I answered, "No, today is Sunday." Upon hearing this he cursed me and said: "I would 30 PERSIA BY A PERSIAN. rather sit here and listen to the dog- barking than hear that minister preach." At 4 o'clock in the morning he would call me to get up and go to work, but after some time he said, "Ike, you must get up at 3 o'clock, as the neighbors are out at that time ;" and to make good his demand he would stamp on the steps of the stairway and pound the door, calling "Ike, Ike!" with an occasional curse intermingled, until he heard me move about. One day we were loading hay in the field. My master was on the wagon, I stood upon the ground and pitched hay to him. He kept swearing and cursing at me, trying to hurry me up. This provoked me, and I began to throw hay upon the wagon as fast as I could, without looking where I threw it. In so doing it happened that a pitchfork full oi hay, together with the points of the fork, struck him on the chest. At this he grew furious, jumped down from the wagon to the ground and tried to strike me, but I kept out of his reach. While engaged in scattering hay upon a time, I came upon a heap in which there was a bee's nest. I noticed it in time, cautiously went by and left it untouched. The farmer, however, coming after me, but not seeing the bees, scattered the hay about. Of course the bees were upon him in an instant, and stung him all over his face and hands. This induced him to curse furiously at me again for not having warned him ; but I quietly remonstrated that the bees were stinging him for his wicked blaspheming, as I had passed those same bees and they had not molested me in the least. After the third week the farmer ordered me to leave, as he did not require my services any longer. I was willing to go, but demanded my pay. This he refused to give me until I threatened to go to law about it. Then he wished me to continue. I did so until the end of the month, when he gave me twelve dollars and offered fifteen dollars for the following month, but I had quite enough of this and answered, "No, I would not work for you any longer for fifty dollars a month." I left him immediately and returned to New York City. Mr. B. W. Tice, superintendent of the West Side Boys' Lodging House of the Children's Aid Society, wrote a letter to Gen. Armstrong for admission to the Hampton Normal Institution, of which Gen. Arm- strong was principal, and the answer was favorable ; after considering the matter, and also meeting Gen. Armstrong, I decided to go to Vir- ginia. Here I worked in the mornings at the tailor's trade, and in the PERSONAL HISTORY. 31 afternoon and evening I went to the school, where I enjoyed my work and am much indebted to the teachers and all connected with the [schools for their help and kindness shown towards me. While here I received a letter from Kasha Sayad, of Persia, stating that the house or church in which they were worshiping was taken by the authorities and given to the people who belonged to the Nestorian Church, and who did not belong the the Evangelical church ; and I trans- lated the letter and sent it to the Presbyterian Foreign Mission Board, in New York, as Kasha Sayad had also requested me in that letter to do all I could for them in stating tlie matter before such as loved the cause, and try to raise funds for erecting a house of worship for them. Arthur Mitchell, D. D., Secretary Presbyterian Board Foreign Mis- sions, sent me to Mr. Moody's school, at Chicago, where he paid my whole expense. Here I tried very hard to get the money for the building of the church by speaking and lecturing, but this was very difficult as I could not speak the language very plainly as yet, therefore, I left this matter entirely in the hands of Dr. Mitchell, to whom I am much indebted for his great help in this matter. After this I tried to support myself and wrote to Dr. Mitchell about it. He said I could do so, but such expenses as I could not meet he would cover. But from 1892 on I succeeded in paying all my bills, but the doctor had spent several hundred dollars towards my support. At one time I told him I wished to pay it back, but he said: "I have not done it for your, but for Christ's sake, and, therefore, I would always be glad to hear of your success." I also spent one year at the Garret Biblical Institute, at Evanston, 111. While here I met Rev. A. T. Wilkinson, a fellow student from Brantford, Can., and who ever since has been an intimate friend. In the summer of 1892, he asked me to go with him and speak in churches in Canada, which I did, he arranging the meetings for me. The Brantford Courier of August 15, 1892, reads thus: At the Wickliffe Hall last evening, Mr. Isaac Adams, a native of Persia, gave a very interesting address. This address was Mr. Adams' last one in Canada, as he leaves for New York today, where he will stay one week and then proceed to Chicago. Mr. Adams has been in Canada only forty-five days, and during that time has given forty-three lectures on Persia, its religions, customs, etc. He expresses himself as highly delighted with his visit in Brant- ford, and with the kind manner in which he has been entertained during 32 PERSIA BY A PERSIAN his stay here. A number of Persian curiosities were exhibited and were fully described by Mr. Adams to all who wished to see them. While in this country I wrote to my home continually, and was glad to hear that my brothers were converted; so I offered to pay their expenses to this country if they would prepare themselves for missionary work, to which they consented. But owing to the cholera their journey was delayed for a while, but at last, in 1893, they succeeded in coming to this country. Three of my brothers — Abraham, David and Jacob, to- gether with a young man named Paul John, who was 13 years of age and who was brother in-law to my brother, came to this country. After I had remained here five years, and studied in different institu- tions and lectured throughout the United States and Canada, and also saw my brothers admitted to different institutions, I deemed it necessary to go back to Persia and preach the gospel to those whom I loved. When at Patterson, N. J., where I had spoken on Sunday, I was on Monday introduced to two gentlemen from Kampen, Netherlands, who were taking a post-graduating course at Princeton. These gentle- men were Messrs. Smidt and Wielenga. Our short travel from Patter- son to New York was very pleasant, and Mr. G. Wielenga said that he did not know what it was to be a stranger in a strange country until after he came to America. Therefore he urged me to visit his parents and the school at Kampen, Netherlands, on my way to Persia. He also gave me a letter of introduction. During my five years stay in this country I had sold 4,500 pictures of myself throughout the United States and Canada. On my departure I had a draft for $900 with me and $100 in cash. 1 left New York November 7, 1894, on the steamer City of Paris for Southampton. I reached London November 14th, and here I spent one day and went to the British Bible Society, etc. On November 17th I reached Kampen, Netherlands. I found my way to Professor Wielenga's house, where I was cordially welcomed. I was requested to speak that very night to the students of the Theological Seminary. The following letter will explain my short visit in the Nether- lands. This letter was written by Rev. B. Wielenga, a brother of Rev. G. Wielenga, to the public in America : While I am writing these lines, our dear friend Adams has probably approached the Caucasus Mountains, and is nearer to his native country than to us. His coming and staying in our midst, as also his departure from us, has been as a passing dream, but a dream that has left a re- 33 PERSONAL HISTORY. 35 reshing influence. An influence not only felt at my home, where he tayed, but also by several churches in our country, and by thousands mo heard his simple, touching words. His arrival was unexpected and therefore the more surprising. His greeableness and sincerity, and the many cordial letters of introduction :cm several of our ministers, soon made him very intimate with us. md when, at the request of the faculty, he addressed us in the chapel f our school and told us of the dark night that prevails in Persia, and of is intention to bring it the light of the Gospel, then our hearts all beat rith sympathy for him and his work. We admired his courage. At tie close of his address we all gathered around him to press his hand and o wish him God-speed. Professor Bavinck in turn addressed him, and ssured him of our support and intercession. I still imagine Brother idams dressed in his rich Persian costume, among us, as he gained our ympathy by his friendly smile and courtesy. At the request of the president, Dr. Bavinck, he again spoke to us on tie manners and customs of his people. Mr. Aelders translated the rords and also succeeded in giving us the sentiments of Mr. Adams. It v r as no surprise that the consistory of our congregation should allow im to speak in the church on Sunday evening. The short sketch of his personal experiences, the vivid presenta- ion of the misery in which Persia has sunken, but especially the words poken on 2 Cor. 8 15, made a deep impression on the people, and assured s that there will be many prayers offered for Persia and the heathen /orld. During the week Mr. Adams again spoke in one of our halls, mere many of all classes and religious beliefs attentively listened to im. The remainder of the time the Persian Missionary stayed with us, e visited the provinces of Holland and Zeeland, where he spoke in tie principal cities. I would simply repeat the same thing over again if should follow him step by step, for everywhere he received the same Dken of love and cordiality. Everywhere open homes, open purses and pen hearts. Mr. Adams has a rare tact of making himself at home mong strangers ; by his artless manner he soon becomes intimate. Prob- bly this is because he has visited so many places in America, has been itroduced in so various circles and been so heartily received by a lultitude of friends. He is well accustomed to the platform and knows .ow to hold his audience. The fishermen of Scheveningen he addressed differently from the ducated audiences of the capital and the plainer people of Maassluis rom those of busy Rotterdam ; but the result was the same. Because I ad many friends in the province of Holland, I had the privilege of ac- ompanying and introducing Mr. Adams. ******* Al s0 mong our pastors his reception was hearty. Rev. Proosdy introduced im in Leiden and Rev. Donner, the missionary director, exhorted the ongregation to prayer. In the Hague, Scheveningen, Maassluis, Rot- erdam, Amsterdam and Zwolle he was everywhere cheerfully intro- uced. In many other places large crowds assembled to hear the 36 PERSIA BY A PERSIAN. Persian missionary. Many tears were shed and much compassion and sympathy expressed. On the nth of December, I accompanied Mr. Adams to Zutfen, where he parted from us to go to Berlin in the evening. Calm and courageous, in peaceful reliance on his God, he approached his difficult task. Although he was well aware that his life is threatened on every hand in his native country, trusting on the Lord his God he be- gan his journey, knowing that with Him he can press through a band of robbers and jump over a wall. Gladly would we have had him remain with us still longer. His stay was very short and everything hurried. But — and this conviction we respect — the Persian people are in need of the Gospel ; their souls are in prison. Pie told us that if God spared him we might expect him in 1896, when he would return to America in company with two or three of his countrymen. We believe that God is with Mr. Adams, and that through him He will glorify His name. I said Mr. Adams varied his style to suit his audience, but I must add that it had everywhere the same tone of child-like reliance on God,, of an honest, strong faith, and a deep conviction of his own weakness. His request that the Americans should pray for him will surely find a hearing. Many of our people are interceding for him, that is sure. Great treasures he did not receive from our poor people, but there were given him many mites like unto that offered by the widow of old. Several poor children brought their savings to him at our home, and many needy women took pleasure in giving a trifle to his work. Such gifts God will bless. May God spare the life of Mr. Adams and grant that his work be blessed; may He use him for the coming of His kingdom and the glory of His name — then will our prayers be answered. My hearty salutation, B. WIELENGA. Kampen, Dec. 17, '94. While in the Netherlands I received about $300 in collections and gifts. And also the Lord has given me since many warm-hearted friend. 1 and 110 words can express my gratitude to the friends and professors in the Netherlands. From the Netherlands I went to Berlin, Germany, where I was glac to meet my friend Mr. Schmidt, who had paid my fare from Berlin I New York, in 1889. He was delighted to see me and to learn of my sue cess, but the difficulty was that I could not speak German and he couli not speak English. So we had to find an interpreter and we called 01 the American ambassador at Berlin through whose kindness we wer. able to have a conversation. At the same time I spoke about counter signing my passport, and, after the ambassador learned my name, h said, "It is a pity your name is Isaac Adams, as it sounds like a Jewisl PERSONAL HISTORY. 37 bame, and no Jews are allowed to pass through Russia." He wrote jme a special letter, and another man and Mr. Schmidt went with me to the Russian ambassador, and, at last, through a good deal of talking and explanation, he countersigned my passport. The following day Mr. Schmidt bought my ticket from Berlin to Alexandrowa, and he also gave me some money. Then I took the train for Alexandrowa; from there I bought my ticket to Valadikokas. One evening I had to stop over in a village to change cars, but, as I had some money with me, I did not wish to go to any hotel, and I staid in the station, which was very large and had all kinds of accommodations. At about 10 o'clock all was quiet and the lights were out, and I fell asleep in a chair. As I awoke and saw nobody, I became afraid and tried to get out, but every door was locked. At about half past tb^e in the morn- ing I saw a man come who opened the doors and lighted the lamp, and then brought in some images and put them upon a platform. A crowd of men came in and bowed before these images and kissed them and went through all kinds of ceremonies. All this time I was awake, but ap- peared to be sleeping. After awhile I also stood up, and they came and asked me why I did not bow before the images and kiss the cross, etc. I told them I did not believe in it. Upon hearing this they became very angry and wanted to punish me, but very soon my train came and I went on to Valadikokas. Here I rested a few days and had the privilege of preaching several times. At about 4 o'clock in the afternoon I saw a multitude of people passing along the street. I inquired what it meant, and was told that they had the image of Holy Mary and took it to the houses to bless the people. Some have to pay a large sum of money to have the image brought into the house as they are wicked and Holy Mary will not wish to be taken into these wicked houses ; therefore, they have to pay in order to be equal with the good people, and in some instances the men carrying the image will pass by the house and will say Mother Mary does not want to go into that house as the people are wicked. From here I started for Tifiis on a four days' journey, but I took a much faster way, namely I took a carriage from Tifiis, which was driven Dy fast mail horses and every two hours, or when we had passed over ifteen or twenty miles, the horses and driver would be changed. I made :he journey, traveling day and night, in twenty-four hours. In Tifiis I also had the privilege of meeting some Nestorians, with whom I was glad to speak concerning their welfare and salvation through [esus Christ ; and many people came to see me, some living thirty miles away, and they wanted me to stay and preach among them. Even after 38 PERSIA BY A PERSIAN. being in America again I received letters from them asking me to come, saying they would get me permission to do so from the government. I left Tiflis for Erivan. Here my passport was taken and counter- signed, as in former cities. And here also I met two Mohammedan Sayids, who were returning to Persia, and we traveled together and spoke over many subjects, especially religion. On this journey from Erivan to Aras, the Persian frontier, we came across a number of corpses lying on the roadside, where the robbers had left them after plundering and killing them. But we were not molested as we traveled with mail horses and also the government mail and two soldiers. At last we reached the Persian frontier, where our passports were looked over and returned to us. Here the Sayids left me. While my passport was being examined in the government office, I spoke in a very broken Persian language, so as to make them believe that I was a foreigner, as my passport showed me to be. I asked the officers if the roads were dangerous. They said they were, and I asked them to let me have a man to go with me. They re- plied that it was very dangerous to travel with one man alone, and offered to give me two men as an escort. So the two men traveled with me, and at the same time I met four Armenians who begged leave to join us. I gladly complied with their request. The first night we stopped at a village where nearly all the inhabitants were theives and robbers. During all this time I feigned to be a foreigner, and even the Armenians did not recognize me as being a Persian. After supper I stepped out of doors and there overheard some men making plans to kill the four Armenians ; but they were afraid to do so on my account, think- ing that I was a foreigner. During that night I had a soldier on each side of me, resting his gun on my body and protecting me in this manner, and the four Armenians were also very near to me. All went well, but a few things were stolen, and in the morning we continued our journey. Towards evening of tliat day we came to a river, and while fording it the two soldiers, who were supposed to pro- tect me, pointed their guns at me and demanded money; at this I im- mediately grasped my two revolvers which I had with me and pointed them at the soldiers ; then they said they were only joking, and I told them to walk on ahead, which they did. The revolvers I had with me were not loaded, but at the next station I loaded them. After two more days journey we reached Khoi, where the two PERSONAL HISTORY. 39 soldiers left me. I now decided to travel with mail horses again ; that is, ve changed horses every two hours, and journeyed on more rapidly. But when I reached the next village, I was so sore and stiff from ;onstantly riding horse-back that I decided to remain here for a few lays and give up horse-back riding, namely, this fast way of horse- back riding. From here I telegraphed to Oroomiah and advised my "riends of my coming. After a few days, I hired some other horses and vent slower. From this village I left for Gavelan. In Gavelan I met my brother Joseph, with some friends and relatives vho had come to meet me. So we, about forty in number, journeyed :ogether and reached Oroomiah on the following day. I was glad to see nany of my friends and acquaintances. But one of the saddest things 'or me was the death of my mother, which had occurred during my ibsence. But I hope and believe that she died a Christian death, as her ast words were, "All my hopes are in Jesus." Thanks be to God for the blessed hope that we may meet again in the world of immortality. After a few days rest at home and waiting upon many callers, 1 started out to visit my friends and those who had visited me. As I went through the cities and the villages, I found that there was >reat need for the blessed Gospel. I conversed with the people and on Sunday I preached in different villages and at different houses. The people of Borashan, a neighboring village, came and asked me :o establish a Christian school in their village. They also went to the lord of the village and asked his permission, and then presented me a list containing all the names of the inhabitants of the village, except one iamily. The lord said if this one family did not submit to this they would have to leave, and then they submitted and I established a school there, and today almost all the people are heartily rejoicing in the progress of Dur good work. I found also a very good helper, who visited continually the people of Borashan and Sanger, also Eriava, so I employed him as a teacher and helper while I was visiting the other places ; and finally I was able to find some helpers who had been educated somewhat by the English and Presbyterian missionaries. When they came to me I gave them some Biblical instructions and then placed them at the head of some of these schools, and paid them a small salary. So the work continued nicely, and I spent my time visiting the schools and encouraging the teachers and expounding the Word of God. All the expense of such a school, including fuel, schoolbooks, room rent, teacher's salary, etc., will not exceed ten dollars a month. My ex- pense of each school has very seldom exceeded five dollars a month. 40 PERSONAL HISTORY. 41 Mar Shimmon, the civil and spiritual head of the Nestorians, resides in the village of Kochanues. in the mountains of Kurdistan. V&e is the spiritual overseer of all the Nestorian churches of Persia and Kurdistan. Once a year he sends one of his relatives to visit the churches of Oroo- miah, for the purpose of receiving the contributions of the brethren, and also to inquire as to the condition of the church itself, and any matters in question are laid before him by the bishops and priests. When I arrived at Oroomiah his step-brother was there, who became very friendly to me, but died within two months after. On May 29th, 1895, I left Oroomiah, in order to pay a visit to the Patriarch, the object of which was to have an interview with him, in order to get his permission to work among his people as all the other missionaries do. A second object was evangelistic work among the Kurds and Nestorians. After two hours of riding on the plain, we came to Anhar, a village in the mountains. Here we were told we would be killed by the Kurd robbers and murderers if we should continue our journey. We had now to decide what to do — to go on or return home. Finally, trusting in the Lord, we decided to go on. For almost four hours we rode at a gallop, fearing an attack by the Kurds. We arrived at Mavana, however, where we spent the night. The next morning a discouraging report came that the roads were in bad condition, and that several had been killed two days previous. Nevertheless, trusting in the Lord, I continued with my servant, and after a few hours journey we reached the Turkish frontier. Here I was stopped and told I could not pass. With the aid of a little gold, judiciously administered, I over- came this difficulty. I arrived at Marbeeshoo about 9 o'clock in the evening. This is a large Nestorian village, which contains a church 850 years old, built of very thick stones and having a very heavy stone door about three feet and six inches high. The next morning I continued on my journey and reached Dizza about 6 o'clock in the evening. Immediately after our arrival the police came and ordered me to give an account of myself. I showed him my American passport and told him where I intended to go. The police were not satisfied with this, however, and after investi- gating our baggage, even our clothing, he took our passport and went to the Kaimakam (the vice governor). Afterwards a few Zaptiehs (con- stables) came to guide us to the city, and we were told that the Mustas- sarif, or governor, was telegraphed to about our arrival and we would have to wait there until an answer was received. The next morning the reply came, back from Valy Pasha, the ruler at Van, to detain the 42 PERSIA BY A PERSIAN. travelers until advice was obtained from Constantinople. Upon this the authorities at Dizza placed me in confinement, under the charge of being a spy sent out by the United States and also on my way to the Patriarch to stir him up against the Turkish government. The prison was kept guarded by two soldiers. Meantime, I was afraid they would put me to death, so I wrote a letter addressed to my brother in Oroomiah. in which I wrote the number of my passport and my citizenship paper, and asked him to telegraph the United States Ambassador at Teheran. This letter I gave to my servant, asking him to bribe a man to carry this message, and also telling him to have him put the message into a loaf of bread, of which he took several. I was in terrible torment every hour of the day. I was in mortal terror, and expected to be put to death at almost any minute. The messenger, after being stopped and searched several times and forced to give up all his bread but one precious loaf, which contained the message, at last delivered the message to my brother. In the letter I made an agreement with the messenger that, if he succeeded in reaching my brothers in two days, he should receive a large sum of money. If it would take him three days he was to get less, and if four days, still less. Consequently, the messenger hurried and succeeded in delivering the message in two days. My brother had immediately telegraphed to the American Ambassador at Teheran. Various means were instituted to secure my release, through the good offices of the United States, and the kindness of the English counseller at Tabriz and at Van. The police at Dizza at first denied that any such person was confined, but finding that the case had gained such publicity, and fearing trouble, they quietly released me. In the meantime, I was kept in prison. The following, clipped from the "Banner of Truth," a religious periodical published in the United States, has some bearing upon this matter : ISAAC ADAMS' ARREST. [banner of truth.] Mr. Isaac Adams, of Persia, who has given us some outline of his work among his own people, was arrested while on a journey with his servant and thrown into a prison by the Governor of a Turkish province. Information of this was sent by Rev. M. Bagdasarian, a fellow mis- sionary laboring in Urmi, in the interest of the disciples of Christ. He expresses grave fears as to the fate of Mr. Adams and requests us to urge the United States Government to use its good offices for his re- lease. Our minister at Constantinople has communicated with the Turk- ish office of foreign affairs, and they disclaim and deny all knowledge of •A « • • Telegram of English missionary sent to British Consul at Van, Turkey, requesting his aid for the x-elease of Isaac Adams, sent June, 1895. 44 PERSIA BY A PERSIAN. the arrest. But knowing the bitter feeling against Christianity, and especially against native converts, we would call upon all concerned in the welfare of Christianity to carry this to the throne of grace and pray God, who has all men's hearts in His hand, to deliver him from the mouth of the Turkish lion. The following is a copy of the communication from the State De- partment respecting it : Department of State, Washington, July 16, 1895. Rev. John C. Voorhis, Hackensach, N. J. Sir: I have to acknowledge the receipt of your letter of the 12th inst., requesting the good offices of this department to secure the re- lease of Rev. Isaac Adams, an American missionary, who is said to have been arrested by the Turkish authorities at Dizza Gavar. This case has already been acted upon by this department on a tele- gram from the United States Minister at Teheran. On June nth our minister at Constantinople was telegraphed to protest against arrest and to demand prompt orders to local Governor for Mr. Adams' release. A telegram from Mr. Terrell, dated the nth of the present month, states that he is informed by the Minister of Foreign Affairs that Mr. Adams has not been arrested at Dizza Gavar, and that he is not in the village of Kotchanues. I am, sir, Your obedient servant, ALEVY A. ADEE, Acting Secretary. MEMORIAL OF ISAAC ADAMS. Making Claim for Losses and Injuries Against the Turkish Government. STATE OF MICHIGAN COUNTY OF KENT. ss. Isaac Adams of the City of Grand Rapids being first duly sworn deposes and says that he is a citizen of the United States and makes this affidavit for and in his own behalf. 1. That he was born on the 28th day of November, 1872, in Oroo- miah, Persia, and is now twenty-six years of age. That he is now a resident of the City of Grand Rapids, County of Kent, State of Michigan of the United States of America. That on the 31st day of August, 1894, he became a naturalized citizen of the United States, as appears by the certified copies of the records of the Circuit Court of the County of Cook, State of Illinois. That he has been engaged in missionary work for 10 years, both in Persia and in the United States of America. That in the month of May, 1895, the time in which the events for which de- PERSONAL HISTORY. 45 pcnent makes claim occurred, he was engaged as a missionary in Oroo- miah, Persia. 2. That he has a claim to the amount of five thousand ($5,000) dollars based upon the facts as hereinafter stated, against the Govern- ment of Turkey. That on the 4th day of October, 1894, he was given passport No. 16911 by the United States of America, Walter Q. Gresham, Secretary of State. That on the 7th day of November, 1894, he left the United States of America on the steamship Paris for the purpose of going to Oroomiah, Persia and engage in missionary work there. That he arrived in Oroo- miah on the first day of January, 1895, and engaged immediately in the work of teaching and remained there till the 29th day of May, 1895, work- ing in Persia continuously. That on the 29th day of May, 1895, deponent started to visit Mar Shimmon, a Nestorian Patriarch in the village of Kochanues in the mountains of Kurdistan in Asiatic Turkey. Deponent says that he had the American passport above referred to duly signed and sealed and certified to by the representatives of the Turkish Govern- ment stationed at Oroomiah, as noted on the passport and translation as follows : Signature. "Mr. Adams, an American citizen is going to Kurdistan, Turkey, as a traveler. In the month of Dekaadal Haram 24. In the year of Hegira 13 12. (May, 1895) : (Seal.) The vice counsel of the supreme state of Ottoman, residing in Oroo- miah, Yoseph. That on the 31st day of May, 1895, he arrived at the Turkish frontier and after showing his passport and identification to the Turkish repre- sentatives was allowed to pass. That on the 2nd day of June, 1895, he arrived at Dizza Gavar within the Turkish territory of Kurdistan Mount- ains. That he was then and there arrested and put in prison on the charge of being an American spy. That deponent's passport was taken from him and he was ordered to await the pleasure of the authorities. That he was 'given no public trial or opportunity for defense as an Ameri- can citizen he demanded of the Turkish authorities. That he was told that he was an American spy sent out by the United States Government to report to it the detailed massacres then taking place among Armenian and Nestorian subjects of the Turkish Government and to stir up rebel- lion and insurrection against their government. That deponent did not at any time violate the rules of international 46 PERSIA BY A PERSIAN. law. That he did not in any manner by word or sign encourage rebel- lion nor did he speak to any Turkish subject for the purpose of in- vestigating insurrection and discontent among the colonies and people of the Turkish Dominion. That he informed them that he came to obtain authority from the Nestorian Patriarch to assist him in teaching his peo- ple, and that he did this as an American citizen, and was entitled to all the rights and privileges of an American citizen. Deponent further says that he had with him a servant named Esha- kan from Persia. That they rode on horseback and that besides the property necessary for a long journey through the plains and mountains he had about his person and about the person of his servant a large sum of money, the sum of one hundred and ninety-eight pounds in gold and thirty pounds in silver. That the gold was in Russian Imperial, Turkish Megedia and forty-eight English sterling. That the Turkish police authorities put him under guard at Dizza Gavar and imprisoned him for nine days. That em- issarnes were sent repeatedly for the purpose of extorting from deponent the knowledge of the hiding places of his money and that he was sub- jected to innumerable cruelties for the purpose of extorting money. That large sums of money were in this way extorted from the deponent. That he was gagged, beaten, robbed and tortured. That on the fifth day of his confinement, he was placed in chains and cruelly bound and maltreated in a dungeon. That his feet were tied together and that heavy" chains held them an elevation of several feet from ground while he was sitting on the ground of the dungeon. That his hands were bound behind him and a heavy iron collar clasped around his neck so he was unable to move any muscle of his body. That he was left without food or drink and that his money and property were taken from him. That animal and vermin were creeping over him and that he was subjected to great mental and physical suffering. That he was obliged to remain in this position for four days. That the only one allowed to see him was his servant who obtained for him bread and water for which he was obliged to pay large sums of money. That through this servant he communicated with the English Missions and friends at Oroomiah, Persia and that they communicated with the American Ambassador at Teheran, Persia. That the American Ambassador at Teheran, Persia, communicated with the American Gov- ernment at Washington. That Minister Terrell then protested against deponent's arrest and demanded of the Turkish Government orders to the local authorities for PERSONAL HISTORY. 47 the deponent's release. That then on the 9th day deponent was released. Minister Terrell was informed that deponent had not been arrested and that deponent had not been in the village of Kochanues, and that other misrepresentations were made. That large sums of money were extorted under various pretenses from deponent by the jailers, governor and offi- cials of the Turkish Government. That the governor after deponent's release sent two Zaptiehs under a pretense of police protection and serveillance and that he was then robbed and brutally treated on the journey by the Zaptiehs. That on account of being so detained and mistreated deponent did not arrive at Kochanues until the 15th day of June, and on account of poor health which was due to his treatment while in Turkish prison was not able to return to his work in Oroomiah until July 16th, 1895, and lost a large amount of time. That he was of sound mind and body when he entered the Turkish possessions. That he was sick, emaciated and mentally weak for a long time thereafter. That he was obliged to spend large sums of money to recuperate and resupply himself. And that on account of all this he makes claim against the Turkish Government for the sum of Five Thousand Dollars. Department of State, Washington, May 23, 1899. Isaac Adams, Esquire, No. 124 Lagrave Street, Grand Rapids, Michigan. Sir — Referring to the Department's letter of the 15th of March last, and to previous correspondence, on the subject of your claim against Turkey, I have now to inform you that the Department is in receipt of a despatch from our Minister to Turkey, dated the 6th instant, in which he reports that on the preceding day he presented the claim to the Turkish Government and demanded the payment of an indemnity of twenty-five thousand (25,000) francs. I am, sir, your obedient servant, DAVID J. HILL, Assistant Secretary. My servant, however, stood by me loyally and did me excellent service, by using a careful scheme of sending letters to my brother and the Patriarch, whose residence was at Kochanues. I, on the contrary, had given up all hope of living any longer; day and night tears were in my eyes, and my cry was for the losi condition of my people. I was always praying that the Lord might spare me for a few years more, that I might see my brothers take charge of my work. Through the grace and mercy of Christ I can say, I was ready to die any manner of death 43 PERSIA BY A PERSIAN. in the faith of One who thus loved us and gave Himself to die even the death of the cross for us undone sinners. But what a joy it was to me when the doors of the prison were opened and I was once more freed from that awful torture (as they had received orders to let me go on), my language fails me to describe. I started again next morning with my good servant and three Turkish soldiers on my way to the Patriarch. After a day's journey we came to Kermi, where there were only four Nestorian houses ; there we met sixteen Kurds sitting on a flat roof, smoking pipes. When I passed by them I heard them say, "There is a man we will kill tonight and take his valuables." I went to a Nestorian house to spend the night. It being so hot I wished to sleep on the roof, but they feared that those Kurds would come and kill me and advised me to remain indoors and hide, and I listened to their entreaties and went into a large square house, one side of which was a stable and the other side a hay and straw loft In the other end of the building the people — about thirty in number, men and women — lived. They put me under the hay. For about two hours I was there, when I was nearly suffocated. I cried for mercy and they pulled me out from under the hay, and I told them if it was God's will that I should be killed, then I was ready to die. About a half-hour latei I saw two Kurds approach, while I was trembling and shaking all over. I tried to appear pleasant when I saw them. The first thing they told me after they kneeled down was, that they had come to kill me and takt all my valuables. I told them I was not afraid of dying, but I impressed upon their minds that my name and former case had gained such pub- licity that if they should kill me the Turkish authorities would be com- pelled by the United States Government to give account of my where- abouts, and then the Sultan would send soldiers to massacre them and all their families in this community, and so they had better not do it. They decided so. They asked me for some sugar, as one of their number had fallen from his horse and broken his leg. I gave them some and they left me unhurt, but warned me that they were going the same way with me next morning. I could not sleep all night, and after having set out for Kochanues next morning we were soon overtaken by the Kurds of the previous ill acquaintance. We rode on together with them for a long while, until we arrived at a village closed in on two sides by high mount- ains. Here the leader of the Kurds halted, drew his sword, and holding it across my neck threatened to sever my head from my body instantly, unless I gave him some money. I felt the sharp edge of the sword on my coat-collar, and had my horse taken but one more step at that moment, PERSONAL HISTORY. 49 I have no doubt but I would have had my head cut off. I quickly ordered my servant to give him money, upon receiving which he put back his sword and allowed me to ride on. Soon after this the Kurds left us, and five hours later we reached Kochanues. From a distance we noticed a multitude before the entrance to the Patriarch's residence, and upon drawing nearer we saw that there were at least 400 persons lingering there and smoking pipes. On inquiring into the cause of this gathering, we were informed that all these people had come to condole with him on the decease of his step-brother. FUNERAL PROCESSION OF JESSE, STEPBROTHER OF THE NESTORIAN PATRIARCH. The Patriarch was immediately advised of my arrival. He had tele- graphed several times to the Turkish government about me, and had been expecting me for some time. Our horses were taken care of, a special room was given us and a servant ordered to entertain us and see that we were well provided for. I hastened to pay my respects to the Patriarch, and after having been ushered into his presence kissed his hand, according to the general custom. He graciously motioned me to be seated, whereupon he opened the conversation. Upon learning the pur- pose that had brought me hither, to work for the good of his people, he was very much delighted. 