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PERSIA BY A PERSIAN

PERSONAL EXPERIENCES,
MANNERS, CUSTOMS, HABITS, RELIGIOUS AND SOCIAL
LIFE IN PERSIA

REV. ISAAC ADAMS, M. D.

AUTHOR AND PUBLISHER OF

"DARKNESS AND DAYBREAK"

ISSUED IN FOUR LANGUAGES— ENGLISH, HOLLAND, GERMAN
AND SWEDISH.

1900.

ENTERED ACCORDING TO THE ACT OF CONGRESS
ON THE TWENTY-FIRST DAY OF JUNE
IN THE YEAR 1900
BY

REV. ISAAC ADAMS, M. D.,

IN THE OFFICE OF THE LIBRARIAN OF CONGRESS
AT WASHINGTON, D. C.

AZI3p

(HIT:

Bebtcateb

O all who are interested in the
advancement of the kingdom
of our blessed Lord among
the Heathens and Mohamme-
dans.

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

PREFACE.

While out on lecture tours in this country, I have been asked many
questions about the manners, customs, and peculiarities of my own
people. These questions I have found it very difficult to answer in the
little volume, "Darkness and Daybreak," so as to give anything like
a clear picture either of the people or the country in the brief time that
I had to answer them under such circumstances, and, hence this book
which I now present to the public, with the earnest hope that it may
find a welcome.

I trust this work may serve a useful purpose in imparting fresh
information and quickening an intelligent interest of a hopeful Christian
effort, and I trust every reader will join us in the hope and prayer that
no student of the Kingdom, no servant of Christ and His Church should
fail to give serious and sympathetic attention to the spread of the gospel.

Should it sometimes entertain you and your children; should it
succeed in arousing a deeper interest in Christian mission work among
the Mohammedan nations ; and should it sometimes prompt an earnest
prayer on our behalf to the ever present God and Father whom we all
try, though it may be in much human weakness and under vastly differ-
ent circumstances, to love and to serve — then its object is accomplished.

REV. ISAAC ADAMS, M. D.

August ist, 1900.

INTRODUCTORY.

I cannot begin to write a narrative of the facts connected with the
history of my life, without giving all glory and praise to the most
precious God, who has so wonderfully guided me, during the last twelve
years especially. No words like those of the Scriptures can adequately
express my heart's gratitude for all the ways by which He has led me,
and you, dear reader, will magnify Him while reading as I did while
writing this. Le us exalt His name forever; let the Lord be magnified,
which taketh pleasure in the prosperity of His elect. Praise ye the
Lord, for His name is excellent; His glory is above the heavens. I
have been deeply tried ; yes, the Lord is with the righteous ; "Lo, I am
with you." Surely he has been with me; His presence has gone before
me and has given me strength and courage. He faileth not. I have
heard His voice saying, ' 'Fear not, I will help thee. " And He has done
so ; yea, in the deepest waters ; in all places His hand has led me and He
has kept me. With David I can say, "God is my salvation." I will
trust and not be afraid. I cried by reason of my affliction unto the Lord,
and He answered me. The Lord stood by me and strengthened me,
saying: "My strength is made perfect in weakness."

From many dangerous snares hath the Lord preserved me ; in spite
of all my inward rebellion, He hath carried on His good work in my
heart, and notwithstanding all my unbelieving fears He hath given me
a hope full of immortality. He hath set my feet upon a rock and estab-
lished my goings and hath put a new song into my mouth ; even praises
unto my God.

The same grace and forbearance, the same wisdom and power that
have brought me so far, will bring me on, though it be through fire
and water, to a goodly heritage. I see no business in life but the work
of Christ, neither do I desire any employment to all eternity but His
service, and it is my prayer to Him, in whose hands the hearts of all
men are like the rivers of water, that He might put into the hearts of
those who love Him and His cause to enable me to continue in His serv-
ice by bringing the knowledge of the only Redeemer Jesus Christ to the
great multitude who know Him not.

Persia b£ a Persian.

PRICES

Cloth Binding, Cover Design, Stamped in Gold
Half Morocco, Marbled Edges, Hand made
Half Morocco, Gilt Edges, Hand made
Fall Morocco, Gilt Edges, Hand made

$2.50
3.60
4.50
5.50

Darkness and Daybreak,"

is the title of a most interesting and instructive book from the pen of
Rev. Isaac Adams, a native missionary of Persia. It contains a com-
prehensive description of the manners, customs, habits, religious and
social life of Persians. The work contains 232 pages including 32
full page half-tone illustrations, printed in clear type, bound in fine
silk cloth. Price 75 cents.

If you want to awaken the missionary spirit, send to the author,
Grand Rapids, Michigan, and get "Darkness and Daybreak. " — Agents
wanted in every locality. Write for particulars to the author.

Address

Rev. Isaac Adams, m. d.,

124 LAGKAVB STREET,

GRAND RAPIDS, MICHIGAN.

Tfacht und

■ m ^ — -^Tfforgen.

GERMAN EDITION. PRICE 75 CENTS.

Worker ^ ^

OCH

DAGGRYNING

About 250 pages. Also contains all the Illustrations
that are in " Persia by a Persian." Price $1.25.

1(1

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

Illustrations.

PAGE.

Frontispiece 1

Exiles on Their Way to Siberia 18

Four Brothers in Different Costumes 33

Paul John 34

Teachers and Helpers of the Authors Mission Work 40

Telegram Requesting Release of Isaac Adams 43

Funeral Procession of Jesse, Stepbrother of the Patriarch 49

Mar Gabriel and His Nephew 50

Prof. Garabed Thoumaian in Turkish Irons 54

Massacre at Sassoun 56

I. Yohannan and A. George 61

I. Yohannan in Native Costume 63

Sister of I. Yohannan and Her Baby 65

A Letter from Joseph While I was in Turkish Prison 66

School at Alkai 70

School at Karasanlovi 72

Medical Diploma of Isaac Adams 77

Nasreddin Shah Meeting Queen Victoria in 1889 ' 94

Present Shah, etc 98

One of the Seven Gates of Oroomiah City 102

A Young Officer 105

Lord at Oroomiah with His Friends 107

Plowing with Oxen 115

A Chained Gang 116

Bastinado 121

Cultivating the Vineyard 128

Baking Bread 136

Say-Yids Feasting 138

Women Cleaning Cabbage 146

Digging Ditches for Irrigation 154

ILLUSTRATIONS. n

ILLUSTRATIONS— Continued.

PAGE.

Threshing Wheat 157

Plowing the Land with Eight Buffaloes 158

Buffalo Fight 159

Bankers or Sarafs 163

Five Gentlemen on a Hunting Trip 170

A Mohammedan Lady in Street Costume ; 175

A Persian Smoking Water Pipe 177

Veiled and Unveiled Women 179

Christian Persian Mother at the Side of the Cradle 190

Carrying Water and Reapers 204

A Mohammedan and One of His Wives 209

Young Christian Persian Lady and Indoor Costume 214

An Agreement with Patriarch and His Headmen to do Mission Work among

His People. 220, 221

Nestorian Archbishop and Dr. Adams in Nestorian Priest Costume 226

Nestorian Christian Lady 229

Dr. Adams' Ordination Diploma 235

Paul John and Dr. Adams 238

Lord's Prayer Written in Eight Different Languages 245

School at Koom 247

Mohammed the Founder of Islam 262

Ommar 277

Mohammed and the Devil 299

David Bar Joseph in Hajj Costume 325

A Mohammedan Lady Smoking a Water Pipe 356

Dancing Dervishes 391

Mecca Certificate or a Passport to Heaven, Plate 1 397

Mecca Certificate or a Passport to Heaven, Plate II 399

Mecca Certificate or a Passport to Heaven, Plate III 400

Mecca Certificate or a Passport to Heaven, Plate IV 401

A Persian Lord and His Attendants 413

Water-carrier, on the Ass 417

High Class Dervish and Medicine Dervish 423

Dr. Adams and I. Yohannan 427

Dr. Adams' Mission School at Mart-Maryan 435 '

Adams Brothers, in American Costume 439

Jacob Adams in High-class Costume 443

A Highwayman 451

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

ILLUSTRATIONS — Continued.

PAGE.

Abbas Effendi (or the Lord and Master as called by his Followers) 462

Two Kurdish Men and a Boy 491

Kurdish Sheiks 494

The Spiritual Head of all the Kurdish, Sheik-Sadik 496

Three Syrians of the Kurdistan Mountains 498

A Devil Worshiper Sheik 502

The Devil Worship Priest 507

Zoroaster at the Age of Thirty 510

Confirmation of a Youth among the Fire Worshipers, and Priest of Fire Worship-
ers attending to Holy Fire 516

Idealized Portrait from a sculpture supposed to represent Zoroaster 519

Specimen of Ancient Syriac Language 534

CONTENTS.

Contents-

PART I.

PAGE.

Personal History 17

Isaac Adams, Arrested 42

Memorials of Isaac Adams. Making Claims for Losses and Injuries Against the

Turkish Government '. 44

Medical Missionary 57

Practice of Medicine in Persia 59

My Second Journey to America 60

Report of My School 68

PART II.

History of Persia , 76

The Proclamation of Cyrus 79

Death of Cyrus 80

Cambyses 81

Darius Hystaspes 82

The Ionian Revolt 83

Xerxes 84

The Crossing of the Hellespont 85

At Thermopylae 85

Return of Xerxes 86

Darius and Alexander 87

Alexander in Jerusalem 87

Death of Darius and His Wife 89

Alexander at Babylon 90

Chosroes II 90

Teheran..... 96

The Court of Persia 102

The Noblemen 106

Shahr and the Urf 109

Land 114

Modes of Punishment, Executor — Cruelty, Highway Robbery, Execution 115

Bastinado, Disfiguring Evil Doers, How the Heads are Cut Off 117 to 122

Climate and Products 123

Mt. Ararat 125

Wines of Persia 127

The Condition and Needs of Persia 129

Products, and Methods of Disposing of Them 131

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

CONTENTS— Continued.

PAGE.

Houses and Cities 133

How They Eat 137

Education 141

Mohammedan Women 144

Modes of Traveling 146

The Rural Districts 148

Agriculture 155

Cultivating the Ground 158

The Bazaar and Currency 160

Business Life 162

Nature's Poetry 165

Social and Home Life. . . , -- - 169

Smoking Water Pipes 176

Men's Costume 177

Women's Costume 178

The Race and Character , - 180

Sentimental Literature 181

The Passionate Love Songs 185

Social and Domestic Life in Persia 188

Girl's Life and Marriage 192

Dwelling Place of a Married Woman 200

Duties of Women in Persia 201

Women in the Chamber of Sickness and Death 206

Burial Services 210

Christianity the Only Hope for Women i ~~ 213

PART III.

Nestorius 217

Introduction of Christianity among the Syrians or Nestorians 218

Their Courtship and Marriage 225

Preparations for the Wedding 228

Funeral Services 238

Nestorian Churches 234

Historical Mission Work 237

Printing Press 246

Bible Rules for Giving 250

Dr. Adams' Address in U. S. and Persia 250

Mohammed and Mohammedanism > 251

Birth of Mohammed and Life to Fortieth Year 251-256

The Story of the Prophets' Fortunes at Medina 268

The Character of Mohammed 279

His Speech, Gait, Habits in Eating, Moderation, Custom of Prayer, Refused to
make personal use of Tithes, Food Relished, Women and Scents,
Straightened Means at Medina, Appearance, Habits, etc., Seal of
Prophecy, Hair, Mustache, Dress, Shoes, Toothpicks, Articles of Toilet,
Armor, Miscellaneous, Horses, Riding Camels, Milch Camels, Milch
Flocks, Servants, Houses, Properties 280-287,

CONTENTS.

CONTENTS— Continued.

PAGE.

The Wives of Mohammed 287

Good Works 290

Fasting ^Z9Z"

Hijrah J293

The Year of Elephant 293

Ramazan 293

Food 296

Eating 297

Bismillah 299

Creed 300

The Names of God 300

Azan 303

Ablution 804

Wuzu 306

Prayer 307

Salatu 'S-Safar 312

Salatu 'T-Tarawitr 312

Salatu 'T-Tasbih 313

Prayers for the Dead 313

Friday 314

Zakat 315

Hajj 318

Idu'L-Fitr 326

Idu'LAzha 330

The Performance of Religious Duties 333

The Dying 333

Visiting the Sick 334

Death, Arabic Maut; Wafat 334

Grave and Burial Ceremonies 340

Heaven 347

The Earth 348

Gabriel. 349

Mohammed's Journey to Paradise 350

Eternity of Punishment 352

Hell 353

Oath 353

Administration of an Oath 355

Beauty 356

Puberty 357

V- Marriage 358

The Validity of Marriage 359

The Legal Disabilities to Marriage 362

v The Religious Ceremony 365

Harem or Hareem 366

Concubine 374

Divorce 375

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

CONTENTS— Continued.

PAGE.

Widows 381

Re-Marriage 381

Paradise , 382

Husbands 385

Priesthood 386

Fagir, or Darwesh 388

Al-Hajaru-L-Aswad 394

Mecca Certificate or a Passport to Heaven, Plate 1 396

Mecca Certificate or a Passport to Heaven, Plate II 398

Mecca Certificate or a Passport to Heaven, Plate III 402

Mecca Certificate or a Passport to Heaven, Plate IV 402

Persian Snake Charmer 408

Al-Hasan 409

Al-Husain 409

Islam and Christianity 425

Mohammedan Sects 440

Superstitions and Peculiarities among the Mohammedans. Sleeping, Swine,
Spitting, Sneezing, Dogs, The Devil, Dreams, Hair, Hand, Evil Eye,

Earrings and Noserings, Fai, Blasphemy 444, 452

Bab and Babism 453

A Message from Acca 470

To the Americans, A Declaration— He is God 477

Selected Precepts of El-Hak 477

American Pilgrims 478

Letter from Mrs. Getsinger to the Assembly in Chicago 481

Letter from Mrs. Kheiralla to the Assembly in Chicago 484

Letter from Mrs. Hearst 489

The Kurds 490

The Yezidees or Devil Worshipers 497

The Guebres or Fire Worshipers 509

History of Akhikar, the Wise Secretary of Saukherib, King of Ashur and

Nineve 521

PART I.

PERSONAL HISTORY.

I was born in the northwestern part of Persia, on the twenty-eighth
day of November, 1872, at Sangar, a village about two hours walk from
Oroomiah city. The village contained about twenty-five Nestorian
families, and as many houses. The surrounding villages were all Mo-
hammedan, some of them lying not more than half an hour's distance
away from Sangar. Thus the people in my village-home have had all
their intercourse with Mohammedans, and in consequence had lost all
knowledge of Christianity and had adopted instead Mohammedan cus-
toms as well as their language, the national language of the Nestorians
being Syriac, which is widely different from that of the Mohammedans.
Together with the customs and language, the people of my home-village
had also adopted all kinds of profanity. The keeping of the Sabbath
day was entirely lost. People would plow and do other work in the
field just as on any other day.

Another very bad habit of the people at Sangar was the beating of
their wives. It is quite common there to see a woman's head bruised
and her clothing torn. Thus I was brought up, among ignorant and ill-
influenced people.

When about 6 years of age, my father and two other persons went
to Russia for the trading business. They had but one passport for the
three of them. After having remained in Russia for a short time, one of
the men was obliged to return to Persia, he having been advised of sick-
ness in his family. After some time, my father and his companion were
to go on to another city in Russia. Upon entering the gates they were
taken prisoners, the officer claiming that in the passport three men were
mentioned, and they were but two. All explanation on the part of the
travelers was unheeded, and their case was finally ended by sending
them both to Siberia for life, and in all probability they are already dead,
as we have never heard of them since.

It was extremely sad for my poor mother to have been left with
five children, all below 12 years of age; but this was not all. The lord
of the village came with some forged notes, claiming tha£ my father
owed him money and demanding pay. As my poor mother had nothing
to pay with, he took possession of the land we owned and a part of our
vineyard.

My task in early boyhood was to do little chores at home and herd

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

the cattle. Like most boys, I delighted in climbing trees, but once it
happened that I fell from the top of a tree and broke my arm. Blood
was gushing from my nose and ears, and I was carried home. The house
was soon crowded with people, who decided to make bread and Mar-
tooha and give it as a sacrifice to the poor.

The Martooha is a mixture of flour, molasses and butter, and is
received by those among whom it is distributed as an offering, with
the greeting: '"May God restore him to health."

But this was not all. My mother had also secretly, but solemnly,
vowed that she would, in case of my recovery, have a lamb sacrificed
to Mar-Obdishoo, a Nestorian saint, at the church built to his memory.
When I was quite recovered, therefore, my mother, a number of friends

Exiles on their way to Siberia accompanied
by their friends up to this tower, where
they bid their last farewell and
are separated forever.

and I, with a lamb, repaired to Mar-Obdishoo. The lamb was slain in
the churchyard and its blood sprinkled on the altar of the church and
in my face, while a number of little bells were rung in the church. I
was then ordered to take the bells, and ringing them, cry out : "O, Mar-
Obdishoo, Mar-Obdishoo, I thank you that you have let me regain my
health !"

The lamb was hereupon taken to a dwelling and boiled, and the

PERSONAL HISTORY.

meat given to those in attendance ; the head and skin, however, together
with a small quantity of meat, belonged to the janitor as his fee. Some
of the meat was also taken back to Sangar, upon our return, to be
distributed there. I was not allowed one morsel of it.

When about 13 years of age, a buffalo out of the herd of cattle I was
watching, ran among some heaps of cut wheat in a field where farmers
were threshing. In doing so, the buffalo broke the Dach, or sign, which
the lord of the village had set upon the heaps of wheat. Upon perceiv-
ing this, the lord called me to him in a very friendly manner, holding out
to me a very beautiful cane and promising me the cane if I came. I did
so, though hesitatingly. Suddenly I was rudely seized by some servants
who held me firmly, while others subjected me to an application of the
bastinado, so cruelly, that both my feet bled profusely and I was not
able to walk for about two months.

After this sad experience I left the village clandestinely and repaired
to Wazerawa where my aunt and all the relatives of my mother lived.
My aunt received me gladly, and, having lost a child of about my age,
bade me remain with her and would not hear of my leaving. After I
had been with her for about one year the rest of our family followed to
Wazerawa.

At Sangar we had owned an orchard near the dwelling where we
lived. It had been my delight to climb into the fruit trees and eat fruit
to my heart's content. Near my aunt's dwelling, at Wazerawa, there
also was an orchard but it belonged to a neighbor. This difference in
ownership, however, made very little difference to me, and I tried to
continue my orchard practice here also. Of course, I well knew that
I deserved punishment for climbing into a neighbor's tree and appropri-
ating some of the fruit, consequently I did my tree-climbing after dark,
in the evening., One dark night, as I sat in the very top of a fine apple
tree, feeling quite secure from detection, I suddenly heard a voice below
me calling out : "What are you doing up there ?" I replied that I had been
late for supper, for which my uncle would whip me. I had, therefore,
tried to hide from him. He ordered me to come down, but my pockets
were filled with apples from the tree, and so I hesitated, pondering how
to escape the well-deserved punishment.

Finally I told the neighbor I would come down if he would promise
not to chastise me. He did so ; and I came down, delivered up my stolen
apples and went home.

My uncle now began to employ me by sending me out to his
vineyard to watch it. I had very good times doing this, as I was very

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

liberal, I would stand out in the road and ask people passing by to come
in and help themselves to some grapes, and quite often I pressed my re-
quest so urgently as to almost compel people to come in and eat grapes.
Occasionally I would fill a basket with grapes and hand out some to
every person who happened to pass by. My motive in doing this was
that I considered it an injustice that I alone should have so many fine
grapes, while so many others had none. The' principal reason for my
liberality, however, was my sociability. I liked to be in company with
other human beings and hated seclusion. The neighbors surrounding
my uncle's vineyard were all Mohammedans with whom I dared not
communicate, and I, therefore, sought, by being liberal, to enjoy the
company of, and intercourse with, fellow-beings such as I myself was.

The vineyard was a very quiet, secluded spot, and I could not even
force myself into liking it. When my mother and the rest of the family
moved to Wazerawa, I consequently left my uncle's and joined a num-
ber of other young lads in taking care of herds of cattle and flocks of
sheep.

While being thus occupied one day, a boy, Benyamin Bar Younan
by name, a relative to Kasha Sayad, a native preacher, employed by the
Presbyterian mission in Persia, met me. lie remained with me for some
time, repeating to me stories from the Bible, among others the parable
of the rich man and Lazarus. When he had left me I could not help
but think over and over again what I had heard. A few days later we
met a second time. I addressed him with this question : "Suppose a
man should like to go to heaven, what must he do ?" He replied : "He
must not eat or drink anything for three clays, but keep on in prayer
all this time, and then be good and do good afterwards." "Then," said
I, "the people must be very foolish not to prefer to be like Lazarus in
this life, when heaven and its blessedness last forever." I then asked
where he had found those stories, and what other knowledge he had of
heaven. He told me it was all written in a book called Bible, which he
claimed to be a very holy book, even called it God's book ; but also told
me that, if I wished to learn more about these things, I should have
to go and see his uncle, Kasha Sayad. I followed this advice, for I was
eager to learn more, and to Kasha Sayad I am greatly indebted for what
knowledge I received by my early acquaintance with him. Through
his influence I was enabled to attend the missionary school, where my
hungry and thirsty soul was fed on the precious word of God. Reading
my Testament, and not being able to comprehend very much of it at

PERSONAL HISTORY.

first, I would kneel down and pray to God, and say : "Oh Lord, if Thou
art God, make Thyself manifest and show me also myself." Then again
at times it seemed almost impossible to me to trust fully in an invisible
God.

Upon entering- the mission school I encountered the enmity and
hatred of my relatives, who were all dissatisfied with this step ; but, by
the grace of God and through the kindness of Kasha Sayad, I was
enabled to attend also the high school at Oroomiah City.

Here I attended until the winter of 1887, when I was requested by
Kasha Peria, a native missionary, who had been educated at Hermans-
burg, Germany, and received his support from there, to go and teach one
of his schools at Satlovi. I took charge of a school of about twenty-
five children, and found the work very interesting, especially as I visited
the children's parents in the evenings, and, to their great delight, read to
*hem from the Bible. I did not try to give any explanation, but simply
read from ten to fifteen consecutive chapters. On Saturdays I went to
the neighboring villages with my Bible, read from it to the people and
conversed with them on the Christian religion and Christ's love to sin-
ners. Returning from such work towards evening one Saturday, I met
a Mohammedan and passed without saluting him. He stopped me, and
roughly inquired why I had not greeted him. I told him I had neglected
the courtesy because I did not know in what language to address him.
To explain this, I must inform the reader that not all Mohammedans
speak the same language. It is also dangerous to address Mohammedans,
as I found by the following experience which I had had some time
previous. I had met two Mohammedans on my way and saluted them
both in a friendly manner. Presently there came a Christian. I stopped
immediately and spoke to him. Upon perceiving this the two Moham-
medans quickly returned, stopped me, and, one placing himself on my
right side, and the other on the left, each dagger in hand, they said
they would immediately kill me if I did not at once return their saluta-
tion. I complied with their request so eagerly that I bowed three times
to their once. In this instance the Mohammedan was not satisfied, but
insisted that I had failed to greet him through disrespect and threatened
also to kill me, accompanying this threat by a drawn dagger, the point
of which he pressed to my breast so hard that I even felt the point pen-
etrating my skin. But at this moment we saw a caravan approaching,
whereupon the Mohammedan withdrew his dagger and contemptuously
said that he had only tried to scare me.

I was so excited that I could not speak for four or five hours, was

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

taken to a village near by and remained there until Monday ; then I
returned and continued my work.*

In the summer of 1887 I entered Oroomiah College Mission School,
in connection with which there is also an industrial school. At the latter,
carpenter's work, shoemaking and hatmaking were taught. I, in con-
nection with my other studies, entered the shoemaking department, and
under the direction of Oosta Ayraham learned that trade. After a few
weeks, during which Mr. Ayraham had become acquainted with me
and my circumstances, he took more pains with me than with any other
of his pupils, so that in the examination at the end of the term I made
a good showing.

The college term ended in July ; this permitted me to devote all my
time to my trade in the industrial school. In the fall of 1888, Mr. Ayra-
ham left his position. A Mohammedan took his place. During the
vacancy the school was left in my charge. I had possession of the keys,
and the whole property was in my care. The new teacher gave no satis-
faction ; he appeared to be dishonest, and was soon discharged. I then
again filled the position until another teacher could be found.

After the closing of the college term, I kept the industrial school
in operation. I was in charge of from ten to fifteen boys, and the work
progressed nicely in the interest of the mission. During this time I
was also elected elder in the church at Wazerawa, and while at college
I spent every Sunday at Wazerawa and Dizza, teaching Sunday-school.
I was also robbed several times and had several dangerous encounters
with highwaymen, one of which has left a scar on my right eye to this
day.

In the spring of 1889, I was sent by the missionaries to teach school
at Ardishai. I had here forty pupils on an average, coming from about
six different villages. The instruction was to be given in four different
languages, viz: Persian, Turkish, Chaldean and Syriac. But I must
confess I was rather severe in my treatment with the pupils. I gen-
erally kept about a half-dozen switches in the school-room, and it was
not at all uncommon for me to whip children until they bled. I kept
all doors and windows closed, to stifle the screams of the poor children
while being chastised, but the boys nevertheless managed to make them-
selves be heard for about two blocks. I thought then that I had to do

*This Mohammedan's name was Samat of Baranduz. Before my
encounter with him he had already killed not less than sixty persons.
He was about 40 years of age and was later on killed by other robbers.

PERSONAL HISTORY.

this, since the parents in place of administering- the proper punishment
at home, would come and tell me that their children had sinned and
entreated me to punish them for it.

One day as 1 rang the bell, it appeared to me that the pupils had
made up their minds to have their own way about coming-. The rule
was that, upon hearing the bell ring, every pupil should drop everything
and come right into the school-room and quietly take his seat. I said
nothing, but waited. When they came in, about five minutes later, I
shut all doors and windows and ordered them to stand side by side with
their backs against the wall. I then took a switch, rushed around the
room and struck them again and again across their bare legs and feet
(their shoes and slippers always were left standing out in the hall). Soon
legs and feet began to bleed,, and of course they screamed piteously. But
this I would not have. To stop it I struck some of them, who had fallen
to the floor, across their backs, and threatened to* treat them all in the
same manner if they did not immediately cease their noise. By this
outrage I soon had the room quieted, and the pupils were always on
time afterwards. This, however, was not the only mode of punishment.
Sometimes I would order the tallest boy in the room to take the boy
who was to be chastised, on his back, holding him by his hands, and
then bend over to keep his feet from the ground. I would then take
my switch and lash the boy across his legs and back. Still another
severe chastisement is to have the pupil fold his arms tightly and then
sit down upon the floor. A stick is now passed through under his arms
in front of his body, his legs are then lifted over the stick and he is thus
left in a helpless position, so that the teacher may strike him wherever
he pleases. Occasionally I was afraid inwardly of some of the boys, as
they were older and taller than I was, but somehow I overcame the
sensation, and never had any trouble in this direction. I was not the
originator or inventor of any of these cruel modes of punishment. I
had myself learned them by seeing them practiced, and many times at
the high-school I myself had been ordered to hold a boy across my back,
being somewhat taller and stronger than some of the rest.

But now I have a different way of administering punishment in my
schools; not with a switch, but with love and kindness, and I think I
can accomplish more with kind words and acts than with the rod. This
is one of the changes I have experienced since having come to America.

Besides teaching languages, I also gave instruction from the Bible,
in arithmetic and geography. I also visited the parents of the pupils,

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

together with the minister of the village, and on Sabbath day I had a
large class of ladies in the Sunday-school.

I would also pay visits to other villages and preach to them in a
very simple manner, only repeating to the people the story of the cross.
While engaged in this manner one day, I read in my Bible the 12th
chapter of Genesis. This gave me much thought, especially the passage
where the Lord said to Abraham, ''Get thee out of thy country and from
thy kindred and from thy father's house into a land that I will show
thee." My strain of thought on this matter ran in this channel: "If
Abraham obeyed this command of the Lord, and I am now worship-
ing the same Lord as Abraham then was why should I not follow
his example, now reading the same command?"

I consulted Kasha Sayad, and informed him of my intention to go
nnewhere where I could prepare for Christian work. His opinion was,
that it would not be a wise step for me to take, and bade me go to a
missionary and lay the matter before him. I did so, and the missionary
gave me many reasons why I should abandon such thoughts ; but I was
determined to rather listen to God's promises than man's advices and go,
whither He should direct me.

In July, 1889, I left Oroomiah with not more than what amounts to
five dollars in the United States, and not knowing where I should finally
land. I traveled westward, but it was a long and tedious journey. As
I had no means to hire a horse or mule I was obliged to walk, and
for the sake of convenience I often traveled during the night, it being
much cooler.

After nineteen days of traveling, I readied the first railway in the
Caucasus in Russia. I reached the first railway station at Akistafa.
From here I was given free transportation to Tiflis. There some
Christians helped me on to Valadikokas. After having arrived at this
place I tried to work and go to school, but after a few weeks they urged
me to go to Berlin, as -they thought I might succeed better in both.
After seven or eight days travel I reached the boundary line of Russia.
Here I bought a ticket to Berlin, while my passport was in the office for
examination. Soon I was informed that I could not leave Russia, as
my passport was defective. I was imprisoned for three days without food
or drink, after which I was ordered to telegraph to St. Petersburg
for a permit to leave the country. I did so, and was obliged to pay an
exorbitant sum for the dispatch. But no answer came from St. Peters-
burg. I was now informed that I would be sent to Siberia. It seemed
a little hard to me at first, but thinking of the errand upon which I had

PERSONAL HISTORY. 25

set out on my journey, I concluded that the Lord wanted me there, if
He would allow me to be sent there. I consequently told the officers
that I was ready and willing to go. The officers obviously knew not
what to make of this, for they stared at me as though they considered
me a lunatic. They wished to know why I was so ready and willing
to go to such a dismal country as Siberia. I told them that if my Lord
and God desired me to go there, I certainly was most willing to go, as I
sincerely believed that He was in Siberia as well as in Berlin ; that years
ago my father had been sent there without cause, and I might perchance ( J
meet him there. When they saw I cared so little whither I went, they
even helped me on to Berlin.

Here I was in Berlin, the great German capital, not being able to
speak or even understand a word of the language. But through God's
kind providence I encountered a young man who was able to speak five
or six different languages, namely Turkish, Syriac, German, etc. He
grew very friendly to me, took me to his room, provided me with a good
place to live, and for several days showed me the sights in the city. He
incidentally spoke of me to a friend who became so interested as to ex-
press a desire to see me. We consequently took supper at the house 01 tins
friend, Mr. L. H. O. Schmidt, west 62 Maasrein Strasse No. 31 Pa.
Berlin, one evening, and by means of an interpreter I made this gentle-
man acquainted with my whole history. Mr. Schmidt, perhaps noticing
a sad expression which had perchance overspread my countenance, bade
me be of good cheer, for the Lord would certainly guide me and provide
for me. To encourage me still more, he asked me to sit between himself
and Mrs. Schmidt, as that, he thought, would make me feel more at
home with them.

When we arose to take our departure from this hospitable house,
Mr. Schmidt requested us to linger a few moments longer, and left the
room. A few moments later he re-entered, and handed over to me a sum
of money sufficient to go from Berlin to New York, at the same time
remarking that he were quite certainyeven if I remained in Berlin at
present, I would certainly desire to see America in a few years Hence,
and so in his opinion it would be much better for me and my cause to r n
there at cnce. He also handed me a letter to a minister at Hamb'
' by which I was introduced, and he requested to receive me and
for me to all necessary requisites for a passage to New York C

I left Berlin and reached Hamburg at about 11 o'clock
being able to explain to any one where I wished to go. T
search for .he dwelling of the minister to whom my If

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

tion was addressed. I found the place at last, but the valet insisted upon
seeing my letter before he would allow me to go into his house, fearing
probably that I might be some thief or robber trying to get admission.
I, however, refused to have my letter examined, as I mistrusted its being
returned to me. There was nothing left for me to do but to go back to
the depot. Here I found every door locked and all the lights ex-
tinguished, and set out to walk the streets until morning. But even
in this I was disturbed by patrolmen, who would not allow it. At last
I found a place where there was a cavity under the sidewalk, next to
a basement window. I crept into this hole, and doubling up as well
;js I could soon fell asleep. When I awoke I was so stiff and numb, from
the chilly air and my inconvenient position, I could scarcely move. I got
up and out and ran along the streets to get warm. After finding that the
blood in my body was once more circulating freely, I returned to my
hiding place and slept until daylight. I now returned to the minister's
dwelling, and he himself answering my rap at the door, I handed him
my letter. He was greatly surprised at seeing me and learning who I
was, and said that he had been aware of my coming', but had not ex-
pected that I would arrive on that train. He kindly ushered me into the
house, however, and after having washed, arranged my toilet and break-
fasted, he went with me to the steamer that was to take me to New
York City. After procuring tickets we learned that the steamer would
not leave until two days later. I remained with the reverend gentleman
these two days, he proving very kind and generous to me. Our con-
versations, however, were very limited, as it had to be carried on entirely
by making use of the natural language — motions, signs, groans, ex-
pressions of the face, etc.

After two days, I boarded an ocean steamer for New York City. On
the first and second day of the voyage the weather was fine and the sea
tranquil and calm; but soon it became rough and I had an experience
such as I had never heard of before — I grew sea-sick. During my misery
I sometimes really took it for granted that all good Christian people had
done for me ever since I had left home had been done merely for the
urpose of severely punishing me for having been too bold and forward,
I asked the JLord in prayer to grant that the ship might capsize and
nd so all my sufferings be ended.
: ng our ocean voyage all passengers on board of the steamer
ited. When my turn came I had hidden away, thinking my
cut off. I was compelled, however, to ccme forward

PERSONAL HISTORY.

and allow the operation to be performed on me, whereupon I found that
it was not so bad after all.

Eighteen days after having gone aboard the steamer we arrived in
New York City. In Castle Garden we were asked to show our money,
there being a law that every person must have at least twenty-five
dollars, to live on until able to find work, should he wish to enter the
country ; the company was obliged to take back any passenger who did
not possess that amount. When my turn came to go through the gate,
just when prepared to show the money I had (amounting to about
twenty-eight cents), the officer was handed a letter by a boy. He stepped
just a little to one side to quickly peruse the letter, but in the meantime
I opened the gate and passed through unnoticed, and was soon lost in
the crowd to any searching eye., I walked into the park and sat down.
While looking around I suddenly espied a black man not far off. This
was a great curiosity to me who had never before seen colored people.
I felt very much inclined to step nearer so as to get a better view of the
man, but I -dared not. Upon noticing many people passing by him
without scarcely taking any notice of him, I also took heart and ap-
proached the black man. Seeing that his face, neck and arms were all
black, I concluded that this could not possibly be a human being. Since
then I have met many negroes, have even lived among them for a year
in Virginia, and have learned to esteem some of them as thoroughly,
consecrated Christians.

Here I was once more all alone in a foreign country, without home,
friends, acquaintances, or even means wherewith to support myself, al-
most utterly helpless, as I could not even make myself understood. For
three days and nights I walked the streets of the great me tropoli s with
an empty stomach. Towards the close of the third day I found a morsel
of bread in an ash barrel. I took it out, cleaned it as well as I could, and
then soaked it in some water and ate it. Not long after I also met a
man who could understand oriental languages. This man proved a
great blessing to me, for he had soon learned my situation. Feeling
compassion for me, he fed me and then took me to the "Home of
Children's Aid Society," No. 247 East Forty-fourth street, corner Second
avenue.

The superintendent of the home, after hearing the circumstances,
was gladly willing to admit me for a few days and try to procure me
some work, it being against the rules of the institution to permanently
admit persons of my age. In connection with this home there is also a
brush shop where crippled boys are employed.

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

I was directed there and soon set to work. The superintendent
was pleased and wished to retain me, so I worked during the day and at-
tended a night school in the evening, where I studied the English
language.

But I could not remain in this place always.* So I told the superin-
tendent that I would rather work in the open air and not be confined so
much within a building. Thereupon he sent me to a farm in New Jersey.
I was there about two weeks when I was taken ill and had to give this
up, the work being too hard for me as it consisted chiefly of chopping
wood, it being in the midst of winter. In consequence of this experience
I returned to my former occupation in the brush factory.

One day a lady called upon the superintendent and asked him if he
could not recommend some one to her as a waiter. I happened to be in
the room just then and the superintendent pointed me out to her. The
lady inquired whether I would be willing to accept the position. I cheer-
fully answered in the affirmative and immediately accompanied her to her
home. I could now make myself understood in English, somewhat,
and the lady promised to give me further instruction. She was a sister
to a physician, Dr. J. H. Cooley, and resided at Plainfield, New Jersey.
I was in her service for three months and was pleased with my work,
which consisted in waiting at the table and helping in the kitchen. Dr.
Cooley also had a sanitarium, where patients were housed and taken
care of. I am much indebted to the doctor for kindness in treating me
as pleasantly as he did.

After three months stay at Plainfield, I deemed it advisable to go
to New York City, there to improve my education ; it being, however,
two months previous to the beginning of a new term in any of the
schools, I took recourse to Mr. Mathews,* at that time superintendent of

*320 14th Street, Brooklyn, N. Y., Sept. 13th, '99.
Rev. Isaac Adams.

Dear Bro. — I should have been pleased to have met you and shaken
you by the hand. I sincerely hope that when you visit our city again
that I shall have that pleasure. I sat up last night till nearly 12 o'clock
reading that very touching and instructive book, "Darkness and Day-
break," and my heart went up involuntarily to "Our Father" for His
blessings on your efforts to lead your people into the blessed and glorious
light of the children of God. You have the promise "That His word
shall not return void, but shall accomplish that whereunto it was sent."
Preach the Word. Walk in the light. If thine eye be single, thy whole
body shall be full of light. I shall be glad to hear from you at any time.
Yours, with a single eye, WM. H. MATHEWS.

PERSONAL HISTORY.

the "Children's Aid Society," for a place on a farm. A few days later
another boy and I were sent to a farm in Orange county, New Jersey,
with letters of recommendation for our introduction. We unhappily
left the train at a station twelve miles this side of our place of destina-
tion. We did the best we could under the circumstances, however, stop-
I ping at the depot over night and starting out afoot next morning. Finally
we arrived at the place where my companion had to leave me, as he
was to work on some other farm. W T e parted and I trotted on alone.
Presently I met a man coming towards me who inquired whither I was
going. I showed him the address on my letter. He inquired further,
what I intended to do there. After having told him, he informed me
that this farmer had moved away, but that he had been looking for some
help, and I might come and work for him. I inquired about the hire,
and he offered fifteen dollars per month. I asked whether or not any
churches were in his neighborhood. He said there were plenty of those
things round about, whereupon I inquired into his religious views. He
informed me of being a Roman Catholic by birth and education, "but,"
said he, sneeringly, "I have not been inside of a church for forty years."
I hereupon offered to work for him for twelve dollars a month, pro-
vided he would not compel me to work on Sundays. He was satisfied,
and I entered upon my duties. Later on I learned that the man I had
been sent to, lived on the neighboring farm, and was a very nice man ;
not a very ugly fellow, as my present master had claimed at our first
meeting.

My occupation on this farm consisted in cutting grass and milking
cows, of which the farmer owned forty-five heads. Eighteen of them I
had to milk, which at first caused such a strain upon the knuckles of my
hands and on. my wrists that I would wake up at night from pain in
those parts ; but I soon became accustomed to it, and then so much more
enjoyed drinking my fill of the fresh milk, of which I was very fond.
When once I had mentioned in a letter to my relatives at home that my
work, among other things, consisted in milking cows, they wonderingly
inquired in their next letter where in America the women might be and
what they did, as in Persia all this kind of work is left to the women to
perform.

For the first two weeks all went well with me on this farm. On
Sunday I attended a Methodist Church. On the third Sunday, however,
the farmer called me and ordered me to turn the crank on the grind-
stone for him, as he wished to sharpen his knife. I answered, "No,
today is Sunday." Upon hearing this he cursed me and said: "I would

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

rather sit here and listen to the dog- barking than hear that minister
preach."

At 4 o'clock in the morning he would call me to get up and go
to work, but after some time he said, "Ike, you must get up at 3 o'clock,
as the neighbors are out at that time ;" and to make good his demand
he would stamp on the steps of the stairway and pound the door, calling
"Ike, Ike!" with an occasional curse intermingled, until he heard me
move about.

One day we were loading hay in the field. My master was on
the wagon, I stood upon the ground and pitched hay to him. He kept
swearing and cursing at me, trying to hurry me up. This provoked
me, and I began to throw hay upon the wagon as fast as I could, without
looking where I threw it. In so doing it happened that a pitchfork full
oi hay, together with the points of the fork, struck him on the chest.
At this he grew furious, jumped down from the wagon to the ground
and tried to strike me, but I kept out of his reach.

While engaged in scattering hay upon a time, I came upon a heap
in which there was a bee's nest. I noticed it in time, cautiously went by
and left it untouched. The farmer, however, coming after me, but not
seeing the bees, scattered the hay about. Of course the bees were upon
him in an instant, and stung him all over his face and hands. This
induced him to curse furiously at me again for not having warned him ;
but I quietly remonstrated that the bees were stinging him for his
wicked blaspheming, as I had passed those same bees and they had not
molested me in the least.

After the third week the farmer ordered me to leave, as he did
not require my services any longer. I was willing to go, but demanded
my pay. This he refused to give me until I threatened to go to law
about it. Then he wished me to continue. I did so until the end of the
month, when he gave me twelve dollars and offered fifteen dollars for
the following month, but I had quite enough of this and answered, "No,
I would not work for you any longer for fifty dollars a month." I left
him immediately and returned to New York City.

Mr. B. W. Tice, superintendent of the West Side Boys' Lodging
House of the Children's Aid Society, wrote a letter to Gen. Armstrong
for admission to the Hampton Normal Institution, of which Gen. Arm-
strong was principal, and the answer was favorable ; after considering
the matter, and also meeting Gen. Armstrong, I decided to go to Vir-
ginia.

Here I worked in the mornings at the tailor's trade, and in the

PERSONAL HISTORY.

afternoon and evening I went to the school, where I enjoyed my
work and am much indebted to the teachers and all connected with the
[schools for their help and kindness shown towards me.

While here I received a letter from Kasha Sayad, of Persia, stating
that the house or church in which they were worshiping was taken by
the authorities and given to the people who belonged to the Nestorian
Church, and who did not belong the the Evangelical church ; and I trans-
lated the letter and sent it to the Presbyterian Foreign Mission Board,
in New York, as Kasha Sayad had also requested me in that letter to
do all I could for them in stating tlie matter before such as loved the
cause, and try to raise funds for erecting a house of worship for them.

Arthur Mitchell, D. D., Secretary Presbyterian Board Foreign Mis-
sions, sent me to Mr. Moody's school, at Chicago, where he paid my
whole expense.

Here I tried very hard to get the money for the building of the
church by speaking and lecturing, but this was very difficult as I could
not speak the language very plainly as yet, therefore, I left this matter
entirely in the hands of Dr. Mitchell, to whom I am much indebted for his
great help in this matter.

After this I tried to support myself and wrote to Dr. Mitchell about
it. He said I could do so, but such expenses as I could not meet he
would cover. But from 1892 on I succeeded in paying all my bills, but
the doctor had spent several hundred dollars towards my support. At
one time I told him I wished to pay it back, but he said: "I have not
done it for your, but for Christ's sake, and, therefore, I would always
be glad to hear of your success."

I also spent one year at the Garret Biblical Institute, at Evanston,
111. While here I met Rev. A. T. Wilkinson, a fellow student from
Brantford, Can., and who ever since has been an intimate friend.

In the summer of 1892, he asked me to go with him and speak in
churches in Canada, which I did, he arranging the meetings for me.

The Brantford Courier of August 15, 1892, reads thus:

At the Wickliffe Hall last evening, Mr. Isaac Adams, a native of
Persia, gave a very interesting address. This address was Mr. Adams'
last one in Canada, as he leaves for New York today, where he will stay
one week and then proceed to Chicago.

Mr. Adams has been in Canada only forty-five days, and during
that time has given forty-three lectures on Persia, its religions, customs,
etc. He expresses himself as highly delighted with his visit in Brant-
ford, and with the kind manner in which he has been entertained during

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN

his stay here. A number of Persian curiosities were exhibited and were
fully described by Mr. Adams to all who wished to see them.

While in this country I wrote to my home continually, and was
glad to hear that my brothers were converted; so I offered to pay their
expenses to this country if they would prepare themselves for missionary
work, to which they consented. But owing to the cholera their journey
was delayed for a while, but at last, in 1893, they succeeded in coming to
this country. Three of my brothers — Abraham, David and Jacob, to-
gether with a young man named Paul John, who was 13 years of age
and who was brother in-law to my brother, came to this country.
After I had remained here five years, and studied in different institu-
tions and lectured throughout the United States and Canada, and also
saw my brothers admitted to different institutions, I deemed it necessary
to go back to Persia and preach the gospel to those whom I loved.

When at Patterson, N. J., where I had spoken on Sunday, I was
on Monday introduced to two gentlemen from Kampen, Netherlands,
who were taking a post-graduating course at Princeton. These gentle-
men were Messrs. Smidt and Wielenga. Our short travel from Patter-
son to New York was very pleasant, and Mr. G. Wielenga said that he
did not know what it was to be a stranger in a strange country until
after he came to America. Therefore he urged me to visit his parents
and the school at Kampen, Netherlands, on my way to Persia. He also
gave me a letter of introduction.

During my five years stay in this country I had sold 4,500 pictures
of myself throughout the United States and Canada.

On my departure I had a draft for $900 with me and $100 in cash.
1 left New York November 7, 1894, on the steamer City of Paris for
Southampton.

I reached London November 14th, and here I spent one day and
went to the British Bible Society, etc.

On November 17th I reached Kampen, Netherlands. I found my
way to Professor Wielenga's house, where I was cordially welcomed. I
was requested to speak that very night to the students of the Theological
Seminary. The following letter will explain my short visit in the Nether-
lands. This letter was written by Rev. B. Wielenga, a brother of Rev. G.
Wielenga, to the public in America :

While I am writing these lines, our dear friend Adams has probably
approached the Caucasus Mountains, and is nearer to his native country
than to us. His coming and staying in our midst, as also his departure
from us, has been as a passing dream, but a dream that has left a re-

PERSONAL HISTORY.

reshing influence. An influence not only felt at my home, where he
tayed, but also by several churches in our country, and by thousands
mo heard his simple, touching words.

His arrival was unexpected and therefore the more surprising. His
greeableness and sincerity, and the many cordial letters of introduction
:cm several of our ministers, soon made him very intimate with us.
md when, at the request of the faculty, he addressed us in the chapel
f our school and told us of the dark night that prevails in Persia, and of
is intention to bring it the light of the Gospel, then our hearts all beat
rith sympathy for him and his work. We admired his courage. At
tie close of his address we all gathered around him to press his hand and
o wish him God-speed. Professor Bavinck in turn addressed him, and
ssured him of our support and intercession. I still imagine Brother
idams dressed in his rich Persian costume, among us, as he gained our
ympathy by his friendly smile and courtesy.

At the request of the president, Dr. Bavinck, he again spoke to us on
tie manners and customs of his people. Mr. Aelders translated the
rords and also succeeded in giving us the sentiments of Mr. Adams. It
v r as no surprise that the consistory of our congregation should allow
im to speak in the church on Sunday evening.

The short sketch of his personal experiences, the vivid presenta-
ion of the misery in which Persia has sunken, but especially the words
poken on 2 Cor. 8 15, made a deep impression on the people, and assured
s that there will be many prayers offered for Persia and the heathen
/orld. During the week Mr. Adams again spoke in one of our halls,
mere many of all classes and religious beliefs attentively listened to
im.

The remainder of the time the Persian Missionary stayed with us,
e visited the provinces of Holland and Zeeland, where he spoke in
tie principal cities. I would simply repeat the same thing over again if
should follow him step by step, for everywhere he received the same
Dken of love and cordiality. Everywhere open homes, open purses and
pen hearts. Mr. Adams has a rare tact of making himself at home
mong strangers ; by his artless manner he soon becomes intimate. Prob-
bly this is because he has visited so many places in America, has been
itroduced in so various circles and been so heartily received by a
lultitude of friends. He is well accustomed to the platform and knows
.ow to hold his audience.

The fishermen of Scheveningen he addressed differently from the
ducated audiences of the capital and the plainer people of Maassluis
rom those of busy Rotterdam ; but the result was the same. Because I
ad many friends in the province of Holland, I had the privilege of ac-
ompanying and introducing Mr. Adams. ******* Al s0
mong our pastors his reception was hearty. Rev. Proosdy introduced
im in Leiden and Rev. Donner, the missionary director, exhorted the
ongregation to prayer. In the Hague, Scheveningen, Maassluis, Rot-
erdam, Amsterdam and Zwolle he was everywhere cheerfully intro-
uced. In many other places large crowds assembled to hear the

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

Persian missionary. Many tears were shed and much compassion and
sympathy expressed.

On the nth of December, I accompanied Mr. Adams to Zutfen,
where he parted from us to go to Berlin in the evening.

Calm and courageous, in peaceful reliance on his God, he approached
his difficult task. Although he was well aware that his life is threatened
on every hand in his native country, trusting on the Lord his God he be-
gan his journey, knowing that with Him he can press through a band
of robbers and jump over a wall. Gladly would we have had him remain
with us still longer. His stay was very short and everything hurried.
But — and this conviction we respect — the Persian people are in need
of the Gospel ; their souls are in prison. Pie told us that if God spared
him we might expect him in 1896, when he would return to America
in company with two or three of his countrymen. We believe that God
is with Mr. Adams, and that through him He will glorify His name.

I said Mr. Adams varied his style to suit his audience, but I must
add that it had everywhere the same tone of child-like reliance on God,,
of an honest, strong faith, and a deep conviction of his own weakness.

His request that the Americans should pray for him will surely find
a hearing. Many of our people are interceding for him, that is sure.

Great treasures he did not receive from our poor people, but there
were given him many mites like unto that offered by the widow of old.
Several poor children brought their savings to him at our home, and
many needy women took pleasure in giving a trifle to his work. Such
gifts God will bless.

May God spare the life of Mr. Adams and grant that his work be
blessed; may He use him for the coming of His kingdom and the glory
of His name — then will our prayers be answered.

My hearty salutation,

B. WIELENGA.

Kampen, Dec. 17, '94.

While in the Netherlands I received about $300 in collections and
gifts. And also the Lord has given me since many warm-hearted friend. 1
and 110 words can express my gratitude to the friends and professors
in the Netherlands.

From the Netherlands I went to Berlin, Germany, where I was glac
to meet my friend Mr. Schmidt, who had paid my fare from Berlin I
New York, in 1889. He was delighted to see me and to learn of my sue
cess, but the difficulty was that I could not speak German and he couli
not speak English. So we had to find an interpreter and we called 01
the American ambassador at Berlin through whose kindness we wer.
able to have a conversation. At the same time I spoke about counter
signing my passport, and, after the ambassador learned my name, h
said, "It is a pity your name is Isaac Adams, as it sounds like a Jewisl

PERSONAL HISTORY.

bame, and no Jews are allowed to pass through Russia." He wrote
jme a special letter, and another man and Mr. Schmidt went with me
to the Russian ambassador, and, at last, through a good deal of talking
and explanation, he countersigned my passport.

The following day Mr. Schmidt bought my ticket from Berlin to
Alexandrowa, and he also gave me some money. Then I took the train
for Alexandrowa; from there I bought my ticket to Valadikokas.

One evening I had to stop over in a village to change cars, but, as
I had some money with me, I did not wish to go to any hotel, and I staid
in the station, which was very large and had all kinds of accommodations.
At about 10 o'clock all was quiet and the lights were out, and I fell asleep
in a chair. As I awoke and saw nobody, I became afraid and tried to get
out, but every door was locked. At about half past tb^e in the morn-
ing I saw a man come who opened the doors and lighted the lamp, and
then brought in some images and put them upon a platform. A crowd of
men came in and bowed before these images and kissed them and went
through all kinds of ceremonies. All this time I was awake, but ap-
peared to be sleeping. After awhile I also stood up, and they came and
asked me why I did not bow before the images and kiss the cross, etc.
I told them I did not believe in it. Upon hearing this they became very
angry and wanted to punish me, but very soon my train came and I
went on to Valadikokas. Here I rested a few days and had the privilege
of preaching several times. At about 4 o'clock in the afternoon I saw
a multitude of people passing along the street. I inquired what it meant,
and was told that they had the image of Holy Mary and took it to the
houses to bless the people. Some have to pay a large sum of money to
have the image brought into the house as they are wicked and Holy Mary
will not wish to be taken into these wicked houses ; therefore, they have
to pay in order to be equal with the good people, and in some instances
the men carrying the image will pass by the house and will say Mother
Mary does not want to go into that house as the people are wicked.

From here I started for Tifiis on a four days' journey, but I took a
much faster way, namely I took a carriage from Tifiis, which was driven
Dy fast mail horses and every two hours, or when we had passed over
ifteen or twenty miles, the horses and driver would be changed. I made
:he journey, traveling day and night, in twenty-four hours.

In Tifiis I also had the privilege of meeting some Nestorians, with
whom I was glad to speak concerning their welfare and salvation through
[esus Christ ; and many people came to see me, some living thirty miles
away, and they wanted me to stay and preach among them. Even after

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

being in America again I received letters from them asking me to come,
saying they would get me permission to do so from the government.

I left Tiflis for Erivan. Here my passport was taken and counter-
signed, as in former cities. And here also I met two Mohammedan
Sayids, who were returning to Persia, and we traveled together and spoke
over many subjects, especially religion. On this journey from Erivan
to Aras, the Persian frontier, we came across a number of corpses lying
on the roadside, where the robbers had left them after plundering and
killing them. But we were not molested as we traveled with mail horses
and also the government mail and two soldiers.

At last we reached the Persian frontier, where our passports were
looked over and returned to us. Here the Sayids left me.

While my passport was being examined in the government office,
I spoke in a very broken Persian language, so as to make them believe
that I was a foreigner, as my passport showed me to be.

I asked the officers if the roads were dangerous. They said they
were, and I asked them to let me have a man to go with me. They re-
plied that it was very dangerous to travel with one man alone, and
offered to give me two men as an escort. So the two men traveled with
me, and at the same time I met four Armenians who begged leave
to join us. I gladly complied with their request. The first night we
stopped at a village where nearly all the inhabitants were theives and
robbers.

During all this time I feigned to be a foreigner, and even the
Armenians did not recognize me as being a Persian. After supper I
stepped out of doors and there overheard some men making plans to kill
the four Armenians ; but they were afraid to do so on my account, think-
ing that I was a foreigner. During that night I had a soldier on each
side of me, resting his gun on my body and protecting me in this manner,
and the four Armenians were also very near to me.

All went well, but a few things were stolen, and in the morning
we continued our journey. Towards evening of tliat day we came to a
river, and while fording it the two soldiers, who were supposed to pro-
tect me, pointed their guns at me and demanded money; at this I im-
mediately grasped my two revolvers which I had with me and pointed
them at the soldiers ; then they said they were only joking, and I told
them to walk on ahead, which they did. The revolvers I had with me
were not loaded, but at the next station I loaded them.

After two more days journey we reached Khoi, where the two

PERSONAL HISTORY.

soldiers left me. I now decided to travel with mail horses again ; that is,
ve changed horses every two hours, and journeyed on more rapidly.

But when I reached the next village, I was so sore and stiff from
;onstantly riding horse-back that I decided to remain here for a few
lays and give up horse-back riding, namely, this fast way of horse-
back riding. From here I telegraphed to Oroomiah and advised my
"riends of my coming. After a few days, I hired some other horses and
vent slower. From this village I left for Gavelan.

In Gavelan I met my brother Joseph, with some friends and relatives
vho had come to meet me. So we, about forty in number, journeyed
:ogether and reached Oroomiah on the following day. I was glad to see
nany of my friends and acquaintances. But one of the saddest things
'or me was the death of my mother, which had occurred during my
ibsence. But I hope and believe that she died a Christian death, as her
ast words were, "All my hopes are in Jesus." Thanks be to God for the
blessed hope that we may meet again in the world of immortality.

After a few days rest at home and waiting upon many callers, 1
started out to visit my friends and those who had visited me.

As I went through the cities and the villages, I found that there was
>reat need for the blessed Gospel. I conversed with the people and on
Sunday I preached in different villages and at different houses.

The people of Borashan, a neighboring village, came and asked me
:o establish a Christian school in their village. They also went to the
lord of the village and asked his permission, and then presented me a
list containing all the names of the inhabitants of the village, except one
iamily. The lord said if this one family did not submit to this they would
have to leave, and then they submitted and I established a school there,
and today almost all the people are heartily rejoicing in the progress of
Dur good work. I found also a very good helper, who visited continually
the people of Borashan and Sanger, also Eriava, so I employed him as
a teacher and helper while I was visiting the other places ; and finally
I was able to find some helpers who had been educated somewhat by the
English and Presbyterian missionaries. When they came to me I gave
them some Biblical instructions and then placed them at the head of some
of these schools, and paid them a small salary. So the work continued
nicely, and I spent my time visiting the schools and encouraging the
teachers and expounding the Word of God.

All the expense of such a school, including fuel, schoolbooks, room
rent, teacher's salary, etc., will not exceed ten dollars a month. My ex-
pense of each school has very seldom exceeded five dollars a month.

PERSONAL HISTORY.

Mar Shimmon, the civil and spiritual head of the Nestorians, resides
in the village of Kochanues. in the mountains of Kurdistan. V&e is the
spiritual overseer of all the Nestorian churches of Persia and Kurdistan.
Once a year he sends one of his relatives to visit the churches of Oroo-
miah, for the purpose of receiving the contributions of the brethren, and
also to inquire as to the condition of the church itself, and any matters
in question are laid before him by the bishops and priests. When I
arrived at Oroomiah his step-brother was there, who became very
friendly to me, but died within two months after.

On May 29th, 1895, I left Oroomiah, in order to pay a visit to the
Patriarch, the object of which was to have an interview with him, in
order to get his permission to work among his people as all the other
missionaries do. A second object was evangelistic work among the
Kurds and Nestorians. After two hours of riding on the plain, we came
to Anhar, a village in the mountains. Here we were told we would be
killed by the Kurd robbers and murderers if we should continue our
journey. We had now to decide what to do — to go on or return home.
Finally, trusting in the Lord, we decided to go on. For almost four
hours we rode at a gallop, fearing an attack by the Kurds. We arrived
at Mavana, however, where we spent the night. The next morning a
discouraging report came that the roads were in bad condition, and
that several had been killed two days previous. Nevertheless, trusting
in the Lord, I continued with my servant, and after a few hours journey
we reached the Turkish frontier. Here I was stopped and told I could
not pass. With the aid of a little gold, judiciously administered, I over-
came this difficulty.

I arrived at Marbeeshoo about 9 o'clock in the evening. This is a
large Nestorian village, which contains a church 850 years old, built of
very thick stones and having a very heavy stone door about three feet
and six inches high. The next morning I continued on my journey and
reached Dizza about 6 o'clock in the evening. Immediately after our
arrival the police came and ordered me to give an account of myself.
I showed him my American passport and told him where I intended to
go. The police were not satisfied with this, however, and after investi-
gating our baggage, even our clothing, he took our passport and went to
the Kaimakam (the vice governor). Afterwards a few Zaptiehs (con-
stables) came to guide us to the city, and we were told that the Mustas-
sarif, or governor, was telegraphed to about our arrival and we would
have to wait there until an answer was received. The next morning
the reply came, back from Valy Pasha, the ruler at Van, to detain the

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

travelers until advice was obtained from Constantinople. Upon this the
authorities at Dizza placed me in confinement, under the charge of
being a spy sent out by the United States and also on my way to the
Patriarch to stir him up against the Turkish government. The prison
was kept guarded by two soldiers. Meantime, I was afraid they would
put me to death, so I wrote a letter addressed to my brother in Oroomiah.
in which I wrote the number of my passport and my citizenship paper,
and asked him to telegraph the United States Ambassador at Teheran.
This letter I gave to my servant, asking him to bribe a man to carry this
message, and also telling him to have him put the message into a loaf
of bread, of which he took several.

I was in terrible torment every hour of the day. I was in mortal
terror, and expected to be put to death at almost any minute. The
messenger, after being stopped and searched several times and forced to
give up all his bread but one precious loaf, which contained the message,
at last delivered the message to my brother. In the letter I made an
agreement with the messenger that, if he succeeded in reaching my
brothers in two days, he should receive a large sum of money. If it
would take him three days he was to get less, and if four days, still less.
Consequently, the messenger hurried and succeeded in delivering the
message in two days. My brother had immediately telegraphed to the
American Ambassador at Teheran. Various means were instituted to
secure my release, through the good offices of the United States, and
the kindness of the English counseller at Tabriz and at Van. The police
at Dizza at first denied that any such person was confined, but finding
that the case had gained such publicity, and fearing trouble, they quietly
released me. In the meantime, I was kept in prison.

The following, clipped from the "Banner of Truth," a religious
periodical published in the United States, has some bearing upon this
matter :

ISAAC ADAMS' ARREST.
[banner of truth.]

Mr. Isaac Adams, of Persia, who has given us some outline of his
work among his own people, was arrested while on a journey with his
servant and thrown into a prison by the Governor of a Turkish province.
Information of this was sent by Rev. M. Bagdasarian, a fellow mis-
sionary laboring in Urmi, in the interest of the disciples of Christ. He
expresses grave fears as to the fate of Mr. Adams and requests us to
urge the United States Government to use its good offices for his re-
lease. Our minister at Constantinople has communicated with the Turk-
ish office of foreign affairs, and they disclaim and deny all knowledge of

•A « • •

Telegram of English missionary sent to British Consul at Van, Turkey,
requesting his aid for the x-elease of Isaac Adams,
sent June, 1895.