50 PERSIA BY A PERSIAN. The sixteen Kurds who had given us so much trouble on our way to the Patriarch had also arrived by this time. I had advised the Patri- arch of what happened on the way, and after having come in and paid their respects to him, he ordered them in a stern tone to go to the office. Here their fire-arms were taken from them and they were informed that they would all be punished for their evil conduct. But quite a large num- ber of Nestorians approached the Patriarch and interceded in behalf of the Kurds, and these latter kneeled down, kissed the mat upon which the Patriarch rested and apologized to me for what they had done. When night came they were ordered to go to a neighboring house for lodgings ; but they unanimously cried out that they would not leave the Patriarch's roof, for fear of all being killed by the Nestorians. Upon this they were Mar Gabriel and his Nephew who was mas- sacred by the Kurds. PERSONAL HISTORY. Si allowed to remain, and shown into a separate apartment, where they all passed the night together. Their object in visiting the Patriarch was to have a blood-price established for the slaying of the wife of one of their number, who had been killed in a combat between Kurds and Nestorians. The sad affair had been brought about as follows : Younan Bar Malekkambar, a young Nestorian, was married and his bride was being carried by the bridal procession, when suddenly a party of Kurds came in upon them and demanded some money. In place of complying with their request the Nestorians assumed a defiant attitude ; a quarrel ensued, and finally some one opened fire. Kurdish women are known always to take a prominent part in an action of this nature, and so it was also in this case. Many on both sides of the combating parties were wounded and one Kurdish woman was killed. For the death of this woman, these sixteen Kurds sought redress, and demanded of the Patriarch the privilege of puttings to death Younan Bar Malekkambar, whom they pointed out as having been the originator of the whole affair. The Patriarch, however, refused to deliver Younan Bar Malekkambar into their hands, but offered a ransom consisting of sixty silver magdiah, two pieces of musketry, four mules and fifty sheep. This ransom was not considered sufficient by the Kurds, and they left dissatisfied. In the year 1896, the Nestorian bishop, Mar Gabriel, of Oroomiah s several other prominent Nestorian clergymen, with their servants (among whom were a number of my best helpers, and Younan Bar Mal- ekkambar), visited the Nestorian Patriarch. On their way home they were attacked by the Kurds and massacred; Younan Bar Malekkambar's body was hacked to pieces and the pieces scattered in all directions. Thus they avenged the death of that woman, as they always will take revenge for the violent death of one of their number, and should it take them fifty years to do it. One hundred persons, more or less, are guests of the Patriarch every day. Each is kindly received, housed and entertained, and his horses or mules stabled and cared for. Sheep and fowls are being continually slaughtered to provide for the table, as four or five sheep are being daily consumed. Mules are incessantly traveling to and from Musol, Dizza and Oroomiah for provisions, bringing flour and sugar to fill the Patri- arch's larders. Oxen are steadily employed in drawing sufficient quanti- ties of hay and straw, for the accommodation of horses and mules. Natu- rally, the expense of continually providing for such an army of people is enormous; but the Patriarch, by virtue of his office, must keep a hos- pitable house, and every person, without any discrimination regarding 52 PERSIA BY A PERSIAN. creed or nationality, is expected to be welcomed here, and be well kept ; according- to his social standing, may he remain one hour or two months. To defray this enormous expense, however, each visitor must contribute something, be it victuals or clothing, fowls or sheep, money or jewels — no person dare come empty-handed. In addition to this collectors are sent out regularly to collect contributions of honey, grapes, fruit, millet, wheat, cheese, wine, etc., and free-will gifts are continually pouring in also. Besides, the Turkish government pays the Patriarch an annuity of between $1,400 and $1,500. After rising very early in the morning, as he always does, and observing his daily worship, the Patriarch enters a large apartment, or hall, where he gives audience to the people who have assembled to bring all sorts of cases before him. During my stay there I was given the privilege to witness a few of these hearings. One man complained that his daughter had been forcibly abducted ; a second had his cattle stolen by the Kurds ; a third had been robbed on his jour- ney. One man narrated a sad story of a caravan, among which he had traveled. It had been attacked, from twenty to thirty persons had been killed and all the goods stolen. Two leaders of devil-worshipers peti- tioned for redress for having been robbed and beaten nearly to death, etc. In such and similar cases the Patriarch either sends out his own servants to recover stolen property, in which they are often successful, or he telegraphs to the Turkish government and has the matter adjusted through them. It is, consequently, nothing very uncommon to find Turk- ish governors and other officials at the residence of the Nestorian Patri- arch. It is impossible to adequately picture in words the awful condition in which the Christians live in these parts, so much oppressed by the wild Kurds and the Turks. On my travels there, always accompanied by two or three Turkish soldiers, I had ample opportunity to witness the outrages which Christians must endure. Whenever we had entered an Armenian or Nestorian village, the soldiers would rush into the houses and act entirely as masters of the place. They demanded food and drink such as they preferred, and their demands must be complied with under all circumstances or they would become furious, knock down doors, break the windows, slap the inhabitants in the face, shoot the chickens and other domestic animals in the yard, and carry on in a brutal manner. At one place they shot a little child, playing in the sand, just for a joke. When once we arrived at a village, late at night, they demolished the doors, which were not immediately opened at their call, compelled most of the men in the village to arise from their beds and go out and cut grass PERSONAL HISTORY. 53 in the fields for their horses. In the meantime they themselves entered the houses, and did what they pleased with the women. At one time they entered a house while a male inhabitant was watering their horses. They found a woman with children, lying asleep in bed. They picked up the bedding, together with the persons in it, carried all out of doors, emptied the mother and her children out into the yard, and, after taking the bed back into the house, slept on it themselves. Everywhere in the Kurdistan Mountains the dwellings of the Nestorians are of the hum- blest kind.- Many houses (but they do not deserve that name) are built half underground on account of the extreme severity of the winters, the snow there lying five feet deep on the level. In order to keep warm dur- ing this season, people live in one compartment, together with their animals, in a state of filth that beggars description. But there is another reason for this. The winters being very long, the animals owned by these people, are solely depending upon the stock of hay laid in. This hay, as well as the animals, must be kept as near as possible, owing to lawless tribes of Kurds, who are swooping down upon them, foraging their herds, pillaging their goods and burning their hay when within their reach and unprotected. However, the extortion and oppression by the government are feared nearly as much as the Kurds. These soldiers are called Zaptiehs, and their functions are similar to those of patrolmen in the United States ; but there is another kind of Turkish soldiers called Hamidieh, who are a great help to the Zaptieh in oppressing the people. These will seize people at tneir option, and then promise to release them if they pay them the money they want; if the money is not forwarded, they will be taken to prison. Here they will be penned in a cell full of vermin and filth, with twenty-five or thirty other persons, and no water given them to drink But that which Moham- medans have used for their ablutions. The treatment which such poor persons are subjected to is most shocking — (a) red hot irons are pressed against different parts of their bodies ; (b) they are undressed and beaten into unconsciousness; (c) a collar is thrown over their heads and they are thus drag'ged through the streets; (d) they are left without food or drink until starved ; (e) they are forced to stand for a long time continu- ously, and all kinds of filth is poured down over their heads ; (f) they are forced to perform shaton toppy, or devil's ring, the result of which is death; hands and feet are tightly bound, they are forced to hold their hands above their heads, whereas a severe torture is administered and an unspeakable, beastly crime committed; (g) their hair is plucked out by handfuls ; (h) they are mutilated and crippled in various ways ; (i) they 54 PERSIA BY A PERSIAN. are compelled to stand erect within a box just large enough to admit one person, but the box is beset with sharp steel points on all sides; in this box they must stand for from thirty to forty-eight hours in succession, not being permitted even to attend to the wants of nature. When sent out to collect taxes, the Zaptiehs will demand the double REV. PROF. GARABED THOUMAIAN, B.A., IX TURKISH IRONS. Oue important factor in calling attention to the cruelties of the Sultan and his satraps, and their Hagrant violation of the provisions of the Berlin Treaty, was the arrest, imprisonment, and condemnation to death of the Rev. Professor Garabed Thoumaian, B.A., a Protestant Armenian teacher and missionary, connected with the American College at Marsovan. This gentleman had married a Swiss pastor's daughter, and at the time of her husband's arrest she was in England collecting money for the purpose of founding a hospital for the sick of Marsovan. Her letters to her husband were Intercepted and opened, and a trumpery charge of sedition was brought against him, and upon this baseless charge he was imprisoned aud condemned to death Knowing that he was greatly beloved by his Marsovan people, and fearing the publicity which would be given to their conduct, the officials decided to secretly remove him from Marsovan, and he had to undergo a mock trial. Witnesses had been tortured in different prisons in order to extract incriminatory evidence against Mr. Thoumaian. In the end he was condemned to death, and we give the account of his sufferings in his own words, with the picture of the instruments of his torture. "I was confined for five months of harsh imprisonment, although the Governor of Angora had told the British Consul there, and my brother-in-law, Pastor Hoffman, of Geneva, that he had examined my case and found me innocent. Witnesses were tortured by the Pasha of Ca-sarea into giving false evidence against me, yet, although this became known, I received the death sen- tence. I was moved with other prisoners from place to place ; for two months I was in chains, and for five days my hands were iu stocks weighing 15 lbs. With crushed wrists and bleeding arms and hands we were driven one night over the snow-covered mountains in an open cart, be- ing 17 hours without food, and poorly clad. Then we were herded with thieves and murderers, and still left without food. When the stocks were taken off iron collars, weighing 10 lbs., were substituted, and aome of us were victims of beatings and torture too horrible for description In an English journal." PERSONAL HISTORY. 55 amount. In a week, perhaps they will put in an appearance a second time and demand the same amount again; if their demand is not complied with, or remonstrances are offered, they will insist upon the surrender of young women and girls in the family, to glut their brutal appetites, and if refused, punishment with tortures, often even death, is sure to fol- low. A compassionate reader may learn from this that the lives and pro- perty of Christians, subjects to the Sultan, are nowhere safe in tne Otto- man Empire. There is no justice for them ; their lives, property and honor are ever at the mercy of the meanest Musselman who may see fit to attack either. He can never prove that he has been wronged, for his evidence against a Musselman is null and void. The sacred law of the Islam states that the murder of a Christian is not a crime. Christians are strictly prohibited from carrying arms of any kind. They are held by law to practice hospitality towards any Musselman, be he official or traveler, pasha or beggar. These unwelcome guests demand the best rooms in the house, the best kind of nourishment possible, and make free with the female members of the house to suit themselves. The men on the other hand are helpless, having no arms or weapons, while their guests are generally well provided in this respect ; and should they dare to enter complaint with any of the local authorities, they would either be beaten or cast into prison, or even shot down on the spot. Christians are forbidden to ride on horses ; they may use donkeys for their purpose, but must descend whenever they meet a Musselman, bow low with downcast eye, whether the Mohammedan be a beggar and he a nobleman, or vice versa. But to return to the tax collectors. A year's tax is demanded in advance. In many instances, of course, Christians will not be able to comply with this rigid law, and beg for time ; but it is not allowed them. Their cattle, household goods or other chattels, are taken and offered at auction, and the neighboring Kurds, who have been previously ad- vised of the sale, will bid the lowest price possible, as Christians are not permitted to' join in the bidding. The proceeds of such auction sales are then divided among the Kurds and the Zaptiehs. Thousands of Christ- ians have thus been reduced to extreme want, feeding on roots and herbs for months, and thousands more have perished and are still perishing from starvation. Though not present myself at any of the terrible whole- sale massacres of Christians, I at one time was only thirty miles distant from one of them. A Turkish soldier, Ahhamed, with whom I had a con- 56 PERSIA BY A PERSIAN. versation, boasted of having killed thirty men, women and children dur- ing the shocking butchery at Sason. Since 1820 these defenseless Christian subjects of the Sultan have been slain at random. In 1822, 50,000 Greek Catholics were massacred at Scio; in 1843, 18,000 Nestorians in the Kurdistan Mountains; 16,000 Maronites and Syrians at Lebannon and Damascus ; 10,000 Bulgarians in 1876; more than 50,000 Armenians and others in Asiatic Turkey since 1894. But what shall we say of the many thousands of women and THE HORRIBLE MASSACRE AT SASSOUN. The horrors of this "Reign of Terror" in Armenia never began to be realized till the autumn of 1894, when news of a bloody massacre in the town and district of Sassoun, reaching England in a most roundabout manner, for the authorities who planned the massacre carefully guarded against its dreadful character leaking out, and had it not been for a few refugees who managed to escape, the extent of this unprecedented crime would never have been known. At a given signal the emmissaries of the Sultan, led by Bahri Pasha (Vali of Van), pounced upon the defenseless and unsuspecting inhabitants, and without distinction of age or sex shot them down like cattle, and then set fire to their homes, thus almost destroying every vestige of this once prosperous place so completely that it was difficult to find witnesses to testify to the extent of the horrid -deed. The number who perished is variously estimated at from 300 to 2,000. A deed of this nature and extent (much as the sultan desired it) could not be hidden from view entirely. For many months travelers were carefully excluded from entering the district, and most of the harrowing particulars that have come to light are the descriptions given by the Turkish soldiers who took part in them. The following is a description given of the place by one who visited the neighborhood fully twelve months after the dreadful massacre had taken place. It is from the London Daily News: "A European who has succeeded in visiting the devastated Sassoun region has forwarded along report, dated August 20, in which he describes the terrible state of the district and the heart- rending condition of the Armenian peasants. He has examined the positions occupied by the Turkish troops and artillery, and writes: 'If one is disposed to gather relics from these dole- ful valleyshe has only to stoop down and pick up from the path human skulls and bones that have been left to bleach in the sun for these long twelve months. The distress already reported seems to have been understated. Villages formerly owning 15,000 sheep are now ashes, and at every hamlet empty petroleum tins, bearing the Government stamp, are mute witnesses that the homes of the Armenians were set on fire by the order of the General in Command." PERSONAL HISTORY. 57 maidens who have been captured at each of these massacres, forced into Turkish harems, and are leading a life to which death were far preferable? And the throng 1 of children who were captured and taken or sold as slaves ? And again, thousands and thousands of poor, wretched fugitives, wandering about nearly naked and without food, not knowing from day to day, where to rest their heads. Hundreds of Christian villages have been totally destroyed. Yet all non-Mohammedans might avoid all these troubles, be they Armenians, Nestorians or Jews, if they so desired. All they need do is to renounce their faith and turn Mohammedans. It is certainly true that from the moment a Christian embraces Mohammedanism, his trouble ceases. It is not astonishing, therefore, though greatly to be deplored, that many grow weak and finally yield and take recourse to this way of ending their misery. Many have already done so, and others are preparing to follow their example. May God have mercy upon these poor fellow Christians and deliver them from the cruel sword of Moham- medanism and bring them under a Christian banner. After a stay of twenty-three days with the Patriarch, and having made all necessary arrangements with him concerning my work, I started on my return to Persia, escorted by two Turkish soldiers, who accom- panied and guarded me, having instructions to keep me from receiving any information from the people until we reached Persia. Here they left me, after I had been for forty-five days under surveillance. I was nearly broken down in health, owing to the many privations, hardships and sickening sights I had undergone and witnessed, and felt very much relieved when, once more at home, I perceived that my school and all the rest of my work was in a flourishing condition. MEDICAL MISSIONARY. Although the spiritual needs of the world are the greatest and should be sought first, yet the physical needs of the world are also great, and much greater in the heathen world than in the Christian world. The healing art is only second to the saving art, and the two go hand in hand, though the former must always be subservient. "And Jesus went about all the cities and villages, teaching in their synagogues, and preaching the gospel of the kingdom, and healing every sickness and every disease among the people." (Matt. 9:35). Our Lord was therefore Teacher, Preacher and Healer. His rela- tion to the world as evangelist is our relation to the world as mission- 58 PERSIA BY A PERSIAN. aries. As He was so are we in the world. Christ is, then, in His own life and, teaching' our authority for medical missions. Livingstone said "God had an only Son, and He was a physician." The purpose of all Christ's healing miracles was plainly to establish the divine character of His life and mission and to prepare the heart and mind for the acceptation of His divine message. This also is the aim of the Medical Mission. Its purpose is not only to evangelize and to prepare the way for evangelization but to establish the Divine charac- ter of Christianity, of which it is a part. Healing the body is necessary as well as curing the soul. In other words it is the "double cure." Still further, we have His command to "Heal the sick," and the commis- sion Christ gave to His disciples to "preach the Kingdom of God and to heal the sick" is none the less our commission, though God's natural medicines are used in lieu of the healing power possessed by the disciples., Such is the missionary physicians' commission. Medical missions are now established in most of the great mission fields. Their value is attested by the fact of their rapid increase in recent years and they have become a powerful factor both as a direct evangeliz- ing agency and in preparing the way for the Gospel message. Medical missions in India are a powerful evangelizing agency. They rapidly disarm the people of their caste prejudices, and while the reci- pients of their benefits, the patients in addition to the living lesson of a Christianity which they can see, are attentive and receptive listeners to the Gospel message. If there is any Christian influence 'among Mohammedans, it is due to the Christian doctor. If Christians ever expect to convert Moham- medans to Christ, it will have to be done through Christian medical men and women. Iron doors of caste, society, religious hatred, personal and national ill-feeling melt away before a physician as snow before a summer sun. His office is considered as sacred and honored as that of a priest, and his influence is immense even with the highest and great- est in the land. The two greatest needs in Persia at the present time are native preachers and native doctors. The importance of such a work can scarcely be over estimated. The native doctors are entirely ignorant and when they touch surgical cases at all, they do not hesitate to operate with rusty razors, as the surgical instruments as well as medicines of to-day are unknown to them. However, there are many quack doctors who have a system of superstition which has been taught them orally by older men. PERSONAL HISTORY. 59 Blades of some kind of grasses which are known to medical science s having no medical properties are the chief remedies prescribed for disease. Internal diseases are called supernatural and it is believed they are inflicted by evil spirits. None of the doctors can do anything for these forms of diseases as they consider it out of their realm. ! A patient with an internal disease is sent to the priest who will diagnose the case by looking into the Koran or some other supersti- tious books in which he locates the particular demon that is afflicting the patient. For a remedy he will write some mystical signs on two slips of paper, directing the patient to soak one in a cup of water and to bind the other on his arm. There are several remedies for fever, one is to tie seven knots in a white thread and fasten it around the waist wearing it fifteen or twenty days. They believe this will cure the fever. Another remedy is to remove the clothing and jump into cold water before breakfast. If a man has a severe attack of colic and cries "I die, I die," his friends run for the nearest baldheaded man, as he is known to have power to remove the pains by firmly pressing the smooth surface of his cranium against the surface of the patient's body nearest the seat of pain. Pork is never used as food but as a remedy for rheumatism. The medical work for women appeals still stronger to the sym- pathy of the Christian women, they are so needy, helpless, sorrow smitten, over borne, and neglected in a Mohammedan land, and Mo- hammedan life subjects them to many physical hardships and sufferings and decay so that the medical missionary comes to them as an angel from the Most High. PRACTICE OF MEDICINE IN PERSIA. A physician cannot see the faces of his patients. The traveler in the East is often asked to prescribe for the sick, be he actually a phy- sician or not. I have been repeatedly requested to serve in this capacity. The physician, however, labors under a peculiar disadvantage in Persian practice, even if his qualifications are not too carefully examined ; for, as I have indicated above, he is not permitted to see the face of his female patient and is thus deprived of one of the most important points in forming a diagnosis. The native doctors require no other diploma to enter the profession of medicine than a supply of infinite assurance. They are generally itinerants who go from village to village and announce their profession on arriving. Extraordinary remedies are given. Hav- 60 PERSIA BY A PERSIAN. ing prescribed, the physician decamps before the results become per- ceptible, aware that a common sequence is death. Fortunately for the practitioners, this result is generally quietly accepted as the fiat of Kis- met, or Destiny. It must be admitted that the most important factor now at work in the missionary field of Persia is one that is largely secular. I refer to the employment of missionary physicians. Persons who do not care to be instructed in the tenets of a faith other than their own are still in need of a physical aid. All may not be in spiritual need, but all sooner or later, require a physician. If the practitioner be a man of ability, tact and suavity, he acquires a personal influence that necessarily leads to a modification of the opposition to the progress of the mission- aries with whom the physician is associated and important concessions may thus gradually be obtained from those in power. The first and greatest of the obstacles which complicate th'e present condition in Persia is Mohammedanism. The government and the laws are subject to official direction by the clergy, the case is indeed serious. But proceed still further and imagine a nation whose sovereign draws from the priesthood his authority to rule, and whose laws are based on religious exactions ; whose law-givers are priests and whose judges are also priests ; whose government in a word is theocratic, — and we find a system utterly and absolutely at variance with the spirit of the present age, and opposed to genuine progress in all ages. That is exactly what we find in Persia. The clergy or mollalis are irrevocably opposed to innovation from whatever quarter; they have their grip on the throat of the nation, and the advantage is with them because not only is every law of the land on their side, but they are the expounders of that law. MY SECOND JOURNEY TO AMERICA. Very soon, however, I became convinced that the nature and extent of my work demanded another visit to the United States. The principal object of my coming to the United States the second time, was to take a course in medicine, to qualify myself more fully as a missionary. I did not hesitate long, made the necessary arrangements with my helpers for conducting my schools during my absence, and left Persia a second time for America. Some time before this I had met a Dervish, named Ismail, who had entered into religious conversation with me. He, by some means or other, had begun to entertain doubts concerning his Mohammedan reli- PERSONAL HISTORY. 61 s^ion, and, upon inquiry and further searching, had been convinced that the Islam was a false religion. He was now looking for something better. I found him to be an honest, upright man, true to his convic- tions, and, being urged by some Christians who knew him, and by the |Nestorian bishop, Mar Gabriel, I determined to take Ismail with me to Russia, where he might enjoy religious liberty. But, before doing so, 1 had an agreement with him that he should try and eat bread and meat jlike other people. As a Dervish, true to his faith, he had become of the [fanatic kind, and, as he claimed, had not partaken any food of any kind excepting raisins, for to let the body suffer will enrich the soul," was one of the axioms in which he believed. I myself entertained some I. YOHANNAN. ABSHALLOM GEORGE. doubts at first as to the veracity of his statements, but found them substantiated by many people who had known him for years. He had been with me for two or three months when we left Persia, and I had tried to get him accustomed to wholesome food again gradually, by mixing crumbs of bread with his raisins. It was not an easy task, nor was it altogether safe to take a Dervish with me on my journey. I, consequently, arranged it so that Ismail traveled at night, while I and a youth, Abshallom George by name, whom I also took with me, traveled during the day. In the evening, after our arrival at some place, Ismail would meet us, and Abshallom would give him food and money and the name of the next station where 62 PERSIA BY A PERSIAN. he coulc\ meet us. This was a very necessary precaution on our part, as in Persia and Turkey a Dervish who renounces his faith and openly confesses Christianity is doomed. In Tabriz there was a slight com- motion among the Mohammedans when some one publicly claimed he had seen a Dervish coming and going in and out where we lodged. Our host and hostess, however, contradicted him by stating that the Dervish had arrived one day sooner than we, and so the gossip was silenced. After we were safely through the Caucasus, Russia, we could allow: Ismail to travel in our company, which he gladly did. It was both his and my earnest desire to get with him to Tifflis, where I expected him-; safe enough to remain and be baptised. But I very soon found that I was mistaken, as not long after our arrival at Tifflis the Persian consul- was informed that I had converted a Dervish to the Christian faith. The consul sent his servants to investigate. I, having been warned, however, was prepared. I had a carriage waiting at the back door, and when the servants of the consul entered the house, Abshallom, with the Dervish, left it through the back door, and in the carriage were immedi- ately taken to the depot, where they left for Valadikokas. Nevertheless, the consul's servants had found some of the "holy instruments" of the Dervish in my apartments and had taken these with them to the consul, who, in consequence, threatened to follow the matter up more closely. Upon this I dispatched a messenger and informed the consul that, if he did not let this matter rest just where it' was and have the articles his servants had taken from me speedily returned, I should certainly seek and find redress by appealing to all the rest of the consuls. This had the desired effect and I recovered my property. While in this city I also embraced the opportunity to settle my accounts with the British Bible Society, the London house having turned the matter over into the hands of their agents at Tifflis. I sent a large number of Bibles to Persia, and took a few only, and in various languages spoken in Russia, with me, as I thought I might make use of them on my journey. After several days I reached Valadikokas, where I met Abshallom with Ismail. I had entertained the idea of leaving the latter there, but here also we soon learned that among the many Mohammedans living or sojourning in this place Ismail was not safe. He also exhorted me to take him somewhere where he would not see any more Mohammedans, whatever. So I bought three tickets to Alexandrowa, via Harkow, Kiew and War- saw. But between Rostow and Harkow I was robbed on the train and we were obliged to lay over, as I had no more money. We stopped at the depot for two days and three nights, I trying to sell my Bibles dur- PftRSO^At HISTORY. 63 ing the day. The people were Polanders, but I had only a few Polish Bibles with me. These were soon sold, as also some curiosities I had brought with me. I now bought three tickets for the next station. This was on the German frontier, and here we were detained by the officials, ,who claimed thy could not let us go on to Germany with as little money as we had. We told them our story of having been robbed of our money in Russia, and I tried to impress upon them that I had friends in Berlin I. YOHANNAN. Who is in this country at present preparing himself for mission work) who would supply me as soon as I arrived there, but all to no avail. There remained nothing for us to do but to sell nearly everything we had (even my razor) and raise money. In this manner, with the help of God, I finally succeeded in getting all three of us to Berlin, and have still a few marks left. In Berlin, we were taken to a mission-house, where we were cor- dially welcomed, and spent a few days. All this time Ismail had not 64 PERSIA BY A PERSIAN. abandoned his Dervish clothes and his long, waving hair. Now I en- treated him to make a radical change in his exterior and turn also out- wardly into a good Christian. He consented, and we forthwith took him to a barber's shop. A suit of clothes was given him to put on, and he now began to look like one of us. We had each a separate bed to sleep in. Next morning Ismail came to me grumbling and excited. He could not get along with putting on his new clothes. He had his trousers on back part in front, his collar was upside down, his suspenders were buttoned over his coat, etc. This irritated him greatly, and he insisted upon having his own garments back and did not want these clothes any longer. I adjusted his clothing and talked with him kindly, upon which he became soothed and went with us to the breakfast table. But we were quite late and therefore alone in the dining room. For the first time in his life Ismail tried to make use of a knife and fork. His first attempts were very awkward, and I told him to watch us and then do as we did. He tried it, but stuck the fork so far into his mouth that the points pricked him. Now he grew angry, threw knife and fork upon the floor, overturned his chair and sat on the floor pouting and saying he would have nothing to do with such things any more. I softly and kindly instructed him again in the use of these things, and finally he became more pleasant again. After breakfast we went out to see the sights in the city, I explaining to my companions what we saw as we went along. In the evening Ismail grew obstinate again. He once more de- manded his own old garments, and insisted on having them. I had foreseen this, however, and had ordered them burnt, with the exception of a sheepskin the Dervishes use to sleep upon. This I let him have. He immediately took off his collar, cuffs and coat and hurled them from him, took the sheepskin, went out into the middle of the street, and lay down on the sheepskin. Naturally, in a few moments he was surrounded by a throng of people who stared at him and watched every movement he made. I went out and tried to get him back into the house, but not until after much urging and parleying with him, did I succeed. But into a room he would not come. He spread his sheep-skin upon the floor of the hall and lay down upon it, and there he spent the night. We offered to buy him some new clothes next day, but he would not have them, saying, "Why should we endeavor to keep this fragile body clean and neat, knowing that after death it will become a prey to the worms ?" After a few days, however, he became more obedient and supple, so that I entertained the idea of taking him with me to America. My PERSONAL HISTOEY. 65 own circumstances, however, took such a turn that this was made im- possible, but afterward I was glad to hear from him and helped him ;ome to this country. I had some Syriac manuscripts brought with me from Persia. These I sold in Berlin, and thus became enabled to buy tickets for myself and Abshallom to Hanover. Here I called at the office of the American Consul, who helped me on to Salzbergen, where I stopped at the station depot again for three nights. I had yet some German Bibles left, and a Jmjk SISTER OF I. YOHANNAN AND HER BABY. few pieces of needle-work or embroidery, and tried to sell both ; but ow- ing to the language, of which I understood nothing, and to the fact that the inhabitants were all Roman Catholics. I could not dispose of anything, and we were both nearly starved. On one evening I set out on a lonely walk and was lost in a forest through which I wandered. I could not find my way back to the station until nearly 4 o'clock in the morning. But while wandering on and on, trying to find the depot, I Letter received from my brother Joseph while in prison at Dixxa, Oavar, Turkey, stating that my message had reached him, and British and American ambassadors had been informed and every effort was being made to secure my release, etc. 66 PERSONAL HISTORY. 67 crossed some fields, and was overjoyed when I noticed some turnips growing in one of them. I pulled a few and ate them, and was greatly refreshed. I did not forget, either, to take some turnips with me for Abshallom, who had been patiently waiting for me at the depot. When first he caught sight of me he cried for joy, for he had already given me up for lost, thinking I had been killed by some one or devoured by wild beasts. Upon the arrival of the first morning train, I called to the pas- sengers leaving the train, "Is there any person who can speak English?" Immediately a young man came to me, and upon hearing what I had to say to him, directed me to Bentheim, where, he said, there was a society called "Newton." After several hours walk I came to that place, but found the people very unkind and irreligious. They said they were not able to assist us in any manner. When I left this place tears rolled down my cheeks, and I knew not what next to do, but thought we should surely have to starve. As I was walking along the street, almost despairing, I saw a book store with some Bibles in the show window. Upon finding that the keeper could understand some English I offered him my Bibles for sale. He called me in, and, after learning my circumstances, said he had heard of me before. He fed me, and gave me some eatables also for Abshal- lom, whom I had left at the depot. Besides this he presented me with ten marks, and another person, who was present and overheard our conversation, handed me three marks more. This money enabled us to go to Kampen, Netherlands, where I met my most honorable and dearly beloved professors and friends. At Rotterdam I called upon Mr. Ittman and some other friends, from whom I received donations as follows : Fifteen guldens of Mr. Ittman; twenty guldens from G. Van den Boom; twenty guldens from J. L. Van den Boom ; ten guldens from Mr. Van den Kooi, and twenty- five guldens from the Reformed Church at Rotterdam. These friends also offered to purchase for me a second-class ticket to New York, but I declined the kind offer, saying that they might better help me along in my work. I therefore left Rotterdam with Abshallom for New York. The following is one of the reports of my schools since my second arrival in this country: Oroomiah, Persia. Rev. Isaac Adams : Dear Brother : In my last letter I sent you the report of the school of Balaf, and also of Mart Maryam. Herewith I send you the report of the other schools : 68 PERSIA BY A PERSIAN. SCHOOL OF KARALARY— NUVIA, Teacher. He has a nice and warm room where the children are instructed. Class i. — They have begun with the spelling book and have com- pleted it, and also have read the Gospel of Matthew, and are up to tne 15th chapter of Mark, and they are taught the history of the Old Testa- ment, and have also committed to memory fifteen pages of the question book. Class 2. — This class also began with the spelling book and have completed the same, and have learned the Gospel of Matthew, and also fifteen pages in the question book. This class was brave and gave good satisfaction in examination. Class 3. — They arc in the spelling book up to page 10, and three pages in the question book. Class 4. — They are all small children, who are just beginning the spelling book, and are taught the Lord's prayer. The village is in great need of this school, but it is necessary for the teacher to be faithful. There is no other school in this village, neither is there any other Christian worker. It is a grand field for a faithful teacher. SCHOOL OF MOORASCHERRY— GEWERGES, Teacher. Class 1. — They read in the New Testament in the modern Sy- riac language, and also in Genesis in the ancient Syriac. They gave a good showing in arithmetic, in the Lord's prayer, ten commandments and apostle's creed. They also have had stories from the Old Testa- ment, and have learned to write. Class 2. — They began with the spelling book, have completed the same, and also the Gospel of Matthew, and are now in the Gospel of Mark. Class 3. — They began with the spelling book, and have completed the same, and have just started in the Gospel of Luke. _ Class 4. — There are six boys and girls just beginnners in the spelling book. In all the classes of this school, instruction is given in the Lord's prayer, ten commandments and apostle's creed. In this school we have three children of Mohammedans that is from the Sheah's sect, and also a Soonnces, whose name is Ali. He has learned two pages from Goo- listan, and he has newly begun on the Gospel of Matthew in the Persian language. In this village there are forty-two houses ; eighteen are Nes- torians and the rest are Mohammedans, and there is no other school besides this. The teacher here we found to be very faithful. Every evening he visits the houses and holds conversation about Christ with the parents of the children, and he does good work in the village. There is good testimony about him from the village. He is a worthy ard faithful young man. We found him busy with his school. May the Lord bless his work. It's an excellent field for labor among Musselmen and Nestorians. PERSONAL HISTORY. 