44 PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

the arrest. But knowing the bitter feeling against Christianity, and
especially against native converts, we would call upon all concerned in the
welfare of Christianity to carry this to the throne of grace and pray God,
who has all men's hearts in His hand, to deliver him from the mouth of
the Turkish lion.

The following is a copy of the communication from the State De-
partment respecting it :

Department of State,
Washington, July 16, 1895.

Rev. John C. Voorhis, Hackensach, N. J.

Sir: I have to acknowledge the receipt of your letter of the 12th
inst., requesting the good offices of this department to secure the re-
lease of Rev. Isaac Adams, an American missionary, who is said to have
been arrested by the Turkish authorities at Dizza Gavar.

This case has already been acted upon by this department on a tele-
gram from the United States Minister at Teheran. On June nth our
minister at Constantinople was telegraphed to protest against arrest and
to demand prompt orders to local Governor for Mr. Adams' release. A
telegram from Mr. Terrell, dated the nth of the present month, states
that he is informed by the Minister of Foreign Affairs that Mr. Adams
has not been arrested at Dizza Gavar, and that he is not in the village
of Kotchanues. I am, sir, Your obedient servant,

ALEVY A. ADEE,
Acting Secretary.

MEMORIAL OF ISAAC ADAMS.
Making Claim for Losses and Injuries Against the Turkish

Government.
STATE OF MICHIGAN COUNTY OF KENT. ss.

Isaac Adams of the City of Grand Rapids being first duly sworn
deposes and says that he is a citizen of the United States and makes this
affidavit for and in his own behalf.

1. That he was born on the 28th day of November, 1872, in Oroo-
miah, Persia, and is now twenty-six years of age. That he is now a
resident of the City of Grand Rapids, County of Kent, State of Michigan
of the United States of America. That on the 31st day of August, 1894,
he became a naturalized citizen of the United States, as appears by the
certified copies of the records of the Circuit Court of the County of
Cook, State of Illinois. That he has been engaged in missionary work
for 10 years, both in Persia and in the United States of America. That
in the month of May, 1895, the time in which the events for which de-

PERSONAL HISTORY.

pcnent makes claim occurred, he was engaged as a missionary in Oroo-
miah, Persia.

2. That he has a claim to the amount of five thousand ($5,000)
dollars based upon the facts as hereinafter stated, against the Govern-
ment of Turkey.

That on the 4th day of October, 1894, he was given passport No.
16911 by the United States of America, Walter Q. Gresham, Secretary of
State. That on the 7th day of November, 1894, he left the United States
of America on the steamship Paris for the purpose of going to Oroomiah,
Persia and engage in missionary work there. That he arrived in Oroo-
miah on the first day of January, 1895, and engaged immediately in the
work of teaching and remained there till the 29th day of May, 1895, work-
ing in Persia continuously. That on the 29th day of May, 1895, deponent
started to visit Mar Shimmon, a Nestorian Patriarch in the village of
Kochanues in the mountains of Kurdistan in Asiatic Turkey. Deponent
says that he had the American passport above referred to duly signed
and sealed and certified to by the representatives of the Turkish Govern-
ment stationed at Oroomiah, as noted on the passport and translation
as follows :

Signature.

"Mr. Adams, an American citizen is going to Kurdistan, Turkey, as
a traveler. In the month of Dekaadal Haram 24. In the year of Hegira
13 12. (May, 1895) :

(Seal.)

The vice counsel of the supreme state of Ottoman, residing in Oroo-
miah, Yoseph.

That on the 31st day of May, 1895, he arrived at the Turkish frontier
and after showing his passport and identification to the Turkish repre-
sentatives was allowed to pass. That on the 2nd day of June, 1895, he
arrived at Dizza Gavar within the Turkish territory of Kurdistan Mount-
ains. That he was then and there arrested and put in prison on the
charge of being an American spy. That deponent's passport was taken
from him and he was ordered to await the pleasure of the authorities.
That he was 'given no public trial or opportunity for defense as an Ameri-
can citizen he demanded of the Turkish authorities. That he was told
that he was an American spy sent out by the United States Government
to report to it the detailed massacres then taking place among Armenian
and Nestorian subjects of the Turkish Government and to stir up rebel-
lion and insurrection against their government.

That deponent did not at any time violate the rules of international

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

law. That he did not in any manner by word or sign encourage rebel-
lion nor did he speak to any Turkish subject for the purpose of in-
vestigating insurrection and discontent among the colonies and people of
the Turkish Dominion. That he informed them that he came to obtain
authority from the Nestorian Patriarch to assist him in teaching his peo-
ple, and that he did this as an American citizen, and was entitled to
all the rights and privileges of an American citizen.

Deponent further says that he had with him a servant named Esha-
kan from Persia.

That they rode on horseback and that besides the property necessary
for a long journey through the plains and mountains he had about his
person and about the person of his servant a large sum of money, the
sum of one hundred and ninety-eight pounds in gold and thirty pounds in
silver. That the gold was in Russian Imperial, Turkish Megedia and
forty-eight English sterling. That the Turkish police authorities put him
under guard at Dizza Gavar and imprisoned him for nine days. That em-
issarnes were sent repeatedly for the purpose of extorting from deponent
the knowledge of the hiding places of his money and that he was sub-
jected to innumerable cruelties for the purpose of extorting money.
That large sums of money were in this way extorted from the deponent.
That he was gagged, beaten, robbed and tortured.

That on the fifth day of his confinement, he was placed in chains
and cruelly bound and maltreated in a dungeon. That his feet were tied
together and that heavy" chains held them an elevation of several feet
from ground while he was sitting on the ground of the dungeon. That
his hands were bound behind him and a heavy iron collar clasped around
his neck so he was unable to move any muscle of his body. That he was
left without food or drink and that his money and property were taken
from him. That animal and vermin were creeping over him and that he
was subjected to great mental and physical suffering. That he was
obliged to remain in this position for four days.

That the only one allowed to see him was his servant who obtained
for him bread and water for which he was obliged to pay large sums
of money. That through this servant he communicated with the English
Missions and friends at Oroomiah, Persia and that they communicated
with the American Ambassador at Teheran, Persia. That the American
Ambassador at Teheran, Persia, communicated with the American Gov-
ernment at Washington.

That Minister Terrell then protested against deponent's arrest and
demanded of the Turkish Government orders to the local authorities for

PERSONAL HISTORY.

the deponent's release. That then on the 9th day deponent was released.
Minister Terrell was informed that deponent had not been arrested and
that deponent had not been in the village of Kochanues, and that other
misrepresentations were made. That large sums of money were extorted
under various pretenses from deponent by the jailers, governor and offi-
cials of the Turkish Government. That the governor after deponent's
release sent two Zaptiehs under a pretense of police protection and
serveillance and that he was then robbed and brutally treated on the
journey by the Zaptiehs.

That on account of being so detained and mistreated deponent did
not arrive at Kochanues until the 15th day of June, and on account of
poor health which was due to his treatment while in Turkish prison was
not able to return to his work in Oroomiah until July 16th, 1895, and lost
a large amount of time.

That he was of sound mind and body when he entered the Turkish
possessions. That he was sick, emaciated and mentally weak for a long
time thereafter. That he was obliged to spend large sums of money to
recuperate and resupply himself. And that on account of all this he makes
claim against the Turkish Government for the sum of Five Thousand
Dollars.

Department of State,
Washington, May 23, 1899.
Isaac Adams, Esquire, No. 124 Lagrave Street, Grand Rapids, Michigan.

Sir — Referring to the Department's letter of the 15th of March last,
and to previous correspondence, on the subject of your claim against
Turkey, I have now to inform you that the Department is in receipt of a
despatch from our Minister to Turkey, dated the 6th instant, in which
he reports that on the preceding day he presented the claim to the
Turkish Government and demanded the payment of an indemnity of
twenty-five thousand (25,000) francs. I am, sir, your obedient servant,

DAVID J. HILL,
Assistant Secretary.

My servant, however, stood by me loyally and did me excellent
service, by using a careful scheme of sending letters to my brother and the
Patriarch, whose residence was at Kochanues. I, on the contrary, had
given up all hope of living any longer; day and night tears were in
my eyes, and my cry was for the losi condition of my people. I was
always praying that the Lord might spare me for a few years more, that
I might see my brothers take charge of my work. Through the grace
and mercy of Christ I can say, I was ready to die any manner of death

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

in the faith of One who thus loved us and gave Himself to die even the
death of the cross for us undone sinners.

But what a joy it was to me when the doors of the prison were
opened and I was once more freed from that awful torture (as they had
received orders to let me go on), my language fails me to describe.

I started again next morning with my good servant and three
Turkish soldiers on my way to the Patriarch. After a day's journey
we came to Kermi, where there were only four Nestorian houses ; there
we met sixteen Kurds sitting on a flat roof, smoking pipes. When I
passed by them I heard them say, "There is a man we will kill tonight
and take his valuables." I went to a Nestorian house to spend the night.
It being so hot I wished to sleep on the roof, but they feared that those
Kurds would come and kill me and advised me to remain indoors and
hide, and I listened to their entreaties and went into a large square house,
one side of which was a stable and the other side a hay and straw loft
In the other end of the building the people — about thirty in number, men
and women — lived. They put me under the hay. For about two hours
I was there, when I was nearly suffocated. I cried for mercy and they
pulled me out from under the hay, and I told them if it was God's will
that I should be killed, then I was ready to die. About a half-hour latei
I saw two Kurds approach, while I was trembling and shaking all over.
I tried to appear pleasant when I saw them. The first thing they told me
after they kneeled down was, that they had come to kill me and takt
all my valuables. I told them I was not afraid of dying, but I impressed
upon their minds that my name and former case had gained such pub-
licity that if they should kill me the Turkish authorities would be com-
pelled by the United States Government to give account of my where-
abouts, and then the Sultan would send soldiers to massacre them and all
their families in this community, and so they had better not do it. They
decided so. They asked me for some sugar, as one of their number had
fallen from his horse and broken his leg. I gave them some and they
left me unhurt, but warned me that they were going the same way with
me next morning. I could not sleep all night, and after having set out
for Kochanues next morning we were soon overtaken by the Kurds of the
previous ill acquaintance. We rode on together with them for a long
while, until we arrived at a village closed in on two sides by high mount-
ains. Here the leader of the Kurds halted, drew his sword, and holding
it across my neck threatened to sever my head from my body instantly,
unless I gave him some money. I felt the sharp edge of the sword on my
coat-collar, and had my horse taken but one more step at that moment,

PERSONAL HISTORY.

I have no doubt but I would have had my head cut off. I quickly ordered
my servant to give him money, upon receiving which he put back his
sword and allowed me to ride on. Soon after this the Kurds left us, and
five hours later we reached Kochanues.

From a distance we noticed a multitude before the entrance to the
Patriarch's residence, and upon drawing nearer we saw that there were
at least 400 persons lingering there and smoking pipes. On inquiring
into the cause of this gathering, we were informed that all these people
had come to condole with him on the decease of his step-brother.

FUNERAL PROCESSION OF JESSE, STEPBROTHER OF THE NESTORIAN PATRIARCH.

The Patriarch was immediately advised of my arrival. He had tele-
graphed several times to the Turkish government about me, and had
been expecting me for some time. Our horses were taken care of, a
special room was given us and a servant ordered to entertain us and
see that we were well provided for. I hastened to pay my respects to the
Patriarch, and after having been ushered into his presence kissed his
hand, according to the general custom. He graciously motioned me to be
seated, whereupon he opened the conversation. Upon learning the pur-
pose that had brought me hither, to work for the good of his people,
he was very much delighted.

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

The sixteen Kurds who had given us so much trouble on our way
to the Patriarch had also arrived by this time. I had advised the Patri-
arch of what happened on the way, and after having come in and paid
their respects to him, he ordered them in a stern tone to go to the office.
Here their fire-arms were taken from them and they were informed that
they would all be punished for their evil conduct. But quite a large num-
ber of Nestorians approached the Patriarch and interceded in behalf of
the Kurds, and these latter kneeled down, kissed the mat upon which
the Patriarch rested and apologized to me for what they had done. When
night came they were ordered to go to a neighboring house for lodgings ;
but they unanimously cried out that they would not leave the Patriarch's
roof, for fear of all being killed by the Nestorians. Upon this they were

Mar Gabriel and his Nephew who was mas-
sacred by the Kurds.

PERSONAL HISTORY.

allowed to remain, and shown into a separate apartment, where they all
passed the night together. Their object in visiting the Patriarch was to
have a blood-price established for the slaying of the wife of one of their
number, who had been killed in a combat between Kurds and Nestorians.
The sad affair had been brought about as follows :

Younan Bar Malekkambar, a young Nestorian, was married and his
bride was being carried by the bridal procession, when suddenly a party
of Kurds came in upon them and demanded some money. In place of
complying with their request the Nestorians assumed a defiant attitude ;
a quarrel ensued, and finally some one opened fire. Kurdish women are
known always to take a prominent part in an action of this nature, and
so it was also in this case. Many on both sides of the combating parties
were wounded and one Kurdish woman was killed. For the death of
this woman, these sixteen Kurds sought redress, and demanded of the
Patriarch the privilege of puttings to death Younan Bar Malekkambar,
whom they pointed out as having been the originator of the whole affair.
The Patriarch, however, refused to deliver Younan Bar Malekkambar
into their hands, but offered a ransom consisting of sixty silver magdiah,
two pieces of musketry, four mules and fifty sheep. This ransom was
not considered sufficient by the Kurds, and they left dissatisfied.

In the year 1896, the Nestorian bishop, Mar Gabriel, of Oroomiah s
several other prominent Nestorian clergymen, with their servants
(among whom were a number of my best helpers, and Younan Bar Mal-
ekkambar), visited the Nestorian Patriarch. On their way home they were
attacked by the Kurds and massacred; Younan Bar Malekkambar's
body was hacked to pieces and the pieces scattered in all directions.
Thus they avenged the death of that woman, as they always will take
revenge for the violent death of one of their number, and should it take
them fifty years to do it.

One hundred persons, more or less, are guests of the Patriarch
every day. Each is kindly received, housed and entertained, and his horses
or mules stabled and cared for. Sheep and fowls are being continually
slaughtered to provide for the table, as four or five sheep are being daily
consumed. Mules are incessantly traveling to and from Musol, Dizza
and Oroomiah for provisions, bringing flour and sugar to fill the Patri-
arch's larders. Oxen are steadily employed in drawing sufficient quanti-
ties of hay and straw, for the accommodation of horses and mules. Natu-
rally, the expense of continually providing for such an army of people is
enormous; but the Patriarch, by virtue of his office, must keep a hos-
pitable house, and every person, without any discrimination regarding

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

creed or nationality, is expected to be welcomed here, and be well kept ;
according- to his social standing, may he remain one hour or two months.
To defray this enormous expense, however, each visitor must contribute
something, be it victuals or clothing, fowls or sheep, money or jewels —
no person dare come empty-handed. In addition to this collectors are
sent out regularly to collect contributions of honey, grapes, fruit, millet,
wheat, cheese, wine, etc., and free-will gifts are continually pouring in
also. Besides, the Turkish government pays the Patriarch an annuity
of between $1,400 and $1,500. After rising very early in the morning,
as he always does, and observing his daily worship, the Patriarch enters
a large apartment, or hall, where he gives audience to the people who
have assembled to bring all sorts of cases before him. During my stay
there I was given the privilege to witness a few of these hearings. One
man complained that his daughter had been forcibly abducted ; a second
had his cattle stolen by the Kurds ; a third had been robbed on his jour-
ney. One man narrated a sad story of a caravan, among which he had
traveled. It had been attacked, from twenty to thirty persons had been
killed and all the goods stolen. Two leaders of devil-worshipers peti-
tioned for redress for having been robbed and beaten nearly to death, etc.
In such and similar cases the Patriarch either sends out his own servants
to recover stolen property, in which they are often successful, or he
telegraphs to the Turkish government and has the matter adjusted
through them. It is, consequently, nothing very uncommon to find Turk-
ish governors and other officials at the residence of the Nestorian Patri-
arch.

It is impossible to adequately picture in words the awful condition
in which the Christians live in these parts, so much oppressed by the
wild Kurds and the Turks. On my travels there, always accompanied
by two or three Turkish soldiers, I had ample opportunity to witness
the outrages which Christians must endure. Whenever we had entered
an Armenian or Nestorian village, the soldiers would rush into the houses
and act entirely as masters of the place. They demanded food and drink
such as they preferred, and their demands must be complied with under
all circumstances or they would become furious, knock down doors,
break the windows, slap the inhabitants in the face, shoot the chickens
and other domestic animals in the yard, and carry on in a brutal manner.
At one place they shot a little child, playing in the sand, just for a joke.
When once we arrived at a village, late at night, they demolished the
doors, which were not immediately opened at their call, compelled most
of the men in the village to arise from their beds and go out and cut grass

PERSONAL HISTORY.

in the fields for their horses. In the meantime they themselves entered
the houses, and did what they pleased with the women. At one time
they entered a house while a male inhabitant was watering their horses.
They found a woman with children, lying asleep in bed. They picked up
the bedding, together with the persons in it, carried all out of doors,
emptied the mother and her children out into the yard, and, after taking
the bed back into the house, slept on it themselves. Everywhere in the
Kurdistan Mountains the dwellings of the Nestorians are of the hum-
blest kind.- Many houses (but they do not deserve that name) are built
half underground on account of the extreme severity of the winters, the
snow there lying five feet deep on the level. In order to keep warm dur-
ing this season, people live in one compartment, together with their
animals, in a state of filth that beggars description. But there is another
reason for this. The winters being very long, the animals owned by
these people, are solely depending upon the stock of hay laid in. This
hay, as well as the animals, must be kept as near as possible, owing to
lawless tribes of Kurds, who are swooping down upon them, foraging
their herds, pillaging their goods and burning their hay when within
their reach and unprotected. However, the extortion and oppression
by the government are feared nearly as much as the Kurds.

These soldiers are called Zaptiehs, and their functions are similar to
those of patrolmen in the United States ; but there is another kind of
Turkish soldiers called Hamidieh, who are a great help to the Zaptieh
in oppressing the people. These will seize people at tneir option, and
then promise to release them if they pay them the money they want; if
the money is not forwarded, they will be taken to prison. Here they
will be penned in a cell full of vermin and filth, with twenty-five or thirty
other persons, and no water given them to drink But that which Moham-
medans have used for their ablutions. The treatment which such poor
persons are subjected to is most shocking — (a) red hot irons are pressed
against different parts of their bodies ; (b) they are undressed and beaten
into unconsciousness; (c) a collar is thrown over their heads and they
are thus drag'ged through the streets; (d) they are left without food or
drink until starved ; (e) they are forced to stand for a long time continu-
ously, and all kinds of filth is poured down over their heads ; (f) they are
forced to perform shaton toppy, or devil's ring, the result of which is
death; hands and feet are tightly bound, they are forced to hold their
hands above their heads, whereas a severe torture is administered and an
unspeakable, beastly crime committed; (g) their hair is plucked out by
handfuls ; (h) they are mutilated and crippled in various ways ; (i) they

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

are compelled to stand erect within a box just large enough to admit one
person, but the box is beset with sharp steel points on all sides; in this
box they must stand for from thirty to forty-eight hours in succession,
not being permitted even to attend to the wants of nature.

When sent out to collect taxes, the Zaptiehs will demand the double

REV. PROF. GARABED THOUMAIAN, B.A., IX TURKISH IRONS.

Oue important factor in calling attention to the cruelties of the Sultan and his satraps, and
their Hagrant violation of the provisions of the Berlin Treaty, was the arrest, imprisonment, and
condemnation to death of the Rev. Professor Garabed Thoumaian, B.A., a Protestant Armenian
teacher and missionary, connected with the American College at Marsovan. This gentleman had
married a Swiss pastor's daughter, and at the time of her husband's arrest she was in England
collecting money for the purpose of founding a hospital for the sick of Marsovan. Her letters to
her husband were Intercepted and opened, and a trumpery charge of sedition was brought against
him, and upon this baseless charge he was imprisoned aud condemned to death Knowing that he
was greatly beloved by his Marsovan people, and fearing the publicity which would be given to
their conduct, the officials decided to secretly remove him from Marsovan, and he had to undergo
a mock trial. Witnesses had been tortured in different prisons in order to extract incriminatory
evidence against Mr. Thoumaian. In the end he was condemned to death, and we give the account
of his sufferings in his own words, with the picture of the instruments of his torture.

"I was confined for five months of harsh imprisonment, although the Governor of Angora
had told the British Consul there, and my brother-in-law, Pastor Hoffman, of Geneva, that he had
examined my case and found me innocent. Witnesses were tortured by the Pasha of Ca-sarea
into giving false evidence against me, yet, although this became known, I received the death sen-
tence. I was moved with other prisoners from place to place ; for two months I was in chains,
and for five days my hands were iu stocks weighing 15 lbs. With crushed wrists and bleeding
arms and hands we were driven one night over the snow-covered mountains in an open cart, be-
ing 17 hours without food, and poorly clad. Then we were herded with thieves and murderers,
and still left without food. When the stocks were taken off iron collars, weighing 10 lbs., were
substituted, and aome of us were victims of beatings and torture too horrible for description In an
English journal."

PERSONAL HISTORY.

amount. In a week, perhaps they will put in an appearance a second time
and demand the same amount again; if their demand is not complied
with, or remonstrances are offered, they will insist upon the surrender
of young women and girls in the family, to glut their brutal appetites,
and if refused, punishment with tortures, often even death, is sure to fol-
low.

A compassionate reader may learn from this that the lives and pro-
perty of Christians, subjects to the Sultan, are nowhere safe in tne Otto-
man Empire. There is no justice for them ; their lives, property and
honor are ever at the mercy of the meanest Musselman who may see fit
to attack either. He can never prove that he has been wronged, for
his evidence against a Musselman is null and void. The sacred law of the
Islam states that the murder of a Christian is not a crime. Christians
are strictly prohibited from carrying arms of any kind. They are held
by law to practice hospitality towards any Musselman, be he official
or traveler, pasha or beggar. These unwelcome guests demand the best
rooms in the house, the best kind of nourishment possible, and make
free with the female members of the house to suit themselves. The men
on the other hand are helpless, having no arms or weapons, while their
guests are generally well provided in this respect ; and should they dare
to enter complaint with any of the local authorities, they would either be
beaten or cast into prison, or even shot down on the spot.

Christians are forbidden to ride on horses ; they may use donkeys
for their purpose, but must descend whenever they meet a Musselman,
bow low with downcast eye, whether the Mohammedan be a beggar and
he a nobleman, or vice versa.

But to return to the tax collectors. A year's tax is demanded in
advance. In many instances, of course, Christians will not be able to
comply with this rigid law, and beg for time ; but it is not allowed them.
Their cattle, household goods or other chattels, are taken and offered
at auction, and the neighboring Kurds, who have been previously ad-
vised of the sale, will bid the lowest price possible, as Christians are not
permitted to' join in the bidding. The proceeds of such auction sales are
then divided among the Kurds and the Zaptiehs. Thousands of Christ-
ians have thus been reduced to extreme want, feeding on roots and herbs
for months, and thousands more have perished and are still perishing
from starvation. Though not present myself at any of the terrible whole-
sale massacres of Christians, I at one time was only thirty miles distant
from one of them. A Turkish soldier, Ahhamed, with whom I had a con-

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

versation, boasted of having killed thirty men, women and children dur-
ing the shocking butchery at Sason.

Since 1820 these defenseless Christian subjects of the Sultan have
been slain at random. In 1822, 50,000 Greek Catholics were massacred
at Scio; in 1843, 18,000 Nestorians in the Kurdistan Mountains; 16,000
Maronites and Syrians at Lebannon and Damascus ; 10,000 Bulgarians
in 1876; more than 50,000 Armenians and others in Asiatic Turkey since
1894. But what shall we say of the many thousands of women and

THE HORRIBLE MASSACRE AT SASSOUN.

The horrors of this "Reign of Terror" in Armenia never began to be realized till the autumn
of 1894, when news of a bloody massacre in the town and district of Sassoun, reaching England
in a most roundabout manner, for the authorities who planned the massacre carefully guarded
against its dreadful character leaking out, and had it not been for a few refugees who managed
to escape, the extent of this unprecedented crime would never have been known.

At a given signal the emmissaries of the Sultan, led by Bahri Pasha (Vali of Van), pounced
upon the defenseless and unsuspecting inhabitants, and without distinction of age or sex shot
them down like cattle, and then set fire to their homes, thus almost destroying every vestige of
this once prosperous place so completely that it was difficult to find witnesses to testify to the
extent of the horrid -deed. The number who perished is variously estimated at from 300 to 2,000.
A deed of this nature and extent (much as the sultan desired it) could not be hidden from view
entirely. For many months travelers were carefully excluded from entering the district, and most
of the harrowing particulars that have come to light are the descriptions given by the Turkish
soldiers who took part in them.

The following is a description given of the place by one who visited the neighborhood fully
twelve months after the dreadful massacre had taken place. It is from the London Daily News:
"A European who has succeeded in visiting the devastated Sassoun region has forwarded along
report, dated August 20, in which he describes the terrible state of the district and the heart-
rending condition of the Armenian peasants. He has examined the positions occupied by the
Turkish troops and artillery, and writes: 'If one is disposed to gather relics from these dole-
ful valleyshe has only to stoop down and pick up from the path human skulls and bones that have
been left to bleach in the sun for these long twelve months. The distress already reported seems
to have been understated. Villages formerly owning 15,000 sheep are now ashes, and at every
hamlet empty petroleum tins, bearing the Government stamp, are mute witnesses that the homes
of the Armenians were set on fire by the order of the General in Command."

PERSONAL HISTORY.

maidens who have been captured at each of these massacres, forced into
Turkish harems, and are leading a life to which death were far preferable?
And the throng 1 of children who were captured and taken or sold as
slaves ? And again, thousands and thousands of poor, wretched fugitives,
wandering about nearly naked and without food, not knowing from day
to day, where to rest their heads. Hundreds of Christian villages have
been totally destroyed.

Yet all non-Mohammedans might avoid all these troubles, be they
Armenians, Nestorians or Jews, if they so desired. All they need do is
to renounce their faith and turn Mohammedans. It is certainly true
that from the moment a Christian embraces Mohammedanism, his
trouble ceases. It is not astonishing, therefore, though greatly to be
deplored, that many grow weak and finally yield and take recourse to this
way of ending their misery. Many have already done so, and others are
preparing to follow their example. May God have mercy upon these
poor fellow Christians and deliver them from the cruel sword of Moham-
medanism and bring them under a Christian banner.

After a stay of twenty-three days with the Patriarch, and having
made all necessary arrangements with him concerning my work, I started
on my return to Persia, escorted by two Turkish soldiers, who accom-
panied and guarded me, having instructions to keep me from receiving
any information from the people until we reached Persia. Here they left
me, after I had been for forty-five days under surveillance. I was nearly
broken down in health, owing to the many privations, hardships and
sickening sights I had undergone and witnessed, and felt very much
relieved when, once more at home, I perceived that my school and all
the rest of my work was in a flourishing condition.

MEDICAL MISSIONARY.

Although the spiritual needs of the world are the greatest and should
be sought first, yet the physical needs of the world are also great, and
much greater in the heathen world than in the Christian world.

The healing art is only second to the saving art, and the two go
hand in hand, though the former must always be subservient.

"And Jesus went about all the cities and villages, teaching in their
synagogues, and preaching the gospel of the kingdom, and healing
every sickness and every disease among the people." (Matt. 9:35).

Our Lord was therefore Teacher, Preacher and Healer. His rela-
tion to the world as evangelist is our relation to the world as mission-

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

aries. As He was so are we in the world. Christ is, then, in His own
life and, teaching' our authority for medical missions. Livingstone said
"God had an only Son, and He was a physician."

The purpose of all Christ's healing miracles was plainly to establish
the divine character of His life and mission and to prepare the heart
and mind for the acceptation of His divine message. This also is the
aim of the Medical Mission. Its purpose is not only to evangelize and
to prepare the way for evangelization but to establish the Divine charac-
ter of Christianity, of which it is a part. Healing the body is necessary
as well as curing the soul. In other words it is the "double cure." Still
further, we have His command to "Heal the sick," and the commis-
sion Christ gave to His disciples to "preach the Kingdom of God and
to heal the sick" is none the less our commission, though God's natural
medicines are used in lieu of the healing power possessed by the
disciples., Such is the missionary physicians' commission.

Medical missions are now established in most of the great mission
fields. Their value is attested by the fact of their rapid increase in recent
years and they have become a powerful factor both as a direct evangeliz-
ing agency and in preparing the way for the Gospel message.

Medical missions in India are a powerful evangelizing agency. They
rapidly disarm the people of their caste prejudices, and while the reci-
pients of their benefits, the patients in addition to the living lesson of
a Christianity which they can see, are attentive and receptive listeners
to the Gospel message.

If there is any Christian influence 'among Mohammedans, it is due
to the Christian doctor. If Christians ever expect to convert Moham-
medans to Christ, it will have to be done through Christian medical
men and women. Iron doors of caste, society, religious hatred, personal
and national ill-feeling melt away before a physician as snow before
a summer sun. His office is considered as sacred and honored as that
of a priest, and his influence is immense even with the highest and great-
est in the land.

The two greatest needs in Persia at the present time are native
preachers and native doctors. The importance of such a work can
scarcely be over estimated. The native doctors are entirely ignorant
and when they touch surgical cases at all, they do not hesitate to operate
with rusty razors, as the surgical instruments as well as medicines of
to-day are unknown to them. However, there are many quack doctors
who have a system of superstition which has been taught them orally
by older men.

PERSONAL HISTORY.

Blades of some kind of grasses which are known to medical science
s having no medical properties are the chief remedies prescribed for
disease. Internal diseases are called supernatural and it is believed they
are inflicted by evil spirits. None of the doctors can do anything for
these forms of diseases as they consider it out of their realm.
! A patient with an internal disease is sent to the priest who will
diagnose the case by looking into the Koran or some other supersti-
tious books in which he locates the particular demon that is afflicting
the patient. For a remedy he will write some mystical signs on two
slips of paper, directing the patient to soak one in a cup of water and to
bind the other on his arm.

There are several remedies for fever, one is to tie seven knots in a
white thread and fasten it around the waist wearing it fifteen or twenty
days. They believe this will cure the fever. Another remedy is to remove
the clothing and jump into cold water before breakfast. If a man has
a severe attack of colic and cries "I die, I die," his friends run for the
nearest baldheaded man, as he is known to have power to remove
the pains by firmly pressing the smooth surface of his cranium against
the surface of the patient's body nearest the seat of pain. Pork is never
used as food but as a remedy for rheumatism.

The medical work for women appeals still stronger to the sym-
pathy of the Christian women, they are so needy, helpless, sorrow
smitten, over borne, and neglected in a Mohammedan land, and Mo-
hammedan life subjects them to many physical hardships and sufferings
and decay so that the medical missionary comes to them as an angel
from the Most High.

PRACTICE OF MEDICINE IN PERSIA.

A physician cannot see the faces of his patients. The traveler in
the East is often asked to prescribe for the sick, be he actually a phy-
sician or not. I have been repeatedly requested to serve in this capacity.
The physician, however, labors under a peculiar disadvantage in Persian
practice, even if his qualifications are not too carefully examined ; for,
as I have indicated above, he is not permitted to see the face of his
female patient and is thus deprived of one of the most important points
in forming a diagnosis. The native doctors require no other diploma
to enter the profession of medicine than a supply of infinite assurance.
They are generally itinerants who go from village to village and announce
their profession on arriving. Extraordinary remedies are given. Hav-

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

ing prescribed, the physician decamps before the results become per-
ceptible, aware that a common sequence is death. Fortunately for the
practitioners, this result is generally quietly accepted as the fiat of Kis-
met, or Destiny.

It must be admitted that the most important factor now at work
in the missionary field of Persia is one that is largely secular. I refer to
the employment of missionary physicians. Persons who do not care to be
instructed in the tenets of a faith other than their own are still in need
of a physical aid. All may not be in spiritual need, but all
sooner or later, require a physician. If the practitioner be a man of
ability, tact and suavity, he acquires a personal influence that necessarily
leads to a modification of the opposition to the progress of the mission-
aries with whom the physician is associated and important concessions
may thus gradually be obtained from those in power.

The first and greatest of the obstacles which complicate th'e present
condition in Persia is Mohammedanism. The government and the laws
are subject to official direction by the clergy, the case is indeed serious.
But proceed still further and imagine a nation whose sovereign draws
from the priesthood his authority to rule, and whose laws are based on
religious exactions ; whose law-givers are priests and whose judges are
also priests ; whose government in a word is theocratic, — and we find
a system utterly and absolutely at variance with the spirit of the present
age, and opposed to genuine progress in all ages. That is exactly what
we find in Persia.

The clergy or mollalis are irrevocably opposed to innovation from
whatever quarter; they have their grip on the throat of the nation, and
the advantage is with them because not only is every law of the land
on their side, but they are the expounders of that law.

MY SECOND JOURNEY TO AMERICA.

Very soon, however, I became convinced that the nature and extent
of my work demanded another visit to the United States. The principal
object of my coming to the United States the second time, was to take
a course in medicine, to qualify myself more fully as a missionary.

I did not hesitate long, made the necessary arrangements with my
helpers for conducting my schools during my absence, and left Persia
a second time for America.

Some time before this I had met a Dervish, named Ismail, who had
entered into religious conversation with me. He, by some means or
other, had begun to entertain doubts concerning his Mohammedan reli-

PERSONAL HISTORY.

s^ion, and, upon inquiry and further searching, had been convinced that
the Islam was a false religion. He was now looking for something
better. I found him to be an honest, upright man, true to his convic-
tions, and, being urged by some Christians who knew him, and by the
|Nestorian bishop, Mar Gabriel, I determined to take Ismail with me to
Russia, where he might enjoy religious liberty. But, before doing so,
1 had an agreement with him that he should try and eat bread and meat
jlike other people. As a Dervish, true to his faith, he had become of the
[fanatic kind, and, as he claimed, had not partaken any food of any
kind excepting raisins, for to let the body suffer will enrich the soul,"
was one of the axioms in which he believed. I myself entertained some

I. YOHANNAN. ABSHALLOM GEORGE.

doubts at first as to the veracity of his statements, but found them
substantiated by many people who had known him for years. He had
been with me for two or three months when we left Persia, and I
had tried to get him accustomed to wholesome food again gradually,
by mixing crumbs of bread with his raisins.

It was not an easy task, nor was it altogether safe to take a Dervish
with me on my journey. I, consequently, arranged it so that Ismail
traveled at night, while I and a youth, Abshallom George by name,
whom I also took with me, traveled during the day. In the evening,
after our arrival at some place, Ismail would meet us, and Abshallom
would give him food and money and the name of the next station where

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

he coulc\ meet us. This was a very necessary precaution on our part,
as in Persia and Turkey a Dervish who renounces his faith and openly
confesses Christianity is doomed. In Tabriz there was a slight com-
motion among the Mohammedans when some one publicly claimed he
had seen a Dervish coming and going in and out where we lodged. Our
host and hostess, however, contradicted him by stating that the Dervish
had arrived one day sooner than we, and so the gossip was silenced.
After we were safely through the Caucasus, Russia, we could allow:
Ismail to travel in our company, which he gladly did. It was both his
and my earnest desire to get with him to Tifflis, where I expected him-;
safe enough to remain and be baptised. But I very soon found that I
was mistaken, as not long after our arrival at Tifflis the Persian consul-
was informed that I had converted a Dervish to the Christian faith.
The consul sent his servants to investigate. I, having been warned,
however, was prepared. I had a carriage waiting at the back door, and
when the servants of the consul entered the house, Abshallom, with the
Dervish, left it through the back door, and in the carriage were immedi-
ately taken to the depot, where they left for Valadikokas. Nevertheless,
the consul's servants had found some of the "holy instruments" of the
Dervish in my apartments and had taken these with them to the consul,
who, in consequence, threatened to follow the matter up more closely.

Upon this I dispatched a messenger and informed the consul that,
if he did not let this matter rest just where it' was and have the articles
his servants had taken from me speedily returned, I should certainly
seek and find redress by appealing to all the rest of the consuls. This
had the desired effect and I recovered my property. While in this city
I also embraced the opportunity to settle my accounts with the British
Bible Society, the London house having turned the matter over into
the hands of their agents at Tifflis. I sent a large number of Bibles to
Persia, and took a few only, and in various languages spoken in Russia,
with me, as I thought I might make use of them on my journey. After
several days I reached Valadikokas, where I met Abshallom with Ismail.
I had entertained the idea of leaving the latter there, but here also we
soon learned that among the many Mohammedans living or sojourning
in this place Ismail was not safe. He also exhorted me to take him
somewhere where he would not see any more Mohammedans, whatever.
So I bought three tickets to Alexandrowa, via Harkow, Kiew and War-
saw. But between Rostow and Harkow I was robbed on the train and
we were obliged to lay over, as I had no more money. We stopped at
the depot for two days and three nights, I trying to sell my Bibles dur-

PftRSO^At HISTORY.

ing the day. The people were Polanders, but I had only a few Polish
Bibles with me. These were soon sold, as also some curiosities I had
brought with me. I now bought three tickets for the next station. This
was on the German frontier, and here we were detained by the officials,
,who claimed thy could not let us go on to Germany with as little money
as we had. We told them our story of having been robbed of our money
in Russia, and I tried to impress upon them that I had friends in Berlin

I. YOHANNAN.
Who is in this country at present preparing himself
for mission work)

who would supply me as soon as I arrived there, but all to no avail.
There remained nothing for us to do but to sell nearly everything we
had (even my razor) and raise money. In this manner, with the help
of God, I finally succeeded in getting all three of us to Berlin, and have
still a few marks left.

In Berlin, we were taken to a mission-house, where we were cor-
dially welcomed, and spent a few days. All this time Ismail had not

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

abandoned his Dervish clothes and his long, waving hair. Now I en-
treated him to make a radical change in his exterior and turn also out-
wardly into a good Christian. He consented, and we forthwith took him
to a barber's shop. A suit of clothes was given him to put on, and he
now began to look like one of us. We had each a separate bed to sleep
in. Next morning Ismail came to me grumbling and excited. He
could not get along with putting on his new clothes. He had his
trousers on back part in front, his collar was upside down, his suspenders
were buttoned over his coat, etc. This irritated him greatly, and he
insisted upon having his own garments back and did not want these
clothes any longer. I adjusted his clothing and talked with him kindly,
upon which he became soothed and went with us to the breakfast table.
But we were quite late and therefore alone in the dining room. For
the first time in his life Ismail tried to make use of a knife and fork. His
first attempts were very awkward, and I told him to watch us and then
do as we did. He tried it, but stuck the fork so far into his mouth that
the points pricked him. Now he grew angry, threw knife and fork upon
the floor, overturned his chair and sat on the floor pouting and saying
he would have nothing to do with such things any more. I softly and
kindly instructed him again in the use of these things, and finally he
became more pleasant again. After breakfast we went out to see the
sights in the city, I explaining to my companions what we saw as we
went along.

In the evening Ismail grew obstinate again. He once more de-
manded his own old garments, and insisted on having them. I had
foreseen this, however, and had ordered them burnt, with the exception
of a sheepskin the Dervishes use to sleep upon. This I let him have.
He immediately took off his collar, cuffs and coat and hurled them
from him, took the sheepskin, went out into the middle of the street,
and lay down on the sheepskin. Naturally, in a few moments he was
surrounded by a throng of people who stared at him and watched every
movement he made. I went out and tried to get him back into the house,
but not until after much urging and parleying with him, did I succeed.
But into a room he would not come. He spread his sheep-skin upon the
floor of the hall and lay down upon it, and there he spent the night. We
offered to buy him some new clothes next day, but he would not have
them, saying, "Why should we endeavor to keep this fragile body clean
and neat, knowing that after death it will become a prey to the worms ?"

After a few days, however, he became more obedient and supple,
so that I entertained the idea of taking him with me to America. My

PERSONAL HISTOEY.

own circumstances, however, took such a turn that this was made im-
possible, but afterward I was glad to hear from him and helped him
;ome to this country.

I had some Syriac manuscripts brought with me from Persia. These
I sold in Berlin, and thus became enabled to buy tickets for myself and
Abshallom to Hanover. Here I called at the office of the American
Consul, who helped me on to Salzbergen, where I stopped at the station
depot again for three nights. I had yet some German Bibles left, and a

Jmjk

SISTER OF I. YOHANNAN AND HER BABY.

few pieces of needle-work or embroidery, and tried to sell both ; but ow-
ing to the language, of which I understood nothing, and to the fact
that the inhabitants were all Roman Catholics. I could not dispose of
anything, and we were both nearly starved. On one evening I set out
on a lonely walk and was lost in a forest through which I wandered.
I could not find my way back to the station until nearly 4 o'clock in the
morning. But while wandering on and on, trying to find the depot, I

Letter received from my brother Joseph while in prison at Dixxa, Oavar, Turkey,
stating that my message had reached him, and British and American ambassadors
had been informed and every effort was being made to secure my release, etc.

PERSONAL HISTORY.

crossed some fields, and was overjoyed when I noticed some turnips
growing in one of them. I pulled a few and ate them, and was greatly
refreshed. I did not forget, either, to take some turnips with me for
Abshallom, who had been patiently waiting for me at the depot. When
first he caught sight of me he cried for joy, for he had already given me
up for lost, thinking I had been killed by some one or devoured by wild
beasts. Upon the arrival of the first morning train, I called to the pas-
sengers leaving the train, "Is there any person who can speak English?"
Immediately a young man came to me, and upon hearing what I had to
say to him, directed me to Bentheim, where, he said, there was a society
called "Newton." After several hours walk I came to that place, but
found the people very unkind and irreligious. They said they were not
able to assist us in any manner. When I left this place tears rolled down
my cheeks, and I knew not what next to do, but thought we should
surely have to starve.

As I was walking along the street, almost despairing, I saw a book
store with some Bibles in the show window. Upon finding that the
keeper could understand some English I offered him my Bibles for sale.
He called me in, and, after learning my circumstances, said he had heard
of me before. He fed me, and gave me some eatables also for Abshal-
lom, whom I had left at the depot. Besides this he presented me with
ten marks, and another person, who was present and overheard our
conversation, handed me three marks more. This money enabled us to
go to Kampen, Netherlands, where I met my most honorable and dearly
beloved professors and friends.

At Rotterdam I called upon Mr. Ittman and some other friends,
from whom I received donations as follows : Fifteen guldens of Mr.
Ittman; twenty guldens from G. Van den Boom; twenty guldens from
J. L. Van den Boom ; ten guldens from Mr. Van den Kooi, and twenty-
five guldens from the Reformed Church at Rotterdam. These friends
also offered to purchase for me a second-class ticket to New York, but
I declined the kind offer, saying that they might better help me along
in my work.

I therefore left Rotterdam with Abshallom for New York.
The following is one of the reports of my schools since my second
arrival in this country:

Oroomiah, Persia.

Rev. Isaac Adams :

Dear Brother : In my last letter I sent you the report of the school
of Balaf, and also of Mart Maryam. Herewith I send you the report
of the other schools :

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

SCHOOL OF KARALARY— NUVIA, Teacher.

He has a nice and warm room where the children are instructed.

Class i. — They have begun with the spelling book and have com-
pleted it, and also have read the Gospel of Matthew, and are up to tne
15th chapter of Mark, and they are taught the history of the Old Testa-
ment, and have also committed to memory fifteen pages of the question
book.

Class 2. — This class also began with the spelling book and have
completed the same, and have learned the Gospel of Matthew, and also
fifteen pages in the question book. This class was brave and gave good
satisfaction in examination.

Class 3. — They arc in the spelling book up to page 10, and three
pages in the question book.

Class 4. — They are all small children, who are just beginning the
spelling book, and are taught the Lord's prayer.

The village is in great need of this school, but it is necessary for the
teacher to be faithful. There is no other school in this village, neither
is there any other Christian worker. It is a grand field for a faithful
teacher.

SCHOOL OF MOORASCHERRY— GEWERGES, Teacher.

Class 1. — They read in the New Testament in the modern Sy-
riac language, and also in Genesis in the ancient Syriac. They gave a
good showing in arithmetic, in the Lord's prayer, ten commandments
and apostle's creed. They also have had stories from the Old Testa-
ment, and have learned to write.

Class 2. — They began with the spelling book, have completed the
same, and also the Gospel of Matthew, and are now in the Gospel of
Mark.

Class 3. — They began with the spelling book, and have completed
the same, and have just started in the Gospel of Luke. _

Class 4. — There are six boys and girls just beginnners in the spelling
book.

In all the classes of this school, instruction is given in the Lord's
prayer, ten commandments and apostle's creed. In this school we have
three children of Mohammedans that is from the Sheah's sect, and also
a Soonnces, whose name is Ali. He has learned two pages from Goo-
listan, and he has newly begun on the Gospel of Matthew in the Persian
language. In this village there are forty-two houses ; eighteen are Nes-
torians and the rest are Mohammedans, and there is no other school
besides this. The teacher here we found to be very faithful. Every
evening he visits the houses and holds conversation about Christ with
the parents of the children, and he does good work in the village. There
is good testimony about him from the village. He is a worthy ard
faithful young man. We found him busy with his school. May the Lord
bless his work. It's an excellent field for labor among Musselmen and
Nestorians.

PERSONAL HISTORY.

SCHOOL OF ALKAI — K. BENYAMIN, Teacher, assisted by GE-
WERGES, Jr.

The total of pupils here at present is thirty-two; of these, fourteen
are boys and eighteen are girls. One girl died with diphtheria ; she was
II years of age. There are two others sick in bed.

Class I. — In the ancient Syriac, the Gospel of Mark and in Genesis
up to the 17th chapter. In the Turkish language, they have begun
in the Gospel of Matthew up to the 10th chapter. In Persian they have
studied three chapters in Genesis. In arithmetic, they are up to division ;
and they have a good knowledge of Bible stories, and have fine hands
for writing.

Class 2. — In the ancient Syriac, they have studied nine chapters in
the Gospel of Matthew. In the Turkish language they have studied forty- ~
three pages in the spelling book. In the modern Syriac they study in
Genesis.

Class 3. — In the ancient Syriac, with its translation into modern,
they have begun from the 1st chapter of Matthew to the 13th. In the
Turkish spelling book they are up to page 17, and have a good start in
writing sentences.

Class 4. — In the modern Syriac, they have begun from the 1st chap-
ter of Matthew and are now to the 14th chapter. In Genesis, they have
just begun in the modern Syriac.

IN THE GIRL'S DEPARTMENT.

Class 1. — They have begun with Matthew and are up to the 6th
chapter of Luke. They have studied a little in the ancient Syriac from
the beginning of Matthew. They have also learned the smaller arith-
metic, and have three pages in the spelling book of the Turkish language.
They also have penmanship.

Class 2. — The ancient Syriac began from the first of Matthew and
they are now up to the 14th chapter of Mark. They have just started
to learn to write.

Class 3. — They are all in the spelling book.

The most of the boys and girls in this school, except the 3rd class
of the girl's department, can recite the Lord's prayer and" apostle's! creed,
and some of the higher classes can also recite the ten commandments.

The teachers are very faithful and quiet and love teaching the pupils.
This school is in good order, but all the work in it, we may say, 1 is the
fruit of Kasha Benyamin, who is in great anxiety for its success, j

SCHOOL OF DARBARY— AYRAHAM, Teacher.

Class 1. — Study the New Testament up to the Gospel of John, and
the Old Testament up to Exodus ; arithmetic up to subtraction ; spelling
up to writing of sentences.

Class 2. — Fourteen boys and girls are in this class. They are all
in" the spelling book, and instructions are given to them in Bible stories,

PERSONAL HISTORY.

and they are taught the Lord's prayer, ten commandments and apostle's
creed. Karram, a Mohammedan, has studied five chapters in Goolistan,
and two chapters in Tarrusel, and seven chapters from the Gospel of
Matthew in the Persian language. In the Syriac language, he is in the
speller.

The teacher does the house to house visitations every evening and
people are glad to receive him and listen to the Gospel stories. We have
had good testimony for him from the inhabitants of the village, and they
are all pleased with his work and manner of conduct. There is no other
school building here besides ours. The school is not very comfortable
as the roof is quite low.

SCHOOL OF KARASANLOVI, ASYAD, Teacher.

Class i. — Completed the Gospel of Matthew and Mark, and are now
to the 14th chapter of Luke. And in the Turkish language they have
studied fifteen pages in the speller, writing of words and sentences.

Class 2. — Up to the 12th chapter of Mark. Catechetical instruc-
tions — that is, Bible stories, ten commandments, Lord's prayer, etc.,
are given to this and all the other classes.

Class 3. — Completed the speller, and studied thirteen pages in the
book called Deaf and Dumb. They will soon begin with the Gospel of
Matthew.

Class 4. — They have started the speller and have gone to the 21st
page. Lord's prayer they have committed to memory.

Class 5. — There are thirteen boys and girls and all are beginners.
I can most heartily speak a good word for Teacher Asyad, for her care
and earnestness in teaching these little ones the fear of the Lord and the
spiritual catachism. The subject which they study she causes them
to understand. Her aim is not only to put the truth in the heads of her
pupils, but also in the heart, and she does not hesitate to teach the
stories in the Bible.

This is the only school in Karasanlovi.

SCHOOL OF BORASHAN, AGASY, Teacher.

Class 1. — In the ancient Syriac, they began from the Gospel of
Matthew and are up to the 24th chapter, with the translation in the
modern Syriac. And reading from the different parts of the Testament.
Have completed the smaller arithmetic and started the larger one.

Class 2. — Have studied twenty-seven chapters in the Gospel of
Matthew, in the modern Syriac, and two chapters in the ancient Syriac,
and smaller arithmetic.

Class 3. — Began with the speller and completed the same, and have
also studied six chapters in Mark.

Class 4. — Started the beginning of speller and have completed the
same ; have studied three chapters of Mark.

Class 5. — There are nine boys and girls. They are all in the speller.

All the classes in this school, except the 4th and 5th, can recite the

PERSONAL HISTORY

Lord's prayer, ten commandments and the apostle's creed, while the
two classes can recite the Lord's prayer only.
This is the only school in this village.

SCHOOL OF ERIAVA, K. PATROUS, Teacher.

This school had thirty-two pupils, but, because a missionary came
to the village and gave alms to the poor, eight children went away to
get alms. There are two other schools besides our own here, — one of the
Roman Catholics, and one of the Presbyterians ; but the number of
pupils in our school exceeds both of the others. I suppose the children
who went to the other school to get alms will soon come back, that is,
after the alms-giving is suspended.

Class i. — The New Testament in the ancient Syriac has been studied
with translation into that of modern. The larger arithmetic, up to
subtraction. In the speller, up to writing words and sentences, and
catechetical instruction.

Class 2. — Modern Syriac, first three Gospels, smaller arithmetic
and writing.

Class 3. — Modern Syriac, begun from the first part of Matthew up to
12th chapter; previously they repeated the speller.

Class 4. — Began the speller and have completed it and started from
the Gospel of Luke.

Class 5. — They are all small children and are just beginners.

SCHOOL OF SANGAR, AB SHALOM, Teacher.

Class 1. — Have studied Genesis, with the translation from the an-
cient to modern Syriac. Have completed the question books. Have
studied arithmetic to subtraction, and from the Gospel they have studied
ten chapters in Matthew and seventeen in Mark.

Class 2. — They have studied six chapters of Genesis, with the trans-
lation from the ancient to the modern Syriac. They are nearly through
with the question book. They have studied arithmetic to subtraction.
They have started with the Gospel of Matthew.

Class 3. — They have studied fifteen chapters in the Gospel of Luke,
with translations from ancient to modern Syriac, and five chapters in
Genesis, in the modern Syriac language.- All these classes have also
writing, and are able to repeat the Lord's prayer and ten command-
ments, and also have learned many passages out of the Scriptures.

Class 4. — There are eight boys and girls in this class and all are just
beginners. They have just begun with the speller.

SCHOOL OF KOOM", ABRAHAM, Teacher.

Class 1. — Completed the speller and started in the Gospel of Matt-
hew. They are up to the Gospel of Luke ; of course, they simply give
a repetition to the speller ; small arithmetic.

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

Class 2. — They have just completed the speller, expect them to
begin with the Gospel soon.

Class 3. — They are advanced in the speller.

Class 4. — They are all beginners. Instruction in Bible stories, the
Lord's prayer, ten commandments, and apostle's creed is given in this
school. There are no other schools besides ours in this village. All
the schools (eleven) begin between 8 and 9 o'clock in the morning.

First, after all pupils are present, leaving their shoes in the hall
while keeping on their hats, the teachers read a portion of the Scriptures,
after which he puts simple questions to the pupils concerning what he
has read ; then he opens with prayer. Then he starts from the first class,
and so forth, listening to their recitations. The teacher is sitting in the
center of the room, and when the class comes to recite, they form a
circle around him, while the other pupils are sitting against the walls
of the room, yet the pupils are allowed to ask questions at any time.
The -school is closed with one of the pupils reciting the Lord's prayer ;
that is about 12 o'clock. School starts again at 1 o'clock and closes
at 5 o'clock. The last hour, between 4 and 5 o'clock, is given entirely
to Bible instructions.

Most of our schools meet on Sunday with the teachers, in like
manner, for religious purposes. The pupils who are in advance will re-
cite seven verses, anywhere out of the Bible, and the others will recite
one, and some just one sentence, as ''God is love."

As has been stated previously, the teacher visits the homes and the
parents of the children and tries to increase the attendance in the school,
and speaks to the parents about the Gospel.

The field is great and the laborers are few, but let it be known to
you that the work is progressing nicely and the prospects grow brighter
every day. We may expect a great work in the future. We hope every-
thing will be written to you fully, that you may know that the efforts
of our friends have not been in vain. May the dear Lord reward them
in His kingdom above. Amen. Yours truly,

KASHA OSHANA.
ESHAKAN,

Examiners.

This is a literal translation of the report I have received. I believe
this is a statement which will make the hearts of those who have helped
in my work, with their small and great donation, rejoice in the Lord
with thankfulness; that through these gifts there had been planted
eleven schools, children and youths are being taught not only educa-
tion and civilization ; but the secret knowledge of our blessed Redeemer,
who loved such as these, and who said, "As much as you do unto these
little ones, ye do unto me."

Surely, we may say that the Lord reigneth, and who knows but out

PERSONAL HISTORY.

of this humble work we may see a great opening for the proclamation of
the Gospel in my country.

I deemed it necessary to send my brother Abraham to care for this
work during my absence, and he, therefore, left New York October,

The following is a letter from my brother Abraham, received
lately :

Mart-Maryan,*

Oroomiah, Persia.

Dear Brother : I have just returned from Karasanlovi, whereas,
I was yesterday in Alkai. I am glad that I can give you a good report
concerning the schools. I found also that the ignorance and superstition
of the people is almost without description. The men say, woman has
no part in the resurrection, and the women themselves have no knowl-
edge of future life ; but to their great surprise they have heard and hear
about God's love to them, and the story of the cross seems so wonder-
ful to them that they cannot believe it, especially that He should care
for them and be their Savior.

At first there was some prejudice as to the school and the work,
but now many come to hear and ask about that wonderful Savior.

Some people, more especially the older ones, have a great idea that
heaven is to be merited by strict observance of the fastings, especially
at this time, as fifty days are observed before Easter. But, as you know,
they abstain from meat and oily substances, but they do not cease to
swear and do other wicked things. However, thanks be to God, that the
power of the holy life of Christ is seen in the respect now shown them,
and in the increasing readiness to hear them again and again.

At 9 o'clock the examination commenced in the schoolroom, which
was crowded by the parents and people of the village.

The pupils occupied the middle of the room. The studies in which
they were examined were modern and ancient Syriac, Persian and Turk-

*Two wards of Oroomiah city are inhabited by Christians. One is
known by the name of Gol patali-Khan ; here live the Armenians, and
among them is the French mission headquarters ; the! other is inhabited
by the Assyrians or Nestorians. American and English mission workers
have their headquarters here. This part is known by the name of Mart-
Maryan. The name is taken from the church erected here in the honor
of the Virgin Mary. The 'tradition as to the erection of a church here
is, that a priest, while asleep, dreamt that a woman appeared to him.
He asked her name. She answered: "I am Mary, mother of Jesus;
thou shalt build a church here in my name, and let all mothers, who may
lack milk to ; nourish their children, come to my shrine, and I will make
their supply plentiful." So the women, of all religions, from distant parts
of the country, will come with wax candles, sheep and dove sacrifices,
and also with the incense, to seek her blessing.

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

ish languages, geography, spelling, arithmetic, Bible history, reading
and writing. But what pleased me most was the recitations of the differ-
ent verses and passages of Scripture, one child reciting a whole chapter.
And in all the work the pupils did credit both to themselves and their
teacher. The singing especially pleased the parents, many of whom
loudly expressed their astonishment, especially at seeing that the girls
as well as the boys could be educated.

The teacher not only taught them to pray, but also to love Jesus;
and she is in the habit of praying with different pupils, alone, each day,
and the school also is opened and closed with prayer. The teacher has
also done much to interest the parents in religion.

In short, I can say that the good seed is being sown, and hope the
Lord will bless the work and will strengthen the teachers to do still more
for the Master.

My brother, do all you can, through the help of God, to spread the
Gospel of our dear Lord to these ignorant and superstitious people.
I assure you that your struggles have not been in vain.

I am, your brother,

ABRAHAM ADAMS.

PART II.

PERSIA, ITS MANNERS, CUSTOMS, HABITS AND
SOCIAL LIFE.

HISTORY OF PERSIA.

Persia is .called Iran by the natives. It extends nine hundred miles
west and east and seven hundred miles north and south. The present
boundaries are: The Caspian Sea and the Transcaucasian provinces of
Russia on the north; Bokhara, Afghanistan and Boloochistan on the
east ; the Straits of Ormuz and the Persian Gulf on the south ; Asiatic
Turkey on the west. It has an area of 648,000 square miles.

Many nations of whom we read in the Bible and in history have
lived or had their representatives in Persia, but only one of these is in
existence at the present time. We know of Egyptians, Assyrians, Baby-
lonians, Greeks and Romans as having once been prevailing powers,
mighty empires of the world ; but they have either vanished from the
face of the earth or their power and glory has faded away and they have
dwindled into insignificant provinces of other empires and kingdoms.
Persia has held its own ; it still occupies the same position it did cen-
turies ago.

It is also remarkable as a Bible-land. By many Persia is claimed
as the region where the Garden of Eden was situated; where Abraham

Irs

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

was born ; where Daniel prophesied. It was under the rule of Cyrus the
Great, and the home of the wise men who were the first representatives
of the gentiles who came to worship the infant born Christ.* When
Assyria led the Jews captive to Babylon, it was Persia who humbled
her power and vanity and restored Judah to her native land, to rebuild
the house of the Lord.

Her glory, today, has flown away and her splendor has faded, but
her physical beauty still remains. Persia is a paradise, intoxicating peo-
ple with the fragrance of its roses. It is a garden, wreathing the faces
of mankind into smiles by its beautiful streams.

The national emblem of the empire is the lion and the sun, which
accounts for the fact that it is occasionally called the land of the lion
and the sun.

Persia was added to the first Assyrian Empire by Minus about 2050
years B. C. It appears again in its independent state 1937 B. C, under
Chedorlaomer.

He allied himself with three other kings and conquered the kings
of Sodom and Gomorrah and three other kings of that region and made
them pay him tribute. After twelve years of servitude these kings re-
belled. Chedorlaomer came again and gained a great victory and carried
off a rich booty. Even Lot, who dwelt in that region was carried off.
Abraham with his 318 trained servants and some confederates fell upon
, Chedorlaomer by night and surprised him and rescued the captives.
Loses its identity again as a kingdom 1661 B. C, in the Assyrian Em-
pire. The great Assyrian monarchs conquered the northwestern part of
Persia, which was inhabited by the Medes, a sister people to the Persians.
They also extended their conquests to the westward and conquered
Syria and Samaria. They carried off the "Ten Tribes of Israel" into
captivity and settled them in the land of the Medes, the regions about
, Lake Oroomiah, and no doubt the descendants of the "Lost Tribes"
dwell in that part of Persia to this day.

Appears again with Media in the revolt of Media and Persia under
Deioces, 709 B. C.

Under King Cyaxares, the Medes threw off the Assyrian yoke, and
allying themselves with Nabopolasser, the father of the great Nebuched-
nezzar, they captured and destroyed Nineveh in the year 606 B. C.
They then extended their conquests westward into Asia Minor. Many

*According to tradition the tomb of one of the three wise men is
located near my home, and a church is erected at Mart-Maryan in his
honor.

Manners, customs, habits and social Life.

•9

fierce wars were fought between the Medes and the Lydians. During
one of these battles the sun was suddenly eclipsed and turned the day
•into a dark night. This so terrified the terrified combatants that both
parties were eager to conclude peaces The river Halys in Armenia was
made the boundary line and the peace was cemented by a marriage be-
tween the daughter of a Lydian king and Astyages, the son of King
Cyaxares. This Cyaxares had some years before given his daughter
Amytis in marriage to Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon. Upon the
death of Cyaxares his son Astyages succeeded to the throne of Media,
and about the same time the celebrated Croesus succeeded to the Lydian
throne. Thus the three great monarchs of that day, Nebuchadnezzar,
Astyages and Croesus were brothers-in-jaw and formed a sort of triple
alliance against the rising power of Persia. Is included in the kingdom
of Media. Cyrus the great, in 559 B. C, gives it prominence as the
foundation of the Great Persian Empire, which lasted 229 years.

The great Nebuchadnezzar, who had carried the Jews into captivity,
had now been dead over twenty years. Upon his throne sat a man of
different family named Nabonadius, who associated with him in the
kingdom his son, Belshazzar. Nabonadius, it appears, was out on the
open plains fighting Cyrus, while Belshazzar was left in the strong walled
city of Babylon, "And Belshazzar the king made a great feast to a
thousand of his lords, and drank wine before the thousand. Belshazzar,
while he tasted the wine, commanded to bring the golden and silver
vessels which his father, Nebuchadnezzar, had taken out of the temple,
which was in Jerusalem ; that the king and his princes, his wives and
his concubines might drink therein. Then they brought the golden ves-
sels that were taken out of the house of God, which was in Jerusalem,
and the king and princes, his wives and his concubines drank in them.
They drank wine and praised the gods of gold and of silver, of brass,
of iron, of wood and of stone." But in the midst of this wicked revelry,
the king beheld with terror a hand writing upon the wall. "Mene, Mene,
Tekel, Upharsin," were the words written. These were interpreted by
captive Daniel to mean "God hath numbered thy kingdom and finished
it. Thou art weighed in the balances, and art found wanting. Thy king-
dom is divided and given to the Medes and Persians." "In that night
was Belshazzar the king of the Chaldeans slain."

THE PROCLAMATION OF CYRUS.

Cyrus was not an idolater. The Persians were Zoroastrians and be-
lieved in one God, the Creator of heaven and earth. Cyrus found among

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

the various tribes of Babylon a peculiar people who likewise were not
idolaters. Upon inquiring he learned their history, and moved by the
Lord he issued the following proclamation :

"Thus sayeth Cyrus, King of Persia; the Lord God of Heaven
hath given me all the kingdoms of the earth ; and He hath charged me to
build him a house in Jerusalem, which is in Judah.

"Who is there among you of all His people? his God be with him,
and let him go up to Jerusalem, which is in Judah, and build the house
of the Lord God of Israel, (He is the God) which is in Jerusalem.

"And whosoever remaineth in any place where he sojourneth, let
the men of his place help him with silver and with gold and witli goods,
and with beasts, besides the free-will offering for the house of God that is
in Jerusalem."

Thus, by the order of Cyrus the Great, were the Jews after their
long captivity allowed to return to their land and to rebuild their temple.
Later kings confirmed this order and also gave orders for rebuilding
the city walls. The Jews then remained subject to the Persian Kings
until the Persian Empire fell under Alexander the Great two hundred
years later.

DEATH OF CYRUS.

The latter part of the life of Cyrus is wrapped in obscurity, and the
manner of his death is not known, but Herodotus tells us that the follow-
ing story is most worthy of credit : Having decided to make war upon
the Massagetae, a fierce tribe that dwelt on the north of Persia, he
marched against them with a large army. The Massagetae had no
king, but were ruled by a queen named Tomyris, a woman of great cour-
age and might, and' cunning and wise exceedingly.

During the night before the great battle, Cyrus had a dream in
which he saw his cousin, Darius, the son of Hystaspcs, with two im-
mense wings upon his shoulders. With the one wing he overshadowed
Asia, and with the other, Europe. At first Cyrus was inclined to suspect
that his cousin was plotting against him, but he was warned that he was
approaching his end and that Darius should be king of Persia.

In the great battle that followed Cyrus was slain, and Queen
Tomyris ordered his head to be severed from his body, and throwing
it into a skin filled with blood, she told him to drink his fill now of what
he had so thirsted during his lifetime. Re this story true or not, the

MANNERS, customs, sAbits And social LlM si

body of Cyrus was taken to Pasargadae and there buried in sacred ground
and his tomb may be seen to this day.

CAMBYSES.

Cyrus was succeeded by his oldest son, Cambyses, who added Egypt
to the kingdom of Persia. We are told that he sent to the Pharoah of
Egypt and asked him for his daughter in marriage. The Pharoah, not
daring to disappoint so powerful a monarch, and at the same time un-
willing to send his only and beloved daughter to a strange land and a
strange people, hit upon the dangerous expedient of sending a beautiful
girl of royal blood, but not his daughter. The deception was discovered
by Cambyses and he invaded and conquered Egypt in consequence.

If we are to believe Herodotus, Cambyses acted like a mad man
while down in Egypt. But Herodotus had all his information from the
Egyptian priests, who, of course, hated the Persians, and made out a
bad story. Having heard of the Long Lived Ethiopians, v. ho dwelt to
the south of Egypt, he desired to conquer their country too. He ac-
I cordingly sent spies into their country with presents to the king. These
spies having arrived in that country and delivered the king's presents,
they addressed the king as follows : "Cambyses, King of Persia, de-
sirous of becoming your friend and ally, has sent us, bidding us confer
with you, and he presents you with these presents which are such as he
I himself most delights in." But the Ethiopians, knowing that they came
as spies, replied : "The King of Persia has not sent you with these pres-
ents to me because he values my friendship, and you do not speak the
truth, for you have come here as spies. Neither is your king a just man,
for if he were, he would not desire any other territory than his own, nor
would he reduce people into servitude who have done him no harm.
However, give him this bow, and say these words to him : 'The King
of the Ethiopians advises the King of the Persians, when the Persians
can thus easily draw a bow of this size, then to make war upon the Long
Lived Ethiopians with more numerous forces; but until that time, let
him thank the gods, who have not inspired the sons of the Ethiopians
with a desire of adding another land to their own.' "

The Ethiopians were a very strong and powerful race of men, re-
puted to have lived to the age of one hundred and twenty years. The
bow very few Persians were able to draw at all.

When Cambyses heard the reply from the king of the Ethiopians,
he was filled with rage, and rash and impulsive as he was, he ordered
his army to be set in motion at once, without waiting to make the neces-

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

sary preparations. It was not long before all the supplies gave out. The
country through which they passed was a desert and starvation or a
retracing of their steps were the only alternatives.

The king finally ordered a retreat. When he reached Egypt again,
he found all the people rejoicing on every hand. The priests had an-
nounced that their god, Osiris, had appeared among them — a calf had
been found bearing the marks of the god upon it, the incarnation of the
god — hence the rejoicing. Cambyses was in a bad mood and took it into
his head they were rejoicing over his misfortune. He was told of the
cause of their joy. He demanded to see the god. When the priests
brought Apis, the calf-god, into the presence of the king, Cambyses drew
his dagger and stabbed the calf in the thigh so that it died. Then,
bursting into a fit of laughter, he said "Ye blockheads, are there such
gods as these, consisting of flesh and blood, and sensible of steel? This,
truly, is a god worthy of the Egyptians." Shortly after this, Cambyses
was informed that a usurper, who pretended to be his brother Smerdis,
had ascended the throne of Persia. Now Cambyses had out of jealousy
and fear, put his brother Smerdis to death. The usurper was a magician
priest who had assumed the scepter, established the magician fire-wor-
ship, and even issued an order stopping the building of the temple at
Jerusalem. Cambyses immediately set out for home. On mounting
his horse one day he accidentally stabbed himself in the thigh. The wound
was more serious than he supposed. Mortification set in. His physi-
cians told him that he would die. But he steadily refused to believe it,
for he said it had been told him by an astrologer that his death would
occur at Ecbatana. He had, therefore, studiously avoided going to Ecba-
tana, the capital of Media. He firmly believed in the prediction. After
a few days, however, he was unable to go any further. He was com-
pelled to halt in a little village in Syria. He asked where they were and
was told that the village was named Ecbatana in Syria. He now saw
the fulfillment of the prediction and knew that he must die. He con-
fessed the murder of his brother and charged his officers to put down the
usurper and restore the government to the royal family. The Egyptian
priests believed that the untimely death of Cambyses was a punishment
for the sacrilege he had committed against their god Osiris, and pointed
to the manner of his death as an evidence — a wound in the thigh.

DARIUS HYSTASPES.

Darius Hystaspes put down the imposter, restored order and the
Zoroasterian religion, gave orders to resume the works on the temple

MANNERS, CUSTOMS, HABITS AND SOCIAL LIFE.

oi Jerusalem, and reorganized the empire. He then entered upon a Eu-
ropean campaign. Having collected a large army he crossed the Helles-
pont into Europe. He built a bridge across the lower Danube and crossed
over into what is now southern Russia. He was making war upon the
Scythian hordes. They had sent all the;r women and children and the
greater part of their herds and flocks northward for safety. As Darius
advanced they moved forward, never stopping to give him battle, always
moving from place to place, and Darius pursuing from day to day.
Finally Darius lost all patience and sent them word if they were men
they should halt and give battle. The chief of the Scythians replied that
they were not fleeing before Darius. They were doing now as they al-
ways do, moving from place to place. If Darius desired to follow them
as he was doing they had no objection to it. As to fighting, they had
nothing to fight for, except the tombs of their ancestors. Come and
find them and then see if the Scythians can fight.

After some time Darius had spent his supplies and was in a great
strait. The Scythians, hearing of the situation, sent a herald to Darius
bearing as gifts a bird, a frog, a mouse and five arrows. These he de-
livered to Darius, with the remark that if the Persians were wise they
would discover the meaning of the gifts.

The Persians consulted together. Darius was of the opinion that the
Scythians meant to surrender to him — the mouse meaning the land, the
frog the water, the bird the air, and the arrows the arms. All this the
Scythians would deliver to Darius. But Gobryas, one of the seven fore-
most princes of Persia, gave it as his opinion that the Scythians would
say to the Persians "Unless you fly away through the air like a bird,
or hide in the earth like a mouse, or dive into the lakes like a frog, we
will shoot you to death with our arrows." His opinion prevailed among
the Persian chiefs.

Darius then decided to return. Now he had given orders to the
Greeks, who kept the bridge, to destroy the bridge if they saw fit to do
so, if he were not back in sixty days. The time was up and he had not
returned. If the Greeks should have destroyed the bridge he would
be at the mercy of the Scythians, who hotly pursued him. To his great
joy he found that the bridge had been preserved. He thus succeeded
in making his retreat without loss or disaster.

THE IONIAN REVOLT.

Shortly after the Scythian campaign the Greek cities of Asia Minor
with Miletus in the lead revolted from Darius. The Greek States of the.

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

Continent of Europe failed to send aid to their struggling kinsmen, with
the exception of Athens and a little city of Euboea. The struggle began
with the burning of the Persian capital of Asia Minor, Sardis, and ended
with the burning of Miletus. The Greek cities were all reduced under
Persia again. After the revolt was put down the king inquired as to
who the Athenians were and when told they were only a little city State
he was greatly enraged that so small a State should presume to interfere
with his subjects. He appointed an officer whose duty it should be to
arise at each meal and exclaim "O King, remember the Athenians."

The king made preparations for punishing the insolent Athenians
and to reduce all the Greek States. He sent heralds to Macedonia and
the Greek cities demanding earth and water as tokens of submission.
Macedonia and the Greek cities gave the earth and the water except
Athens and Sparta. The Athenians cast the heralds into a pit and the
Spartans in the true Spartan fashion cast the heralds, who demanded
the earth and water, into a well and told them to help themselves.

XERXES.

Darius sent two expeditions 1 against Greece, both of which proved
miserable failures. Before he could prepare for a third expedition, he
died and was succeeded by his son Xerxes. Xerxes was at first inclined to
abandon his father's plan of conquering Greece, but was finally prevailed
upon to take up this work. He ordered every province of his mighty
empire to furnish supplies in men and equipments, from Egypt in the
west to India in the east, and from the mountains of Armenia and
Kurdistan to the Arabian desert and the Indian Ocean. Several years
were spent in these mighty preparations. In the spring of 480 all the
contingents were to meet in the western part of Asia Minor and prepare
for the passage into Europe. Perhaps there never was so great an army
or concourse of people under one command before or since in the whole
history of the world. Some have estimated that there were in all men,
women, children, soldiers, sailors, servants, as many as five millions.
These figures are of course exaggerated. Each nation had its own
peculiar uniform and weapons of warfare. Xerxes had employed skill-
ful architects to connect the two shores of the Hellespont by a bridge.
But no sooner was the work finished than a storm arose and shattered
the whole work. When Xerxes heard of this he was exceedingly indig-
nant and commanded that the sea should be stricken with three hundred
lashes with a scourge, and that a pair of fetters should be let down into
the sea. He is also said to have sent some instruments to brand the

MANNERS, CUSTOMS, HABITS AND SOCIAL LIFE.

sea. He charged those who flogged the waters to exclaim to the sea,
"Thou bitter water, thy master inflicts this punishment upon thee, be-
cause thou hast injured him. The king will cross over thee whether
thou will or not. It is with justice that no man sacrifices to thee for
thou art both a deceitful and briny sea." He also ordered the heads of
the architects and builders to be struck off. Other engineers were then
employed to bridge the strait the second time.

THE CROSSING OF THE HELLESPONT.

Xerxes had ordered a lofty throne of white marble to be erected at
Abydos, which he ascended to view his immense army and fleet before
crossing over into Europe. As he stood there surveying the countless
hosts, stretching as far as his eyes could reach, and then on the other
hand the immense fleet covering the bosom of the sea, his eyes sparkled
with pride and satisfaction. Suddenly he looked over the strait into
Europe and his eyes filled with tears. His uncle, Artabanus, who stood
near him, asked the meaning of this sudden change of feeling, and the
king replied : "When I saw this mighty armament and all these thou-
sands and thousands of people all subject to my smallest wish, I was
filled with exultation, but when I looked over to the other side of the
strait and reflected how short this glory lasts and that in one hundred
years not one of these shall be living, my heart was filled with pain and
sorrow and my eyes with tears."

They now made preparations for the passage. The next morning,
as the sun rose, they burnt all manner of perfumes and strewed the road
with myrtle branches. Xerxes poured a libation from a golden cup into
the sea and offered up a prayer that no accidents might attend him and
prevent him from subduing Europe. He then threw the golden cup and
a golden bowl and a sword into the sea, perhaps as a peace offering, hav-
ing repented that he had cursed and scourged the sea before.

When these ceremonies were performed, the passage across the
bridge began. This passage lasted seven days and seven nights. Xerxes
is said to have crossed over last of all.

AT THERMOPYLAE.

The forces collected by the Greeks to oppose this immense horde
were inexcusably small. A mere handful of men under the heroic Leon-
idas of Sparta were stationed at the pass of Thermopylae. When the
intrepid Leonidas was told of the countless numbers of the enemy and
that their arrows would fly so thick as to obscure the sun, he replied:

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

"So much the better, we can then fight in the shade." When Xerxes heard
that a few hundred or thousand men were stationed in the pass to op-
pose his passage, he regarded them as madmen who would come to their
senses when they beheld the immense hosts of the enemy. He sent
orders to Leonidas to deliver up his arms. Leonidas, in Spartan style,
replied : "Come and take them."

Xerxes ordered a chosen body of Medes to advance against the pre-
sumptuous foes and bring them into his presence. The Medes fought
bravely, but to no purpose. After the battle had lasted several hours,
resulting in heavy losses to the Persians, Xerxes sent out his ten thou-
sand "Immortals." But they were no more successful than the Medes.
Xerxes is said to have leaped three times from his seat on a lofty throne
when he beheld the repulse of his troops and especially of his "Im-
mortals."

The attack was renewed the next day, but with no better success.
The king was beginning to despair of success when a treacherous Greek
pointed out to the Persians a secret path across the mountains. Most
of the Greeks now abandoned their posts, but the devoted Spartans, who
must never desert a post, and a few of the others, remained and were
cut down to a man. A monument was raised to them, bearing the in-
scription :

"Go stranger., and to Lacedaemon tell
That here, obedient to her laws, we fell."

RETURN OF XERXES.

Athens was soon laid in ashes, and thus the wrongs done Darius
were avenged, but in the great naval battle of Salamis, the greater part
of the great Persian fleet was annihilated and Xerxes in great fear fled
precipitately from Greece across the Hellespont into Asia, leaving to his
general, Mardonius, the task of reducing the rest of the Greeks.

In the great battle of Plataea the following year the rest of the
Persian army was defeated and utterly routed, and thus ended the great
expedition of Xerxes, which had cost so much treasure and so many
lives. Xerxes returned to his palace and never again attempted an ex-
pedition against the Greeks. He spent the rest of his life in luxury and
idleness. He is, in all probability, the Ahasuerus of the Bible, as that
is the Hebrew name corresponding to the Greek Xerxes. His character
seems to accord well with that of Ahasuerus.

MANNERS, CUSTOMS, HABITS AND SOCIAL LIFE.

DARIUS AND ALEXANDER.

The last of the kings of the old Persian Empire was Darius Coda-
manus. He was one of the best and at the same time one of the most un-
fortunate of Persian kings. He had the misfortune of being a contem-
porary of Alexander the Great. For under that great leader, Europe
was to return the visit that Asia had made to her under Darius and
Xerxes nearly two centuries before.

What a contrast between the crossing of the Hellespont by Xerxes
and Alexander the Great ; and what a contrast between the results of the
two crossings. Alexander crossed with only a few thousand cavalry
and thirty-five thousand foot soldiers. He quickly reduced all Asia Minor
and then met and utterly routed Darius in the celebrated battle of Issus
(333 B. C). Darius fled, leaving his mother, his wife, two daughters, and
a little son as captives in the hands of Alexander.

That evening, as Alexander was dining with his friends, a loud cry,
a lamentation was heard from the tent of the captive queens and
princesses. Upon inquiry Alexander learned that the captives had received
the royal mantle which Darius had thrown off in his hurried flight, and
supposing that the king had been slain, they gave expression to their
great sorrow and distress. Alexander sent them the comforting assur-
ance that Darius had escaped unhurt, and the following day, in com-
pany with his most intimate friend, Hephaestion, he made a visit to the
royal captives. Sysigambis, the mother of Darius, arose and bowed
herself before Hephaestion, thinking he was Alexander as he was taller
and looked more like a king than Alexander. Being informed of her
mistake, she feared greatly, thinking that she had mortally offended
the king, and tried to atone for her error. But Alexander comforted her,
saying: "My good mother, you were not mistaken, for Hephaestion is
also an Alexander." He then told the queen-mother that she could
select as many of the noble Persian dead as she desired and have them
buried in Persian style at his expense. The good woman could not find
words to express her surprise at his magnanimity nor her gratitude for
his kindness. She availed herself of his offer very sparingly, for she did
not wisli to impose upon his liberality.

ALEXANDER IN JERUSALEM.

While Alexander was besieging Tyre he sent to the Samaritans
and the Jews demanding them to surrender to him and to send him
supplies. The Samaritans complied with this order, but the Jews replied
that they had taken an oath of fealty to the Persian king and would

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

remain faithful to their oath. After the fall of Tyre, Alexander >et out
for Jerusalem to punish the insolence of the Jews, as thoroughly as he
had punished the Tyrians.

In this imminent danger, Jaddus, the high priest, sought the Lord,
and gave orders for the offering up of public prayers for safety and pro-
tection. In the night he was directed in a vision to strew the city with
flowers, to set open all the gates, and go clothed in his pontificial robes,
with all the priests dressed in their vestments, and all the people clothed
in white to meet Alexander. This direction was punctually obeyed.

The neighboring peoples expected that the wrath of Alexander was
so great that he would certainly punish the insolent high-priest and
destroy the city of Jerusalem as he had done with Tyre. Flushed with
joy on that account, they waited in expectation of feasting their eyes
upon the calamity of a people to whom they bore a mortal hatred.

When the Jews heard of the approach of Alexander, they marched
out in solemn procession to meet him, led by their high-priest. As
Alexander approached, he was struck with the appearance of the high-
priest, on whose mitre and forehead a golden plate was fixed, bearing
the name of God upon it. As soon as the king saw the high-priest he
advanced to meet him with every mark of respect, bowed his body, and
adored the God whose name he saw, and saluted him who wore it with
religious veneration. The Jews surrounded Alexander, raised their
voices into a great shout and wished him every kind of prosperity. All
spectators were seized with inexpressible surprise. Parmenio recovered
himself from the astonishment and asked why he, whom everybody
adored should adore the high-priest of the Jews. But Alexander re-
plied : "I do not adore the high-priest, but the God whose minister he
is ; for while I was at Dia, in Macedonia, my mind wholly fixed upon
the designs of the Persian war, as I was reflecting upon the means of
conquering Asia, this very man, dressed in the same robes, appeared
to me in a dream, exhorted me to banish every fear, bid me cross the
Hellespont boldly, and assured me that God would march at the head
of my army and give me the victory over that of the Persians."

Josephus adds that the high-priest conducted the king into Jeru-
salem and showed him the book of Daniel and the prophecy in which
Daniel declares that a Greek should destroy the empire of the Persians.
Alexander was greatly pleased, and on the following day bade the Jews
ask what favors they pleased of him. The high-priest desired that they
might enjoy the laws of their fathers, and might pay no tribute on the
seventh year. He granted them all they desired. He also granted the
same privileges to the Jews in Babylon and Media-

MANNERS, CUSTOMS, HABITS AND SOCIAL LIFE.

THE DEATH OF DARIUS' WIFE.

After Alexander had conquered Egypt and set out upon his march
for new conquests in Persia, news was brought him that the wife of
Darius had died. He went at once to the tent of mourning. He found
! the queen-mother and the two young daughters bathed in tears. He
consoled them in so kind and gentle a manner as to show that he himself
was deeply afflicted. He caused the funeral obsequies to be performed
with the -utmost splendor.

The news of this death was carried to Darius by a eunuch, who
succeeded in making his escape. Darius was deeply afflicted by this
sad news, and especially as the queen could not receive the funeral rites
befitting her rank. But when he was informed that the funeral had been
performed with all possible magnificence, and when he learned of all the
kindness of Alexander, he is said to have lifted his hands to heaven and
offered the following prayer : "Ye gods, who preside over the birth of
men and who dispose of kings and empires, grant that, after having
raised the fortunes of Persia from its dejected state, I may transmit it to
my descendants with the same lustre in which I received it, in order that,
after having triumphed over my enemies, I may acknowledge the favors
which Alexander has shown in my calamity to persons who are most
dear to me; or, if the time ordained by the fates has at last come, or
it must necessarily happen, from the anger of the gods, or the ordinary
vicissitudes of human affairs, that the Empire of Persia must end ; grant
that none but Alexander may ascend the throne of Cyrus."

THE DEATH OF DARIUS.

Another great battle followed on the plains of Arbela, east of the
Tigeis. Darius was again put to rout and fled with a part of his army
into the eastern provinces of Persia. Alexander marched down into
the heart of old Persia and left his captives at Susa, their old home, where
they were no longer captives.

After organizing the government and appointing governors, he
once more set out in pursuit of Darius. By this time, Darius was him-
self a captive in the hands of one of his generals who had rebelled against
bim. Bessus, the traitor general, was pursued by Alexander into Hyr-
cania. Here Darius refused to follow any further. He would rather
fall into the hands of Alexander. He was accordingly dispatched by the
traitors and left covered with wounds.

A Macedonian soldier coming up, found the dying king, who had
still strength enough to ask for water. It was at once brought him.

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

Somewhat revived by the drink, he was able to speak. He felt happy
to know there was some one near him who could understand him and
receive his dying words. He died in Alexander's debt, and sent him
a multitude of thanks for all the kindness he had shown his mother, his
wife and children, whose lives he had not only spared, but restored to
their former splendor. He prayed that Alexander might be victorious
and become the monarch of the whole world. "Give him thy hand," he
said to the Macedonian, "as I give thee mine, and carry him in my name
the only pledge I am able to give of my gratitude and affection." Hav-
ing said this he breathed his last.

Alexander came up a few minutes afterwards, and seeing the pros-
trate body of the king, he shed generous tears over his fallen foe. He
ordered the body to be embalmed and sent it to Sysigambis in order that
it might be interred with the honors due to deceased kings of Persia,
and be entombed with his ancestors.

ALEXANDER AT BABYLON.

After his conquest of all the eastern lands up to and including
northwestern India, Alexander came to Babylon and established his
capital there. He married the daughter of Darius and encouraged in
every way the fusion of the Greeks and the Persians.

But in the midst of his busy life, in the midst of his improvements,
and new plans for conquest, he suddenly died, at the early age of thirty-
three and his kingdom was soon divided. The eastern half, including
Persia proper, soon fell under the Parthians who ruled it until the third
century of our era.

CHOSROES II.

The new Persian Empire was established by Ardashir, or Arta-
xerxes, who claimed to be a descendant of the ancient royal family of
Persia. It was against these princes of the Sassanidae dynasty that the
old emperors of Rome and Constantinople were constantly warring.
The most celebrated of these rulers was perhaps Chosroes II. who
wrested from the Emperor of Constantinople province after province,
captured Antioch and Jerusalem, and carried off from the latter place
the fragments of the true cross which the mother of Constantine had
found and placed in the church of Jerusalem. Chosroes also reduced
Asia Minor and established his camp within sight of Constantinople
itself. ' i I

MANNERS, CUSTOMS, HABITS AND SOCIAL LIFE.

After these conquests he retired for a time to enjoy the luxuries of
his palace at Dastagerd, beyond the Tigris. "Six thousand guards suc-
;essively mounted before the palace gate ; the service of the interior apart-
nents was performed by twelve thousand slaves and the various treasures
of gold, silver, gems, silk and aumastics were deposited in a hundred
subterraneous vaults. The voice of flattery, and perhaps of fiction, is
not ashamed to compute the 30,000 rich hangings that adorned the walls ;
the 40,000 columns of silver, or more probably of marble and plated
wood, that supported the roof; and the 1,000 globes of gold suspended
in the dome, to imitate the motions of the planets and the constella-
tions of the Zodiac.

"While the Persian monarch contemplated the wonders of his art
and power, he received an epistle from an obscure citizen of Mecca, in-
viting him to acknowledge Mohammed as the prophet of God. He re-
jected the invitation and tore the epistle.- "It is thus," exclaimed the
Arabian prophet, "that God will tear the kingdom and reject the sup-
plications of Chosroes." (Gibbon).

The predictions of Mohammed were soon fulfilled. Heraclius, the
Emperor of Constantinople, suddenly roused himself, and in three glori-
ous campaigns regained all the provinces which he had lost during the
early part of his reign. And shortly after the death of Mohammed all
Persia was overrun by the forces of the Caliphs and from that time to
this the rulers of Persia have been followers of the prophet of Mecca.

In 632 the Mohammedans conquered Persia and abolished the reli-
gion of the Fire-Worshipers by the sword establishing Mohammedan-
ism in its stead.

Three hundred and thirty B. C, is included in the next great
Asiatic kingdom of Syria ; till the revolt of Arsaces, 250 B. C, and in-
cluded in the Parthian Empire till Artaxerxes I., founders of the Sass-
anides dynasty, restored the kingdom of Persia and the religion of Zo- .
roaster. 226 A. D., is added to the Saracen Empire and Mohammedan-
ized by Usman the 3rd Caliph. 632 A. D. (the king being put to death
and his army exterminated), is subdued by Togrul Beg and the Selju-
kian Turks 1038, who are expelled in 1194. Subdued by Zengis Khan
and the Moguls 1223, Bagdad made the capital 1345. Is invaded by
Timour (Tamerlane), 1380, ravaged by him 1399. Conquered by the
Turkomans 1468, who were expelled by the Shuites or Fatimite Moham-
medans, who established the Lopfic dynasty under Ismael I. A. D., 1501,
(Theran made the capital in 1796), which continues an independent but
feeble kingdom tQ this day. Population estimated at ten millions.

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

A new dynasty arose in western Persia in 1,500 A. D. Ismael, the
descendant of an ancient family of devotees and saints, became the
leader of a number of tribes which united under him, and with the aid of
which he overturned the rule of the Turkoman and made Aderbjon his
capital. His followers held him in the highest esteem on account of his
personal valor and owing to the high rank of his family revered him.
He rapidly subdued western Persia, and in 151 1 took Khorasan and
Balkh from the Uzbecks. In 15 14 he encountered a far more formidable
enemy in the mighty Salim, Sultan of Turkey, whose zeal for the con-
quest was fanned by religious fanaticism having developed into hatred
against the Shuites, the followers of Ismael largely adhering to this
sect, and who in turn were fiercely inflamed against the Sunnites, the sub-
jects and followers of the Sultan. In the ensuing conflict Ismael was
defeated, but Salim could not record any great gain from this victory.
Ismael's son, Shah Tah-Masip, who reigned from 1523 to 1576, subdued
all the Uzbecks of Khorasan and frequently defeated the Turks without
suffering the loss of a single battle. He takes rank as a prudent and
spirited ruler.

Shah, Abbas I, the Great, who was one of the most glorious of Per-
sia's modern kings, ascended the throne in 1585 and ruler until 1628. He
restored internal tranquillity and repelled the invasion of the Uzbecks and
Turks. In the year 1605 he gave the Turks such a terrific drubbing that
they made no more trouble during his long reign. He also restored to
his kingdom Kurdistan Mosul and Drarbekin, which had long been
separated from Persia. Abbas' government was strict, but just and
equitable. Roads, bridges, caravansaries* and other conveniences for
trade were constructed at great cost, and the improvement and ornament-
ation of the towns were not neglected. Many of his large caravansaries
which bear his name remain to this Hay.

Isphahan, his capital, in a brief period of his reign, doubled its
population. His tolerance was remarkable, considering the character
of his ancestors and subjects, for he encouraged the Armenian Christ-

*King Abbas ordered one of his officers to construct 1,000 cara-
vansaries, the cost of construction to be paid for from the kings treasury.
The officer built only 999, and when the king inquired if he had finished
his task, he replied that he had built one less. This made the king very
angry and he ordered the officer to be beheaded. The officer requested
the privilege to speak, which the king granted. Then the officer said :
"Long live the king! I did this for the honor of the king, because it
would take the people longer to say 999 than 1,000." This pleased the
king so that he spared the officer's life and gave him a high office.

MANNERS, CUSTOMS, fiABlTS AND SOCIAL LIFE. 93

ians to settle in the country, well knowing that their peaceable, industri-
ous habits would enhance the prosperity of his kingdom.

His successors were Shah Sufi (1628-41) Shah Abbas II (1641-66),
and Shah Soliman (1666-94). During the reign of Shah Sultan Hus-
sein (1694-1722) a weak and foolish prince, priests and slaves were ele-
vated to high offices and the Sunnites suffered sore persecution. The
result was that Afghan besieged the king in Isphahan, Hussein abdicated
in favor of his conqueror, who ultimately became insane and suffered
deposition in 1725 at the hands of his brother Ashrab.

The atrocious tyranny of Ashrab was suddenly checked by the cele-
brated Nadir-Shah. Hussein and Ashrab belonged to the dynasty of
Sayides, a holy sect, descendants of their prophet Mohammed.

Nadir-Shah was one of the greatest warriors of Persia. He raised
Tah-Masip (1729-32) and his son, Abbas III (1732-36), of the Suffi-
vian race, to the throne, and then on some frivolous pretext deposed
Abbas III and seized the scepter himself (1736-47). Nadir was assassin-
ated by Imam-Kuli-Khan, of Oroomiah, whose descendants now live
very near our mission station in Oroomiah. Again after the murder of
Nadir, Persia was divided into many independent states and became a
field of blood. Beloochistan and Afghanistan became independent till
1755, when a Kurd, Karim Khan (1755-79) abolished this state of affairs,
re-established peace and unity in western Persia, and by his justice,
wisdom and warlike talents acquired both the esteem of his subjects and
the respect of the neighboring states. He received the title., "Father of
Persia." Karim Khan was succeeded in 1784 by Al Murad, then by
Jaafor and the latter by Lutf-Ali Merza.

During Lutf-Ali's reign Mazandaran became independent under
Agha Mohammed Khan, a Turkoman. Lutf-Ali Merza rushed into
Mazandaran and killed all the relations of Mohammed_ Khan who were
ruling there and took captive Agha Mohammed Khan, a boy only six
years old, making him a eunuch.

This boy was of the Kajar race. When he was in the hartm ot
Lutf-Ali, he kept thinking how his cruel master murdered his father and
all his relatives. When he sat on the royal rugs, he would take his re-
venge by cutting them. When of age, 20 or 25 years old, he eloped
to his own country, Mazandaran, and joined his relations. He
frequently attacked Lutf-Ali, and defeated him in 1795. He
was then able to establish his throne in the southern part of
Mazandaran. This great eunuch king founded the dynasty which rules
today, restored the kingdom as it was under Karim-Kurd, and con-

querer Georgia and Khorasan. But he was assassinated May 14, 1797.
His nephew, Futteli-Ali Shah (1797-1834) engaged in three wars with
Russia and was defeated each time. As a result he lost his territory in
Armenia and a part of Persia — namely, from the Caucasian Mountains
to the River Aras, which now fixed the boundary between Russia and
Persia.

Futteli-Ali, in his last war with Russia, in 1826, was entirely de-
feated. Besides losing some of his territory, he paid the sum of 18,000,-
000 rubles ($9,000,000) to Russia. The death of the Crown Prince Abbas
Mirza (1833) seemed to give final blow to the declining fortune of Per-
sia, as he was the only man who seriously attempted to raise his country
from the state of abasement into which it had fallen.

NASREDDIN SHAH MEETING QUEEN VICTORIA IN 1889.

Futteli-Ali had seven sons. One of them, Jahon-Suz-Mirza, lives
today. Seven years ago he was governor in the author's city.
After the death of the Crown Prince, each of the seven sons
laid claim to the throne, while the father was still living. At the same
time the Crown Prince Abbas-Mirza had a son named Mohammed. Fut-
teli-Ali, when quite old and near death, by the aid of Russia, made Mo-
hammed, his grandson, king (1834-1848).

Nayib-Ali-Saltana acted as regent during the boyhood of Moham-

MANNERS, CUSTOMS, HABITS AND SOCIAL LIFE.

i>5

med. When he came to power for himself, he conceived the idea of re-
storing Baluchistan, Afghanistan, and a great part of Turkoman, to the
Persian dominion. He was especially anxious to take Herat, the key
to India, but was resisted by England. The war was terminated in
1838.

Nasreddin (defender of his religion), the late Shah (who was assassin-
ated May 1, 1896), a young man 18 years old and very energetic, suc-
ceeded his father in 1848. Following his father's example, the new
Shah tried to restore Afghanistan and Baluchistan, but was compelled
by England to sign an agreement on January 25, 1858, by which he was
bound not to interfere any longer in the internal affairs of Herat.

In 1858, he violated this treaty, and took the city of Herat. After a
severe war with England, in 1857, in which his loss was 20,000 soldiers,
relinquished Herat, but added to Persia many provinces in the west-
ern part of Afghanistan and Baluchistan, and also some states in Turko-
man.

-< He was one of the best kings of Persia. He visited Europe three
times ; once in 1873. He had European ideas and was a well educated
man. He started a good system of postal telegraph and had 30,000
soldiers trained after European discipline. Above all he founded a
beautiful college in Teheran, which is called in Persian, Daralfnoon (the
place of science). The present Shah, Mozuffur-uddine, was born March
25, 1853, and succeeded his father on May 1, 1896.

Persia is divided into thirteen states : Ghilon, Mazandaron, Astara-
bad, in the north; Aderbjon, Persian Kurdistan, Luriston, Kerman with
Mogiston in the south ; Irakeston, the capital state, where the king re-
sides, being in the center. On the east lies the large estate of Khorasan,
which is mainly a desert.

The largest city is Tabriz, has about 200,000 inhabitants, and is also
the most important commercial city.

The present population of Persia is about 10,000,000, composed of
representatives of various nations. Each speaks its own language and
uses its own national costume. There are about 30,000 Jews, 60,000
Armenians, 75,000 Nestorians, 675,000 Kurds, 15,000 Fire : worshipers,
and the remainder are Mohammedans.

The Shah is regarded as the agent of Mohammed, and as such
demands implicit obedience. The government is, therefore, an absolute
despotism. The Shah appoints a governor for each state ; this governor
appoints a mayor in each city within his territory. This office is not
awarded on the basis of education, ability or worthiness, but is given to

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

the man who will pay the most money, provided his ancestry is fairly
good. Many mayors of cities are related to the royal family. These
offices are limited to terms of one year, but many times a mayor is re-
moved before his time expires, subjects complaining loudly against him,
or some person bidding more money for the office. When a man is
appointed mayor of a city, the lords and counts of that city, accom-
panied by soldiers, will go three miles to meet the new official. He is
greeted with discharges of artillery.

These lords ride on very fine Arabian horses with gold-bitted bridles
and escort the mayor into the city. The new governor admires the fine
horses of his lords, occasionally covets some fine steed among them,
and before his term expires finds a way to get possession of it by helping
the lord out of some trouble.

If the new mayor is a prince, all prisoners confined in the city jails
are taken out before him as he enters the city. This is to signify that
as a member of the royal family he has authority to behead them.

The third day after the new mayor has arrived in a city it is custom-
ary for lords and counts to visit him with presents of money, golden
trinkets, Arabian horses, etc. A mayor has from one hundred to three
hundred servants. He pays them no salary. Some willingly enter his
service for the name, some from fear, and others from choice. Most of
these servants obtain a living from fines and bribes. Some of them
are detailed to settle quarrels between men in some village that belongs
to the city. This is their opportunity and they early learn to make the
most of it.

Each officer is at the mercy of the highest officer who may take away
his office or cause him to be executed at any time, without any trial, in
any cruel manner he may desire.

TEHERAN.

Teheran, the capital of Persia, is called the "City of the Shadow of
God," the "Footstool of the King of Kings." It has no glorious past to
boast of. Though the neighboring plains contain mounds and ruins of
great cities, it was only in the latter part of the past century that Teheran
emerged from obscurity. The first records describe it as a village of un-
derground hovels, affording a retreat from the summer heat or from the
ravages of plundering hordes. She was chosen as the capital of Aga
Mohammed Khan, the founder of the present Kajar dynasty. His pref-
erence for it was undoubtedly owing to its proximity to his own tribe in
Mezandaran. Now, Teheran has assumed the position of the political

Manners, customs, habits and social Lim

center of central Asia. Here the legations of England, France, Russia,
Germany, Austria, Holland, Turkey and the United States represent their
respective countries and spin the webs of their political intrigues.

In a century Teheran's population has increased from 15,000 to 200,-
000 inhabitants. Owing to its modern growth, it has also partaken of a
European element more than any other Persian city, and is more influ-
enced by western ideas. The old style is yet noticeable in the high walls
and deep moat surrounding the entire city. On each side of it are two
large, well built and handsomely ornamented gates. On the other hand,
broad avenues, well paved and bordered by shade trees, houses of mod-
ern architecture, embassy grounds, laid out after the pattern of an Eng-
lish park, phaetons and carriages, telegraph poles, tramways, gas and
electric lights in the streets, drug stores, photograph galleries, strongly
attest that western life has invigorated the stereotyped east. The bazaars
also, while presenting the same general characteristics as in other cities,
have wider aisles, and enjoy more of the much-needed sunlight. They
are well stocked with imports, and those*which deal in European goods
attract the briskest trade.

The royal palace is surrounded by high stone walls. Four beautiful
gates afford entrance to the grounds. On the sides of and above the
gates the walls are adorned with the pictures of former kings and brave
generals, and skillfully carved with lions' heads, the standards of Persia,
and birds. The park-like grounds are beautifully arranged and kept ; all
the drives and walks lead to the Shah's palace, situated in the center,
and are gorgeously ornamented with decorative trees and hedges of
roses of varied hues. Numerous officers of superior rank guard the
entrances and the walks and avenues that lead to the palace, those near-
est to it ever standing with drawn sword. While hearing a case or passing
judgment the king sits on his "peacock throne," surrounded by his cab-
inet, consisting of six advisers. His decisions, however, are absolute and
may at any time overrule the opinion of his cabinet. This body forms
the legislature of the country. The members of it are appointed by the
Shah, the people having no" voice whatever in governmental affairs.
Whenever the Shah feels tired his secretary reads to him from the "Sana-
meh," a poetical history of Persian kings. It is one of the Shah's
duties to make himself thoroughly acquainted with Persian history and
the history of her former rulers. On retiring at night the entrance to
the Shah's private room is guarded by two trustworthy officers with
unsheathed swords. One of the four gates in the wall around the palace
is called the Shah's gate, as he always enters through it. No other per-

MANNERS, CUSTOMS, HABITS AND SOCIAL LIFE.

son, be he lord, count or high official, is permitted to pass through this
gate on horseback or in a vehicle. He must dismount and walk through.

When the Shah goes from the palace for a chase or on a vacation, he
is escorted by a large retinue, headed by about thirty footmen, each bear-
ing a golden staff and shouting: "Disperse, disperse!" Hereupon the
passage is immediately cleared so that the royal cavalcade may pass un-
molested. The footmen are followed by about fifty men on horseback,
with drawn swords; next come ten or twelve riderless Arabian steeds
dancing along, beauties of their race, adorned with bridles of gold
studded with precious stones.

The Shah of Persia is in possession of the greatest and most valuable
collection of jewels on the globe. .These mav be inspected in his palace,
where they are heaped up in glass* cases like tea or rice. His "peacock
throne," which was brought from Delhi, India, by King Nadrisha, who
captured that city about 200 years ago, has been estimated at $12,500,000
some years ago, and has risen in value since then. It is made of solid
gold inlaid with diamonds, pearls and other jewels. The rug upon which
the Shah prays is valued at $2,500,000. He has a tobacco pipe worth
$500,000. His table is furnished with all the luxuries and good things
in the land. There will be perhaps fifty or more different dishes served
at one meal. When the Shah sits down to partake of some food he will
glance over all these, but only touch or nibble from one or the other
food, yet all the different courses must be prepared. From the time of
the purchase until it appears upon the table, all food and drink is ex-
amined by two trustworthy inspectors, whose duty it is to see that the
ruler is not poisoned. Again the food is inspected by the Shah's physi-
cian before eating a meal.

Teheran, the present capital of Persia, owes its importance to the
fact that it was made the seat of government by Shah Aga Mohammed
Khan, the founder of the reigning dynasty of the Khajars a hundred
years ago. It is situated on the great central plateau of Persia, thirty-
eight hundred feet above the sea. #

The spring and autumn are extremely delightful; in summer the
heat in the city ranges from 95 to no degrees in the shade, but it is
endurable because of its dryness, provided caution is exercised against
direct exposure to the rays of the sun.

The Shimran, or Shim Iran is a part of the great Elburz chain which
extends from the Caucasus to New Shimran, means the "Light of Per-
sia." Gradually ascending from the walls of Teheran, the range at the
distance of only ten miles springs with sudden precipitateness to the

100

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

enormous height of thirteen thousand feet above the sea. During the
entire summer snow is seen on the higher peaks, while in winter they
are clothed with a dense mantle of ermine to the plains. Nothing more
magnificent in mountain scenery could be imagined. From every part
of the city the glittering ridge of the Shimran is to be seen above the
housetops, — a commanding shape forming a sublime background for the
avenues leading north and south.

Twenty miles from Teheran is the mighty peak of Demavend. The
height of Demavend has been variously estimated by barometrical pres-
sure. The most recent and reliable calculations agree in placing it at
nineteen thousand six hundred to twenty-one thousand feet above the
sea. The form of the cone is nearly pyramidal. Rising as it does ten
thousand feet above the mountains in its vicinity, it is invested with a
spirit of regal isolation that appalls the soul. The mountains make a
curve to the southwest of Teheran, terminating in a bare rocky ridge,
around whose base is the site of the ancient city of Rhages, reputed to
have numbered a population of one million in the time of Darjus. In
later ages that city was called Rhu or Rhe, by which name it is still
known to the Persians.

Six miles from Teheran on the outskirts of the site of Rhu, stands
the celebrated shrine of Shah Abdul-Azim, a famous saint of the
Shahs. The Persians have their own sacred resorts and shrines, of
which Meshed enjoys great celebrity, for it contains the magnificent
tomb of Imam Rhezah, one of the twelve holy Imams who are descended
from Alu and Fafhimeh. But there is no resort in Persia more famed
than that of Shah Abdul-Azim, which is so conveniently situated near
the capital that it is visited by over three hundred thousand pilgrims an-
nually from Teheran alone. Every Friday (the Mussulman Sabbath) the
faithful resort to this shrine. The dome that hangs over the tomb of the
saint is gilded and is seen from all parts of the plain, flashing like a
star.

Of the many gates of Teheran the handsomest and certainly the
most imposing is the large gate offering entrance on the north to the
Ark, or Citadel. It faces the great square of the Department of War,
which is in itself a handsome and imposing enclosure. In the center is
an octagonal marble tank, one hundred and fifty feet long, always kept
full to the brim. At each corner of the basin an enormous old-fashioned
cannon is mounted on a platform. The four sides of the square are
occupied by barracks and government offices in two uniform stories re-
lieved with arches and including on the east side a handsome portico

MANNERS, CUSTOMS, HABITS AND SOCIAL LIFE.

101

supported by graceful pillars and faced with glazed tiles. This square
is entered through six stately gates, which are closed at night. Over
the great gate described above fly the s colors of Persia, — the Lion and
the Sun, yellow on a green ground.

Through this imposing entrance one passes into a darksome narrow-
passage, which but little suggests the spacious and attractive court to
which it leads. The first glance at the windows reveals the fact that the
Persian architects are masters of the secret of successful decorative arch-
itecture ; they appreciate the importance of massing the effect instead of
scattering it by meaningless details.

^J3ut the most imposing portion of the palace of the Shah is the grand
audience chamber, which in dimensions and splendor of effect is one of
the most imposing halls in the world. The ceiling and mural decora-
tions are of stucco, but so were those in the Alhambra. The floor is
paved w'ith beautiful glazed tiles, arranged in the most exquisite mosaic.
In the center of the hall is a large table overlaid with beaten gold, and a
long row of arm chairs are massively splendid with the same costly mate-
rial covering every inch of space. At the end of the hall, facing the
entrance, is the famous Peacock Throne, brought from Delhi by Madi
Shah, covered with gold and precious stones in a profusion that places
the lowest estimate of its value at not less than thirteen million dollars.
The magnificence of the Shah's audience hall is still further heightened
by the fact that here also are stored many of the crown jewels. The re-
serve of coin and bullion which the Shah has saved from his revenues,
equal it is said to a sum of thirty millions of dollars, is safely locked up
in the vaults of the palace. But one need only see the treasures in the
audience hall to obtain an idea that Persia is still a land of wealth, and
that the tales of splendor recounted in Oriental story were not wholly
the fictions of a fancy steeped in opium or b' hang. Among the spoils
of ages gathered in the Shah's treasury are superb crowns and jeweled
coats-of-mail dating back four centuries to the reign of Shah Ismael.
In a glass case one sees a large heap of pearls dense as a pile of sand
on the seashore. Diamonds, rubies, emeralds and sapphires catch the
eye at every turn, sometimes flashing forth like a crimson or green fire
on the boss of a buckler or helmet worn at the front of battle ages ago.
One ruby there is in that mine of splendor which, on being placed in
water, radiates a red light that colors the water like the blood of the vine
of Burgundy. There, too, is a globe of the world twenty inches in diame-
ter, turning on a frame of solid gold, the surface of the earth is repre-
sented by precious stones, different colors being used to indicate the

103

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

divisions of land and sea, the ocean is entirely of turquoise and Persia is
represented by a compact mosaic of diamonds. The famous Dari-noor,
or Sea of Light, the second of known diamonds in quality, size and value,
is kept carefully locked in a double iron chest, but is shown on rare occa-
sions, and is worn by his Majesty on great state days.

I have mentioned but a few of the many objects of splendor collected

in this magnificent chamber, of audience, which still cling to the skirts of
this old Empire as evidences of her past triumphs and glory.

The vast extent of territory once swayed by her scepter, considering
that it is scarce two centuries since Nadir returned from the sack of
Delhi, every soldier of his army weighted with treasures, and the con-
queror reserving for his own share gems valued at upwards of one hun-
dred millions.

' In no court is there more rigid attention paid to ceremony. The
looks, words, and even the movements of the body are well regulated
by the strictest forms. When the king is seated in public his sons, min-
isters, and courtiers, stand erect with their hands crossed and in the
exact place belonging to their rank. They watch his looks and a glance
is a command. If he speaks to them, you hear a voice reply and see the

ONE OF THE SEVEN GATES OF^OROOMIAH CITY.

THE COURT OF PERSIA.

MANNERS, CUSTOMS, HABITS AND SOCIAL LIFE.

103

lips move but not a motion or gesture betrays that there is animation in
the person thus addressed. He often speaks of himself in the third per-
son as, "The king is pleased. The king commands." His ministers
address him with high-sounding titles, giving expression to the popular
sentiments with, regard to him. For instance, he is called "The object
of the world's regard," "Kiplah i alam or Point of the Universe," "King
of Kings and the lord of the Universe."

They are as particular in forms of speech as in other ceremonies,
and superiority and inferiority of rank in all their graduations are implied
by the terms used in the commonest conversation. Nothing can exceed
the splendor of the Persian court on extraordinary occasions. It presents
a scene of the greatest magnificence regulated by the most exact order.
To no part of the government is so much attention paid as to the strict
maintenance of those forms and ceremonies which are deemed essential
to the power and glory of the monarch ; and the highest officers to whom
this duty is allotted are armed with the fullest authority and are always
attended by a number of inferiors who carry their commands into the
most popular execution.

The Persian Mohammedans have two festivals. One is called Ed-al-
Tits, or the festival after abstinence, and commences the day after the
fast of Ramazan. The second is called Ed-al-koorban, or the feast of
sacrifice which begins on the tenth of the month of Zulkada, and is in-
stituted in commemoration of Abraham's offering up of Isaac. This
tenth day of Zulkada is also the day appointed for the slaying of victims
by the pilgrim at Mecca.

There is also another great festival called New Rooz, or new day as
is the feast of the vernal equinox, 21st of March. This is the greatest
festival observed by the Persians and was introduced by Jemshed, a Per-
sian king, who ruled many centuries before the Christian era. It was he
who introduced into Persia the reckoning of time by the solar year and
ordered the first day of it to be celebrated by a splendid festival which
is to this day observed with as much joy and festivity as Thanksgiving
Day or Christmas in this country. On this day the bazaars in the cities
are decorated in Persian style and illuminated in a gay manner. The
king marches out of His capital attended by his ministers, nobles and as
many of this army as can be assembled, remaining out as long as he de-
sires. Upon this day he confers vestments of honor upon his nobles
and officers and receives presents from them. The feast is kept for a
week with equal demonstrations of joy in every part of the kingdom.
The first day, however> is the most important. Upon that day all ranks

104

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

appear in their newest apparel. They send presents of sweetmeats to
each other and the poor are not forgotten. In the streets of the cities
and upon the country roads crowds of people are seen, some going to
visit friends, others returning, carrying with them bundles and packages
of sweetmeats or presents. Indeed, this is a day of joy and gladness
throughout the kingdom, a national holiday observed by all the Shah's
subjects. They think of it with a great deal of pride and look forward
to it with the pleasantest anticipations.

There are persons who bear the name of story tellers around whom
are often seen crowds of people in the public squares or other places
which are suitable for their entertainments. Although Persians are pas-
sionately fond of public exhibitions, still they have none that deserve
the name of theatrical entertainments ; but though strangers to the regu-
lar drama their stories are often dramatic ; and those whose occupation
is to tell them sometimes display so extraordinary a skill and such varied
powers that we can hardly believe while we look on their altered coun-
tenances and listen to their changed tones, that it is the same person,
who at one moment tells a plain narrative in his natural voice, then
speaks in the coarse and angry tone of offended authority, and next sub-
dues the passions he has excited by the softest sounds of feminine tender-
ness. The art of telling stories is attended both with art and reputation.
Great numbers attempt it but few succeed. It requires considerable
talents and great study. None can arrive at eminence except men of
cultivated taste and retentive memory. They must not only be ac-
quainted with the best ancient and modern stories, but be able to vary
them by introducing new incidents which they have heard or invented.
They must also recollect the finest passages of the most popuiar poets
to aid the impression of the narrative by appropriate quotations. Kings
of Persia used to have especially such a story teller whose office it was
to amuse his majesty with such stories. His tales are artfully made to suit
the disposition and momentary humor of the monarch. Sometimes he re-
cites a story of the former sovereign, or of the love of some wandering
prince ; often the story is of coarser materials and the king is entertained
with low and obscene adventures.

The Persian kings have always attached great importance to having
a good band of musicians for their own enjoyment, and the present Shah
is not an exception to that rule. Indeed, his band is claimed by some
to be the best in the world.

The princes, nobles, ministers and public officers of high rank imi-
tate the king in many ways. All the respect they pay to him they exact

106

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

from their inferiors. Each in his rank has a petty court of his own, with
about the same forms and regulated about the same manner, and by offi-
cers bearing the same official names as those who attend the monarch.
Every chief or officer of high station has his harem, his secretaries, his
officers of ceremonies, his master of horse, and sometimes even, his poet
and jester. In his house there is as strict attention to exactness of con-
duct as in the palaces of his sovereign. Sensible of the conditions by
which they are surrounded, these persons appear as desirous of obtaining
money and as eager to spend it lavishly for their own pleasure as do
those of the same rank in other countries. Women, horses, rich armor
and elegant clothing are the principal objects of their desires. Their
splendid apartments are furnished with rich Persian carpets and are gen-
erally so situated as to be perfumed by flower gardens and refreshed by
fountains. One of their chief pleasures is to sit in these elegant apart-
ments and enjoy their tea, coffee, and tobacco and feast their friends.
Their meals are always abundant and even sumptuous. Nor does it mar
this enjoyment in the least to know that they have all their wealth at the
expense of their oppressed people whom they lord it over. Many officers
in the kingdom take bribes and fines from the poor in order to accumulate
large fortunes, then go to the capital city and give so much as a bribe
to this prince and so much to that minister, in order to be introduced to
the king. Then he gives a large sum as a present to the king, who in
turn confers upon him a title and in this way he becomes a great man
and adds to the power he already has to the oppression of his inferiors.
Merchants and trades people who secure titles for their children by means
of the fortunes they have made in trade are not by any means the only
class who get titles without deeds of heroism. There are many such in
Persia whose sole title to greatness is the power to oppress and overtax.

THE NOBLEMAN.

The nobility of Persia lead a life of luxury. Such titles as counts
and lords are not obtained by conspicuous service to the nation or coun-
try, nor by proficiency in knowledge and learning, but by descendancy,
and many an ignorant and unworthy person bears them. Wealthy mer-
chants also purchase them for their offspring. The titled class in Persia
is very numerous. In a city of 60,000 inhabitants there are more than
500 counts. They own the bulk of the Persian soil. In some instances
one count owns as many as one hundred villages. The poor rayat or
tenant must pay his landlord one-half or two-thirds of all the produce
of his farm. Aside from this a poll tax and a tax on his house must be

107

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paid. His cattle, sheep and goats are taxed, he must deliver unto his land-
lord two fowls, two loads of fuel, and a quantity of eggs annually, and
when his sons or daughters are married a marriage fee must be paid.
His meadows and orchards are also taxed, and only the yoke of oxen with
which he tills the ground are excepted from taxation. But this is not all.
He is literally at the mercy of his agha or master, a name which very
correctly expresses the relation between landlord and peasant. The land-
lord legally may clemand three days of labor from his rayat without pay-
ing for it, but in reality he makes them work for him as much as he
pleases. Whenever he pays a visit at one of his peasant's houses, he
simply and unceremoniously appropriates whatever he condescends to
find worthy of taking. The peasant is held to buy his grain and flour
from his landlord and must silently pay for these things whatever price
the master puts on them, even far above the market price. For the slight-
est offense he is subjected to severe chastisement, being even ordered by
his master to be tied and cruelly beaten.

And to all this and even more and worse outrages must the poor
peasant submit, for fear of still greater persecutions in case of complaint.
Christians have more to/ bear than Moslem neighbors ; they are inferior
beings — "infidels," "Christian dogs." The meanest Mohammedan is con-
sidered better than they. A Christian may not eat with a Moslem ; he
must not enter their houses with moist clothing. If struck by a Moham-
medan he dares not strike back. In the courts he is not considered their
equal; his life and property are not equally secure. Should a Moham-
medan, for example, take a fancy to the daughter of a Christian, even at
the tender age of 7 or 10 years, he will take her to his harem. An appeal
to the governor would avail nothing, as it would simply be. answered by
the statement that she has declared to turn Mohammedan. She is lost to
her family and religion forever, and should the parents ever so much
argue that the child is too young to decide upon her own religion, or that
she in all probability has been cajoled or frightened into making the
change, or should the parents plead ever so much to be allowed an inter-
view with her for just a few moments — she remains where she has been
taken and grows up an inmate of a harem !

By Persian law all converts to the Islam may claim a lion's share of
their father's estate. It therefore pays indigent Mohammedans well to
entice young daughters of well-to-do Christians away from their homes.

Here is another instance : The governor demanded from a merchant
an amount far in excess of the just taxes. The merchant refused. The
result was that the governor took away all his property. To seek redress,

MANNERS, CUSTOMS, HABITS AND SOCIAL LIFE.

10.9

the merchant petitioned the Shah and graciously received a royal order to
the governor to have his possessions restored to him. Full of cheer and
good hope the merchant traveled back and presented the written order
to the governor. After reading the decree the governor looked keenly
at the man for a moment, and then exclaimed, derisively : "Ha ! You
thought you could frighten me by reporting me to the Shah ! You are
indeed a brave man. Little did I expect you to be a man of so much
courage. But so brave a man must needs have a brave heart. This brave
heart of yours I must see, so as to learn courage from it." Then in a sub-
dued tone he gave the order to his servants : "Take out that man's
heart." The servants immediately fell upon the merchant, slew him on
the spot, tore out his heart and presented it to the governor on a tray.

Counts and lords are the most immoral class of people in all Persia.
They are illiterate, know nothing of geography, mathematics or political
economy, though most of them can read and write their own language
and have a limited knowledge of local history. It is not at all surprising
that such indolent, voluptuous people grow immoral, for among them it
is considered a disgrace to do work of any kind.

SHAHR AND THE URF.

Persian law is divided into two departments — the Shahr and the
Urf. The former is administered by the Mollahs, or priests, and is based
upon the Koran. The latter is the oral law administered by secular judges,
who decide cases in equity and traditions, or precedents orally handed
down.

As the Urf is administered independently of the Shahr, an increase
of powers would gradually result in the extinction of the latter. It is
undoubtedly the aim of the government to bring about such a change,
as one of the most important factors in promoting the elevation of Per-
sia to the plane of modern* progress, but any effort in this direction can
be pursued only with great shrewdness and caution, for the Mollahs
are naturally violently opposed to any abridgement of their power. In a
general way the Urf takes cognizance of criminal cases and the Shahr
of civil ones. The criminal is tried before the hakem or ket-hodah of a
town or village; in the awarding of penalties, however, he follows the
rule prescribed by the Shahr so far as they have not passed into desue-
tude.

Sometimes a criminal case is appealed directly to the governor of
the province or to the Shah himself. This is especially the case if one

11(1

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

of the parties involved is in any way connected with the government. The
Shah or the governor concerns himself little with the law in such events,
but decided at once, and with a word, a gesture, decrees retribution or
reward. But although all questions not of a civil nature are by custom
relegated to the decision of the Urf, it is not uncommon for the judge
to allow a case to be appealed to the Shahr when it is of special difficulty,
or when the rank of the party is such as to make him dread the con-
sequences of his decision. Any decision rendered by the religious ex-
pounders of the Shahr is accepted without demur as final ; the sacredness
of the Shahr and the sanctity of those who administer decisions based
upon it make it impossible to dispute the decisions of that august tri-
bunal. While, therefore, the Urf occupies a prominent place in the ad-
ministration of justice, the Shahr continues by far the most important
legal authority in the land, and it is by a study of that code and the meth-
ods of administering it that one can alone form any correct conception of
the administration of justice in Persia.

The Shahr consists of a vast collection of dicta applying to every con-
ceivable situation in life. Like the theocratic codes of other Musselmans
it is based on the Koran, but differs from them in the fact that it is en-
larged and fortified by the opinions of the twelve Holy Imams, these
Imams being considered by the Sheahs to be the true caliphs and their
opinions having scarcely less weight than if delivered from the Al-
mighty.

Early in the rise of Mohammedanism is was the custom oi the
disciples of the Prophet to have recourse to him for explanation or ex-
pansion of the vague declarations of the Koran. After his death these
commentaries were generally transmitted orally, and were called tradi-
tions, becoming in time very voluminous, so that it was necessary to
reduce and codify them, adding opinions regarding the more obscure en-
actments. Hence the authority of the Holy Imams. The code of Persia
treats of religious rites and duties ; of contracts and obligations ; of mat-
ters relating to the person; and of laws relating to cheese, meats and
drinks, legal procedure, and the specifications of penalties both from
a religious and a civil point of view. Many of the laws of the Shahr are
based on sound reason, and in their application are not unlike the laws
of other countries.

Some of the features of the Shahr are as follows : Any man is for-
bidden to say his prayers in the presence of any woman who, either at his
side or before him, are also praying, whether praying together with him
or alone; and without regard to the character of the woman, whether

MANNERS, CUSTOMS, HABITS AND SOCIAL LIFE.

Ill

she be wife or within the forbidden degree of kinship, or a stranger. If
the woman is behind the man at such distance that in prostrating her-
self she cannot touch his feet, then the man also may do his praying.

One should avofd praying before an open fire, before the painted or
graven figures or images of animate objects, or the stable of horses, asses
or mules ; but it is permitted in a sheepfold. One is forbidden to pray in
an apartment wherein there is a fire-worshiper ; the presence of a Christ-
ian or a Jew is unimportant. One should avoid having an open book
before him, and should not pray before an overhanging wall or in a room
where there is a pot de chambre.

"He who is dumb must wag his tongue while mentally repeating
his prayers. The spot where the forehead should touch (during the
genuflections of prayer) should be on the same horizontal plane on which
the feet rest ; nevertheless, one may exceed this line by the thickness of
one brick or more."

Such are a few examples of the 549 laws respecting religious wor-
ship. The regulations concerning fasting and pilgrimage number no
less than 1,102.

The law of sales includes 625.

"It is permissable to sell a piece of cloth or of land simply by a gen-
eral exhibition of them to the purchaser, without obliging him to make
a minute inspection."

Proof by taste or smell is indespensable when the object of sale is
eatable or smellable.' Articles of such a nature that they cannot be tested
without breaking them — such as nuts, melons or eggs, may be sold in
ignorance of the condition of the contents ; and in the event of the pur-
chaser finding them defective, he has the right to interest and damages,
but not to a return of the article.

"It is not permitted to sell fruits on the tree before they are shaped,
that is, before the kernel is formed, but when they have reached that
state they may be sold.

"After it is matured, fruit may be sold with or without the tree. It
is not permitted to sell the fruits green in color (at maturity) before they
become green."