69 SCHOOL OF ALKAI — K. BENYAMIN, Teacher, assisted by GE- WERGES, Jr. The total of pupils here at present is thirty-two; of these, fourteen are boys and eighteen are girls. One girl died with diphtheria ; she was II years of age. There are two others sick in bed. Class I. — In the ancient Syriac, the Gospel of Mark and in Genesis up to the 17th chapter. In the Turkish language, they have begun in the Gospel of Matthew up to the 10th chapter. In Persian they have studied three chapters in Genesis. In arithmetic, they are up to division ; and they have a good knowledge of Bible stories, and have fine hands for writing. Class 2. — In the ancient Syriac, they have studied nine chapters in the Gospel of Matthew. In the Turkish language they have studied forty- ~ three pages in the spelling book. In the modern Syriac they study in Genesis. Class 3. — In the ancient Syriac, with its translation into modern, they have begun from the 1st chapter of Matthew to the 13th. In the Turkish spelling book they are up to page 17, and have a good start in writing sentences. Class 4. — In the modern Syriac, they have begun from the 1st chap- ter of Matthew and are now to the 14th chapter. In Genesis, they have just begun in the modern Syriac. IN THE GIRL'S DEPARTMENT. Class 1. — They have begun with Matthew and are up to the 6th chapter of Luke. They have studied a little in the ancient Syriac from the beginning of Matthew. They have also learned the smaller arith- metic, and have three pages in the spelling book of the Turkish language. They also have penmanship. Class 2. — The ancient Syriac began from the first of Matthew and they are now up to the 14th chapter of Mark. They have just started to learn to write. Class 3. — They are all in the spelling book. The most of the boys and girls in this school, except the 3rd class of the girl's department, can recite the Lord's prayer and" apostle's! creed, and some of the higher classes can also recite the ten commandments. The teachers are very faithful and quiet and love teaching the pupils. This school is in good order, but all the work in it, we may say, 1 is the fruit of Kasha Benyamin, who is in great anxiety for its success, j SCHOOL OF DARBARY— AYRAHAM, Teacher. Class 1. — Study the New Testament up to the Gospel of John, and the Old Testament up to Exodus ; arithmetic up to subtraction ; spelling up to writing of sentences. Class 2. — Fourteen boys and girls are in this class. They are all in" the spelling book, and instructions are given to them in Bible stories, 7J PERSONAL HISTORY. 71 and they are taught the Lord's prayer, ten commandments and apostle's creed. Karram, a Mohammedan, has studied five chapters in Goolistan, and two chapters in Tarrusel, and seven chapters from the Gospel of Matthew in the Persian language. In the Syriac language, he is in the speller. The teacher does the house to house visitations every evening and people are glad to receive him and listen to the Gospel stories. We have had good testimony for him from the inhabitants of the village, and they are all pleased with his work and manner of conduct. There is no other school building here besides ours. The school is not very comfortable as the roof is quite low. SCHOOL OF KARASANLOVI, ASYAD, Teacher. Class i. — Completed the Gospel of Matthew and Mark, and are now to the 14th chapter of Luke. And in the Turkish language they have studied fifteen pages in the speller, writing of words and sentences. Class 2. — Up to the 12th chapter of Mark. Catechetical instruc- tions — that is, Bible stories, ten commandments, Lord's prayer, etc., are given to this and all the other classes. Class 3. — Completed the speller, and studied thirteen pages in the book called Deaf and Dumb. They will soon begin with the Gospel of Matthew. Class 4. — They have started the speller and have gone to the 21st page. Lord's prayer they have committed to memory. Class 5. — There are thirteen boys and girls and all are beginners. I can most heartily speak a good word for Teacher Asyad, for her care and earnestness in teaching these little ones the fear of the Lord and the spiritual catachism. The subject which they study she causes them to understand. Her aim is not only to put the truth in the heads of her pupils, but also in the heart, and she does not hesitate to teach the stories in the Bible. This is the only school in Karasanlovi. SCHOOL OF BORASHAN, AGASY, Teacher. Class 1. — In the ancient Syriac, they began from the Gospel of Matthew and are up to the 24th chapter, with the translation in the modern Syriac. And reading from the different parts of the Testament. Have completed the smaller arithmetic and started the larger one. Class 2. — Have studied twenty-seven chapters in the Gospel of Matthew, in the modern Syriac, and two chapters in the ancient Syriac, and smaller arithmetic. Class 3. — Began with the speller and completed the same, and have also studied six chapters in Mark. Class 4. — Started the beginning of speller and have completed the same ; have studied three chapters of Mark. Class 5. — There are nine boys and girls. They are all in the speller. All the classes in this school, except the 4th and 5th, can recite the PERSONAL HISTORY 73 Lord's prayer, ten commandments and the apostle's creed, while the two classes can recite the Lord's prayer only. This is the only school in this village. SCHOOL OF ERIAVA, K. PATROUS, Teacher. This school had thirty-two pupils, but, because a missionary came to the village and gave alms to the poor, eight children went away to get alms. There are two other schools besides our own here, — one of the Roman Catholics, and one of the Presbyterians ; but the number of pupils in our school exceeds both of the others. I suppose the children who went to the other school to get alms will soon come back, that is, after the alms-giving is suspended. Class i. — The New Testament in the ancient Syriac has been studied with translation into that of modern. The larger arithmetic, up to subtraction. In the speller, up to writing words and sentences, and catechetical instruction. Class 2. — Modern Syriac, first three Gospels, smaller arithmetic and writing. Class 3. — Modern Syriac, begun from the first part of Matthew up to 12th chapter; previously they repeated the speller. Class 4. — Began the speller and have completed it and started from the Gospel of Luke. Class 5. — They are all small children and are just beginners. SCHOOL OF SANGAR, AB SHALOM, Teacher. Class 1. — Have studied Genesis, with the translation from the an- cient to modern Syriac. Have completed the question books. Have studied arithmetic to subtraction, and from the Gospel they have studied ten chapters in Matthew and seventeen in Mark. Class 2. — They have studied six chapters of Genesis, with the trans- lation from the ancient to the modern Syriac. They are nearly through with the question book. They have studied arithmetic to subtraction. They have started with the Gospel of Matthew. Class 3. — They have studied fifteen chapters in the Gospel of Luke, with translations from ancient to modern Syriac, and five chapters in Genesis, in the modern Syriac language.- All these classes have also writing, and are able to repeat the Lord's prayer and ten command- ments, and also have learned many passages out of the Scriptures. Class 4. — There are eight boys and girls in this class and all are just beginners. They have just begun with the speller. SCHOOL OF KOOM", ABRAHAM, Teacher. Class 1. — Completed the speller and started in the Gospel of Matt- hew. They are up to the Gospel of Luke ; of course, they simply give a repetition to the speller ; small arithmetic. 74 PERSIA BY A PERSIAN. Class 2. — They have just completed the speller, expect them to begin with the Gospel soon. Class 3. — They are advanced in the speller. Class 4. — They are all beginners. Instruction in Bible stories, the Lord's prayer, ten commandments, and apostle's creed is given in this school. There are no other schools besides ours in this village. All the schools (eleven) begin between 8 and 9 o'clock in the morning. First, after all pupils are present, leaving their shoes in the hall while keeping on their hats, the teachers read a portion of the Scriptures, after which he puts simple questions to the pupils concerning what he has read ; then he opens with prayer. Then he starts from the first class, and so forth, listening to their recitations. The teacher is sitting in the center of the room, and when the class comes to recite, they form a circle around him, while the other pupils are sitting against the walls of the room, yet the pupils are allowed to ask questions at any time. The -school is closed with one of the pupils reciting the Lord's prayer ; that is about 12 o'clock. School starts again at 1 o'clock and closes at 5 o'clock. The last hour, between 4 and 5 o'clock, is given entirely to Bible instructions. Most of our schools meet on Sunday with the teachers, in like manner, for religious purposes. The pupils who are in advance will re- cite seven verses, anywhere out of the Bible, and the others will recite one, and some just one sentence, as ''God is love." As has been stated previously, the teacher visits the homes and the parents of the children and tries to increase the attendance in the school, and speaks to the parents about the Gospel. The field is great and the laborers are few, but let it be known to you that the work is progressing nicely and the prospects grow brighter every day. We may expect a great work in the future. We hope every- thing will be written to you fully, that you may know that the efforts of our friends have not been in vain. May the dear Lord reward them in His kingdom above. Amen. Yours truly, KASHA OSHANA. ESHAKAN, Examiners. This is a literal translation of the report I have received. I believe this is a statement which will make the hearts of those who have helped in my work, with their small and great donation, rejoice in the Lord with thankfulness; that through these gifts there had been planted eleven schools, children and youths are being taught not only educa- tion and civilization ; but the secret knowledge of our blessed Redeemer, who loved such as these, and who said, "As much as you do unto these little ones, ye do unto me." Surely, we may say that the Lord reigneth, and who knows but out PERSONAL HISTORY. 75 of this humble work we may see a great opening for the proclamation of the Gospel in my country. I deemed it necessary to send my brother Abraham to care for this work during my absence, and he, therefore, left New York October, The following is a letter from my brother Abraham, received lately : Mart-Maryan,* Oroomiah, Persia. Dear Brother : I have just returned from Karasanlovi, whereas, I was yesterday in Alkai. I am glad that I can give you a good report concerning the schools. I found also that the ignorance and superstition of the people is almost without description. The men say, woman has no part in the resurrection, and the women themselves have no knowl- edge of future life ; but to their great surprise they have heard and hear about God's love to them, and the story of the cross seems so wonder- ful to them that they cannot believe it, especially that He should care for them and be their Savior. At first there was some prejudice as to the school and the work, but now many come to hear and ask about that wonderful Savior. Some people, more especially the older ones, have a great idea that heaven is to be merited by strict observance of the fastings, especially at this time, as fifty days are observed before Easter. But, as you know, they abstain from meat and oily substances, but they do not cease to swear and do other wicked things. However, thanks be to God, that the power of the holy life of Christ is seen in the respect now shown them, and in the increasing readiness to hear them again and again. At 9 o'clock the examination commenced in the schoolroom, which was crowded by the parents and people of the village. The pupils occupied the middle of the room. The studies in which they were examined were modern and ancient Syriac, Persian and Turk- *Two wards of Oroomiah city are inhabited by Christians. One is known by the name of Gol patali-Khan ; here live the Armenians, and among them is the French mission headquarters ; the! other is inhabited by the Assyrians or Nestorians. American and English mission workers have their headquarters here. This part is known by the name of Mart- Maryan. The name is taken from the church erected here in the honor of the Virgin Mary. The 'tradition as to the erection of a church here is, that a priest, while asleep, dreamt that a woman appeared to him. He asked her name. She answered: "I am Mary, mother of Jesus; thou shalt build a church here in my name, and let all mothers, who may lack milk to ; nourish their children, come to my shrine, and I will make their supply plentiful." So the women, of all religions, from distant parts of the country, will come with wax candles, sheep and dove sacrifices, and also with the incense, to seek her blessing. 76 PERSIA BY A PERSIAN. ish languages, geography, spelling, arithmetic, Bible history, reading and writing. But what pleased me most was the recitations of the differ- ent verses and passages of Scripture, one child reciting a whole chapter. And in all the work the pupils did credit both to themselves and their teacher. The singing especially pleased the parents, many of whom loudly expressed their astonishment, especially at seeing that the girls as well as the boys could be educated. The teacher not only taught them to pray, but also to love Jesus; and she is in the habit of praying with different pupils, alone, each day, and the school also is opened and closed with prayer. The teacher has also done much to interest the parents in religion. In short, I can say that the good seed is being sown, and hope the Lord will bless the work and will strengthen the teachers to do still more for the Master. My brother, do all you can, through the help of God, to spread the Gospel of our dear Lord to these ignorant and superstitious people. I assure you that your struggles have not been in vain. I am, your brother, ABRAHAM ADAMS. PART II. PERSIA, ITS MANNERS, CUSTOMS, HABITS AND SOCIAL LIFE. HISTORY OF PERSIA. Persia is .called Iran by the natives. It extends nine hundred miles west and east and seven hundred miles north and south. The present boundaries are: The Caspian Sea and the Transcaucasian provinces of Russia on the north; Bokhara, Afghanistan and Boloochistan on the east ; the Straits of Ormuz and the Persian Gulf on the south ; Asiatic Turkey on the west. It has an area of 648,000 square miles. Many nations of whom we read in the Bible and in history have lived or had their representatives in Persia, but only one of these is in existence at the present time. We know of Egyptians, Assyrians, Baby- lonians, Greeks and Romans as having once been prevailing powers, mighty empires of the world ; but they have either vanished from the face of the earth or their power and glory has faded away and they have dwindled into insignificant provinces of other empires and kingdoms. Persia has held its own ; it still occupies the same position it did cen- turies ago. It is also remarkable as a Bible-land. By many Persia is claimed as the region where the Garden of Eden was situated; where Abraham Irs PERSIA BY A PERSIAN. was born ; where Daniel prophesied. It was under the rule of Cyrus the Great, and the home of the wise men who were the first representatives of the gentiles who came to worship the infant born Christ.* When Assyria led the Jews captive to Babylon, it was Persia who humbled her power and vanity and restored Judah to her native land, to rebuild the house of the Lord. Her glory, today, has flown away and her splendor has faded, but her physical beauty still remains. Persia is a paradise, intoxicating peo- ple with the fragrance of its roses. It is a garden, wreathing the faces of mankind into smiles by its beautiful streams. The national emblem of the empire is the lion and the sun, which accounts for the fact that it is occasionally called the land of the lion and the sun. Persia was added to the first Assyrian Empire by Minus about 2050 years B. C. It appears again in its independent state 1937 B. C, under Chedorlaomer. He allied himself with three other kings and conquered the kings of Sodom and Gomorrah and three other kings of that region and made them pay him tribute. After twelve years of servitude these kings re- belled. Chedorlaomer came again and gained a great victory and carried off a rich booty. Even Lot, who dwelt in that region was carried off. Abraham with his 318 trained servants and some confederates fell upon , Chedorlaomer by night and surprised him and rescued the captives. Loses its identity again as a kingdom 1661 B. C, in the Assyrian Em- pire. The great Assyrian monarchs conquered the northwestern part of Persia, which was inhabited by the Medes, a sister people to the Persians. They also extended their conquests to the westward and conquered Syria and Samaria. They carried off the "Ten Tribes of Israel" into captivity and settled them in the land of the Medes, the regions about , Lake Oroomiah, and no doubt the descendants of the "Lost Tribes" dwell in that part of Persia to this day. Appears again with Media in the revolt of Media and Persia under Deioces, 709 B. C. Under King Cyaxares, the Medes threw off the Assyrian yoke, and allying themselves with Nabopolasser, the father of the great Nebuched- nezzar, they captured and destroyed Nineveh in the year 606 B. C. They then extended their conquests westward into Asia Minor. Many *According to tradition the tomb of one of the three wise men is located near my home, and a church is erected at Mart-Maryan in his honor. Manners, customs, habits and social Life. •9 fierce wars were fought between the Medes and the Lydians. During one of these battles the sun was suddenly eclipsed and turned the day •into a dark night. This so terrified the terrified combatants that both parties were eager to conclude peaces The river Halys in Armenia was made the boundary line and the peace was cemented by a marriage be- tween the daughter of a Lydian king and Astyages, the son of King Cyaxares. This Cyaxares had some years before given his daughter Amytis in marriage to Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon. Upon the death of Cyaxares his son Astyages succeeded to the throne of Media, and about the same time the celebrated Croesus succeeded to the Lydian throne. Thus the three great monarchs of that day, Nebuchadnezzar, Astyages and Croesus were brothers-in-jaw and formed a sort of triple alliance against the rising power of Persia. Is included in the kingdom of Media. Cyrus the great, in 559 B. C, gives it prominence as the foundation of the Great Persian Empire, which lasted 229 years. The great Nebuchadnezzar, who had carried the Jews into captivity, had now been dead over twenty years. Upon his throne sat a man of different family named Nabonadius, who associated with him in the kingdom his son, Belshazzar. Nabonadius, it appears, was out on the open plains fighting Cyrus, while Belshazzar was left in the strong walled city of Babylon, "And Belshazzar the king made a great feast to a thousand of his lords, and drank wine before the thousand. Belshazzar, while he tasted the wine, commanded to bring the golden and silver vessels which his father, Nebuchadnezzar, had taken out of the temple, which was in Jerusalem ; that the king and his princes, his wives and his concubines might drink therein. Then they brought the golden ves- sels that were taken out of the house of God, which was in Jerusalem, and the king and princes, his wives and his concubines drank in them. They drank wine and praised the gods of gold and of silver, of brass, of iron, of wood and of stone." But in the midst of this wicked revelry, the king beheld with terror a hand writing upon the wall. "Mene, Mene, Tekel, Upharsin," were the words written. These were interpreted by captive Daniel to mean "God hath numbered thy kingdom and finished it. Thou art weighed in the balances, and art found wanting. Thy king- dom is divided and given to the Medes and Persians." "In that night was Belshazzar the king of the Chaldeans slain." THE PROCLAMATION OF CYRUS. Cyrus was not an idolater. The Persians were Zoroastrians and be- lieved in one God, the Creator of heaven and earth. Cyrus found among 80 PERSIA BY A PERSIAN. the various tribes of Babylon a peculiar people who likewise were not idolaters. Upon inquiring he learned their history, and moved by the Lord he issued the following proclamation : "Thus sayeth Cyrus, King of Persia; the Lord God of Heaven hath given me all the kingdoms of the earth ; and He hath charged me to build him a house in Jerusalem, which is in Judah. "Who is there among you of all His people? his God be with him, and let him go up to Jerusalem, which is in Judah, and build the house of the Lord God of Israel, (He is the God) which is in Jerusalem. "And whosoever remaineth in any place where he sojourneth, let the men of his place help him with silver and with gold and witli goods, and with beasts, besides the free-will offering for the house of God that is in Jerusalem." Thus, by the order of Cyrus the Great, were the Jews after their long captivity allowed to return to their land and to rebuild their temple. Later kings confirmed this order and also gave orders for rebuilding the city walls. The Jews then remained subject to the Persian Kings until the Persian Empire fell under Alexander the Great two hundred years later. DEATH OF CYRUS. The latter part of the life of Cyrus is wrapped in obscurity, and the manner of his death is not known, but Herodotus tells us that the follow- ing story is most worthy of credit : Having decided to make war upon the Massagetae, a fierce tribe that dwelt on the north of Persia, he marched against them with a large army. The Massagetae had no king, but were ruled by a queen named Tomyris, a woman of great cour- age and might, and' cunning and wise exceedingly. During the night before the great battle, Cyrus had a dream in which he saw his cousin, Darius, the son of Hystaspcs, with two im- mense wings upon his shoulders. With the one wing he overshadowed Asia, and with the other, Europe. At first Cyrus was inclined to suspect that his cousin was plotting against him, but he was warned that he was approaching his end and that Darius should be king of Persia. In the great battle that followed Cyrus was slain, and Queen Tomyris ordered his head to be severed from his body, and throwing it into a skin filled with blood, she told him to drink his fill now of what he had so thirsted during his lifetime. Re this story true or not, the MANNERS, customs, sAbits And social LlM si body of Cyrus was taken to Pasargadae and there buried in sacred ground and his tomb may be seen to this day. CAMBYSES. Cyrus was succeeded by his oldest son, Cambyses, who added Egypt to the kingdom of Persia. We are told that he sent to the Pharoah of Egypt and asked him for his daughter in marriage. The Pharoah, not daring to disappoint so powerful a monarch, and at the same time un- willing to send his only and beloved daughter to a strange land and a strange people, hit upon the dangerous expedient of sending a beautiful girl of royal blood, but not his daughter. The deception was discovered by Cambyses and he invaded and conquered Egypt in consequence. If we are to believe Herodotus, Cambyses acted like a mad man while down in Egypt. But Herodotus had all his information from the Egyptian priests, who, of course, hated the Persians, and made out a bad story. Having heard of the Long Lived Ethiopians, v. ho dwelt to the south of Egypt, he desired to conquer their country too. He ac- I cordingly sent spies into their country with presents to the king. These spies having arrived in that country and delivered the king's presents, they addressed the king as follows : "Cambyses, King of Persia, de- sirous of becoming your friend and ally, has sent us, bidding us confer with you, and he presents you with these presents which are such as he I himself most delights in." But the Ethiopians, knowing that they came as spies, replied : "The King of Persia has not sent you with these pres- ents to me because he values my friendship, and you do not speak the truth, for you have come here as spies. Neither is your king a just man, for if he were, he would not desire any other territory than his own, nor would he reduce people into servitude who have done him no harm. However, give him this bow, and say these words to him : 'The King of the Ethiopians advises the King of the Persians, when the Persians can thus easily draw a bow of this size, then to make war upon the Long Lived Ethiopians with more numerous forces; but until that time, let him thank the gods, who have not inspired the sons of the Ethiopians with a desire of adding another land to their own.' " The Ethiopians were a very strong and powerful race of men, re- puted to have lived to the age of one hundred and twenty years. The bow very few Persians were able to draw at all. When Cambyses heard the reply from the king of the Ethiopians, he was filled with rage, and rash and impulsive as he was, he ordered his army to be set in motion at once, without waiting to make the neces- PERSIA BY A PERSIAN. sary preparations. It was not long before all the supplies gave out. The country through which they passed was a desert and starvation or a retracing of their steps were the only alternatives. The king finally ordered a retreat. When he reached Egypt again, he found all the people rejoicing on every hand. The priests had an- nounced that their god, Osiris, had appeared among them — a calf had been found bearing the marks of the god upon it, the incarnation of the god — hence the rejoicing. Cambyses was in a bad mood and took it into his head they were rejoicing over his misfortune. He was told of the cause of their joy. He demanded to see the god. When the priests brought Apis, the calf-god, into the presence of the king, Cambyses drew his dagger and stabbed the calf in the thigh so that it died. Then, bursting into a fit of laughter, he said "Ye blockheads, are there such gods as these, consisting of flesh and blood, and sensible of steel? This, truly, is a god worthy of the Egyptians." Shortly after this, Cambyses was informed that a usurper, who pretended to be his brother Smerdis, had ascended the throne of Persia. Now Cambyses had out of jealousy and fear, put his brother Smerdis to death. The usurper was a magician priest who had assumed the scepter, established the magician fire-wor- ship, and even issued an order stopping the building of the temple at Jerusalem. Cambyses immediately set out for home. On mounting his horse one day he accidentally stabbed himself in the thigh. The wound was more serious than he supposed. Mortification set in. His physi- cians told him that he would die. But he steadily refused to believe it, for he said it had been told him by an astrologer that his death would occur at Ecbatana. He had, therefore, studiously avoided going to Ecba- tana, the capital of Media. He firmly believed in the prediction. After a few days, however, he was unable to go any further. He was com- pelled to halt in a little village in Syria. He asked where they were and was told that the village was named Ecbatana in Syria. He now saw the fulfillment of the prediction and knew that he must die. He con- fessed the murder of his brother and charged his officers to put down the usurper and restore the government to the royal family. The Egyptian priests believed that the untimely death of Cambyses was a punishment for the sacrilege he had committed against their god Osiris, and pointed to the manner of his death as an evidence — a wound in the thigh. DARIUS HYSTASPES. Darius Hystaspes put down the imposter, restored order and the Zoroasterian religion, gave orders to resume the works on the temple MANNERS, CUSTOMS, HABITS AND SOCIAL LIFE. 83 oi Jerusalem, and reorganized the empire. He then entered upon a Eu- ropean campaign. Having collected a large army he crossed the Helles- pont into Europe. He built a bridge across the lower Danube and crossed over into what is now southern Russia. He was making war upon the Scythian hordes. They had sent all the;r women and children and the greater part of their herds and flocks northward for safety. As Darius advanced they moved forward, never stopping to give him battle, always moving from place to place, and Darius pursuing from day to day. Finally Darius lost all patience and sent them word if they were men they should halt and give battle. The chief of the Scythians replied that they were not fleeing before Darius. They were doing now as they al- ways do, moving from place to place. If Darius desired to follow them as he was doing they had no objection to it. As to fighting, they had nothing to fight for, except the tombs of their ancestors. Come and find them and then see if the Scythians can fight. After some time Darius had spent his supplies and was in a great strait. The Scythians, hearing of the situation, sent a herald to Darius bearing as gifts a bird, a frog, a mouse and five arrows. These he de- livered to Darius, with the remark that if the Persians were wise they would discover the meaning of the gifts. The Persians consulted together. Darius was of the opinion that the Scythians meant to surrender to him — the mouse meaning the land, the frog the water, the bird the air, and the arrows the arms. All this the Scythians would deliver to Darius. But Gobryas, one of the seven fore- most princes of Persia, gave it as his opinion that the Scythians would say to the Persians "Unless you fly away through the air like a bird, or hide in the earth like a mouse, or dive into the lakes like a frog, we will shoot you to death with our arrows." His opinion prevailed among the Persian chiefs. Darius then decided to return. Now he had given orders to the Greeks, who kept the bridge, to destroy the bridge if they saw fit to do so, if he were not back in sixty days. The time was up and he had not returned. If the Greeks should have destroyed the bridge he would be at the mercy of the Scythians, who hotly pursued him. To his great joy he found that the bridge had been preserved. He thus succeeded in making his retreat without loss or disaster. THE IONIAN REVOLT. Shortly after the Scythian campaign the Greek cities of Asia Minor with Miletus in the lead revolted from Darius. The Greek States of the. 84 PERSIA BY A PERSIAN. Continent of Europe failed to send aid to their struggling kinsmen, with the exception of Athens and a little city of Euboea. The struggle began with the burning of the Persian capital of Asia Minor, Sardis, and ended with the burning of Miletus. The Greek cities were all reduced under Persia again. After the revolt was put down the king inquired as to who the Athenians were and when told they were only a little city State he was greatly enraged that so small a State should presume to interfere with his subjects. He appointed an officer whose duty it should be to arise at each meal and exclaim "O King, remember the Athenians." The king made preparations for punishing the insolent Athenians and to reduce all the Greek States. He sent heralds to Macedonia and the Greek cities demanding earth and water as tokens of submission. Macedonia and the Greek cities gave the earth and the water except Athens and Sparta. The Athenians cast the heralds into a pit and the Spartans in the true Spartan fashion cast the heralds, who demanded the earth and water, into a well and told them to help themselves. XERXES. Darius sent two expeditions 1 against Greece, both of which proved miserable failures. Before he could prepare for a third expedition, he died and was succeeded by his son Xerxes. Xerxes was at first inclined to abandon his father's plan of conquering Greece, but was finally prevailed upon to take up this work. He ordered every province of his mighty empire to furnish supplies in men and equipments, from Egypt in the west to India in the east, and from the mountains of Armenia and Kurdistan to the Arabian desert and the Indian Ocean. Several years were spent in these mighty preparations. In the spring of 480 all the contingents were to meet in the western part of Asia Minor and prepare for the passage into Europe. Perhaps there never was so great an army or concourse of people under one command before or since in the whole history of the world. Some have estimated that there were in all men, women, children, soldiers, sailors, servants, as many as five millions. These figures are of course exaggerated. Each nation had its own peculiar uniform and weapons of warfare. Xerxes had employed skill- ful architects to connect the two shores of the Hellespont by a bridge. But no sooner was the work finished than a storm arose and shattered the whole work. When Xerxes heard of this he was exceedingly indig- nant and commanded that the sea should be stricken with three hundred lashes with a scourge, and that a pair of fetters should be let down into the sea. He is also said to have sent some instruments to brand the MANNERS, CUSTOMS, HABITS AND SOCIAL LIFE. 85 sea. He charged those who flogged the waters to exclaim to the sea, "Thou bitter water, thy master inflicts this punishment upon thee, be- cause thou hast injured him. The king will cross over thee whether thou will or not. It is with justice that no man sacrifices to thee for thou art both a deceitful and briny sea." He also ordered the heads of the architects and builders to be struck off. Other engineers were then employed to bridge the strait the second time. THE CROSSING OF THE HELLESPONT. Xerxes had ordered a lofty throne of white marble to be erected at Abydos, which he ascended to view his immense army and fleet before crossing over into Europe. As he stood there surveying the countless hosts, stretching as far as his eyes could reach, and then on the other hand the immense fleet covering the bosom of the sea, his eyes sparkled with pride and satisfaction. Suddenly he looked over the strait into Europe and his eyes filled with tears. His uncle, Artabanus, who stood near him, asked the meaning of this sudden change of feeling, and the king replied : "When I saw this mighty armament and all these thou- sands and thousands of people all subject to my smallest wish, I was filled with exultation, but when I looked over to the other side of the strait and reflected how short this glory lasts and that in one hundred years not one of these shall be living, my heart was filled with pain and sorrow and my eyes with tears." They now made preparations for the passage. The next morning, as the sun rose, they burnt all manner of perfumes and strewed the road with myrtle branches. Xerxes poured a libation from a golden cup into the sea and offered up a prayer that no accidents might attend him and prevent him from subduing Europe. He then threw the golden cup and a golden bowl and a sword into the sea, perhaps as a peace offering, hav- ing repented that he had cursed and scourged the sea before. When these ceremonies were performed, the passage across the bridge began. This passage lasted seven days and seven nights. Xerxes is said to have crossed over last of all. AT THERMOPYLAE. The forces collected by the Greeks to oppose this immense horde were inexcusably small. A mere handful of men under the heroic Leon- idas of Sparta were stationed at the pass of Thermopylae. When the intrepid Leonidas was told of the countless numbers of the enemy and that their arrows would fly so thick as to obscure the sun, he replied: 86 PERSIA BY A PERSIAN. "So much the better, we can then fight in the shade." When Xerxes heard that a few hundred or thousand men were stationed in the pass to op- pose his passage, he regarded them as madmen who would come to their senses when they beheld the immense hosts of the enemy. He sent orders to Leonidas to deliver up his arms. Leonidas, in Spartan style, replied : "Come and take them." Xerxes ordered a chosen body of Medes to advance against the pre- sumptuous foes and bring them into his presence. The Medes fought bravely, but to no purpose. After the battle had lasted several hours, resulting in heavy losses to the Persians, Xerxes sent out his ten thou- sand "Immortals." But they were no more successful than the Medes. Xerxes is said to have leaped three times from his seat on a lofty throne when he beheld the repulse of his troops and especially of his "Im- mortals." The attack was renewed the next day, but with no better success. The king was beginning to despair of success when a treacherous Greek pointed out to the Persians a secret path across the mountains. Most of the Greeks now abandoned their posts, but the devoted Spartans, who must never desert a post, and a few of the others, remained and were cut down to a man. A monument was raised to them, bearing the in- scription : "Go stranger., and to Lacedaemon tell That here, obedient to her laws, we fell." RETURN OF XERXES. Athens was soon laid in ashes, and thus the wrongs done Darius were avenged, but in the great naval battle of Salamis, the greater part of the great Persian fleet was annihilated and Xerxes in great fear fled precipitately from Greece across the Hellespont into Asia, leaving to his general, Mardonius, the task of reducing the rest of the Greeks. In the great battle of Plataea the following year the rest of the Persian army was defeated and utterly routed, and thus ended the great expedition of Xerxes, which had cost so much treasure and so many lives. Xerxes returned to his palace and never again attempted an ex- pedition against the Greeks. He spent the rest of his life in luxury and idleness. He is, in all probability, the Ahasuerus of the Bible, as that is the Hebrew name corresponding to the Greek Xerxes. His character seems to accord well with that of Ahasuerus. MANNERS, CUSTOMS, HABITS AND SOCIAL LIFE. 87 DARIUS AND ALEXANDER. The last of the kings of the old Persian Empire was Darius Coda- manus. He was one of the best and at the same time one of the most un- fortunate of Persian kings. He had the misfortune of being a contem- porary of Alexander the Great. For under that great leader, Europe was to return the visit that Asia had made to her under Darius and Xerxes nearly two centuries before. What a contrast between the crossing of the Hellespont by Xerxes and Alexander the Great ; and what a contrast between the results of the two crossings. Alexander crossed with only a few thousand cavalry and thirty-five thousand foot soldiers. He quickly reduced all Asia Minor and then met and utterly routed Darius in the celebrated battle of Issus (333 B. C). Darius fled, leaving his mother, his wife, two daughters, and a little son as captives in the hands of Alexander. That evening, as Alexander was dining with his friends, a loud cry, a lamentation was heard from the tent of the captive queens and princesses. Upon inquiry Alexander learned that the captives had received the royal mantle which Darius had thrown off in his hurried flight, and supposing that the king had been slain, they gave expression to their great sorrow and distress. Alexander sent them the comforting assur- ance that Darius had escaped unhurt, and the following day, in com- pany with his most intimate friend, Hephaestion, he made a visit to the royal captives. Sysigambis, the mother of Darius, arose and bowed herself before Hephaestion, thinking he was Alexander as he was taller and looked more like a king than Alexander. Being informed of her mistake, she feared greatly, thinking that she had mortally offended the king, and tried to atone for her error. But Alexander comforted her, saying: "My good mother, you were not mistaken, for Hephaestion is also an Alexander." He then told the queen-mother that she could select as many of the noble Persian dead as she desired and have them buried in Persian style at his expense. The good woman could not find words to express her surprise at his magnanimity nor her gratitude for his kindness. She availed herself of his offer very sparingly, for she did not wisli to impose upon his liberality. ALEXANDER IN JERUSALEM. While Alexander was besieging Tyre he sent to the Samaritans and the Jews demanding them to surrender to him and to send him supplies. The Samaritans complied with this order, but the Jews replied that they had taken an oath of fealty to the Persian king and would 88 PERSIA BY A PERSIAN. remain faithful to their oath. After the fall of Tyre, Alexander >et out for Jerusalem to punish the insolence of the Jews, as thoroughly as he had punished the Tyrians. In this imminent danger, Jaddus, the high priest, sought the Lord, and gave orders for the offering up of public prayers for safety and pro- tection. In the night he was directed in a vision to strew the city with flowers, to set open all the gates, and go clothed in his pontificial robes, with all the priests dressed in their vestments, and all the people clothed in white to meet Alexander. This direction was punctually obeyed. The neighboring peoples expected that the wrath of Alexander was so great that he would certainly punish the insolent high-priest and destroy the city of Jerusalem as he had done with Tyre. Flushed with joy on that account, they waited in expectation of feasting their eyes upon the calamity of a people to whom they bore a mortal hatred. When the Jews heard of the approach of Alexander, they marched out in solemn procession to meet him, led by their high-priest. As Alexander approached, he was struck with the appearance of the high- priest, on whose mitre and forehead a golden plate was fixed, bearing the name of God upon it. As soon as the king saw the high-priest he advanced to meet him with every mark of respect, bowed his body, and adored the God whose name he saw, and saluted him who wore it with religious veneration. The Jews surrounded Alexander, raised their voices into a great shout and wished him every kind of prosperity. All spectators were seized with inexpressible surprise. Parmenio recovered himself from the astonishment and asked why he, whom everybody adored should adore the high-priest of the Jews. But Alexander re- plied : "I do not adore the high-priest, but the God whose minister he is ; for while I was at Dia, in Macedonia, my mind wholly fixed upon the designs of the Persian war, as I was reflecting upon the means of conquering Asia, this very man, dressed in the same robes, appeared to me in a dream, exhorted me to banish every fear, bid me cross the Hellespont boldly, and assured me that God would march at the head of my army and give me the victory over that of the Persians." Josephus adds that the high-priest conducted the king into Jeru- salem and showed him the book of Daniel and the prophecy in which Daniel declares that a Greek should destroy the empire of the Persians. Alexander was greatly pleased, and on the following day bade the Jews ask what favors they pleased of him. The high-priest desired that they might enjoy the laws of their fathers, and might pay no tribute on the seventh year. He granted them all they desired. He also granted the same privileges to the Jews in Babylon and Media- MANNERS, CUSTOMS, HABITS AND SOCIAL LIFE. 89 THE DEATH OF DARIUS' WIFE. After Alexander had conquered Egypt and set out upon his march for new conquests in Persia, news was brought him that the wife of Darius had died. He went at once to the tent of mourning. He found ! the queen-mother and the two young daughters bathed in tears. He consoled them in so kind and gentle a manner as to show that he himself was deeply afflicted. He caused the funeral obsequies to be performed with the -utmost splendor. The news of this death was carried to Darius by a eunuch, who succeeded in making his escape. Darius was deeply afflicted by this sad news, and especially as the queen could not receive the funeral rites befitting her rank. But when he was informed that the funeral had been performed with all possible magnificence, and when he learned of all the kindness of Alexander, he is said to have lifted his hands to heaven and offered the following prayer : "Ye gods, who preside over the birth of men and who dispose of kings and empires, grant that, after having raised the fortunes of Persia from its dejected state, I may transmit it to my descendants with the same lustre in which I received it, in order that, after having triumphed over my enemies, I may acknowledge the favors which Alexander has shown in my calamity to persons who are most dear to me; or, if the time ordained by the fates has at last come, or it must necessarily happen, from the anger of the gods, or the ordinary vicissitudes of human affairs, that the Empire of Persia must end ; grant that none but Alexander may ascend the throne of Cyrus." THE DEATH OF DARIUS. Another great battle followed on the plains of Arbela, east of the Tigeis. Darius was again put to rout and fled with a part of his army into the eastern provinces of Persia. Alexander marched down into the heart of old Persia and left his captives at Susa, their old home, where they were no longer captives. After organizing the government and appointing governors, he once more set out in pursuit of Darius. By this time, Darius was him- self a captive in the hands of one of his generals who had rebelled against bim. Bessus, the traitor general, was pursued by Alexander into Hyr- cania. Here Darius refused to follow any further. He would rather fall into the hands of Alexander. He was accordingly dispatched by the traitors and left covered with wounds. A Macedonian soldier coming up, found the dying king, who had still strength enough to ask for water. It was at once brought him. 90 PERSIA BY A PERSIAN. Somewhat revived by the drink, he was able to speak. He felt happy to know there was some one near him who could understand him and receive his dying words. He died in Alexander's debt, and sent him a multitude of thanks for all the kindness he had shown his mother, his wife and children, whose lives he had not only spared, but restored to their former splendor. He prayed that Alexander might be victorious and become the monarch of the whole world. "Give him thy hand," he said to the Macedonian, "as I give thee mine, and carry him in my name the only pledge I am able to give of my gratitude and affection." Hav- ing said this he breathed his last. Alexander came up a few minutes afterwards, and seeing the pros- trate body of the king, he shed generous tears over his fallen foe. He ordered the body to be embalmed and sent it to Sysigambis in order that it might be interred with the honors due to deceased kings of Persia, and be entombed with his ancestors. ALEXANDER AT BABYLON. After his conquest of all the eastern lands up to and including northwestern India, Alexander came to Babylon and established his capital there. He married the daughter of Darius and encouraged in every way the fusion of the Greeks and the Persians. But in the midst of his busy life, in the midst of his improvements, and new plans for conquest, he suddenly died, at the early age of thirty- three and his kingdom was soon divided. The eastern half, including Persia proper, soon fell under the Parthians who ruled it until the third century of our era. CHOSROES II. The new Persian Empire was established by Ardashir, or Arta- xerxes, who claimed to be a descendant of the ancient royal family of Persia. It was against these princes of the Sassanidae dynasty that the old emperors of Rome and Constantinople were constantly warring. The most celebrated of these rulers was perhaps Chosroes II. who wrested from the Emperor of Constantinople province after province, captured Antioch and Jerusalem, and carried off from the latter place the fragments of the true cross which the mother of Constantine had found and placed in the church of Jerusalem. Chosroes also reduced Asia Minor and established his camp within sight of Constantinople itself. ' i I MANNERS, CUSTOMS, HABITS AND SOCIAL LIFE. 91 After these conquests he retired for a time to enjoy the luxuries of his palace at Dastagerd, beyond the Tigris. "Six thousand guards suc- ;essively mounted before the palace gate ; the service of the interior apart- nents was performed by twelve thousand slaves and the various treasures of gold, silver, gems, silk and aumastics were deposited in a hundred subterraneous vaults. The voice of flattery, and perhaps of fiction, is not ashamed to compute the 30,000 rich hangings that adorned the walls ; the 40,000 columns of silver, or more probably of marble and plated wood, that supported the roof; and the 1,000 globes of gold suspended in the dome, to imitate the motions of the planets and the constella- tions of the Zodiac. "While the Persian monarch contemplated the wonders of his art and power, he received an epistle from an obscure citizen of Mecca, in- viting him to acknowledge Mohammed as the prophet of God. He re- jected the invitation and tore the epistle.