It is recommended to the purchaser of a slave to change his name ;
to cause him to eat sweetmeats at the time, and to offer alms. One should
avoid counting or weighing the purchase money for a slave in his pres-
ence. Slaves are thought a great deal of in Persia. As a rule masters
are very kind to them, so that not" seldom one may hear a master ad-
dressed by his slave with "My father," and the master in replying will

LI 2

PERSIA'BY A PERSIAN.

call him "My son." Slaves are well taken care of in clothing and nourish-
ment. They differ in color and value. The "Habshi" are the most ex-
pensive; the "Somali" range next in price; the Negro slave being the
cheapest in price, ancl only employed as cooks. One good "Habshi"
will bring $250; a good "Somali," $150, while the market price for the
best among the Negro slaves, which are taxed according to their
strength, is but $70.

Not less than 1,412 different chapters are used in the Shahr for
subjects on marriage and divorce, besides a large number on concubin-
age, slaves and rearing of children.

The prophet hath said, "Marry and establish a family;" the most
wicked among the dead are the celibates ; he who desires to contract a
marriage should seek after a woman combining four requisites : legitimat e
birth, virginity, prolificness and chastity." One should not be content
with beauty and riches ; it is even forbidden to marry with these points
alone in view. Marriage should not be consumated while the moon is in
the sign of the scorpion ; during an eclipse of the moon ; on a day when
there will be an eclipse of the sun ; at noon ; towards the end of twilight ;
during the last three days of the month ;* between dawn and sunrise ; dur-
ing the first night of each month, excepting the month of Ramazan ; dur-
ing the middle night of the month; while on a journey; in a tempest, nor
during an earth-quake.

When marriage is being proposed to a maiden, her silence is equiva-
lent to a consent. The consent of a widow, however, or a divorcee, must
be audibly pronounced to be legally valid. Any man may form as many
temporary marriages as he chooses. If the husband desires one of his
wives to accompany him on a journey, the selection is made by casting
the lot. Husbands are recommended to treat all their wives alike.

Divorce is pronounced by a husband in the presence of not less than
two witnesses. In doing this, one of three statutory formulas must be
used, any other version, though expressing the intention ever so clearly,
are invalid. He must either say "Ente talekun," (thou art divorced) or
"Felanet talekun" (such a one is divorced), or "Hazee talekun" (this
person is divorced). The Arabic formula must always be used.

There are also three kinds of divorce, one by virtue of which the
husband cannot take back the divorced wife; one with this privilege
reserved ; and the temporary divorce, for the purpose of proving whether

*The last three days of a month are called el mohak, which signifies
the moon is below the horizon.

MANNERS, CUSTOMS, HABITS AND SOCIAL LIFE.

113

the woman is pregnant by; a husband from whom she was previously
divorced. The irrevocable divorce is brought about when a husband
pronounces the formula of divorce upon a wife whom he has twice before
taken as his wife again. The temporary marriage is an institution pecu-
liar to Persia and abhorred by all Mohammedans elsewhere. The Shahrs
defend it on the plea that it was not prohibited by the Prophet, and con-
sequently must be right, according to a fundamental principle of their
law that whatsoever is not prohibited by law is allowed. The most im-
portant feature of the temporary matrimony, however, is the dowry paid
by the husband ; without this parents would scarcely permit their daugh-
ters to enter into it. Four conditions are indispensable to the legality
of such a marriage — the contract^ the personal conditions, the dowry,
and the stipulated time for which the marriage is contracted. The con-
tract is legal and binding only when it has been drawn in legal form
before or by a Mollah. As to the duration of such a temporary marriage
the law provides no limit, the matter being settled by mutual agreement ;
it may be for a fraction of a day or for ninety-nine years ; it may even
antedate the day when the contract is written if so desired by both
parties.

Penalties for fornication, adultery, sodomy and similar vices are very
severe, lapidation being the most common upon repetition of the last
named, and for the conviction of the first named even after the first
offense. Not less than 395 chapters treat of the laws of procedure. To
administer the Shahr a judge must be of legal age, sound of mind, faithful
in performing the duties of the Islam, of reputable life, of legitimate birth,
well instructed and of the male sex. He should also be endowed with a
good memory, for one who lacks this faculty is incapable of properly
exercising judicial functions.

The principle which regulates the Mussulman's connubial life he
expresses when upon any occasion, but most often before his marriage
he will say to his wife : "It is my privilege to love many women, and it is
your duty to love only me. Now attend thou to thy duty and I will see
to my privilege." Taking a walk with his wife a Mohammedan would be
disgraced should she go before him or by his side; she must obediently
follow behind. For wife murder a man can be fined a sum of money, but
the law will not find him guilty of homicide, as woman is not considered
equal to man before the law. A man meeting a woman anywhere in
public or private will not salute her, but the woman is expected to greet
him with a courteous nod.

L14

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

LAND (ARABICARZ).

The following are some of the principal rules of Muslim law relating
to land : (i) Tithes or Zakat on lands. Upon everything produced
from the ground there is due a tenth, or ashir, whether the soil be watered
by the annual overflow of the great rivers, or by periodical rains ; except-
ing upon articles of wood, bamboos, and grass, which are not subject to
tithe. Lands watered by means of buckets or machinery, such as Persian
wheels, or by watering camels, are subject to only half tithes.

(2.) Conquered lands become the property of the state. Those of
idolators remain so. Those belonging to Jews or Christians, or Fire
worshipers, are secured to the owners on payment of tribute. Those who
afterwards embrace Islam recover their property, according to ash-
Shafi'i, but not according to the Hanifah school. Upon the Muslim army
evacuating an enemy's country, it becomes > unlawful for the troops to
feed their cattle on the land without due payment.

(3) Appropriation for religious uses. Land may be so appropriated ;
but if a person appropriate land for such a purpose and it should after-
wards be discovered that an indefinite portion of it was the property of
another person, the appropriation is void with respect to the remainder
also. The appropriation must also be of a perpetual and not of a tem-
porary nature.

(4) The sale of land is lawful. In such sales the trees upon the land
are included in the sale, whether specified or not ; but neither the grain
growing on the ground, nor the fruit growing on the trees, are included,
unless specified.

(5) Claims against land must be made by the plaintiff, defining the
four boundaries and specifying the names of each possessor, and the de-
mand for the land must be made in explicit terms. And if the land has
been resold, a decree must be given either for or against the last pos-
sessor, according to some doctors.

(6) Land can be lent, and the borrower can build upon it, but when
the lender receives back his land, he can compel the borrower to remove
his houses and trees. Land lent for tillage cannot be resumed by the
lender until the crops sown have been reaped. Abu Hanifah maintains
that when land is lent to another, the contract should be in these words,
"You have given me to eat of this land."

(7) A gift of land which is uncultivated cannot be retracted after
houses have been built on 1 it or trees planted. If the donee sell half of

MANNERS, CUSTOMS, HABITS AND SOCIAL LIFE.

115

the granted land, the donor in that case may, if he wishes, resume the
other half. If a' person make a gift of land to his relative within the pro-
hibited degrees it is not lawful for him to resume it.

(8) The Ijarah, or rental of land, is lawful, but the period must be
specified, otherwise the rent may be demanded from day to day. But a
lease of land is not lawful unless mention is made of the article to be
raised upon it, and at the expiration of the lease the land must be restored
in its original state. A hirer of land is not responsible for accidents ; for
oxample, if in burning off the stubble he happens to burn other property,
he is not responsible for loss incurred.

PLOWING WITH OXEN.

(9) The cultivation of waste and unclaimed lands is lawful, when it
is done with the permission of the ruler of the country, and the act of
cultivation invests the cultivator with a right of property in them. But
if the land be not cultivated for three years after it has been allotted, it
may again be claimed by the state.

(10) If a person be slain on lands belonging to anyone, and situated
near a village, and the proprietor of the land be not an inhabitant of the
village, he is responsible for the murder, as the regulation and protection
of those lands rest upon him.

MODES OF PUNISHMENT.

The prisons are frequently cellars, underground, without windows,
damp and infested with flies. They are seldom ventilated.

110

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

These pits, or prisons, are long and narrow and have each a heavy
timber reaching across the middle, on which chains of iron are fastened
to secure prisoners. The floor is made of clay and there is no means
of admitting light or fresh air into these dungeons, which in conse-
quence are full of all kinds of vermin. There is no bed or furniture. The
government does not feed the inmates ; their friends bring bread and
throw it to them, and some of this is even sometimes picked up by the
jailor and kept for his own nourishment. No men are allowed to visit
the prisons, but wives or daughters may purchase this privilege by pay-
ing a fee to the jailor. The torture of prisoners is regulated according
to the nature of their crimes. The common method of torture for thieves,

A CHAINED GANG

robbers and murderers, is to put the bare foot of the criminal in a vise,
and squeeze it until he cries in agony. If he gives the jailor some money,
or promises to give some the next time his friends visit him, the pres-
sure on the foot is lessened. If a man goes to jail wearing good clothes,
the jailor often exchanges his own poorer suit for the good ones.

Hanging. This sentence is executed much as it is in this country.
The gallows consists of two posts with a crossbeam on top from which
the criminal is suspended by means of a rope fastened around his neck.

Vaults. These are built of brick in the shape of a barrel and as deep
as a man's height. A man who is sentenced to this form of punishment
is brought and placed in the vault with his head exposed. He is then

MANNERS, CUSTOMS, HABITS AND SOCIAL LIFE.

117

plastered down with mortar all around him. This hardens and he is
squeezed to death.

Cutting off the hands. A bad thief when caught for the first time
may have one of his hands taken off. Should he not stop stealing then
and should he be caught a second time his other hand may be cut off.

Cutting off an ear. This is a very simple and insignificant form of
punishment, inflicted also by the executioner.

Torturing. In order to exact a confession of guilt or have a prisoner
turn states evidence this punishment is employed.

Whipping. In this they lay the criminal down. One man holds
his feet, another, his head, while one stands on each side of him and
beats him on his back by turns. When their switches break they take
others, for there are always a supply of them kept in the magistrate's
court yard in a pool of water to keep them soft. When they have whipped
the criminal long enough to satisfy their ideas of justice they fine him
and let him go.

EXECUTOR (Arabic Wasi),

a term also used for the testator ; wakil'ala'l wasiyah. An executor hav-
ing accepted his appointment in the presence of the testator, is not after-
wards at liberty to withdraw, and any act indicative of his having ac-
cepted the position of executor binds him to fulfill his duties.

A Muslim may not appoint a slave, or a reprobate or an infidel as
his executor, and in the event of his doing so, the Oazi must nominate
a proper substitute. But, if none of the testator's heirs have attained
their majority, a slave may be appointed as executor until they are of age.

If joint executors have been appointed and one of them die, the Oazi
must appoint a substitute in office.

In the cases of infants or absent heirs, the executor is entitled to
possess himself, pro tern, of their property, but he cannot trade with his
ward's portion.

If a person die without appointing an executor, the next of kin ad-
ministers the estate, and it is an arrangement of Muslim law that his
father is his executor and not his eldest son.

CRUELTY.

A striking instance of the cruelty of Muhammad's character occurs
in a tradition. "Some of the people of the tribe of 'Ukl came to the
prophet and embraced Islam ; but the air of al-Madinah did not agree
with them, and they wanted to leave the place. And the prophet ordered

118

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

them to go where the camels, given in alms, were assembled, and to
drink their milk, which they did, and recovered from their sickness. But
after this they became apostates, and renounced Islam, and stole the
camels. Then the prophet sent some people after them, and they were
seized and brought back to al-Madinah. Then the prophet ordered
their hands and feet to be cut off as a punishment for theft, and their
eyes to be pulled out. But the prophet did not stop the bleeding, and
they died." And in another it reads, "The prophet ordered hot irons to
be drawn across their eyes, and then to be cast on the plain of al-Madi-
nah; and when they asked for water it was not given them, and they
died."

HIGHWAY ROBBERY (Arabic gatu).
Persian rahzani. Highway robbery is a very heinous offense ac-
cording to Mohammedan law, the punishment of which has been fixed
by the Our'an (Surah v. 37) : "The recompense of those who war against
God and His apostle and go about to enact violence on the earth, is that
they be slain or crucified or have their alternate hands and feet cut off,
or be banished the land." According to the Hidayah, highway robbers
are of four kinds, viz. (1) Those who are seized before they have robbed
or murdered any person, or put any persons in fear. These are to be
imprisoned by the magistrate until their repentance is evident. (2) Those
who have robbed but have not murdered. These are to have their right
hand and left foot struck off. (3) Those who have committed murder,
but have not robbed. These are punished with death. (4) Those who
have committed both robbery and murder. These are punished accord-
ing to the opinion of the magistrate. If he please, he can first cut off
a hand and foot, and then put them to death by the sword, or by crucifix-
ion, or he may kill them at once without inflicting amputation. If any
one among a band of robbers be guilty of murder, the punishment of
death must be inflicted upon the whole band.

EXECUTION.

The Muhammadan mode of execution is as follows : — The execu-
tioner seizes the condemned culprit by the right hand, while with a sharp
sword or ax he aims a blow at the back of the neck, and the head is
detached at the first stroke. This mode of execution is .still, or was till
lately, practiced in Muhammandan states in India.

If an Oazi say, "I have sentenced such a person to be stoned, or to
have his hand cut of, or to be killed, do you therefore do it ;" it is lawful
for that person to whom the Oazi has given the order to carry it out.

MANNERS, CUSTOMS, HABITS AND SOCIAL LIFE.

119

And according to Abu Hanifah, if the Oazi order the executioner
to cut off the right hand, and the executioner willfully cut off the left, he
is not liable to punishment. But other doctors do not agree with him.

The modes of execution used by the Persian Government are still
barbarous in the extreme. Male convicts are put to death either by being
blown from the mouth of a cannon, or by having their jugular arteries
severed, or by being nailed to a wall. Women are sentenced to have
their heads shaved, their faces blackened, then to take a bare back ride
on a donkey through the principal streets of a city or village, and finally
to be put into a bag and beaten to death. Others are executed by put-
ting them in a nude condition into a bag full of cats, who will speedily
scratch and bite them to death.

Any prince of the royal family has authority to pass the death sen-
tence upon his subjects. When occasionally an intimate friend of the
ruler is appointed governor, the king will add a knife as a present, trans-
mitting thereby the power of passing the death sentence. Every prince,
mayor or governor having this authority keeps two executioners, uni-
formed in scarlet walking on before their master whenever he promenades
through the streets.

Whenever a convict is to be executed, he is taken from his prison
cell handcuffed and a chain about his neck, escorted by a guard of sol-
diers with fixed bayonets. He has probably spent several months in his
dungeon, and naturally looks haggard and worn, unclean and unshaven,
his clothes hanging about him in rags. The executioner, in his scarlet
uniform, walks a few steps in advance, a large sharp knife in his hand.
Thus they proceed to the public square, and in the presence of a crowd
of eager spectators the victim is ordered to kneel down. The execu-
tioner now steps behind the convict and with a single stroke of the keen
blade severs the jugular vein, and another soul takes its flight, having
completed its part in life's drama. In some places criminals are executed
by burying their whole body, their head only excepted, in a casket of ce-
ment; this will soon set and harden around the body, and soon cause
death.

An intoxicated Mohammedan, when found on the street noisy and
abusive, is arrested, a cord or twine several feet long is drawn through
the dividing membrane between his nostrils, and he is led publicly along
the street by the executioner. The culprit soon gets sober, and is very

120

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

much ashamed. As the executioner passes along the streets with him,
shopkeepers give small sums of money to the former.

Men of a very quarrelsome and combative disposition are punished
by having their feet tied to a post with the bare soles upward. These
are then whipped until they bleed profusely, and sometimes the nails
are torn from the toes. This frequently causes the victim to swoon away,
becoming entirely unconscious under this terrible maltreatment.

Christians and Jews according to Persian law are not subject to
decapitation, as they are considered unclean by the Mohammedans and
not sufficiently worthy of this privilege. The most severe punishment is
when a prince is deprived of his eyesight. Lords and counts are executed
in two ways : the Shah will send him a bottle of sherbet, which is a sweet
drink, but in this instance contains a deadly poison, and which he is com-
pelled to empty ; or the governor dispatches a servant to wait upon the
criminal while taking his bath, and in doing so has orders to cut the
veins in the criminal's arms and cause him to bleed to death.

What a contrast in the modes of punishment and their application
between Mohammedan and Christian countries ! The kind of punish-
ment inflicted on criminals in any country is truly characteristic of the
prevailing religion. A religion based upon love and charity will deal
with its criminals effectively, but humanely and not in a barbarous man-
ner.

BASTINADO.

The mechanical part of a bastinado is a pole, called a "Pellek,"
about eight feet in length, with a transverse handle at either end and
loops of rope or leather in the middle. The man to be bastinadoed is
laid back downward on the ground and, after his shoes and stockings
are removed, his feet are passed through the loops. The pole is held
by two soldiers at nearly the length of the man's legs from the ground,
and by them it is turned until his ankles are so tightly secured that he
cannot writhe out of them. In turning the pole the soles of the feet are
brought upward, making them a fair mark for the flogger. Close by
will be a large number (usually hundreds) of sticks with which the vic-
tim's feet are to be beaten. They are ordinary willow wands five or six
feet long. The bark is left on, and the willows are kept wet to prevent
them from breaking easily. Two or more expert floggers, clad in scarlet
coats, bound in black, the uniform of the Shah's executioners, take their
places near the pole, each armed with a stick with which they in turn be-
labor the victim's soles until the stick is broken. Before the thrashing is

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commenced the victim is adjured to confess. If he does not the torture is
kept up until he does, or until the supply of sticks gives out. Ofter 200 or
300 sticks are worn out before a confession is secured, although the tor-
ture often results in death, if the victim is aged or sick. All Persians are
liable to this punishment, from the prime minister downward. The minis-
ter of finances was on one occasion given 400 lashes.

The bastinado is by no means the only mode of torture used in
Persia to make criminals confess. Needles are run under the finger-nails
of some prisoners until a confession is extorted, and it is a practice to cut
gashes in the soles of a prisoner's feet, inserting therein broken glass,
so that it is impossible for him to run away. Such punishments have
been in vogue for ages, notwithstanding the fact that the late Shah years
ago issued a firman prohibiting the 1 torture of criminals.

DISFIGURING EVIL-DOERS.

For ordinary crimes in Persia, the punishment is personal disfigure-
ment. The evil-doer who is caught in his evil-doing is marked for life.
For the first offense at highway robbery, the prisoner may lose some
of his fingers. For a second offense he is likely to lose a hand. The
traveler passing through Persia for the first time is astonished at the
number of mained and half-blind men whom he meets on the caravan
trails. The writer has seen one man in Persia who, as a result of per-
sistent wrong-doing, had lost a hand, a foot, an ear and an eye. With
all that he was pointed out as a person to be avoided.

Apart from the affliction of pain as a means of extorting confessions,
there is another well-defined reason for the torture of criminals. It is
intended that corporal punishment shall be a warning and an example
to other evil-doers. It is for this reason that the severed hands, fingers
and ears of convicted men are thrown into one of the principal streets
to horrify men going about the ordinary affairs of business.

HOW THE HEADS ARE CUT OFF.

Decapitation in Persia has lost some of its old-time picturesqueness.
In thinking of a decapitation, one naturally pictures a scene in which the
executioner, posed in a theatrical attitude, swings aloft a glittering scime-
tar, and with "one well-directed blow" strikes off the victim's head. In
Persia to-day one finds that sort of thing only in picture books imported
from the Christian west. As a matter of prosaic fact, the victim's head
is hacked off with a short knife. To be even more exact, the head is
very rarely actually hacked off. Usually the executioner is satisfied

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123

with hacking open two or three large veins of the throat, and letting his
man bleed to death. The traveler loses a great many illusions in a jour-
ney through Persia, and this is one of them.

CLIMATE AND PRODUCTS.

The great extent of the country naturally implies an extremely varied
climate. Cyrus the Great made this remark regarding the climate of
his empire : "The people perish with cold at one extremity, while they
are suffocating with heat at the other.

Persia may be considered to possess three climates : that of south-
ern Dashtistan, one of the elevated plateau, and a third of the Caspian
provinces. The spring and fall of the year are rainy seasons, but perfectly
beautiful, while the summers are long, dry and hot, but not unpleasantly
so excepting at midday. The atmosphere is clear and pure at all times.

The cultivated soil of Persia, wherever there is an abundance of rain
or possibility of irrigation, produces an immense variety of crops. The best
wheat on the surface of the globe is grown here, other characteristic
products being barley, rice, cotton, sugar cane, tobacco, millet, potatoes,
sweet corn, cabbage, and all other garden vegetables found in other
countries.

Great care has been taken to have brooks and streams, whether
natural or artificial for the purpose of irrigating the land, lined on both
sides with shade trees. This is most especially the case in Oroomiah
Plain, so that this part of Persia has been named by travelers the Para-
dise of Persia. Wooded lands are found south of the Caspian Sea and
one large forest in the vicinity of Shiraz. These forests are of very dense
growth and contain oak, beech, elm, walnut, sycamore, ash, yew and
juniper trees.

The mineral wealth of Persia is as yet undeveloped, excepting some
modest efforts in coal, copper, iron and lead mining. The forests of the
Elburz Mountains are infested with wild animals, such as wolves, tigers,
jackals, wild boars, foxes, and the Caspian cat. Deer of every variety
inhabit some of the mountains ; lions and leopards are found in Mazan-
daron. Among the domestic animals are the horse, camel, buffalo, cow,
ass, donkey, mule, sheep, dog, cat, etc. Persia is the home of the famous
fat-tail sheep and produces also the much coveted lamb fur worn by
ladies and called the Persian fur. Here also are found fine Arabian
horses which may be termed the Oriental limited passenger trains or
flyers, while the donkeys, mules and camels perform in the east the
functions of western freight lines. Persian horses have always been

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celebrated as the finest in the east ; they are larger and more handsome
but not so fleet as those of Arabia. Sheep are one of the main sources
of wealth in the country.

Among the flowers in Persia are the marigold, hollyhock, white lily,
violet, tulip, chrysanthemum and roses of many kinds. The latter are
cultivated in fields for the trade and the manufacture of "golab" or attar
of roses.

Poultry is good and plentiful. There are fowls, geese, ducks,
turkeys, guineas, partridges, quails, doves, pheasants, as well as hawks,
flamingoes, crows, swans, storks, herrons, owls, cuckoos, hoo-poes and
bul-buls or nightingales.

We find various views as to the location of the Garden of Eden.
The latest and wildest theory is its location at the north pole, upon the
assumption that in the lapse of ages the earth has gradually cooled so
that the first suitable place for man to live was in the Arctic Zone.

Persia, however, has the earliest and most reasonable of all claims.
Our land is a natural center. The Tigris, Euphrates and other rivers
of the Paradise of Eden still flow and the identity of these streams alone
should banish all doubt. The very odors of the forest are of singular
fragrance. Here bloom indigenous plants of great variety and hue,
which refuse to lend their beauty and fragrance to any foreign clime.
Numerous birds, too, of peculiar beauty, adorn and enliven the enchant-
ing landscapes. The number of various kinds of birds, which breed on
the great plain, is so prodigious as to seem almost incredible to those
who have not seen them. Do not all these natural and scenic character-
istics bear evidence of these primitive ages?

From the plateau at the foot of Mount Ararat arise the sources of
the rivers of Western Asia. The Tigris, the Euphrates, the Aras or
Araxes, the Cyrus (Kur), the Acampis and the Halys. The first two
with deep and rapid waters flow southeast into the Persian Gulf. The
Acampis, supposed by some to be the Pison of the Bible, rising from the
southwest of Erzrum and fed by various streamlets, sweeps with a strong
and smooth current toward the Black Sea. The Araxes (perhaps the
Gihon of the Bible), takes its rise from the side of Bingol or "the mount-
ain of one thousand lakes" winds through fertile regions and mingles
with the Cyrus ; and then both sweeping northward and again southward
through the plain of Moghan, discharge eastward into the Caspian Sea
by three mouths, being navigable up to the point of junction. The name
of the river is supposed to commemorate Araxes, whose son was drowned
in the rapid waters. Xenophon, however, traces its derivation to Ar-ax,

MANNERS, CUSTOMS. HABITS AND SOCIAL LIFE.

125

or "holy water" its water being sacred to the sun. This stream possessed
different names at different periods, commemorative of various events.
The Halys, or the modern "Kizil-Irmak is the most westerly of the
rivers. It springs from a verdant region at no great distance from the
Euphrates and flows with rapid volume into the Black Sea.

The volcanic soil of the country is of surpassing fertility, and yields
abundant crops of wheat, barley, apricot, maize, tobacco, rice and other
minor products. Here are raised also the mulberry, cotton, grapes and
a dye called yellow-berry. Beautiful vineyards, smiling gardens, orchards
and groves abound in many parts of the country, especially in the
valleys, where luxuriant vegetation gladdens the heart of the lover of
nature. Melons, figs, granates, and trees of oak, pine, ash, walnut, apple,
peach and chestnut abound.

Mineral springs, both hot and cold, abound. In my travels through
the country I have seen many of them gushing from the ground with
great force from between the strata of limestone. These hot springs
are another evidence of the subterranean activity of the region. From
all over the country people who suffer from any ailment repair to these
waters, whose medicinal properties are of great reputation.

MOUNT ARARAT.

As has been mentioned, Mount Ararat is the nucleus of the river
and mountain systems, standing high and hoar midway between the
Black and Caspian seas. It is the center of the world. It is a mountain
rich with events of undying significance to mankind. Around its base
legends and traditions, true and fabulous, hold perpetual sway. Today
it is a mighty boundary stone of three great empires — the Turkish, Rus-
sian and Persian. It has two summits, seven miles apart, the greater at
the northwest extremity and the lesser toward the southeast. The
snow-clad summit of the greater Ararat is wrapped in clouds during
most of the day. These float away at nightfall and leave the snowy
crown clear and distinct against the starry sky. A more rugged and awe
inspiring view is obtained from the northeast than from any other point.

No one can do Ararat justice ; every turn gives a new picture. Its
beauty is unrivaled by any other mountain on earth. It is truly "the
sublimest object in nature." Its snow crowned peak, rising from the
plain of Araxes, rears itself in solemn majesty above the sea of vapor
into the regions of eternal winter, perpetually covered with ice and
snow, and ruling over the clouds and the storms. It is a picture of
mingled sublimity and beauty— calm, cold, majestic.

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One is filled with awe as he watches the mellow radiance of the
moon, the changing hues and shadows of the venerable mountain, or
hears the thundering sound of falling ice and rocks from its stupendous
heights. The mass of snow on its summit, 14,000 feet above the sea,
never dissolves, and is one of the phenomenal features of this mountain,
exceeding in quantity that of either the Alps or the Caucasus, as the
former average 9,000 feet and the latter from 10,000 to 12,000 feet in
height. The people consider the ascent of Ararat a miracle. They re-
gard the mountain with superstitious awe, and believe that it still contains
the relics of the ark, unchanged by time or decay, and that in order to
insure their preservation a divine decree has made it inaccessible to
mortal approach. The Tartars and the Turks of the neighborhood
imagine its summit to be the abode of the "devil" and of wild ghosts,
and they fear to approach too near its top. Morier himself declares "No
one appears to have reached the summit of Ararat since the Flood."
However, Dr. Friedrich Parrot of the University of Dorpat, after sev-
eral unsuccessful attempts, finally gained the summit in September, 1829.
He is considered the first mortal since the Deluge, who has ever ven-
tured amid the ice and snow of the isolated peak.

The term Ararat is used in ancient annals of sacred and secular his-
tory for the entire country of Armenia, and not for the mountain itself.
Anciently even the inhabitants were known as the people of Ararat. It
was not until late years that the name came to be limited to the mountain
itself. This misunderstanding has led some to erroneous conclusions
and superstitions. Nothing could be more absurd to a native than the
idea that the ark rested on the very top of Mount Ararat.

Many criticisms, have been made concerning the ark on Mount
Ararat, as though that historic craft had actually rested on its very
peak. Such absurd ideas indicate a lack not only of knowledge, but of a
proper and common-sense understanding of a simple biblical narrative.
The geographical unit is the mountain range, and with the mountain
ranges the study of geography should begin. From them a scientific
nomenclature can most easily be constructed. How precise and clear
is the statement of the Book of Genesis : "The ark rested upon the moun-
tains of Ararat" — not upon Mount Ararat. There are scriptural refer-
ences in 2 Kings xix:37; Isaiah xxxvii:38. In these parallel passages
allusion is made to Adrammelech and Sharezer, who, having assassinated
their father Sennacherib, "escaped into the land of Ararat." The prophet
Jeremiah (in Jeremiah ii 127), summoning the nations for the overthrow
of Babylon, calls "together against her the kingdoms of Ararat, Minni,

MANNERS, CUSTOMS, HABITS AND SOCIAL LIFE. 127

and Ashchenaz." Thus sacred and secular writers concur in speaking
of not only a mountain, but of a range, a land, a kingdom, an army, and
a people of "Ararat." Does the critic suppose that the horses and mules
of Ararat were reared on the icebergs of an isolated peak? They were
seen in the markets of Syria. Had they wings that they could fly where
a donkey could not climb ? An army of Araratians helped Cyrus in the
overthrow of Babylon. Did they_ come on a toboggan slide from the
regions of everlasting snow?

"Ayrarad," coincides with the Persian text, which is frequently em-
ployed in ancient historical documents, denoting that the name Ararat
was identical with the whole country of that region. St. Jerome himself
always identified Ararat with the plain of Araxes, where the mountain
reposes.

Again, the window of the ark is described in Genesis as being above ;
so that when "on the first day of the tenth month the top of the moun-
tains came forth ;" Noah would most naturally have been looking upward
to see what was above the ark. Therefore, the extreme cone, the highest
pinacle of Ararat, was not the resting place of the deluvian ark, but in
all probability a much lower part of the Ararat range.

WINES OF PERSIA.

The wines of Persia are red and white ; the former has a body and
flavor resembling burgundy, and is grown chiefly in the north of Persia.
The best white wines are those of Shiraz and Hamadan ; each has a dis-
tinct and delicious flavor and bouquet of its own. These wines are made
by the Armenians, Nestorians and Jews, for the Faithful are forbidden
either to drink or to make wine. They have ways of evading the former
prohibition, but the latter ordinance is more difficult of evasion and prac-
tically carries with it the prohibition of commerce in wines, yet this diffi-
culty might easily be overcome by a little quiet diplomacy, as I have good
reason for believing. But the manufacture of Persian wines leaves much
to be desired. I am convinced, however, that if European experts, tak-
ing advantage of the low cost of labor in Persia, should go to that
country and seriously enter into the task of preparing and exporting
Persian wines, Persia would soon rank among the great wine-producing
countries of the world

Mohammedan followers are not to salute those who drink, nor to
marry those who are intemperate, nor to sit at the table where there is
wine. Some one asked AH how strict they should be regarding strong
drink. Ali answered that if one drop of wine should fall in a well and

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the well should be filled up with earth and after a hundred years had
passed away a sheep should eat grass growing on that spot, he, Ali,
would not eat of that flock. Again, Ali, the son-in-law and cousin of
Mohammed, said that if there was a caravan of camels reaching from
the north pole to the south pole and the last camel in the caravan should
have wine on his back, that he, Ali, would not take hold of the bit of the
head camel. Mohammed said that in hell there is a valley in which there
burn 1,000 loads of wood every day; there is a house in that valley and
in that house a box, and in that box there is a fiery snake which has 100
heads and every head has 100 mouths and every mouth has 100 teeth and
every tooth has 100 stingers and every stinger has 100 poisons. The

CULTIVATING THE VINEYARD.

people asked Mohammed : "Who will be punished there ?" and he an-
swered: "Those who are intemperate." They classed the Jews as an
inferior people, yet Mohammed said that it was easier for a Jew to enter
Heaven than for a person who drank wine. If a person drinks wine at
night, God will look upon him with his bad eye* until morning ; also his
prayer will not be heard for forty days and forty nights. But lately the
opium has been introduced in all parts of Persia, whereas the Moham-
medans are becoming more slaves of it.

*The Mohammedans believe that God has two eyes, one good the
other evil, that with the good eye he watches over the Mohammedans,
with the evil eye over the Christian and all non-Mohammedans.

MANNERS, CUSTOMS, HABITS AND SOCIAL LIFE.

129

Drunkenness (Shurb) denotes the state of a person who has taken
intoxicating liquor, whilst sukr implies a state of drunkenness. Wine
of any kind being strictly forbidden by the Muslim law, no distinction is
made in the punishment of a wine-drinker and a drunkard. If a Muslim
drink wine, and two witnesses testify to his having done so, or if his
breath smell of wine, or if he shall himself confess of having taken wine,
or if he be found in a state of intoxication, he shall be beaten with eighty
stripes, or, in the case of a slave, with forty stripes.

THE CONDITION AND NEEDS OF PERSIA.

Persia in the past has been the scene of great historic advents.
As a land of Oriental splendor it has appealed to the imagination of
the Western world. Persia to-day suffers by the contrast. Though much
reduced in territory, it is still an extensive domain. Notwithstanding the
wide extend of territory and the variety of climate possessed by Persia
it has been for some centuries in a state of weakness. It is but a shadow
of the Persia of the past. Its population is small and sparse. Even its
most fertile plains have no such diversity of population as is found in
India or China. The total population is estimated at ten millions, of
whom two millions are nomads. The cultivated parts of Persia are rich
and productive. When irrigated it is only necessary to tickle the soil
with a hoe and it will laugh into harvest. Its wheat has been pronounced
the best in the markets of the world. It produces also rice, barley, millet,
and maize. Its gardens are famous. Its grapes and peaches are most
delicious, and are on the average better than any I have known. Grapes
in a bunch are hung in a dry place and kept until March.

The other fruits largely cultivated are the apricot, nectarine, almond,
pear, pomegranate, orange, lemon, mulberry, melons, and the fig, all
of which are of good quality, while the cherry, apple, plum are of
inferior flavor.

The sunflower seeds are used for food on the Caspian coast. Nuts
and berries grow wild in the forests. Excellent honey is abundant.
Most of the common garden vegetables are now cultivated and a great
variety of herbs are used.

Tobacco and opium are extensively grown. Cotton is a good crop
and it is stated that enough cotton could be raised in Persia to supply
the markets of Western Europe. Flowers, both wild and cultivated,
flourish in great beauty and variety. The domestic and wild animals
of the temperate zone are also found in Persia. Trout is abundant in

L30

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

mountain streams and salmon and other fish provide a profitable industry
in the tributaries of the Caspian.

A country with such a climate and soil, and perfecting such products,
certainly has capability. The uncultivated portion of Persia is desert,
much the same as Colorado and California once were. Only irrigation
is necessary to produce abundant fertility. Nor is Persia lacking in
mineral resources. These are as yet largely undeveloped, but coal, iron,
lead, copper, arsenic, mercury, sulphur, asbestos, mica, marble, and
manganese are found, and some of them are at present being mined.
Gold dust is found in the Jagatia River, and in the naphtha springs near
Bushire. The pearl fisheries of the Persian gulf are very productive,
while the turquoise mines of Khorasan are pronounced the richest in
the world.

The present inhabitants of Persia, like those of Europe, have the
advantage of the mixture of blood. Over the lands of the Medes and
Persians and Parthians have swept Arabs, Seljukes, Turkomans, Mon-
gols, and Turks in their successive incursions and conquests. Iran and
Turan have been commingled. The last hordes from the steppes of Cen-
tral Asia have left the most distinct mark and retain the ascendency,
the ruling Kajar dynasty being of Tartar-Turkish extraction. The pres-
ent people is the resultant of the fusion of these many elements through
a long series of years. Their physiognomy is a mixed one. Just as the
Osmanlis have been improved in beauty by the mixture of Georgians
and Circassians, so the Tartar-Turks of Northern Persia have been re-
fined by admixture with the Persians.

In color they are slightly darker than Anglo-Saxons, of medium
height, with prominent nose, but on the whole, agreeable features.

Famine and earthquake have had some effects in keeping downline
population of Persia. One urgent need is the development of internal
improvements. The country must be thoroughly irrigated. Occasion-
ally a summer cloud-burst will cause a flood to pour through the village
streets and into the yards, carrying off the sheep and throwing down
the walls.

Again, the development of Persia depends upon certain political re-
forms being accomplished. Official corruption is universally prevalent.
Governors, judges and minor officials now must give presents to obtain
their appointments and to retain their posts year by year. They have no
fixed salaries and consequently live by fees from litigants and even crim-
inals, and otherwise reimburse themselves. The expenses of governors
are greatly increased by custom. Their establishments must be on a
grand scale and at their own expense. A great retinue and large stables

MANNERS, CUSTOMS, HABITS AND SOCIAL LIFE.

131

are needed to maintain the customary pomp. They must provide lavish
entertainments daily for many persons. Persia would be highly benefited
by a codification of the civil law with a definite code of punishment. Too
much is left to the power of the governor, who is both governor and
judge. According to his state of digestion the decision may be death or
release.

PRODUCTS AND METHODS OF DISPOSING OF THEM.

Dates, figs, pomegranates, peaches, apples, pears, plums, apricots,
grapes, and nuts grow in abundance in Persia. The first grapes or fruit
of any kind that ripens is taken by the gardener or servant to his master
as a gift, whereupon his master gives him a present, saying, "May the
Almighty bless you and make you attain the first fruits that you desire.''
The first fruits are emblematic of new life.

In the grocery stores may be found honey, molasses, cheese, butter,
oil, clabber, peas, beans, and rice, together with all the fruits before men-
tioned, but no canned goods. All such stores are in the hands of the
Mohammedans because Christians are an abomination of them so they
will not buy any liquids handled by Christians. Should a man go to a
shopkeeper early in the morning to buy something that cost only a few
cents, the shopkeeper will refuse to take his copper money because he
believes that if he should take copper money at the very beginning of the
day he would have bad luck all day. On the other hand, if he should be
offered silver money early in the morning, he would be very happy
because he believes that it will bring him good luck all day.

In the western provinces of Persia, about forty different kinds of
the best grapes grow, but they are not quite equal to the grapes that
grow along some parts of the Tigris and Euphrates valleys. The grapes,
figs, and dates that grow there are not equaled anywhere. The best kinds
of honey are also exported from these valleys to all parts of the world,
and are used for medicines, but unfortunately this interesting land that
served as the cradle of the human race and from which the good tidings
of salvation and peace through Christ has spread all over the world is
now in the hands of the terrible Turk, who sends out curses instead of
blessings. Fine grapes grow in most parts of Persia, but they cannot
be exported fresh because there are no railroads. They can be carried
for about forty miles on horseback, but when they have been thus car-
ried they soon spoil. From grapes they make both wine and molasses,
but the most of them are dried, making raisins. They cover a terrace
or side hill with plaster made of clay mixed with chaff and upon this they

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spread the ripe grapes to dry in the bright sunshine. When dry they
export them by means of caravans to Russia. When persons are gath-
ering grapes, the passers by greet them by saying, "May God give you
blessings in your vineyard." When they pass by a man who is plowing
they say, "May God give you strength." To both these greetings the
laborers reply, "Welcome" or "Thank you." They raise very good wheat,
barley, and millet. In order to tell if their wheat is good any year, they
chew a few grains to see if it expands and becomes elastic. If so it is
good wheat and dough made from it will also expand and rise nicely.
But if it does not expand when chewed it is poor wheat.

Watermelons and muskmelons are also raised there, but they re-
quire a great deal of work. When a muskmelon is about twice the
size of an egg, they bury it while it is still on the vine. By and by it
grows so as to come on the surface again and is again buried and so on
until it stops growing. They then lay it in the sun until it gets sweet
and ready to be eaten.

The raw silk of Persia is divisible into three qualities. First is the
Abn'sbor — that is, silk of a super excellent grade; second is the Gunuk;
third is the Las. The first quality is divided into different numbers, ac-
cording to fineness of texture, gloss, or color.

The carpet trade of Persia is scarcely less important than the silk
trade. Its leading features are doubtless so widely known, owing to
the fact that so many Persian rugs have reached foreign markets for cen-
turies past.

There is nothing so indefinite as describing a Persian rug, simply
as Persian, because there are twenty-five or thirty kinds of carpets that
come under that head, each entirely distinct from the others ; and unless
the specific name is given it is impossible to tell what sort of a rug or
carpet is meant. It may be stated in general that the texture of the
Persian carpets is more close than that of Turkish carpets, which have
a long nap and are thicker. Persian rugs are all made by hand, without
a single exception; they are stretched on frames as one would make a
sampler, and all the members of a family work on them ; a pattern pre-
scribed for that particular carpet is before them, which they follow with
more or less precision, according as their fancy suits them. As a rule,
considerable license is allowed for the expression of individual taste in
working out these patterns; no two carpets are therefore exactly alike,
and the owner of an old Persian rug may be reasonably sure that while
he may find other rugs resembling his, not one that is absolutely identical

MANNERS, CUSTOMS, HABITS AND SOCIAL LIFE.

133

exists. This quality gives them a value similar to that possessed by an
oil painting.

The sugar cane grows finely in the Caspian provinces, but no sys-
tematic and scientific attempts have been employed to make it profitably
productive.

Tobacco, as all know, is among the most prominent products of
Persia, so the Persians too have that very injurious habit of smoking,
though to their credit be it said they never chew and they use very little
snuff. This is the story circulated among them as to the first use of
tobacco : Once, many, many years ago there was a very sick man whom
the doctors could not cure of his terrible disease, so he was cast out by
his relatives into a lonely place where they hoped that he might die, and
they in this way would get rid of him. He of course became very
hungry, but there was nothing for him to eat. He found a plant, how-
ever, growing there, and that he ate because he was so desperately
hungry that he could eat anything. By and by he began to like the taste
. of it, and he felt better, too, so he kept on eating it until he was entirely
cured of his disease. He then returned home to his people, who were
astonished to see him in perfect health, and asked him what had cured
him. He showed them the plant, which was tobacco. It is frequently
mentioned in their old legends and songs, showing that while America
claims the honor (?) of its introduction into civilized life, yet this noxoius
weed was known and used in Persia long before the discovery of Amer-
ica and the days of Sir Walter Raleigh.

Every smoking man in Persia must have not only a pipe, but also
a piece of flint, a piece of steel, and a supply of punk, or tinder in his
pocket to start a fire to light his pipe. This primitive method of starting
a fire is still in use there because matches are not yet manufactured
there, and when they have to be imported they are more expensive than
the punk. If a man who smokes should happen to have no tobacco and
should meet a Turk and ask him for a smoke, the Turk, if he himself
smokes, would at once ask him to show his pipe, flint, steel, punk, and
tobacco bag. Should he find the man in possession of all these things,
he would know at once that he is a professional smoker and would give
him some tobacco. But if all these things are not found with him the
Turk knows that he is only an occasional smoker and promptly tells him
to go away, or, to put it literally, he says, "Johanamal," "Go to hell." '
HOUSES AND CITIES.
The houses as a rule are built of sun dried bricks, but very, few
being made of burnt bricks. The homes of the poor contain but one

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large room. Some of these houses have rooms built upon the flat roof,
which is reached by a flight of stairs built on the outside. Wealthy
people live in well-built two-story houses. In cities the houses are
built closely adjoining, so that it is possible to walk all over the city
on the house tops. This is the common way of traversing in winter
when the streets are impassible owing to slush and mud. In some of
the large cities such as Teheran, the capital, Isphahan and Shiraz, modern
street paving is being introduced. Streets have no names, houses are
not numbered, no police patrolmen during the day, no city directory
is to be found. All information must be obtained from persons you
chance to meet and find able and willing to give it, or else canvass from
house to house until you reach your point. There are no newspapers
of any kind and of course no advertising is done. As you walk the
streets you will hear the call to prayer when the Mollah, three times
a day, stands on the roof of a minaret on a mosque and repeats the
muezzin. But at times the throng crowding the narrow streets is so
dense as to prevent the Mollah from attending to his duty. Then a
lord or government official may be seen with a company of from 50 to
200 soldiers, as the case may demand, going up and down the street
to open the way for him to pass. Every person must stand still and
bowing low push against a wall when an officer passes. A refusal to
comply with this custom would put anyone in danger of being whipped
to death.

They build their houses in this way: They first dig a foundation.
Then they dig up earth and put water in it thus making mud. Then the
laborers take off their shoes and stockings and roll up their trousers
above their knees and get into this mud and tramp it with their feet,
turning it about twice as they do so. By this time it will be all right and
will stick together very nicely. They then build a wall of this about four
feet high and from three to four feet thick. It will require four or
five days to dry. When it is dry they build as much more on top of it
and continue in this way until it is the desired height. Of course, such
houses never burn down as houses do in this country and the walls
of some of them last from fifty to seventy years. When the walls are
ready they cover the house by putting first a long heavy beam across the
center of it, the ends resting upon the walls, while it is supported in
the center of the house by one or two pillars.

Timbers about eight inches in thickness are now placed from this
beam or sill to the wall on either side. These are something like joists
and are about two feet apart. Upon these joists are placed pieces of

MANNERS, CUSTOMS, HABITS AND SOCIAL LIFE.

135

wood something like laths, about two inches in thickness and two
feet long. Over all this, first reeds and then grass are placed, and
afterwards mud about six inches thick is put over the whole. The mud
they carry up on their backs and then tramp it down thoroughly with
their feet in order to make it stick well and become smooth. Upon
this mud they plaster with the best kind of clay mixed with very fine
chaff to keep it from cracking. Roofs are made almost flat, but sloping
slightly to one side in order to make the water run off when it rains.
This is conducted off by means of a spout. Once every year or two
they replaster the roof. On some the different kinds of green grasses
grow during the rainy season in the spring and then they look very
beautiful, but the summer heat soon comes and withers them premature-
ly. Hence David finds this expression to use against those that hate
Zion : "Let them be as the grass upon the housetops which withereth
afore it groweth up." Ps. cxxix-6.

Thieves very often come in the night and dig holes through these
mud walls and steal. For breaking through they use wooden hammers
and iron chisels mounted upon wooden handles. Upon the handle
of the chisel they fasten a piece of felt to keep it from making any noise
to waken the owner of the house while they are striking it with the
hammer. It is to this effect that our Lord says, "But know this ; that
if the good man of the house had known in what watch the thief would
come l he would have watched and would not have suffered his house to
be broken up, (or digged through) Matt. 20:12-43.

The floors are simply hard, clean, smooth earth floors. One-half
of the floor is covered with a kind of reed matting over which carpets are
spread. I

When one enters a house he takes off his shoes on the earth floor,
then steps upon the carpeted part and sits down with his feet under
him. In this country, people take off' their hats when they enter a house,
but in Asiatic countries they take off their shoes instead.

A Persian stove, or oven, looks like a cylinder. It is built of clay
and is about four feet deep by two and one-half feet in diameter. It
is built in the ground near the center of the house, the top of it being on
a level with the floor. They make fire in it only once a day and at that
time they 'do their cooking and baking. In most parts of Asia wood
is very scarce so their principal fuel is dried manure. This is used for
fuel only and the ashes from it are put upon the fields afterwards as
a fertilizer. There are no pipes to carry out the smoke, hence it comes
first into the house and afterwards escapes through the window in the

136

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

ceiling directly over the oven. The smoke smells while they are making
fires, but in a short time after the fire begins to burn well, it, together
with all other impurities in the house, is drawn out through the
window which is open day and night. The houses are thus thoroughly
ventilated all the time and they have plenty of pleasant fresh air to
breathe, although the ceilings grow quite dark, of course. They make
big, hot fires in these ovens so that the sides of the oven grow to a
white heat, while the coals of fire still remain at the bottom.

They make bread with yeast which they keep on hand for that pur-
pose, and having kneaded it they set it aside to use, as people do in
this country. Afterwards they may cut it into small balls about the
size of ordinary biscuits.

The lady at the left has a rolling pin in her hand. She takes these
balls of dough one at a time and, placing them on a broad board, rolls
them out as thin as blotting paper. As she finishes it, the lady at the
right takes it, and, spreading it over something made for that purpose,
puts it down into the oven as' far as her elbow and sometimes the whole
length of her arm, then slaps it against the sides of the oven which is
quite hot. The dough adheres to this and is quickly baked. It is re-
moved as soon as it is baked and more put in its place. In this way
they keep on until the baking is all done. For large families they usu-

LADY SITTING AT RIGHT IS GRINDING WHEAT ON A
HAND-MILL, THE REST ARE BAKING BREAD

MANNERS, CUSTOMS, HABITS AND SOCIAL LIFE.

137

ally bake every day or every other day, while some bake only once or
twice a week.

It sometimes happens that guests come unexpectedly and there is
not bread enough in the house to serve them. In such cases they bor-
row of their neighbors so many loaves and when -they bake again pay
them back. To this effect -we have the words of our Lord, "And he
said, which of you shall have a friend and shall go unto him at midnight
and say unto him, lend me three loaves for a friend of mine is come to
me from a journey and I have nothing to set before him." (Luke n 15-7.)

HOW THEY EAT.
If a man has, for instance, four sons and they are all married and
some of them have children, that, of course, is a large family and when
they eat they will either put bread and food in a wooden tray which is
made like a sink and is about three or four feet long by a foot and a
half wide, or in a copper one 'about three feet in circumference, or else
they will simply spread a table cloth on the floor which serves them
as a table to place food upon. Then the men will sit around it according
to their ages. For instance, the father, who is absolute master of the
house, sits before it in the place which is considered the best and of
the highest rank, and next to him his oldest son, then the second son
and so on according to their ages. When there is such a large family
the women usually sit in a separate place because the young brides in
the family are not allowed, according to the customs of the country, to
eat in the presence of their father-in-law, or even mother-in-law. For
them to see the lips of a bride move would be something unheard of.
They never use knives and forks to eat with, but their fingers instead,
and if these get wet they lick them. Many people think that food tastes
better when eaten in this way. The main part of every meal is bread.
When they have meat they usually make soup and put vegetables in it.
Onions especially are considered indispensable. They think nothing
tastes so good without onions as it would if it had onions in it. They also
put a little red pepper into soup to make it look red and beautiful and
appetizing. We have already described their bread, how large the
cakes are and as thin and soft as blotting paper. This they break up
in their soup and when it gets moist eat it. They also eat clabber, butter,
milk and cheese. The latter is- well salted, then pressed into a pitcher
and buried in the ground for a -long time, even a whole year often. It
then gets a little strong and has an excellent flavor. This is eaten with
bread broken into small morsels. Sometimes they also eat onions,
pickled green peppers, and some other vegetables with cheese.

138

MANNERS, CUSTOMS, HABITS AND SOCIAL LIFE.

139

Those who have onions growing in their yards take the green tops
and wrapping them around pieces of bread eat it with great relish. They
also make a dish which they call "aash" by cutting up beet tops and
celery and cooking them together in buttermilk. This they eat with
spoons. The common people eat very little rice but the rich eat a great
deal of it. From this they make two different dishes called "dolma"
that have already been described in our account of the marriage feast.

During the summer everybody „in the cities, towns and villages
sleeps upon the flat roofs of their houses under the open sky. They
have bed clothing but no bedsteads, people are not afraid to sleep on
the housetops on account of rain or lightning because there is very little
of either during the summer season. Persia is a dry country and has
a very dry, pure, light, bracing atmosphere. The moonlight there is
exceedingly bright so that people often eat their suppers upon the tops
of their houses with no other light than that. 'Neighbors, while thus
sitting, each family on their own house top often chat back and forth
and are quite sociable while most of the village people can hear them
quite well.

During the winter they spread carpets or matting around the oven,
then having taken off their shoes on the earthen floor they sit around
it and warm themselves. Or else they place a square table over it and
spread a carpet or large quilt over this to keep the heat in and then sit,
a whole large family, half under it, quite cosily. The coals of fire remain
at the bottom of the oven all day/ sometimes all night even, because
manure as fuel holds fire for a much longer time than wood, or coal even.

The window which they always have near the center of the ceiling
of their houses, besides admitting - light and ventilating the houses
for many odd purposes.

When it rains they have to place a pan under the window for the
water falls directly into the house through the window, which always
stands open day and night.

They milk cows, buffalos and sheep. Cheese is made chiefly of
sheeps' milk. Buffalo give the largest quantity of milk, and butter made
from it is as white as snow. Women do all the milking, for it is con-
sidered a disgrace for a man to milk a cow. They milk twice a day as
in this country. When they have finished milking in the morning they
heat the milk almost to the boiling point, then remove it from the fire
and let it cool a little, after which they add about a tablespoonful of sour
milk to it. 'This will make it coagulate, so that by the next morning it is

1 to

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

clabber ready for breakfast. With a little molasses it is considered a
good breakfast.

They keep a little sour milk from time to time to be used for curdling
milk. Those who live in villages make butter in large earthen pitchers
called "meta," while the nomadic people who live in tents make it in
sheep's skin.

They fill the sheep's skin with clabber mixed with some water. In
winter they warm the water, of course. Then they hang up the sheep's
skin on some timbers and shake it until the butter is separated from
the clabber. When a lady has as much as ten or twenty pounds of but-
ter, she boils it well, thus making an oil out of it and then it will keep
a long time. All the impurities settle to the bottom and the oil is poured'
off into earthen pitchers. It will then keep for a year or two and should
they have no cow, sheep or buffalo to milk the next year, they will still
have this boiled butter or oil for cooking.

Furniture is not in use in Persia, as people eat, sit and sleep on
the floor, which is made of hard wood and covered with mattings and
rugs or carpets. Bedding is spread out upon the floor for the night,
rolled up and stowed away for the day. No knives and forks are used
while eating." Traveling is done mostly on the back, of animals and is
very unsafe, the roads being infested with Kurds, robbers and highway-
men. This accounts for the custom of traveling in large companies called
caravans. Passengers find no accommodations excepting at the cara-
vansories, and even there nothing is furnished except the very barest
of necessaries.

Cities, like single dwellings, are surrounded by high earthen walls
about six feet thick and twenty feet in height. The gates within these
walls are open during the day, but at. 8 o'clock in the evening they are
closed. No person can enter or leave the city after this hour and the
people within the city walls might as well remain in doors as the streets
are shrouded in utter darkness, there being no system of street lighting
whatever. Besides this, no person is permitted to walk the streets after
9 o'clock p. m. When a nightwatch or guard (equal to our patrolman)
happens to meet anyone on the street after this hour, he will compel him
to patrol the streets with him all night long, thumping and jerking him
about and occasionally striking him in the neck or on the back unless
he gives him some money. At 5 :30 in the morning the wanderer is con-
fined in a prison cell where he will have to remain until a ransom has
been paid for him, the amount of which is determined by the chief of
police. Persons whose duty or calling make it imperative to go out upon

MANNERS, CUSTOMS, HABITS AND SOCIAL LIFE

141

the streets after 9 p. m., such as physicians, nurses, etc., can do so un-
molested provided they have been careful to get the password from the
mayor of the city. Such a password is given out to the city officials by
the mayor daily and any private person knowing it proves thereby that
he or she has permission to be out after the respective hour.

EDUCATION.

Education without religion is to the Muhammadan mind an an-
omaly. In all books of traditions there are sections specially devoted
to the consideration of knowledge, but only so far as it relates to a
knowledge of God, and of "God's Book." The people who read the
"Book of God" are, according to the sayings of the Prophet, described
as "assembling together, mosques, with light and comfort descending
as "assembling together in mosques, with light and comfort descending
compassing them round about.7The chief aim and object of education in
Islam is, therefore, to obtain a knowledge of the religion of Muham-
mad, and anything beyond this is considered superfluous, and even dan-
gerous. /Amongst Muhammadan religious leaders there have always
been two classes — those who affect the ascetic and strictly religious life
of mortification, such as the Sufi mystics and the Fagirs; and those
who, by a careful study of the Koran, the Tradition, and the numerous
works on divinity, have attained to a high reputation for scholarship,
and are known in Turkey as the "Ulama," or "learned," and in India,
as "Maulawis."

Amongst Muhammadans generally, a knowledge of science and vari-
ous branches of secular learning is considered dangerous to the faith,
and it is discouraged by the religious, although some assert that Muham-
mad has encouraged learning of all kinds in the Koran, by the follow-
ing verse, Surah ii. 272 : — "He giveth wisdom to whom he will, and he
to whom wisdom is given hath had much good given him."

The parents seldom devote much of their time or attention to the
intellectual education of their children ; generally contenting themselves
with instilling into their young minds a few principles of religion, and
then submitting them, if they can afford to do so, to the instruction of a
school. As early as possible, the child is taught to say, "I testify that there
is no deity but God, and I testify that Muhammad is God's Apostle."
He receives also lessons of religious pride, and learns to hate the Christ-
ians, and all other sects but his own, as thoroughly as does the Muslim
in advanced age.

In connection with all mosques of importance, in all parts of Islam,

142

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

whether in Turkey, Egypt, Persia or India, there are small schools, either
for the education of children, or for the training of students of divinity.
The child who attends these seminaries is first taught his alphabet, which
he learns from a small board, on which the letters are written by the
teacher. He then becomes acquainted with the numerical value of each
letter. After this he learns to write down the ninety-nine names of God,
and other simple words taken from the Koran. When he has mastered
the spelling of words, he proceeds to learn the first chapter of the Koran,
then the last chapter, and gradually reads through the whole Koran
in Arabic, which he usually does without understanding a word of it.
Having finished the Koran, which is considered an incumbent religious
duty, the pupil is instructed in the elements of grammar, and perhaps
a few simple rules of arithmetic. To this is added a knowledge of one
Hindustani, or Persian book. The ability to read a single Persian book,
like the Gulistan or Bustan, is considered in Central Asia to be the sign
of liberal education. The ordinary school master is generally a man
of little learning, the learned Maulawi • usually devoting himself to the
study of divinity, and not to the education of the young. Amongst
students of divinity, who are called Talabatu, or "seekers after knowl-
edge," the usual course of study is as follows : as-sarf, grammatical in-
flection ; annahw, syntax ; al-mantig, logic ; al-hisab, arithmetic ; al-jabr
wa'l-muqabalah, algebra, al-ma'na wa'l-bayan, rhetoric and versification ;
al-figh, jurisprudence ; al— 'aga'id, scholastic theology ; at-tafsir, com-
mentaries on the Koran 'ilmu '1-usul, treatises on exegesis, and the
principles and rules on interpretation of the laws of Islam; al-ahadis,
the traditions and commentaries thereon. These are usually regarded
as different branches of learning, and it is not often that a Maulawi, or
'Alim, attains to the knowledge of each section. For example, a scholar
will be celebrated as being well educated in al-ahadis, but he may be
weak in al-figh. The teacher, when instructing his pupils, seats himself
on the ground with his hearers all seated round him in a ring. Instruc-
tion in mosques is usually given in the early morning, after the morning
prayer, and continues some three or four hours. It is again renewed
for a short time after the mid-day prayer. Students in mosques are gen-
erally supported by the people of the parish, who can be called upon
for food for all the inmates of a mosque every morning and evening. Not
infrequently mosques are endowed with land, or rents of shops, and
houses, for the payment of professors.

Every city or town has its school for boys, located in the mosques
and conducted by Mollahs. The attendance at the school also for the boys

MANNERS, CUSTOMS, HABITS AND SOCIAL LIFE.

143

is voluntary, no one being compelled to send his boys if he should pre-
fer to keep them at home. Pupils pay the teacher all the way from five
to twenty-five cents a month tuition ; but such as are too poor to pay
anything are admitted free of charge. The Mollah's sustenance is fur-
nished him by the pupils daily in the form of eatables of all kinds. These
schools are attended by boys and youths ranging from ten to twenty
years of age. The teacher has authority to punish the pupil very se-
verely. Parents will sometimes take a boy to school and deliver him
over to the gentle keeping and care of the teacher with these words :
"His bones are mine, but his flesh is yours. Teach him and punish
him as you see fit."

When boys go to school they usually sit in two rows. One row
sits along one wall books in hand and the other row along the op-
posite wall while the teacher sits in the center of the room. They do not
use chairs but sit on the floor which is covered with a reed matting.
When they are studying their lessons they sway their bodies backward
and forward as though they were in a rocking chair and read in a sing-
song style as though they were chanting, sometimes so loud that they
can be heard for quite a distance. They have neither blackboards nor
slates but use paper and reed pens for learning to write. They put
their left knee on the floor and set their right one up for a desk to rest
the paper on. They use the Arabic alphabet and read and write from
right to left instead of left to right. They also begin their books at the
back reading forward. In their schools they learn to read some tales
and traditions of the Koran and some poetry but do not study much
mathematics or geography and no science but plenty of astrology. When
they have finished school they become secretaries, shop keepers, mer-
chants, priests, jewelers and bankers.

Among Mohammedan children and even among old people cursing
is very common. They say "May 'Allah' kill your children or burn
your house, or may your father be burned," and such things. They
swear by "Allah" who created everything from nothing. A Moham-
medan may swear to a falsehood in the name of "Allah" but his faith
in God who created everything out of nothing is true and sincere.

A post is planted in the school-room. To this an unruly boy's
feet are tightly fastened, soles upward, and the soles are then belabored
with heavy switches. This is, however, applied only to the most unruly
and wilfullest. For milder offenses, the teacher raps pupils over the head
with a long switch, which is always kept in a convenient place or carried
about with him by the teacher. Religious teachings are limited to

144

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

quotations from the Koran and repeating the traditions about their
prophets. The boys are generally very fond of reviling each other, and
very quarrelsome. The teacher does not protect the weaker, but urges
him on to return insinuations or blows. Frequently the pupils of one
mosque attack those of another, regarding them as their enemies. The
most prominent university of the Shute Mohammedans is in the shrine
of Karballa.

All who wish to become Mushtaheds (see Priesthood) study at this
place. In several large cities they have schools of higher rank than
the ordinary mosque-school. In these the pupils are offered a course of
Persian literature. We state with pleasure that the late Shah, after his
visits to some of the European universities, has founded a college in his
capital, which is called the abode of science. The French, English
and Russian languages are taught here, and the study of some modern
sciences are being introduced. This institute, however, is only available
to princes and sons of wealthy people ; it is only one pretty flower in
the vast wilderness. The aim of Mohammedanism is to keep the masses
ignorant, so that the priests may continue to rule over them. The en-
tire priesthood, therefore, does not favor higher education. Some counts
or lords send their sons to Paris, in France, to be educated, but the
ordinary young man has no opportunities to acquire knowledge.