- "It is thus," exclaimed the Arabian prophet, "that God will tear the kingdom and reject the sup- plications of Chosroes." (Gibbon). The predictions of Mohammed were soon fulfilled. Heraclius, the Emperor of Constantinople, suddenly roused himself, and in three glori- ous campaigns regained all the provinces which he had lost during the early part of his reign. And shortly after the death of Mohammed all Persia was overrun by the forces of the Caliphs and from that time to this the rulers of Persia have been followers of the prophet of Mecca. In 632 the Mohammedans conquered Persia and abolished the reli- gion of the Fire-Worshipers by the sword establishing Mohammedan- ism in its stead. Three hundred and thirty B. C, is included in the next great Asiatic kingdom of Syria ; till the revolt of Arsaces, 250 B. C, and in- cluded in the Parthian Empire till Artaxerxes I., founders of the Sass- anides dynasty, restored the kingdom of Persia and the religion of Zo- . roaster. 226 A. D., is added to the Saracen Empire and Mohammedan- ized by Usman the 3rd Caliph. 632 A. D. (the king being put to death and his army exterminated), is subdued by Togrul Beg and the Selju- kian Turks 1038, who are expelled in 1194. Subdued by Zengis Khan and the Moguls 1223, Bagdad made the capital 1345. Is invaded by Timour (Tamerlane), 1380, ravaged by him 1399. Conquered by the Turkomans 1468, who were expelled by the Shuites or Fatimite Moham- medans, who established the Lopfic dynasty under Ismael I. A. D., 1501, (Theran made the capital in 1796), which continues an independent but feeble kingdom tQ this day. Population estimated at ten millions. 92 PERSIA BY A PERSIAN. A new dynasty arose in western Persia in 1,500 A. D. Ismael, the descendant of an ancient family of devotees and saints, became the leader of a number of tribes which united under him, and with the aid of which he overturned the rule of the Turkoman and made Aderbjon his capital. His followers held him in the highest esteem on account of his personal valor and owing to the high rank of his family revered him. He rapidly subdued western Persia, and in 151 1 took Khorasan and Balkh from the Uzbecks. In 15 14 he encountered a far more formidable enemy in the mighty Salim, Sultan of Turkey, whose zeal for the con- quest was fanned by religious fanaticism having developed into hatred against the Shuites, the followers of Ismael largely adhering to this sect, and who in turn were fiercely inflamed against the Sunnites, the sub- jects and followers of the Sultan. In the ensuing conflict Ismael was defeated, but Salim could not record any great gain from this victory. Ismael's son, Shah Tah-Masip, who reigned from 1523 to 1576, subdued all the Uzbecks of Khorasan and frequently defeated the Turks without suffering the loss of a single battle. He takes rank as a prudent and spirited ruler. Shah, Abbas I, the Great, who was one of the most glorious of Per- sia's modern kings, ascended the throne in 1585 and ruler until 1628. He restored internal tranquillity and repelled the invasion of the Uzbecks and Turks. In the year 1605 he gave the Turks such a terrific drubbing that they made no more trouble during his long reign. He also restored to his kingdom Kurdistan Mosul and Drarbekin, which had long been separated from Persia. Abbas' government was strict, but just and equitable. Roads, bridges, caravansaries* and other conveniences for trade were constructed at great cost, and the improvement and ornament- ation of the towns were not neglected. Many of his large caravansaries which bear his name remain to this Hay. Isphahan, his capital, in a brief period of his reign, doubled its population. His tolerance was remarkable, considering the character of his ancestors and subjects, for he encouraged the Armenian Christ- *King Abbas ordered one of his officers to construct 1,000 cara- vansaries, the cost of construction to be paid for from the kings treasury. The officer built only 999, and when the king inquired if he had finished his task, he replied that he had built one less. This made the king very angry and he ordered the officer to be beheaded. The officer requested the privilege to speak, which the king granted. Then the officer said : "Long live the king! I did this for the honor of the king, because it would take the people longer to say 999 than 1,000." This pleased the king so that he spared the officer's life and gave him a high office. MANNERS, CUSTOMS, fiABlTS AND SOCIAL LIFE. 93 ians to settle in the country, well knowing that their peaceable, industri- ous habits would enhance the prosperity of his kingdom. His successors were Shah Sufi (1628-41) Shah Abbas II (1641-66), and Shah Soliman (1666-94). During the reign of Shah Sultan Hus- sein (1694-1722) a weak and foolish prince, priests and slaves were ele- vated to high offices and the Sunnites suffered sore persecution. The result was that Afghan besieged the king in Isphahan, Hussein abdicated in favor of his conqueror, who ultimately became insane and suffered deposition in 1725 at the hands of his brother Ashrab. The atrocious tyranny of Ashrab was suddenly checked by the cele- brated Nadir-Shah. Hussein and Ashrab belonged to the dynasty of Sayides, a holy sect, descendants of their prophet Mohammed. Nadir-Shah was one of the greatest warriors of Persia. He raised Tah-Masip (1729-32) and his son, Abbas III (1732-36), of the Suffi- vian race, to the throne, and then on some frivolous pretext deposed Abbas III and seized the scepter himself (1736-47). Nadir was assassin- ated by Imam-Kuli-Khan, of Oroomiah, whose descendants now live very near our mission station in Oroomiah. Again after the murder of Nadir, Persia was divided into many independent states and became a field of blood. Beloochistan and Afghanistan became independent till 1755, when a Kurd, Karim Khan (1755-79) abolished this state of affairs, re-established peace and unity in western Persia, and by his justice, wisdom and warlike talents acquired both the esteem of his subjects and the respect of the neighboring states. He received the title., "Father of Persia." Karim Khan was succeeded in 1784 by Al Murad, then by Jaafor and the latter by Lutf-Ali Merza. During Lutf-Ali's reign Mazandaran became independent under Agha Mohammed Khan, a Turkoman. Lutf-Ali Merza rushed into Mazandaran and killed all the relations of Mohammed_ Khan who were ruling there and took captive Agha Mohammed Khan, a boy only six years old, making him a eunuch. This boy was of the Kajar race. When he was in the hartm ot Lutf-Ali, he kept thinking how his cruel master murdered his father and all his relatives. When he sat on the royal rugs, he would take his re- venge by cutting them. When of age, 20 or 25 years old, he eloped to his own country, Mazandaran, and joined his relations. He frequently attacked Lutf-Ali, and defeated him in 1795. He was then able to establish his throne in the southern part of Mazandaran. This great eunuch king founded the dynasty which rules today, restored the kingdom as it was under Karim-Kurd, and con- 94 querer Georgia and Khorasan. But he was assassinated May 14, 1797. His nephew, Futteli-Ali Shah (1797-1834) engaged in three wars with Russia and was defeated each time. As a result he lost his territory in Armenia and a part of Persia — namely, from the Caucasian Mountains to the River Aras, which now fixed the boundary between Russia and Persia. Futteli-Ali, in his last war with Russia, in 1826, was entirely de- feated. Besides losing some of his territory, he paid the sum of 18,000,- 000 rubles ($9,000,000) to Russia. The death of the Crown Prince Abbas Mirza (1833) seemed to give final blow to the declining fortune of Per- sia, as he was the only man who seriously attempted to raise his country from the state of abasement into which it had fallen. NASREDDIN SHAH MEETING QUEEN VICTORIA IN 1889. Futteli-Ali had seven sons. One of them, Jahon-Suz-Mirza, lives today. Seven years ago he was governor in the author's city. After the death of the Crown Prince, each of the seven sons laid claim to the throne, while the father was still living. At the same time the Crown Prince Abbas-Mirza had a son named Mohammed. Fut- teli-Ali, when quite old and near death, by the aid of Russia, made Mo- hammed, his grandson, king (1834-1848). Nayib-Ali-Saltana acted as regent during the boyhood of Moham- MANNERS, CUSTOMS, HABITS AND SOCIAL LIFE. i>5 med. When he came to power for himself, he conceived the idea of re- storing Baluchistan, Afghanistan, and a great part of Turkoman, to the Persian dominion. He was especially anxious to take Herat, the key to India, but was resisted by England. The war was terminated in 1838. Nasreddin (defender of his religion), the late Shah (who was assassin- ated May 1, 1896), a young man 18 years old and very energetic, suc- ceeded his father in 1848. Following his father's example, the new Shah tried to restore Afghanistan and Baluchistan, but was compelled by England to sign an agreement on January 25, 1858, by which he was bound not to interfere any longer in the internal affairs of Herat. In 1858, he violated this treaty, and took the city of Herat. After a severe war with England, in 1857, in which his loss was 20,000 soldiers, relinquished Herat, but added to Persia many provinces in the west- ern part of Afghanistan and Baluchistan, and also some states in Turko- man. -< He was one of the best kings of Persia. He visited Europe three times ; once in 1873. He had European ideas and was a well educated man. He started a good system of postal telegraph and had 30,000 soldiers trained after European discipline. Above all he founded a beautiful college in Teheran, which is called in Persian, Daralfnoon (the place of science). The present Shah, Mozuffur-uddine, was born March 25, 1853, and succeeded his father on May 1, 1896. Persia is divided into thirteen states : Ghilon, Mazandaron, Astara- bad, in the north; Aderbjon, Persian Kurdistan, Luriston, Kerman with Mogiston in the south ; Irakeston, the capital state, where the king re- sides, being in the center. On the east lies the large estate of Khorasan, which is mainly a desert. The largest city is Tabriz, has about 200,000 inhabitants, and is also the most important commercial city. The present population of Persia is about 10,000,000, composed of representatives of various nations. Each speaks its own language and uses its own national costume. There are about 30,000 Jews, 60,000 Armenians, 75,000 Nestorians, 675,000 Kurds, 15,000 Fire : worshipers, and the remainder are Mohammedans. The Shah is regarded as the agent of Mohammed, and as such demands implicit obedience. The government is, therefore, an absolute despotism. The Shah appoints a governor for each state ; this governor appoints a mayor in each city within his territory. This office is not awarded on the basis of education, ability or worthiness, but is given to SB PERSIA BY A PERSIAN. the man who will pay the most money, provided his ancestry is fairly good. Many mayors of cities are related to the royal family. These offices are limited to terms of one year, but many times a mayor is re- moved before his time expires, subjects complaining loudly against him, or some person bidding more money for the office. When a man is appointed mayor of a city, the lords and counts of that city, accom- panied by soldiers, will go three miles to meet the new official. He is greeted with discharges of artillery. These lords ride on very fine Arabian horses with gold-bitted bridles and escort the mayor into the city. The new governor admires the fine horses of his lords, occasionally covets some fine steed among them, and before his term expires finds a way to get possession of it by helping the lord out of some trouble. If the new mayor is a prince, all prisoners confined in the city jails are taken out before him as he enters the city. This is to signify that as a member of the royal family he has authority to behead them. The third day after the new mayor has arrived in a city it is custom- ary for lords and counts to visit him with presents of money, golden trinkets, Arabian horses, etc. A mayor has from one hundred to three hundred servants. He pays them no salary. Some willingly enter his service for the name, some from fear, and others from choice. Most of these servants obtain a living from fines and bribes. Some of them are detailed to settle quarrels between men in some village that belongs to the city. This is their opportunity and they early learn to make the most of it. Each officer is at the mercy of the highest officer who may take away his office or cause him to be executed at any time, without any trial, in any cruel manner he may desire. TEHERAN. Teheran, the capital of Persia, is called the "City of the Shadow of God," the "Footstool of the King of Kings." It has no glorious past to boast of. Though the neighboring plains contain mounds and ruins of great cities, it was only in the latter part of the past century that Teheran emerged from obscurity. The first records describe it as a village of un- derground hovels, affording a retreat from the summer heat or from the ravages of plundering hordes. She was chosen as the capital of Aga Mohammed Khan, the founder of the present Kajar dynasty. His pref- erence for it was undoubtedly owing to its proximity to his own tribe in Mezandaran. Now, Teheran has assumed the position of the political Manners, customs, habits and social Lim center of central Asia. Here the legations of England, France, Russia, Germany, Austria, Holland, Turkey and the United States represent their respective countries and spin the webs of their political intrigues. In a century Teheran's population has increased from 15,000 to 200,- 000 inhabitants. Owing to its modern growth, it has also partaken of a European element more than any other Persian city, and is more influ- enced by western ideas. The old style is yet noticeable in the high walls and deep moat surrounding the entire city. On each side of it are two large, well built and handsomely ornamented gates. On the other hand, broad avenues, well paved and bordered by shade trees, houses of mod- ern architecture, embassy grounds, laid out after the pattern of an Eng- lish park, phaetons and carriages, telegraph poles, tramways, gas and electric lights in the streets, drug stores, photograph galleries, strongly attest that western life has invigorated the stereotyped east. The bazaars also, while presenting the same general characteristics as in other cities, have wider aisles, and enjoy more of the much-needed sunlight. They are well stocked with imports, and those*which deal in European goods attract the briskest trade. The royal palace is surrounded by high stone walls. Four beautiful gates afford entrance to the grounds. On the sides of and above the gates the walls are adorned with the pictures of former kings and brave generals, and skillfully carved with lions' heads, the standards of Persia, and birds. The park-like grounds are beautifully arranged and kept ; all the drives and walks lead to the Shah's palace, situated in the center, and are gorgeously ornamented with decorative trees and hedges of roses of varied hues. Numerous officers of superior rank guard the entrances and the walks and avenues that lead to the palace, those near- est to it ever standing with drawn sword. While hearing a case or passing judgment the king sits on his "peacock throne," surrounded by his cab- inet, consisting of six advisers. His decisions, however, are absolute and may at any time overrule the opinion of his cabinet. This body forms the legislature of the country. The members of it are appointed by the Shah, the people having no" voice whatever in governmental affairs. Whenever the Shah feels tired his secretary reads to him from the "Sana- meh," a poetical history of Persian kings. It is one of the Shah's duties to make himself thoroughly acquainted with Persian history and the history of her former rulers. On retiring at night the entrance to the Shah's private room is guarded by two trustworthy officers with unsheathed swords. One of the four gates in the wall around the palace is called the Shah's gate, as he always enters through it. No other per- 98 MANNERS, CUSTOMS, HABITS AND SOCIAL LIFE. 9& son, be he lord, count or high official, is permitted to pass through this gate on horseback or in a vehicle. He must dismount and walk through. When the Shah goes from the palace for a chase or on a vacation, he is escorted by a large retinue, headed by about thirty footmen, each bear- ing a golden staff and shouting: "Disperse, disperse!" Hereupon the passage is immediately cleared so that the royal cavalcade may pass un- molested. The footmen are followed by about fifty men on horseback, with drawn swords; next come ten or twelve riderless Arabian steeds dancing along, beauties of their race, adorned with bridles of gold studded with precious stones. The Shah of Persia is in possession of the greatest and most valuable collection of jewels on the globe. .These mav be inspected in his palace, where they are heaped up in glass* cases like tea or rice. His "peacock throne," which was brought from Delhi, India, by King Nadrisha, who captured that city about 200 years ago, has been estimated at $12,500,000 some years ago, and has risen in value since then. It is made of solid gold inlaid with diamonds, pearls and other jewels. The rug upon which the Shah prays is valued at $2,500,000. He has a tobacco pipe worth $500,000. His table is furnished with all the luxuries and good things in the land. There will be perhaps fifty or more different dishes served at one meal. When the Shah sits down to partake of some food he will glance over all these, but only touch or nibble from one or the other food, yet all the different courses must be prepared. From the time of the purchase until it appears upon the table, all food and drink is ex- amined by two trustworthy inspectors, whose duty it is to see that the ruler is not poisoned. Again the food is inspected by the Shah's physi- cian before eating a meal. Teheran, the present capital of Persia, owes its importance to the fact that it was made the seat of government by Shah Aga Mohammed Khan, the founder of the reigning dynasty of the Khajars a hundred years ago. It is situated on the great central plateau of Persia, thirty- eight hundred feet above the sea. # The spring and autumn are extremely delightful; in summer the heat in the city ranges from 95 to no degrees in the shade, but it is endurable because of its dryness, provided caution is exercised against direct exposure to the rays of the sun. The Shimran, or Shim Iran is a part of the great Elburz chain which extends from the Caucasus to New Shimran, means the "Light of Per- sia." Gradually ascending from the walls of Teheran, the range at the distance of only ten miles springs with sudden precipitateness to the 100 PERSIA BY A PERSIAN. enormous height of thirteen thousand feet above the sea. During the entire summer snow is seen on the higher peaks, while in winter they are clothed with a dense mantle of ermine to the plains. Nothing more magnificent in mountain scenery could be imagined. From every part of the city the glittering ridge of the Shimran is to be seen above the housetops, — a commanding shape forming a sublime background for the avenues leading north and south. Twenty miles from Teheran is the mighty peak of Demavend. The height of Demavend has been variously estimated by barometrical pres- sure. The most recent and reliable calculations agree in placing it at nineteen thousand six hundred to twenty-one thousand feet above the sea. The form of the cone is nearly pyramidal. Rising as it does ten thousand feet above the mountains in its vicinity, it is invested with a spirit of regal isolation that appalls the soul. The mountains make a curve to the southwest of Teheran, terminating in a bare rocky ridge, around whose base is the site of the ancient city of Rhages, reputed to have numbered a population of one million in the time of Darjus. In later ages that city was called Rhu or Rhe, by which name it is still known to the Persians. Six miles from Teheran on the outskirts of the site of Rhu, stands the celebrated shrine of Shah Abdul-Azim, a famous saint of the Shahs. The Persians have their own sacred resorts and shrines, of which Meshed enjoys great celebrity, for it contains the magnificent tomb of Imam Rhezah, one of the twelve holy Imams who are descended from Alu and Fafhimeh. But there is no resort in Persia more famed than that of Shah Abdul-Azim, which is so conveniently situated near the capital that it is visited by over three hundred thousand pilgrims an- nually from Teheran alone. Every Friday (the Mussulman Sabbath) the faithful resort to this shrine. The dome that hangs over the tomb of the saint is gilded and is seen from all parts of the plain, flashing like a star. Of the many gates of Teheran the handsomest and certainly the most imposing is the large gate offering entrance on the north to the Ark, or Citadel. It faces the great square of the Department of War, which is in itself a handsome and imposing enclosure. In the center is an octagonal marble tank, one hundred and fifty feet long, always kept full to the brim. At each corner of the basin an enormous old-fashioned cannon is mounted on a platform. The four sides of the square are occupied by barracks and government offices in two uniform stories re- lieved with arches and including on the east side a handsome portico MANNERS, CUSTOMS, HABITS AND SOCIAL LIFE. 101 supported by graceful pillars and faced with glazed tiles. This square is entered through six stately gates, which are closed at night. Over the great gate described above fly the s colors of Persia, — the Lion and the Sun, yellow on a green ground. Through this imposing entrance one passes into a darksome narrow- passage, which but little suggests the spacious and attractive court to which it leads. The first glance at the windows reveals the fact that the Persian architects are masters of the secret of successful decorative arch- itecture ; they appreciate the importance of massing the effect instead of scattering it by meaningless details. ^J3ut the most imposing portion of the palace of the Shah is the grand audience chamber, which in dimensions and splendor of effect is one of the most imposing halls in the world. The ceiling and mural decora- tions are of stucco, but so were those in the Alhambra. The floor is paved w'ith beautiful glazed tiles, arranged in the most exquisite mosaic. In the center of the hall is a large table overlaid with beaten gold, and a long row of arm chairs are massively splendid with the same costly mate- rial covering every inch of space. At the end of the hall, facing the entrance, is the famous Peacock Throne, brought from Delhi by Madi Shah, covered with gold and precious stones in a profusion that places the lowest estimate of its value at not less than thirteen million dollars. The magnificence of the Shah's audience hall is still further heightened by the fact that here also are stored many of the crown jewels. The re- serve of coin and bullion which the Shah has saved from his revenues, equal it is said to a sum of thirty millions of dollars, is safely locked up in the vaults of the palace. But one need only see the treasures in the audience hall to obtain an idea that Persia is still a land of wealth, and that the tales of splendor recounted in Oriental story were not wholly the fictions of a fancy steeped in opium or b' hang. Among the spoils of ages gathered in the Shah's treasury are superb crowns and jeweled coats-of-mail dating back four centuries to the reign of Shah Ismael. In a glass case one sees a large heap of pearls dense as a pile of sand on the seashore. Diamonds, rubies, emeralds and sapphires catch the eye at every turn, sometimes flashing forth like a crimson or green fire on the boss of a buckler or helmet worn at the front of battle ages ago. One ruby there is in that mine of splendor which, on being placed in water, radiates a red light that colors the water like the blood of the vine of Burgundy. There, too, is a globe of the world twenty inches in diame- ter, turning on a frame of solid gold, the surface of the earth is repre- sented by precious stones, different colors being used to indicate the 103 PERSIA BY A PERSIAN. divisions of land and sea, the ocean is entirely of turquoise and Persia is represented by a compact mosaic of diamonds. The famous Dari-noor, or Sea of Light, the second of known diamonds in quality, size and value, is kept carefully locked in a double iron chest, but is shown on rare occa- sions, and is worn by his Majesty on great state days. I have mentioned but a few of the many objects of splendor collected in this magnificent chamber, of audience, which still cling to the skirts of this old Empire as evidences of her past triumphs and glory. The vast extent of territory once swayed by her scepter, considering that it is scarce two centuries since Nadir returned from the sack of Delhi, every soldier of his army weighted with treasures, and the con- queror reserving for his own share gems valued at upwards of one hun- dred millions. ' In no court is there more rigid attention paid to ceremony. The looks, words, and even the movements of the body are well regulated by the strictest forms. When the king is seated in public his sons, min- isters, and courtiers, stand erect with their hands crossed and in the exact place belonging to their rank. They watch his looks and a glance is a command. If he speaks to them, you hear a voice reply and see the ONE OF THE SEVEN GATES OF^OROOMIAH CITY. THE COURT OF PERSIA. MANNERS, CUSTOMS, HABITS AND SOCIAL LIFE. 103 lips move but not a motion or gesture betrays that there is animation in the person thus addressed. He often speaks of himself in the third per- son as, "The king is pleased. The king commands." His ministers address him with high-sounding titles, giving expression to the popular sentiments with, regard to him. For instance, he is called "The object of the world's regard," "Kiplah i alam or Point of the Universe," "King of Kings and the lord of the Universe." They are as particular in forms of speech as in other ceremonies, and superiority and inferiority of rank in all their graduations are implied by the terms used in the commonest conversation. Nothing can exceed the splendor of the Persian court on extraordinary occasions. It presents a scene of the greatest magnificence regulated by the most exact order. To no part of the government is so much attention paid as to the strict maintenance of those forms and ceremonies which are deemed essential to the power and glory of the monarch ; and the highest officers to whom this duty is allotted are armed with the fullest authority and are always attended by a number of inferiors who carry their commands into the most popular execution. The Persian Mohammedans have two festivals. One is called Ed-al- Tits, or the festival after abstinence, and commences the day after the fast of Ramazan. The second is called Ed-al-koorban, or the feast of sacrifice which begins on the tenth of the month of Zulkada, and is in- stituted in commemoration of Abraham's offering up of Isaac. This tenth day of Zulkada is also the day appointed for the slaying of victims by the pilgrim at Mecca. There is also another great festival called New Rooz, or new day as is the feast of the vernal equinox, 21st of March. This is the greatest festival observed by the Persians and was introduced by Jemshed, a Per- sian king, who ruled many centuries before the Christian era. It was he who introduced into Persia the reckoning of time by the solar year and ordered the first day of it to be celebrated by a splendid festival which is to this day observed with as much joy and festivity as Thanksgiving Day or Christmas in this country. On this day the bazaars in the cities are decorated in Persian style and illuminated in a gay manner. The king marches out of His capital attended by his ministers, nobles and as many of this army as can be assembled, remaining out as long as he de- sires. Upon this day he confers vestments of honor upon his nobles and officers and receives presents from them. The feast is kept for a week with equal demonstrations of joy in every part of the kingdom. The first day, however> is the most important. Upon that day all ranks 104 PERSIA BY A PERSIAN. appear in their newest apparel. They send presents of sweetmeats to each other and the poor are not forgotten. In the streets of the cities and upon the country roads crowds of people are seen, some going to visit friends, others returning, carrying with them bundles and packages of sweetmeats or presents. Indeed, this is a day of joy and gladness throughout the kingdom, a national holiday observed by all the Shah's subjects. They think of it with a great deal of pride and look forward to it with the pleasantest anticipations. There are persons who bear the name of story tellers around whom are often seen crowds of people in the public squares or other places which are suitable for their entertainments. Although Persians are pas- sionately fond of public exhibitions, still they have none that deserve the name of theatrical entertainments ; but though strangers to the regu- lar drama their stories are often dramatic ; and those whose occupation is to tell them sometimes display so extraordinary a skill and such varied powers that we can hardly believe while we look on their altered coun- tenances and listen to their changed tones, that it is the same person, who at one moment tells a plain narrative in his natural voice, then speaks in the coarse and angry tone of offended authority, and next sub- dues the passions he has excited by the softest sounds of feminine tender- ness. The art of telling stories is attended both with art and reputation. Great numbers attempt it but few succeed. It requires considerable talents and great study. None can arrive at eminence except men of cultivated taste and retentive memory. They must not only be ac- quainted with the best ancient and modern stories, but be able to vary them by introducing new incidents which they have heard or invented. They must also recollect the finest passages of the most popuiar poets to aid the impression of the narrative by appropriate quotations. Kings of Persia used to have especially such a story teller whose office it was to amuse his majesty with such stories. His tales are artfully made to suit the disposition and momentary humor of the monarch. Sometimes he re- cites a story of the former sovereign, or of the love of some wandering prince ; often the story is of coarser materials and the king is entertained with low and obscene adventures. The Persian kings have always attached great importance to having a good band of musicians for their own enjoyment, and the present Shah is not an exception to that rule. Indeed, his band is claimed by some to be the best in the world. The princes, nobles, ministers and public officers of high rank imi- tate the king in many ways. All the respect they pay to him they exact 106 PERSIA BY A PERSIAN. from their inferiors. Each in his rank has a petty court of his own, with about the same forms and regulated about the same manner, and by offi- cers bearing the same official names as those who attend the monarch. Every chief or officer of high station has his harem, his secretaries, his officers of ceremonies, his master of horse, and sometimes even, his poet and jester. In his house there is as strict attention to exactness of con- duct as in the palaces of his sovereign. Sensible of the conditions by which they are surrounded, these persons appear as desirous of obtaining money and as eager to spend it lavishly for their own pleasure as do those of the same rank in other countries. Women, horses, rich armor and elegant clothing are the principal objects of their desires. Their splendid apartments are furnished with rich Persian carpets and are gen- erally so situated as to be perfumed by flower gardens and refreshed by fountains. One of their chief pleasures is to sit in these elegant apart- ments and enjoy their tea, coffee, and tobacco and feast their friends. Their meals are always abundant and even sumptuous. Nor does it mar this enjoyment in the least to know that they have all their wealth at the expense of their oppressed people whom they lord it over. Many officers in the kingdom take bribes and fines from the poor in order to accumulate large fortunes, then go to the capital city and give so much as a bribe to this prince and so much to that minister, in order to be introduced to the king. Then he gives a large sum as a present to the king, who in turn confers upon him a title and in this way he becomes a great man and adds to the power he already has to the oppression of his inferiors. Merchants and trades people who secure titles for their children by means of the fortunes they have made in trade are not by any means the only class who get titles without deeds of heroism. There are many such in Persia whose sole title to greatness is the power to oppress and overtax. THE NOBLEMAN. The nobility of Persia lead a life of luxury. Such titles as counts and lords are not obtained by conspicuous service to the nation or coun- try, nor by proficiency in knowledge and learning, but by descendancy, and many an ignorant and unworthy person bears them. Wealthy mer- chants also purchase them for their offspring. The titled class in Persia is very numerous. In a city of 60,000 inhabitants there are more than 500 counts. They own the bulk of the Persian soil. In some instances one count owns as many as one hundred villages. The poor rayat or tenant must pay his landlord one-half or two-thirds of all the produce of his farm. Aside from this a poll tax and a tax on his house must be 107 L08 PERSIA BY A PERSIAN. paid. His cattle, sheep and goats are taxed, he must deliver unto his land- lord two fowls, two loads of fuel, and a quantity of eggs annually, and when his sons or daughters are married a marriage fee must be paid. His meadows and orchards are also taxed, and only the yoke of oxen with which he tills the ground are excepted from taxation. But this is not all. He is literally at the mercy of his agha or master, a name which very correctly expresses the relation between landlord and peasant. The land- lord legally may clemand three days of labor from his rayat without pay- ing for it, but in reality he makes them work for him as much as he pleases. Whenever he pays a visit at one of his peasant's houses, he simply and unceremoniously appropriates whatever he condescends to find worthy of taking. The peasant is held to buy his grain and flour from his landlord and must silently pay for these things whatever price the master puts on them, even far above the market price. For the slight- est offense he is subjected to severe chastisement, being even ordered by his master to be tied and cruelly beaten. And to all this and even more and worse outrages must the poor peasant submit, for fear of still greater persecutions in case of complaint. Christians have more to/ bear than Moslem neighbors ; they are inferior beings — "infidels," "Christian dogs." The meanest Mohammedan is con- sidered better than they. A Christian may not eat with a Moslem ; he must not enter their houses with moist clothing. If struck by a Moham- medan he dares not strike back. In the courts he is not considered their equal; his life and property are not equally secure. Should a Moham- medan, for example, take a fancy to the daughter of a Christian, even at the tender age of 7 or 10 years, he will take her to his harem. An appeal to the governor would avail nothing, as it would simply be. answered by the statement that she has declared to turn Mohammedan. She is lost to her family and religion forever, and should the parents ever so much argue that the child is too young to decide upon her own religion, or that she in all probability has been cajoled or frightened into making the change, or should the parents plead ever so much to be allowed an inter- view with her for just a few moments — she remains where she has been taken and grows up an inmate of a harem ! By Persian law all converts to the Islam may claim a lion's share of their father's estate. It therefore pays indigent Mohammedans well to entice young daughters of well-to-do Christians away from their homes. Here is another instance : The governor demanded from a merchant an amount far in excess of the just taxes. The merchant refused. The result was that the governor took away all his property. To seek redress, MANNERS, CUSTOMS, HABITS AND SOCIAL LIFE. 10.9 the merchant petitioned the Shah and graciously received a royal order to the governor to have his possessions restored to him. Full of cheer and good hope the merchant traveled back and presented the written order to the governor. After reading the decree the governor looked keenly at the man for a moment, and then exclaimed, derisively : "Ha ! You thought you could frighten me by reporting me to the Shah ! You are indeed a brave man. Little did I expect you to be a man of so much courage. But so brave a man must needs have a brave heart. This brave heart of yours I must see, so as to learn courage from it." Then in a sub- dued tone he gave the order to his servants : "Take out that man's heart." The servants immediately fell upon the merchant, slew him on the spot, tore out his heart and presented it to the governor on a tray. Counts and lords are the most immoral class of people in all Persia. They are illiterate, know nothing of geography, mathematics or political economy, though most of them can read and write their own language and have a limited knowledge of local history. It is not at all surprising that such indolent, voluptuous people grow immoral, for among them it is considered a disgrace to do work of any kind. SHAHR AND THE URF. Persian law is divided into two departments — the Shahr and the Urf. The former is administered by the Mollahs, or priests, and is based upon the Koran. The latter is the oral law administered by secular judges, who decide cases in equity and traditions, or precedents orally handed down. As the Urf is administered independently of the Shahr, an increase of powers would gradually result in the extinction of the latter. It is undoubtedly the aim of the government to bring about such a change, as one of the most important factors in promoting the elevation of Per- sia to the plane of modern* progress, but any effort in this direction can be pursued only with great shrewdness and caution, for the Mollahs are naturally violently opposed to any abridgement of their power. In a general way the Urf takes cognizance of criminal cases and the Shahr of civil ones. The criminal is tried before the hakem or ket-hodah of a town or village; in the awarding of penalties, however, he follows the rule prescribed by the Shahr so far as they have not passed into desue- tude. Sometimes a criminal case is appealed directly to the governor of the province or to the Shah himself. This is especially the case if one 11(1 PERSIA BY A PERSIAN. of the parties involved is in any way connected with the government. The Shah or the governor concerns himself little with the law in such events, but decided at once, and with a word, a gesture, decrees retribution or reward. But although all questions not of a civil nature are by custom relegated to the decision of the Urf, it is not uncommon for the judge to allow a case to be appealed to the Shahr when it is of special difficulty, or when the rank of the party is such as to make him dread the con- sequences of his decision. Any decision rendered by the religious ex- pounders of the Shahr is accepted without demur as final ; the sacredness of the Shahr and the sanctity of those who administer decisions based upon it make it impossible to dispute the decisions of that august tri- bunal. While, therefore, the Urf occupies a prominent place in the ad- ministration of justice, the Shahr continues by far the most important legal authority in the land, and it is by a study of that code and the meth- ods of administering it that one can alone form any correct conception of the administration of justice in Persia. The Shahr consists of a vast collection of dicta applying to every con- ceivable situation in life. Like the theocratic codes of other Musselmans it is based on the Koran, but differs from them in the fact that it is en- larged and fortified by the opinions of the twelve Holy Imams, these Imams being considered by the Sheahs to be the true caliphs and their opinions having scarcely less weight than if delivered from the Al- mighty. Early in the rise of Mohammedanism is was the custom oi the disciples of the Prophet to have recourse to him for explanation or ex- pansion of the vague declarations of the Koran. After his death these commentaries were generally transmitted orally, and were called tradi- tions, becoming in time very voluminous, so that it was necessary to reduce and codify them, adding opinions regarding the more obscure en- actments. Hence the authority of the Holy Imams. The code of Persia treats of religious rites and duties ; of contracts and obligations ; of mat- ters relating to the person; and of laws relating to cheese, meats and drinks, legal procedure, and the specifications of penalties both from a religious and a civil point of view. Many of the laws of the Shahr are based on sound reason, and in their application are not unlike the laws of other countries. Some of the features of the Shahr are as follows : Any man is for- bidden to say his prayers in the presence of any woman who, either at his side or before him, are also praying, whether praying together with him or alone; and without regard to the character of the woman, whether MANNERS, CUSTOMS, HABITS AND SOCIAL LIFE. Ill she be wife or within the forbidden degree of kinship, or a stranger. If the woman is behind the man at such distance that in prostrating her- self she cannot touch his feet, then the man also may do his praying. One should avofd praying before an open fire, before the painted or graven figures or images of animate objects, or the stable of horses, asses or mules ; but it is permitted in a sheepfold. One is forbidden to pray in an apartment wherein there is a fire-worshiper ; the presence of a Christ- ian or a Jew is unimportant. One should avoid having an open book before him, and should not pray before an overhanging wall or in a room where there is a pot de chambre. "He who is dumb must wag his tongue while mentally repeating his prayers. The spot where the forehead should touch (during the genuflections of prayer) should be on the same horizontal plane on which the feet rest ; nevertheless, one may exceed this line by the thickness of one brick or more." Such are a few examples of the 549 laws respecting religious wor- ship. The regulations concerning fasting and pilgrimage number no less than 1,102. The law of sales includes 625. "It is permissable to sell a piece of cloth or of land simply by a gen- eral exhibition of them to the purchaser, without obliging him to make a minute inspection." Proof by taste or smell is indespensable when the object of sale is eatable or smellable.' Articles of such a nature that they cannot be tested without breaking them — such as nuts, melons or eggs, may be sold in ignorance of the condition of the contents ; and in the event of the pur- chaser finding them defective, he has the right to interest and damages, but not to a return of the article. "It is not permitted to sell fruits on the tree before they are shaped, that is, before the kernel is formed, but when they have reached that state they may be sold. "After it is matured, fruit may be sold with or without the tree. It is not permitted to sell the fruits green in color (at maturity) before they become green." It is recommended to the purchaser of a slave to change his name ; to cause him to eat sweetmeats at the time, and to offer alms. One should avoid counting or weighing the purchase money for a slave in his pres- ence. Slaves are thought a great deal of in Persia. As a rule masters are very kind to them, so that not" seldom one may hear a master ad- dressed by his slave with "My father," and the master in replying will LI 2 PERSIA'BY A PERSIAN. call him "My son." Slaves are well taken care of in clothing and nourish- ment. They differ in color and value. The "Habshi" are the most ex- pensive; the "Somali" range next in price; the Negro slave being the cheapest in price, ancl only employed as cooks. One good "Habshi" will bring $250; a good "Somali," $150, while the market price for the best among the Negro slaves, which are taxed according to their strength, is but $70. Not less than 1,412 different chapters are used in the Shahr for subjects on marriage and divorce, besides a large number on concubin- age, slaves and rearing of children. The prophet hath said, "Marry and establish a family;" the most wicked among the dead are the celibates ; he who desires to contract a marriage should seek after a woman combining four requisites : legitimat e birth, virginity, prolificness and chastity." One should not be content with beauty and riches ; it is even forbidden to marry with these points alone in view. Marriage should not be consumated while the moon is in the sign of the scorpion ; during an eclipse of the moon ; on a day when there will be an eclipse of the sun ; at noon ; towards the end of twilight ; during the last three days of the month ;* between dawn and sunrise ; dur- ing the first night of each month, excepting the month of Ramazan ; dur- ing the middle night of the month; while on a journey; in a tempest, nor during an earth-quake. When marriage is being proposed to a maiden, her silence is equiva- lent to a consent. The consent of a widow, however, or a divorcee, must be audibly pronounced to be legally valid. Any man may form as many temporary marriages as he chooses. If the husband desires one of his wives to accompany him on a journey, the selection is made by casting the lot. Husbands are recommended to treat all their wives alike. Divorce is pronounced by a husband in the presence of not less than two witnesses. In doing this, one of three statutory formulas must be used, any other version, though expressing the intention ever so clearly, are invalid. He must either say "Ente talekun," (thou art divorced) or "Felanet talekun" (such a one is divorced), or "Hazee talekun" (this person is divorced). The Arabic formula must always be used. There are also three kinds of divorce, one by virtue of which the husband cannot take back the divorced wife; one with this privilege reserved ; and the temporary divorce, for the purpose of proving whether *The last three days of a month are called el mohak, which signifies the moon is below the horizon. MANNERS, CUSTOMS, HABITS AND SOCIAL LIFE. 113 the woman is pregnant by; a husband from whom she was previously divorced. The irrevocable divorce is brought about when a husband pronounces the formula of divorce upon a wife whom he has twice before taken as his wife again. The temporary marriage is an institution pecu- liar to Persia and abhorred by all Mohammedans elsewhere. The Shahrs defend it on the plea that it was not prohibited by the Prophet, and con- sequently must be right, according to a fundamental principle of their law that whatsoever is not prohibited by law is allowed. The most im- portant feature of the temporary matrimony, however, is the dowry paid by the husband ; without this parents would scarcely permit their daugh- ters to enter into it. Four conditions are indispensable to the legality of such a marriage — the contract^ the personal conditions, the dowry, and the stipulated time for which the marriage is contracted. The con- tract is legal and binding only when it has been drawn in legal form before or by a Mollah. As to the duration of such a temporary marriage the law provides no limit, the matter being settled by mutual agreement ; it may be for a fraction of a day or for ninety-nine years ; it may even antedate the day when the contract is written if so desired by both parties. Penalties for fornication, adultery, sodomy and similar vices are very severe, lapidation being the most common upon repetition of the last named, and for the conviction of the first named even after the first offense. Not less than 395 chapters treat of the laws of procedure. To administer the Shahr a judge must be of legal age, sound of mind, faithful in performing the duties of the Islam, of reputable life, of legitimate birth, well instructed and of the male sex. He should also be endowed with a good memory, for one who lacks this faculty is incapable of properly exercising judicial functions. The principle which regulates the Mussulman's connubial life he expresses when upon any occasion, but most often before his marriage he will say to his wife : "It is my privilege to love many women, and it is your duty to love only me. Now attend thou to thy duty and I will see to my privilege." Taking a walk with his wife a Mohammedan would be disgraced should she go before him or by his side; she must obediently follow behind. For wife murder a man can be fined a sum of money, but the law will not find him guilty of homicide, as woman is not considered equal to man before the law. A man meeting a woman anywhere in public or private will not salute her, but the woman is expected to greet him with a courteous nod. L14 PERSIA BY A PERSIAN. LAND (ARABICARZ). The following are some of the principal rules of Muslim law relating to land : (i) Tithes or Zakat on lands. Upon everything produced from the ground there is due a tenth, or ashir, whether the soil be watered by the annual overflow of the great rivers, or by periodical rains ; except- ing upon articles of wood, bamboos, and grass, which are not subject to tithe. Lands watered by means of buckets or machinery, such as Persian wheels, or by watering camels, are subject to only half tithes. (2.) Conquered lands become the property of the state. Those of idolators remain so. Those belonging to Jews or Christians, or Fire worshipers, are secured to the owners on payment of tribute. Those who afterwards embrace Islam recover their property, according to ash- Shafi'i, but not according to the Hanifah school. Upon the Muslim army evacuating an enemy's country, it becomes > unlawful for the troops to feed their cattle on the land without due payment. (3) Appropriation for religious uses. Land may be so appropriated ; but if a person appropriate land for such a purpose and it should after- wards be discovered that an indefinite portion of it was the property of another person, the appropriation is void with respect to the remainder also. The appropriation must also be of a perpetual and not of a tem- porary nature. (4) The sale of land is lawful. In such sales the trees upon the land are included in the sale, whether specified or not ; but neither the grain growing on the ground, nor the fruit growing on the trees, are included, unless specified. (5) Claims against land must be made by the plaintiff, defining the four boundaries and specifying the names of each possessor, and the de- mand for the land must be made in explicit terms. And if the land has been resold, a decree must be given either for or against the last pos- sessor, according to some doctors. (6) Land can be lent, and the borrower can build upon it, but when the lender receives back his land, he can compel the borrower to remove his houses and trees. Land lent for tillage cannot be resumed by the lender until the crops sown have been reaped. Abu Hanifah maintains that when land is lent to another, the contract should be in these words, "You have given me to eat of this land." (7) A gift of land which is uncultivated cannot be retracted after houses have been built on 1 it or trees planted. If the donee sell half of MANNERS, CUSTOMS, HABITS AND SOCIAL LIFE. 115 the granted land, the donor in that case may, if he wishes, resume the other half. If a' person make a gift of land to his relative within the pro- hibited degrees it is not lawful for him to resume it. (8) The Ijarah, or rental of land, is lawful, but the period must be specified, otherwise the rent may be demanded from day to day. But a lease of land is not lawful unless mention is made of the article to be raised upon it, and at the expiration of the lease the land must be restored in its original state. A hirer of land is not responsible for accidents ; for oxample, if in burning off the stubble he happens to burn other property, he is not responsible for loss incurred. PLOWING WITH OXEN. (9) The cultivation of waste and unclaimed lands is lawful, when it is done with the permission of the ruler of the country, and the act of cultivation invests the cultivator with a right of property in them. But if the land be not cultivated for three years after it has been allotted, it may again be claimed by the state. (10) If a person be slain on lands belonging to anyone, and situated near a village, and the proprietor of the land be not an inhabitant of the village, he is responsible for the murder, as the regulation and protection of those lands rest upon him. MODES OF PUNISHMENT. The prisons are frequently cellars, underground, without windows, damp and infested with flies. They are seldom ventilated. 110 PERSIA BY A PERSIAN. These pits, or prisons, are long and narrow and have each a heavy timber reaching across the middle, on which chains of iron are fastened to secure prisoners. The floor is made of clay and there is no means of admitting light or fresh air into these dungeons, which in conse- quence are full of all kinds of vermin. There is no bed or furniture. The government does not feed the inmates ; their friends bring bread and throw it to them, and some of this is even sometimes picked up by the jailor and kept for his own nourishment. No men are allowed to visit the prisons, but wives or daughters may purchase this privilege by pay- ing a fee to the jailor. The torture of prisoners is regulated according to the nature of their crimes. The common method of torture for thieves, A CHAINED GANG robbers and murderers, is to put the bare foot of the criminal in a vise, and squeeze it until he cries in agony. If he gives the jailor some money, or promises to give some the next time his friends visit him, the pres- sure on the foot is lessened. If a man goes to jail wearing good clothes, the jailor often exchanges his own poorer suit for the good ones. Hanging. This sentence is executed much as it is in this country. The gallows consists of two posts with a crossbeam on top from which the criminal is suspended by means of a rope fastened around his neck. Vaults. These are built of brick in the shape of a barrel and as deep as a man's height. A man who is sentenced to this form of punishment is brought and placed in the vault with his head exposed. He is then MANNERS, CUSTOMS, HABITS AND SOCIAL LIFE. 117 plastered down with mortar all around him. This hardens and he is squeezed to death. Cutting off the hands. A bad thief when caught for the first time may have one of his hands taken off. Should he not stop stealing then and should he be caught a second time his other hand may be cut off. Cutting off an ear. This is a very simple and insignificant form of punishment, inflicted also by the executioner. Torturing. In order to exact a confession of guilt or have a prisoner turn states evidence this punishment is employed. Whipping. In this they lay the criminal down. One man holds his feet, another, his head, while one stands on each side of him and beats him on his back by turns. When their switches break they take others, for there are always a supply of them kept in the magistrate's court yard in a pool of water to keep them soft. When they have whipped the criminal long enough to satisfy their ideas of justice they fine him and let him go. EXECUTOR (Arabic Wasi), a term also used for the testator ; wakil'ala'l wasiyah. An executor hav- ing accepted his appointment in the presence of the testator, is not after- wards at liberty to withdraw, and any act indicative of his having ac- cepted the position of executor binds him to fulfill his duties. A Muslim may not appoint a slave, or a reprobate or an infidel as his executor, and in the event of his doing so, the Oazi must nominate a proper substitute. But, if none of the testator's heirs have attained their majority, a slave may be appointed as executor until they are of age. If joint executors have been appointed and one of them die, the Oazi must appoint a substitute in office. In the cases of infants or absent heirs, the executor is entitled to possess himself, pro tern, of their property, but he cannot trade with his ward's portion. If a person die without appointing an executor, the next of kin ad- ministers the estate, and it is an arrangement of Muslim law that his father is his executor and not his eldest son. CRUELTY. A striking instance of the cruelty of Muhammad's character occurs in a tradition. "Some of the people of the tribe of 'Ukl came to the prophet and embraced Islam ; but the air of al-Madinah did not agree with them, and they wanted to leave the place. And the prophet ordered 118 PERSIA BY A PERSIAN. them to go where the camels, given in alms, were assembled, and to drink their milk, which they did, and recovered from their sickness. But after this they became apostates, and renounced Islam, and stole the camels. Then the prophet sent some people after them, and they were seized and brought back to al-Madinah. Then the prophet ordered their hands and feet to be cut off as a punishment for theft, and their eyes to be pulled out. But the prophet did not stop the bleeding, and they died." And in another it reads, "The prophet ordered hot irons to be drawn across their eyes, and then to be cast on the plain of al-Madi- nah; and when they asked for water it was not given them, and they died." HIGHWAY ROBBERY (Arabic gatu). Persian rahzani. Highway robbery is a very heinous offense ac- cording to Mohammedan law, the punishment of which has been fixed by the Our'an (Surah v. 37) : "The recompense of those who war against God and His apostle and go about to enact violence on the earth, is that they be slain or crucified or have their alternate hands and feet cut off, or be banished the land." According to the Hidayah, highway robbers are of four kinds, viz. (1) Those who are seized before they have robbed or murdered any person, or put any persons in fear. These are to be imprisoned by the magistrate until their repentance is evident. (2) Those who have robbed but have not murdered. These are to have their right hand and left foot struck off. (3) Those who have committed murder, but have not robbed. These are punished with death. (4) Those who have committed both robbery and murder. These are punished accord- ing to the opinion of the magistrate. If he please, he can first cut off a hand and foot, and then put them to death by the sword, or by crucifix- ion, or he may kill them at once without inflicting amputation. If any one among a band of robbers be guilty of murder, the punishment of death must be inflicted upon the whole band. EXECUTION. The Muhammadan mode of execution is as follows : — The execu- tioner seizes the condemned culprit by the right hand, while with a sharp sword or ax he aims a blow at the back of the neck, and the head is detached at the first stroke. This mode of execution is .still, or was till lately, practiced in Muhammandan states in India. If an Oazi say, "I have sentenced such a person to be stoned, or to have his hand cut of, or to be killed, do you therefore do it ;" it is lawful for that person to whom the Oazi has given the order to carry it out. MANNERS, CUSTOMS, HABITS AND SOCIAL LIFE. 119 And according to Abu Hanifah, if the Oazi order the executioner to cut off the right hand, and the executioner willfully cut off the left, he is not liable to punishment. But other doctors do not agree with him. The modes of execution used by the Persian Government are still barbarous in the extreme. Male convicts are put to death either by being blown from the mouth of a cannon, or by having their jugular arteries severed, or by being nailed to a wall. Women are sentenced to have their heads shaved, their faces blackened, then to take a bare back ride on a donkey through the principal streets of a city or village, and finally to be put into a bag and beaten to death. Others are executed by put- ting them in a nude condition into a bag full of cats, who will speedily scratch and bite them to death. Any prince of the royal family has authority to pass the death sen- tence upon his subjects. When occasionally an intimate friend of the ruler is appointed governor, the king will add a knife as a present, trans- mitting thereby the power of passing the death sentence. Every prince, mayor or governor having this authority keeps two executioners, uni- formed in scarlet walking on before their master whenever he promenades through the streets. Whenever a convict is to be executed, he is taken from his prison cell handcuffed and a chain about his neck, escorted by a guard of sol- diers with fixed bayonets. He has probably spent several months in his dungeon, and naturally looks haggard and worn, unclean and unshaven, his clothes hanging about him in rags. The executioner, in his scarlet uniform, walks a few steps in advance, a large sharp knife in his hand. Thus they proceed to the public square, and in the presence of a crowd of eager spectators the victim is ordered to kneel down. The execu- tioner now steps behind the convict and with a single stroke of the keen blade severs the jugular vein, and another soul takes its flight, having completed its part in life's drama. In some places criminals are executed by burying their whole body, their head only excepted, in a casket of ce- ment; this will soon set and harden around the body, and soon cause death. An intoxicated Mohammedan, when found on the street noisy and abusive, is arrested, a cord or twine several feet long is drawn through the dividing membrane between his nostrils, and he is led publicly along the street by the executioner. The culprit soon gets sober, and is very 120 PERSIA BY A PERSIAN. much ashamed. As the executioner passes along the streets with him, shopkeepers give small sums of money to the former. Men of a very quarrelsome and combative disposition are punished by having their feet tied to a post with the bare soles upward. These are then whipped until they bleed profusely, and sometimes the nails are torn from the toes. This frequently causes the victim to swoon away, becoming entirely unconscious under this terrible maltreatment. Christians and Jews according to Persian law are not subject to decapitation, as they are considered unclean by the Mohammedans and not sufficiently worthy of this privilege. The most severe punishment is when a prince is deprived of his eyesight. Lords and counts are executed in two ways : the Shah will send him a bottle of sherbet, which is a sweet drink, but in this instance contains a deadly poison, and which he is com- pelled to empty ; or the governor dispatches a servant to wait upon the criminal while taking his bath, and in doing so has orders to cut the veins in the criminal's arms and cause him to bleed to death. What a contrast in the modes of punishment and their application between Mohammedan and Christian countries ! The kind of punish- ment inflicted on criminals in any country is truly characteristic of the prevailing religion. A religion based upon love and charity will deal with its criminals effectively, but humanely and not in a barbarous man- ner. BASTINADO. The mechanical part of a bastinado is a pole, called a "Pellek," about eight feet in length, with a transverse handle at either end and loops of rope or leather in the middle. The man to be bastinadoed is laid back downward on the ground and, after his shoes and stockings are removed, his feet are passed through the loops. The pole is held by two soldiers at nearly the length of the man's legs from the ground, and by them it is turned until his ankles are so tightly secured that he cannot writhe out of them. In turning the pole the soles of the feet are brought upward, making them a fair mark for the flogger. Close by will be a large number (usually hundreds) of sticks with which the vic- tim's feet are to be beaten. They are ordinary willow wands five or six feet long. The bark is left on, and the willows are kept wet to prevent them from breaking easily. Two or more expert floggers, clad in scarlet coats, bound in black, the uniform of the Shah's executioners, take their places near the pole, each armed with a stick with which they in turn be- labor the victim's soles until the stick is broken. Before the thrashing is 131 1 82 PERSIA BY A PERSIAN. commenced the victim is adjured to confess. If he does not the torture is kept up until he does, or until the supply of sticks gives out. Ofter 200 or 300 sticks are worn out before a confession is secured, although the tor- ture often results in death, if the victim is aged or sick. All Persians are liable to this punishment, from the prime minister downward. The minis- ter of finances was on one occasion given 400 lashes. The bastinado is by no means the only mode of torture used in Persia to make criminals confess. Needles are run under the finger-nails of some prisoners until a confession is extorted, and it is a practice to cut gashes in the soles of a prisoner's feet, inserting therein broken glass, so that it is impossible for him to run away. Such punishments have been in vogue for ages, notwithstanding the fact that the late Shah years ago issued a firman prohibiting the 1 torture of criminals. DISFIGURING EVIL-DOERS. For ordinary crimes in Persia, the punishment is personal disfigure- ment. The evil-doer who is caught in his evil-doing is marked for life. For the first offense at highway robbery, the prisoner may lose some of his fingers. For a second offense he is likely to lose a hand. The traveler passing through Persia for the first time is astonished at the number of mained and half-blind men whom he meets on the caravan trails. The writer has seen one man in Persia who, as a result of per- sistent wrong-doing, had lost a hand, a foot, an ear and an eye. With all that he was pointed out as a person to be avoided. Apart from the affliction of pain as a means of extorting confessions, there is another well-defined reason for the torture of criminals. It is intended that corporal punishment shall be a warning and an example to other evil-doers. It is for this reason that the severed hands, fingers and ears of convicted men are thrown into one of the principal streets to horrify men going about the ordinary affairs of business. HOW THE HEADS ARE CUT OFF. Decapitation in Persia has lost some of its old-time picturesqueness. In thinking of a decapitation, one naturally pictures a scene in which the executioner, posed in a theatrical attitude, swings aloft a glittering scime- tar, and with "one well-directed blow" strikes off the victim's head. In Persia to-day one finds that sort of thing only in picture books imported from the Christian west. As a matter of prosaic fact, the victim's head is hacked off with a short knife. To be even more exact, the head is very rarely actually hacked off. Usually the executioner is satisfied MANNERS, CUSTOMS, HABITS AND SOCIAL LIFE. 123 with hacking open two or three large veins of the throat, and letting his man bleed to death. The traveler loses a great many illusions in a jour- ney through Persia, and this is one of them. CLIMATE AND PRODUCTS. The great extent of the country naturally implies an extremely varied climate. Cyrus the Great made this remark regarding the climate of his empire : "The people perish with cold at one extremity, while they are suffocating with heat at the other. Persia may be considered to possess three climates : that of south- ern Dashtistan, one of the elevated plateau, and a third of the Caspian provinces. The spring and fall of the year are rainy seasons, but perfectly beautiful, while the summers are long, dry and hot, but not unpleasantly so excepting at midday. The atmosphere is clear and pure at all times. The cultivated soil of Persia, wherever there is an abundance of rain or possibility of irrigation, produces an immense variety of crops. The best wheat on the surface of the globe is grown here, other characteristic products being barley, rice, cotton, sugar cane, tobacco, millet, potatoes, sweet corn, cabbage, and all other garden vegetables found in other countries. Great care has been taken to have brooks and streams, whether natural or artificial for the purpose of irrigating the land, lined on both sides with shade trees. This is most especially the case in Oroomiah Plain, so that this part of Persia has been named by travelers the Para- dise of Persia. Wooded lands are found south of the Caspian Sea and one large forest in the vicinity of Shiraz. These forests are of very dense growth and contain oak, beech, elm, walnut, sycamore, ash, yew and juniper trees. The mineral wealth of Persia is as yet undeveloped, excepting some modest efforts in coal, copper, iron and lead mining. The forests of the Elburz Mountains are infested with wild animals, such as wolves, tigers, jackals, wild boars, foxes, and the Caspian cat. Deer of every variety inhabit some of the mountains ; lions and leopards are found in Mazan- daron. Among the domestic animals are the horse, camel, buffalo, cow, ass, donkey, mule, sheep, dog, cat, etc. Persia is the home of the famous fat-tail sheep and produces also the much coveted lamb fur worn by ladies and called the Persian fur. Here also are found fine Arabian horses which may be termed the Oriental limited passenger trains or flyers, while the donkeys, mules and camels perform in the east the functions of western freight lines. Persian horses have always been 124 PERSIA BY A PERSIAN. celebrated as the finest in the east ; they are larger and more handsome but not so fleet as those of Arabia. Sheep are one of the main sources of wealth in the country. Among the flowers in Persia are the marigold, hollyhock, white lily, violet, tulip, chrysanthemum and roses of many kinds. The latter are cultivated in fields for the trade and the manufacture of "golab" or attar of roses. Poultry is good and plentiful. There are fowls, geese, ducks, turkeys, guineas, partridges, quails, doves, pheasants, as well as hawks, flamingoes, crows, swans, storks, herrons, owls, cuckoos, hoo-poes and bul-buls or nightingales. We find various views as to the location of the Garden of Eden. The latest and wildest theory is its location at the north pole, upon the assumption that in the lapse of ages the earth has gradually cooled so that the first suitable place for man to live was in the Arctic Zone. Persia, however, has the earliest and most reasonable of all claims. Our land is a natural center. The Tigris, Euphrates and other rivers of the Paradise of Eden still flow and the identity of these streams alone should banish all doubt. The very odors of the forest are of singular fragrance. Here bloom indigenous plants of great variety and hue, which refuse to lend their beauty and fragrance to any foreign clime. Numerous birds, too, of peculiar beauty, adorn and enliven the enchant- ing landscapes. The number of various kinds of birds, which breed on the great plain, is so prodigious as to seem almost incredible to those who have not seen them. Do not all these natural and scenic character- istics bear evidence of these primitive ages? From the plateau at the foot of Mount Ararat arise the sources of the rivers of Western Asia. The Tigris, the Euphrates, the Aras or Araxes, the Cyrus (Kur), the Acampis and the Halys. The first two with deep and rapid waters flow southeast into the Persian Gulf. The Acampis, supposed by some to be the Pison of the Bible, rising from the southwest of Erzrum and fed by various streamlets, sweeps with a strong and smooth current toward the Black Sea. The Araxes (perhaps the Gihon of the Bible), takes its rise from the side of Bingol or "the mount- ain of one thousand lakes" winds through fertile regions and mingles with the Cyrus ; and then both sweeping northward and again southward through the plain of Moghan, discharge eastward into the Caspian Sea by three mouths, being navigable up to the point of junction. The name of the river is supposed to commemorate Araxes, whose son was drowned in the rapid waters. Xenophon, however, traces its derivation to Ar-ax, MANNERS, CUSTOMS. HABITS AND SOCIAL LIFE. 125 or "holy water" its water being sacred to the sun. This stream possessed different names at different periods, commemorative of various events. The Halys, or the modern "Kizil-Irmak is the most westerly of the rivers. It springs from a verdant region at no great distance from the Euphrates and flows with rapid volume into the Black Sea. The volcanic soil of the country is of surpassing fertility, and yields abundant crops of wheat, barley, apricot, maize, tobacco, rice and other minor products. Here are raised also the mulberry, cotton, grapes and a dye called yellow-berry. Beautiful vineyards, smiling gardens, orchards and groves abound in many parts of the country, especially in the valleys, where luxuriant vegetation gladdens the heart of the lover of nature. Melons, figs, granates, and trees of oak, pine, ash, walnut, apple, peach and chestnut abound. Mineral springs, both hot and cold, abound. In my travels through the country I have seen many of them gushing from the ground with great force from between the strata of limestone. These hot springs are another evidence of the subterranean activity of the region. From all over the country people who suffer from any ailment repair to these waters, whose medicinal properties are of great reputation. MOUNT ARARAT. As has been mentioned, Mount Ararat is the nucleus of the river and mountain systems, standing high and hoar midway between the Black and Caspian seas. It is the center of the world. It is a mountain rich with events of undying significance to mankind. Around its base legends and traditions, true and fabulous, hold perpetual sway. Today it is a mighty boundary stone of three great empires — the Turkish, Rus- sian and Persian. It has two summits, seven miles apart, the greater at the northwest extremity and the lesser toward the southeast. The snow-clad summit of the greater Ararat is wrapped in clouds during most of the day. These float away at nightfall and leave the snowy crown clear and distinct against the starry sky. A more rugged and awe inspiring view is obtained from the northeast than from any other point. No one can do Ararat justice ; every turn gives a new picture. Its beauty is unrivaled by any other mountain on earth. It is truly "the sublimest object in nature." Its snow crowned peak, rising from the plain of Araxes, rears itself in solemn majesty above the sea of vapor into the regions of eternal winter, perpetually covered with ice and snow, and ruling over the clouds and the storms. It is a picture of mingled sublimity and beauty— calm, cold, majestic. 