Mohammedans who can read and write always have a pair of scissors
in the ink-case that they carry with them in their pockets. When thev
write a letter, they always trim the margins of it, for a tradition is
current among them that if they did not cut the margins of their letters
their wives would be untrue to them. Having put their letters into
envelopes with their edges properly trimmed, they always seal them
with a seal that most of them carry in their purses.

MOHAMMEDAN WOMEN.

It is the policy of the Mohammedans not to open too wide the eyes
of women, consequently they have no schools for girls. Among the
higher classes even, very few ever teach their daughters to read, con-
sequently there are millions of Mohammedan women who during their
whole lives can never take up a book and read or sit down and write
a letter to their friends. Sometimes it happens that a woman's husband
has to reside for a time several hundred miles distant from her. In such
a case should she wish to write to him she will cover her face and go to
a priest and tell him what she wants to have written to her husband.
He then writes the letter for her and she pays him for it. When she

MANNERS, CUSTOMS, HABITS 1 ANfi SOCIAL LIFE.

receives a letter from her husband she again has to go to the priest
or some one else that can read and has them read it for her. This shows
how very ignorant they are and no wonder then that they are so super--
stitious. When they go out it is customary for them to cover their entire
body with a large blue wrap, while a linen veil, with small holes in it
for the eyes, is worn over, the face. These wraps they wear are nearly
all of the same color and the same material so that when they are out-
walking many of them cannot be recognized by their own nearest rela-
tives even. Rich and poor appear just the same. When they go to a 1
party, or ladies' reception we might call it, they paint their faces with 1
a red substance, and blacken their eyes, eyelashes and eyebrows with 1
black antimony. Many of them color their fingers and finger nails and^
even their feet red with henna. They dye their hair also with henna and'
plait it in many long braids. They wear necklaces and chains around'
their necks and bracelets and glass bangles on their arms. Quite a
number of them smoke pipes. Most of the ladies of the higher classes
are very idle. They invite each other to parties by turns. Often ten
or fifteen of them may be seen in the streets attended by servants, go-
ing to parties. Where women are gathered no men appear, and where
men are no women come.

Fashions among Mohammedan women do not change as they do
among ladies of this country. There a costume that was worn by
a lady twenty or more years ago is just the same as those worn by the
ladies of to-day. I dare say that I have seen more changes of styles in
the ladies' dress of this country during my short residence here than
all the records of Persia in that line could show, were such records kept,
from the time of the resting of the Ark on Ararat to the present day.
The Mohammedan ladies cover their person when they go out, but the
ladies of this country wear hats upon their heads instead. Mohammedan
women are never seen bareheaded and their '^voice must not be heard
in the streets and their mouths must not be seen moving to eat anything.
If two ladies wish to speak to each other in the steets they must step
aside where they cannot be seen by the passers-by.

Women of the lower classes work very hard. Peasant women rise
early in the morning and do their milking and general house-work. Then
they take their sickles and cut grain in the harvest fields, or their short
handled hoes and cut weeds in the cotton fields. In the evening when
they come home there will be seen on their backs a five foot square
canvas filled with fresh grass for the cows and buffalos and their young.
This they feed them in the evenings so that they may have plenty of nice

146

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

milk the next morning. Widows do harvesting, weeding, sewing, weav-
ing and spinning. During the wheat harvest they go to the fields and
glean but they are seldom allowed to follow the reapers. They glean
after the wheat is stacked, gathering the heads one by one, they take
them home and thresh them, and in this way add to the store of grain
for the winter. Dish washing is a very small item with them for they
use very few dishes. After some meals there are none to wash. They
very seldom wash clothes either. When they do, a certain plant and the
bark of the soap tree are used for it and very little soap.

THE PERSIAN WOMEN CLEANING CABBAGE.

It is the women of the middle, and some too, of the lower classes,
that have made Persia famous all over the world for her elegant rugs,
carpets and shawls. They spin the yarn and dye it at home in the excel-
lent colors that hold their own as long as a piece of it remains. It takes
a long time to make these rugs, however, for every particle of the work
is done by hand. It requires from three to four months to make a single
rug, but when finished, it is not only beautiful but will also last for years,
thus making Persian rugs celebrated not only for their beauty but for
their durability as well.

MODES OF TRAVELING.

Camels are liked best for this business on account of their great
strength for bearing burdens and their great ability to endure hardships,
such as hunger and thirst, their gentleness, on account of their being so

MANNERS, CUSTOMS, HABITS AND SOCIAL LIFE. 147

easily kept. A few persons only can lead a caravan of fifty or a hundred
camels. The camels are all bound together and go the road one behind
the other like coaches of a very long train. Bells are hung upon the
camel's neck ; while traveling they tinkle continually, and if during dark
nights highwaymen should stop a camel, the sound of the bells would
be interrupted. The caravan men's ears are so accustomed to the sound
of these bells that they at once detect it if one goes wrong, and they are
equally prompt to see what the trouble is and protect their camels.

The higher classes of men in Persia travel on horseback. The
Shah himself rides for hundreds of miles in this way, but for ladies be-
longing to the upper classes, the "tektaravan" is used. It is somewhat
similar to the sedan. It rests upon two poles and is carried by horses
and used by wealthy people only. The "tektaravan" is often seen pass-
ing through the streets accompanied by the jingling of the bells on the
horses' necks. . It is followed and surrounded by a number of servants
and attendants. Next in point to the "tektaravan" is the "kagava" for
ladies to travel in. It is used by the middle classes and by some of the
higher classes also, and consists of two cages or boxes made of wood and
fastened together. These have their fronts opened, and are fastened
securely on the backs of the horses or mules. One lady sits in each of
these boxes, while the articles they have with them are placed with the
lighter lady to balance the "kajara" and prevent it from swinging too
much. The "kajara" is always guarded by servants or "charvadars."
They travel long distances in this way and it is a very common mode
of traveling throughout the whole of Persia. The lower classes, or
villagers, do what little traveling falls to their miserable lot on foot or
upon the backs of donkeys, seldom upon horseback. Donkeys are the
animals most generally used among the lower classes both for riding
and bearing burdens, and while all the modes of traveling in Persia are
very slow and tedious, this one is especially noted for its slowness. Con-
sequently those who travel in this way must have an extraordinary
amount of patience.

The numerous nomadic tribes of Persia offer one of the most inter-
esting and important divisions of its population. It is impossible to
ascertain their exact number, but it is probably somewhat over a million..

The nomads of Persia spend the winter in mud villages on the
plains ; in the summer they move to the mountains with their flocks, and
dwell in goat-hair tents. They resort to the same spot year after year,
and any tribe or clan or family that should pitch its tents in a place pre
viously occupied by another would be considered an interloper.

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PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

These nomads are a thrifty set ; and what with the sale of butter
and cheese, of mutton and wool and textile stuffs, they generally keep
the wolf from the tent door, and accumulate enough at least to endow
their daughters with flocks and jewels. I gathered these facts not only
from observation, but also from conversing with some of the nomads
themselves. They told me the tax collector comes around every month
and counts the flocks. The regular tax is four shahis, or three cents
per month on each sheep and goat. This practically amounts to forty
per cent, on the value of each animal per annum, if sold on the hoof;
but really it is considerably less than that proportion, for during the
year a large amount of wool is sheared from the flocks, which is so much
over and above their market value, while the cost of feeding the flocks
and herds is next to nothing. Thus it is evident that a good margin
of profit remains to these thrifty roamers of the Persian wilds. Of
course, the chief of each tribe gets the lion's share of the profits, and
can sometimes indulge in considerable pastoral display ; occasionally, too,
the governors of the districts make unusual levies on them for contribu-
tions of money ; a large proportion of the Persian army, especially for the
cavalry, is also drafted from these tribes. They submit to the latter
hardship with ill grace sometimes, although they make the best soldiers
in Persia. But all things considered, no class of the Persian population
is so comfortably situated as its nomadic tribes. By special treaty pro-
vision with Russia, about forty thousand of these nomads, chiefly of
the tribe called the Shah Sevend, whose winter quarters are near the
northwest frontier, are permitted to cross the line and pasture their
flocks during the summer time on the fat pasture lands of the Araz in
the southern Caucasus.

THE RURAL DISTRICTS.

Let us mount on Horseback, or on little donkeys, and seek a village
where we may cross the threshold of an old-fashioned Mohammedan
dwelling. On our way to the country, as we ride along, enjoying the
glories of the summer, giving and returning the salutations of peace
and welcome, we shall find much that is interesting, both in objects and
in scenery. We hear the rippling of the wayside brook, and the notes
of the birds as we pass under the arching trees. Our eyes are greeted
by lovely hillsides and dales covered with beds of fragrant wild flowers
or by waving fields of grain, stretching away to the horizon. Yonder is
the mountain side, dotted with log houses and with the slowly moving
caravans of Syrian camels, journeying for many weary saats, or hours.

MANNERS, CUSTOMS, HABITS AND SOCIAL LIFE.

149

In the absence of railroa'ds, these animals perform the duties of loco-
motives, although at a somewhat slower rate. The peculiar feature about
this mighty host of camels is that they are led by a little sleepy donkey.
This gives origin to one of our proverbs. When a mighty intellect
follows the counsel of an insignificant one, it is said, "The camel is
following the donkey." Here and there we see large droves of horses,
buffaloes, sheep, and oxen, pasturing on the great sweeps of grass. Yon-
der, from the high wooded hills, a host of donkeys with loads of wood
on their backs and loud jingling bells suspended from their necks, bray-
ing, kicking and jumping, are on the road to their respective homes ;
for each donkey knows where he belongs and needs no direction in find-
ing the place. These little creatures are collected from various homes
by a donkey man every morning and returned in the evening with a
burden of wood for the use of the household. As we approach the
cottage, all the dogs in the village are thoroughly aroused by our knock-
ing.

The Agah, or head man of the family or village, like his fellow villag-
ers, is simple-minded, good-hearted, honest, but unprogressive, unambi-
tious and ignorant. He cannot read or write, nor does he know any other
literature and history than that of his! own immediate ancestors, and he
passionately cherishes these legends and traditions of his fathers. He
never strives to keep up appearances.

Like neighboring peasants, his life is simple and his wants are few.
Many generations have wrought little or no change in his manners
and modes. He scorns all modern improvements, and regards them
with much suspicion and prejudice. His bigotry and ignorance render
him an easy victim to superstition ; and consequently, any Western farm-
ing machinery, and any advanced movement that is beyond his compre-
hension, he pronounces "devilish," and has nothing to do with it.

He is the head of a great family, grouped together on the mountain
side, with its green sloping pastures, and lives with his flocks and nu-
merous children. An ample roof shelters the nearly three score mem-
bers of the family for generations under a single roof, without knowledge
or care for the world outside their little village. Yet they are com-
fortable, happy and contented in their little round of duties and pleasures,
and are blessed with an easy-going temperament. The young man rises
with the sun in the morning, and with his flocks, wanders over green
mountains and hills, by shady groves and still waters, singing cheerfully
his native ballads through the woods, or playing his sweet-toned flute.
He returns home late, as the waning moon feebly lights up the exquisite

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landscape. He joins the family dance by the blaze of the evening fire,
while the old women weave cotton and yarn, or are occupied in making
various articles for domestic use. The house is built in a picturesque
locality.

Logs are brought down from the near forest. Bricks are made
of mud and straw, and are molded in various sizes and shapes, then
put into open fields to dry. In a few days they become sufficiently solid
for building a substantial house. The earth which is dug out is banked
against the sides of the house, and the rear of the structure is entirely
imbedded in the hillside. Light enters through the oiled paper windows
in the flat roof, or, when windows are altogether discarded, the occu-
pants are content with what light penetrates down from the low chim-
ney, which is not higher than the roof.

The abodes of the Mohammedan farmers are more like bee hives
than human dwellings. They are really huts, mainly one story, barn
and house being built under one roof. Such an abode old Diogenes him-
self would have coveted. In the summer the stork builds her nest on
the broad-topped chimney and raises her brood quite undisturbed. At
night the room is illuminated by a feeble, flickering olive oil wick.

There are no tables, no chairs, no books, no ornamental decora-
tions, but here and there are spread divans, and minders, or cushions,
with drapery of Kurdish stuffs, upon which the occupants stretch them-
selves in crosslegged carelessness.

One, or perhaps two, large rooms suffice for sleeping, cooking, eat-
ing and lounging. With such rude belongings the Agah never seems
to think anything is lacking. On the wall, if we charitably term it so,
or rather on the partitial partition that separate the living apartments
from the vast stable, are saddles, bridles, guns and the entire parapherna-
lia of the field and chase. The equine favorites are nearest the family,
for as with all Orientals and some Occidentals, the horse ranks
highest in esteem as a domestic animal. Farther on are donkeys, buffa-
loes, cows, and sheep, with chickens scattered between them.

As we step into the house we are received with a profusion of sa-
laams. We at once find ourselves in the midst of a large Mohamme-
dan family, grandfathers, fathers, uncles, brothers, cousins, and numer-
ous children, — all assembled in a large room, dressed in gay and odd
colors, sitting crosslegged around the bright, blazing fire and warming
their lazy bones. But we fail to see in the great gathering any women,
except the old grandmother. The young Mohammedans here must
surely have some wives ; in such a large family, doubtless, there must be

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151

some young girls too ; but where are they ? All out of sight ! As their
religion does not allow women to appear in the presence of men, no
matter how intimately acquainted, they are all driven into seclusion — a
very bad custom, indeed. The more religious a Moslem, the more rigidly
the privacy of women is enforced, and, as a rule, the country people in
this neighborhood are the most zealous of fanatics.

At the side opposite the darkest chimney corner, where the grand-
mother is, sits the old Agah, stretching his feet out and smoking with
Musselman gravity his pipe, which is so extremely long that it extends
from the corner to the center of the room. In the course of our conversa-
tion, the old man remarks, concerning his residence, that his great-great
great — that "great," however, goes about a half a mile — grandfather was
born and died on the same spot where he now lives ; and that he is about
seventy-five years of age, but never has been a dozen saats journey
from his home. This is the case with many a Mohammedan peasant.
Many, indeed, never set foot outside their farms. No progress is ever
made in this pastoral life. Through his own inclination, and the policy
of his rulers, the Mohammedan has remained isolated through the ages
from the blessings of civilization ; and neither European influence nor
missionaries have managed to make any ingress to speak of.

As we chat with our host our talk is interrupted by ten or fifteen
dogs who are having a lively concert of howling and barking. Let us
ask him why he doesn't kill those useless brutes and get rid of them
one for all. He will answer "It is a great sin against Allah, and a viola-
tion of our laws." So numerous are dogs, especially in the country, that
when a Mohammedan was once asked the population of the village, he
replied, "About one hundred and sixty dogs and one hundred and
twenty people."

When dinner time comes, all the males of the house return from the
field, wash their hands and faces, and sit crosslegged on the floor in a
circle around the sufra, or low table. There are spoons, but no knives
or forks. In the center is placed an immense bowl of hot soup. When
ready for the fray, the Agah gives them the signal to commence and
immediately all the spoons enter the bowl. The soup is followed with
a dish of meat. Each rolls up his long, flowing sleeves, and with bare
fingers and unbounded appetite, separates the flesh from the bones. Then
comes the unfailing accompaniment, yoghurt, or coagulated buttermilk, —
a highly prized species of refreshment. After a succession of dishes, the
meal is ended with washing of hands.

Now let us watch how the Agah works in the field. He has no

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set time to commence his harvest ; he takes his time, as there is not
much fear of rain during the harvest season. As soon as the stalks of the
crops are yellow, or sufficiently matured, they are cut by hand with
scythes and stacked up in piles in the open field. In due season the piles
are all removed from the various quarters to the village threshing-floor
in large arabahs, or carts, drawn by buffaloes and heifers. The thresh-
ing-floor is a hard and smooth circular piece of ground, from fifty to
eighty feet in diameter, upon which the stalks are strewn. Then the
threshing machine, a sort of sled, with a woman or boy standing on it,
is drawn around on the hard, earthen floor by oxen. This threshing
implement is made of a hard piece of wood, and set on the under side
with sharp, flinty stones, like Indian arrow heads. It grinds the straw
into fine chaff and sifts out the grain. At the evening breeze, the threshed
grain is thrown into the air with a light shovel, and thus the broken
straw is blown on one side, leaving the wheat on the ground for the
granaries. The chaff is also gathered and stored away for the purpose
of feeding the cattle during the winter.

The farmer's son does not migrate to towns in search of better em-
ployment, but stays where he is born, by his father's cattle, possessed
only of what the cravings of nature require, and is immovable in his
peasant instincts as well as in beliefs, ideas and usages.

In rural districts, such as the one described, the old patriarchal ad-
ministrative system is still in vogue, where, within the crude and primi-
tive log house, by the hearth, sits the venerable Agah, whose every word
is law to those within. He is, as indicated, the agent for his community
in all transactions with the government.

The population of Persia is largely employed in culturing and herd-
ing. As a class they have fewer wants and comforts, their food is sim-
ple, their clothing cheap and their houses not very costly, and their
minds. uncultivated. Very few of them can read; they are well acquainted
with the rites and traditions of their religion, and are faithful in per-
formance of ceremonies.

Persian farmers are not the owners of the land they cultivate, and
have no expectations of ever becoming proprietors. For safety, their
houses are all collected in a village and are crowded together ; the stable
is just beside the living room, with one yard for both ; but the Kurds
live in the same houses with their cattle, and also most of the mountain-
eers.

The roof of the stable and corners of the yard are filled with stacks
of hay, thorns and bushes. The clothing of the men and women is com-

MANNERS CUSTOMS, HABITS AND SOCIAL LIFE.

153

mon blue cotton cloth, made of very little difference in style, except that
the woman's costume reaches only to the knee, leaving- limbs and feet
bare.

Their bread is made of wheat and rye, and some people who are poor
use barley also.

The yeasted bread is rolled into balls on a sheepskin, then rolled
and tossed deftly till it becomes a long, thin sheet, spread on a cushion
and slapped on the side of the oven till baked, and is crisp and good
when fresh. Thirty or more of these sheets are baked every day, and it
is no easy task, bending over the hot furnace, preparing them.

The farmers go out a long distance to do their work. The most
primitive methods are employed by them. Two kinds of plows are
used. The smallest one is simply the fork of a tree; the point of the
large one is covered with iron. They do not overturn the soil, but only
loosen it to a shallow depth. For some crops the ground is plowed
three times. After harrowing small ridges or ditches are made to di-
vide the field into sections in order to facilitate irrigation.

These are made by two men, with the use of a large hoe. One man
pulls the handle and moves the soil and the other, with the rope, lifts
the hoe and places it in the next pull. The seed is carried in a sack.
There are no fences ; the fields extend for miles without interruption save
for the watercourses and trees, planted beside them. The reaper bends
over his work with a short sickle in one hand, while ini the other some-
times a stick a foot long is fastened with! bands of leather or a glove so
that he may grasp a larger bundle. The traveler is accustomed to salute
the harvesters with greetings such as, "May God give you strength."
They answer, "Your coming is pleasing," "May Allah keep you." The
traveler replies, "May your harvest be blessed." They respond, "May
your life be prolonged."

If the traveler be a prominent man, they bring a sheaf and set it
before him on the road, or a sheep with a knife held at its throat, ready
for sacrifice should he give the word.

The proper acknowledgment is a backshish. Carts drawn by oxen
or buffalo are used for transportation of the crops. They are heavy
structures about fifteen feet long. The bed is six feet wide at the back
and gradually narrows until it reaches a point at the end of the tongue.
The wheels have clumsy spokes, on the end of which heavy arcs of wood,
without spokes and with broad iron tires.

The threshing floors are just beside the village, and close to one
another for safety and convenience. A plot of land about twenty-five

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PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

feet square is leveled off and hardened. A staple is fastened in the mid-
dle and to a pole is sometimes fastened. Oxen tied to the staple or pole
tread upon and thresh out the grain. The oxen are often muzzled. The
people say it is right to do so, lest the oxen surfeit themselves to their
own injury. Several kinds of threshing machines are used. One kind
consists of a roller about five feet long with teeth or spikes spirally ar-
ranged upon it. It revolves as the oxen draw it. Another kind is in the
shape of a paddle, four or five feet long and two feet wide in the long part.
Under it are fastened about thirty rows of fiintstones which protrude
below the surface. The front part is turned up like a sledge-runner,
and a man stands on it beating the oxen. By either of these methods
the straw is thoroughly cut up and the wheat loosened.

TWO PERSIAN CHRISTIANS DIGGING DITCHES FOR IRRIGATION,
BEING FORCED BY THE MOHAMMEDAN STANDING
IN THE MIDDLE.

With a pitchfork it is cast before the wind and the chaff is blown
aside. The cut straw is stored away for fodder and plastering, but bricks
are made without straw.

A peculiar crop is the harvest of thorns. On the uncultivated land
and on the fields after harvests spring up great quantities of camel-
thorns. These are diligently gathered and brought on donkeys' backs
to be used as dry manure in baking bread, burning limestone or bricks,
and heating the bath houses. The flocks of a village are pastured in
common, in charge of herder. The watch-dogs are fierce yellow curs,

MANNERS, CUSTOMS, HABITS AND SOCIAL LIFE.

155

a terror to a stranger. The flocks consist of sheep and goats, herds of
cows, buffaloes, horses, donkeys, and camels.

Sheep and goats are greatly valued for their milk. The Persian
sheep is noted for its large tail ; it is a mass of fat of ten-pounds weight.

There is a popular notion that if the calf is taken away the cow will
become dry. Hence the hide is stuffed with straw and placed beside the
cow at milking time. Oxen, buffaloes and donkeys are almost exclu-
sively used for farm work. Oxen are sometimes shod and as many as
six pairs hitched to one plow. The buffalo is extremely ugly, black, al-
most hairless and very powerful. The donkey has great endurance, lives
at small cost on straw, weeds and thorn bushes and is withal the best
friend of the Persian farmer.

Horses, mules and camels are little used in farming. Of the camels'
hair they make ropes, rough cloths and rugs, and even the finest quality
of shawls. The feeding of the camel is interesting.

It eats thorns, thistles and the roughest of stubble, but its peculiar
food is a ball of barley or other flour, about the size of a croquet ball,
which is prepared and thrust into his mouth. It is susceptible to cold
and should be used on the road in northern Persia only about seven
months in the year. When old or disabled, its flesh is eaten, sometimes
it becomes crazy and is then very dangerous. When so, it will tear and
grind a man to mince-meat under its knees. It is tamed only by starva-
tion.

Irrigation occupies much of the attention of the farmers, every
creek and spring is utilized.

Water privileges are continually causes of quarreling, near villages
and among close neighbors irrigation strifes are common, and even
murders are committed over well contentions as the servants of Abraham
and Lot disagreed, since their crops depend upon it they hotly and per-
sistently maintain their rights.

AGRICULTURE.

Persian people are largely employed in agriculture and grazing.
Farmers go a long distance to work. Oxen, cows and buffaloes are used
in plowing the fields. The plow is similar to the fork of a tree, the point
being covered with iron or steel ; the soil is scratched up and loosened
somewhat to shallow depth. Plowing is done three times in a season ;
then narrow ditches are drawn to divide the field and to irri-
gate it. The water from the river is turned into creeks to run the
flouring mills, then divided into little brooks and streamlets, and thus

156

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

carried to the farms and fields. The seed is sown by hand, broadcast.
Reapers or cradles are not used in harvesting, sickles or scythes taking
their places. The blades of the agricultural implements are almost the
same as those in the United States, but the handles are very small.
A reaper cuts one handful of grain after another until a good sized bun-
dle is cut; this he then binds into a sheaf, before cutting any more, and
so forth. A person passing a field where a farmer is at work will greet
him by saying, "May God give you strength," whereupon the farmer
will reply, "You are welcome ; may God keep you." But should the former
be of the nobility, the farmer will pick up a sheaf of grain and lay before
the visitor on the road. This is answered by the latter with a present
of a few cents or whatever he may choose to give, according to his
dignity.

When the time for threshing approaches the farmers have all the
grain carried on horseback or by donkeys to the vicinity of the village
where the threshing is to take place. Here the farmer takes sheaf after
sheaf, unties it and throws it in a circle upon the bare ground, in the
open air. Muzzled oxen are then led across it again and again, or round
and round in the circle, to tramp the kernels out with their hoofs. It
some places they employ a sort of machine, consisting of a roller about
five feet long and one and a half feet high, with teeth or iron spikes spir-
ally arranged on it. Above the roller is a seat for the driver, and when
the machine is drawn the roller turns. When all the wheat is threshed
it is left in a heap and the farmer waits for a strong wind ; then with
wooden grain forks the grain is thrown into the air and the wind blows
the chaff away, while the kernels fall to the ground.

This is then carried to the mill, where it is ground into flour.

Numerous orchards yield all kinds of delicious fruit. Mulberry
tree orchards are carefully raised and tended for feeding silk worms ;
apricots are cultivated in large orchards and the fruit dried both for the
home market and for export ; but a small part of the annual crop is kept
for summer and winter use without cooking or canning it. Large vine-
yards employ thousands of people, and the grapes are among the best in
the world and of endless variety, and the wine prepared from them is very
palatable, not being at all adulterated. Large quantities of molasses
are also manufactured from grape juice, much of which is exported to
Europe, via Austria. Two kind of raisins are made from the grapes;
the kishmish and the sabja. A plastered or cemented surface on the
slope of a hill is covered with grapes, which are then converted into
raisins by rays of the sun. These raisins are called kishmish. Water,

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157

turned into lye by the addition of ashes from thornbush or burnt vines,
is boiled and grapes dipped into it. After this they are_ spread out upon
the ground to dry for a week. The very choicest raisins are made from
seedless grapes. A strong, spiritous liquor, called arac, is manufactured
from raisins by distillation.

A large part of the work connected with grazing consists in attend-
ing to the milch cows, sheep and goats. The milking of the latter affords
quite a comical aspect. The gate or door of the goat pen is so low that
the goat must lower her head to enter. While in the act of doing so the
head is grasped and held firmly by one woman while another milks the
goat. All milk is heated forthwith and most of it is turned into matsoon
and cheese. The matsoon or yogurt is a curd gained by putting rennet

into the boiled milk and letting it sour for several days. From the
soured milk butter is made in churns. There are several kinds. A large
earthern jar, somewhat shaped like an egg, is filled with cream, the open-
ing closed with a piece of leather 1 and the jar laid down upon one side,
whereupon it is rolled back and forward on the ground. Another churn
is made from the hollowed trunk of a tree. It is suspended in the air
by ropes and made to move similar to a swing. Cheese is made by al-
lowing the whey to flow off without pressure. It is preserved by salt
and sometimes mixed with herbs for flavor, and buried.

Spinning and weaving dress goods, carpets and other fabrics are
universal household operations. Wool is carded by pulling it over a
pair of long-toothed brass combs. Wool and silk are sometimes spun
on a distaff, whirled by hand, but more frequently a spin-wheel is used,

THRESHING WHEAT.

158

PERSIA BYoA PERSIAN.

the spinner sitting upon the floor and managing the thread partly with
her feet. In many villages are little shops where silk is spun on a
small machine. The cocoons are thrown into a caldron of boiling
water mixed with milk. A man turns a wheel, about a yard in diam-
eter, by means of a pedal, and with one hand stirs the cocoons to
loosen the fiber while with the other hand he draws up the thread
to be wound around the wheel. The refuse and stray fibers are spun
by the women and made into head-dresses. In the orchards of mul-
berry trees, where the leaves are gathered for feeding the worms, the
trees are kept trimmed so that each occupies but one square yard of
ground. The seed worms complete their work in three months and
are kept in the house during the winter months. The annual silk
crop of Persia, produced chiefly in the Caucasian provinces, amounts
to 600,000 pounds.

CULTIVATING THE GROUND.
Persians use oxen or buffalo to draw their plows but buffaloes are
preferred for this work because they are so strong and can stand
such hard work. Horses are never used for plowing in Persia, because
the plows they use are very old fashioned and poor and the ground is
so very hard that it is impossible for horses to do the work. When
they use a pair of oxen for plowing they make a very shallow furrow.

PLOWING THE LAND WITH EIGHT BUFFALOES.

MANNERS, CUSTOMS, HABITS AND SOCIAL LIFE.

159

If they use two buffaloes it can be made much better but even then the
furrow is not deep enough to be really good. The depth they plow
depends upon the size of the plowshare they use and this again must
be adapted to the strength of the team they are using. The plows
they use with a single team of either oxen or buffaloes throw the soil
up on both sides of the furrow. The best and in every way most sat-
isfactory plowing they do is when four farmers, each owning a pair
of buffaloes, club together and do their plowing. Then they get a
very large plow with a big plowshare and hitch the eight buffaloes
or four teams to it. One man drives each team, sitting on it to do
so, while a fifth man guides the plow. Although buffaloes are such

BUFFALO FIGHT.

monsters in size and strength, in capacity for eating and working, they
are at the same time very gentle and domestic animals. During the
summer they like to lie in water. Usually their owners give them a
bath once or twice each day in the warm weather. In winter they
are kept in warm stables and given a good bath once or twice a week.
About twice during each winter their whole bodies are rubbed with a
kind of naphtha to allay their itching and heal the wounds and bruises
they have received by being whipped and beaten while at work for
their terrible slowness.

Boys take them to pasture, riding on their backs to do so, and

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still sitting there while the buffaloes graze. Sometimes the boys will
even lie down on the buffaloes' backs and go to sleep while the buffa-
loes eat.

Mosquitoes and flies annoy buffaloes a great deal, so they go and.
lie down in muddy places in order to cover themselves with mud to
keep these insects from worrying them.

When two strange buffaloes meet they fight fiercely for hours,
even for half a day sometimes, until finally one of them gives up and
runs away pursued by his enemy for a mile or two.

Once there was a man who kept two very large buffaloes. One
day one of them was out in a field grazing when a wolf came suddenly
up and springing upon him ran his sharp teeth into the thick skin of
the buffalo's hip. But the skin was so thick and tough the wolf could
not tear it as it could the skin of an ox, so it hung there by its teeth
while the buffalo, terribly frightened, ran home as fast as he could,
the wolf hanging behind him adding to his fright. When the owner
of the buffalo saw him and understood the situation he spoke to him
to quiet his fear and then shot the wolf and afterwards removed his
teeth from the buffalo's skin.

THE BAZAAR AND CURRENCY.

The bazaars, which is a term including at the same time a salesroom,
wareroom and manufactory, are in the center of the city. They are
open after six in the morning and closed at six in the evening. Fri-
day is the Mohammedan's sabbath day or day of rest, and all stores
are closed. Whenever the bazaars are open passers-by may see how
goods are manufactured on a small scale. In the timber bazaar men
saw boards with long handsaws ; a little further on carpenters man-
ufacture doors, windows and coffins. So it is in the bazaars of the
hatter, baker, blacksmith, confectioner and restaurant. Some are
weaving cotton and silk cloths, carpets and shawls on hand-looms,
though some of these goods are manufactured in villages and brought
into the city for sale. Again, there are saddlers, turners, tailors, wood
turners, etc.

The Persian standard of weights —

ioo miskals — I dirham.
4 dirhams — I hef-ta.
8 hef-tas — i batman.
4 batmans — I khon-ka-rie.
io batmans — I load.
25 batmans — 1 khalivar.

MANNERS, CUSTOMS, HABITS AND SOCIAL LIFE.

161

Copper and silver coins are in general use, while gold is scarce.
Lately, paper money has been issued, both in Persian and English
languages, but has met with but little favor. The Russian currency is
also in circulation to some extent. The exchange is regulated by Eu-
rope and India. The numerous Persian bankers, called sarafs, have
their abodes within the bazaars. Each saraf sits on a cushion in a
small enclosure behind a little table covered with copper, silver and
gold coins, for exchanging. These are the kind whose tables our Lord
Jesus overturned in the temple of Jerusalem. The mint at Teheran,
established 1878, was platted by Europeans but is now conducted by
Persians.

Table of Persian currency, and its value —
5 denars — 1 gaz-beh
30 denars — 1 tem-bal.
50 denars — 1 shah-hi — 6 tem-bal.
100 denars — 1 yuz-al-tum — 2 shah-hi.
500 denars — 1 penabad — 10 shah-hi.
1,000 denars — 1 keran — 20 shah-hi.

Only one line of merchandise is sold on any one business street.
On one you will find only dry goods ; in another street nothing but
groceries; a third contains iron, copper and silversmiths' shops, etc.
The streets average thirty feet in width and many are arched over with
brick arches, to shut out the rain and the snow. These covered streets
are lighted by openings in the arches. Camels, horses, mules and
donkeys, heavily laden with goods, may be seen passing through the
streets, and in the open squares many of these animals may be seen
that belong to strangers who have come to the city to buy or sell.
At the entrances of some of the mosques one may see a Mollah or two,
sitting down and acting as notary public, drawing up legal documents
for men standing around and before him. For such a document they
get from ten to fifteen cents.

In purchasing goods in Persia a foreigner is liable to be over-
charged, as it is quite customary among dealers to advance the price
on their goods to two or three times their real value, expecting to be
obliged to lower the price before being able to make a sale. Silver
and goldsmiths turn out some highly artistic work in the shape of
rings, and belts for ladies. You cannot find a woman sel&ng goods
in a store or bazaar in all Persia, with the only exception of one sin-
gle street in each city or village, where poor old women and widows
are franchised to sell such articles as caps, purses, sacks, soaps, etc.
Their faces, however, must be covered up entirely, with only two holes

L62

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

in the covering for the eyes. Only a few women from the lower classes
are seen in the bazaars shopping, and they dare not have their faces ex-
posed. No Christian is permitted to sell liquids, such as milk, oil, syrups,
or juicy fruit, like grapes, etc. ' Mohammedans are prohibited by law
to buy things of this nature from a Christian, and, if on the other hand
a Christian wishes to buy anything of this sort from a Mohammedan,
he must not touch anything, as the merchant, should the Christian
finally fail' to take the goods, could never sell to a Mohammedan what
has previously been touched or handled by a Christian.

BUSINESS LIFE.

The bazaars are not merely places of barter but constitute an exten-
sive manufacturing establishment. Many of the shops are factories and
though each one is on a small scale, they collectively carry on large
industries. There is no machinery, the furthest advance is in sewing-
machines, treadles and imported hand tools. All the methods of manu-
facturing are open to passers by. Some tradesmen are seen carding
wool and making kecha or felt matting, others are pulling cotton fiber
and making quilts. In the timber bazaars men are sawing boards with
long hand saws, a little farther on carpenters are making them into doors
and windows; others are sawing out the teeth of wooden combs. In
the next 'shop the blacksmith is blowing his bellows and welding hinges
and latches. Rows of hatters are seen shaping kulas and stretching them
on moulds and showing their styles of different modes and thickness of
felt, broadcloth, fur and lamb-skin.

The confectioner is pulling taffy and crushing rice flour with a great
sledge hammer; the restauranteur, chopping meat and mixing with it
garlic and onions, to make savory cabols ; the baker is kneading dough,
heating the oven, and throwing on pegs the sweet-smelling saugaks,
while he talks across the ten-foot street to the chandler, who is pouring
candles into moulds before the gaze of all.

Scores of saddlers, braziers, turmingers, tailors, silversmith and
other artisans are busy at work, stopping their work only to wait on their
customers. They are perhaps making some goods to order, but espe-
cially are preparing a stock for all the surrounding towns and villages,
such articles as woolen, cotton and silk goods are woven on hand-looms
at home ; carpets are made in the villages ; dyeing is done throughout the
city, but the great factory is the open busy bazaar. In them contests of
capital and labor do not arise.

Each shop-keeper is a small capitalist and has a -few apprentices

MANNERS, CUSTOMS, HABITS AND SOCIAL LIFE.

163

whom he feeds and clothes and each of whom hope soon to set up a
separate shop. The artisans have guilds and sometimes work in com-
bination to regulate the price.

In the exchanging the Mohammedan has advantage over a Nes-
torian or Armenian, and the Farmer, not only because his religion re-
quires that anything that is moist and sometimes in the case of the dry
articles of food a Christian is not permitted to touch them.

In commercial affairs the Persians use the Arabic figures for indi-
cating the days, number of yards and the weight of the bale. But for
money a different system is used based on the Denar, its multipliers are
indicated by signs built one on the other after the manner of stenog-

TWO MOHAMMEDAN BANKERS OR SARAFS.

raphy. These notations read from right to left, while the Arabic nota-
tions read from left to right. This method is called the demar system.
Fifty demars equal one shahi, twenty shahis equal one krau, ten kraus
equal one toman. The Imperial bank and many merchants are now
introducing the decimal system.

Persian bankers or sarafs are numerous and capable. Their trans-
actions are confined to loans and exchange. As the Koran forbids the
taking of interest the amount is added to the face of the note at the first.
A banker, even when wealthy, is accustomed to sit on a cushion in a
little shop, with an iron box behind him, a nurza or two behind him,

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PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

and a pile of copper shahis in front, for money changing. Exchange in
Persia is regulated by Europe and India. The ordinary rate of interest is
from 12 to 1 8 per cent. Rates run as high as from 48 to 120 per cent.

The Kurds often borrow at 10 per cent monthly compound interest,
and often after a few years must surrender their villages to satisfy a
claim which was originally small.

In the bank stores and government offices and in houses of the nobil-
ity are a class of men employed as clerks, secretaries and accountants.
They are called by the general term "Merza." The Merza is master of the
pen. He can write correctly and with the observance of the numerous
forms necessary, in addressing the various grades of society and official
life. His education is primary. His outfit consists of a kalamdan and
a roll of paper. The kalamdan is a pen-case about eight inches long
and one and one-half in height and width, which is carried in his girdle
or pocket. It is usually made of paper mache ornamented with pictures
of flowers, and animals, men and women. The contents of the case are
a small ink-holder, of brass or silver, some pens, a penknife, a piece of
bone, a small spoon and a pair of scissors. The pens are stiff reeds of
the same kind that were used for writing on papyrus or parchment. The
goose-quill, though it has been used in some countries since the sixth
century, has not been adopted in Persia. The steel pen is being intro-
duced and has already modified the writing of Syriac and Armenian,
and will doubtless modify the Persian character. The penknife and
bone are used to sharpen the pen. The point of the reed is laid on
the bone to be cut to the proper bluntness. The scissors are necessary
for trimming the paper, as etiquette and good luck requires. Some lint
or cotton is put in the inkholder and saturated with ink. The spoon is
used to pour water on it jmd mix it.

The Merza sits on the floor sufficient unto himself. Sometimes he
has a small table about a foot high in front of him ; in writing a letter
he takes a piece of unruled paper in his left hand, supports it on his
forefinger and writes from right to left, curving the lines upward. He
then reverses the paper and writes upon the margin at an angle to the
other lines and from the bottom upwards. The sender certifies it by
sealing it with his signet. This is usually made of brass or stone, with
the name and title engraved upon it.

Formerly a letter was folded until it formed a flat roll half an inch
in width. It was then closed with a band of tissue paper on which
the seal was affixed. Now letters are put in envelopes, large or small,
according to the rank of the person addressed.

MANNERS, CUSTOMS, HABITS AND SOCIAL LIFE.

165

In keeping accounts the Merza makes the entries not in columns,
but successively in lines and joins by a vinculum, the name, item and
amount.

The foreign trade of Persia is carried on for the most part with
England and Russia. In the south the important trade routes are
through the Persian Gulf ports, Bushire and Bandar, Abbas by the
Karum River, and by Bagdad and Kermanshah. The northern route by
Trebizond and Erzrum is much used. The Turkish government allows
goods in transit to pass in bond, securing to itself certain fees and to the
country along the route considerable profit.

Russia puts a duty on goods in transit, in order to reserve to itself
the trade of Northern Persia. Its manufactures are entering in increas-
ing quantities via Julfa, the Caspian ports, and by the Transcaspian
Railway.

Taking into account the whole of Persia, England has the bulk of
its trade, both as to value and tonnage. It is interesting to watch the
rivalry of these two great powers in Persia in matters of trade and
politics.

NATURE'S POETRY.

Nature poetry finds in spring a strong incentive. Grim, slothful
winter lingers long, holding gentle spring in his icy grasp. Then she
rises suddenly in her youthful strength, and snowflakes change to flowers
with a suddenness that surprises the stranger. This quick transition,
this annual resurrection, is the theme of many a bard. Spring poetry is
addressed to the stork, as harbinger of the season, who, when he comes
to stay, brings summer with him.

The ancients declare that spring was under the special care of the
Goddess Amahid. All the people joined in the feast of Vasthavar, or
"Rose Blossoms." In Christian times this has been supplanted by the
three days of festival of the Transfiguration. The ancient name, the
Feast of Rose Blossoms, indicates the love of the beautiful, which leads
to the true and can have its origin only in the good. There is a religious
halo about the very names of the flowers. The ''Fountain's Blood" is a
floral wonder. Was it the blood of righteous Abel that sprang from
the ground as this crimson flower on a leafless stalk, calling to God in
its blood-red simplicity for vengeance on the murderer? These beau-
ties of the field and glen have called forth exquisite gems of thought
which are treasured to this day.

Summer — the short, sweet, seductive summer — does not last long

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PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

enough to produce ennui. This brief, bright pageantry of blooming,
fragrant flowers and ripening fruit comes quickly, does its work in
haste, and a chill, gloomy winter succeeds, suppressing autumn before
it fairly has a chance to exist.

With what poetic fancy the return of spring is greeted may be seen
in this little poem :

Scarce are the clouds black shadows,

Pierced by a gleam of light ;
Scarce have our fields grown dark again,

Freed from the snowdrifts white,
When you with smiles, all twinkling,

Bud forth o'er hill and vale.
O first born leaves of springtime,

Hail to your beauty, hail !

Not yet to our cold meadows

Had come Spring's guest, the swallow,
Not yet the nightingale's sweet voice

Had echoed from the hollow.
When you, like Joy's bright angels,

Came swift to hill and dale.
Fresh budded leaves of springtime,

Hail to your beauty, hail !

Your tender, verdant color,

Thin stems, and graceful guise;
How sweetly do they quench the thirst

Of eager, longing eyes !
Afflicted souls at sight of you

Take comfort and grow gay.
New budded leaves of springtime,

All hail to you today!

Come in the dark breast of our dales,

To shine the hills between !
Come, o'er our bare and shivering trees,

To cast a veil of green !
Come, to give sad faced Nature

An aspect blithe and new !
O earliest leaves of springtime,

All hail, all hail to you!

Come, to call up for newborn Spring,

A dawn of roses fair!
Come, and invite the breezes light

To play with your soft hair I

MANNERS, CUSTOMS, HABITS AND SOCIAL LIFE.

167

Say to the fragrant blossoms :

"Oh, haste ! Men long for you !"

Hail,, earliest leaves of springtime,
Young leaves so fresh and new!

Come, come, O leaves, and with sweet wings

Of hope from yonder sky,
Cover the sad earth of the graves

Wherein our dear ones lie !
Weave o'er the bones so dear to us

A garland wet with dew,
Ye wings of Hope's bright angels,

Young leaves so fresh and new!

Song to the swallow will touch the heart of many a homesick exile :

O swallow, gentle swallow,
Thou lovely bird of Spring!
Say, whither art thou flying,
So swift on gleaming wing?

Fly to my birthplace, Ashdarag,
The spot I love the best;
Beneath my father's roof-tree,

swallow, build thy nest.

There' dwells afar my father,
A mournful man, and gray;
W T ho for his only son's return
Waits vainly day by day.

If thou shouldst chance to see him,
Greet him with love from me;
Bid him sit down and mourn with tears
His son's sad destiny.

In poverty and loneliness,
Tell him my days are passed :
My life is only half a life;
My tears are falling fast.

To me, amid bright daylight,
The sun is dark at noon;
To my wet eyes at midnight
Sleep comes not — late or soon.

Tell him that, like a beauteous flower,
Smit by a cruel doom,
Uprooted from my native soil,

1 wither ere my bloom".

168

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

Fly on swift wing 1 , dear swallow,
Across the quickening earth;
And seek in fair Armenia
The village of my birth.

A delicate expression of the poetic charm of a mountain torrent
watering fields and gardens in the lower valley is the following :

Down from yon distant mountain,
The streamlet finds its way ;
And through the quiet village
It flows in eddying play.

A dark youth left his doorway
And sought the water-side ;
And, laving- there his hands and brow,
"O streamlet sweet!" he cried.

"Say, from what mountain cam'st thou?"
"From yonder mountain cold,
Where snow on snow lies sleeping —
The new snow on the old."

"Unto what river, tell me,
Fair streamlet, dost thou flow?"
"I flow unto that river
Where clustering violets grow."

"Sweet streamlet, to what vineyard,
Say, dost thou take thy way?"
"The vineyard where the vine-dresser
Is at his work today."

"What plant there wilt thou water?"

"The plant upon whose roots

The lambs feed, where the wind flower blooms,

And orchards bear sweet fruits."

"What garden wilt thou visit,

O water cool and fleet?"

"The garden where the nightingale

Sings tenderly and sweet."

"Into what fountain flowest thou?"
"The fountain to whose brink
Thy love comes down at morn and eve
And bends her face to drink.

"There shall I meet the maiden

Who is to be thy bride,

And kiss her chin, and with her love

My soul be satisfied." I

MANNEES, CUSTOMS, HABITS AND SOCIAL LIFE.

169

SOCIAL AND HOME LIFE.

As I turn to this chapter, the remembrances of my Oriental home
rise before me, hallowed and strengthened by time and absence. Over
its shadows and sunshine are thrown gleams of mellow light that bear my
lonely soul on the wings of emotion to the far-away land that rocked my
cradle. What days of sparkling mirth ! what days of saddening gloom !
Yet to my longing heart the sunshine and shadows of home are merged
in a heavenly radience.

To you, my reader, I now extend an invitation to walk with me
among the scenes of my boyhood.

It gives a strange effect to the street scene to see the houses and
yards, like castles or picturesque fortifications, surrounded by solid black
walls, varying in hight from ten to twenty-five feet, with a heavy gate
before each house and an iron hammer suspended as a knocker from
its center. Most of the residences are two story houses, built of sun-
dried brick, around an open court yard, and plastered within and with-
out. There are few stone buildings, and still fewer of wood. Most of the
houses have a balcony overlooking a tangled garden, with window
ledges abloom with flowers. The roofs are tiled, and the numerous
small windows are closely latticed on the outside with a network of iron
bars arranged in pairs. As a rule, the residences are very close together,
with a space between them of not more than six feet, so that a distant
view of the dwellings makes them. appear as though erected in a block.

Entering the gate, and passing through the yard, we come to the
house. In the court yard, and in the rear of the building, there are gen-
erally gardens, with lofty trees surrounding the house and overshadow-
ing it with their green branches. Sparkling fountains play in the rich
sunshine amid flower beds, exquisite in variety and hue while the air is
perfumed with roses and made melodious by the song of the nightingale.

These garden spots are found in profusion in my birthplace, the city
of Oroomiah, and may be seen with no less frequency in most of the
cities and villages. Indeed, the whole land is one of bloom and blossoms.

As we enter the house, we meet with a most cordial reception from
the household, for hospitality and kindness to strangers are the first
laws in the Orient, and is a most pleasing and characteristic feature. In-
terchange of visits among neighbors and friends is the rule, for the
people love to congregate, and greatly enjoy meeting together to smoke
and talk over their affairs. In Christian homes men and women meet
in the reception room ; but generally ladies, gentlemen and children
form separate groups and chat on general topics, which vary according

170

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

to the social position and intelligence of the company. In a Mohamme-
dan house there are two apartments, the haremlik and the selamlik^the
former the ladies' reception room and the latter for gentlemen.

Holidays and long winter evenings are usually devoted to a pleasant
and ancient pastime, which is, indeed, one of the happiest features of
Oriental life. The master of the house opens the door of the house and
welcomes the guest with numerous expressive gestures of whole-hearted
hospitality. In the immediate entrance of the house there is a place
where the etiquette of the country requires you to remove your shoes
and put on slippers, before entering the inner apartments; but hats,

FIVE GENTLEMEN ON A HUNTING TRIP.

like the bonnets of American ladies, are not necessarily taken off. After
exchanging graceful salutations, formal civilities and inquiries after each
other's health, the guest is ushered into a cheery court and thence into
a reception room, where coffee, the universal beverage of the Levant,
is served on a silver tray in tiny goblets like egg-cups. The square room
which the company occupies is comfortably fitted and arranged with
a profusion of divans, embroidered cushions, and mattresses for sitting
and reclining, and perhaps a few chairs. The floor is covered with rich
Oriental rugs, while curtains and shawls of fine texture hang about the
sides and across the ceiling. In the center of the room is placed a stove
or a charcoal brazier. The room is lighted with bright lamps, the old-

MANNERS, CUSTOMS, HABITS AND SOCIAL LIFE.

171

fashioned tallow candle or olive oil wick having been long abandoned.
The lady callers all cluster about the genial hostess, who sits by her
babe singing, soft and low, the sweet, simple cradle song; while the
men may be engaged in a discussion of current events, though they often
exchange remarks with the ladies. The little folks have a lively time by
themselves in much the same kind of merry innocent frolic that is the
delight of American boys and girls. Oriental children, too, have their
marbles, their skipping rope, and little toy plows, into which cats and
kittens are harnessed in play. Little girls, with rosy faces are clustered
with their dolls and kittens around the good old grandmother, who tells
them riddles and amusing stories, while the white headed patriarch,
bowed with years, begins to recount anecdotes of his bygone days. The
remarks of the venerable man are always interesting, yet they reveal
no progress in the lapse of time ; for the Oriental life and customs have
been preserved with little change from a remote antiquity. The house
servant is busied with such functions as arranging the shoes in pairs, that
the guests may easily find theirs when departing. After games and con-
versation, the company indulge in cigaretts, coffee, sweetmeats, and the
bubbling marghileh, or flexible rose water pipe, a smoking apparatus
very similar to the hookah of Hindoostan, which is always filled with
Shiraz tobacco. Time wears pleasantly on, and the guests are sure to
depart late, nearly always with the satisfaction of having had an enjoyable
time.

A gathering like the one described is a great time for story-telling.
Molla-Nasreddin, a teacher and notorious wag, who is the idle hero or
victim of many Munchausen-like tales is supposed to live in Bagdad. Sev-
eral stories concerning him are worth recording in English.

One day the Molla was too lazy to preach his usual sermon at the
mosque. He simply addressed himself to the congregation, saying:

"Of course you know, O faithful Musselmans, what I am going to
say?"

The congregation cried out with one voice:
"No, Molla, we do not know."

"Then, if you do not know, I have nothing to say to you," replied
the Molla, and left the pulpit.

Next time he again addressed his congregation, saying:

"Know ye, O faithful Musselmans, what I am going to say to you?"

Fearing that if, as on the previous time, they said "No," the Molla
would leave them again without a sermon, all cried:

"Yes, Molla, we do know." , ... jj ! ! 1

172 PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

"Then if you know what I am going to say," quietly remarked the
Molla, "of course, there is no need of my saying it," and he again
stepped down from the pulpit, to the consternation of the congregation.

A third time the Molla again put his question :

"Know ye, O faithful Musselmans, what I am going to preach to
you?"

The congregation, determined not to be disappointed again, took
counsel on the question. Accordingly some of them replied, "No, Molla,
we do not know," while others cried, "Yes, Molla, we do know."

"Very well, then," said the Molla, "as there are some of you who do
know, and others who do not know what I am going to say, let those
who do know tell it to those who do not know," and quickly left the
pulpit.

A friend calls on the Molla to borrow his donkey.

"Very sorry" says the Molla, who does not want to lend his animal,
"but the donkey is not here; I have let him out for the day."

Unfortunately, just at that moment the donkey begins to bray
loudly, thus giving the direct lie to the Molla.

"How is this, Molla?" says his friend. "You say the donkey is away,
and here he is braying in the stable."

The Molla, nothing daunted, replies in a grave manner :

"My dear sir, please do not cTemean yourself so low, as to believe
the donkey rather than myself — a fellow man and a venerable Molla
with a long gray beard."

The Molla used to teach in the parish school. He had taught his
pupils that whenever he happened to sneeze they should stand up, and
clapping their hands together, cry out "God grant you long life, Molla !"

This the pupils regularly did whenever the Molla sneezed.

One day the bucket gets loose and falls into the well of the school
house. As the pupils are afraid to go down into the well and fetch up
the bucket, the Molla undertakes the task. He accordingly strips, and
tying a rope to his waist, asks his pupils to lower him carefully into the
well and pull him up again when he gives the signal. The Molla goes
down, and having caught the bucket, shouts to his pupils to pull him
up again, but when they have drawn him nearly out of the well, he sud-
denly sneezes. At this the pupils immediately let go the rope, begin to
clap their hands together, and shout down the well," God grant you
long life, Molla !"

The Persians are eminently a social people, they are gay and en-
tertaining, full of fun and jokes and story-telling and ready in repartee ;

MANNERS, CUSTOMS, HABITS AND SOCIAL LIFE.

173

they are much given to the visiting- and feasting, men visit with men,
women with women ; dancing and amusing themselves beyond measure.

The Persians are a polite people; visits are made at the festivals
both for congratulations and condolence, and often for the transaction
of business. The greatest social event in Persia is the festival of New
Year or (Noruz).

This is the only festival of the Ancient Persia that has not been
displaced by the Mohammedanism. The Persians never fail to enter into
its enjoyment.

In this festival of Noruz, the Dervish pitches his white tent before
the door of some nobleman and yells, Ya hak (O truth) until his claims
to charity are satisfied.

The letter carrier presents himself to receive an anam ; the cook ex-
pects a new coat ; the miza, and even physicians, are remembered by
their patrons, and the aldermen receive goodly donations from their
constituents.

During the last week of the_ old year the bazaars are profusely
decorated. Gay clothes, carpets and shawls are exhibited in the shops,
pictures, mirrors and mottoes are hung up. Arches are constructed
spanning the streets with pendent ornaments. Villagers crowd in front
of the open shops, and groups of boys stroll about to see the sights.

Everyone buys a collection of nuts, raisins, figs, dates, dried apri-
cots, grapejuice, paste, etc. These fruits must be of seven kinds, the
names of each beginning with a letter S. The collection is called the
yeddi luvn. Many send to their friends a plateful, with the compliments
of the season. The last Wednesday, called Aklin Chabar Shenba, is
a gala day. It is the children's festival, but the whole population is
ready for a frolic.

Clowns play in a fantastic costume and ludricous masks, and stroll-
ing minstrels with tambourines and cymbals and leading a monkey, per-
form and collect shahis.

Boys crowd the streets and women gather on the housetops to see
the shows.

Schoolboys enter into the spirit of the day and make a mock visit
to their principals.

One of them, arrayed like a Kurdish sheik, in long flowing robes,
great turban, and a cotton beard, and with attendants armed like Kurds ;
but with canes for swords, presents himself and declares that a fine has
been levied upon the school. He receives a present and they all go off to

174

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

expend it on some of the good things in the bazaar. In some villages,
buffalo fights are a part of the program.

These powerful animals, sometimes made ferocious by partial in-
toxication, make a rough contest.

This festival extends two or three weeks. The bazaars are generally
closed and business suspended ; all are bent on pleasure.

Noruz is a pleasant time to renew old acquaintance, make new ones
and to visit both rich and poor, without interfering with their business
engagements. The manner of living is very comfortable. Their wealth
is not great, but they have the conveniences and luxury which the coun-
try affords, or which they think it necessary to import. Their houses are
neither of marble nor of cut stone, nor do they have many of the charms
of architecture.

But the wealthy class in the cities have pleasant rooms, excellent
food, fruits and flowers in abundance, troops of servants waiting their
every beck and call, stables full of valuable horses, incomes easily earned,
plenty of leisure for an afternoon siesta and for social intercourse, many
holidays and dispositions to enjoy them.

Another place of social gossip and resort is the bath houses ; cos-
tume and religion require frequent ablutions. The men go to the bath
houses and dye their hair and nails with henna in order to make them
red, the bath is also necessary for the women, who go and dress their
hair; dying of eyelashes requires much time and attention. The bath
houses are below the level of the street so as to be supplied with water.
One may know when he is near the bath houses by the long rows of
colored towels hanging on the street walls. The fuel used is thorn
bushes and straw and weeds. The Persian has few kinds of ornaments,
his theater is the Takia or Passion Play of Muhassan, and in this time
Dervish will be repeating poetry on the corners of the streets.

Singing, music and dancing are carried on at weddings and feasts.
In Persia the men will not dance, that is a gentleman, but will hire some
other man to dance for him.

The giving of presents is a universal custom. A Persian returning
home brings a Sokat (or present) to each of his relatives and friends.

The social life of man outside of their own harems is separate from
women; the most striking fact in the condition of women in Persia
is her seclusion, her dwelling is shut in from the street and her view
of the neighbors is over high mud walls.

The houses of the rich have two apartments ; the berum and ande-
noon, the latter is reserved exclusively for the women, and is also called

MANNAS, CUSTOMS, HABITS AND SOCIi " LIFE.

175

harem, or forbidden place. Eunuchs act as guardians and Stewarts of
his family; the wife n?ver sits at a feast with her husband nor receives
male visitors.

Visitors must not inquire about her health or refer to her.

The street costume for women is a contrivance for maintaining
her seclusion even when she is out of the harem.

It consists of shelvar, chudder and veil. The shelvar is a com-
bination of very full trousers and stockings fitting tightly on the feet
and gathered at the ankles. The chudder is two yards square, of cloth,
and is put on over the head and envelopes the whole head or person.
The veil is of muslin or linen, and completely conceals her face. Before

A MOHAMMEDAN LADY IN STREET COSTUME.

the eyes is a lace-work through which the woman can see her way, but
not even a glance of her eye can be seen.

The street costume is made only of two or three fabrics, either
blue, black or barred, so that among the many uniformly dressed women
a man could not recognize any one of his own wives. As the women
glide through the streets they lift their veils to get a fresh breeze or to
see the pitfalls, but if a man appears unexpectedly the veil goes down
with a jerk. If a lady of high degree is riding through the streets an
attendant goes before and commands, "Men, turn your eyes away!"
Common mortals should not look upon the shadow of a princess. Even

176

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

old hags, who are washing clothes by the watercourses and beating them
upon the stones, attempt to arrange their veils and chudders so as to con-
ceal their features. Even young- girls must put on street costume.

A wife is in subjection to her husband, a subjection so abject that
she does not even dream of the possession of those rights which have
been and are being granted to women in Christian lands. She occupies
the position of a slave to man's pleasure and comfort and aspires to
nothing more ; she does not sit down to eat with her husband, but eats
after waiting on him. If perchance she accompanies him on the streets,
she walks some distance behind him. Wife-beating is very common
and is allowed. The indoor costume consists of a number of full divided
skirts or bloomers, reaching to the knees,"and according to the new style,
plain white or black pantaloons. The sack or kalya is loosefitting, often
not buttoned in front, with very long sleeves which are fastened to the
wrists with many loops and knots. Sometimes there is a cuff elaborately
trimmed. The head is covered with a square of cloth, tied under the chin,
concealing the ears and falling down on the shoulders. The shoes are
sandals usually of red or yellow sheepskin, with pointed, turned-up toes
and an iron plate on the heel. In walking, the heels flop and clatter, and
the steps are made with a gliding motion to prevent the shoes from
slipping off.

The girls look forward to marriage as their sole destiny. There is
no word corresponding with "old maid." To remain unmarried for a
Persian woman is a sin of the divine purpose of her nature.

SMOKING (WATER PIPES).

Water pipes, called in Turkey, marghile, and in Persia, kalian. The
tumbak is soaked in water, squeezed like a sponge, and packed in the
top of the kalian, a live coal is then placed on it (this coal must be made
from the root of the vine or it would soon be extinguished by the damp-
ness of the numbak), and the smoke is drawn through the water that
is in the lower bowl of the kalian, and inhaled through a flexible serpen-
tine stem or a short stem of wood. Turks prefer the former, and Per-
sians the latter., Of all the forms of enjoying this delightful solace for
the cares and hardships of man, this of smoking through the kalian is
the most poetic and delightful, both for the elegance of the method and
the flavor of the weed, but it could hardly become popular in America
because it takes much time to light the pipe and the care and cleaning
of it is laborious and must be delegated to the charge of a servant. In
Persia every gentleman's house has a pishkamet whose sole business is

MANNERS, CUSTOMS, HABITS AND SOCIAL LIFE.

177

to prepare the refreshments and take charge of the kalians. The
poorer classes generally have their daily smoke by resorting to a tea
house in the bazaars, or under the plane trees in the center of the village ;
for one or two cents they can enjoy a fifteen minutes rest for their souls.
Every smoking man in Persia must have not only a pipe, but also

A PERSIAN SMOKING A WATER PIPE.

a piece of flint, a piece of steel, and a supply of punk, or tinder in his
pocket to start a fire to light his pipe. This primitive method of starting
a fire is still in use there because matches are not yet manufactured
there, and when they have to be imported they are more expensive than
the punk.

MEN'S COSTUME.

The shirt is unstarched, cuff and collarless ; nicely embroidered
about the neck ; opened in the front, and fastened with two small buttons
at the left shoulder. The material is white linen, silk sewed, while among
the lower class it is dyed, usually in blue. The trousers are somewhat

ITS

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

like bloomers, very loose, evert at the ankle, and are held up by a cord
of green or red silk, cotton or wool. The material is of various colors of
broadcloth, etc., which by the laboring class is dyed in blue or red.

The Arkalick is a closely fitting garment, collarless ; the sleeves
reach to the wrist. In the middle, the waist and the lower part, which
is ruffled, are sewed together and opens in the front*, but usually but-
toned with little metallic buttons. The pockets are below the belt on each
side. The length is almost to the knees. It is usually made of calico
of a rich color.

The belt. Some wear a thick linen belt. Often a shawl is used.
Others wear a two inch width of black varnished leather, with brass
clasps, which often may have ornaments of brass, silver or gold.