126 PERSIA BY A PERSIAN. One is filled with awe as he watches the mellow radiance of the moon, the changing hues and shadows of the venerable mountain, or hears the thundering sound of falling ice and rocks from its stupendous heights. The mass of snow on its summit, 14,000 feet above the sea, never dissolves, and is one of the phenomenal features of this mountain, exceeding in quantity that of either the Alps or the Caucasus, as the former average 9,000 feet and the latter from 10,000 to 12,000 feet in height. The people consider the ascent of Ararat a miracle. They re- gard the mountain with superstitious awe, and believe that it still contains the relics of the ark, unchanged by time or decay, and that in order to insure their preservation a divine decree has made it inaccessible to mortal approach. The Tartars and the Turks of the neighborhood imagine its summit to be the abode of the "devil" and of wild ghosts, and they fear to approach too near its top. Morier himself declares "No one appears to have reached the summit of Ararat since the Flood." However, Dr. Friedrich Parrot of the University of Dorpat, after sev- eral unsuccessful attempts, finally gained the summit in September, 1829. He is considered the first mortal since the Deluge, who has ever ven- tured amid the ice and snow of the isolated peak. The term Ararat is used in ancient annals of sacred and secular his- tory for the entire country of Armenia, and not for the mountain itself. Anciently even the inhabitants were known as the people of Ararat. It was not until late years that the name came to be limited to the mountain itself. This misunderstanding has led some to erroneous conclusions and superstitions. Nothing could be more absurd to a native than the idea that the ark rested on the very top of Mount Ararat. Many criticisms, have been made concerning the ark on Mount Ararat, as though that historic craft had actually rested on its very peak. Such absurd ideas indicate a lack not only of knowledge, but of a proper and common-sense understanding of a simple biblical narrative. The geographical unit is the mountain range, and with the mountain ranges the study of geography should begin. From them a scientific nomenclature can most easily be constructed. How precise and clear is the statement of the Book of Genesis : "The ark rested upon the moun- tains of Ararat" — not upon Mount Ararat. There are scriptural refer- ences in 2 Kings xix:37; Isaiah xxxvii:38. In these parallel passages allusion is made to Adrammelech and Sharezer, who, having assassinated their father Sennacherib, "escaped into the land of Ararat." The prophet Jeremiah (in Jeremiah ii 127), summoning the nations for the overthrow of Babylon, calls "together against her the kingdoms of Ararat, Minni, MANNERS, CUSTOMS, HABITS AND SOCIAL LIFE. 127 and Ashchenaz." Thus sacred and secular writers concur in speaking of not only a mountain, but of a range, a land, a kingdom, an army, and a people of "Ararat." Does the critic suppose that the horses and mules of Ararat were reared on the icebergs of an isolated peak? They were seen in the markets of Syria. Had they wings that they could fly where a donkey could not climb ? An army of Araratians helped Cyrus in the overthrow of Babylon. Did they_ come on a toboggan slide from the regions of everlasting snow? "Ayrarad," coincides with the Persian text, which is frequently em- ployed in ancient historical documents, denoting that the name Ararat was identical with the whole country of that region. St. Jerome himself always identified Ararat with the plain of Araxes, where the mountain reposes. Again, the window of the ark is described in Genesis as being above ; so that when "on the first day of the tenth month the top of the moun- tains came forth ;" Noah would most naturally have been looking upward to see what was above the ark. Therefore, the extreme cone, the highest pinacle of Ararat, was not the resting place of the deluvian ark, but in all probability a much lower part of the Ararat range. WINES OF PERSIA. The wines of Persia are red and white ; the former has a body and flavor resembling burgundy, and is grown chiefly in the north of Persia. The best white wines are those of Shiraz and Hamadan ; each has a dis- tinct and delicious flavor and bouquet of its own. These wines are made by the Armenians, Nestorians and Jews, for the Faithful are forbidden either to drink or to make wine. They have ways of evading the former prohibition, but the latter ordinance is more difficult of evasion and prac- tically carries with it the prohibition of commerce in wines, yet this diffi- culty might easily be overcome by a little quiet diplomacy, as I have good reason for believing. But the manufacture of Persian wines leaves much to be desired. I am convinced, however, that if European experts, tak- ing advantage of the low cost of labor in Persia, should go to that country and seriously enter into the task of preparing and exporting Persian wines, Persia would soon rank among the great wine-producing countries of the world Mohammedan followers are not to salute those who drink, nor to marry those who are intemperate, nor to sit at the table where there is wine. Some one asked AH how strict they should be regarding strong drink. Ali answered that if one drop of wine should fall in a well and 128 PERSIA BY A PERSIAN. the well should be filled up with earth and after a hundred years had passed away a sheep should eat grass growing on that spot, he, Ali, would not eat of that flock. Again, Ali, the son-in-law and cousin of Mohammed, said that if there was a caravan of camels reaching from the north pole to the south pole and the last camel in the caravan should have wine on his back, that he, Ali, would not take hold of the bit of the head camel. Mohammed said that in hell there is a valley in which there burn 1,000 loads of wood every day; there is a house in that valley and in that house a box, and in that box there is a fiery snake which has 100 heads and every head has 100 mouths and every mouth has 100 teeth and every tooth has 100 stingers and every stinger has 100 poisons. The CULTIVATING THE VINEYARD. people asked Mohammed : "Who will be punished there ?" and he an- swered: "Those who are intemperate." They classed the Jews as an inferior people, yet Mohammed said that it was easier for a Jew to enter Heaven than for a person who drank wine. If a person drinks wine at night, God will look upon him with his bad eye* until morning ; also his prayer will not be heard for forty days and forty nights. But lately the opium has been introduced in all parts of Persia, whereas the Moham- medans are becoming more slaves of it. *The Mohammedans believe that God has two eyes, one good the other evil, that with the good eye he watches over the Mohammedans, with the evil eye over the Christian and all non-Mohammedans. MANNERS, CUSTOMS, HABITS AND SOCIAL LIFE. 129 Drunkenness (Shurb) denotes the state of a person who has taken intoxicating liquor, whilst sukr implies a state of drunkenness. Wine of any kind being strictly forbidden by the Muslim law, no distinction is made in the punishment of a wine-drinker and a drunkard. If a Muslim drink wine, and two witnesses testify to his having done so, or if his breath smell of wine, or if he shall himself confess of having taken wine, or if he be found in a state of intoxication, he shall be beaten with eighty stripes, or, in the case of a slave, with forty stripes. THE CONDITION AND NEEDS OF PERSIA. Persia in the past has been the scene of great historic advents. As a land of Oriental splendor it has appealed to the imagination of the Western world. Persia to-day suffers by the contrast. Though much reduced in territory, it is still an extensive domain. Notwithstanding the wide extend of territory and the variety of climate possessed by Persia it has been for some centuries in a state of weakness. It is but a shadow of the Persia of the past. Its population is small and sparse. Even its most fertile plains have no such diversity of population as is found in India or China. The total population is estimated at ten millions, of whom two millions are nomads. The cultivated parts of Persia are rich and productive. When irrigated it is only necessary to tickle the soil with a hoe and it will laugh into harvest. Its wheat has been pronounced the best in the markets of the world. It produces also rice, barley, millet, and maize. Its gardens are famous. Its grapes and peaches are most delicious, and are on the average better than any I have known. Grapes in a bunch are hung in a dry place and kept until March. The other fruits largely cultivated are the apricot, nectarine, almond, pear, pomegranate, orange, lemon, mulberry, melons, and the fig, all of which are of good quality, while the cherry, apple, plum are of inferior flavor. The sunflower seeds are used for food on the Caspian coast. Nuts and berries grow wild in the forests. Excellent honey is abundant. Most of the common garden vegetables are now cultivated and a great variety of herbs are used. Tobacco and opium are extensively grown. Cotton is a good crop and it is stated that enough cotton could be raised in Persia to supply the markets of Western Europe. Flowers, both wild and cultivated, flourish in great beauty and variety. The domestic and wild animals of the temperate zone are also found in Persia. Trout is abundant in L30 PERSIA BY A PERSIAN. mountain streams and salmon and other fish provide a profitable industry in the tributaries of the Caspian. A country with such a climate and soil, and perfecting such products, certainly has capability. The uncultivated portion of Persia is desert, much the same as Colorado and California once were. Only irrigation is necessary to produce abundant fertility. Nor is Persia lacking in mineral resources. These are as yet largely undeveloped, but coal, iron, lead, copper, arsenic, mercury, sulphur, asbestos, mica, marble, and manganese are found, and some of them are at present being mined. Gold dust is found in the Jagatia River, and in the naphtha springs near Bushire. The pearl fisheries of the Persian gulf are very productive, while the turquoise mines of Khorasan are pronounced the richest in the world. The present inhabitants of Persia, like those of Europe, have the advantage of the mixture of blood. Over the lands of the Medes and Persians and Parthians have swept Arabs, Seljukes, Turkomans, Mon- gols, and Turks in their successive incursions and conquests. Iran and Turan have been commingled. The last hordes from the steppes of Cen- tral Asia have left the most distinct mark and retain the ascendency, the ruling Kajar dynasty being of Tartar-Turkish extraction. The pres- ent people is the resultant of the fusion of these many elements through a long series of years. Their physiognomy is a mixed one. Just as the Osmanlis have been improved in beauty by the mixture of Georgians and Circassians, so the Tartar-Turks of Northern Persia have been re- fined by admixture with the Persians. In color they are slightly darker than Anglo-Saxons, of medium height, with prominent nose, but on the whole, agreeable features. Famine and earthquake have had some effects in keeping downline population of Persia. One urgent need is the development of internal improvements. The country must be thoroughly irrigated. Occasion- ally a summer cloud-burst will cause a flood to pour through the village streets and into the yards, carrying off the sheep and throwing down the walls. Again, the development of Persia depends upon certain political re- forms being accomplished. Official corruption is universally prevalent. Governors, judges and minor officials now must give presents to obtain their appointments and to retain their posts year by year. They have no fixed salaries and consequently live by fees from litigants and even crim- inals, and otherwise reimburse themselves. The expenses of governors are greatly increased by custom. Their establishments must be on a grand scale and at their own expense. A great retinue and large stables MANNERS, CUSTOMS, HABITS AND SOCIAL LIFE. 131 are needed to maintain the customary pomp. They must provide lavish entertainments daily for many persons. Persia would be highly benefited by a codification of the civil law with a definite code of punishment. Too much is left to the power of the governor, who is both governor and judge. According to his state of digestion the decision may be death or release. PRODUCTS AND METHODS OF DISPOSING OF THEM. Dates, figs, pomegranates, peaches, apples, pears, plums, apricots, grapes, and nuts grow in abundance in Persia. The first grapes or fruit of any kind that ripens is taken by the gardener or servant to his master as a gift, whereupon his master gives him a present, saying, "May the Almighty bless you and make you attain the first fruits that you desire.'' The first fruits are emblematic of new life. In the grocery stores may be found honey, molasses, cheese, butter, oil, clabber, peas, beans, and rice, together with all the fruits before men- tioned, but no canned goods. All such stores are in the hands of the Mohammedans because Christians are an abomination of them so they will not buy any liquids handled by Christians. Should a man go to a shopkeeper early in the morning to buy something that cost only a few cents, the shopkeeper will refuse to take his copper money because he believes that if he should take copper money at the very beginning of the day he would have bad luck all day. On the other hand, if he should be offered silver money early in the morning, he would be very happy because he believes that it will bring him good luck all day. In the western provinces of Persia, about forty different kinds of the best grapes grow, but they are not quite equal to the grapes that grow along some parts of the Tigris and Euphrates valleys. The grapes, figs, and dates that grow there are not equaled anywhere. The best kinds of honey are also exported from these valleys to all parts of the world, and are used for medicines, but unfortunately this interesting land that served as the cradle of the human race and from which the good tidings of salvation and peace through Christ has spread all over the world is now in the hands of the terrible Turk, who sends out curses instead of blessings. Fine grapes grow in most parts of Persia, but they cannot be exported fresh because there are no railroads. They can be carried for about forty miles on horseback, but when they have been thus car- ried they soon spoil. From grapes they make both wine and molasses, but the most of them are dried, making raisins. They cover a terrace or side hill with plaster made of clay mixed with chaff and upon this they 132 PERSIA BY A PERSIAN. spread the ripe grapes to dry in the bright sunshine. When dry they export them by means of caravans to Russia. When persons are gath- ering grapes, the passers by greet them by saying, "May God give you blessings in your vineyard." When they pass by a man who is plowing they say, "May God give you strength." To both these greetings the laborers reply, "Welcome" or "Thank you." They raise very good wheat, barley, and millet. In order to tell if their wheat is good any year, they chew a few grains to see if it expands and becomes elastic. If so it is good wheat and dough made from it will also expand and rise nicely. But if it does not expand when chewed it is poor wheat. Watermelons and muskmelons are also raised there, but they re- quire a great deal of work. When a muskmelon is about twice the size of an egg, they bury it while it is still on the vine. By and by it grows so as to come on the surface again and is again buried and so on until it stops growing. They then lay it in the sun until it gets sweet and ready to be eaten. The raw silk of Persia is divisible into three qualities. First is the Abn'sbor — that is, silk of a super excellent grade; second is the Gunuk; third is the Las. The first quality is divided into different numbers, ac- cording to fineness of texture, gloss, or color. The carpet trade of Persia is scarcely less important than the silk trade. Its leading features are doubtless so widely known, owing to the fact that so many Persian rugs have reached foreign markets for cen- turies past. There is nothing so indefinite as describing a Persian rug, simply as Persian, because there are twenty-five or thirty kinds of carpets that come under that head, each entirely distinct from the others ; and unless the specific name is given it is impossible to tell what sort of a rug or carpet is meant. It may be stated in general that the texture of the Persian carpets is more close than that of Turkish carpets, which have a long nap and are thicker. Persian rugs are all made by hand, without a single exception; they are stretched on frames as one would make a sampler, and all the members of a family work on them ; a pattern pre- scribed for that particular carpet is before them, which they follow with more or less precision, according as their fancy suits them. As a rule, considerable license is allowed for the expression of individual taste in working out these patterns; no two carpets are therefore exactly alike, and the owner of an old Persian rug may be reasonably sure that while he may find other rugs resembling his, not one that is absolutely identical MANNERS, CUSTOMS, HABITS AND SOCIAL LIFE. 133 exists. This quality gives them a value similar to that possessed by an oil painting. The sugar cane grows finely in the Caspian provinces, but no sys- tematic and scientific attempts have been employed to make it profitably productive. Tobacco, as all know, is among the most prominent products of Persia, so the Persians too have that very injurious habit of smoking, though to their credit be it said they never chew and they use very little snuff. This is the story circulated among them as to the first use of tobacco : Once, many, many years ago there was a very sick man whom the doctors could not cure of his terrible disease, so he was cast out by his relatives into a lonely place where they hoped that he might die, and they in this way would get rid of him. He of course became very hungry, but there was nothing for him to eat. He found a plant, how- ever, growing there, and that he ate because he was so desperately hungry that he could eat anything. By and by he began to like the taste . of it, and he felt better, too, so he kept on eating it until he was entirely cured of his disease. He then returned home to his people, who were astonished to see him in perfect health, and asked him what had cured him. He showed them the plant, which was tobacco. It is frequently mentioned in their old legends and songs, showing that while America claims the honor (?) of its introduction into civilized life, yet this noxoius weed was known and used in Persia long before the discovery of Amer- ica and the days of Sir Walter Raleigh. Every smoking man in Persia must have not only a pipe, but also a piece of flint, a piece of steel, and a supply of punk, or tinder in his pocket to start a fire to light his pipe. This primitive method of starting a fire is still in use there because matches are not yet manufactured there, and when they have to be imported they are more expensive than the punk. If a man who smokes should happen to have no tobacco and should meet a Turk and ask him for a smoke, the Turk, if he himself smokes, would at once ask him to show his pipe, flint, steel, punk, and tobacco bag. Should he find the man in possession of all these things, he would know at once that he is a professional smoker and would give him some tobacco. But if all these things are not found with him the Turk knows that he is only an occasional smoker and promptly tells him to go away, or, to put it literally, he says, "Johanamal," "Go to hell." ' HOUSES AND CITIES. The houses as a rule are built of sun dried bricks, but very, few being made of burnt bricks. The homes of the poor contain but one 134 PERSIA BY A PERSIAN. large room. Some of these houses have rooms built upon the flat roof, which is reached by a flight of stairs built on the outside. Wealthy people live in well-built two-story houses. In cities the houses are built closely adjoining, so that it is possible to walk all over the city on the house tops. This is the common way of traversing in winter when the streets are impassible owing to slush and mud. In some of the large cities such as Teheran, the capital, Isphahan and Shiraz, modern street paving is being introduced. Streets have no names, houses are not numbered, no police patrolmen during the day, no city directory is to be found. All information must be obtained from persons you chance to meet and find able and willing to give it, or else canvass from house to house until you reach your point. There are no newspapers of any kind and of course no advertising is done. As you walk the streets you will hear the call to prayer when the Mollah, three times a day, stands on the roof of a minaret on a mosque and repeats the muezzin. But at times the throng crowding the narrow streets is so dense as to prevent the Mollah from attending to his duty. Then a lord or government official may be seen with a company of from 50 to 200 soldiers, as the case may demand, going up and down the street to open the way for him to pass. Every person must stand still and bowing low push against a wall when an officer passes. A refusal to comply with this custom would put anyone in danger of being whipped to death. They build their houses in this way: They first dig a foundation. Then they dig up earth and put water in it thus making mud. Then the laborers take off their shoes and stockings and roll up their trousers above their knees and get into this mud and tramp it with their feet, turning it about twice as they do so. By this time it will be all right and will stick together very nicely. They then build a wall of this about four feet high and from three to four feet thick. It will require four or five days to dry. When it is dry they build as much more on top of it and continue in this way until it is the desired height. Of course, such houses never burn down as houses do in this country and the walls of some of them last from fifty to seventy years. When the walls are ready they cover the house by putting first a long heavy beam across the center of it, the ends resting upon the walls, while it is supported in the center of the house by one or two pillars. Timbers about eight inches in thickness are now placed from this beam or sill to the wall on either side. These are something like joists and are about two feet apart. Upon these joists are placed pieces of MANNERS, CUSTOMS, HABITS AND SOCIAL LIFE. 135 wood something like laths, about two inches in thickness and two feet long. Over all this, first reeds and then grass are placed, and afterwards mud about six inches thick is put over the whole. The mud they carry up on their backs and then tramp it down thoroughly with their feet in order to make it stick well and become smooth. Upon this mud they plaster with the best kind of clay mixed with very fine chaff to keep it from cracking. Roofs are made almost flat, but sloping slightly to one side in order to make the water run off when it rains. This is conducted off by means of a spout. Once every year or two they replaster the roof. On some the different kinds of green grasses grow during the rainy season in the spring and then they look very beautiful, but the summer heat soon comes and withers them premature- ly. Hence David finds this expression to use against those that hate Zion : "Let them be as the grass upon the housetops which withereth afore it groweth up." Ps. cxxix-6. Thieves very often come in the night and dig holes through these mud walls and steal. For breaking through they use wooden hammers and iron chisels mounted upon wooden handles. Upon the handle of the chisel they fasten a piece of felt to keep it from making any noise to waken the owner of the house while they are striking it with the hammer. It is to this effect that our Lord says, "But know this ; that if the good man of the house had known in what watch the thief would come l he would have watched and would not have suffered his house to be broken up, (or digged through) Matt. 20:12-43. The floors are simply hard, clean, smooth earth floors. One-half of the floor is covered with a kind of reed matting over which carpets are spread. I When one enters a house he takes off his shoes on the earth floor, then steps upon the carpeted part and sits down with his feet under him. In this country, people take off' their hats when they enter a house, but in Asiatic countries they take off their shoes instead. A Persian stove, or oven, looks like a cylinder. It is built of clay and is about four feet deep by two and one-half feet in diameter. It is built in the ground near the center of the house, the top of it being on a level with the floor. They make fire in it only once a day and at that time they 'do their cooking and baking. In most parts of Asia wood is very scarce so their principal fuel is dried manure. This is used for fuel only and the ashes from it are put upon the fields afterwards as a fertilizer. There are no pipes to carry out the smoke, hence it comes first into the house and afterwards escapes through the window in the 136 PERSIA BY A PERSIAN. ceiling directly over the oven. The smoke smells while they are making fires, but in a short time after the fire begins to burn well, it, together with all other impurities in the house, is drawn out through the window which is open day and night. The houses are thus thoroughly ventilated all the time and they have plenty of pleasant fresh air to breathe, although the ceilings grow quite dark, of course. They make big, hot fires in these ovens so that the sides of the oven grow to a white heat, while the coals of fire still remain at the bottom. They make bread with yeast which they keep on hand for that pur- pose, and having kneaded it they set it aside to use, as people do in this country. Afterwards they may cut it into small balls about the size of ordinary biscuits. The lady at the left has a rolling pin in her hand. She takes these balls of dough one at a time and, placing them on a broad board, rolls them out as thin as blotting paper. As she finishes it, the lady at the right takes it, and, spreading it over something made for that purpose, puts it down into the oven as' far as her elbow and sometimes the whole length of her arm, then slaps it against the sides of the oven which is quite hot. The dough adheres to this and is quickly baked. It is re- moved as soon as it is baked and more put in its place. In this way they keep on until the baking is all done. For large families they usu- LADY SITTING AT RIGHT IS GRINDING WHEAT ON A HAND-MILL, THE REST ARE BAKING BREAD MANNERS, CUSTOMS, HABITS AND SOCIAL LIFE. 137 ally bake every day or every other day, while some bake only once or twice a week. It sometimes happens that guests come unexpectedly and there is not bread enough in the house to serve them. In such cases they bor- row of their neighbors so many loaves and when -they bake again pay them back. To this effect -we have the words of our Lord, "And he said, which of you shall have a friend and shall go unto him at midnight and say unto him, lend me three loaves for a friend of mine is come to me from a journey and I have nothing to set before him." (Luke n 15-7.) HOW THEY EAT. If a man has, for instance, four sons and they are all married and some of them have children, that, of course, is a large family and when they eat they will either put bread and food in a wooden tray which is made like a sink and is about three or four feet long by a foot and a half wide, or in a copper one 'about three feet in circumference, or else they will simply spread a table cloth on the floor which serves them as a table to place food upon. Then the men will sit around it according to their ages. For instance, the father, who is absolute master of the house, sits before it in the place which is considered the best and of the highest rank, and next to him his oldest son, then the second son and so on according to their ages. When there is such a large family the women usually sit in a separate place because the young brides in the family are not allowed, according to the customs of the country, to eat in the presence of their father-in-law, or even mother-in-law. For them to see the lips of a bride move would be something unheard of. They never use knives and forks to eat with, but their fingers instead, and if these get wet they lick them. Many people think that food tastes better when eaten in this way. The main part of every meal is bread. When they have meat they usually make soup and put vegetables in it. Onions especially are considered indispensable. They think nothing tastes so good without onions as it would if it had onions in it. They also put a little red pepper into soup to make it look red and beautiful and appetizing. We have already described their bread, how large the cakes are and as thin and soft as blotting paper. This they break up in their soup and when it gets moist eat it. They also eat clabber, butter, milk and cheese. The latter is- well salted, then pressed into a pitcher and buried in the ground for a -long time, even a whole year often. It then gets a little strong and has an excellent flavor. This is eaten with bread broken into small morsels. Sometimes they also eat onions, pickled green peppers, and some other vegetables with cheese. 138 MANNERS, CUSTOMS, HABITS AND SOCIAL LIFE. 139 Those who have onions growing in their yards take the green tops and wrapping them around pieces of bread eat it with great relish. They also make a dish which they call "aash" by cutting up beet tops and celery and cooking them together in buttermilk. This they eat with spoons. The common people eat very little rice but the rich eat a great deal of it. From this they make two different dishes called "dolma" that have already been described in our account of the marriage feast. During the summer everybody „in the cities, towns and villages sleeps upon the flat roofs of their houses under the open sky. They have bed clothing but no bedsteads, people are not afraid to sleep on the housetops on account of rain or lightning because there is very little of either during the summer season. Persia is a dry country and has a very dry, pure, light, bracing atmosphere. The moonlight there is exceedingly bright so that people often eat their suppers upon the tops of their houses with no other light than that. 'Neighbors, while thus sitting, each family on their own house top often chat back and forth and are quite sociable while most of the village people can hear them quite well. During the winter they spread carpets or matting around the oven, then having taken off their shoes on the earthen floor they sit around it and warm themselves. Or else they place a square table over it and spread a carpet or large quilt over this to keep the heat in and then sit, a whole large family, half under it, quite cosily. The coals of fire remain at the bottom of the oven all day/ sometimes all night even, because manure as fuel holds fire for a much longer time than wood, or coal even. The window which they always have near the center of the ceiling of their houses, besides admitting - light and ventilating the houses for many odd purposes. When it rains they have to place a pan under the window for the water falls directly into the house through the window, which always stands open day and night. They milk cows, buffalos and sheep. Cheese is made chiefly of sheeps' milk. Buffalo give the largest quantity of milk, and butter made from it is as white as snow. Women do all the milking, for it is con- sidered a disgrace for a man to milk a cow. They milk twice a day as in this country. When they have finished milking in the morning they heat the milk almost to the boiling point, then remove it from the fire and let it cool a little, after which they add about a tablespoonful of sour milk to it. 'This will make it coagulate, so that by the next morning it is 1 to PERSIA BY A PERSIAN. clabber ready for breakfast. With a little molasses it is considered a good breakfast. They keep a little sour milk from time to time to be used for curdling milk. Those who live in villages make butter in large earthen pitchers called "meta," while the nomadic people who live in tents make it in sheep's skin. They fill the sheep's skin with clabber mixed with some water. In winter they warm the water, of course. Then they hang up the sheep's skin on some timbers and shake it until the butter is separated from the clabber. When a lady has as much as ten or twenty pounds of but- ter, she boils it well, thus making an oil out of it and then it will keep a long time. All the impurities settle to the bottom and the oil is poured' off into earthen pitchers. It will then keep for a year or two and should they have no cow, sheep or buffalo to milk the next year, they will still have this boiled butter or oil for cooking. Furniture is not in use in Persia, as people eat, sit and sleep on the floor, which is made of hard wood and covered with mattings and rugs or carpets. Bedding is spread out upon the floor for the night, rolled up and stowed away for the day. No knives and forks are used while eating." Traveling is done mostly on the back, of animals and is very unsafe, the roads being infested with Kurds, robbers and highway- men. This accounts for the custom of traveling in large companies called caravans. Passengers find no accommodations excepting at the cara- vansories, and even there nothing is furnished except the very barest of necessaries. Cities, like single dwellings, are surrounded by high earthen walls about six feet thick and twenty feet in height. The gates within these walls are open during the day, but at. 8 o'clock in the evening they are closed. No person can enter or leave the city after this hour and the people within the city walls might as well remain in doors as the streets are shrouded in utter darkness, there being no system of street lighting whatever. Besides this, no person is permitted to walk the streets after 9 o'clock p. m. When a nightwatch or guard (equal to our patrolman) happens to meet anyone on the street after this hour, he will compel him to patrol the streets with him all night long, thumping and jerking him about and occasionally striking him in the neck or on the back unless he gives him some money. At 5 :30 in the morning the wanderer is con- fined in a prison cell where he will have to remain until a ransom has been paid for him, the amount of which is determined by the chief of police. Persons whose duty or calling make it imperative to go out upon MANNERS, CUSTOMS, HABITS AND SOCIAL LIFE 141 the streets after 9 p. m., such as physicians, nurses, etc., can do so un- molested provided they have been careful to get the password from the mayor of the city. Such a password is given out to the city officials by the mayor daily and any private person knowing it proves thereby that he or she has permission to be out after the respective hour. EDUCATION. Education without religion is to the Muhammadan mind an an- omaly. In all books of traditions there are sections specially devoted to the consideration of knowledge, but only so far as it relates to a knowledge of God, and of "God's Book." The people who read the "Book of God" are, according to the sayings of the Prophet, described as "assembling together, mosques, with light and comfort descending as "assembling together in mosques, with light and comfort descending compassing them round about.7The chief aim and object of education in Islam is, therefore, to obtain a knowledge of the religion of Muham- mad, and anything beyond this is considered superfluous, and even dan- gerous. /Amongst Muhammadan religious leaders there have always been two classes — those who affect the ascetic and strictly religious life of mortification, such as the Sufi mystics and the Fagirs; and those who, by a careful study of the Koran, the Tradition, and the numerous works on divinity, have attained to a high reputation for scholarship, and are known in Turkey as the "Ulama," or "learned," and in India, as "Maulawis." Amongst Muhammadans generally, a knowledge of science and vari- ous branches of secular learning is considered dangerous to the faith, and it is discouraged by the religious, although some assert that Muham- mad has encouraged learning of all kinds in the Koran, by the follow- ing verse, Surah ii. 272 : — "He giveth wisdom to whom he will, and he to whom wisdom is given hath had much good given him." The parents seldom devote much of their time or attention to the intellectual education of their children ; generally contenting themselves with instilling into their young minds a few principles of religion, and then submitting them, if they can afford to do so, to the instruction of a school. As early as possible, the child is taught to say, "I testify that there is no deity but God, and I testify that Muhammad is God's Apostle." He receives also lessons of religious pride, and learns to hate the Christ- ians, and all other sects but his own, as thoroughly as does the Muslim in advanced age. In connection with all mosques of importance, in all parts of Islam, 142 PERSIA BY A PERSIAN. whether in Turkey, Egypt, Persia or India, there are small schools, either for the education of children, or for the training of students of divinity. The child who attends these seminaries is first taught his alphabet, which he learns from a small board, on which the letters are written by the teacher. He then becomes acquainted with the numerical value of each letter. After this he learns to write down the ninety-nine names of God, and other simple words taken from the Koran. When he has mastered the spelling of words, he proceeds to learn the first chapter of the Koran, then the last chapter, and gradually reads through the whole Koran in Arabic, which he usually does without understanding a word of it. Having finished the Koran, which is considered an incumbent religious duty, the pupil is instructed in the elements of grammar, and perhaps a few simple rules of arithmetic. To this is added a knowledge of one Hindustani, or Persian book. The ability to read a single Persian book, like the Gulistan or Bustan, is considered in Central Asia to be the sign of liberal education. The ordinary school master is generally a man of little learning, the learned Maulawi • usually devoting himself to the study of divinity, and not to the education of the young. Amongst students of divinity, who are called Talabatu, or "seekers after knowl- edge," the usual course of study is as follows : as-sarf, grammatical in- flection ; annahw, syntax ; al-mantig, logic ; al-hisab, arithmetic ; al-jabr wa'l-muqabalah, algebra, al-ma'na wa'l-bayan, rhetoric and versification ; al-figh, jurisprudence ; al— 'aga'id, scholastic theology ; at-tafsir, com- mentaries on the Koran 'ilmu '1-usul, treatises on exegesis, and the principles and rules on interpretation of the laws of Islam; al-ahadis, the traditions and commentaries thereon. These are usually regarded as different branches of learning, and it is not often that a Maulawi, or 'Alim, attains to the knowledge of each section. For example, a scholar will be celebrated as being well educated in al-ahadis, but he may be weak in al-figh. The teacher, when instructing his pupils, seats himself on the ground with his hearers all seated round him in a ring. Instruc- tion in mosques is usually given in the early morning, after the morning prayer, and continues some three or four hours. It is again renewed for a short time after the mid-day prayer. Students in mosques are gen- erally supported by the people of the parish, who can be called upon for food for all the inmates of a mosque every morning and evening. Not infrequently mosques are endowed with land, or rents of shops, and houses, for the payment of professors. Every city or town has its school for boys, located in the mosques and conducted by Mollahs. The attendance at the school also for the boys MANNERS, CUSTOMS, HABITS AND SOCIAL LIFE. 143 is voluntary, no one being compelled to send his boys if he should pre- fer to keep them at home. Pupils pay the teacher all the way from five to twenty-five cents a month tuition ; but such as are too poor to pay anything are admitted free of charge. The Mollah's sustenance is fur- nished him by the pupils daily in the form of eatables of all kinds. These schools are attended by boys and youths ranging from ten to twenty years of age. The teacher has authority to punish the pupil very se- verely. Parents will sometimes take a boy to school and deliver him over to the gentle keeping and care of the teacher with these words : "His bones are mine, but his flesh is yours. Teach him and punish him as you see fit." When boys go to school they usually sit in two rows. One row sits along one wall books in hand and the other row along the op- posite wall while the teacher sits in the center of the room. They do not use chairs but sit on the floor which is covered with a reed matting. When they are studying their lessons they sway their bodies backward and forward as though they were in a rocking chair and read in a sing- song style as though they were chanting, sometimes so loud that they can be heard for quite a distance. They have neither blackboards nor slates but use paper and reed pens for learning to write. They put their left knee on the floor and set their right one up for a desk to rest the paper on. They use the Arabic alphabet and read and write from right to left instead of left to right. They also begin their books at the back reading forward. In their schools they learn to read some tales and traditions of the Koran and some poetry but do not study much mathematics or geography and no science but plenty of astrology. When they have finished school they become secretaries, shop keepers, mer- chants, priests, jewelers and bankers. Among Mohammedan children and even among old people cursing is very common. They say "May 'Allah' kill your children or burn your house, or may your father be burned," and such things. They swear by "Allah" who created everything from nothing. A Moham- medan may swear to a falsehood in the name of "Allah" but his faith in God who created everything out of nothing is true and sincere. A post is planted in the school-room. To this an unruly boy's feet are tightly fastened, soles upward, and the soles are then belabored with heavy switches. This is, however, applied only to the most unruly and wilfullest. For milder offenses, the teacher raps pupils over the head with a long switch, which is always kept in a convenient place or carried about with him by the teacher. Religious teachings are limited to 144 PERSIA BY A PERSIAN. quotations from the Koran and repeating the traditions about their prophets. The boys are generally very fond of reviling each other, and very quarrelsome. The teacher does not protect the weaker, but urges him on to return insinuations or blows. Frequently the pupils of one mosque attack those of another, regarding them as their enemies. The most prominent university of the Shute Mohammedans is in the shrine of Karballa. All who wish to become Mushtaheds (see Priesthood) study at this place. In several large cities they have schools of higher rank than the ordinary mosque-school. In these the pupils are offered a course of Persian literature. We state with pleasure that the late Shah, after his visits to some of the European universities, has founded a college in his capital, which is called the abode of science. The French, English and Russian languages are taught here, and the study of some modern sciences are being introduced. This institute, however, is only available to princes and sons of wealthy people ; it is only one pretty flower in the vast wilderness. The aim of Mohammedanism is to keep the masses ignorant, so that the priests may continue to rule over them. The en- tire priesthood, therefore, does not favor higher education. Some counts or lords send their sons to Paris, in France, to be educated, but the ordinary young man has no opportunities to acquire knowledge. Mohammedans who can read and write always have a pair of scissors