The gima. This is open in front and has black buttons, but seldom
buttoned except in winter; is longer than the Arkalick and is worn over
it. The material of this is usually thick.

The hat is made of fine sheepskin fur pasted on a frame, about
five to ten inches high. The style of the hat changes annually.

The hair. The old people shave the entire head except a "kakulta"
which is left on the middle of the crown and is long — just like that of
the Chinese in the United States. They say: "This is done so as to
enable Mohammed to draw up the true believers to Paradise."

The beard is shaved by the \oung men up to 30 or 35, after which it
is clipped to the length of one-third of an inch. This is done up to 50,
when the beard is left to grow in fuli length.

The mustache is very seldom, if ever, shaved.

Many people dye their hair, beard and mustache with henna so as
to make the hair darker.

The men have almost Europeanized this custom, except in the
Gima and the hat. The latter the government requires not to be changed
by any citizen of the country.

WOMEN'S COSTUMES.

Andaron dress. The men, neither the women, use any kind of under-
wear. The shirt, with the lower order, is of blue or white calico ; with
the higher, it is silk or fine cotton, well embroidered, and sometimes of
rich, colored calico. In length it is almost to the middle of the thigh,
open in front, fastened with buttons. Over this is a sacque, somewhat
loose, with long sleeves, folded over at about the wrist.

Shirt or SLalwar. This is short among the higher classes, never
reaching the knee, while among the lower classes it may be seen even

180

PERSIATBYnA PERSIAN.

below the knee. It is of great width and is divided; it is held up by a
thin cord of cotton or silk. The skirt is not one, but a half-dozen, at
least. The outer one is velvet, silk, trimmed with gold lace, etc. Now
a new style has been added ; wearing pantaloons under the skirts reach-
ing to the ankle. This is done only among the rich.

They walk barefooted in the house, but outdoors they use shoes.
The shoes are like sandals, of sheepskin, and are blue, red or black,
pointed toes and turned up ; in walking the heels flap and clatter. Socks
are seldom used. Charkad, or the head cover : This is a large square of
embroidered silk or cotton, folded in a manner that will help to display
the corners, and fastened under the chin ; this is very valuable.

Often when by themselves or with their husbands the women are
bareheaded. No support of any kind is worn by the Persian women,
and the beautiful figure of youth is lost soon after maturity.

The hair is uually black and very long and is plaited into numerous
little tails, reaching almost to the knees, and often false hair is used. In
front, the hair is parted in the middle and frequently has bangs. The
hair is usually painted or colored with henna.

The face. The eyebrows are widened and painted until they ap-
pear to meet on the forehead, and there may be seen shammoles, or
stars. The eyes are colored with keylah, which is supposed to be benefi-
cial to the eye; the eyes are black and brown, never blue. The cheeks
are painted.

The jewelry. The women of Persia delight in jewelry and display
various ornaments ; bracelets, necklaces, breast-beads and coins, anklets,
car, nose and finger rings, and at the end of their long hair, attached
by ribbons, are jewelry and coin; all these may be of brass, silver or
gold.

Moslem street dress. The women wrap themselves in a large blue
or black sheet called chad-ra; this is hanging partly over the shalwar,
inside of which are the feet ; over the eye is three-quarters of a yard
of linen as a veil, perforated, about two inches square, with minute
holes. The Assyrian and Armenian women dress alike, but altogether
diffrent from the Moslem.

THE RACE AND CHARACTER.

The Persians are of Aryan race. The followers of Zoroaster; the
old Persians never gave themselves any other title but Aryavo Daughavo,
i. e.,"Ayran races." Again the name of Darius is found on the monu-
ments, "Darius a Persian son of a Persian; Aryan of Aryan race." They

MANNERS, CUSTOMS, HABITS AND SOCIAL LIFE.

181

claim, even now, and are known by the people at large to be the descend-
ants of the Aryan race.

Character. Persians are of medium statue, strong, and as a rule
healthy. They are clean, sharp in business, skillful and artistic; alert,
active and somewhat enterprising, although they take things easy; social,
entertaining, hospitable, well disposed to a foreigner and ready to
adopt his ways ; always show respect to their elders or superiors in rank,
as may be seen by their keeping a step behind. Fond of humor, delight
in music, although they have only stringed instruments. In the past they
were given much to poetry. Their poets and books are known at Poet
"Firdusi," who wrote "Shah-na-ma, and Sheik Sadi, of Sheraz, who
wrote "Bustan" or "Fruit Garden," and "Goolistan," or 'Rose Garden.'*'

SENTIMENTAL LITERATURE.

If Greece had her Homer, Italy her Dante and England her Shakes-
peare and Tennyson, Persia is equally proud of her Omar Khayyam,
Firdusi, Hafiz, Nizami and Sa'de, whose exquisite pearls have been
great inspiration and stimulant to thousands of youths.

Their writings are sentimental and mystic in style, tender and
pathetic in thought, and beautiful and flowery in language. One of the
foremost of the Persian poets is undoubtedly Nizami, of Ganja, who
lived in the twelfth century. He was the founder of the Romantic
epoch, and has contributed more love songs to the Persian literature
than any other. One of his best productions is his story entitled "Laili
and Majuun." Two ardent lovers whose misfortune and devoted affection
excite tears of sympathy and interest in all the East. Majuun was the
son of a chieftain and Laili the daughter of a humble Arab who, never-
theless, possessed all the pride of his desert race. Laili was so beauti-
ful and charming that when Majuun first gazed upon her flashing dark
eyes, and

The soft expression of her face,
Destruction stun his burning brain
Nor rest he found by day or night —
She was forever in his sight.

As Laili's people were accustomed to wandering in the desert, they
one day folded their tents and went to the mountains with their families
and cattle, leaving no trace of their march, and cutting off every possible
way for the two lovers to communicate with each other. Majuun became
almost insane in the vain search after his love through the groves and

182

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

glens of the wilderness and the solita.ry rocks of the mountains. At
length his father, alarmed by his condition, took an organized band
and went in search of their tribe. Finding them in the mountain strong-
hold he made preparations of marriage for his son to the maiden, but
in such a conceited and haughty way that he received a very cold and un -
favorable message in response. The chieftain, indignant and full of
anger, took his homeward trip, when poor

Majuun saw his hopes decay,

He beat his hands and garments tore,

He cast his fetters on the floor

In broken fragments and in wrath

Sought the dark wilderness path ;

And there he went and sobbed aloud,

Unnoticed by the gazing crowd.

Once, while wandering near the camps of the Arabs, he was seen
by some relations of Laili, who represented him as an insane youth of
the desert. The maiden, recognizing her lover in their description, re-
joiced over the tidings, though she feared to go out to meet him, dread-
ing her father's wrath, but anxiously

From morn to eve she gazed around
In hopes her Majuun might be found.

Once, while sitting at a fountain under a shady cypress tree near
the encampment, with bright hopes of chancing to see her beloved, she
mournfully sang her faithfulness :

Oh faithful friend and lover true,
Still distant from thy Laili's view ;
Still absent, still beyond her power
To bring thee in her fragrant bower.
Oh! noble youth, still thou art mine,
And Laili, Laili, still is thine.

While she was thus chanting her love song under the cool shade of
the tree a stranger, a princely youth, by name Ibusallaam, passed by.
His eyes rested upon the crimson lips and beaming softness of her dark
eyes. Electrified by her grace and beauty, he hurried to her father with
a plea for his daughter's hand. Because of his kingly apparel and daz-
zling ornaments he was favored by the father of Laili, who gave his con-
sent to the proposed union. The poor Majuun may wander, threatened
and tried to induce* his friend to fight the cruel Arab, but all is in vain,

MANNERS, CUSTOMS, HABITS AND SOCIAL LIFE.

183

The contract is signed and the father has pledged his word of honor.
The new lover brings his costly gifts, a long line of camels, all laden
with embroidered robes, beautiful rugs and carpets, silks of all kinds
and the most valuable gems to be laid at the bride's feet. The rattle of
the drums and the shrieks of the pipes, the music for the marching
steeds, announces the coming of the bridegroom, dressed in the richest
cassimere, and smiling at each step like the rising sun. The wedding
takes place in due time, although against the maiden's will, those pitiful
pleadings were unheard and uncared for by any mortal. Still she
cherishes Majuun's memory ; the tenderest feeling, though the wife of
Ibu-Sallaam now.

Deep in her heart a thousand woes
Disturbed her day and night's repose ;
A serpent at its very core,
Writhing and gnawing evermore,
And no relief — a prison room
Being now the lonely sufferer's doom.

The rolling years and the whirling months did not bring any sooth-
ing to the heartache of Laili. She sat quietly in her prison tower, watch-
ing the circling of the sun by day and the flashing of the stars by night,
with but a fainting hope in her sad heart for her Majuun. Once, while
sitting in her chamber, meditating on her fate, she heard an unusual
noise below; shrieks and wailing cries, a great confusion in the family.
A messenger entered with a death note announcing the death of Ibu-
Sallaam. Although the message was a star of hope and a benediction
to her heart, yet to fulfill the Arab law she assumed the garments of woe
and wept with the rest.

But all the burning tears she shed
Were for Majunn, not the dead.

When the prescribed years of mourning were fulfilled she was
freed from her rock bound tower. She called her trusty servant boy
and sent a hasty message to Majuun. She appointed a time and place
for the two lovers to meet in communion sweet. She made her way
through groves of palms and bowers of roses, not stopping until she
saw the haggard form of her lover. Stepping gently to his side she laid
her hand upon his arm and said :

<c Ah, Majuun, it is thy Laili that has come." As he recognized
the familiar voice and the gentle touch, overcome with emotion, he
fainted at her feet.

184

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

His head which in the dust was laid,
Upon her lap she drew, and dried
His tears with tender hand, and pressed
Him close and closer to her breast ;
"Be here thy home, beloved, adored;
Revive, be blest — Oh! Laili's Lord!"

At Tast he breathed, around he gazed,
As from her arms his head he raised ;
"Art thou," he faintly said, "a friend
Who takes me to her gentle breast?
Dost thou in truth so fondly bend
Thine eyes upon a wretched distressed !

"Are these thy unveiled cheeks I see?
Can bliss be yet in store for me?
Is this thy hand, so fair and soft?
Is this, in sooth, my Laili's brow?

"In sleep these transports I may share,

But when I wake — 'tis all despair !

Let me gaze on thee — e'en though it be

An empty shade alone I see.

How shall I bear what once I bore,

When thou shalt vanish as before?"

To this Laili responded quickly and readily :

Here in this desert join our hands,
Our souls were joined long, long before ;
And if our fate such doom demands,
Together wander evermore.
Oh, Majuun ! never let us part.
What is the world to thee and me?
My universe is where thou art :
And is not Laili all to thee?

Majuun, knowing that, according to the Arab law, he could not make
her his wife, with tearful eyes and faltering voice, answered :

How well, how fatally I love,
My madness and my misery prove ;
All earthly hopes I could resign —
My life itself to call thee mine.
But shall I make thy spotless name
That sacred spell — a word of shame?
Shall selfish Majuun's heart be blest,
And Laili prove the Arab jest?

MANNERS, CUSTOMS, HABITS AND SOCIAL LIFE.

185

The city's gates though we may close,
We cannot still our conscience's throes.
No, we have met, a moment's bliss
Has dawned upon my gloom in vain;
Life yields no more a joy like this,
And all to come can be but pain.

He clasped her close to his aching heart, and kissed her sorrow-
fully his last good-bye.

Accompanied by her servant she went back to her home and lived
a most solitary life. The time of life's sunset drew rapidly nigh. She
called her mother to her bedside and entreated that when she was dead
Majuun might be allowed to weep over her grave.

After she was gone, the faithful servant took the tidings to the poor
love-stricken Majuun. He made his way weepingly to the grave and
mourned over her for weeks. At last he was found with his head resting
upon the tomb and the peaceful touch of death upon his brow.

Laili's tomb was opened and they laid the still heart beside her own.

One promise bound their faithful hearts — one bed
Of cold, cold earth united them when dead.
Severed in life, how cruel was their doom
Ne'er to be joined but in the silent tomb.

Another of Nizami's productions is his story of Shirin and Farhad,
two other lovers, whose devotion and sad life is no less thrilling and
sentimental than that of Laili and Majuun. Some of the Persian schol-
ars even admire it more. Shirin was the betrothed of the King Khos-
roe Parwiz and Farhad was a famous sculptor in his employment. These
two fell in love with each other, and the king, becoming aware of it,
promised to give her to him if he could execute the impossible task of
bringing to the city the abundant waters of the mountains. Farhad
set himself to the herculean labor, and to the horror of the king, nearly
accomplished it, when Khosroe Parwiz dreading the advancing necessity
of losing Shirin, or being dishonored, sent to inform him of her death.
Being at the time on top of a precipice, urging on the work of the aque-
duct, the news filled him with such ungovernable despair that he threw
himself down and was killed.

THE PASSIONATE LOVE SONGS.

There are numerous love songs in Persia that have never been re-
duced to writing. The musicians sing them with greatest ardor, and
are always listened to with breathless attention. One of the most popu-

1 86

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

lar songs of the Persians is the story of the two lovers, Asley and Karam.

They lived several hundred years ago in Oroomiah. According
to the legend, Asley was the daughter of a Nestorian, a man of con-
siderable means, and from the well known family of the Maleks, who
lived in a pretty villa a few miles east of the city. The daughter was
celebrated for her beauty and gracefulness. She spent most of her time
by. a marble fountain just at the' outskirts of the woods, instructing her
maids in caring for the plants, vines and flowers that grew so luxuriantly
in her father's exquisite garden. She is represented as always dressed
in her flowing Oriental costumes, embroidered richly in silk of rarest
value, whose varied colors were constantly reflected in the crystal waters
of the gushing fountain. The artistic garden, the beautiful girl and the
refreshing fountain were objects of special pilgrimage, and all passers-by
admired the unframed work of art.

But it was viewed with the added fascination of novelty by Karam,
the son of a wealthy Mohammedan of a neighboring village. Once, as he
was hunting in the adjoining woods, his "Lala-man," (guardian) was
holding the "kurgoon" (a trained bird), and as he let it fly to start up a
flock of birds that they might shoot into them, the bird made a peculiar
sound ; awe stricken by the lovliness of a woman, to attract the atten-
tion of the master and the guardian to the living picture at the fountain.
Karam, beholding the beauty and grace of her divine countenance, loved
her from that very moment and made up his mind to marry her. For-
getting his hunting, he sat under the shade of the palm tree, and inspired
by her beauty, wrote poems upon the palm leaves and sent them to her
by the "Lala-man." Asley, in answer, wrote poems of love to her lover
in the forest, which, with their messages of love and encouragement,
the guardian joyfully returned to his master.

The years passed by. The lover's patience being exhausted, accord-
ing to custom Karam goes to his father, and with pathetic pleading, per-
suaded him to visit her father on a love mission. But the difficulties in
the way seemed as great and high as the everlasting hills. There were
not only social problems to be solved, but religious differences, one be-
ing a Mohammedan, the other a Nestorian Christian. After many
heated debates the Malek gave his decisive answer, that it was impossible
for him to marry his daughter to the richest Mohammedan upon the face
of the earth. Thus the father of the lover returned to his home with no
word of hope for his only son. But Karam, nothing daunted, made his
way to the woods near his sweetheart's home and sung the sweetest
stories of his love, and wept bitterly over his disappointment for ten

MANNERS, CUSTOMS, HABITS AND SOCIAL LIFE.

187

long years, so that her father was unable to persuade her to marry any
one else. Tradition says his grief was so intense that the willows and
palms have wept ever since in sympathy with him.

After ten more years, Asley's father, being alarmed by the threats
of the youth and the mental depression of his daughter, sold all his pos-
sessions, and, taking his daughter, started on a long journey northward
to Russia, thinking in this way to get rid of the young Moslem.

But the love-insane Karam, bidding good-bye to his parents and
home, followed the trace of his "Y'ai" singing touchingly :

Oh, Justice ! I appeal in behalf of my misfortune.

I have left my friends and fatherland.

I am a grief-stricken wanderer

After my missing black-eyed Asley.

Though far thou may'st sojourn :

'Twill not discourage me to follow.

If necessary I will enter into thy Church

And bow with confession before thy cross.

The maiden's parents settled at length in a Russian town — a lonely
family in a strange land. One evening, while Asley was sitting on the
roof of the house enjoying the mountain scenery, she heard below her
the tune of a Persian love song, sung by a wandering minstrel. She
instantly recognized her faithful lover's voice and her fainting hopes
revived with joy. After wandering around and singing his love story
for awhile, he thought he would change his appearance in order to go to
her home without .being recognized by her parents. In this way he
could at least get a chance to see his beloved "Y'ai." Allowing his hair
and beard to grow long, he assumed the garb of a Dervish "holy man"
and went to the door and knocked. The servant came. He said to
the servant:

"I am a man of God, a dervish, and have been suffering from tooth
ache for some days and have come to ask the mercy of your mistress
to relieve my pain." (The mother of Asley is supposed to^have been a
dentist). She took him to her office and called her daughter to hold
his head while she was pulling the tooth, as the servant had reported
the Dervish's trouble to her mistress, who went to the door and welcomed
him in with promises that she would make every effort to relieve his
pain.

Both daughter and the patient wept bitterly. The mother thought
the Dervish wept because of his pain, and the daughter from sympathy.

After the first tooth was pulled the Dervish said : "Pull the other
by its side, for it pains me too,"

L88

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

She pulled that one and then he ordered still another till all of his
teeth were gone. Then having no further pretext for remaining, he
took his head from Asley's lap and said:

. "I have had thirty-two teeth pulled, but did not feel any pain because
my head was in the arms of my love."

After singing a song, he begged to be allowed to rest his weary bones
over-night in the comfortable home. Next morning he made himself
known to Asley's parents, who wearied with the attempt to keep them
separated, consented to their marriage.

But the end of their devotion was indeed pitiful. The night they
were wedded it grew very cold. Asley drew her lover's seat near to the
great log fire. As the legend goes, the inward burning fire of his long
smothered passion was kindled by the Outward warmth into visible
flame. Asley, terrified at seeing her newly made husband burning to
death, as she supposed, hastily snatching a pitcher of oil, supposing it to
be water, poured it upon him. This so greatly increased the raging
fires that her own intense love also burst into flame. She threw her
arms about her husband and together they were consumed to ashes.
Such was the devoted faithfulness and loyalty of the two lovers, and
such was the unfortunate end of their career.

There is a beautiful fountain in Geogtape, a village about four miles
from Oroomiah which to this day bears the name of Asley. Travelers
visit the place with great interest and often with tears of sympathy and
admiration. ,

SOCIAL AND DOMESTIC LIFE IN PERSIA.

The birth of a child is usually awaited with a great deal of agon-
izing anxiety. At the announcement of the birth of a baby boy, the
servants have a glorious time. They joyfully take the tidings to their
master, from whom they are certain to receive gifts and hear good
words. The congratulations of friends and relations will begin to
pour in from all quarters to the happy father, and it will be an occasion for
rejoicing and festivity. The father will deem it a privilege to entertain
his friends as an expression of his personal gratification. Noise, festivity
and music will fill the atmosphere with the echoes of a merry company.
Everybody is happy because a son is born, one who will succeed his
father, keep up the family record and perpetuate the memory of the
race.

But when a daughter is born there will be no giving of gifts, no
festivity, no music and no entertainments. Everybody about the house,

MANNERS, CUSTOMS, HABITS AND SOCIAL LIFE.

ISO

the very atmosphere will be doleful and gloomy, as though the mourn-
ing over the loss of a precious child was already begun. The servants
dread to take the tidings to their master, realizing the disappointment
that will follow. When the father hears the message he will be in a woe-
ful condition. Taking his pipe, he will engage in an endless puffing,
as though thus to mitigate his sorrow. The poor mother's grief is most
sincere and pitiful. She weeps bitterly when her friends come to her,
appreciating her situation. They address her with comforting words
and encouraging prospects.

Both mother and infant will be objects of hatred to the cruel
father and the rest of the family. No word of comfort will be given to
her by them. No kiss of affectionate love and no help in time of pain
and sorrow.

It is the custom of the friends of the married couple on the wedding
day to sincerely express their good wishes by repeating the common
saying, "May your wedded life be long and peaceful with many sons
and no daughters."

The child is salted on the day she is born according to an ancient
custom, and subjected to the superstitions so carefully practiced among
the women. If it is a boy no one can see his face for at least three
months because the little thing is so precious that peradventure any one
looking on him he might die.

A talisman will soon be brought, on which are written prayers
and verses from the Koran. This is to be fastened on the right arm
or put somewhere near the body to preserve him from sickness and
especially the evil eye.

No mother allows any one to praise her baby boy; will usually dress
him in unbecoming clothes and keep him dirty, fearing that if he
should look too handsome and attractive, the evil eye might cause his
death or illness ; she will, however, do all that is in her power to make
him comfortable. When he cries she is ready to rock him to sleep,
singing the sweetest baby songs in his ears, and kissing his precious
cheek because he is a son and a precious gift of God. But the unfor-
tunate little daughter will , have no more attention than the domestic
animal at first. At the end of seven days she will be put into a hard
cradle, wrapped tightly in swaddling clothing. Sometimes she will
not be moved for a whole day or night, and when she is removed it will
be only for a little while. When she cries the mother is slow to attend
to her, and at best the only thing the mothers do for them when they
cry is to rock them in a rough cradle, which does not add much to< their

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comfort, nor soothe them into silence. After a considerable amount
of singing and harsh speaking most likely the mother will get angry
and tired and leave the little creature alone to cry until it can cry no
more because utterly exhausted. They bind the eyes of a child very
tightly with a handkerchief for the first ten or fifteen days, this they
suppose protects them from nervousness caused by seeing the light for
the first time. Again, they never take the girls out of doors for the
first forty days and the boys for three months because they believe ill-
ness will be caused by the expression of surprise from the people that
see them for the first time. Again, their eyes must always be filled with
black powder, which they think keeps them from becoming sore and
makes them pretty when they are grown.

As circumcision is practiced among the Mohammedans, boys re-
ceive their names at the celebration of this rite on the eighth day. But
at the naming of the girl, there is no religious ceremony, and no read-
ing from the Koran or even praying by the Mollah. An old woman
will be called to the house, who will take the girl in her arms, and,
placing her mouth to the child's ear, will call the name that her parents
prefer in a very loud voice, repeating it three times, adding, "This is
your name." At the age of 6 they will be put to work at home to help
their mothers, and at the same time to learn what will be useful to them-
selves. They are taught sweeping, washing, cooking, making tea and
preparing "kalian," the water pipe, for the guests and parents ; and
they will be expected to give good attention to all kinds of housework.
They will also be taught sewing, which is supposed to be the crowning
attainment of any girl. They learn to do the most beautiful embroidery
and handwork, for which the Persian women have always been famous,
and this is about all the preparation they can make for theij; future
life as a married woman.

All education is confined to the male sex only, and very seldom
to the female, who might be the daughters of prominent lords and men.
The customs that require the strict seclusion of females, prevents them
attending school, consequently only a few wealthy families will supply
special tutors for their daughters. This teacher generally is a Mollah,
who is a pious man, a very old man and nearly blind. As these blind
Mollahs know the Koran by heart, they make very good teachers. He
will be permitted to go to the women's apartment in the house and take
a seat at one end of the room, while the pupil sits at the other ; some
elderly women will be present, while the teacher drills the pupils in read-
ing the Koran and explains its teachings to them.

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GIRL'S LIFE AND MARRIAGE.

One of the questions most frequently asked me by the young- peo-
ple of this country is concerning the courtship and marriage of our
Eastern youth. The frequency of this question has led me to conclude
that this is a favorite theme of young Americans.

Oriental harems have been the basis of many a delusive fiction, for
the secluded privacy of their indoor life has thrown about them the
charm of mystery. Islamism does not allow women to appear in public
save when they are closely veiled ; and even at their homes their apart-
ments are entirely seperated from those to which male callers are ad-
mitted. For centuries the women of the harem, isolated from society,
had no knowledge of the outside world, except what they saw in their
limited field of observation or heard from the men of their own house-
hold, for in the mosque and in public conveyances, as well as at home,
they are kept in special apartments.

What a contrast to the American woman, who is queen in her own
land by right of her independent birth — that heritage of every true born
American citizen! Aishe, Mohammed's wife, is said to have originated
the custom of seclusion, and the traditions and customs of centuries do
not readily yield to innovation. The Arabic word harem is synonomous
with the English word "home," and means "secret," or "forbidden."

The old-fashioned yeshmak, which once almost completely hid her
features, is being gradually superseded by a thin gauze veil, which is
indeed so thin that, like a transparent glass, it shows more clearly the
beautiful countenance of the hanoum within. Thus, even in the change-
less East the "new woman" is evidently asserting herself.

The ignorance, superstitution, and bigotry of the nation are largely
the result of uneducated mothers. In the absence of the father on
affairs of business during the day the child is under the direct influence
of his mother at home, and every characteristic of her conduct has a
molding influence on him. If her words be wise and her conduct re-
fined, the child will thus be molded ; and, on the contrary, if she be igno-
rant and rude, her defects will be reproduced in her child. Thus women
largely determine the standard of civilization for their country, and it is
altogether the exception for an empty-headed mother to bring up. clear-
headed, intellectual children. With woman's intellectual, ethical, and
spiritual elevation, the nation rises; while with her degradation and hu-
miliation, the nation sinks to the lowest level of civilization.

Is the Mohammedan woman responsible for the semi-civilized posi-
tion she occupies in the world? As has been indicated, she is more than

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193

anxious to take her true place among her progressive sisters, but the
religious institutions under which she is unfortunately placed create all
these inhuman customs — seclusion, polygamy, and blind submission to
ill-treatment which she is under moral bonds to obey. The religious in-
stitutions, therefore, are directly accountable for her sad position. Did
Mohammed live in the present era, I do not believe he would approve
of these customs. The improvement or elevation of the condition of
Mohammedan women, then, is to be only through a reformation of the
Mohammedan religion.

The matches and courtships of the Mohammedans are beset with
more difficulties than in Western countries. Young Mohammedans do
not call on their lady friends and prolong the tale — indeed, a tale of long
hours among Americans ! Most Mohammedan girls cannot even write,
but many generations of practice have developed a unique system of
symbols by which they communicate with young men whose friendship
they wish to encourage. A hanoum or young lady, sees in the private
grounds of a neighbor over the wall a comely youth whom she ad-
mires, and then proceeds to communicate with him. She prepares an
affectionate surprise, not with paper and ink, for she cannot write, but
she makes up an expressive token of regard with a piece of string, de-
licious fruit, fragrant flowers, and pretty bits of stone, each of which
has a meaning. When completed it is tossed over the intervening wall,
and lying near his favorite ramble, is soon found and read like an open
book. The thoughts expressed are those in vogue the world over under
like impulses, and ere long she will find an answer beneath her window
similar to her message. This strange correspondence will continue for
a varying period. By and by, if the tokens are indicative of unaltering
affection, the young man brings the question of his matrimonial scheme
to the consideration of his parents, inspiring them with the same zeal
and determination.

After the engagement has taken place it is customary among the
Mohammedans for the affianced boy and girl or their parents to choose
each a representative who meet, or else the parents themselves meet,
and decide what or how much money the boy shall pay to this intended
wife, if at any time after they are married he may wish to put her away
by divorce. This money is called "kaben," and the amount varies from
ten to one thousand dollars, that depending largely upon the standing
financially of the contracting parties. The sum being fixed the two rep-
resentatives or the parents of the engaged couple, as the case may be,
go to their priest and have him write two letters of documental testi-

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mony, one each for the betrothed couple, in which the fixed amount of
"kaben" is stated. These letters, called "kaben letters," are kept by each
party to the compact, and whenever the husband grows tired of his wife
or dissatisfied with her, he simply pays her the stipulated amount of
"kaben" for her maintenance and is thereby divorced from her.

If the husband really wants his wife divorced he will so abuse her
that she will be obliged to say, "Kabenem halai," "Janium azad," which
means, "I make my 'kaben' legitimate to you. Now let my soul free."
She will then be divorced and glad of her escape, even though she re-
ceives either nothing or only a small sum of money.

A wife divorced for three successive times should not be taken back
a third time by her husband until she had been married to another man
and divorced by him. After that her first husband could marry her
again. The number of wives that a Mohammedan is allowed to have is
limited to four, but there is another kind of wife or concubine called
"Seka." To the number of these that a man is allowed to have there
is no limit. He is allowed to have as many of them .as he wishes and
can get.

The common age of betrothal for a girl is between the ages of 7 and
i'2 — very seldom over that age ; but in many cases a girl is betrothed as
soon as she is born, or even before her birth. I have known certain
parties who were friends before their marriage, while sitting together
socially drinking, that one suggested to make a contract between them
that, after they were married, if one had a son and the other a daughter,
they would marry them — and the contract was fulfilled perfectly ; at pres-
ent the young man is dead, but the young lady is still living. In some
places in the Kurdistan Mountains, the engagement will take place as
soon as a girl is born; and in such cases they will take the girl in their
home and care, and bring her up. The engagement ceremony will take
place by first sending a private message to the girl's father, indicating
their wishes. If the father favors the idea, the messenger will return
with words of encouragement, and then the date of ceremony will be
fixed. Then the father of the boy, taking a few relatives with him, with a
ring and a pair of shoes, etc., and a great deal of candy and some other
confectionery, goes to the home of the girl. After an elaborate saluta-
tion, they will be given seats and a general conversation will take place
for about an hour, after which the father of the boy will mention the
object of his coming, addressing the family with a few polite and appro-
priate words. The father of the girl, who is expected to decide the mat-
ter, at first will make no definite answer, but will say, "The girl does not

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195

belong to me, she has a grandfather who must be consulted first;" and
then the grandfather will be addressed, and pressed for a definite answer.
After a few moments of silence he will place the matter before the girl's
uncle, and so it will go the rounds of all the nearest relatives, each one
being consulted in turn, just for the sake of ceremony and to make them
feel good. At last, the question comes back to the girl's father for a
definite answer, and he will say, gravely, "My daughter is like a pair of
shoes for your son." That means, I am willing to make the engage-
ment. Then it is the duty of the boy's, father to kiss the hand of every
relative of the girl who is present. Meantime, the ring will be carried
to the ladies' apartment, where the girl is, and handed to the girl by an
elderly woman, who, addressing her, will say, "Your father, your uncles

and your brother have betrothed you to , and if you are willing

to obey them, you can express it by taking this ring from my hand and
putting it on your finger;" and the girl is always expected to do it —
but I know of a case where a girl's desire was for another young man,
and did refuse the ring, and then her uncle went there with a dagger in
one hand and the ring in the other and said, "Choose the ring or the
dagger," and she chose the ring. Then the presents will be offered to
the girl, and the feast will be continued until late in the night. Thus the
engagement is completed.

The duration of the engagement varies greatly ; some marry after
six months, others more or less, and it even continues for five or six
years. But the boy and girl have very little to say concerning the en-
gagement ; in many cases they are too young to understand the mean-
ing of it. There is no calling upon their sweethearts, or walking with
them, nor are they together in society. It is improper for a girl to allow
her sweetheart to see her, as the love of a Mussulman is measured largely
by the beauty of a woman. A boy is naturally very anxious to see his
future wife, and will often watch eag'erly to meet her or have a word
with her.

The old women, who play an important part in these affairs, are
always ready to stimulate a curiosity of either party by pointing out one
to the other. Once or twice during the engagement the young man will
be given a half hour's intercourse_with his sweetheart, but it must be in
the presence of an elderly woman.

One of the special features of Persian weddings is the extravagance.
From the time the engagement takes place until the wedding is over
large sums of money are being spent continually by both parties, more
especially by the bridegroom's family. The wealthy may not feel the

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pressure much, but there are some upon whom it brings a heavy burden
of debt for life. Still they think it necessary because a man's character
and generosity are judged by the style in which he marries his son.

The greatest expense is what is called "parcha," the wedding gar-
ments. A few weeks before the wedding takes place both parties will
send their representatives, and they will be engaged for one, two or three
days in making purchases. Usually they buy from three to seven differ-
ent suits for the bride, giving but small attention to the bridegroom's
apparel, as he is expected to see after his own. As the expenses must all
be paid by the boy's father, the bride's party is naturally inclined to be
lavish, while the other party, in seeking to modify their desires, often
raise quarrels of ill-feeling. The expenditure sometimes amounts to
hundreds of dollars, among the wealthy. When the "parcha" is taken
to the bride's home all the maidens from the neighborhood get together
and help cut out and sew. Of course the larger part must be done by
herself, if she is old enough to understand dressmaking, and by her
mother. Very few people employ dressmakers on such occasions.

A day or two before the wedding the bridegroom's people will des-
patch two or three men to the villages and towns of the neighborhood to
invite all the friends, relations and respectable citizens. They carry with
them candy and red apples, which are to take the place of the engraved
cards. Handing a red apple or some candy to the family, they an-
nounce verbally the day of the wedding, adding these words : "So-and-so
sends his love to you and to your family and says the wedding is not
my son's, but yours ; come and bring your family." Then, bidding them
farewell, they will go to the next neighbor and repeat the same thing
until their mission is fulfilled. If there is a grandee or official connected
with either family, the boy's father has to go himself, carrying a sheep
or a quantity of sweets, and extend the invitation to him. In return he
will receive the gift of a shawl or tailor-made coat for the bridegroom,
with his excellency's good wishes and permission to proceed with the
ceremony.

It will be interesting to mention that it sometimes occurs that some
of those invited, from pique or ill-humor, will decline to attend the wed-
ding; then the father of the boy will go himself or send a near relative
to pacify them and persuade them to come to the feast. The weddings
generally last from three to seven days.

On the first day the invited guests will pour into the home of the
bridegroom, which will be opened for their cordial reception. Every-
body makes himself at home. Dancing, music, noisy drums and the un-

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107

controllable excitement of the merry crowd will fill the air the whole of
the seven days. The first three or four days are usually spent in feasting
at tKe bridegroom's, while the bride's family are quietly going on with
their preparations for their daughter. The principal part of the enter-
tainments on these days is eating. The home will be thrown open for
not only the guests, but for all the poor people and the beggars. Some-
times from five to ten sheep will be slain, or one or two oxen. Quanti-
ties of rice and other vegetables will be used. Three times every day this
crowd of people will sit on the floor around the long tables to eat, of
course with their fingers, according to the custom of the country.

Dancing. — Between meals they will go out to the open court, which
is like an amphitheater, or if that is not large enough, out on the street
to engage in dancing and singing, the women and children crowding
the flat roofs of that house and neighboring ones to look at the dancers.
The men hand in hand form a large circle, the one at the head, the
leader, holding a richly colored handkerchief in one hand, and swinging
it in the air, moves slowly around, the others following, while the drum-
mer and flute player stand in the center of the circle making a violent
noise. Gradually they begin to get excited and become more and more
so until they jump and leap so rapidly that their feet can. hardly be seen
at all. When one is tired another takes his place in the circle, and thus
they go on till noon. Sometimes a drum and flute will be exchanged for
two good singers who sing love songs for the inspiration of the dancers.
The women are not allowed to dance with the gentlemen. They can
dance in their own apartments or when there are no strangers present.
It is customary for each neighbor who is present at the supper table
and meets with the strangers there to take from two to five of them
home with him when the time for retiring comes and take care of them
for the night. Thus lodgings are provided for a great many. Some-
times there will be none left at the bridegroom's house. Then early in
the morning the drummers go about the street and summon them back
for their breakfast.

On the third or fourth day they arrange to go after the bride. Some
thirty or forty of the choicest young men, well dressed and armed, and
if the bride's home be at some distance some of them mounted on beau-
tiful horses march toward the house, where they will receive a cordial
welcome. Everything has been prepared for their reception, the village
people will come, and the feasting will begin at the home of the bride.
The bride's family generally look rather doleful during this part of the
performance, probably on account of the expense. The next morning

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the bride will be gorgeously decked in her wedding apparel in the
women's apartment, a red veil taking the place of the black one for the
day and covering the whole of her body. She is not allowed even to
have the small openings to see through. Bidding her folks good-bye, she
is put upon a horse saddled for her, and at this point begins a tremen-
dous uproar from the crowd — yells, shouts, thundering of guns, etc.
The bride is carefully protected from every danger by three men, a "koo-
lam" servant holding the bridle and leading the horse and the other two
holding her, one on either side. Thus the homeward march begins.
Each one of the young men belonging to the bride's escort carries a
chicken in his hand which either he catches himself from the street or
some friend catches and gives to him. This is called the bridegroom's
bird. The procession advances as rapidly as possible. The city people
often have these processions at night so that they can have the oppor-
tunity to make them more resplendent by fireworks, that is, by torches,
etc.

It was on such an occasion that the parable of the ten virgins was
suggested to the Master. When they are near home a messenger is dis-
patched to carry the news of their approach to the bridegroom. For
this he will receive some reward. The bridegroom then dresses himself
in his wedding costume and, attended by his intimate companions, he
goes out of his chamber looking as happy and gorgeous as the sun com-
ing out of the chambers of the night. This part of the ceremony differs
a good deal in various parts of the country. In some places, the bride-
groom and his staff just go a little distance to meet the bride. •

The Mohammedan bridegroom does not go upon a housetop to
throw apples at his approaching bride as the Christians do; but instead,
while the bride is coming he and his comrades, mounted on horseback,
go to meet her. When they have approached to within a stone's throw
of her the groom kisses an apple and throws it upon his bride or, some-
times, he may ride up and put the apple into her hand. Immediately
after doing this the groom and his party quickly turn and ride away as
fast as they can. They are pursued by some of the horsemen of the
bride's party, who try to catch the groom. Should any one succeed in
doing this he would receive a present in keeping with the rank and' cir-
cumstances of the bridegroom.

On such occasions the women do not appear among the crowds of
men to see the performances. Usually they cover themselves and go up
upon the housetops to see the outdoor exercises.

At the time the bride is going to ride on horseback the streets and

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199

housetops are thronged with noisy expectant spectators, while the firing
of guns and pistols and the notes of exciting music fill the air. For this
reason a very gentle horse is secured for the bride, one that will not be-
come frightened at all this noisy tumult. No one can see any part of
her except her feet, and when she appears on horseback, it is simply as a
graceful red figure. When the bride is ready the musicians play a sor-
rowful tune while she bids farewell to her parents, who kiss her and
pronounce their benediction upon her and then weep after her as she is
taken and put upon horseback. Her father-in-law throws a handful of
copper money upon her head to show his wealth and liberality. It is
customary among the Mohammedans to send a lady called "Yedah"
along with the bride to take care of her.

In some places it is customary to take the bride to the doors of the
prominent people of the place and nearest relations, before going to her
father-in-law's. This is considered a mark of respect to such persons,
and at each home the family is expected to show their appreciation in
some way. Some take a quantity of raisins and throw them upon her
head, as a symbol of the "sweetness of the occasion," while others throw
a great deal of copper money, a symbol of prosperity. The boys espe-
cially enjoy this part of the performance and have a great time picking
up the raisins and coppers under the horses' feet. After this they pro-
ceed to the bridegroom's house and everybody will retire until the next
morning, when dancing and feasting begin again. The main feature of
the next day's proceedings will be the welcoming of the bride's relatives
and friends, who will come and bring her trunk and all that belongs to
her. Her trunk must be opened before a multitude of witnesses and
every little thing in it spread out before them. The contents of this
trunk are not, by any means, entirely for the bride's own use, although
she and her mother have spent a great deal of time on them. They are
mostly intended as presents for the bridegroom's relations and friends,
and are the greatest expense which falls on her father in connection with
the wedding days. In the trunk there will be perhaps some half a dozen
or more dresses, aprons, skirts, head-dresses, etc 3 , made for her by her
parents ; the rest are all the presents that have been made, consisting of
side-pockets, waist-pockets, money bags, watch covers, woolen belts,
skull caps and such like, all of which have been exquisitely embroidered
by hand. These will be distributed among the numerous relation and
home-folk of the' bridegroom.

If the bride's father is wealthy the trunk will also contain jewels,
precious stones, shawls, cups of gold and silver; a "samowar," or tea-

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kettle, with all its outfit ; a "kalian," smoking pipe, etc. It will be as
well to remark that these costly gifts, in many cases, are not so much for
the purpose of expressing the parents' devotion to the daughter as for
the show and pride on their own behalf.

On the next day the guests will begin to depart. In leaving, every
one extends his congratulation and presents his gift. After this the bride
is taken to an apartment prepared for her. The feasting continues
several more days and at the end of the previously fixed time the wed-
ding is considered ended and everything is quiet again.

Among the higher classes of Mohammedans who live in cities and
are very wealthy sometimes the weddings continue even over a week.
Several male cooks are employed and every one who is invited attends the
wedding every day during the whole time, and all are provided with
good substantial meals, consisting mainly of rice and meats. Several
couples of musicians are hired for the entertainment of the guests. Also
some Gypsies to dance and a number of jugglers of superior skill, who
make sport and amusement for the crowd by their tricks of extraordinary
dexterity. Some story-tellers, singers and players on different kinds of
musical instruments are also employed for the occasion. Sometimes
prominent wrestlers are also secured. The musicians play exciting tunes
while the wrestling continues.

THE DWELLING PLACE OF A MARRIED WOMAN.

The Persians have a strong tendency to congregate in cities, towns
and villages, from the rich capitalists and the high officials to the poor
laboring men and peasants. They all prefer to live together in com-
munities. There is literally none of what is called country life in Amer-
ica. Most of the cities, towns and villages have high, thick walls of mud
all around them, with gates for entrance, which are carefully watched.
The reason for this is, I suppose, first, for protection in time of war. In
the olden days the country was settled largely by different hostile tribes
who would often attack each other, and the walls were a great protec-
tion to the property. There were also numerous robbers and highway-
men whose whole business was thieving and pillage, thus constantly
dangerous to life and commerce. There is still this danger, and the
citizens to insure their safety live in communities for mutual defense and
protection. And, again, the custom of secluding the women has a great
deal to do with it.

The first visible part of the houses of the first class from the street
is a high, thick wall that encircles the whole lot. Through this there is

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201

only one entrance — a large gate, made of heavy hard wood and studded
with big, heavy iron nails. This gate is kept shut all the time, and any-
body that wanted to get in would have to knock hard in order to do so,
calling the family, who, in most cases, live in some distant part of the
premises. Walking along the street, one can easily tell the official house,
because they have always about a dozen or more men guarding the gate.
These guards eat, sleep and live in the small rooms opening into the
gateway on each side. No neighbor is allowed to build his house higher
than the mud walls, or if he does, he is not permitted to open any win-
dow — not the least opening — into his neighbor's yard, which could make
it possible for him to look in upon his neighbor's wife.

The first apartment we come to is called "beroon," or the men's
apartment. Here the head of the family during the day commands his
servants, transacts his business and receives his calls. He comes to this
apartment by sunrise, having previously had his cup of coffee or tea and
offered his prayers. And here he stays until his dinner hour, which is
at twilight. The second apartment of the house is called "anderoon,"
which is exclusively for women and children, and is also called "harem,"
"forbidden place," a word corresponding with zenana or serago. The
women live here all their lives, very seldom going out for recreation or a
breath of fresh air. No male persons could venture to go to this apart-
ment. If a man by mistake or unwittingly should attempt to make his
way to the "forbidden place," he would be quickly met by the guardians
and eunuchs, crying loudly, "Women, away !" and the man, with breath-
less haste, will make his way back, while the women would begin at
once to conceal their persons with a veil.

The custom of secluding the women and watching them so care-
fully has come down from many generations. The kings in ancient days,
in order to exhibit greater state and to preserve pure lineage, intro-
duced it first into the country, and it was gradually adopted in some
form by all classes, except the wandering nomads.

DUTIES OF WOMEN IN PERSIA.

One of the duties of women in Persia is grinding the wheat and
barley into flour. In the parts of the country where water is abundant,
water mills are built, and in some other places they have what are called
donkey, buffalo or mule mills, which are turned by power of these ani-
mals. But still there are many of the poor who cannot afford to have
their flour ground at these mills, and the women must grind it at home in
the old fashioned way of Bible lands and times. "Two women shall be

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grinding at the mill ; the one shall be taken and the other left." (Matt.
24:41.) This mill consists of two heavy circular stones with a wooden
pin in the center fastened to the lower one passing through a large hole
in the upper one. Into this hole in the upper stone, around the central
pin, the grain is poured by handfuls while the two women turn it rapidly
by the stout handle fastened to the outer rim of the upper stone. The
grain falling between the two stones is crushed into a coarse flour and
thrown out around the edges onto a large cloth placed under and around
the mill for the purpose of catching it. Besides the flour for the bread
they prepare every year a quantity of cracked wheat, which is boiled
and dried in small cakes from which they make a much relished dish
peculiar to the Persian poorer classes. The bread is made up with
leaven, worked and set to rise, then rolled out into very thin cakes. A
second woman has in her hand a kind of cushion covered with heavy
canvas. The thin wafer of dough is spread smoothly on this cushion,
which has a handle underneath so that she can hold it securely. Then
she slaps the cake of dough against the hot side of the tandoor (oven)
so that it sticks and bakes in a few minutes, when another is put in its
place. A week's baking, sometimes two weeks', is done at once.

Water works have not been introduced into Persia yet ; all the water
for drinking and every day use is brought from a distance by the women.
There are public wells or streams outside of each village. The women
go to these places mornings and evenings and carry home as much as is
needed. If it is a well they have no pumps, so they have to pull it up in
an earthen vessel with a long rope and fill their jars from that, but if it
is a spring they simply plunge the jar in until full, then lift it, first on the
hip, then to the back or shoulder, and quickly march home. They go
back and forth this way until all their jars are full, sometimes eight or
ten times. The jars are large and heavy, made of earthenware. They
hold from five to eight gallons of water. It takes long practice and
strong arms to lift these jars to the shoulder without spilling any of the
water or dropping and breaking the jar. But these women who have
been accustomed to the exercise need no dumb-bells or skipping ropes
for the development of their muscles. It is a beautiful sight every morn-
ing and night when scores of women group together with their jars
upon their backs and march to the spring. They find some compensa-
tion for the laborious task in the freedom to gossip and talk along the
way, and look as if they really enjoy it. It reminds one of the romantic
story of Abraham's servant and Rebecca at the well (Gen, 24) and of the

MANNERS, CUSTOMS, HABITS AND SOCIAL LIFE.

203

more spiritual incident of our Savior and the woman of Samaria at
Jacob's well.

The churning is done in a large, oddly shaped earthen jar, laid upon
its side on what is called a saddle. That is a kind of hollowed bridge,
into which the jar fits and over which it is jolted back and forth, to make
the butter come. First, however, the fresh milk is boiled and a little
sour cream or buttermilk added. Then it is allowed to stand until it has
become perfectly solid. The mouth of the jar is then tied up tight with
a heavy piece of canvas, that no air can get in, and the jolting begins.
Gathering the butter, etc., is similar to the same process in America.

Most of the harvesting, also, is done by women. It usually begins
in the early part of June and lasts until the latter part of July or the
first of August. These months are very hard on the women. They
have to be up early in order to finish their domestic duties by an hour
after sunrise. Then they take sickles and march to the field, which is
usually from one to two miles distant. Often one sees a mother with her
infant in a cradle upon her shoulder and a sickle in her hand marching
with the rest. From morning until sunset they toil, with only two hours
for rest in the middle of the day. The mothers put the baby-cradle under
a tree, where they can see that no harm comes to the little one, and can
stop and rock it if it cries very hard. These harvest months are the very
hottest in the year. The sun shines with terrific force during the day.
While the women reap, the men gather up the bundles and bind them
ready to be carried to the threshing floor, which is a great distance from
the field. Many a poor ''Ruth" may be seen following the reapers, glean-
ing whatever may fall behind. At sunset they begin their homeward
journey, tired and dirty. Their home duties are to come afterward, be-
fore they are ready to rest.

By the time the harvest is over, the vineyard work begins. The
grapes are then ripe. The women pick the ripe and ready bunches, fill-
ing large baskets and carrying them to the end of the vineyard, where
they are spread out in the sun to be dried for raisins. This usually takes
from fifteen to twenty days. Then they gather them and pile them up at
home, ready for the market. The rest of the grapes are made into mo-
lasses and wine. Of course the men take some part in the vineyard
work, but most of it is done by the women.

When a husband eats, the wife cannot sit with him and eat at the
same table, but must always stand in his presence with her arms crossed
while he eats, ready to render any service to him, like an accomplished
slave. And after he has done eating, she pours water on her lord's hands

MANNERS, CUSTOMS, HABITS AND SOCIAL LIFE.

205

and wipes them on a towel or her own chudder ; then she lights his water-
pipe and with a graceful yet slavish bow she hands it to him ; and while
he enjoys it she serves the children in the same fashion, after which she
retires to a respectful distance, her face turned toward the black mud
walls, so that her lord may not see her lips moving, and finishes the
meal. When he walks on the street, she cannot walk anywhere near
him, because it is a reproach' for a man to be seen on the street with a
woman, and also because she is so covered with the outdoor costume.
He might be accused of walking with a woman who was not his wife.
Hence, she never expects any help or protection from him. When he
goes on a journey, he does not even tell her good-bye, or consult with
her about his trip ; and if he should be gone for years, would never write
her a single letter nor ask after her health. If anything needs to be at-
tended to, he writes to his brothers or father, or a near relative. Nor
does he ever trust his wife with any money for her living ; he will ask a
friend or relative to give it to her little by little. When he is in any
business trouble or perplexity, it will not occur to him to mention the
fact to her or to ask her advice. On the contrary, when he talks busi-
ness with his friends she must not listen. And if she were in any mental
or physical depression, she would not dare mention it to him, for she
would be sure of harsh, rough words, instead of loving sympathy. In
all these things, he is in no sense a husband to her, but only a lord and
owner.

The law requires that females also make pilgrimages to the holy
places. Girls at every age are allowed to go ; also children. Widows
under 50 years are not accepted as pilgrims, first, because of their prob-
able desire for marriage, and second, because the law says no women
must undertake a pilgrimage alone for fear of exposing themselves to
men. So, in order to go, some marry for this purpose. The husband
accompanies them thither, and upon returning either divorces them or
keeps them as wives or concubines.

Every band of pilgrims, when returning to their own city, will send
a messenger about ten days in advance to announce that in so many days
a band of pilgrims will appear in the city. On the day of their arrival
many hundred men will meet them several miles from the city. The
Saylyids ride before them, crying : "Salawats \" Friends and relatives
kill lambs as a sacrifice before them. This sacrifice is a holy matter and
no man can touch it till its blood is shed ; but when it is beheaded it be-^
longs to God, and the strongest man takes it for his own. So there is
always quarreling when the pilgrims return. The acquaintances of the

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pilgrims will come and say : "My portion be as thy portion. Blessed
art thou. May your pilgrimage be accepted." And the pilgrim will
answer : "God grant that yon may also go to this Holy Place and re-
ceive remission of sins." Women will sometimes cut pieces from the
pilgrims' garments, which are supposed to be holy. At the pilgrim's
home many sheep are killed and a variety of fine meats are cooked.
People gather there to cat and drink and they say to the host: "God
bless your pilgrimage." He will answer : "May the Prophet give you
success and grant that you too may visit the Holy Place."

WOMEN IN THE CHAMBER OF SICKNESS AND DEATH.

If there is any time in the life of a woman in the Orient when this
world is hard for her it is when she is in the sick room and at the edge
of eternity. This is the last period of life, the period upon which the
silent shadows of eternity fall and in which a woman takes her last
farewell of the mortal body and flies to the world of immortality.
Therefore, it is the most important epoch of her life. It may be well
before going to describe woman's condition in sickness and death to
state briefly the idea of Islamism with regard to woman's immortality.
It has been currently believed that according to the teaching of Islam
woman has no soul, that she is only a higher species of animalism
whose life is ended at death. Three facts have led the people to this
conclusion: First, the inferiority of women to men as determined by
the Koran, for it is written, "Men are superior to women on account of
the qualities with which God has gifted the one above the other, and on
account of the outlay men make from their substance for them." The
Caliph Omar (not recognized as Caliph by the Mohammedans of Per-
sia) is reported to have said, on one occasion, that "women are worth-
less creatures and soil men's reputations."

Secondly, the shameful treatment women receive all through Mo-
hammedan lands, the worst from the most orthodox followers of the
Prophet.

Thirdly, the Moslem idea of Paradise. Heaven, according to their
belief, has seven divisions. It is written: "Who created seven heavens
in stories." The seven divisions come in the following order: "The
garden of eternity, the abode of peace, the abode of rest, the garden of
Eden, the garden of resort, the garden of pleasure (the place of the Most
High), and the garden of Paradise."

All believers will be ushered by the angels into these gardens, after
they are dead. Here the fruit of the trees and the shade of the branches,

MANNERS, CUSTOMS, HABITS AND SOCIAL LIFE.

20?

the crystal-like waters, ever flowing from the great rivers, the flesh, of
fowls, will be in abundance. They will have no headache, their wit will
not be dimmed. Around them shall stand eternal youth with goblets
and ewers and cups flowing with wine. They will recline on gold-welft
couches, while the bright and large-eyed maidens who are like hidden
pearls shall walk before them. These are what are called the damsels
of paradise, the seventy-two bright-eyed Houris and Paries, the beauty
of whom is beyond human conception. And these will make the other
world paradise for the believers. The supposition easily follows that as
God has created these Houris to be the wives of the believers in Para-
dise, therefore it must be that their earthly wives perish. Such, how-
ever, is not the teaching of the Koran, which plainly states that :

"The men who resign themselves to God, and the women who re-
sign themselves to God, the believing men and the believing women,
the devout men and the devout women, the men of truth and the women
of truth, the patient men and the patient women, the humble men and
the humble women, the men who give alms and the women who give
alms, the men who fast and the women who fast, the chaste men and
the chaste women, the men and the women who oft remembered God,
for them has God prepared forgiveness and a rich recompense." And
again it is written: "They and their wives on that day shall rest in
shady groves." "Enter ye and your wives into paradise delighted," etc.
So that the expectation of each believer is to have his earthly wives and
in addition to them the seventy-two Houris when he reaches paradise.
However, there is a stern condition for the admittance of any woman
into heaven. And that is she must be virtuous, and how can a woman
be virtuous? Only by perfect obedience to her husband. For it is
written : "The virtuous women are obedient." Some women who are
naturally inclined to be religious try to bring themselves into perfect
subjection and to render the fullest obedience to whatever commands
their husbands may give, in order to obtain the privilege of accompany-
ing them to paradise, while others seek to win merit by long pilgrimages
to some sacred shrine. If the journey has to be made on a lazy donkey's
back, it only adds luster to their piety and renders them more sure of
their reward. Upon such a tottering foundation and gloomy faith hangs
the rayless hope of a Moslem woman.

But outside of these few there are numbers who make their whole
life's journey with scarcely a thought or hope of immortality, being
without God and Christ. Now we come to what sickness is to them.
We have spoken of their ignorance and awful sins, now we must tell

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their sorrows also, for they are the natural outcome of sin. Christian
women for which sickness means nothing but tenderness, sympathy
and love, have not the faintest idea what sickness means to their sister
where there is no Christ and there is a vast volume of facts in this con-
nection which Christian women must meet and modify, even though
an acquaintance with them may thrill with horror their enlightened souls.
The woes of sickness in unchristianized lands are beyond the conception
of those of other countries. Heathendom throughout the East believes
that sickness is the result of demons taking possession of a body. There-
fore they beat the sick person with terrible clubs or roast his body by
a fire so as to drive out the demon from him. Moslems, on the other
hand, torture them by neglect of proper treatment or from want of any
treatment at all. So that thousands of women die every year' for want
of a little medicine and treatment. We can the better understand the
situation of a sick woman in Persia or in any other Mohammedan
country by noting the following points : The prevailing view of Islam in
regard to the doctrine of predestination is almost criminal. The Koran
teaches it in its most radical form, which leads almost inevitably to
fatalism.

They believe that whatever comes, including sickness, must be ac-
cepted and submitted to without any human interference as predesti-
nated by God from eternity. This idea, as you see, precludes the use of'
remedies in sickness.

Again, the woman's position in domestic and social circles makes it
quite impossible to see or prescribe for her. For those who get sick in
the harem there is no help. They must suffer and die, often without
even the knowledge of the nearest neighbor. They can only be seen
when their cold bodies are taken out for burial, and if there were any
opportunity to consult a physician the result would be of no avail, as
the native doctors have not the slightest idea of medical science. In
most cases they are more apt to cause injury and death than help by
their treatment. These physicians rely chiefly on charms, spells, amu-
lets or unholy incantations. And as the people are extremely ignorant
they have implicit faith in them, and would not spare their last cent to
pay for them. There is one of these so-called doctors in the neighbor-
hood of my home of whom I know well. If he should be consulted
about a woman or child with fever and chills, he would say, after long
deliberation, that a chicken must be brought next day so that he may
write a charm with the blood of the chicken. The chicken is killed at his

MANNERS, CUSTOMS, HABITS AND SOCIAL LIFE.

20<l

home and the blood used while the meat will furnish the physician's din-
ner. The sick person will be ordered to take the writing- and burn it,
putting the ashes in a cup of water. Then to drink the water, and
speedily recover. For a person who has no appetite they will prescribe
a few loaves of bread under his pillow at bedtime. Some of these doc-
tors believe that a man's occupation sometimes determines what medi-
cine he must use in order to recover.

In some cases a woman may in some way gain the advantage of
these prescriptions for their fevers and slight ailments, but in the more
serious forms of disease, the doctor not daring to touch them, even to
feel their pulse or look at their tongue, they have to stand the pain and

A MOHAMMEDAN AND ONE OF HIS WIVES.

suffering to the end without amy relief. Especially is this true in the
hour of pain and peril of child birth." They often perish under the
barbarous hands of the ignorant midwives.

Also in the time of epidemics, such as cholera, smallpox, and other
contagious diseases, which often bring raging destruction into the coun-
try. The men may flee to the mountains and get away from their city
homes and danger, but the women and children are left to endure what-
ever comes. It is pitiful indeed to see them fall prostrate and die some-
times without any one to hand them even so much as a cup of cold water
to quench their thirst.

We have already written on the mutual relations of husbands and

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PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

wives. It will not be amiss to add a word more in this connection. If
there is any time when a wife needs her husband to stand close to her
it is when she is suffering and in pain. And if there is any time when
a husband ought to do it it is then ; to be near her with sympathy, with
tender love, with comforting words and undying devotion. But instead
of this the moslem husband often sends heartless messages to her that
she has been in bed long enough, she is not sick at all, she is fooling
people and wasting time, for the .poor woman adding sorrow of heart
and physical pain. With no psalm of comfort to read, no skill of doctor
to alleviate suffering, no trained nurses, no hospital or infirmary, no
preacher of the gospel to administer the consolations of religion, and
no hope for eternity when their sufferings on earth are ended. The pain
and dissolution of the bodily organism is dreadful enough, but these
are intensified an hundredfold by the terrible agonies of a "guilty con-
science forecasting the retributions of the future." Thus the sad and
solemn hour comes when the shadows of the king of terrors begin to fall
at the door of the melancholy room.

The feet begin to grow cold, the eyesight dim, the weary body beats
one last pulse, and the soul is gone. But, alas! not to rest, for there is
no rest to them who die without Christ. To them, death is but the be-
ginning of a new misery, as much greater than anything in this world
as eternity is longer than time.

Oh, I wish I could ring into the ear of every Christian woman the
awful doom of my unsaved country-women. I wish I could pierce every
heart and soul with the darts of the love of Christ, so as to arouse a new
zeal and interest in sending to them the great salvation of Christ.

BURIAL CEREMONIES.

The Mohammedans have a prescribed ritual for the burial of the
dead, which may be elaborated or cut short, according as the dead is
rich or poor, the essentials being the same in either case. The unfortu-
nate women do not receive nearly so much attention as the men even
in death and burial.

The announcement of death is considered to bring misfortune, there-
fore few people will volunteer to take the tidings around. The Moollah
must be informed first, and he will make it public by going up on top
of the mosque and singing in a peculiar way certain passages from the
Koran. This, recognized by everybody as the announcement of a death,
preparations for burial begin at once, for they do not keep a dead body
in the house more than three or four hours, supposing it to be an ill-

MANNERS, CUSTOMS, HABITS AND SOCIAL LIFE.

omen to the family ; and it must be they often bury persons while onlv
unconscious, for in some known instances when, from necessity, they
were obliged to keep the body a little longer than usual they have found
the person was not dead at all.

It is customary to wash the body under a cover two or three times.
The ears, nose and mouth are then filled with moistened cotton and the
body shrouded in a piece of cloth. Coffins are little used; when they
are, they make them of rough wood and cover them with black calico.
A large majority of the dead are buried without. A piece of shawl is
thrown over the body, from the house to the grave, when it is taken off.
The washing and preparatory ceremonies are Hone by the poor people,
who expect to receive in return the clothing of the dead. When all is
ready for the burial the Moollah is sent for to come to the house. Then
the body will be taken between four persons, others following, to relieve
the bearers if they should get tired. There are no hearses in Persia,
but it is considered meritorious to assist in these ceremonies. The mool-
lah goes before the procession, reading the Koran. Women are not al-
lowed to go to the grave.

The grave is about four feet deep for a man, while for a woman it
must be two or three feet deeper. So there is no equality between
man and women even in the grave. The body must be laid in such a
way that the face can look toward Mecca, the holy shrine of the Mos-
lem, and a pair of crutches are placed under the shoulders to help them
up in the day of resurrection. Then the earth is piled in and a stone
put over it. On the eve of the same day a large fire is kindled over the
head, intended to keep off the holder, an animal which comes at night
to dig into the grave and eat the dead body.

In Persia there are no marble monuments over the graves. Some-
times a rude stone may be seen with the name of the person written
on it, and some passages from the Koran, or sometimes the sign of a
man's trade, as a sword for a soldier, etc. Very little attention is paid
to the burying-grounds. Instead of flowers, roses and trees, there is
nothing but trash, a resort for donkeys and other animals. Perhaps
one reason of this indifference is that most of the dead are buried tem-
porarily. As soon as the flesh is gone from the bones they are dug up
and carried to the sacred shrines at Kubela' and Meshed, so as to rise
in company with the great Imanes, holy prophets on the last day.