in the ink-case that they carry with them in their pockets. When thev write a letter, they always trim the margins of it, for a tradition is current among them that if they did not cut the margins of their letters their wives would be untrue to them. Having put their letters into envelopes with their edges properly trimmed, they always seal them with a seal that most of them carry in their purses. MOHAMMEDAN WOMEN. It is the policy of the Mohammedans not to open too wide the eyes of women, consequently they have no schools for girls. Among the higher classes even, very few ever teach their daughters to read, con- sequently there are millions of Mohammedan women who during their whole lives can never take up a book and read or sit down and write a letter to their friends. Sometimes it happens that a woman's husband has to reside for a time several hundred miles distant from her. In such a case should she wish to write to him she will cover her face and go to a priest and tell him what she wants to have written to her husband. He then writes the letter for her and she pays him for it. When she MANNERS, CUSTOMS, HABITS 1 ANfi SOCIAL LIFE. receives a letter from her husband she again has to go to the priest or some one else that can read and has them read it for her. This shows how very ignorant they are and no wonder then that they are so super-- stitious. When they go out it is customary for them to cover their entire body with a large blue wrap, while a linen veil, with small holes in it for the eyes, is worn over, the face. These wraps they wear are nearly all of the same color and the same material so that when they are out- walking many of them cannot be recognized by their own nearest rela- tives even. Rich and poor appear just the same. When they go to a 1 party, or ladies' reception we might call it, they paint their faces with 1 a red substance, and blacken their eyes, eyelashes and eyebrows with 1 black antimony. Many of them color their fingers and finger nails and^ even their feet red with henna. They dye their hair also with henna and' plait it in many long braids. They wear necklaces and chains around' their necks and bracelets and glass bangles on their arms. Quite a number of them smoke pipes. Most of the ladies of the higher classes are very idle. They invite each other to parties by turns. Often ten or fifteen of them may be seen in the streets attended by servants, go- ing to parties. Where women are gathered no men appear, and where men are no women come. Fashions among Mohammedan women do not change as they do among ladies of this country. There a costume that was worn by a lady twenty or more years ago is just the same as those worn by the ladies of to-day. I dare say that I have seen more changes of styles in the ladies' dress of this country during my short residence here than all the records of Persia in that line could show, were such records kept, from the time of the resting of the Ark on Ararat to the present day. The Mohammedan ladies cover their person when they go out, but the ladies of this country wear hats upon their heads instead. Mohammedan women are never seen bareheaded and their '^voice must not be heard in the streets and their mouths must not be seen moving to eat anything. If two ladies wish to speak to each other in the steets they must step aside where they cannot be seen by the passers-by. Women of the lower classes work very hard. Peasant women rise early in the morning and do their milking and general house-work. Then they take their sickles and cut grain in the harvest fields, or their short handled hoes and cut weeds in the cotton fields. In the evening when they come home there will be seen on their backs a five foot square canvas filled with fresh grass for the cows and buffalos and their young. This they feed them in the evenings so that they may have plenty of nice 146 PERSIA BY A PERSIAN. milk the next morning. Widows do harvesting, weeding, sewing, weav- ing and spinning. During the wheat harvest they go to the fields and glean but they are seldom allowed to follow the reapers. They glean after the wheat is stacked, gathering the heads one by one, they take them home and thresh them, and in this way add to the store of grain for the winter. Dish washing is a very small item with them for they use very few dishes. After some meals there are none to wash. They very seldom wash clothes either. When they do, a certain plant and the bark of the soap tree are used for it and very little soap. THE PERSIAN WOMEN CLEANING CABBAGE. It is the women of the middle, and some too, of the lower classes, that have made Persia famous all over the world for her elegant rugs, carpets and shawls. They spin the yarn and dye it at home in the excel- lent colors that hold their own as long as a piece of it remains. It takes a long time to make these rugs, however, for every particle of the work is done by hand. It requires from three to four months to make a single rug, but when finished, it is not only beautiful but will also last for years, thus making Persian rugs celebrated not only for their beauty but for their durability as well. MODES OF TRAVELING. Camels are liked best for this business on account of their great strength for bearing burdens and their great ability to endure hardships, such as hunger and thirst, their gentleness, on account of their being so MANNERS, CUSTOMS, HABITS AND SOCIAL LIFE. 147 easily kept. A few persons only can lead a caravan of fifty or a hundred camels. The camels are all bound together and go the road one behind the other like coaches of a very long train. Bells are hung upon the camel's neck ; while traveling they tinkle continually, and if during dark nights highwaymen should stop a camel, the sound of the bells would be interrupted. The caravan men's ears are so accustomed to the sound of these bells that they at once detect it if one goes wrong, and they are equally prompt to see what the trouble is and protect their camels. The higher classes of men in Persia travel on horseback. The Shah himself rides for hundreds of miles in this way, but for ladies be- longing to the upper classes, the "tektaravan" is used. It is somewhat similar to the sedan. It rests upon two poles and is carried by horses and used by wealthy people only. The "tektaravan" is often seen pass- ing through the streets accompanied by the jingling of the bells on the horses' necks. . It is followed and surrounded by a number of servants and attendants. Next in point to the "tektaravan" is the "kagava" for ladies to travel in. It is used by the middle classes and by some of the higher classes also, and consists of two cages or boxes made of wood and fastened together. These have their fronts opened, and are fastened securely on the backs of the horses or mules. One lady sits in each of these boxes, while the articles they have with them are placed with the lighter lady to balance the "kajara" and prevent it from swinging too much. The "kajara" is always guarded by servants or "charvadars." They travel long distances in this way and it is a very common mode of traveling throughout the whole of Persia. The lower classes, or villagers, do what little traveling falls to their miserable lot on foot or upon the backs of donkeys, seldom upon horseback. Donkeys are the animals most generally used among the lower classes both for riding and bearing burdens, and while all the modes of traveling in Persia are very slow and tedious, this one is especially noted for its slowness. Con- sequently those who travel in this way must have an extraordinary amount of patience. The numerous nomadic tribes of Persia offer one of the most inter- esting and important divisions of its population. It is impossible to ascertain their exact number, but it is probably somewhat over a million.. The nomads of Persia spend the winter in mud villages on the plains ; in the summer they move to the mountains with their flocks, and dwell in goat-hair tents. They resort to the same spot year after year, and any tribe or clan or family that should pitch its tents in a place pre viously occupied by another would be considered an interloper. 148 PERSIA BY A PERSIAN. These nomads are a thrifty set ; and what with the sale of butter and cheese, of mutton and wool and textile stuffs, they generally keep the wolf from the tent door, and accumulate enough at least to endow their daughters with flocks and jewels. I gathered these facts not only from observation, but also from conversing with some of the nomads themselves. They told me the tax collector comes around every month and counts the flocks. The regular tax is four shahis, or three cents per month on each sheep and goat. This practically amounts to forty per cent, on the value of each animal per annum, if sold on the hoof; but really it is considerably less than that proportion, for during the year a large amount of wool is sheared from the flocks, which is so much over and above their market value, while the cost of feeding the flocks and herds is next to nothing. Thus it is evident that a good margin of profit remains to these thrifty roamers of the Persian wilds. Of course, the chief of each tribe gets the lion's share of the profits, and can sometimes indulge in considerable pastoral display ; occasionally, too, the governors of the districts make unusual levies on them for contribu- tions of money ; a large proportion of the Persian army, especially for the cavalry, is also drafted from these tribes. They submit to the latter hardship with ill grace sometimes, although they make the best soldiers in Persia. But all things considered, no class of the Persian population is so comfortably situated as its nomadic tribes. By special treaty pro- vision with Russia, about forty thousand of these nomads, chiefly of the tribe called the Shah Sevend, whose winter quarters are near the northwest frontier, are permitted to cross the line and pasture their flocks during the summer time on the fat pasture lands of the Araz in the southern Caucasus. THE RURAL DISTRICTS. Let us mount on Horseback, or on little donkeys, and seek a village where we may cross the threshold of an old-fashioned Mohammedan dwelling. On our way to the country, as we ride along, enjoying the glories of the summer, giving and returning the salutations of peace and welcome, we shall find much that is interesting, both in objects and in scenery. We hear the rippling of the wayside brook, and the notes of the birds as we pass under the arching trees. Our eyes are greeted by lovely hillsides and dales covered with beds of fragrant wild flowers or by waving fields of grain, stretching away to the horizon. Yonder is the mountain side, dotted with log houses and with the slowly moving caravans of Syrian camels, journeying for many weary saats, or hours. MANNERS, CUSTOMS, HABITS AND SOCIAL LIFE. 149 In the absence of railroa'ds, these animals perform the duties of loco- motives, although at a somewhat slower rate. The peculiar feature about this mighty host of camels is that they are led by a little sleepy donkey. This gives origin to one of our proverbs. When a mighty intellect follows the counsel of an insignificant one, it is said, "The camel is following the donkey." Here and there we see large droves of horses, buffaloes, sheep, and oxen, pasturing on the great sweeps of grass. Yon- der, from the high wooded hills, a host of donkeys with loads of wood on their backs and loud jingling bells suspended from their necks, bray- ing, kicking and jumping, are on the road to their respective homes ; for each donkey knows where he belongs and needs no direction in find- ing the place. These little creatures are collected from various homes by a donkey man every morning and returned in the evening with a burden of wood for the use of the household. As we approach the cottage, all the dogs in the village are thoroughly aroused by our knock- ing. The Agah, or head man of the family or village, like his fellow villag- ers, is simple-minded, good-hearted, honest, but unprogressive, unambi- tious and ignorant. He cannot read or write, nor does he know any other literature and history than that of his! own immediate ancestors, and he passionately cherishes these legends and traditions of his fathers. He never strives to keep up appearances. Like neighboring peasants, his life is simple and his wants are few. Many generations have wrought little or no change in his manners and modes. He scorns all modern improvements, and regards them with much suspicion and prejudice. His bigotry and ignorance render him an easy victim to superstition ; and consequently, any Western farm- ing machinery, and any advanced movement that is beyond his compre- hension, he pronounces "devilish," and has nothing to do with it. He is the head of a great family, grouped together on the mountain side, with its green sloping pastures, and lives with his flocks and nu- merous children. An ample roof shelters the nearly three score mem- bers of the family for generations under a single roof, without knowledge or care for the world outside their little village. Yet they are com- fortable, happy and contented in their little round of duties and pleasures, and are blessed with an easy-going temperament. The young man rises with the sun in the morning, and with his flocks, wanders over green mountains and hills, by shady groves and still waters, singing cheerfully his native ballads through the woods, or playing his sweet-toned flute. He returns home late, as the waning moon feebly lights up the exquisite 150 PERSIA BY A PERSIAN. landscape. He joins the family dance by the blaze of the evening fire, while the old women weave cotton and yarn, or are occupied in making various articles for domestic use. The house is built in a picturesque locality. Logs are brought down from the near forest. Bricks are made of mud and straw, and are molded in various sizes and shapes, then put into open fields to dry. In a few days they become sufficiently solid for building a substantial house. The earth which is dug out is banked against the sides of the house, and the rear of the structure is entirely imbedded in the hillside. Light enters through the oiled paper windows in the flat roof, or, when windows are altogether discarded, the occu- pants are content with what light penetrates down from the low chim- ney, which is not higher than the roof. The abodes of the Mohammedan farmers are more like bee hives than human dwellings. They are really huts, mainly one story, barn and house being built under one roof. Such an abode old Diogenes him- self would have coveted. In the summer the stork builds her nest on the broad-topped chimney and raises her brood quite undisturbed. At night the room is illuminated by a feeble, flickering olive oil wick. There are no tables, no chairs, no books, no ornamental decora- tions, but here and there are spread divans, and minders, or cushions, with drapery of Kurdish stuffs, upon which the occupants stretch them- selves in crosslegged carelessness. One, or perhaps two, large rooms suffice for sleeping, cooking, eat- ing and lounging. With such rude belongings the Agah never seems to think anything is lacking. On the wall, if we charitably term it so, or rather on the partitial partition that separate the living apartments from the vast stable, are saddles, bridles, guns and the entire parapherna- lia of the field and chase. The equine favorites are nearest the family, for as with all Orientals and some Occidentals, the horse ranks highest in esteem as a domestic animal. Farther on are donkeys, buffa- loes, cows, and sheep, with chickens scattered between them. As we step into the house we are received with a profusion of sa- laams. We at once find ourselves in the midst of a large Mohamme- dan family, grandfathers, fathers, uncles, brothers, cousins, and numer- ous children, — all assembled in a large room, dressed in gay and odd colors, sitting crosslegged around the bright, blazing fire and warming their lazy bones. But we fail to see in the great gathering any women, except the old grandmother. The young Mohammedans here must surely have some wives ; in such a large family, doubtless, there must be MANNERS, CUSTOMS, HABITS AND SOCIAL LIFE. 151 some young girls too ; but where are they ? All out of sight ! As their religion does not allow women to appear in the presence of men, no matter how intimately acquainted, they are all driven into seclusion — a very bad custom, indeed. The more religious a Moslem, the more rigidly the privacy of women is enforced, and, as a rule, the country people in this neighborhood are the most zealous of fanatics. At the side opposite the darkest chimney corner, where the grand- mother is, sits the old Agah, stretching his feet out and smoking with Musselman gravity his pipe, which is so extremely long that it extends from the corner to the center of the room. In the course of our conversa- tion, the old man remarks, concerning his residence, that his great-great great — that "great," however, goes about a half a mile — grandfather was born and died on the same spot where he now lives ; and that he is about seventy-five years of age, but never has been a dozen saats journey from his home. This is the case with many a Mohammedan peasant. Many, indeed, never set foot outside their farms. No progress is ever made in this pastoral life. Through his own inclination, and the policy of his rulers, the Mohammedan has remained isolated through the ages from the blessings of civilization ; and neither European influence nor missionaries have managed to make any ingress to speak of. As we chat with our host our talk is interrupted by ten or fifteen dogs who are having a lively concert of howling and barking. Let us ask him why he doesn't kill those useless brutes and get rid of them one for all. He will answer "It is a great sin against Allah, and a viola- tion of our laws." So numerous are dogs, especially in the country, that when a Mohammedan was once asked the population of the village, he replied, "About one hundred and sixty dogs and one hundred and twenty people." When dinner time comes, all the males of the house return from the field, wash their hands and faces, and sit crosslegged on the floor in a circle around the sufra, or low table. There are spoons, but no knives or forks. In the center is placed an immense bowl of hot soup. When ready for the fray, the Agah gives them the signal to commence and immediately all the spoons enter the bowl. The soup is followed with a dish of meat. Each rolls up his long, flowing sleeves, and with bare fingers and unbounded appetite, separates the flesh from the bones. Then comes the unfailing accompaniment, yoghurt, or coagulated buttermilk, — a highly prized species of refreshment. After a succession of dishes, the meal is ended with washing of hands. Now let us watch how the Agah works in the field. He has no 152 PERSIA BY A PERSIAN. set time to commence his harvest ; he takes his time, as there is not much fear of rain during the harvest season. As soon as the stalks of the crops are yellow, or sufficiently matured, they are cut by hand with scythes and stacked up in piles in the open field. In due season the piles are all removed from the various quarters to the village threshing-floor in large arabahs, or carts, drawn by buffaloes and heifers. The thresh- ing-floor is a hard and smooth circular piece of ground, from fifty to eighty feet in diameter, upon which the stalks are strewn. Then the threshing machine, a sort of sled, with a woman or boy standing on it, is drawn around on the hard, earthen floor by oxen. This threshing implement is made of a hard piece of wood, and set on the under side with sharp, flinty stones, like Indian arrow heads. It grinds the straw into fine chaff and sifts out the grain. At the evening breeze, the threshed grain is thrown into the air with a light shovel, and thus the broken straw is blown on one side, leaving the wheat on the ground for the granaries. The chaff is also gathered and stored away for the purpose of feeding the cattle during the winter. The farmer's son does not migrate to towns in search of better em- ployment, but stays where he is born, by his father's cattle, possessed only of what the cravings of nature require, and is immovable in his peasant instincts as well as in beliefs, ideas and usages. In rural districts, such as the one described, the old patriarchal ad- ministrative system is still in vogue, where, within the crude and primi- tive log house, by the hearth, sits the venerable Agah, whose every word is law to those within. He is, as indicated, the agent for his community in all transactions with the government. The population of Persia is largely employed in culturing and herd- ing. As a class they have fewer wants and comforts, their food is sim- ple, their clothing cheap and their houses not very costly, and their minds. uncultivated. Very few of them can read; they are well acquainted with the rites and traditions of their religion, and are faithful in per- formance of ceremonies. Persian farmers are not the owners of the land they cultivate, and have no expectations of ever becoming proprietors. For safety, their houses are all collected in a village and are crowded together ; the stable is just beside the living room, with one yard for both ; but the Kurds live in the same houses with their cattle, and also most of the mountain- eers. The roof of the stable and corners of the yard are filled with stacks of hay, thorns and bushes. The clothing of the men and women is com- MANNERS CUSTOMS, HABITS AND SOCIAL LIFE. 153 mon blue cotton cloth, made of very little difference in style, except that the woman's costume reaches only to the knee, leaving- limbs and feet bare. Their bread is made of wheat and rye, and some people who are poor use barley also. The yeasted bread is rolled into balls on a sheepskin, then rolled and tossed deftly till it becomes a long, thin sheet, spread on a cushion and slapped on the side of the oven till baked, and is crisp and good when fresh. Thirty or more of these sheets are baked every day, and it is no easy task, bending over the hot furnace, preparing them. The farmers go out a long distance to do their work. The most primitive methods are employed by them. Two kinds of plows are used. The smallest one is simply the fork of a tree; the point of the large one is covered with iron. They do not overturn the soil, but only loosen it to a shallow depth. For some crops the ground is plowed three times. After harrowing small ridges or ditches are made to di- vide the field into sections in order to facilitate irrigation. These are made by two men, with the use of a large hoe. One man pulls the handle and moves the soil and the other, with the rope, lifts the hoe and places it in the next pull. The seed is carried in a sack. There are no fences ; the fields extend for miles without interruption save for the watercourses and trees, planted beside them. The reaper bends over his work with a short sickle in one hand, while ini the other some- times a stick a foot long is fastened with! bands of leather or a glove so that he may grasp a larger bundle. The traveler is accustomed to salute the harvesters with greetings such as, "May God give you strength." They answer, "Your coming is pleasing," "May Allah keep you." The traveler replies, "May your harvest be blessed." They respond, "May your life be prolonged." If the traveler be a prominent man, they bring a sheaf and set it before him on the road, or a sheep with a knife held at its throat, ready for sacrifice should he give the word. The proper acknowledgment is a backshish. Carts drawn by oxen or buffalo are used for transportation of the crops. They are heavy structures about fifteen feet long. The bed is six feet wide at the back and gradually narrows until it reaches a point at the end of the tongue. The wheels have clumsy spokes, on the end of which heavy arcs of wood, without spokes and with broad iron tires. The threshing floors are just beside the village, and close to one another for safety and convenience. A plot of land about twenty-five 154 PERSIA BY A PERSIAN. feet square is leveled off and hardened. A staple is fastened in the mid- dle and to a pole is sometimes fastened. Oxen tied to the staple or pole tread upon and thresh out the grain. The oxen are often muzzled. The people say it is right to do so, lest the oxen surfeit themselves to their own injury. Several kinds of threshing machines are used. One kind consists of a roller about five feet long with teeth or spikes spirally ar- ranged upon it. It revolves as the oxen draw it. Another kind is in the shape of a paddle, four or five feet long and two feet wide in the long part. Under it are fastened about thirty rows of fiintstones which protrude below the surface. The front part is turned up like a sledge-runner, and a man stands on it beating the oxen. By either of these methods the straw is thoroughly cut up and the wheat loosened. TWO PERSIAN CHRISTIANS DIGGING DITCHES FOR IRRIGATION, BEING FORCED BY THE MOHAMMEDAN STANDING IN THE MIDDLE. With a pitchfork it is cast before the wind and the chaff is blown aside. The cut straw is stored away for fodder and plastering, but bricks are made without straw. A peculiar crop is the harvest of thorns. On the uncultivated land and on the fields after harvests spring up great quantities of camel- thorns. These are diligently gathered and brought on donkeys' backs to be used as dry manure in baking bread, burning limestone or bricks, and heating the bath houses. The flocks of a village are pastured in common, in charge of herder. The watch-dogs are fierce yellow curs, MANNERS, CUSTOMS, HABITS AND SOCIAL LIFE. 155 a terror to a stranger. The flocks consist of sheep and goats, herds of cows, buffaloes, horses, donkeys, and camels. Sheep and goats are greatly valued for their milk. The Persian sheep is noted for its large tail ; it is a mass of fat of ten-pounds weight. There is a popular notion that if the calf is taken away the cow will become dry. Hence the hide is stuffed with straw and placed beside the cow at milking time. Oxen, buffaloes and donkeys are almost exclu- sively used for farm work. Oxen are sometimes shod and as many as six pairs hitched to one plow. The buffalo is extremely ugly, black, al- most hairless and very powerful. The donkey has great endurance, lives at small cost on straw, weeds and thorn bushes and is withal the best friend of the Persian farmer. Horses, mules and camels are little used in farming. Of the camels' hair they make ropes, rough cloths and rugs, and even the finest quality of shawls. The feeding of the camel is interesting. It eats thorns, thistles and the roughest of stubble, but its peculiar food is a ball of barley or other flour, about the size of a croquet ball, which is prepared and thrust into his mouth. It is susceptible to cold and should be used on the road in northern Persia only about seven months in the year. When old or disabled, its flesh is eaten, sometimes it becomes crazy and is then very dangerous. When so, it will tear and grind a man to mince-meat under its knees. It is tamed only by starva- tion. Irrigation occupies much of the attention of the farmers, every creek and spring is utilized. Water privileges are continually causes of quarreling, near villages and among close neighbors irrigation strifes are common, and even murders are committed over well contentions as the servants of Abraham and Lot disagreed, since their crops depend upon it they hotly and per- sistently maintain their rights. AGRICULTURE. Persian people are largely employed in agriculture and grazing. Farmers go a long distance to work. Oxen, cows and buffaloes are used in plowing the fields. The plow is similar to the fork of a tree, the point being covered with iron or steel ; the soil is scratched up and loosened somewhat to shallow depth. Plowing is done three times in a season ; then narrow ditches are drawn to divide the field and to irri- gate it. The water from the river is turned into creeks to run the flouring mills, then divided into little brooks and streamlets, and thus 156 PERSIA BY A PERSIAN. carried to the farms and fields. The seed is sown by hand, broadcast. Reapers or cradles are not used in harvesting, sickles or scythes taking their places. The blades of the agricultural implements are almost the same as those in the United States, but the handles are very small. A reaper cuts one handful of grain after another until a good sized bun- dle is cut; this he then binds into a sheaf, before cutting any more, and so forth. A person passing a field where a farmer is at work will greet him by saying, "May God give you strength," whereupon the farmer will reply, "You are welcome ; may God keep you." But should the former be of the nobility, the farmer will pick up a sheaf of grain and lay before the visitor on the road. This is answered by the latter with a present of a few cents or whatever he may choose to give, according to his dignity. When the time for threshing approaches the farmers have all the grain carried on horseback or by donkeys to the vicinity of the village where the threshing is to take place. Here the farmer takes sheaf after sheaf, unties it and throws it in a circle upon the bare ground, in the open air. Muzzled oxen are then led across it again and again, or round and round in the circle, to tramp the kernels out with their hoofs. It some places they employ a sort of machine, consisting of a roller about five feet long and one and a half feet high, with teeth or iron spikes spir- ally arranged on it. Above the roller is a seat for the driver, and when the machine is drawn the roller turns. When all the wheat is threshed it is left in a heap and the farmer waits for a strong wind ; then with wooden grain forks the grain is thrown into the air and the wind blows the chaff away, while the kernels fall to the ground. This is then carried to the mill, where it is ground into flour. Numerous orchards yield all kinds of delicious fruit. Mulberry tree orchards are carefully raised and tended for feeding silk worms ; apricots are cultivated in large orchards and the fruit dried both for the home market and for export ; but a small part of the annual crop is kept for summer and winter use without cooking or canning it. Large vine- yards employ thousands of people, and the grapes are among the best in the world and of endless variety, and the wine prepared from them is very palatable, not being at all adulterated. Large quantities of molasses are also manufactured from grape juice, much of which is exported to Europe, via Austria. Two kind of raisins are made from the grapes; the kishmish and the sabja. A plastered or cemented surface on the slope of a hill is covered with grapes, which are then converted into raisins by rays of the sun. These raisins are called kishmish. Water, MANNERS, CUSTOMS, HABITS AND SOCIAL LIFE. 157 turned into lye by the addition of ashes from thornbush or burnt vines, is boiled and grapes dipped into it. After this they are_ spread out upon the ground to dry for a week. The very choicest raisins are made from seedless grapes. A strong, spiritous liquor, called arac, is manufactured from raisins by distillation. A large part of the work connected with grazing consists in attend- ing to the milch cows, sheep and goats. The milking of the latter affords quite a comical aspect. The gate or door of the goat pen is so low that the goat must lower her head to enter. While in the act of doing so the head is grasped and held firmly by one woman while another milks the goat. All milk is heated forthwith and most of it is turned into matsoon and cheese. The matsoon or yogurt is a curd gained by putting rennet into the boiled milk and letting it sour for several days. From the soured milk butter is made in churns. There are several kinds. A large earthern jar, somewhat shaped like an egg, is filled with cream, the open- ing closed with a piece of leather 1 and the jar laid down upon one side, whereupon it is rolled back and forward on the ground. Another churn is made from the hollowed trunk of a tree. It is suspended in the air by ropes and made to move similar to a swing. Cheese is made by al- lowing the whey to flow off without pressure. It is preserved by salt and sometimes mixed with herbs for flavor, and buried. Spinning and weaving dress goods, carpets and other fabrics are universal household operations. Wool is carded by pulling it over a pair of long-toothed brass combs. Wool and silk are sometimes spun on a distaff, whirled by hand, but more frequently a spin-wheel is used, 1 \ THRESHING WHEAT. 158 PERSIA BYoA PERSIAN. the spinner sitting upon the floor and managing the thread partly with her feet. In many villages are little shops where silk is spun on a small machine. The cocoons are thrown into a caldron of boiling water mixed with milk. A man turns a wheel, about a yard in diam- eter, by means of a pedal, and with one hand stirs the cocoons to loosen the fiber while with the other hand he draws up the thread to be wound around the wheel. The refuse and stray fibers are spun by the women and made into head-dresses. In the orchards of mul- berry trees, where the leaves are gathered for feeding the worms, the trees are kept trimmed so that each occupies but one square yard of ground. The seed worms complete their work in three months and are kept in the house during the winter months. The annual silk crop of Persia, produced chiefly in the Caucasian provinces, amounts to 600,000 pounds. CULTIVATING THE GROUND. Persians use oxen or buffalo to draw their plows but buffaloes are preferred for this work because they are so strong and can stand such hard work. Horses are never used for plowing in Persia, because the plows they use are very old fashioned and poor and the ground is so very hard that it is impossible for horses to do the work. When they use a pair of oxen for plowing they make a very shallow furrow. PLOWING THE LAND WITH EIGHT BUFFALOES. MANNERS, CUSTOMS, HABITS AND SOCIAL LIFE. 159 If they use two buffaloes it can be made much better but even then the furrow is not deep enough to be really good. The depth they plow depends upon the size of the plowshare they use and this again must be adapted to the strength of the team they are using. The plows they use with a single team of either oxen or buffaloes throw the soil up on both sides of the furrow. The best and in every way most sat- isfactory plowing they do is when four farmers, each owning a pair of buffaloes, club together and do their plowing. Then they get a very large plow with a big plowshare and hitch the eight buffaloes or four teams to it. One man drives each team, sitting on it to do so, while a fifth man guides the plow. Although buffaloes are such BUFFALO FIGHT. monsters in size and strength, in capacity for eating and working, they are at the same time very gentle and domestic animals. During the summer they like to lie in water. Usually their owners give them a bath once or twice each day in the warm weather. In winter they are kept in warm stables and given a good bath once or twice a week. About twice during each winter their whole bodies are rubbed with a kind of naphtha to allay their itching and heal the wounds and bruises they have received by being whipped and beaten while at work for their terrible slowness. Boys take them to pasture, riding on their backs to do so, and 160 PERSIA BY A PERSIAN". still sitting there while the buffaloes graze. Sometimes the boys will even lie down on the buffaloes' backs and go to sleep while the buffa- loes eat. Mosquitoes and flies annoy buffaloes a great deal, so they go and. lie down in muddy places in order to cover themselves with mud to keep these insects from worrying them. When two strange buffaloes meet they fight fiercely for hours, even for half a day sometimes, until finally one of them gives up and runs away pursued by his enemy for a mile or two. Once there was a man who kept two very large buffaloes. One day one of them was out in a field grazing when a wolf came suddenly up and springing upon him ran his sharp teeth into the thick skin of the buffalo's hip. But the skin was so thick and tough the wolf could not tear it as it could the skin of an ox, so it hung there by its teeth while the buffalo, terribly frightened, ran home as fast as he could, the wolf hanging behind him adding to his fright. When the owner of the buffalo saw him and understood the situation he spoke to him to quiet his fear and then shot the wolf and afterwards removed his teeth from the buffalo's skin. THE BAZAAR AND CURRENCY. The bazaars, which is a term including at the same time a salesroom, wareroom and manufactory, are in the center of the city. They are open after six in the morning and closed at six in the evening. Fri- day is the Mohammedan's sabbath day or day of rest, and all stores are closed. Whenever the bazaars are open passers-by may see how goods are manufactured on a small scale. In the timber bazaar men saw boards with long handsaws ; a little further on carpenters man- ufacture doors, windows and coffins. So it is in the bazaars of the hatter, baker, blacksmith, confectioner and restaurant. Some are weaving cotton and silk cloths, carpets and shawls on hand-looms, though some of these goods are manufactured in villages and brought into the city for sale. Again, there are saddlers, turners, tailors, wood turners, etc. The Persian standard of weights — ioo miskals — I dirham. 4 dirhams — I hef-ta. 8 hef-tas — i batman. 4 batmans — I khon-ka-rie. io batmans — I load. 25 batmans — 1 khalivar. MANNERS, CUSTOMS, HABITS AND SOCIAL LIFE. 161 Copper and silver coins are in general use, while gold is scarce. Lately, paper money has been issued, both in Persian and English languages, but has met with but little favor. The Russian currency is also in circulation to some extent. The exchange is regulated by Eu- rope and India. The numerous Persian bankers, called sarafs, have their abodes within the bazaars. Each saraf sits on a cushion in a small enclosure behind a little table covered with copper, silver and gold coins, for exchanging. These are the kind whose tables our Lord Jesus overturned in the temple of Jerusalem. The mint at Teheran, established 1878, was platted by Europeans but is now conducted by Persians. Table of Persian currency, and its value — 5 denars — 1 gaz-beh 30 denars — 1 tem-bal. 50 denars — 1 shah-hi — 6 tem-bal. 100 denars — 1 yuz-al-tum — 2 shah-hi. 500 denars — 1 penabad — 10 shah-hi. 1,000 denars — 1 keran — 20 shah-hi. Only one line of merchandise is sold on any one business street. On one you will find only dry goods ; in another street nothing but groceries; a third contains iron, copper and silversmiths' shops, etc. The streets average thirty feet in width and many are arched over with brick arches, to shut out the rain and the snow. These covered streets are lighted by openings in the arches. Camels, horses, mules and donkeys, heavily laden with goods, may be seen passing through the streets, and in the open squares many of these animals may be seen that belong to strangers who have come to the city to buy or sell. At the entrances of some of the mosques one may see a Mollah or two, sitting down and acting as notary public, drawing up legal documents for men standing around and before him. For such a document they get from ten to fifteen cents. In purchasing goods in Persia a foreigner is liable to be over- charged, as it is quite customary among dealers to advance the price on their goods to two or three times their real value, expecting to be obliged to lower the price before being able to make a sale. Silver and goldsmiths turn out some highly artistic work in the shape of rings, and belts for ladies. You cannot find a woman sel&ng goods in a store or bazaar in all Persia, with the only exception of one sin- gle street in each city or village, where poor old women and widows are franchised to sell such articles as caps, purses, sacks, soaps, etc. Their faces, however, must be covered up entirely, with only two holes L62 PERSIA BY A PERSIAN. in the covering for the eyes. Only a few women from the lower classes are seen in the bazaars shopping, and they dare not have their faces ex- posed. No Christian is permitted to sell liquids, such as milk, oil, syrups, or juicy fruit, like grapes, etc. ' Mohammedans are prohibited by law to buy things of this nature from a Christian, and, if on the other hand a Christian wishes to buy anything of this sort from a Mohammedan, he must not touch anything, as the merchant, should the Christian finally fail' to take the goods, could never sell to a Mohammedan what has previously been touched or handled by a Christian. BUSINESS LIFE. The bazaars are not merely places of barter but constitute an exten- sive manufacturing establishment. Many of the shops are factories and though each one is on a small scale, they collectively carry on large industries. There is no machinery, the furthest advance is in sewing- machines, treadles and imported hand tools. All the methods of manu- facturing are open to passers by. Some tradesmen are seen carding wool and making kecha or felt matting, others are pulling cotton fiber and making quilts. In the timber bazaars men are sawing boards with long hand saws, a little farther on carpenters are making them into doors and windows; others are sawing out the teeth of wooden combs. In the next 'shop the blacksmith is blowing his bellows and welding hinges and latches. Rows of hatters are seen shaping kulas and stretching them on moulds and showing their styles of different modes and thickness of felt, broadcloth, fur and lamb-skin. The confectioner is pulling taffy and crushing rice flour with a great sledge hammer; the restauranteur, chopping meat and mixing with it garlic and onions, to make savory cabols ; the baker is kneading dough, heating the oven, and throwing on pegs the sweet-smelling saugaks, while he talks across the ten-foot street to the chandler, who is pouring candles into moulds before the gaze of all. Scores of saddlers, braziers, turmingers, tailors, silversmith and other artisans are busy at work, stopping their work only to wait on their customers. They are perhaps making some goods to order, but espe- cially are preparing a stock for all the surrounding towns and villages, such articles as woolen, cotton and silk goods are woven on hand-looms at home ; carpets are made in the villages ; dyeing is done throughout the city, but the great factory is the open busy bazaar. In them contests of capital and labor do not arise. Each shop-keeper is a small capitalist and has a -few apprentices MANNERS, CUSTOMS, HABITS AND SOCIAL LIFE. 163 whom he feeds and clothes and each of whom hope soon to set up a separate shop. The artisans have guilds and sometimes work in com- bination to regulate the price. In the exchanging the Mohammedan has advantage over a Nes- torian or Armenian, and the Farmer, not only because his religion re- quires that anything that is moist and sometimes in the case of the dry articles of food a Christian is not permitted to touch them. In commercial affairs the Persians use the Arabic figures for indi- cating the days, number of yards and the weight of the bale. But for money a different system is used based on the Denar, its multipliers are indicated by signs built one on the other after the manner of stenog- TWO MOHAMMEDAN BANKERS OR SARAFS. raphy. These notations read from right to left, while the Arabic nota- tions read from left to right. This method is called the demar system. Fifty demars equal one shahi, twenty shahis equal one krau, ten kraus equal one toman. The Imperial bank and many merchants are now introducing the decimal system. Persian bankers or sarafs are numerous and capable. Their trans- actions are confined to loans and exchange. As the Koran forbids the taking of interest the amount is added to the face of the note at the first. A banker, even when wealthy, is accustomed to sit on a cushion in a little shop, with an iron box behind him, a nurza or two behind him, 164 PERSIA BY A PERSIAN. and a pile of copper shahis in front, for money changing. Exchange in Persia is regulated by Europe and India. The ordinary rate of interest is from 12 to 1 8 per cent. Rates run as high as from 48 to 120 per cent. The Kurds often borrow at 10 per cent monthly compound interest, and often after a few years must surrender their villages to satisfy a claim which was originally small. In the bank stores and government offices and in houses of the nobil- ity are a class of men employed as clerks, secretaries and accountants. They are called by the general term "Merza." The Merza is master of the pen. He can write correctly and with the observance of the numerous forms necessary, in addressing the various grades of society and official life. His education is primary. His outfit consists of a kalamdan and a roll of paper. The kalamdan is a pen-case about eight inches long and one and one-half in height and width, which is carried in his girdle or pocket. It is usually made of paper mache ornamented with pictures of flowers, and animals, men and women. The contents of the case are a small ink-holder, of brass or silver, some pens, a penknife, a piece of bone, a small spoon and a pair of scissors. The pens are stiff reeds of the same kind that were used for writing on papyrus or parchment. The goose-quill, though it has been used in some countries since the sixth century, has not been adopted in Persia. The steel pen is being intro- duced and has already modified the writing of Syriac and Armenian, and will doubtless modify the Persian character. The penknife and bone are used to sharpen the pen. The point of the reed is laid on the bone to be cut to the proper bluntness. The scissors are necessary for trimming the paper, as etiquette and good luck requires. Some lint or cotton is put in the inkholder and saturated with ink. The spoon is used to pour water on it jmd mix it. The Merza sits on the floor sufficient unto himself. Sometimes he has a small table about a foot high in front of him ; in writing a letter he takes a piece of unruled paper in his left hand, supports it on his forefinger and writes from right to left, curving the lines upward. He then reverses the paper and writes upon the margin at an angle to the other lines and from the bottom upwards. The sender certifies it by sealing it with his signet. This is usually made of brass or stone, with the name and title engraved upon it. Formerly a letter was folded until it formed a flat roll half an inch in width. It was then closed with a band of tissue paper on which the seal was affixed. Now letters are put in envelopes, large or small, according to the rank of the person addressed. MANNERS, CUSTOMS, HABITS AND SOCIAL LIFE. 165 In keeping accounts the Merza makes the entries not in columns, but successively in lines and joins by a vinculum, the name, item and amount. The foreign trade of Persia is carried on for the most part with England and Russia. In the south the important trade routes are through the Persian Gulf ports, Bushire and Bandar, Abbas by the Karum River, and by Bagdad and Kermanshah. The northern route by Trebizond and Erzrum is much used. The Turkish government allows goods in transit to pass in bond, securing to itself certain fees and to the country along the route considerable profit. Russia puts a duty on goods in transit, in order to reserve to itself the trade of Northern Persia. Its manufactures are entering in increas- ing quantities via Julfa, the Caspian ports, and by the Transcaspian Railway. Taking into account the whole of Persia, England has the bulk of its trade, both as to value and tonnage. It is interesting to watch the rivalry of these two great powers in Persia in matters of trade and politics. NATURE'S POETRY. Nature poetry finds in spring a strong incentive. Grim, slothful winter lingers long, holding gentle spring in his icy grasp. Then she rises suddenly in her youthful strength, and snowflakes change to flowers with a suddenness that surprises the stranger. This quick transition, this annual resurrection, is the theme of many a bard. Spring poetry is addressed to the stork, as harbinger of the season, who, when he comes to stay, brings summer with him. The ancients declare that spring was under the special care of the Goddess Amahid. All the people joined in the feast of Vasthavar, or "Rose Blossoms." In Christian times this has been supplanted by the three days of festival of the Transfiguration. The ancient name, the Feast of Rose Blossoms, indicates the love of the beautiful, which leads to the true and can have its origin only in the good. There is a religious halo about the very names of the flowers. The ''Fountain's Blood" is a floral wonder. Was it the blood of righteous Abel that sprang from the ground as this crimson flower on a leafless stalk, calling to God in its blood-red simplicity for vengeance on the murderer? These beau- ties of the field and glen have called forth exquisite gems of thought which are treasured to this day. Summer — the short, sweet, seductive summer — does not last long L66 PERSIA BY A PERSIAN. enough to produce ennui. This brief, bright pageantry of blooming, fragrant flowers and ripening fruit comes quickly, does its work in haste, and a chill, gloomy winter succeeds, suppressing autumn before it fairly has a chance to exist. With what poetic fancy the return of spring is greeted may be seen in this little poem : Scarce are the clouds black shadows, Pierced by a gleam of light ; Scarce have our fields grown dark again, Freed from the snowdrifts white, When you with smiles, all twinkling, Bud forth o'er hill and vale. O first born leaves of springtime, Hail to your beauty, hail ! Not yet to our cold meadows Had come Spring's guest, the swallow, Not yet the nightingale's sweet voice Had echoed from the hollow. When you, like Joy's bright angels, Came swift to hill and dale. Fresh budded leaves of springtime, Hail to your beauty, hail ! Your tender, verdant color, Thin stems, and graceful guise; How sweetly do they quench the thirst Of eager, longing eyes ! Afflicted souls at sight of you Take comfort and grow gay. New budded leaves of springtime, All hail to you today! Come in the dark breast of our dales, To shine the hills between ! Come, o'er our bare and shivering trees, To cast a veil of green ! Come, to give sad faced Nature An aspect blithe and new ! O earliest leaves of springtime, All hail, all hail to you! Come, to call up for newborn Spring, A dawn of roses fair! Come, and invite the breezes light To play with your soft hair I MANNERS, CUSTOMS, HABITS AND SOCIAL LIFE. 167 Say to the fragrant blossoms : "Oh, haste ! Men long for you !" Hail,, earliest leaves of springtime, Young leaves so fresh and new! Come, come, O leaves, and with sweet wings Of hope from yonder sky, Cover the sad earth of the graves Wherein our dear ones lie ! Weave o'er the bones so dear to us A garland wet with dew, Ye wings of Hope's bright angels, Young leaves so fresh and new! Song to the swallow will touch the heart of many a homesick exile : O swallow, gentle swallow, Thou lovely bird of Spring! Say, whither art thou flying, So swift on gleaming wing? Fly to my birthplace, Ashdarag, The spot I love the best; Beneath my father's roof-tree, swallow, build thy nest. There' dwells afar my father, A mournful man, and gray; W T ho for his only son's return Waits vainly day by day. If thou shouldst chance to see him, Greet him with love from me; Bid him sit down and mourn with tears His son's sad destiny. In poverty and loneliness, Tell him my days are passed : My life is only half a life; My tears are falling fast. To me, amid bright daylight, The sun is dark at noon; To my wet eyes at midnight Sleep comes not — late or soon. Tell him that, like a beauteous flower, Smit by a cruel doom, Uprooted from my native soil, 1 wither ere my bloom". 168 PERSIA BY A PERSIAN. Fly on swift wing 1 , dear swallow, Across the quickening earth; And seek in fair Armenia The village of my birth. A delicate expression of the poetic charm of a mountain torrent watering fields and gardens in the lower valley is the following : Down from yon distant mountain, The streamlet finds its way ; And through the quiet village It flows in eddying play. A dark youth left his doorway And sought the water-side ; And, laving- there his hands and brow, "O streamlet sweet!" he cried. "Say, from what mountain cam'st thou?" "From yonder mountain cold, Where snow on snow lies sleeping — The new snow on the old." "Unto what river, tell me, Fair streamlet, dost thou flow?" "I flow unto that river Where clustering violets grow." "Sweet streamlet, to what vineyard, Say, dost thou take thy way?" "The vineyard where the vine-dresser Is at his work today." "What plant there wilt thou water?" "The plant upon whose roots The lambs feed, where the wind flower blooms, And orchards bear sweet fruits." "What garden wilt thou visit, O water cool and fleet?" "The garden where the nightingale Sings tenderly and sweet." "Into what fountain flowest thou?" "The fountain to whose brink Thy love comes down at morn and eve And bends her face to drink. "There shall I meet the maiden Who is to be thy bride, And kiss her chin, and with her love My soul be satisfied." I MANNEES, CUSTOMS, HABITS AND SOCIAL LIFE. 169 SOCIAL AND HOME LIFE. As I turn to this chapter, the remembrances of my Oriental home rise before me, hallowed and strengthened by time and absence. Over its shadows and sunshine are thrown gleams of mellow light that bear my lonely soul on the wings of emotion to the far-away land that rocked my cradle. What days of sparkling mirth ! what days of saddening gloom ! Yet to my longing heart the sunshine and shadows of home are merged in a heavenly radience. To you, my reader, I now extend an invitation to walk with me among the scenes of my boyhood. It gives a strange effect to the street scene to see the houses and yards, like castles or picturesque fortifications, surrounded by solid black walls, varying in hight from ten to twenty-five feet, with a heavy gate before each house and an iron hammer suspended as a knocker from its center. Most of the residences are two story houses, built of sun- dried brick, around an open court yard, and plastered within and with- out. There are few stone buildings, and still fewer of wood. Most of the houses have a balcony overlooking a tangled garden, with window ledges abloom with flowers. The roofs are tiled, and the numerous small windows are closely latticed on the outside with a network of iron bars arranged in pairs. As a rule, the residences are very close together, with a space between them of not more than six feet, so that a distant view of the dwellings makes them. appear as though erected in a block. Entering the gate, and passing through the yard, we come to the house. In the court yard, and in the rear of the building, there are gen- erally gardens, with lofty trees surrounding the house and overshadow- ing it with their green branches. Sparkling fountains play in the rich sunshine amid flower beds, exquisite in variety and hue while the air is perfumed with roses and made melodious by the song of the nightingale. These garden spots are found in profusion in my birthplace, the city of Oroomiah, and may be seen with no less frequency in most of the cities and villages. Indeed, the whole land is one of bloom and blossoms. As we enter the house, we meet with a most cordial reception from the household, for hospitality and kindness to strangers are the first laws in the Orient, and is a most pleasing and characteristic feature. In- terchange of visits among neighbors and friends is the rule, for the people love to congregate, and greatly enjoy meeting together to smoke and talk over their affairs. In Christian homes men and women meet in the reception room ; but generally ladies, gentlemen and children form separate groups and chat on general topics, which vary according 170 PERSIA BY A PERSIAN. to the social position and intelligence of the company. In a Mohamme- dan house there are two apartments, the haremlik and the selamlik^the former the ladies' reception room and the latter for gentlemen. Holidays and long winter evenings are usually devoted to a pleasant and ancient pastime, which is, indeed, one of the happiest features of Oriental life. The master of the house opens the door of the house and welcomes the guest with numerous expressive gestures of whole-hearted hospitality. In the immediate entrance of the house there is a place where the etiquette of the country requires you to remove your shoes and put on slippers, before entering the inner apartments; but hats, FIVE GENTLEMEN ON A HUNTING TRIP. like the bonnets of American ladies, are not necessarily taken off. After exchanging graceful salutations, formal civilities and inquiries after each other's health, the guest is ushered into a cheery court and thence into a reception room, where coffee, the universal beverage of the Levant, is served on a silver tray in tiny goblets like egg-cups. The square room which the company occupies is comfortably fitted and arranged with a profusion of divans, embroidered cushions, and mattresses for sitting and reclining, and perhaps a few chairs. The floor is covered with rich Oriental rugs, while curtains and shawls of fine texture hang about the sides and across the ceiling. In the center of the room is placed a stove or a charcoal brazier. The room is lighted with bright lamps, the old- MANNERS, CUSTOMS, HABITS AND SOCIAL LIFE. 171 fashioned tallow candle or olive oil wick having been long abandoned. The lady callers all cluster about the genial hostess, who sits by her babe singing, soft and low, the sweet, simple cradle song; while the men may be engaged in a discussion of current events, though they often exchange remarks with the ladies. The little folks have a lively time by themselves in much the same kind of merry innocent frolic that is the delight of American boys and girls. Oriental children, too, have their marbles, their skipping rope, and little toy plows, into which cats and kittens are harnessed in play. Little girls, with rosy faces are clustered with their dolls and kittens around the good old grandmother, who tells them riddles and amusing stories, while the white headed patriarch, bowed with years, begins to recount anecdotes of his bygone days. The remarks of the venerable man are always interesting, yet they reveal no progress in the lapse of time ; for the Oriental life and customs have been preserved with little change from a remote antiquity. The house servant is busied with such functions as arranging the shoes in pairs, that the guests may easily find theirs when departing. After games and con- versation, the company indulge in cigaretts, coffee, sweetmeats, and the bubbling marghileh, or flexible rose water pipe, a smoking apparatus very similar to the hookah of Hindoostan, which is always filled with Shiraz tobacco. Time wears pleasantly on, and the guests are sure to depart late, nearly always with the satisfaction of having had an enjoyable time. A gathering like the one described is a great time for story-telling. Molla-Nasreddin, a teacher and notorious wag, who is the idle hero or victim of many Munchausen-like tales is supposed to live in Bagdad. Sev- eral stories concerning him are worth recording in English. One day the Molla was too lazy to preach his usual sermon at the mosque. He simply addressed himself to the congregation, saying: "Of course you know, O faithful Musselmans, what I am going to say?" The congregation cried out with one voice: "No, Molla, we do not know." "Then, if you do not know, I have nothing to say to you," replied the Molla, and left the pulpit. Next time he again addressed his congregation, saying: "Know ye, O faithful Musselmans, what I am going to say to you?" Fearing that if, as on the previous time, they said "No," the Molla would leave them again without a sermon, all cried: "Yes, Molla, we do know." , ... jj ! ! 1 172 PERSIA BY A PERSIAN. "Then if you know what I am going to say," quietly remarked the Molla, "of course, there is no need of my saying it," and he again stepped down from the pulpit, to the consternation of the congregation. A third time the Molla again put his question : "Know ye, O faithful Musselmans, what I am going to preach to you?" The congregation, determined not to be disappointed again, took counsel on the question. Accordingly some of them replied, "No, Molla, we do not know," while others cried, "Yes, Molla, we do know." "Very well, then," said the Molla, "as there are some of you who do know, and others who do not know what I am going to say, let those who do know tell it to those who do not know," and quickly left the pulpit. A friend calls on the Molla to borrow his donkey. "Very sorry" says the Molla, who does not want to lend his animal, "but the donkey is not here; I have let him out for the day." Unfortunately, just at that moment the donkey begins to bray loudly, thus giving the direct lie to the Molla. "How is this, Molla?" says his friend. "You say the donkey is away, and here he is braying in the stable." The Molla, nothing daunted, replies in a grave manner : "My dear sir, please do not cTemean yourself so low, as to believe the donkey rather than myself — a fellow man and a venerable Molla with a long gray beard." The Molla used to teach in the parish school. He had taught his pupils that whenever he happened to sneeze they should stand up, and clapping their hands together, cry out "God grant you long life, Molla !" This the pupils regularly did whenever the Molla sneezed. One day the bucket gets loose and falls into the well of the school house. As the pupils are afraid to go down into the well and fetch up the bucket, the Molla undertakes the task. He accordingly strips, and tying a rope to his waist, asks his pupils to lower him carefully into the well and pull him up again when he gives the signal. The Molla goes down, and having caught the bucket, shouts to his pupils to pull him up again, but when they have drawn him nearly out of the well, he sud- denly sneezes. At this the pupils immediately let go the rope, begin to clap their hands together, and shout down the well," God grant you long life, Molla !" The Persians are eminently a social people, they are gay and en- tertaining, full of fun and jokes and story-telling and ready in repartee ; MANNERS, CUSTOMS, HABITS AND SOCIAL LIFE. 173 they are much given to the visiting- and feasting, men visit with men, women with women ; dancing and amusing themselves beyond measure. The Persians are a polite people; visits are made at the festivals both for congratulations and condolence, and often for the transaction of business. The greatest social event in Persia is the festival of New Year or (Noruz). This is the only festival of the Ancient Persia that has not been displaced by the Mohammedanism. The Persians never fail to enter into its enjoyment. In this festival of Noruz, the Dervish pitches his white tent before the door of some nobleman and yells, Ya hak (O truth) until his claims to charity are satisfied. The letter carrier presents himself to receive an anam ; the cook ex- pects a new coat ; the miza, and even physicians, are remembered by their patrons, and the aldermen receive goodly donations from their constituents. During the last week of the_ old year the bazaars are profusely decorated. Gay clothes, carpets and shawls are exhibited in the shops, pictures, mirrors and mottoes are hung up. Arches are constructed spanning the streets with pendent ornaments. Villagers crowd in front of the open shops, and groups of boys stroll about to see the sights. Everyone buys a collection of nuts, raisins, figs, dates, dried apri- cots, grapejuice, paste, etc. These fruits must be of seven kinds, the names of each beginning with a letter S. The collection is called the yeddi luvn. Many send to their friends a plateful, with the compliments of the season. The last Wednesday, called Aklin Chabar Shenba, is a gala day. It is the children's festival, but the whole population is ready for a frolic. Clowns play in a fantastic costume and ludricous masks, and stroll- ing minstrels with tambourines and cymbals and leading a monkey, per- form and collect shahis. Boys crowd the streets and women gather on the housetops to see the shows. Schoolboys enter into the spirit of the day and make a mock visit to their principals. One of them, arrayed like a Kurdish sheik, in long flowing robes, great turban, and a cotton beard, and with attendants armed like Kurds ; but with canes for swords, presents himself and declares that a fine has been levied upon the school. He receives a present and they all go off to 174 PERSIA BY A PERSIAN. expend it on some of the good things in the bazaar. In some villages, buffalo fights are a part of the program. These powerful animals, sometimes made ferocious by partial in- toxication, make a rough contest. This festival extends two or three weeks. The bazaars are generally closed and business suspended ; all are bent on pleasure. Noruz is a pleasant time to renew old acquaintance, make new ones and to visit both rich and poor, without interfering with their business engagements. The manner of living is very comfortable. Their wealth is not great, but they have the conveniences and luxury which the coun- try affords, or which they think it necessary to import. Their houses are neither of marble nor of cut stone, nor do they have many of the charms of architecture. But the wealthy class in the cities have pleasant rooms, excellent food, fruits and flowers in abundance, troops of servants waiting their every beck and call, stables full of valuable horses, incomes easily earned, plenty of leisure for an afternoon siesta and for social intercourse, many holidays and dispositions to enjoy them. Another place of social gossip and resort is the bath houses ; cos- tume and religion require frequent ablutions. The men go to the bath houses and dye their hair and nails with henna in order to make them red, the bath is also necessary for the women, who go and dress their hair; dying of eyelashes requires much time and attention. The bath houses are below the level of the street so as to be supplied with water. One may know when he is near the bath houses by the long rows of colored towels hanging on the street walls. The fuel used is thorn bushes and straw and weeds. The Persian has few kinds of ornaments, his theater is the Takia or Passion Play of Muhassan, and in this time Dervish will be repeating poetry on the corners of the streets. Singing, music and dancing are carried on at weddings and feasts. In Persia the men will not dance, that is a gentleman, but will hire some other man to dance for him. The giving of presents is a universal custom. A Persian returning home brings a Sokat (or present) to each of his relatives and friends. The social life of man outside of their own harems is separate from women; the most striking fact in the condition of women in Persia is her seclusion, her dwelling is shut in from the street and her view of the neighbors is over high mud walls. The houses of the rich have two apartments ; the berum and ande- noon, the latter is reserved exclusively for the women, and is also called MANNAS, CUSTOMS, HABITS AND SOCIi " LIFE. 175 harem, or forbidden place. Eunuchs act as guardians and Stewarts of his family; the wife n?ver sits at a feast with her husband nor receives male visitors. Visitors must not inquire about her health or refer to her. The street costume for women is a contrivance for maintaining her seclusion even when she is out of the harem. It consists of shelvar, chudder and veil. The shelvar is a com- bination of very full trousers and stockings fitting tightly on the feet and gathered at the ankles. The chudder is two yards square, of cloth, and is put on over the head and envelopes the whole head or person. The veil is of muslin or linen, and completely conceals her face. Before A MOHAMMEDAN LADY IN STREET COSTUME. the eyes is a lace-work through which the woman can see her way, but not even a glance of her eye can be seen. The street costume is made only of two or three fabrics, either blue, black or barred, so that among the many uniformly dressed women a man could not recognize any one of his own wives. As the women glide through the streets they lift their veils to get a fresh breeze or to see the pitfalls, but if a man appears unexpectedly the veil goes down with a jerk. If a lady of high degree is riding through the streets an attendant goes before and commands, "Men, turn your eyes away!" Common mortals should not look upon the shadow of a princess. Even 176 PERSIA BY A PERSIAN. old hags, who are washing clothes by the watercourses and beating them upon the stones, attempt to arrange their veils and chudders so as to con- ceal their features. Even young- girls must put on street costume. A wife is in subjection to her husband, a subjection so abject that she does not even dream of the possession of those rights which have been and are being granted to women in Christian lands. She occupies the position of a slave to man's pleasure and comfort and aspires to nothing more ; she does not sit down to eat with her husband, but eats after waiting on him. If perchance she accompanies him on the streets, she walks some distance behind him. Wife-beating is very common and is allowed. The indoor costume consists of a number of full divided skirts or bloomers, reaching to the knees,"and according to the new style, plain white or black pantaloons. The sack or kalya is loosefitting, often not buttoned in front, with very long sleeves which are fastened to the wrists with many loops and knots. Sometimes there is a cuff elaborately trimmed. The head is covered with a square of cloth, tied under the chin, concealing the ears and falling down on the shoulders. The shoes are sandals usually of red or yellow sheepskin, with pointed, turned-up toes and an iron plate on the heel. In walking, the heels flop and clatter, and the steps are made with a gliding motion to prevent the shoes from slipping off. The girls look forward to marriage as their sole destiny. There is no word corresponding with "old maid." To remain unmarried for a Persian woman is a sin of the divine purpose of her nature. SMOKING (WATER PIPES). Water pipes, called in Turkey, marghile, and in Persia, kalian. The tumbak is soaked in water, squeezed like a sponge, and packed in the top of the kalian, a live coal is then placed on it (this coal must be made from the root of the vine or it would soon be extinguished by the damp- ness of the numbak), and the smoke is drawn through the water that is in the lower bowl of the kalian, and inhaled through a flexible serpen- tine stem or a short stem of wood. Turks prefer the former, and Per- sians the latter., Of all the forms of enjoying this delightful solace for the cares and hardships of man, this of smoking through the kalian is the most poetic and delightful, both for the elegance of the method and the flavor of the weed, but it could hardly become popular in America because it takes much time to light the pipe and the care and cleaning of it is laborious and must be delegated to the charge of a servant. In Persia every gentleman's house has a pishkamet whose sole business is MANNERS, CUSTOMS, HABITS AND SOCIAL LIFE. 177 to prepare the refreshments and take charge of the kalians. The poorer classes generally have their daily smoke by resorting to a tea house in the bazaars, or under the plane trees in the center of the village ; for one or two cents they can enjoy a fifteen minutes rest for their souls. Every smoking man in Persia must have not only a pipe, but also A PERSIAN SMOKING A WATER PIPE. a piece of flint, a piece of steel, and a supply of punk, or tinder in his pocket to start a fire to light his pipe. This primitive method of starting a fire is still in use there because matches are not yet manufactured there, and when they have to be imported they are more expensive than the punk. MEN'S COSTUME. The shirt is unstarched, cuff and collarless ; nicely embroidered about the neck ; opened in the front, and fastened with two small buttons at the left shoulder. The material is white linen, silk sewed, while among the lower class it is dyed, usually in blue. The trousers are somewhat ITS PERSIA BY A PERSIAN. like bloomers, very loose, evert at the ankle, and are held up by a cord of green or red silk, cotton or wool. The material is of various colors of broadcloth, etc., which by the laboring class is dyed in blue or red. The Arkalick is a closely fitting garment, collarless ; the sleeves reach to the wrist. In the middle, the waist and the lower part, which is ruffled, are sewed together and opens in the front*, but usually but- toned with little metallic buttons. The pockets are below the belt on each side. The length is almost to the knees. It is usually made of calico of a rich color. The belt. Some wear a thick linen belt. Often a shawl is used. Others wear a two inch width of black varnished leather, with brass clasps, which often may have ornaments of brass, silver or gold. The gima. This is open in front and has black buttons, but seldom buttoned except in winter; is longer than the Arkalick and is worn over it. The material of this is usually thick. The hat is made of fine sheepskin fur pasted on a frame, about five to ten inches high. The style of the hat changes annually. The hair. The old people shave the entire head except a "kakulta" which is left on the middle of the crown and is long — just like that of the Chinese in the United States. They say: "This is done so as to enable Mohammed to draw up the true believers to Paradise." The beard is shaved by the \oung men up to 30 or 35, after which it is clipped to the length of one-third of an inch. This is done up to 50, when the beard is left to grow in fuli length. The mustache is very seldom, if ever, shaved. Many people dye their hair, beard and mustache with henna so as to make the hair darker. The men have almost Europeanized this custom, except in the Gima and the hat. The latter the government requires not to be changed by any citizen of the country. WOMEN'S COSTUMES. Andaron dress. The men, neither the women, use any kind of under- wear. The shirt, with the lower order, is of blue or white calico ; with the higher, it is silk or fine cotton, well embroidered, and sometimes of rich, colored calico. In length it is almost to the middle of the thigh, open in front, fastened with buttons. Over this is a sacque, somewhat loose, with long sleeves, folded over at about the wrist. Shirt or SLalwar. This is short among the higher classes, never reaching the knee, while among the lower classes it may be seen even 180 PERSIATBYnA PERSIAN. below the knee. It is of great width and is divided; it is held up by a thin cord of cotton or silk. The skirt is not one, but a half-dozen, at least. The outer one is velvet, silk, trimmed with gold lace, etc. Now a new style has been added ; wearing pantaloons under the skirts reach- ing to the ankle. This is done only among the rich. They walk barefooted in the house, but outdoors they use shoes. The shoes are like sandals, of sheepskin, and are blue, red or black, pointed toes and turned up ; in walking the heels flap and clatter. Socks are seldom used. Charkad, or the head cover : This is a large square of embroidered silk or cotton, folded in a manner that will help to display the corners, and fastened under the chin ; this is very valuable. Often when by themselves or with their husbands the women are bareheaded. No support of any kind is worn by the Persian women, and the beautiful figure of youth is lost soon after maturity. The hair is uually black and very long and is plaited into numerous little tails, reaching almost to the knees, and often false hair is used. In front, the hair is parted in the middle and frequently has bangs. The hair is usually painted or colored with henna. The face. The eyebrows are widened and painted until they ap- pear to meet on the forehead, and there may be seen shammoles, or stars. The eyes are colored with keylah, which is supposed to be benefi- cial to the eye; the eyes are black and brown, never blue. The cheeks are painted. The jewelry. The women of Persia delight in jewelry and display various ornaments ; bracelets, necklaces, breast-beads and coins, anklets, car, nose and finger rings, and at the end of their long hair, attached by ribbons, are jewelry and coin; all these may be of brass, silver or gold. Moslem street dress. The women wrap themselves in a large blue or black sheet called chad-ra; this is hanging partly over the shalwar, inside of which are the feet ; over the eye is three-quarters of a yard of linen as a veil, perforated, about two inches square, with minute holes. The Assyrian and Armenian women dress alike, but altogether diffrent from the Moslem. THE RACE AND CHARACTER. The Persians are of Aryan race. The followers of Zoroaster; the old Persians never gave themselves any other title but Aryavo Daughavo, i. e.,"Ayran races." Again the name of Darius is found on the monu- ments, "Darius a Persian son of a Persian; Aryan of Aryan race." They MANNERS, CUSTOMS, HABITS AND SOCIAL LIFE. 181 claim, even now, and are known by the people at large to be the descend- ants of the Aryan race. Character. Persians are of medium statue, strong, and as a rule healthy. They are clean, sharp in business, skillful and artistic; alert, active and somewhat enterprising, although they take things easy; social, entertaining, hospitable, well disposed to a foreigner and ready to adopt his ways ; always show respect to their elders or superiors in rank, as may be seen by their keeping a step behind. Fond of humor, delight in music, although they have only stringed instruments. In the past they were given much to poetry. Their poets and books are known at Poet "Firdusi," who wrote "Shah-na-ma, and Sheik Sadi, of Sheraz, who wrote "Bustan" or "Fruit Garden," and "Goolistan," or 'Rose Garden.'*' SENTIMENTAL LITERATURE. If Greece had her Homer, Italy her Dante and England her Shakes- peare and Tennyson, Persia is equally proud of her Omar Khayyam, Firdusi, Hafiz, Nizami and Sa'de, whose exquisite pearls have been great inspiration and stimulant to thousands of youths. Their writings are sentimental and mystic in style, tender and pathetic in thought, and beautiful and flowery in language. One of the foremost of the Persian poets is undoubtedly Nizami, of Ganja, who lived in the twelfth century. He was the founder of the Romantic epoch, and has contributed more love songs to the Persian literature than any other. One of his best productions is his story entitled "Laili and Majuun." Two ardent lovers whose misfortune and devoted affection excite tears of sympathy and interest in all the East. Majuun was the son of a chieftain and Laili the daughter of a humble Arab who, never- theless, possessed all the pride of his desert race. Laili was so beauti- ful and charming that when Majuun first gazed upon her flashing dark eyes, and The soft expression of her face, Destruction stun his burning brain Nor rest he found by day or night — She was forever in his sight. As Laili's people were accustomed to wandering in the desert, they one day folded their tents and went to the mountains with their families and cattle, leaving no trace of their march, and cutting off every possible way for the two lovers to communicate with each other. Majuun became almost insane in the vain search after his love through the groves and 182 PERSIA BY A PERSIAN. glens of the wilderness and the solita.ry rocks of the mountains. At length his father, alarmed by his condition, took an organized band and went in search of their tribe. Finding them in the mountain strong- hold he made preparations of marriage for his son to the maiden, but in such a conceited and haughty way that he received a very cold and un - favorable message in response. The chieftain, indignant and full of anger, took his homeward trip, when poor Majuun saw his hopes decay, He beat his hands and garments tore, He cast his fetters on the floor In broken fragments and in wrath Sought the dark wilderness path ; And there he went and sobbed aloud, Unnoticed by the gazing crowd. Once, while wandering near the camps of the Arabs, he was seen by some relations of Laili, who represented him as an insane youth of the desert. The maiden, recognizing her lover in their description, re- joiced over the tidings, though she feared to go out to meet him, dread- ing her father's wrath, but anxiously From morn to eve she gazed around In hopes her Majuun might be found. Once, while sitting at a fountain under a shady cypress tree near the encampment, with bright hopes of chancing to see her beloved, she mournfully sang her faithfulness : Oh faithful friend and lover true, Still distant from thy Laili's view ; Still absent, still beyond her power To bring thee in her fragrant bower. Oh! noble youth, still thou art mine, And Laili, Laili, still is thine. While she was thus chanting her love song under the cool shade of the tree a stranger, a princely youth, by name Ibusallaam, passed by. His eyes rested upon the crimson lips and beaming softness of her dark eyes. Electrified by her grace and beauty, he hurried to her father with a plea for his daughter's hand. Because of his kingly apparel and daz- zling ornaments he was favored by the father of Laili, who gave his con- sent to the proposed union. The poor Majuun may wander, threatened and tried to induce* his friend to fight the cruel Arab, but all is in vain, MANNERS, CUSTOMS, HABITS AND SOCIAL LIFE. 183 The contract is signed and the father has pledged his word of honor. The new lover brings his costly gifts, a long line of camels, all laden with embroidered robes, beautiful rugs and carpets, silks of all kinds and the most valuable gems to be laid at the bride's feet. The rattle of the drums and the shrieks of the pipes, the music for the marching steeds, announces the coming of the bridegroom, dressed in the richest cassimere, and smiling at each step like the rising sun. The wedding takes place in due time, although against the maiden's will, those pitiful pleadings were unheard and uncared for by any mortal. Still she cherishes Majuun's memory ; the tenderest feeling, though the wife of Ibu-Sallaam now. Deep in her heart a thousand woes Disturbed her day and night's repose ; A serpent at its very core, Writhing and gnawing evermore, And no relief — a prison room Being now the lonely sufferer's doom. The rolling years and the whirling months did not bring any sooth- ing to the heartache of Laili. She sat quietly in her prison tower, watch- ing the circling of the sun by day and the flashing of the stars by night, with but a fainting hope in her sad heart for her Majuun. Once, while sitting in her chamber, meditating on her fate, she heard an unusual noise below; shrieks and wailing cries, a great confusion in the family. A messenger entered with a death note announcing the death of Ibu- Sallaam. Although the message was a star of hope and a benediction to her heart, yet to fulfill the Arab law she assumed the garments of woe and wept with the rest. But all the burning tears she shed Were for Majunn, not the dead. When the prescribed years of mourning were fulfilled she was freed from her rock bound tower. She called her trusty servant boy and sent a hasty message to Majuun. She appointed a time and place for the two lovers to meet in communion sweet. She made her way through groves of palms and bowers of roses, not stopping until she saw the haggard form of her lover. Stepping gently to his side she laid her hand upon his arm and said :