After the burial the Moollah and all the people who participated in
the ceremony go back to the house of mourning to offer their condolence
and good wishes to the bereaved by repeating over and over again :

:.'12

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

"It is the will of Allah."

"May the name of Allah be blessed !" etc.

Each will then be served with a cup of bitter coffee and a kalian or
smoking pipe, while another member of the party brings a bottle of rose
water to pour over the head of each one.

The number of mourning days, as well as the elaborateness of the
ceremony varies greatly. For the poorer classes of women there will
be no mourning at all. Husbands consider it unmanly to weep over a
dead wife (as another one can easily be procured). But when a man
is dead all the household must mourn for forty or fifty days and some-
times for the whole year. The special mourning days are on the third
day, the seventh and the fortieth after burial. On these days all the
neighbors will gather at the house. Of this is principally the duty of
the women, who are always the last to respond to joy and the last to
leave off their mourning. The mourning consists of singing the songs of
death, which are very pathetic and hopeless in sentiment. Professional
mourners are secured who have trained themselves for such occasions,
and the house will be packed and jammed with other women, mostly of
those who have had sorrows of their own. The hired singers sit in the
midst of them. Some article of clothing or something which belonged to
the dead is handed to the leaders, who take it into their hands and begin
to sing. After each stanza there will be an interval of a few minutes, for
them, all to weep and sob as a chorus. This goes on from morning until
dinner time. If the hired mourners grow weary, they throw the gar-
ment of the dead man into the lap of some mother who has recently lost
a son and she, thus reminded of her own loss, takes up the melancholy
refrain and leads while the others get a little rest.

Dinner is served to them all, and after dinner they begin again and
keep it up until night. When exhausted they depart. Sometimes wives
and mothers tear their garments and scratch their faces, pull their hair
out and put mud and dirt over their bodies, while men keep their shirts
unbuttoned at the breast for several days.

The Moollah is paid large sums to read the Koran every Friday
night over the grave. Sometimes ten or fifteen of them will be seen
in the same graveyard, reading aloud and this will be continued for
several months. The whole family dresses in black for a year.

Not only in Persia, but in all countries where they are without
Christianity, to the women especially, death is a terror, and the grave
a pit of awful darkness. They sorrow as those who have no hope. It is
Christianity alone which throws a soft and peaceful light over the grave.

MANNERS, CUSTOMS, HABITS AND SOCIAL LIFE.

313

Where Christ is known instead of head beating, body torturing, and
hopeless lamentation, songs of hope, peace and love are sung by the
bereaved to the glory of Him who rules life and death forever.

CHRISTIANITY THE ONLY HOPE FOR WOMEN.

The Christian apologists need no longer spend their valuable time
and fertile brains in vindicating Christianity. The treatment of woman
is in itself, sufficient proof of its superiority over any other system. The
incontrovertible facts of history, and the strong testimony of experience,
show clearly that one of the distinguishing features of the so-called moral
and philosophic religions of the world is the slavery and degradation
of the female sex.

We have already seen it in Mohammedanism — doubtless one of the
greatest of these systems. All its claims of morality and inspiration,
its revered priesthood and its cornerstone of belief in "Allah" the one and
only God, has been of no avail to women. The only thing womanhood
has received from Islam is moral corruption, mental stupidity, physical
barbarity, social slavery and spiritual deadness.

Leaving the domains of Mohammed, we pass to India. The religion
of India has been properly called "the religion of despair." Hindooism,
in its early stages, smiled upon the faces of woman and protected and'
adored her virtues. But this golden age departed centuries before our
Christian era.

And in its place a different kind of system has been transplanted
which drags woman into the lowest stratum of society, and considers
her absolutely incapable, through her own efforts, of rendering accepr-
able service to the Deity. Even individuality is denied to her. Every
hope she has is founded upon her husband, for without him she is soul-
less. The law says that "a husband, however devoid of good qualities,
must constantly be revered as a god by a virtuous wife. She who slights
not her lord, but keeps her mind, speech and body devoted to him at-
tains her heavenly mansions." No matter how young they may be left
widows, they are thenceforth regarded as dead while living. We hardly
wonder that "Hindoo women never smile."

Buddhism, with its great pantheon of gods and goddesses, can
reach no higher that to impress upon its votaries the inferiority and
slavery of woman as a consequence of her having been the cause of evil
being brought upon the whole human race. In the Oracles, it is written :
"All was subject to man in the beginning. The wise husband raised up
a bulwark of walls, but the woman, from an ambitious desire for knowl-

MANNERS, CUSTOMS, HABITS AND SOCIAL LIFE.

215

edge, demolished it. Our misery did not come from heaven, she lost the
human race."

One of the most intelligent of the Chinese said to a missionary :

"Why do you make Christians of our women?"

"To save their souls," replied the missionary.

"But they have no souls, you can't make Christians out of them !"

In the estimation of a Chinaman "ten daughters do not, in any case,
equal the value of one son." Hence there is no hope for woman in the old
religions of China and Japan.

Among the classic, cultured Greeks, who have inherited honest fame
as the most intellectual people of antiquity, the full dignity of humanity
was not accorded to woman. In the fullest sense, mankind consisted
only of men. Their conception of woman is- personified in the figure
of "Pandora," with her box of human ills.

Plato, when he would picture society as a complete wreck, says :

"Slaves are disobedient to their masters and wives on an equality
with their husbands." Socrates utters the pathetic question : "Is there
a human being with whom you talk less than with your wife?" And
Aristotle characterizes them as an inferior order. These are the senti-
ments of the great leaders of religious thoughts, of the doctrines in-
culcated in great systems which reflect the spirit of purely human organi-
zations. From none of these can there ever be a shadow of comfort
for woman. Not one of them has given her the place of equality, as half
of the unit of mankind. And not one of them has recognized fully her
superior nature, her immortal soul. Crush the soul of a woman, rob her
of her divine enthusiasm, destroy her yearnings to be a spiritual solace
and she will wither soon, like a stricken tree, and sink sullenly into ob-
scurity. Paganism, in ignoring the grandest and truest in a woman, and
in crushing her soul, has extinguished her very life, and shed darkness
on all who surround her. For without the amenities of the soul there can
never be a lofty friendship and a real society.

Where Christianity arises, with its crimson banner floating through
the skies, with its infallible claims of inspiration, its holy and high priest-
hood of all the saints, and its high moral and ethical teachings, it brings
a healing balm for all the woes and ills of humanity, and a message of
hope and salvation to all the nations, races and sexes from the divine
lips of the crucified Jesus.

Of course, in the term Christianity, we do not include those super-
stitious and paganized forms of it which also degrade womanhood.

When we speak of Christianity, we mean the pure, sincere and

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Christ-like system of doctrines and precepts taught in the pages of the
gospel. Here only can the women hear the silvery words and golden
sentences coming out from the lips of the divine man Jesus, whose
teachings and thoughts have ever been a benediction to women, puri-
fying their thoughts, molding their character, elevating their honor and
saving their souls. In His teachings He ignored the distinctions of rank,
race, sex, and simply taught, ''Blessed are the poor in spirit," "Blessed
are they that mourn," "Blessed are the meek," "Blessed are the merci-
ful."

Not only in what He taught did He raise the highest standard of
equality and mutual dependencies of the sexes, but in His deeds and
dealings while on earth'. One of His most deeply spiritual conversations,
recorded in the 4th chapter of John, is the one with the Samaritan woman
at Jacob's well. He was so intent upon saving her precious soul that
neither hunger, nor the blazing heat of the summer sun could deter
Him. Even His disciples, still full of the spirit of Judaism, "marveled"
because He spake to the woman. On another occasion, when a poor
woman was brought to Him by a mob of Pharisees that He might con-
demn her for adultery. He, who had come to save the lost, simply said :
"He that is without sin, let him cast the first stone at her." He sym-
pathized with women always. He took an interest in their domestic
and social life ; in sorrow and bereavement He was first to extend His
hand of mercy. He healed them when sick, raised their dear ones from
the dead, and when they were wrong, He rebuked them gently. Natu-
rally, they loved Him reverently, and followed Him whenever they could,
and their tender ministries even unto death and the resurrection morn.
And when He ascended up to heaven He commanded His disciples to
take His blessed Gospel and preach it unto all the world, without dis-
tinction of sex or race. So that wherever it has gone, eternal blessings
have followed its preaching. To-day Christianity extends its message
to all women of the world as well as to men, a message of hope both
for this life and the life to come, a message of love and mercy from
Him who died upon the cross to save them from their sins. And as the
result of the preaching of this Gospel, Christianity can boast of its
hosts of elevated and redeemed women, whose moral, intellectual, and
spiritual beauty is more radiant than the noonday sun.

Thanks be to God, the Father of our Lord Jesus Christ, for Christ-
ian womanhood,

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217

Woman, why weepest thou?
No sound! but women veiled and speechless throng
And look their wordless woe with haunting eyes ;
Far down, unseen, unsearched, as one who lies
In unsearched hidden chasms, they die. How strong
The voice that cries along th' abyss of heathen wrong :
Woman, why weepest thou?

Woman, why weepest thou?
Thy help is near! Thy Christ has heard the sound
Of worldwide tears ! His herald's swift proclaim
Surcease of weeping through His mighty name.
Woman, He died, and on the cross was bound
To lift thee by unfathomed love from depths profound !
Woman, why weepest thou?

PART III.

RELIGIONS OF PERSIA.

Nestorius and Nestorianism, Mohammed and Mohammedanism
Kurdish People, Babi and Babism, Devil Worshipers, etc.

NESTORIUS.

Nestorius was born near the close of the fourth century at Ger-
ma-ni-cia, and was a disciple of Theodore of Mopsuestia. He became a
Presbyter of Antioch and was made Patriarch of Constantinople in 428.
He was distinguished for his fluency of speech and his zeal against pre-
vailing heresies, especially those of the Appollinarians. In his opposition
to their doctrine, Nestorius himself erred from the truth he was striving
to defend. He denied the communication of idioms, i. e., the doctrine
that the attributes of the divine nature of Christ are communicated to
the human, and vice versa. His doctrine was : Christ is a true man
born of the Virgin Mary. This man God chose as his temple, so that
God was in Christ, but God, or the divine nature did not, could not
suffer and die. He refused to call Mary the mother of God, saying:
"Has God a mother? The creature has not borne Him who is uncreate."
By denying the communication of idioms he virtually predicated two
persons, and by denying the death of the Son of God he nullified the

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work of redemption of the world by Christ, since it required the blood
of Jesus Christ, God's Son, to redeem a fallen world. He was supported
by the eastern bishops, etc.

He was a learned man in literature and an orator of power. His
opinions were vigorously combatted by Cyril, bishop of Alexandria, who,
by the advice of Pope Celestine, called a council to Alexandria in 430
to determine the controversy. By this council Nestorius was judged
guilty of blasphemy and was anathematized, and Nestorius in turn
charged Cyril with confounding the two natures of Christ and anathe-
matized him.

Cyril induced the emperor, Theodosius II, to call a council at
Ephesus in 431, at which Cyril presided. As the bishop of Antioch
and others from the east had not come as yet, Nestorius refused to ap-
pear before the council, as he knew those who were absent were friendly
and in harmony with him and his views. But the council again decided
against him. Immediately after being deprived of his office, Nestorius
withdrew into private life within the monastery of Euprepius, Antioch,
until 438, when the emperor ordered his banishment to Petra, Arabia.
Later, he was sent to the oasis of Lybia, in upper Egypt. He was still
living when Socrates wrote his church history. The time and place, and
circumstances of his death are unknown.

INTRODUCTION OF CHRISTIANITY AMONG THE SYRIANS
OR NESTORIANS.

The origin of the Peshuto Bible (a very early Syrian version) is
explained by the following tradition : During the life of Jesus on earth,
Abgar, king of Edessa, sent to Jesus a letter inviting him to his city, to
escape the persecutions of the Jews, to heal him and to bless his people.
Jesus replied that he must remain in Judea, to finish his work, but would
after His death and ascension send a disciple, who should heal and teach
him. This disciple, being in after years sent and kindly received. The
Gospel of Matthew was written in Syriac, and in the course of the sec-
ond century the rest of the New Testament, save the Second and Third
Epistles of John, the Second Epistle of Peter, the Epistles of Jude and
James, and the Revelations of Jesus Christ to John. These having not
yet been accepted in Canaan as canonical parts of the New Testament,
they were translated into what is known as the Peshito version (it is
called Peshito on account of its simplicity). This version, on account
of its age, is often cited as high authority upon disputed points.

RELIGIONS OF PERSIA.

210

The Syrian Church was founded in the time when the disciples were
scattered by reason of the persecutions^ A. D. 44-87 (See Acts 11-19),
and by the exertions of the Apostle Paul (Gal. 1-21), grew to be one of
the most flourishing, and is often mentioned (Acts 13:1, 15:23, 35:41).

The Syrian Christians were called Martumans from the name Mar-
tuma, a missionary from Jerusalem, said to have been one of the Dis-
ciples of Christ also "Nazarus," i. e., Nazarene, which name of contempt
is in use today. Later they were called Nestorians from Nestorius, a
Syrian Bishop of Constantinople. (See Nestorius.) They were a well
organized church, very methodical in matters of government. Their
membership was grouped by sevens, forty-nine families under one min-
ister, seven ministers under one bishop, and seven bishops under one
Metropolitan, all the Metropolitans under one Patriarch. In each year
one general synod was held. The character of this church was shown
by their building seminaries and colleges. Some of the most important
of these were at Nesibia, Edessa, Uhai (this was called the queen of the
schools), at Antioch and Koochanies. These schools, while they flour-
ished, were the secret of the church's strength. The instructors were
the most learned men of their age. Airvaz and St. Basil of Nesibia and
Urhai were among the most learned teachers. The Assyrian, Arabic and
Greek languages were taught classically. Medicine, astronomy and
mathematics, including geometry, were taught. Special attention was
given to the study of theology. There were as many as 2,000 monks and
students in some of these institutions. There doctors of medicine were
given high positions under the Arabian and Persian governments. Lit-
erature in the Eastern languages was rich. From these schools came
great church fathers, who defended the church from the heretics of the
age. The students were prepared for study by some saintly hermit in his
cave, they having taken a monastrial vow similar to that of a Nazarene.
Next cartie five years' study in the schools, and that they studied well,
is shown by the fact that these men wrote more than 600 commentaries
on the Scriptures. Before leaving school each student was expected to
make a complete copy of the New Te'stament, to be left as his gift to the
common library. There are to-day in Europe many manuscripts written
by these scholars, that are from 300 to 1,200 years old. The New
Testament was translated into many dialects by the scholars. These .
manuscripts are skillfully executed and show the beauty and antiquity of
this church. Only a few of these ancient manuscripts are now to be found
in Persia and the mountains of Kurdistan, but there are many of them
scattered among the libraries of Europe. In these days of printing and

220

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PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

typewriting, people have little idea how laborious and beautiful this
work was. The earnestness of this church was also shown by the send-
ing of missionaries. Their great work in missions was from the sixth
to the thirteenth centuries. They penetrated all Asia and Europe, as is
shown by ancient discovery. In China a pillar has been found bearing
inscriptions in Chinese and in Syriac : This was written during the reign
of Si Coom, Emperor of China, six hundred years after Christ.

Several years ago a Japanese Christian was asked: "To what de-
nomination do you belong?" and answered: "I am a Nestorian," and
showed some Nestorian books handed down to him by his forefathers.
The instructions given to missionaries are interesting. One of the
Bishops, Mar Ephraim (Saints) said: "Change country for country;
but from your Master do not change. To every land bring the water
of life. In every home to which you come think that you shall find at
least one jewel of great price for your Master's treasury and look care-
fully about, and having found it, spare no pains to bring that soul to the
Kingdom." The great aim of this school was to educate the monks
and to become missionaries and spread the Gospel. These schools
were fountains from which flowed living waters for a thirsty land. There
was no other nation, in their age, that possessed such a spirit of Chris-
tain vitality. Zeal for the spread of the Gospel was burning in their
hearts as a divine flame. There was a class of Bishops appointed by their
leaders to awaken and keep alive this missionary spirit. "The dying love
of Christ for sinners," was the text from which they preached. Also
His last commission to His disciples, Matt. 28:19-20. These Bishops
preached with an inspiration from God and inflamed many hearts until
they were ready to sacrifice their lives for Christ. These missionaries
wore sandals on their feet, carried a staff of peace in their hands, and a
knapsack on their shoulders, containing bread and manuscripts of
sacred writings. Thus equipped, they journeyed into heathen lands,
following the command of their Nazarene teacher. The church was
very poor and had no board of foreign missions to guarantee even a
small income. The missionaries went forth trusting in their Heavenly
Father. If He took care of the birds in the air, how much more would
He care for the heralds of His Gospel. The week before departure was
spent in fasting and prayer and consecration. On the last day they
partook of communion from the hand of their leader, and solemn ad-
vice was given by the Bishop. In parting the Bishop kissed the mission-
aries' brow and the latter kissed the Bishop's hand and the Bishop
would say : "The Lord God of the prophets and apostles be with you ;

RELIGIONS OF PERSIA.

223

the love of Christ defend you; the Holy Spirit sanctify and continually
comfort you." Some of the missionaries went to distant lands requiring
eight or twelve months to make the journey on foot. They worked
in China, India, Tartary, Persia, Beloochistan, Afghanistan, and North-
ern Africa. Success followed their work. In Southern India is a
small church planted at that time. These followers are now called
the St. Thomas Christians. They always come to Mar Shumon to be
ordained as Bishops or metropolitans and go back with authority to
ordain the lower officers. When I was with the patriarch, in 1895, there
were two or more preparing themselves with that view of being or-
dained or sent among these St. Thomas Christians. A special epistle
had been received, written and signed by seven hundred and
seventy-seven prominent men of those Christians in India, request-
ing Mar Shumon to send them a metropolitan (as one who
had been ordained a few years before, had died), a Bishop, two
priests, and an interpreter, vouching for the support of these parties and
promising help to those who are living in Persia and Turkey. But Mar
Shumon could not comply with their request as he had no person who
could fill those positions. But the spirit was stirring as the sun of
Heaven began to languish in the tenth century and by the fourteenth
century had entirely died, and at present utter ignorance and darkness,
and oppression from Mohammedanism and the Catholics prevails. At
that time, some of the church's true sons, in lamentation, said : "How
are the mighty fallen, and the weapons of war perished !" Hundreds
of their missionaries had become martyrs of Christ in a heroic spirit.
They would enter fire, singing praises to God, believing their shed
blood would be the seed of the church.

In the year 33 after the death of Christ, Mar Tuma St. Thomas
became Patriarch of the Syrian church. He held the office for five years,
and in this time he prepared St. Maree and also St. Addi, two of the
seventy and St. Thomas, one of the twelve sent out by our Lord Jesus.
In 38 St. Thomas went to Hindoostan and St. Maree took his place. St.
Maree's residence was in Ktispon on the Tigris, which was for a long
time the capital of the Sassanite dynasty. St. Maree expired in A. D.
82. After his death his disciples went to Jerusalem and chose Abriz
as their patriarch. He served from A. D. 90 to 107. After Abriz from
A. D. 130 to 132, Abraham, a relative of the apostle James, became
their patriarch. His successor was James, a just man, and a relative of
the Virgin Mary, mother of our Lord. Akhad Abowoy became their
patriarch from 205 to 220. During this period there was a severe war

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between the Romans and Persians. The latter then ruled over Persia,
Assyria and Babylonia. The Patriarch of Jerusalem, a subject of Rome,
advised the Assyrians who were under the Parthians, to elect a Patriarch
who was a subject of the Parthians. The Parthians ruled over Persia
from 220 B. C. until 226 A. D. In all the changes of government the
Assyrians managed to keep in office a succession of patriarchs even to
the present time. In the early church down to the year 1405 the Patri-
arch was chosen by a general vote of the church. Any metropolitan
bishop might be chosen. The office held for life. In the year 1405, by
reason of great persecutions, the Patriarch, Mar Shumon, alone was
left of all the metropolitans. He therefore appointed one of his own
household to succeed him, and thenceforward down to the present
day each Patriarch chooses his successors. The choice lies among blood
kindred. As a general thing the elder brother is chosen, for there is a
rule that the Patriarch must be an unmarried man. Yet in early days
of persecution it was sometimes necessary to relax this rule owing to
the impossibility of finding in the church a man of sufficient ability
who had never been married. The patriarchial city is now Koorchanis.
The seat of the Patriarch has been changed from Ktispon to Bagdad,
Babel, Ninevah, Mosoel and Elkosh, the town of the Prophet Nahum,
and the chief city of learning. Finally in 1778 it changed to Koochanis.
The present Patriarch, Mar Shumon, took office in 1865. He is the
last of 108 Patriarchs of the Syrian or Eastern Church, whose rule once
extended over all Arabia, Hindoostan, China and the mountains of the
Caucasus. As a nation they had, and still have, no part or voice in
government, except in paying heavy taxes. During the summer, their
landlords forced them to work in the rice and wheat fields without
pay. Nestorians did not dare to use the same cloth for garments that
Mohammedans used. Through fear of the Mohammedans, Christians
used even to wear their new clothes under the old. People were robbed
at their own doorstep and would not dare to resist, but were glad to
escape with their lives. A Moslem would say to a Christian : "See here,
carpenter Samuel, just let me try your shoes on and see if they fit me,"
(if they were new, of course), or he would ask for his hat or any other
garment which he (the Mohammedan) envied, and walk away with it,
and the victim would meekly watch him but dared not offer resistance.

Revive, O Lord, in the midst of the years : revive Thy work O
Lord. Gather together Thy dispersed sheep, scattered throughout the
world, into one fold under one Shepherd ; and grant that through the
operation of the Holy Spirit the labors of the Syrian Church may be

RELIGIONS OF PERSIA.

made effectual for the conversion of Asia. Send forth laborers into
Thy harvest, and defend them by Thy mighty power, through Jesus
Christ our Lord — Amen.

THEIR COURTSHIP AND MARRIAGE.

Among all the nationalities that live in Persia, the marrying of their
children is considered a sacred duty, and the marriage of a son is looked
upon as the happiest event in his parents' lives and an occasion of the
greatest rejoicing; for an unmarried man is considered the most wretched
and miserable of beings. He is compared to a bird sitting on top of a
bush and not knowing where to fly.

In some instances, children are bethrothed in their infancy by their
parents. We have heard of a case where two men were the best of
friends and decided between themselves that if one of them should have
a son and the other a daughter, they would marry them in order to
perfect and perpetuate their friendship. In due time the children were
born, one a boy and the other a girl, their two cradles were brought
together and the marriage ceremony performed.

In cases where children are engaged to each other when they were
only a few years old, by their parents, who are good friends and wish
therefore to perpetuate their friendship, the marriages are often quite
happy. The two little ones, as they are growing up, know that they
are intended for each other and do not allow themselves to think of any
one else, but grow to love each other from a sense of duty and filial
obedience.

The son will wish to see the girl before his parents make any ar-
rangements for the engagement. So he will select his companion and
they will go to her village, presumably on some business errand. He
will get a chance to see the girl, and not only see her, but coming thus
unexpectedly, he will find her in her every day clothes, looking just as he
may expect to find her look in his own home should he decide to
marry her. He will pretend to be very thirsty and ask her for water
for them to drink. In this way he will get a good look at her, but
only for a moment, and under no circumstances is he allowed to speak to
her of love, or marriage, or to enter into an engagement with her or
kiss her, as young people do in this country. To kiss a girl in Persia
means that you rob her of her beauty, and is considered a great and un-
pardonable crime.

The boy's father will take with him an influential and highly re-

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237

spected man of the place to be his spokesman in order to gain an in-
fluence and insure the success of their great undertaking. They will
sit and talk together for some time on general topics, until finally the
friend whom the boy's father has taken as his representative, will come
to the object of their visit by saying to the girl's parents : "You do not
ask why we have come here." When they will ask why, he will then tell
them the object of their visit and they will discuss it together. Finally
the representative friend will ask the girl's father if he is willing to unite
his daughter in marriage to the son of this friend of his. If the parents
are willing for the union the father will say: "Her mother knows."
Then the friend will ask the mother the same question, to which she
will reply : "I have nothing to say for my part. I can present her to
you as a pair of shoes or a red apple. You had better ask her father."
The same question will then be repeated to the father, who will say: "I
can give her to you as a hand-maid." These answers mean that the
father and mother are willing for the marriage to take place. So the
representative rises at once, and in a most graceful manner, kisses the
hands of the girl's parents and sometimes those of her other relatives
present also.

The boy's father follows his example, after which they will thank
them heartily for their courtesy and for their not having disappointed
their hopes and plans. The ring is produced, however, and handed to
some old lady, a trusted friend of the girl's family, who takes it to the
girl, and, adding as she hands it to her, "You may choose now which
ever one you wish and put it on your finger and then give it back to me."
Then the old lady will come back, and say: "May her face be white!
When I presented the ring to her she did not say a word, but boldly took
the ring, put it on her finger, and returned it to me."

After her bethrothal, the girl will be very busy sewing, preparing
articles that are to be taken with her to the house of her future father-
in-law. These articles are all made by hand and consist of clothing, orna-
ments for the house, purses and caps and may cost from ten to thirty
dollars, according to their circumstances.

During the intervening weeks, months, or even years, between the
bethrothal and marriage ceremony the young man will often try to see
and talk with her parents. They will allow him to see her only once
during that time, then only for a few minutes, and that in the presence
of her mother or some other good woman.

Every young man, however, is allowed to send trifles as presents to

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his affianced bride at different times during the period of their engage-
ment, as expressions of his affection for her.

PREPARATIONS FOR THE WEDDING.

A couple of days before the wedding, the father of the bridegroom
will send out a number of young men as heralds to his friends and rela-
tives in all the surrounding towns and villages to invite them to the
wedding. These heralds put on their holiday costumes and take each
one a long, thick staff in his hand and set out on their errand. When
they enter a house they greet the household by saying, "Shla-mal-okoon"
or "Sal-am-alkum." (Peace be unto you). They will reply "Bshana,"
(welcome). They then announce that they have been sent to them by

Mr. and Mrs. , because they are going to have their son "Ba-

bakhan," married. They wish us to tell you that this occasion of gladness
is not theirs but yours. Their friends and relatives, therefore, they in-
vite you to attend the wedding. They will be delighted to see you pres-
ent, even with your whole family. The wedding will begin on day

next, and will continue four days. They will reply : "We are very glad
of it; may it be a happy occasion from the very beginning to its close."

The parents of the bride-to-be will also send out heralds to invite
their friends and relatives.

Shortly before sunset of the first day of the wedding, two heralds,
a young woman and a young man, are sent out to each home in the
village to announce the wedding is beginning. They are followed by the
musicians, playing in the streets and crowds of children around them.

In the evening all the relatives, friends and neighbors of the bride's
parents assemble at her home. She is allowed to invite all her girl
friends also and a free supper is served to all of them after which all
await the coming of the party from the groom's house. The young
people and the heralds carry with them lighted lamps, tallow candles
and torches, made by tying rags dipped in castor oil to wooden handles
or sticks. In this way a gay procession is formed and, accompanied
by the musicians, goes to the bride's home. The bride's relatives make a
paste of the pounded leaves of the henna. This, put upon the hands, make
them quite red. Bride's hands to make them red, as an emblem of joy.
In Persia red is considered the emblem of victory and joy; white, of
purity and black of sorrow. After the henna has been put upon the
bride's hands, the gay party returns to the groom's home, where his
best man puts henna upon the groom's hands, but more presents are
required of him unless the musician should ask a fee.

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220

On the morning of the wedding, the musicians go upon the roof
of the groom's house and play for about one-half hour, in order to
announce to the village that breakfast is about ready. After breakfast
is served, preparations are made for the bringing out of the bride. The
procession from the groom's home sets out in great pomp, led by the
musicians, playing as loud as they can and heralds shouting hurrah every
now and then as they go to the bride's home. Arriving there quite a
company of the relatives, friends and neighbors of the bride's parents are
found already assembled and a lunch is now served, after which the
committee holds a meeting to make all further necessary arrangements.
At the same time, all the intimate friends of the bride are present and

NESTORIAN CHRISTIAN LADY.

the lady who taught her to sew, dresses her in a regular bridal costume,
placing a wooden ring about an inch thick and five inches high, upon
her head. Over this a fancy veil is placed, entirely covering her face
and reaching the floor, while a bright red canopy is suspended from the
back of the ring completely concealing her form and dress even, and
making of her simply a beautiful figure. No one can see her face, but
she, of course, can see quite a bit through her veil. The wooden ring
thus covered is now ornamented with tinsel to make it look like a crown,
as she is now queen of this occasion.

While the musicians play a most doleful tune she is led around
the oven seven times to signify that she is bidding farewell to the

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home of her childhood and young maidenhood, with all of its tender
ties, memories and associations. Having been led seven times around
the oven the bride, coming in great humility and gratitude, kneels at
her father's feet and kisses them, at the same time she and her father
weep most bitterly, in view of their approaching separation. Then her
father may kiss her and pronounce upon her a father's blessing, saying:
"My daughter, may God bless you and keep you and make you happy
and successful, the mother of sons and daughters." Usually he will
say, "the mother of seven sons and two daughters."

Then the bride goes in the same way and takes leave of her mother
and the other members of her family, after which the groom's brother
binds a girdle around her as an emblem of strength, (for which service
a cap is placed upon his head).

Her father-in-law has a horse ready for her outside the house, while
the streets and tops of the houses are filled with noisy crowds of people
eagerly waiting for the appearance of the bride.

The ladies conduct her out but they are stopped at the door by her
brother, who asks a brother's customary present, which is at once given
him by the bride's father-in-law. As she springs upon the horse, every
eye in the crowd is fixed upon her to see if she rides gracefully. As soon
as she is mounted, the musicians change their tune to a happy and ex-
citing one.

Her father-in-law now throws some pieces of copper money upon her
head to show his liberality and there are always a number of children
present to snatch them up as they fall to the ground. ( )ne of the bride's
relatives accompanies her, holding The bridle of her horse.

She then moves on through the streets, the crowds on the house
tops and in the streets follow her, the musicians continue their play-
ing, while the whole party are led by the groom's relatives dancing as
they go.

When they have gone a little further, another lady come to meet the
bride, carrying a child two or three years old, a boy, of course. She lifts
the bride's canopy and places the child in her lap. The bride kisses him,
gives him a few pennies and returns him to the lady. The child signifies
good tidings. The groom now puts on his costume. Upon the cap that
lie wears, he places a crown made of the red feathers of the flamingo.
He also wears a sash and a dagger, which represents kingly power. For
this occasion, his groomsman must also prepare a "Jumlana" that is a
piece of wood about two feet square mounted upon a wooden handle
six feet long. This wooden square is bored full of small holes into

RELIGIONS OF PERSIA.

which wooden pegs are driven. Upon these pegs are stuck apples,
pears, colored eggs and four pomegranates, one on each corner, and two
small wooden doves are perched upon the upper edge. Strings of figs,
dates and pop-corn are also placed upon this "jumlana" and it is covered
with a red handkerchief. It looks like a beautifully ornamented banner
and is carried by his comrades along with him as he now goes upon a
conveniently located house top and sits there like a king upon his throne
to watch his bride approaching.

One of the heralds is given a chicken from the bride's house as a
present for the groom. The bride's father also sends him some clothing,
consisting of a coat, a purse, a handkerchief and a cap. The latter must
be beautifully made, for he wears it on this occasion and the people look
at it very closely to see if the bride can sew very nicely. While the bride
is passing through the streets some of the spectators upon the house
tops throw handfuls of raisins upon her head. These symbolize sweet-
ness and carry with them the wish that the bride may be very sweet
tempered. At this time the groom feels most proud and happy as he sits
among his companions upon the top of a high house dressed in his
wedding clothes, and sees his bride coming to him upon horseback,
dressed in her bridal costume, with the glittering tinsel upon her crown
and the heralds firing pistols and guns and shouting 'hurrah at each
short distance. Hence they say "A man is twice happy in this life — when
he begins to walk and when he is going to be married.'*

When the bride approaches within a stone's throw of where the
groom is waiting her, she is stopped and his comrades rise, and three
times they give him a sip of wine. As he swallows each sip they shout
for joy most vociferously and the best man hands him an apple taken
from the "Jumlana," which he kisses and throws towards the bride. The
wine symbolizes joy and blessing and the apple, love. The apples usually
miss their mark, and falling to the ground are quickly picked up by
the crowd of children around her. The child who gets the first apple
thrown is to be the first one to be married of that group. After the
apples have been thrown at the bride, she will move on to the house. In
the meantime the groom has, been waiting on the house top, entertained
by his comrades, but now, having disposed of the bride, the musicians
and the crowd will return to the groom, whom they now escort to the
house. After which the priest comes to perform the wedding ceremony.

At the beginning of the wedding ceremony, the priest takes two
threads, one red the other white, twists them together^ and places them
upon the groom's head, then he takes two shorter ones of the same

332

colors, twists them in the same way and places them upon the bride's
head. These threads are emblems, the red happiness, the white of
purity, and their being thus twisted together means that whereas the
bride and groom were unlike as these two colors, they are now to become
as one flesh, as Adam said of Eve : "This is now bone of my bone and
flesh of my flesh." The longer threads upon the groom's head mean that
his hand shall be longer over the bride, that is, that he shall exercise
authority over her.

The priest also takes a little wine and water and soil from a church
and mixes them together in a dish with a cross. The wine and water
signifying blessing and mixing as they do indicate that although the
bride and groom have heretofore been two distinct elements they will
henceforth be united as one and become truly one flesh.

The cross in the Nestorian church is a sign of victory, since salvation
has been wrought for us through Jesus Christ upon the cross.

There are many superstitutions connected with the marriage cere-
mony.

The groom's parents now come to congratulate, first the groom then
the bride.

The bride wears her wedding costume for a week or two after the
marriage, but she does not keep her face quite so closely covered as she
did during the wedding, for the customs of the country allow her to lift
her veil a little now. She stays in a house in which her husband's fam-
ily live and sits in the room a little apart from them. Whenever a man
enters the house she arises ; whereupon lie says, "Thank you, bride, sit
down." By rising from her seat she means she is ready for his service.
She continues this practice for a week or two.

At the expiration of forty days after her marriage the bride's mother
is allowed to see her. She is in company with her husband and other
relatives at this time carrying with them some suitable food. Among the
Nestorians it is customary for a bride's parents to send a man to bring
her home for a visit of two or three weeks at Easter time. A few days
after she has gone to her parent's home her husband will follow to
visit there also. Upon his arrival his father-in-law gives him a present
and when the visit is ended he takes his bride with him and returns to
his own home.

After this, she can do some out door work. If a bride is goodnatured
and well bred she will keep on her veil (yashmak) and not speak very
openly with her father-in-law and mother-in-law and will be highly
thought <>f. The marriage ties so sacredly performed are never broken.

RELIGIONS OF PERSIA.

333

for a Nestorian once married is married forever, unless death should
break the tie. Should a poor match be made it is certainly unfortunate,
but they have to put up with each other without resorting to divorce,
for divorce, while so common with the Mohammedan, who dismisses his
wife with a brutal way (get out) without even troubling the court house
officials, is a practice entirely unknown to the Nestorians. Should he
have an uncongenial companion he has to endure it with the same
kind of patience as he would endure a headache, which, though he may
try to cure, he would hardly cut it off, for it is a part of his body.

FUNERAL SERVICES.

Funeral services differ, according to the age of the deceased. As
soon as a man dies, word is sent to the priest and deacon. They come to
the house of the deceased. The priest will consecrate some water, bathe
the body; first the right arm, then the left, then the neck, then the rest
of the body. All this time the mourning relatives will sing psalms. Then
the body is ready to be put into the coffin. The priest and deacon con-
tinue singing, the youngest deacon carries the censor and repeats a
prayer until they arrive at the grave. Before taking the corpse to the
grave, the friends of the deceased come to bid him good-bye. At the
grave the priest says a prayer. The body is lowered, and the priest takes
some earth and sprinkles it upon the coffin, saying: "From earth
you came, to earth you return," after which all the people will do the
same. While they are filling up the grave, the priest and deacon con-
tinue singing. After this the priest makes the sign of the Trinity on the
grave, commencing at the head (which means that Christ came from
the Father and descended into the grave). After the service, the people,
being unclean because they have touched the body of a corpse, are taken
to a brook and after the priest has blessed the water, they wash their
face and hands, then they are cleansed. They now return to the home
of the deceased and take two or three meals at the expense of the mourn-
ing relatives, while continually repeating: "May God give him rest."
After three days they all visit the grave again and the priest again makes
the sign of the Trinity, beginning at the foot, (which signifies the resur-
rection of Christ). After this the people shave and bathe and have a
great feast to celebrate the close of their time of mourning. After seven
days they have another feast and a year later they give offerings and cele-
brate the Lord's Supper.

234

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

NESTORIAN CHURCHES.

Many of their churches are built of stone, while others are made of
brick and clay. Some of the buildings are 1,300 years old and will stand
many years to come. The walls are about eight feet thick at the base,
gradually tapering toward the top. In the older churches the doors
are quite low and it is necessary for a man to stoop to enter. It is be-
lieved by some that the doors were built in this way that the church might
be used as a place of refuge, rolling stones in the doorway after entering.
Others say the object was to prevent horses, cattle and other animals
from entering. These churches are regarded as most sacred places and
are called houses of God. There is an interior stairway leading to the
roof, which is necessary for repairing the roof or shoveling off snow.
The yard in front of a church is shaded with elm trees ; it is used as a
burial ground. Extending from each corner of the roof is a pair of
horns of a wild goat, which is a sign of sacrifice. There is a small room
in the rear of the building which is called the most holy place. In this
room the priests perform certain ceremonies ; and no other people are
allowed to enter it at any time. Before this room is a small pulpit on
which are placed a cross, Bible and some ceremonial books. The only
windows are a few small openings just below the roof. Candles are
burned during the hours of service to light the room, and incense is
burned as a ceremonial and to produce a pleasing odor. There are no
pictures on the walls, but there are some decorations in the way of finely
embroidered silk draperies donated by some of the worshipers. Reading
Scripture and prayer book and chanting Psalms are the main features
of worship. There is no music except a number of small bells on the
walls, which the worshipers ring as they enter the building. The audi-
ence sits on the floor or stands through the service. Assyrians believe
the two chief ordinances to be the Lord's supper and baptism. The or-
daining of priests and marriage are ordinances that rank next in impor-
tance. Baptism is administered by bishops and elders. All the children
of a member are baptized by immersion. Some believe that baptism re-
generates a child, while others say it will have a good effect, provided the
parencs give the child proper training thereafter.

The Lord's Supper is administered with much ritual on festival days,
such as Easter, Christmas and Ascension Day. This ceremony is more
highly honored than any other ordinance, as it commemorates the death
and victory of Christ. Both bread and wine are used. A few years ago,
and even now in some places, it was a custom to make the bread and.

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Ordination Diploma from Mar Shuman, the Nestorian
Patriarch, securing to Isaac Adams kind reception
among all Nestorians, as well as the legal
authority to teach and preach
among them.

:#5

236

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

wine from gleanings brought in from the field and vineyards by virgins.
This was considered pure and most acceptable as it had belonged to no
man. They do not believe with the Catholics that the bread and wine
are turned into the flesh and blood. of Christ, but they put much empha-
.sis on these ingredients after the same have been consecrated. They are
then holy. On the night previous to communion day the priests and
deacons go to the church shortly after midnight, and entering into the
most holy place, make the bread for use on the next day. The priest
himself kneads the dough. This bread is considered more sacred than
that made in the ordinary way. After the bread has been made the re-
mainder of the night is spent in chanting Psalms, reading the Scriptures
and prayer book. An hour before sunrise the people flock to the church.
When the church is full of worshipers the priest mounts the pulpit, chants
the sacred words for an hour or more, the audience remaining in perfect
silence until he reaches the end of a Psalm or the end of the service,
when all respond "Amen." The priest and a deacon stand in the pulpit
to administer the sacrament. Communicants come forward one by one,
and the priest puts a small piece of bread in their mouths and the deacon
gives the wine. Children under 7 years of age do not partake of the
sacrament. On these occasions the priest and deacon wear long white
robes of silk or cotton tied about the waist with a long silk girdle. A tur-
ban is worn on the head.

Their faith, as described in some ancient manuscripts, is purely
evangelical. They believe in the trinity, God the Father, Son and Holy
Ghost. These three persons are co-equal, co-eternal, unmixed and in-
separable. Their clergy does not claim the power to forgive sins. They
accept the apostle's creed and it is recited by the clergy and re-
ligious men. They deny the confession, image worship and doctrine of
purgatory. But the church has fallen into decay under the persecutions
of Mohammedans, and they now in their ignorance worship souls or
pray to the saints. They have adopted much of the Roman Catholic
heresies; many days of fasting are observed, as fifty days before Easter,
twenty-five days before Christmas, every Friday and Wednesday, and
others. During these fasts the old people take no food until noon. On
these fasting days the people will abstain from meats or fatty foods, etc.
In times of persecutions their schools and books were destroyed and the
people became ignorant, at the same time the Catholics introduced
among them their literature, which changed their prevailing doctrines.

RELIGIONS'OFftPERSIA.

237

HISTORICAL MISSION WORK.

Religiously Persia is a very important link in the chain of Moslem
lands from Morocco to the walls of China and the frontiers of India.
This chain we may consider as broken in a measure by the French occu-
pation of Algiers and the British occupation of Egypt, and Russia's an-
nexation of the great khanates of Turkestan. Of the four independent
Moslem powers, Morocco, Turkey, Persia and Afghanistan, Persia has
probably the most innate vitality and the best prospect of national life,
and is at the same time the most open to religious change. In Turkey
the Sultan is caliph, the government is a theocracy, and the teachers of
religion must be kept in harmony with the state. In Persia there is
more antagonism. The king and his rulers are glad to humble the Mol-
lahs and not infrequently the highest Mushtahid of a city is called to the
capital or cast into prison because he has overstepped his limit and
excited mobs to riot or opposed the civil governor. In this conflict be-
tween the civil and ecclesiastical powers there is an opening for a large
degree of toleration. Large communities of people in Persia were never
content under the Moslem system and they wear it as a yoke. The Ali-
Illahees form the majority of the population in some districts, and in
other districts the Babis, adherents of a mystical belief that is under-
mining the whole structure of Islam.

/Persia is not -yetAike Japan, a nation in search of a religion, but
there are many indications that the cycle of Islam is drawing to a close,
and thousands are weary and heavy laden/and some are hearing the
voice of Jesus say, "Come unto me, and I will give you rest."

/in Kurdistan and some parts of Persia live the Yezidees or Devil-
Worshipers. Hundreds of them have been killed in the attempt to force
them under the yoke of Islam. These poor heathenish people in their
distress turn to missionaries and beg to be enrolled as Protestants and
to receive Christian instruction. They are verily a heathen race with
Satan enthroned as their chief deity. Their belief is that for 10,000 years
the government of this world is committed by the Supreme God to His
Satanic Majesty. /Among the Jews, who number about 50,000 in these
parts of Persia and Kurdistan mountains, there is a similar unrest. Some
are looking to Jerusalem for orders to return. Some are asking when
will our Messiah come, and some are reading the evidence and saying,
"He has come." Some also who at first are drawn by the words of
Jesus fall back into the subtle pantheistic doctrines of Babism. It is
a singular fact that in Russia some of the dissenters from the established

PAUL JOHN. DR. ADAMS.

238

RELIGIONS OF PERSIA.

Church have embraced Judaism, and quite as singular that in Persia
there is a tendency of dissenting Jews to accept Babism. But here again,
there is the better sign that Jesus Christ by His character and His cross
and His Spirit from on high, is in the hearts of this long exiled people.

Tile held of Persia contains a large number of nominal Christians as
well as Jews. The heart of Kurdistan is in that field and we are called
uporTtb have~a great share. Oh how little is done for great Kurdistan,
whose people number about 5,000,000. Taken together what a mar-
velous field it is ! What field anywhere can compare with it for mar-
velous variety and wonderful possibility? We are laying foundations
and can see but little, but the great Master Builder is going to rear a
temple there. What a temple it will be when all the varied stones have
been quarried and polished and built onto Christ the corner-stone ! Three
great racial families of the globe, Aryan, Semitic and Turanian, are here
represented. The contrasts in natural scenery are no more striking than
those of races. The snowy crags of Jelu, the burning plains of Mesopo-
tamia, the rocky canyons of Ravandooz, the deep gorges of the Zab, the
fertile plains of Oroomiah are not more dissimilar than are the Armenian,
the suave Jacobite, the crafty Persian, the stolid Turk, the wild Arab, the
savage Kurd, the patient Jew, and the oppressed Nestorian. There is
the orthodox Islam of the Sunni, the heretical Islam of the Shiah, the
reformed Islam of the Babi, and the heathenish Islam of the Ali-
Illahi. Again, since Persia became Mohammedan and so far closed
to Christian truth, God has opened special ways of access to the people.
His providence has in the turmoil of the centuries, planted here and
there through the land, fragments of Christian churches. To relight
in these the candle of the spirits presence, long since extinct, has been
an essential step toward illuminating the surrounding mass of Moham-
medan darkness.

History began in Persia. Eden was in or within her^borders. The
builders of Babel had come "from the east" to the land of two rivers.
There was the home of civilization and the nursery of the nations. Iran
or Persia in its largest sense was a true center of population, of knowl-
edge, of languages and of arts, which instead of traveling westward only,
as has been fancifully supposed, or eastward as might with equal reason
have been asserted were expanded in all directions, to all regions of the
world. Of the founder of the Persian Empire, Isaiah prophecied, "Thus
saith the Lord to His anointed, to Cyrus, whose right hand I have
holden to subdue nations before him." I will go before thee, Cyrus is
my shepherd, and will perform all my pleasure. Thus, by the hand of

240

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

God, the little kingdom of Pars on the gulf, Iran, widened and con-
quered till it comprised the western half of Asia, and the lower valley
of the Nile. The great empire to some degree symbolized the glorious
and everlasting kingdom of Jesus Christ, and Cyrus was a type of the
great shepherd of the sheep. By Cyrus and his successors the Jews
were delivered from the Assyrians, were restored to Judea with their
consecrated vessels of silver and gold, and were authorized and protected
in rebuilding Jerusalem. A large part of the race, however, remained
in the land of captivity and were saved from destruction by the beautiful
queen Esther; they had dispersed to all the hundred and twenty-seven
provinces of Xerxes, and the dominion of Cyrus had included also the
cities of the Medes to which the ten tribes had been carried away. It
is worthy of note also, that the Persians were the one people who could
sympathize with the Jews in the hatred of idolatry, and there is evi-
dence that a Persian version of the Old Testament was used in the
synagogues. From this data, notwithstanding the fact that the chosen
people were exiled for their disloyalty to Jehovah, we may safely infer
that his word and worship were carried throughout the vast empire of
their captors in Persia as in the Roman Empire, the dispersion was a
Providential preparation for Christianity.

Persia's historic relation to the kingdom of God began, it may be,
when the wise men from the East seeing his star came and worshiped
the new born King; they were Persians, as their coming forshadowed
the bowing of Persia and all nations to our Lord ; and when the fulfill-
ment of the prophecy "I will pour out my spirit on all flesh," began at
Pentecost, the strangers present whose names are first on the list are
"Parthians, Medes, Elamites," all dwellers in this same land. Peter him-
self, accompanied by his wife, toiled over the fiery deserts, and preached
at least at Babylon. Mark was with him and tradition says that two
others of the apostles, also Thomas and Matthew labored in the Persian
field.

Of early Persian Christianity, little is known. Historians tell us
that it flourished and spread, and from the silence of history it is thought
that under the Parthians there was no long and fierce persecution. But
with the rise of the Persian dynasty of the Sassanides (A. D. 226), there
came a revival of the ancient worship, and a determined effort was made
to put down all other religion. From the time of King Sapor, when
Christianity conquered heathenism in the Roman empire, the Christians
of Persia threw in their sympathies with the Christian state. Almost
simultaneously, therefore, with the war against Constantine, there began

RELIGIONS OF PERSIA.

241

in the year 339 a rigorous persecution of the Christians. It continued
forty years, and according to Mares, bishop of Seleucia at the time, fur-
nished 160,000 martyrs. This may be an exaggeration, but the Syrian
"Acts of Persian Martyrs" records their great numbers and terrible suf-
ferings. In4io,T:he tolerant Yezdegerd I. permitted a synod of Christians
to meet in his capital, and sent the primate of the church on a mission
to the Roman Emperor. The severe persecutions of his successor, Bah-
man V., a favorite hero of Persian tradition, ended with the war with
Rome in 422. Religious- freedom was then g 4jaranteed-Jby— treaty to
Zoroastrians in the Roman empire, and to Christians in Pe rsia. But
the accession of . his-saryXezde-gerd-TL, -in 438,^v#s-nrariee4-by-f€newed
persecution of Jews and Christians. In consequence, a rebellion in Ar-
menia was not quelled until the king promised to his subjects complete
liberty of worship. There were also times of fearless missionary enter-
prise. In 334, a bishop was settled in far-off Tros, in Khorasan, A
metropolitan implying several bishops and numerous converts, existed
in Mero as early as 420 A. D., and about that time a see was established
at Herat.

During these centuries the mind of Persia was thoroughly hostile
to the kingdom of Jesus Christ. Her philosophy and religion furnished
the germs of many of the great heresies — Gnosticism, Manichaeism, and
other systems of theosophy, that rent the Christian church. Bishop Nes-
torius, of Constantinople, was willing to call Mary the Mother of God,
but denied her divinity, and he held to the union of two natures in one
person in Christ. Falsely accused, he was condemned unheard, and ban-
ished. His followers, finally driven from the Roman Empire in 489 A. D.,
found a home in Persia. Borsumos, the founder of the seminary at
Nisibis, which sent out so many learned missionaries, had worked for
his fellow believers from 440 to 485, with such marvelous enterprise
and skill- that they became the chief Christian sect of the country.

It was the mission of the Nestorians to carry the Gospel to the
great heathen East, and they were not unfaithful to their opportunity.
"For centuries," says Tracy in his history, "they maintained missions
in Tartary, China, and other eastern regions." Their churches were
scattered from Syria and Cyprus to Pekin, and from the coasts of Mala-
bar and Ceylon to the borders of Siberia. Some of the Chinese emperors
favored Christianity, and ordered the erection of numerous churches.
The converts are supposed to have numbered more than the Greek and
Latin communions. If the monument of Sigan Fu, China, is trustworthy,
they had preached Christ in that land before 636 A. D. Prominent men-

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

tion should be made here of the scholar and missionary, Subschalyesn,
who about the close of the eighth century, preached with great success
to the Gelae on the Caspian shore. Though formal compacts of toler-
ation may not have been made by Mohammed and Omar with the Nes-
torians, as has been asserted by some writers and denied by others, yet
many of them occupied high places of state during the Arabic domina-
tion. And though the Arabs ruled the country from the decisive battle
of Nehorvend, in 462, yet Islam was compelled to compromise with the
more flexible and more tolerant genius of the Persians. Hence the
churches' opportunities for proselytism. But with all its opportunities
and achievements, Nestorianism never rose to be more than a sect of
Christianity, in which "the simplicity of the gospel was fashioned and
painted with the colors of the Syriac theology." Its power was vitiated
by superstition and therefore it proved unable to permanently mold
and purify the nations. By the year 1000 Islam was advancing and by
the year 1300 had gained the ascendency in the countries east of the
Caspian, where Christianity had long been firmly established. The big-
oted and zealous Mohammed, sultan of Cabul in the eleven century, had,
it is thought, made millions of Moslems by his sword. And when, at the
end of the fourteenth century, the ferocious Tamerlane, the greatest of
conquerors, swept over Asia like a whirlwind of fire, there followed the
terrible anarchy and persecution that shrivelled and blasted the churches.
Romish missions also accelerated their rapid decline. By 1500 A. D.
Nestorian Christianity was almost extinct in the lands of its , greatest
triumphs. The miserable remnant of the church, that for five centuries
had carried the cross over Asia, was discovered early in the present cen-
tury hid away in the mountains of Kurdistan.

John de Monte Corvino, the great Romish missionary to the Mon-
gols and Chinese and who became archbishop of Pekin, labored at
Tabriz, Persia, near the end of the thirteenth century. His work was
short, but very successful. Speedy conversions, however, were followed
by speedy defections. About 1341 A. I), the Romanists produced a
faulty and interpolated translation of the four Gospels. In the seven-
teenth century they seemed to have, at least, a firm foothold in the coun-
try, but their influence gradually weakened. Now they have missions in
several cities with schools, churches and two or three small nunneries;
all the work of the present century. The number of the pupils and con-
verts is about 5,000.

In 1747, two heroic Moravians, Hocker and Rueffer, medical mis-
sionaries, penetrated to Isphahan to work among the fire-worshipers.

RELIGIONS OF PERSIA,

243

They suffered repeated robbery and hardship such as being compelled to
travel over the deserts in the burning sun on foot and nearly naked.
Because of the anarchy and misery of the land under Nadir Shah, they
left the country, unable to accomplish anything. With the nineteenth
century dawned the era of evangelical missions in Persia. Among the
worthy men devoted to this work was Henry Martyn. On June 9, 181 1,
he reached Shiraz from India. In that city of Persian learning and
Moslem bigotry, "seat of Satan," as he named it, he revised his transla-
tion of the Xew Testament, and boldly preached the Son of God. The
story of that work, his controversies with the keenest teachers of Islam,
of his terrible journey to present a copy of the translation to the Shah,
his three months' sickness at Tabriz, his last ride, and lonely death at
Tocat, October 16, 1812, has inspired his successors for more than 80
years. (No finer missionary consecration has blessed the Church of
Christ.)

In 1829, Rev. Dr. Pfander, of the Basle Society, entered Tabriz.
The fruit of his brief labor was various treatises, and in particular the
important "Balance of Truth/' exhibiting the evidences of Mohammedan-
ism and Christianity. Rev. Frederick Hans and other Germans after a
four-years' struggle with unscrupulous bigotry at Tabriz, were com-
pelled to withdraw in 1837. Grover worked at Bagdad from 1829 to
1833, and Merrick in various parts of the country, from 1835 to 1845.
Their efforts, largely failures, were mainly on behalf of Mussulmans.
Dr. William Glen, of the Scottish Missionary Society, entered the field
in July, 1838. He had spent several'years at Astrachan, Russia, where
he had worked at a Persian translation of the Old Testament. Com-
pleting this in 1847, he went to Scotland to superintend the printing.
At the age of 70 he returned, and lived at Teheran, to aid in circulating
the Scriptures. In the court of the old Armenian church in that city, is
a mural tablet in his memory. What stars will shine in their crowns,
who opened to Persia's millions the word of life. About 1832, Messrs.
Smith and Dwight were sent by the A. B. C. F. M. to explore the re-
gions of Northern Persia. They decided to establish a mission among
the Nestorians.

In 1835 Messrs. Perkins and Grant were appointed the first mission-
aries ; they arrived at Oroomiah and established a school. The school-
room was in a basement. They had no books, but just used wall cards.
The studies were confined to the Bible, a little arithmetic and geography.
The pupils consisted of bishops, priests, elders and deacons of the
old Nestorian Church. In 1843 Mr. Stoddard was appointed superin-

244

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

tendent of the school in "Sery," about three miles out of Oroomiah
city. The condition of women in Persia in the year 1835 when the
missionaries first went there was very different from that of today. At
that time only one woman in the whole country could read. Her name
was Helena, the sister of the Patriarch. At that time the houses were
large, and the whole family connection lived in the one home, sometimes
thirty in one house. Women were treated as slaves. After doing the
housework they had to work in the fields like men and care for their
little ones while they worked. At the same time they were often brutally
abused by their husbands and called cats, cows, donkeys, etc. The
first missionaries were greatly used by God to scatter the deep darkness.
It was with great difficulty that they found opportunity to teach a few
small girls a short time each day. The work progressed very slowly.
In 1843 the well-known Miss Fisk established a boarding school. She
only understood one word in the Syriac language, the word "girl."
When she would meet with people, she would ask for a girl and pass on.
The people thought she wanted to make bees of them and make them
fly to America, so they would not let them go. At last she found four,
and one morning while sitting in her room she saw Mar Yohannan
coming with two girls. She met him at the door, and her heart was so
full of love that she wept for joy. He told her that they were her property
and that none could take them away. She had no books. The lessons
were written on a long paper and hung on the walls. Out of these
schools hundreds of young men and women have been educated and en-
lightened and fed on the living word of God, and they have, indeed, been
as salt to every house or community they have gone to.

All the work of the American board in Persia was in 1871 trans-
ferred to the Presbyterian board of the United States of America. At
present they have about twenty-four hundred communicants and large
attendance in their schools. In 1869 the English Missionary Society
occupied Isphahan later on also Bushire. American missionaries are at
present located at Teheran, Mamadan, Tabriz and Oroomiah. A num-
ber of out-stations are occupied by native helpers and the rest of the ten
millions are practically uncared for. A majority of the large cities and
nearly all of the smaller ones are not even occupied as out-stations. In
1887 Archbishop of Canterbury, London, sent missionaries to Oroo-
miah who are co-operating with the Nestorian Church. In 1894 the
Lutheran missionaries for Mohammedans, under the auspices of Pastor
Fabcr of Berlin, Germany, were sent to make their headquarters at Oroo-
miah. The missionaries were Zerweek and Kitzle; but they were not

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LORD'S PRAYER WRITTEN IN EIGHT DIFFERENT LANGUAGES.

246

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

careful enough to conceal their plan of labor and told everywhere their
intentions and desires for the future. The plan was made public by the
press as well as by words. All their plans were communicated to the
Shah of Persia, who telegraphed his order to' these missionaries to leave
at once his country and depart from its borders. As there is no religious
liberty among the Mohammedan public as yet, all applications were in
vain, and the saddest thing in the whole trouble was the early and un-
expected death of Pastor Kitzle, a young and learned minister of the
Gospel, who found his grave in a country where he was not allowed to
live and labor for Christ and the salvation of souls. His companion,
Dr. Zerweek, returned to Germany.

There is another grand work which needs our attention, the work
which has been accomplished by Pastor Peria Yohannan, a native of
Persia and a graduate of Hermansburg, Germany, and who received his
support from there. The pastor's work has been largely in Wazeriwa
and the neighboring villages. Much has been done by his effort in teach-
ing, preaching and spreading God's word. The simplicity of his living
and the manner of conducting his work has much to do with his success.

PRINTING PRESS.

For the purpose of more effectively propagating the mission in
Persia, already begun by means of establishing a number of Christian
schools, distributing Bibles and other Christian literature, etc., we are in
sore need of a printing press of moderate capacity. It would by this
be brought within our reach to furnish a sufficient quantity of Bibles,
whole or in part, catechisms, tracts, etc., to cover all parts of Persia.
Kurdistan and the Caucasus, which could scarcely be made possible
so long as books, etc., must be bought from dealers. My brother.
Abraham Adams, having spent some time in this country for the par-
ticular purpose of learning the printers' trade, has now returned to
Persia ready to take this branch of our mission work. Allow me, there-
fore, to present to you an appeal in behalf of our work, and most especi-
ally this part of it, the purchase of a small printing press.

Considering this appeal, look not at yourself, and your wants and
needs, but at Christ, with all His riches and wealth. He has made
many promises which He can and will fulfill. Of course, lie can and
will help our work along, in spite of any or many person's ill will, as
it has been begun and is propagated in His name; but is it not a dear
privilcge of yours, who call yourself after His name, to be permitted
to aid in maintaining and furthering it? Christ wants the Gospel spread

347

348

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

and His kingdom extended on earth by Christians, for to His disciples
He has given the command to go forth and teach all nations. And do
you not remember that your dear Lord and Master has promised a re-
ward for all that you do in His name, even to handing a draught of cold
water to the thirsty? What a blessed sensation it will create in every
giver to read or to learn that the mission in Persia is progressing finely,
and that it had been brought about to a great extent by the gifts of those
Christians, who made it possible by buying a printing press, by means of
which the Gospel was made to penetrate places heretofore considered
unpenetrable.

But you are too poor to give anything? It is often the case, that
dear Christians refrain from giving for a certain purpose because they
think they cannot give enough. This is a sad mistake.

The mite you give helps the cause along and is in the eyes of the
Lord, who can easily make much of little, a means perhaps, to do great
good, which, should you be able to perceive it, would astonish you to the
utmost. But you cannot give anything? Yet you can aid our work if
you will. You are a Christian ? If so, you cannot help to pray. When
you pray, think of the poor Mohammedans, Kurds, Devil-Worshipers
and Fire-Worshipers in Persia ; think of the poor Nestorians, who con-
sider themselves Christians and yet do not know their Lord and Savior
Jesus. This sad affair lay before Him in your prayer and ask Him,
fervently, to help the missions in Persia along. When you say Amen,
He will also say, Amen, yea, so shall it be. I thus leave this appeal to
your prayerful consideration, trusting that you will not shrink from doing
something for this cause.

All things come of thee, and of thine own have we given thee (i
Chron. xxiv, 14).

Bring ye all the tithes into the storehouse, that there may be meat
in mine house and prove me now herewith, saith the Lord of hosts. If
I will not open you the windows of heaven, and pour you out a blessing,
that there shall not be room enough to receive it (Mai. iii, 10).

Charge them that are rich in this world * * * that they do
good, that they be rich in good works, ready to distribute, willing to
communicate (1 Tim. vi, 17, 18). Do good unto all men, especially unto
them who are of the household of faith (Gal. vi. 10).

Every man according as he purposeth in his heart, so let him give ;
not grudgingly, or of necessity (2 Cor. ix, 7).

Freely ye have received, freely give (Matt, x, 8).

God loveth a cheerful giver (2 Cor. ix, 7).

RELIGIONS OF PERSIA.

249

Honor the Lord with thy substance, and with the first fruits of
thine increase (Prov. iii, 9).

If there be first a willing mind, it is accepted according to that a
man hath, and not according to that he hath not (2 Cor. viii, 12).

Jesus said, it is more blessed to give than to receive (Acts xx. 35).

Knowing that whatsoever good thing any man doeth, the same shall
he receive of the Lord, whether he be bond or free (Eph. vi. 8).

Lay not up for yourself treasures upon earth, where moth and rust
doth corrupt, and where thieves break through and steal ; but lay up
for yourselves treasures in heaven, where neither moth nor rust doth
corrupt, and where thieves do not break through nor steal (Matt, vi,
19-20).

My little children, let me not love in word, neither in tongue, but in
deed and in truth (1 John iii, 18).

Now concerning the collection for the saints * * * upon the
first day of the week let every one lay by him in store as God hath
prospered him (1 Cor. xvi, 1, 2).

Of all that thou shalt give me, I will surely give the tenth to thee
(Gen. 28 :22).

Provide yourself bags which wax not old, a treasure in the heavens
that faileth not, where no thief approacheth, neither moth corrupteth
(Luke 12:33).

Quench not the spirit (1 Thess. 5 :ig).

Render unto God the things that are God's (Matt. 22:21).

See that ye abound in this grace also (2 Cor. 8 \2).

The silver is mine and the gold is mine, said the Lord of hosts
(Haggai 2:8).

Urito whomsoever much is given ; of him shall much be required
(Luke 12:48).

Vow and pray unto the Lord your God (Psa. 76:11).

Whoso hath this world's goods, and seeth his brother have need,
and shutteth up his bowels of compassion from him, how dwelleth the
love of God in him (1 John 3:17).

Except your righteousness shall exceed the righteousness of the
scribes and Pharisees ye shall in no case enter into the kingdom of heaven
(Matt. 5 :2o).

Ye know the grace of our Lord Jesus Christ (2 Cor. 8:9).
Zion that bringeth good tidings (Isa. 11 19).

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

BIBLE RULES FOR GIVING.

It is more blessed to give than to receive (Acts 20:35).

God loveth a cheerful giver (2 Cor. 9:7).

Freely ye have received; freely give (Matt. 10:8).

Thou shalt give unto the Lord thy God according as the Lord thy
God hath blessed thee (Deut. 16:10).

Of all that thou shalt give me, I will surely give the tenth unto
thee (Gen. 25 :22).

If there be first a willing mind, it is accepted according to that a
man hath, and not according to that he hath not (2 Cor. 8:12).

Honor the Lord with thy substance, and with the first fruits of thine
increase (Prov. 3 :<)).

So shall thy barns be filled with plenty, and thy presses shall burst
out with new wine (Prov. 3 :io).

He that hath pity upon the poor lendeth unto the Lord ; and that
which he hath given will he pay him again ( Prov. 19:17).

Every man according as he purposeth in his heart ; so let him
give ; not grudgingly or of necessity ; for God loveth a cheerful giver
(2 Cor. 9 7).

Of every man that giveth it willingly, with his heart, ye shall take
my offering (Ex. 25 :2).

Blessed is he that considereth the poor, the Lord will deliver him
in time of trouble (Psa. 41 :i).

Give and it shall be given unto you; good measure, pressed down,
and shaken together, and running over, shall men give into your bosom.
For with the same measure that ye mete withal it shall be measured to
you again (Luke 6:38).

Thou shalt open thy band wide unto thy brother, to thy poor, and
to thy needy in thy land (Deut. 15:11).

The first of the first fruits of thy land thou shalt bring into the house
of the Lord thy God (Ex. 23:19).

Gifts towards the purchasing of a printing press or towards the
benefit of the Persian mission in general, please send to

REV. ISAAC ADAMS, M. D.,

Oroomiah, Persia,
via Berlin and Odessa,

Or No. 124 Lagrave St.,

Grand Rapids, Mich., U. S. A.

RELIGIONS OF PERSIA.

251

MOHAMMED AND MOHAMMEDANISM.

The mode of life of the Arabs is of three kinds : Either they are
nomadic (Bedowin), obtaining their livelihood from the rearing of cam-
els, horses, cattle and sheep, pitching their tents within certain limits,
where water and pasturage are most abundant, or they are engaged in
the transport of merchandise along the trading routes through the desert,
in search of which employment they travel over the country with their
camels, or they are sedentary, dwelling in towns either inland or on the
seaboard, and engage in commerce with the interior or with the ports
on the coast, on the opposite shores of Africa and Persia, or with India.
In ancient times commercial intercourse was confined almost exclusively
to the land, for in those days the trader trusted to the treacherous ocean
as little as possible; and the spices and precious wares of Arabia and
India were conveyed to the northern marts on the "ship of the desert"
by settled routes, the halting places being fixed at regular intervals,
where shade, water and provender were to be obtained. Here the weary
traveler and his more wearied beasts of burden could rest and refresh
themselves.

The western caravan route was in use in Mahomet's time, and his
great grandfather Hashim, died at Gaza when on a mercantile expedition
to Syria. Eventually the growing skill in navigation during Roman
times annihilated the caravan trade, and substituted the sea route. The
holy city of Mecca felt the loss of this inland traffic, but in its shrine —
the Kaaba — universally recognized as a place of pilgrimage throughout
the peninsula, it possessed an element of life unknown at Petra ; and
with the rise and progress of Islam continued to flourish, and still thrives
on the stream of pilgrims who visit it.

As the reputed ancestor of the prophet of Mecca, the descendants
of Ishmael deserve particular notice. Few can read without emotion
the story of the expulsion of Hagar and her son Ishmael (born B. C,
1910) : how they wandered in the wilderness of Beersheba solitary and n?
exile; how when the water in her bottle was spent, she cast the child
under one of the shrubs of the desert, lest she should see him die ; and
yet, how, from this the depths of her anguish, God's providence was
fulfilled ; how her eyes were opened and she saw the well of water ; and
how that son for whom the aged Patriarch had besought the Almighty
(before the birth of the chosen seed), "that he might dwell before Him,"
was blessed exceedingly, and became a great nation, his children being
"by their towns and by their castles twelve princes according to their

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

nations." (Gen. xvii : 18-20 and xxv:i2-i8.) The synonymous use of the
terms "Midianites" and "Ishmaelites" serves to fix the situation of the
country inhabited by the latter (Gen. xxxvii :28) ; and St. Paul in speak-
ing of the old and new covenants expressly states that Mount Sinai
"which gendereth to bondage, which is Agar. For this Agar is Mount
Sinai in Arabia." (Gal. iv:24, 25.)

The tradition of the Arabs themselves represents Kedar to have
settled in the Hejaz, and from this patriarch the family of the Coreish,
the guardians of the Kaaba, always boasted their descent. Though
traces of the remaining sons of Ishmael are to be found, it may generally
be said that they either mingled with the other tribes or penetrating
the peninsula (south) have escaped observation.

In addition to the immigrants whom we have now considered and
who "a mingled people" (Jer. xxv:2/|.) formed the permanent inhabitants
of Arabia, there were in later times large colonies and tribes of Jews
scattered throughout the peninsula. They are found holding lands and
castles, and occupying important positions in the country, especially
about Medina, in which and in its vicinity numerous powerful tribes of
them were settled. Kheibar was one of their strongholds. In the eighth
year of the Hejiza the Jews of this place were attacked by Mahomet,
their lands and fortresses fell into his hands and their chief Kinana tor-
tured to death. Many of their numbers perished, and those who re-
mained were exterminated in the caliphate of Omar. Two of Mahomet's
wives were of this religion, Safia, widow of the murdered Kinana, and
Rihana.

The destruction of Jerusalem by Titus (A. D. 70) probably scattered
many Christians throughout Arabia, in nearly all quarters of which they
would be likely to meet with sympathizers with their own faith. The
Christian religion had gradually and partially penetrated into Arabia,
and gained scattered converts, though it never succeeded in taking a
permanent hold there, or in superseding the existing idolatry.

Still, Christianity was not unrepresented in the peninsula. In the
fourth century Petra was the residence of a Metropolitan, whose diocese
embraced the ancient Idumaea and Wabathea ; and several Christian
bishoprics were established in Arabia subject to him. Abd-Kelal (A. D.
275) Iiimyarite, king of Yemen, was a Christian. He is said to have
been converted by a Christian stranger, who in consequence of the king's
defection was murdered. This is the first intimation of Christianity in
Yemen. During the reign of Maithad (A. D. 330), son of Abd-Kelal,
the Emperor Constantinus sent a Christian embassy to the court of the

RELIGIONS OF PERSIA.

253

Himyarite monarch, who is called "Prince of the Sabaens and Home-
rites," and certain privileges were gained from the tolerant king for the
professors of the Christian faith visiting or residing in Yemen. Three
churches were built at Izafar, the royal residence, at Aden, and on the
Persian gulf. No important event followed this embassy, but the knowl-
edge is gained thereby that, the inhabitants of Yemen at the same time
were partly Jewish and partly Pagan. The latter practiced circumcision
and sacrificed to the sun and moon and to other divinities.

The princes of Axum, in Abyssinia, a powerful and extensive state,
were Christians of the Nestorian sect. The persecutions practiced in
turn by differing Christian sects contributed to scatter believers through-
out the East, and drove numbers into Arabia. The king, Abrahah, with a
large army, attacked Mecca in 570 A. D., but owing to a sudden out-
break of smallpox in his army he was compelled to raise his siege, and
the Meccans might be pardoned for attributing the preservation of their
city to the direct interposition of their tribal gods. Christianity never
had another opportunity of winning Arabia for in this very year of
Abrahah's defeat there was born in the city of Mecca the founder of a
new religion. Genealogical table of the family of Coreish and the ances-
tors of Mohammed.

Abraham (b. 1996, d. 1822 B. C), the father by Hagar of Ishmael
(b. 1910), married a daughter of Modadh, Jorhamite, chief of Mecca,
and had children. From them descended Adrian (b. B. C. 130), the
father of Maadd; from whom, in the seventh generation descended
Nadhr (b. A. D. 134), the father of Malik, the father of Fihr Coreish
(b. A. D. 200).

The early religion of the Arabs was a kind of Sabeanism and chiefly
consisted in worshiping the fixed stars and planets and the angels and
their images, which they honored as inferior deities, and whose inter-
cession they begged as their mediators with God." This worship of the
heavenly bodies is alluded to in the book of Job (xxxviii :3i-33), and the
names of certain constellations which were adored are given.

About the Kaaba was the famous idol Hobal, the tutelary deity of
Mecca, supposed to have the power of granting rain, surrounded by 360
of smaller size, representing the saints and divinities, which could be
invoked on each day of the year. Of the form of adoration paid to these
idols little is known, but by analogy it may be assumed that the occasion
of their pilgrimage would be connected with their domestic or family
history, and chiefly the absorbing desire for offspring. There is a record
of embassy sent to the Kaaba to implore for rain in a time of draught.

254

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

Solemn engagements were ratified before the celebrated "Black Stone."' f
Kaaba. Arab tradition has surrounded this shrine with a cloud of v
legendary story, and attributed its first building to Adam and Eve, who, p
after their expulsion from Paradise and devious wanderings, met at
length in penitence and forgiveness near Mecca, and were allowed to t
build a temple in imitation of that in which they had offered their pure i
worship in the Garden of Eden. Destroyed by the Flood, an angel re-
vealed its site to the forlorn Hagar and Ishmael perishing with thirst in
the desert, and there, to their needs bubbled forth the waters of the well
Zem Zem. The fountain attracts a neighboring tribe of Amalekites, who
build riear its waters the town of Mecca, and with them the youthful
Ishmael and his mother find protection and rest. Here Ishmael was
visited by his father Abraham, who, in obedience to Divine command,
is about to offer him up on a neighboring hill, but some vicarious sac-
rifice is accepted, and they set about the work of rebuilding the Kaaba
on its ancient site. To assist in this work the angel Gabriel brought
them one of the stones of Paradise — the celebrated Black Stone— which
rose and fell as the divinely aided masons progressed with the work.
This "Heavenly Stone" was on completion of the work, inserted in an
outer corner of the wall of the Kaaba and after varying fortunes is still
devoutly kissed or touched on each of the seven circuits round the
Temple. At first it was bright and translucent, but its present color is
supposed to reflect, but, too truly, the salutations of sinful mortals.

On the death of Holeil, Cussai set about, with the support of the
other Coreish families, to assert and defend the right of his family to
the guardianship of the Kaaba and the government of Mecca. Together
with the guardianship of the temple, he possessed himself of the chief
religious dignities connected with the sacerdotal office. From the Bern"
Safa he obtained the "Ijaza" or the right of dismissing the assembled
Arab tribes from Mina after the ceremonies of the Greater Pilgrimage;
and after much carnage wrested from the Beni Khozaa the supremacy
over the Hejaz. This took place about 440 A. D. Cussai gathered to-
gether and settled at Mecca many scattered families of the Coreish, en-
larged the town, built near the Kaaba the "Council House," where po-
litical questions were discussed and social ceremonies solemnized, and
whence the yearly caravans set forth ; and finally succeeded in establish-
ing himself Sheikh of Mecca and Governor of the country. The digni-
ties of which he possessed himself were five in number, viz. : (1) "The
Hyaba," which gave him the keys and control of the Kaaba. (2) "The
Sicaya," and the "Rifada," or the prerogatives of providing drink and

RELIGIONS OF PERSIA.

255

food for the pilgrims. (3) "The Kiyada," the command of the troops in
war. (4) 'The Liwa," the right of affixing the banner to the staff and
presenting it to the standard bearer. (5) "The Dar-ul-Nadwa," the pres-
idency of the Hall of Council. "The religious observances customary at
the time of Cussai were those prevailing when Mohammed arose, and the
idols accepted, are there practiced with slight modifications to this day.
The center of veneration was the Kaaba, to visit which, to kiss the
Black Stone, and to make the seven circuits, was at all times regarded
as a holy privilege (Muir, I, ccv).

Next was the Lesser Pilgrimage (Hajj-al Asghar) which, in addition
to the above, included the right of running quickly to and fro seven
times between the hills of Safa and Marwa close to the Kaaba. This
ceremony had especial merit in the holy month Rajab. Lastly, the
Greater Pilgrimage (Hajj-al Alsbar), involving all the above and the ad-
ditional rite of pilgrimage to Arafat — an eminence of granite rocks, ten
or twelve miles east of Mecca. This can be performed only in the holy
month "Dzul Hijja." On the 8th the pilgrims start from Mecca, spend
the 9th at Arafat, and on the same evening hurry back to a spot called
Mosdalifa. Two or three succeeding days are spent at Mina, and the
pilgrimage is concluded with the sacrifice of a victim.

The country around Mecca to a distance of several miles was called
sacred (Haram) and during four months of the year, by general con-
sent, wars and hostilities were laid aside, so that the pilgrims could
travel unmolested from distant parts, and assuming the sacred garb
(Ihram) perform the accustomed rites in peace and security.

But the question arises how the worship at Mecca came to be what
it was at the time of Mohammed's birth. The worship was made up of
two totally different elements, viz., pure idolatry, and in addition rites
and observances which, by tradition, were associated with the story of
living characters of the Old Testament, and the reality of that associa-
tion riveted and certified by the names of spots in the neighborhood
which could be seen and visited, and which were intimately connected
with the ceremonies which were performed.

(A. D. 570) Abd-al-Mut-talib had betrothed his son Abdallah to a
maiden of the house of Coreish, Amina, the daughter of Wahb, the son
of Abd-Menaf, the son of Zolna, a brother of the famous Cussai, who,
more than a hundred years before, had consolidated the fortunes of their
house. Abdallah was the best beloved son of his father, a child of bene-
diction, who being once in fulfillment of a vow devoted to death, like his
storied ancestor, Ishmael, on the heights of Arafat, had, at the eleventh

256

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

hour, been saved from the sacrificial fire and given again to life. For
Abd-al-Mu-Talib had promised, if the Almighty would give him ten
sons, that one of them should be devoted ; and it was only after the
divining arrows had ten times been cast that the slaughter of one hun-
dred camels before the idol God was permitted to redeem the victim
and absolve the parent from his rash vow.

BIRTH OF MOHAMMED AND LIFE TO FORTIETH YEAR.

Brief was the wedded life of Abdallah and Amina. Shortly after
the marriage her husband set out with the yearly caravan for Gaza, in
South Syria, leaving pregnant the young wife who was destined to see
him no more. It was their first and last parting, for on the return jour-
ney, Abdallah sickened and, being left with his grand maternal relatives
at Medina, died and was buried there. For the support of his widow
he left behind him no richer legacy than four camels, a flock of goats,
and a slave girl named Baraka.

Under the rocks of the Abu-Cobeis, which rise eastward of Mecca,
over the narrow valley, stood the house of Amina, the birthplace of her
only son. At the time of the infant's birth, the aged Abd-al-Mut-talib
was worshiping in the Kaaba, and, taking the child to the sacred shrine,
like Simeon of old, he lifted him up in his arms and blessed God and gave
thanks, saying that he was to be called "Mohammed," a name in not
unfamiliar use before and at the time. But Amina had not long the
comfort of her son's presence. It was then customary for the infants
to be nurtured among the outlying Bedowin tribes. Moreover, grief is
said to have dried up the fountain of her breast, and she was thus for
a double reason, constrained to part with her son, who, amidst the val-
leys and hills which range southward of Tayif, with his nurse Halima,
breathed the pure air of the desert. Here, too, he learned the purer
speech of Arabia among the Beni-Saad, to which tribe his foster mother
belonged, and for which he afterwards entertained the greatest affection
and gratitude.

At the end of two years the infant was weaned and sent to visit his
mother, but the latter, whilst charmed at his healthy looks and dreading
the unwholesome air of Mecca, sent him back to his mountain home
with his nurse, who had so faithfully watched over him. When ap-
proaching his fifth year he appears to have become subject to certain
epileptic fits which alarmed his foster parents, as such attacks were at-
tributed to the influence of evil spirits, and made them resolve to rid

RELIGIONS OF PERSIA.

257

themselves of their charge. So he was again taken to his mother, and
the reason of the visit explained to her, and though persuaded to con-
tinue their guardianship for sometime longer, they finally restored him
to Amina when he had reached his fifth year.

In his sixth year (A. D. 575) he paid a visit to Medina. There he
saw the tomb of his father, and found youthful relatives of a companion-
able age. At Abwa, a spot half way from Medina to his native place, he
had the misfortune to lose his sole remaining parent.

The faithful slave Baraka escorted him back to Mecca, and there in
the house of his grandfather, the little orphan found for two years a
happy home ; and when Abd-al-Mut-talib died (A. D. 578) he consigned
to his son Abu-Talib the charge of the boy. In the family of his uncle
he was treated as a son, and faithfully, as we shall see, did the generous
Abu-Talib, in adversity, and through evil and good report, fulfill the
sacred trust imposed upon him.

Living thus in the house of his grandfather and uncle from his sixth
year, the youthful mind of Mohammed cannot but have imbibed lasting
and important impressions, from the domestic and social circumstances
by which, at his susceptible age, he was surrounded. Abd-al-Mut-talib
was the chief of Mecca, and fulfilled, as his father had done before him,
the most important of the sacerdotal offices with the national worship.
To him for food and help resorted the devout pilgrim from his distant
home, and in his hands was the custody of the sacred well Zem Zem.
We read, too, that with the other chiefs of his family in Mecca he was
wont to spend some time beneath the shadow of the Kaaba, and that
the youthful Mohammed was there his constant companion.

The multitude of camels bearing spices, the merchants of Aden and
Hadhramaut, with their precious freights — the choice products of Yemen
and of India — the bustle and tumult of the crowded streets, would ex-
cite the imagination with visions of those distant regions whence all the
riches came, and arouse a desire to visit them. From this influence the
youthful Mohammed did not escape. At his earnest entreaty his guard-
ian Abu-Talib (who like most of the chiefs of his house engaged in mer-
cantile adventures), permitted the youth, then in his twelfth year, to
accompany him on the northward journey. On this, and on subse-
quent trading expeditions, indelible impressions must have been made
upon his youthful mind. Now the daily march, the nightly halt, new
scenes, the campfires, around which wild tales and legions of spectral
beings haunting each vale and hill, and of ancient races swept away in

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ages past, would naturally imprint themselves deeply on the imagination
of the melancholy child.

During these jonrneys Mohammed must without doubt have come
in contact with numerous Christians who, as we have before stated, were
scattered over the region he visited ; and it is not improbable that he
may frequently have witnessed the ceremonies of their worship. The
Christian Church in the East had been for a long time convulsed by
theological controversies. Bitter disputes for centuries over the great
mysteries of the faith had ended in the production of a number of sects.
There were the Arians who denied the essential quality of the three per-
sons of the God-head, the Sabellians, who reduced these persons to three
relations, and the Eutychians, who believed in the fusion of the God-
head and the manhood of Christ into one nature. There were the
Jacobites, adherents of the Monophysite heresy, the Nazaraeans, and
the Ebionites, numerous in Arabia, the Marianites, who made the Virgin
Mother the third person in the Trinity ; the Collyridians, who made
Mary their God, and worshiped her as such, and "other sects there
were, of many denominations, within the borders of Arabia, which took
refuge there from the proscription of the imperial edicts" (Sale, p. 35).
We learn, too, that the worship of saints and images had there arrived
at a very high pitch and that many other superstitions largely pre-
vailed.

In Syria, Mohammed would see the Christian religion the ruling
national faith, in full vigor, with its scenic ritual, its crosses, pictures,
vestments, processions and regularly recurring services; and these ob-
servances he would, doubtless, compare with that gross idolatry, in the
practice of which lie had grown up to years of manhood. Still, those
who called themselves by the name of the Savior were numerous in Ara-
bia, in Syria, at Bostra, and at Hira, and though he must have had full
and ample opportunity of learning the truth of the things which they
believed, nothing is more remarkable than the gross ignorance of some
of the leading features of Christianity, which notwithstanding all the
means of information which, at any rate during his residence at Medina,
he possessed, is displayed by Mohammed. In the account of his first
journey, in his twelfth year, miraculous signs crowd upon us, and the
visible protection of Heaven accompanies the youthful prophet. At one
time the wings of his guardian angel shield him from the noonday heat ;
at another, the withered trees of the desert arc clothed in living green,
to afford shelter to the chosen of Heaven. At Bostra, a city lying east-
ward of the Jordan, and chiefly inhabited by Nestorian Christians, where

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the caravans halted the prophetic light, which shone in his face, and the
seal of prophecy between his shoulders, are seen and recognized by a
monk of a neighboring convent. By him the youth is hospitably enter-
tained and instructed in the true faith of the living God ; but especially
and thus early is there sown in his heart a deep rooted abhorrence of
that idolatry in which he had hitherto been educated. This Nestorian
monk is variously called Bahira Sergius.

And so the life of Mohammed ran on. When he had reached his
twenty-fifth year, on the recommendation of Abu Talib, he entered
the service of Khadija, a rich widow of Mecca. She was of the house
of Coreish, the daughter of Khurveilid, who was the son of Asad, the son
of Abd-al-Ozza, the son of Cussai. With Musara, her servant, he was
placed in charge of the widow's merchandise ; and accompanying the
yearly caravan to the north, by judicious barter with the Syrian mer-
chants of Bostra, Aleppo and Damascus, succeeded in doubling Khadija's
venture. From Man-al-Tzahran, the last halting place on the return
journey before Mecca, he was sent forward to announce to his thrifty
and expectant mistress the success of their journey. The widow was
charmed with the noble features of the ingenious youth., and her heart
was touched with a soft and irresistible feeling. The negotiations and
advances which her love and modesty set on foot soon brought about
the union she desired. The home of Mohammed and Khadija was a
bright and happy one, and their marriage fortunate and fruitful. Two
sons and four daughters were its issue. Their eldest son was Casim, who
died at the age of two years ; then followed (in what precise order is un-
known) four daughters — Zeinab, Rockeya, Om Kolthum, and Fatima,
and lastly a son, generally known by the name of Abdallah, who died in
infancy.

The wealth of Khadija raised Mohammed to a level with the other
chiefs of his house and relieved 'him from the shepherd's crook and from
his duties among the camel-drivers of Mecca. The love of Khadija, who
had at first been attracted by his noble and pleasing exterior, increased
daily at the recognition of the sterling qualities which her partial heart
was ready to discover in the husband of her choice.

In all his troubles, and amid all his mental doubts and conflicts, he
had one tender and affectionate bosom into which he could pour his
griefs, and to which he could in latter years, confide the story of the
ecstatic visions, which in the solitary cave, or on the arid uplands,
haunted his day dreams and his nightly vigils. For the heart of Moham-
med did safely trust her, and Khadija yielded to him her faith, and

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when the world called him impostor and cheat, she was the first to
acknowledge him to be indeed the Apostle of God.

From the knowledge thus gained by actual intercourse with those
who had been instructed, however imperfectly in a better faith : from
the general spirit of inquiry which is said to have prevailed at the time ;
from what he himself had seen and learnt of the Christian and Jewish
worship, and from dim traditions of the purer faith of their ancestor
Abraham, he gradually became sensible how much such pure adoration
was at variance with the gross and degrading idolatry which prevailed
in Arabia. With a brooding anxiety for something that would answer
the secret longings of his scul he began to withdraw himself from the
busy scenes of the city to the barren hills, whose desolate solitudes were
congenial to his meditative and melancholy nature.

We read that often with his faithful wife he repaired to the cave of
Hira for meditation and prayer, and that his long and anxious vigils
and nightly wanderings were followed by ecstacies, and trances, and
convulsive fits long continued, which alarmed his wife, but in which "the
faithful" see the beginning of the working of the Spirit of God, and the
throes of a mind burdened with a revelation more than human. His
tendency to epileptic attacks, and his long vigils, sufficiently account
for these phenomena. To the faithful, however, they constituted the
ordeal through which he had to pass before he could be made the means
of revealing the message of Heaven.

. Luther looked upon him as a devil and the first born child of
"Satan." That Mohammed was inspired by Satan because he did not ex-
plain what sin is, and, showeth not the reason of human misery. "Wicked
impostor," "dastardly liar," etc., a wilful and intentional deceiver from
first to last, who, for the purpose of raising himself to supreme power
invented the wicked imposture which he palmed with so much success
on the world. He is accused in prosecution of his design, of having
abandoned a licentious course of life, and of having affected that of an
Eremite, in order to gain "a reputation for sanctity before he set up for
prophet."

It was the angel Gabriel who held in his hand a silken cloth covered
with writing and bid Mohammed read ; but he replied, that he could not.
Then the angel, repeating part of the ninety-sixth sura, spoke as fol-
lows: "Read, in the name of the Lord, who hath created all things.
Read, by the most beneficent Lord, who taught the use of the pen;
who teacheth man that which he knoweth not." And then the angel
left him, and the words were as though they were engraved on his heart.

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261

Such was the first appearance to him of the heavenly messenger, and
the first intimation of the Divine will.

After a sufficient "intermission" the voice returned, and the angel,
from a throne between heaven and earth, thus addressed him : "Oh,
Mohammed ! thou art the Apostle of God and I am Gabriel." This
intimation strengthened his heart, allayed his fears, and at length, per-
suaded of his divine appointment, he went to announce the glad tidings
to Khadja.

Zeid, his adopted son, embraces the faith and to these were added
the names of two others, his adopted son Ali and Abu Bekr, both after-
wards Caliphs, and both reckoned amongst the earliest believers. Ali
was the son of Abu Talib, and cousin of the prophet, but nearly thirty
years his junior. Abu Talib, however, had fallen on evil days, and when
the burden of a numerous family pressed too heavily upon him, his
former kindness to Mohammed was gratefully remembered, who, being
then in affluent circumstances, took upon himself the charge of Ali,
adopted him in place of his own lost Casim, and they afterwards felt
towards each other the mutual attachment of parent and child. At the
time when Mohammed assumed the prophetic character, Ali was about
fourteen years of age, but with the permission of Abu Talib grew up in
the faith of his adopted father.

By the influence of Abu Bekr five new converts were added to
Islam ; Saad, a nephew of Amina ; Zobier, a nephew of Khadija ; Talha,
afterwards a valiant warrior of the faith ; Othmanibu-Affan, subsequently
Caliph, and Abd-al-Rahman, the son of Awf, whose four companions,
on their first visit to the prophet, embraced the new doctrine. Others
were gradually added to the little band of the faithful. Of these may be
mentioned Said-ibu-Zeid, then a boy, and his wife Fatima, sister of
Zeid-ibu-Khattab, and of the famous Omar, afterwards Caliph. In all,
it may be assumed that in the first three or four years a small group of
thirty or forty converts were the fruits of the secret preaching and pri-
vate solicitation of the prophet.

And so believers were added until they reached about fifty, among
whom are numbered many who were in menial or servile positions at
Mecca.

Among the chief opponents of Mohammed and his doctrines, were,
as mentioned above, Walid and Abu Lahat, his uncle; to these may be
added Abu Sofian, the son of Harb, the grandson of Omeya, and great
grandson of Abd Shams. He was a man of great wealth, and one of the
most influential men of Mecca. Abu Jahl, a Coreishite, descended from

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Yokdha, uncle of Cussai, was also a bitter and abusive opponent of the
new doctrines.

The Koran, or inspired book of the Moslems, consists of one hun-
dred and fourteen chapters or Suras which vary much in length, some
containing only a few lines, whilst the longest (the second) has as many
as two hundred and eight-six verses. It is made of those revelations
which Mohammed professed from time to time to have received direct
from God, which he repeated to those about him, and of which, accord-
ing to strict Mohammedan doctrine, every word is of divine command. It
is also by the Moslems considered the fountain head of all science, of
all knowledge, and all law. When made known, the different chapters,

MOHAMMED, THE FOUNDER OF ISLAM.

or parts of chapters — for it was seldom that an entire one was revealed
at once — were by his followers committed to' memory, or written down
on palm leaves, white stones, pieces of leather, shoulder blades of the
sheep and camel; and these in later years were put into a chest in the
prophet's house, and subsequently came into the keeping of Haphsa, one
of his wives. Copies of the Suras, as they appeared, were, it seems, made
for the private devotions of his followers. No complete copy of the sev-
eral revelations which made up the present Koran, appears to have ex-
isted during the lifetime of Mohammed ; but during the caliphate of Abu
Bekr, his successor,- and at the suggestion of Omar, a copy was written

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263

out by the prophet's secretary, Zeid-ibu-Thabit. The copy made by
Zeid was retained by Omar during his caliphate, and by him made over
to his successor Othman.

Hence some of the Mohammedans deny that the Koran was the
composition of their prophet, and assert that it is eternal and uncreated,
and of the essence of God Himself. Others refuse to detract from the
honor of God by making anything co-equal with or not created by Him,
though they, too, are unanimous in their belief that Mohammed Avas
merely the medium of conveying God's will to men, and that His words,
therefore, are the words of the Almighty, who speaks in every sentence.
The Unitarian doctrine is asserted in the 112th Sura, which is as fol-
lows: (Title, ''The Declaration of God's Unity.") — "In the name of the
most merciful God. Say. God is one God, the eternal God ; He be-
getteth not, neither is He begotten, and there is not anyone like unto
Him." This chapter is held in particular veneration by the Moham-
medans and is declared by a tradition of their prophet to be equal in value
to a third part of the whole Koran.

Of the angelic beings who surround the throne of God there are
four of the highest dignity and power : Gabriel, the Angel of Revelation,
who communicated the Koran to Mohammed, and is said therein to have
been sent by God to the Virgin Mary, to promise her "a Holy Son."
Michael, "the Friend of the Jews," mentioned in conjunction with Ga-
brial as one of those, enmity against whom involves enmity against God
Himself. Azrael, called "the Angel of Death," who separates men's
souls and bodies, and with his assistants either "tears them asunder with
violence, or draws them apart with gentleness." Israfil, whose business
it will be to sound the two trumpets at the last day.

The devil, named Eblis in the Koran, was once one of the arch-
angels in heaven, and was called Azazil, but by disobedience fell, under
circumstances thus related : "And we created Adam, and said to the
angels, "Worship Adam," and they all worshiped him except Eblis, who
refused, and said, "I am more excellent than he ; thou hast created me
of fire and hast created him of clay." For this God drove him down
from Paradise, and, being respited till the day of judgment, his busi-
ness is to "tempt man to disobedience on the earth," but he has no
power over God's servants but only over those "who shall be seduced."
On Friday, the day of public assembly, the same prayers are used, led
by some Imam (antistes) who holds office at the mosque, for there is
no order of men set apart for that purpose ; and he usually reads, in ad-
dition some set address (Khutbah)^ or preaches to those assembled.

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Rosaries, consisting of ninety-nine beads (the number of the names
of Allah) are frequently seen in the hands of the most zealous Moslems,
and are used to count the ejaculatory prayers : such as "Praise be to
God;" "God is most great," etc., which are directed to be repeated a
certain number of times.

Women are taught that it is better for them to pray at home ; they
are absolutely excluded from some mosques and are seldom seen in the
others at the ordinary times of prayer. They join, however, in the fes-
tival of the Grohanam, particularly on the tenth day, and they accompany
their husbands on the pilgrimage to Mecca.

It was at this time Mohammed suffered the loss, by death, of two of
his nearest and best friends — his wife Khadija (A.D. 619) and his faith-
ful uncle, the aged Abu Talib (A.D. 620).

At this critical period, because he found it unsafe to remain in
Mecca, or because he trusted that his message would find more accept-
ance elsewhere, Mohammed, accompanied by his faithful freedman, Zeid,
set off to Tair, a strongly fortified town inhabited by the Beni Thackif,
situated some seventy miles to the east of Mecca.

There is something very touching in the view of the solitary wan-
derers as they set forth in faith and devotion. On they toiled, across
sandy wastes, over burning rocks and barren hills, till they reached the
heights of the Jebel Kora, where gardens, palm trees, vineyards and
"fruits of plenty spread on every hand," made a welcome and refreshing
contrast to the dreary wilderness through which they had passed and
cheered the visionary seer and his faithful comrade. And so they
descended into the valley of Tayif, which town at that time and long
after was one of the great strongholds of idolatry. There a stone image,
called "Al Lat," usually adorned with costly vestments and precious
stones, was an object of worship and profound veneration and was
esteemed to be one of the daughters of God. Here for ten days Mo-
hammed preached to unwilling ears, and met with nothing but opposition
and scorn from the chief men, which soon spread to the populace. At
last, with Zeid, he was driven out of the town and maltreated and
wounded, had to make for the foothills, where he hoped to find shelter
among the vineyards and to escape the pursuit of the infuriated rabble.

Driven thus forth from the city and worn out, they sat down
under a vine in a garden belonging to two youths of the hostile Coreish,
who had noticed the fugitives forlorn plight, and touched by their suffer-
ings sent them a dish of grapes. Refreshed by the welcome present,
Mohammed set forth on his journey, and half way to Mecca rested in the

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valley of Nakhla, where, as we have seen,' the Genii heard him at night
reading the Koran and were converted. After a few days' rest at this
place he returned to Mecca, wearied indeed and disappointed, but still
strong in the belief of his divine mission, Mohammed now found himself
free from a personal molestation, under the protection of Mutin, a chief
of the blood of Abd Shams. His unsuccessful mission to Tayif, which be-
came known to the hostile faction, procured for him a season of con-
temptous toleration, more bitter perhaps, to his lofty soul than active
opposition.

At this time (A. D. 620) he entered into a double matrimonial alli-
ance, taking to wife Sawda, the widow of one of his converts of the Core-
ish, and being betrothed to Ayesha — the daughter of his bosom friend
Abu Bekr — then only seven years of age.

It is also believed by some writers that the Jewish hopes of a Mes-
siah had penetrated to their Arab neighbors and had awakened in them
torn as they were by intestine feuds, a yearning for a deliverer so that
they were ready to accept the one who came to them of Arab blood, of
the sacerdotal caste, and who seemed likely to fulfill their highest hopes.

However this may be, it is certain that Mohammed's eloquent teach-
ing found more congenial soil among them and so they joyfully acknowl-
edged his mission and made profession of "the faith." To his new disci-
ples he poured out the story of the difficulties and dangers of his posi-
tion at Mecca and inquired whether they could protect him at Medina.
They explained that their city was rent by opposing factions, that they
could therefore not make him the promise he desired, but at the next
annual pilgrimage they would come and give him their answer.

And so they returned home and spread his doctrine, and that with
such success that "there remained hardly a family in Medina that men-
tion was not made of the Prophet." It would even appear that the Jews
favored him, inasmuch as he had acknowledged the validity of their
Scriptures, and taught some doctrines which they loved. Thus, from a
variety of causes Islam secretly and openly took deep root and spread in
Medina.

Faithful to their promise, twelve of the new converts returned at
the annual pilgrimage and formally acknowledged him as their prophet,
and plighted him their faith, "agreeing to acknowledge but one God, to
act morally and justly, not to kill their children, and to obey the Prophet
in all things lawful." Such was the first pledge of Acaba, agreed to in
' April, A. D. 621. And so they returned to their native home and the
faith continued to spread in Medina, chiefly through the preaching of

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Murab-ibu-Ormir, a young and ardent Moslem who had been sent
thither by Mohammed at the request of the inhabitants. Their idols were
thrown aside, many even of the hostile factions of the Aws and the Khaz-
raj joined in the common devotions, and thus wonderfully was a purer
theistic faith substituted for the old superstitions of the Arab popula-
tion.

External events, too, favored the fortunes of Islam. For many years
the victorious arms of the Persian Chosroes had humbled the Christian
princes of the East, but in A. D. 621 an important and decisive victory
gained by the Emperor Heraclius, rolled back the tide of invasion from
the shores of Bosphorus, and the Cross triumphed over the fire-worship
of the Magian invaders. This was at the same time a triumph for the
theistic faith of Mohammed and seemed in its mystical meaning to pre-
figure the downfall of Arabia's idolatrous rites, for in it true believers
saw the sure accomplishments of a prophecy which their leader had
uttered, thus : "The Greeks have been overcome by the Persians, but
after their defeat they shall overcome the others in turn within a few
years." "Write, to God belongeth the disposal of this matter, and on
that day shall the believers rejoice in the success granted by God."

In the spring of the next year, during the holy months, there as-
sembled at the national shrine at Mecca the usual crowd of busy de-
votees, but amidst the throng one group alone of about seventy persons
need claim our regard. There are the new disciples from Medina, come
to tell the prophet of their welfare, that the truth had found a ready re-
ception, and that they were prepared to offer him a resting place in their
midst, and to conduct him from the idolatrous city.

Towards the close of the ceremonies the ambassadors assembled se-
cretly at the hill of Acaba, "a secluded glen" northward of Mecca, where,
in order to escape the notice of the hostile Coreish, it had been arranged
they were to meet the prophet, and formally pledge him their word.
Before midnight Mohammed repaired to the place, accompanied by
Al-Abbas, who (though he had not openly declared for the new faith)
loved his nephew and was anxious that his decision at this crisis should
be wise and prudent. He therefore urged on the men of Medina not to
raise hopes which they could not fulfill, nor to promise a protection
which they might prove unable to afford. They replied that they were
able and fully determined to secure his safety with their lives and for-
tunes ; nay more, to take him as their prophet and their master. Such
was the "second pledge of Acaba" which took place in the March of A.

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267

D. 622. The protection thus offered and accepted, gained for the believ-
ers of Medina the title of "Ansar," or Auxiliaries.

Some vague accounts of the midnight meeting, and of the important
pact entered into between Mohammed and the men of Medina as well as
rumors of an early emigration of the Moslems from Mecca, reached the
ears of the Coreish, and roused them to a renewal of such severities and
persecutions, including, in some cases, imprisonment, as hastened the
departure of the believers to the city where they were assurred of a friend-
ly reception. By permission of the prophet the emigration began, and
within two months — with the exception of Mohammed and Abu Bekr
and their households and those who were forcibly detained in slavery —
all had met with the cordial welcome and hospitality of their brethren at
Medina.

Passing the southern suburb of Mecca in the dusk of evening, they
escaped to a cave on Mount Thaur, a lofty hill some six miles to the
southeast. There they remained concealed for three days, till the search
was somewhat relaxed. Food was conveyed to them at night by Ab-
dallah and Asma, the children of Abu Bekr, and they had a plentiful
supply of milk brought them by a faithful shepherd. There is perhaps
no incident in the life of the prophet which more nearly touches the
sublime, which sets his courage, his calm, unwavering trust in God in a
more exalted light than the story of this cave on Mount Thaur.

Two camels had been provided by Abu Bekr for their northern jour-
ney, and on the fourth, day, leaving their place of retreat, they struck off
westward toward the Red Sea, passed Bir-Osfan and Codred, and on
the eighth day reached the rocky ridge whence the traveler looks down
on the rich valley in which Medina lies. Their eyes, wearied with jour-
neying under a meridian sun through barren and thirsty defiles, must
have been refreshed at the sight which opened before them. They would
look down on green fields, orchards and palm groves, a scene to them
of quiet, though of infinite beauty and repose. To the right the summit
of Jebel Ayr; northward, beyond the valley, the granite mountain of
Ohod, where afterwards the sword of Islam failed in the hand that
wielded it, away to the south and east, till lost in the horizon, the plateau
of Najid, and below the peaceful suburb of Kaaba, nestling amid its palm
groves.

Thither the travelers wended their way and, welcomed by the greet-
ing of the exiles who had preceded- them, and by the smiles and gratu-
lations of the new converts, soon after alighted in Medina. Such was the
celebrated "Hijira, or Flight of Mohammed from Mecca to Medina,

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which the Mohammedan world computes its era. He fled from the cave of
Thaur on the 20th and arrived at Medina on the 28th of June A. D. 622.
Within a few weeks the members of the families and Abu Bekr, who
had remained behind at Mecca, set out leisurely and without molesta-
tion, to join the rest of the fugitives at Medina.

THE STORY OF THE PROPHET'S FORTUNES AT MEDINA.

He remained four days at Coba, and having satisfied himself that the
general enthusiasm and the curiosity to see the man whose name was so
great in Aiabia had lulled the active passions of contending factions, he
made his almost triumphal entry into Medina. Seated on his camel, he
allowed the animal unchecked to select the spot for his future residence.
The place thus chosen was a piece of waste ground within the eastern
limits of the city, and near the house of one Abu Ayub, under whose
roof he resided for seven months. His table was amply supplied by the
voluntary offerings of the Faithful. The work of erecting a mosque
and suitable dwellings was the first business of the prophet and his fol-
lowers. The ground, which he bought, was cleared and leveled, and a
temple some hundred cubits square arose on the site where now stands
the large and beautiful mosque which bears his name.

Round the temple rose in process of time apartments for his wives
as they were gradually added. At first two only were built, one for
Sawda, and a second for Ayesha, then in her tenth year, who for the
consummation of her nuptials took possession, with unostentatious pomp,
of that chamber which was destined to be the burial place of her hus-
band. Regular services were commenced, Mohammed or some vicar ap-
pointed by him leading the daily public prayers ; whilst on Friday, at the
midday office, all the Faithful were expected to be present. His mar-
riage with Ayesha took place in the winter of A. D. 622-623.

With the Jews, on his first arrival, he made a tre aty of alliance, by
which the free exercise of their worship, and the_ possession of their
rights and property was guaranteed; but it soon became apparent that
the two sects could not exist harmoniously side by side. Mohammed's
conduct in his dealings with the rival religionists is very instructive. In
his earlier inspirations he had spoken of them as the chosen of heaven,
and their books as having divine authority, and had, as we have seen,
heaped together facts drawn from their second canon to illustrate the
truth of his mission. He had acknowledged that a strict compliance
with the Mosaic ritual was compatible with future salvation ; he had
fixed upon their holy place at Jerusalem as the Kibla of his faith, and in

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many ways sought to conciliate them and gain their weighty testimony
to the truth of his claims ; but all had been in vain ; he found that they
disbelieved his assertions, mocked at his revelations, and gave out that
in their prophetic books no authority for his pretensions was to be
found.

Mohammed was not without resource. He employed his old weapons
against them accused them of rejecting their Messiah; asserted that
they systematically concealed all the passages foretelling his appear-
ance; and that on them, as on their fathers, who had rejected the preach-
ing of Noah and of Abraham, was fallen a thick darkness, — eyes that
would not see, ears that would not hear the latest message of Heaven
delivered by his lips. To embittered feelings succeeded menacing words ;
and the Jews of Medina soon felt the power and hostility of the prophet's
arm.

In November, 623, an expedition of eight of the "Fugitives" was
sent to lie in wait in the valley of Nakhla, and within one of the four
sacred months surprised a Meccan convoy. One man was killed, two
of the Coreish taken prisoners, and the camels with their loads carried off
to Medina. "This was the first booty the Mussulmans obtained, the
first captives they seized, the first life they took," and though the attack
had been made in the holy month Rajab, which even the Pagan Arabs
respected, a convenient revelation justified the supposed desecration and
established that to kill the unbelievers is less grevious than idolatry, and
to war in the sacred months than to obstruct the way to the holy
temple.

In January, 624, on the return journey of the Meccan caravan from
Syria, Mahomet determined to attempt its capture, and for this purpose
set out from Medina with 305 of the "Fugitives" and "Ansar," and en-
camped by the fountains. Though Abu-Sofian succeeded by forced
marches in placing his convoy beyond danger, it was settled that a body
of troops, numbering about 950, which, under Abu-Jahl had been sent
from Mecca to his assistance, should advance and measure swords with
the Moslems. The battle began with a series of single combats in which
Hamza — the Lion of God — Ali and Obeids encountered and slew Otba,
Walid and Shuiba. The engagement then became general, "the army
of the Faithful was borne forward by an enthusiasm which the Coreish
were unable to withstand," their line, notwithstanding their superior
number, began to waver, and the retreat quickly became an ignominious
flight. Forty-nine of the Meccans perished and an equal number were
taken prisoners ; on the side of Mahomet fourteen fell.

2^0

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

On his return to Medina, Mohammed found his position much
strengthened, and he assumed a dictatorial tone which demanded unhes-
itating obedience.

In his domestic relations Mohammed had to mourn the death of his
daughter, Rockeya. During the winter months he married his fourth
wife, Haphsa, the daughter of Omar, and in January, A. D. 625, was born
his grandson Hasan, the son of Fatima and Ali.

During the year 625 various expeditions were sent abroad to propa-
gate the faith and to check hostile movements among neighboring tribes,
and in these murder and treachery play an important part. From cer-
tain political complications Mohammed continued, without any adequate
reason, to pick a quarrel with the Jewish tribe of the Beni Nadhir, whose
stronghold, Zohara, lay a few miles to the south of Medina. Refusing
to listen to any explanation, he bid them, in the name of the Lord, go
to listen to any explanation, he bade them, in the name of the Lord, go
stern mandate and give up their houses and lands, which were forthwith
divided among the "Fugitives." The Koran contains a song of praise
to God, in which the Prophet records his thankfulness for having been
enabled successfully to accomplish the spoliation and banishment of this
unoffending people.

In December, 625, he married his fifth wife, Zeinab, daughter of
Khozeima, whose husband had fallen at Badr. In January, 626, a sixth,
Om-Salma, widow of one of the heroes of Ohod, and six months later
(June) Zeinab-biut-Jehsh, the divorced wife of his adopted son, Zeid.
On a certain day, Mohammed, entering unexpectedly the house of Zeid,
had a momentary glimpse of the charms of his beautiful wife, and uttered
a cry of passionate admiration. The circumstance was reported, and the
disciple, by an immediate divorce, enabled the prophet to add a new-
bride to his- harem.

By these marriages — for he had then six living wives — the legal
number allowed to the Faithful, had been overstepped, and, moreover,
his alliance with the wife of his adopted son was considered highly im-
proper, if not incestuous. But Mohammed had an easy and effectual
method of silencing present scandal and avoiding further complication by
an additional Sura to the Koran ; thus : O Prophet, we have allowed thee'
wives — and also the slaves which thy right had possesseth — and any
other believing woman, if she give herself, and the Prophet desireth to
take her to wife. This is a peculiar privilege granted thee above the
rest of the believers." (Sura xxxiii .-49-51). It is impossible to avoid
wondering at the strange credulity of his followers, who, with seemingly

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271

undiminished faith, allowed him the aid of inspiration as a pander to
his personal predilections.

Regarding- the fair Zeinab, it was laid down that she was joined to
the Prophet by the will of heaven, to show that believers commit no sin in
"marrying the wives of their adopted sons."

An expedition (December, 626) to the wells of Muraisi, north of Jid-
dah, on the seashore, resulted in the defeat of the Beni-Mustalick and
the capture of a large number of persons. Among the captives was Jur-
veira, the beautiful daughter of the chief, who, on a question of her ran-
som, appealed to the Prophet, was viewed with eyes of desire, and, after
embracing the faith became his eighth wife.

The expedition is memorable for the adventure which, for a time,
compromised the reputation of Ayesha. By accident she was left behind
on the return journey to Medina. On the arrival of the convoy she was
found absent from her litter, but soon after appeared seated on the
camel of one Safwan. Scandal was soon busy in putting the worst con-
struction on her conduct. The Prophet was distressed at the misadven-
ture which had befallen his best beloved wife and for a month forsook
her society; after which a revelation established her innocence, and re-
stored her to his arms. The circumstance gave' rise to the Moslem law
regarding adultery, which necessitates the production of four witnesses
to substantiate the charge against "women of reputation" and further
directs that they who make a false accusation of this kind are to be
beaten with four score stripes. If convicted, the Koran lays down that
wives "are to be imprisoned in a separate apartment until death release
them." By the Sunnah, the punishment, according to a supposed abro-
gated passage, was directed to be death by stoning. In Egypt, the
usual punishment of the offense is drowning. The legislation of the
Koran in this particular, and as regards murder, theft, mutilation, etc.,
owing to its cruelty, inconsistency and inadequacy, has, in many par-
ticulars, been neglected, if not altogether set aside, in the more advanced
countries where Islam prevails. Fornication is forbidden, is declared
to be wickedness and an evil way, and is to be punished in either sex by
100 stripes. Marriage with a harlot is forbidden to true believers. But,
however salutary Mohammed may have considered these regulations, the
almost unlimited license in marriage and divorce enables offenders to
set them at defiance.

The opening of the year 627 (March) saw the Prophet threatened
with a formidable danger, had engaged a number of Bedowin tribes to
assist him in making a united attack on the rising power and had ad-

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vanced on Medina with some ten thousand men. The Moslems en-
trenched and fortified their city, and were content to repel the attack
from behind their walls.

On the arrival of the Confederates they had found means to win over
the Beni-Couitza, a Jewish tribe, whose possessions lay exposed to at-
tack and who had indeed entered into terms of alliance with Mohammed,
but whose compact with him "was of a weak and precarious nature."
Though their defection, which amounted to little more than neutrality,
at such a critical moment might have warranted Mohammed in expelling
them from their possessions it by no means justified the slaughter which
followed. On the retreat of Abu Sofian they were besieged, reduced to
extremity and had to surrender at discretion. Their fate was left to the
decision of a chief of the Beni Aws, and by him the men were adjudged
to death, and the women and children to slavery. In companies of five
or six, the horror-stricken Jews, to the number of some 800, were led out
and in Mohammed's presence, butchered in cold blood.

Yet in the Koran this accursed slaughter is applauded, attributed to
divine interposition, and pronounced consonant with the love and com-
passion of the All-Merciful. Muir justly remarks that "the butchery of
the Couitza leaves a dark stain of infamy on the character of Mohammed.
Among the captives was a Jewess (Rihana) whose charms had caught
bis eye. Refusing the position of a wife, she became his slave and concu-
bine on his return from the spot where he had just witnessed the bleed-
ing corpse of her husband, and the destruction of all her male relatives.

I pass over the remaining events of the year (A. D. 627) which are
a repetition of the usual expeditions for plunder, for dispersing robber
bands, or for repelling the encroachments of other tribes for pasturage.
During their time we know assassinations were deliberately planned by
Mohammed, and the perpetrators blessed and rewarded, and we also meet
with instances at this period of the barbarous mutilation of captives. On
this head the Koran directs "that the enemies of God and of his Apostle
shall be slain, or crucified, or have their hands and feet cut off, or be
banished from the land." Theft is to be punished thus : "If a man or a
woman steal, cut off their hands." The law of "life for life, eye for eye,"
and that wounds are to be punished with the like is retained in full force.
Thus, then, we have the Jewish law of retaliation abolished by the Chris-
tian dispensation — revived in the Koran, and express sanction given to
the barbarous practice of mutilation. The recurrence of the holy month,
Dzul Caada, of the next year (February, 628) recalled to the mind of
Mohammed and his followers thoughts of the customary pilgrimage

RELIGIONS OF PERSIA.

and of their homes at Mecca, from which they had been excluded for six
years.

At about this period (A. D. 628) Mohammed sent embassies to cer-
tain foreign sovereigns, inviting them and their subjects to embrace
Islam. It may be well to consider the political condition at the time of
the countries bordering on Arabia.

On the arrival of the envoys, Muckonckas, the Roman governor of
Egypt, treated them with honor, and sent as presents to the Prophet a
white mule and two Coptic girls. Being sisters, only one (according
to the Moslem law) was lawful to him, so he selected Mary, whose fair
n features and curling hair captivated the heart of Mohammed, and she be-
! came his concubine.

In the autumn of the year (A. D., 628) he set on foot an expedi-
tion against Kheibar, a town 100 miles to the north of Medina, inhab-
ited chiefly by Jews, whose wealth and rich domains promised an abun-
dant harvest of plunder. One by one their fortified villages fell into his
hands, and driven at last to extremities they were obliged to give up
their citadel. Camuss, Kinana, their chief, was tortured to disclose his
wealth, and then beheaded, and the dark suspicion rests upon the
Prophet, that the well-known beauty of Safia, Kinana's recently married
wife, was the secret cause of her husband's execution. Immediately
after his death she was summoned to the Prophet's presence, who "cast
his mantle round her," and she became his ninth wife.

The advent of the holy month, Dzul Caada, of the next year (Febru-
ary, 629) was eagerly expected by Mohammed and his followers, for then,
according to the terms of the truce of Hodeibia, they might, without
I molestation, visit the holy city and spend three days in the performance
of the accustomed rites.

Eagerly did he press forward to the Kaaba, touched with his staff
; the Black Stone, seven times made the circuit of the holy house, seven
1 times journeyed between Safa and Marwa, sacrificed the victims and ful-
I filled all the ceremonies of the lesser pilgrimage.

While at Mecca he negotiated an alliance with Meinruna, his elev-
enth and last wife. His marriage gained him two most important con-
verts — Khalid, the "Sword of God," who before this had turned the tide
1 of battle at Ohod; and Amru, destined afterwards to carry to foreign
> lands the victorious standards of Islam.

The services of these two important converts were quickly utilized.
H An envoy of Mohammed to the Christian Prince of Bostia, in Syria, hav-
! ing been slain by the chief of Muta, a village to the southeast of the Dead

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Sea, a force of 3,000 men under his adopted son Zeid, was sent (Septem-
ber, A. D. 629) to exact retribution and to call the offending tribe to the
faith. The result was their disastrous defeat and repulse. Zeid and
Jafar, a brother of Ali, fell defending the white banner of the Prophet.
Mohammed felt deeply the loss of Zeid and Jafar, and exhibited the ten-
derest sympathy for their widows and orphans.

( >n the 1st of January, 630, Mohammed's march commenced, and
after eight days through unfrequented roads and defiles, the army,
swelled to the number of 10,000 men, halted and lighted their camp-
fires on the heights of Man-al-Tzahran, a day's march from the sacred
city.

The Moslems made their entry from four different quarters and the
prophet entered the city repeating verses of the Koran. Hav-
ing approached the Kaaba he touched the Black Stone and made the
seven prescribed circuits. The custody of the key (Hijaba) he con-
tinued in the family of Othman a descendant of Abd-al Derr, and the
cup of the well in that of Abbas in whose family it remains to this day.
Without delay, orders went forth to sweep away all the idolatrous relics
from the holy house, and Hobal and its fellows were thrown down
and destroyed.

Parties were sent out to destroy the idols around ; and in the valley
of Nakhla, the grave of Al Ozza and its weird priestess were destroyed
by Khalid.

( )n his return from the conquest of Mecca, Mohammed, then in his
60th year, was gladdened by the birth of a son by his concubine, Mary
the Copt.

The conquest of Mecca was followed by the gradual submission
of Arabia and the acknowledgment of the spiritual and temporal suprem-
acy of the prophet throughout the entire Peninsula.

March, 631, Mohammed issued an important command, the crown-
ing stone of the system he had raised, which shows at once the power
he wielded and the strong hold his doctrines had already taken through-
out Arabia. Refusing to be present himself during the ceremonies of
the pilgrimage, he commissioned Ali to announce to the assembled
multitudes in the valley of Mina, that at the expiration of the four sacred
months the prophet would hold himself absolved from every obligation
or league with idolaters, that after that year no unbeliever would be
allowed to perform the pilgrimage, or to visit the holy places ; and
further, he gave direction that either within or without the sacred ter-
ritory war was to be waged with them, that they were to be killed, be-

RELIGIONS OF PERSIA.

275

sieged and laid in wait for "wheresoever found." He ordains, however,
that if they repent and pay the legal alms they are to be dismissed freely,
but as regards ''those unto whom the Scriptures have been delivered
(Jews and Christians, etc.) they are to be fought against until they
pay tribute by right of subjection, and are reduced low."

About the middle of the year (A. D. 631) a heavy grief fell upon
Mohammed in the death of his little son Ibrahim, then about 15 months
old. He fondly trusted that his child might be destined to transmit his
name to posterity ; but now these hopes were frustrated, and with a
broken heart he followed the beloved remains to the cemetery of El
Bakia. No spot more sacred than this is visited by the devout pilgrims
to Medina. There lie, with the exception of Khadija, all the prophet's
wives, the "Mothers of the Faithful" as they one by one passed away.
There, in his untimely grave, lies Othman, the third Caliph ; and there
is seen the sepulchre of Abbas, the ancestor of those mighty princes
who, on the ruin of the house of Omeya, held high state in Baghdad.
There are the tombs of Halima, the prophet's nurse, of three of his
daughters, and of the murdered Hasan, his grandson, and there are in-
terred many of the pious dead who are accounted martyrs, princes,
and imams in the calendar of Islam. In this ground, then, the little
Ibrahim found his last resting place.

On the return of the sacred month (March, A. D. 632) Mohammed
accompanied by all his wives, selected his victims, assumed the pilgrim
garb, and set out on what is called "The Valedictory Pilgrimage" to the
holy place, from which every trace of the old superstitions had been re-
moved, and which, in accordance with his orders for the previous years,
no idolator was to visit. Approaching the Kaaba by the gate of the
Beni Sheyba, he carefully performed all the ceremonies of the "Omra"
or "Lesser Pilgrimage," and then proceeded to consummate those of the
greater. On the 8th of the holy month Dzul-Hyja, he rode to the Wadi
Mina, some three miles east of Mecca, and rested there for the night.
Next day, passing Mosdalifa, the midway station, he reached, in the
evening, the valley in which stands the granite hill of the Arrarat. From
the summit he spoke to the pilgrims regarding its sacred precincts,
announced to them the perfecting of their religion, offered up the pre-
scribed prayers and hurried back to Mosdalifa for the night. On the
10th, proceeding to Mina, he cast the accustomed stones, slew the
victims brought for sacrifice, had his head shaved and his nails pared,
ordering the hair, etc., to be burnt and the ceremonies ended, laid aside
the pilgrim garb. At Mina, during his three days' stay he preached to

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the pilgrims, called them to witness that he had faithfully fulfilled his
mission, and urged them not to depart from the exact observances of
the religion which he had appointed. Returning to Mecca, he again
went through the ceremonies of the Omra, made the circuit of the tem-
ple, drank of the well Zem Zem, prayed in the Kaaba, and thus rigor-
ously having performed all the ceremonies that his example might serve
as a model for all succeeding time, he returned to Medina.

It was about the end of May (A. D. 632) that he was attacked
with a violent fever. The fever continued for some seven or eight days
and left him but little strength to once more address his followers in
the Mosque. He returned to the room of Ayesha. His illness increas-
ing, he deputed Abu Bekr to lead the public prayers, and this was gen-
erally understood to intimate that in the event of his death he designed
him for his successor. About the 8th of June he had gained sufficient
strength to make his final visit to the Mosque. He proclaimed that he
had made lawful to them only what God approved; that each one of
them must work out his own acceptance with God, inasmuch as he
himself had no power to save them ; and after discharging some small
claims, he returned exhausted and fainting to Ayesha's room. With
his head on her lap he prayed for assistance in his last agonies and for
admission to the companionship of God. Ayesha tried in every way
to soothe the sufferings of his last moments. Ejaculatory words at in-
tervals escaped his lips. "Eternity of Paradise!" — "Pardon!" — "The
glorious associates on high !"and then all was still. The Prophet of
Mecca was dead.

Mohammed himself died in the early part of June, 632, aged sixty-
three ; and the army of invasion which had been held back by his sickness
advanced upon Syria, with the well known cry of "Strike, O ye con-
querors" they slew all who opposed them and carried off the remainder
into captivity. They burned the villages, the fields of standing corn,
and the groves of palm, and behind them there went up, as it were, a
whirlwind of fire and smoke.

Such was the method by which Islam was now propagated. "If
my kingdom were of this world," said Jesus, "then would my servants
fight." Mohammed's kingdom was essentially of this world, and stoutly
did his servants fight for it. Tradition loved to dwell on the delights
that awaited the strenuous fighters for Islam. "Paradise," said a fa-
miliar proverb "lies under the shadow of the swords." The sword was
the key of heaven and hell; and a drop of blood shed in the cause of

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277

God, a night spent in arms, was of more avail than months of fasting
and prayer.

In 634 the victorious Moslems under Khalid took Damascus. In 636
they utterly defeated the Persians at Kadesia, and drove Heraclius,
the same year out of Syria.

In 647 North Africa was invaded, and within forty years the victori-
ous Moslems had reached the Atlantic Ocean, and their general, Akba,

OMMAR.

spurring his horse into the sea, exclaimed with the disappointment of
an Alexander at the Ganges. "Great God, if my course were not stopped
by this sea, I would still go on to the unknown kingdoms of the West,
preaching the Unity of Thy Holy Name, and putting to the sword the
rebellious nations which refuse to call upon Thee."

Cypress fell before the Saracens in 648, and Rhodes five years later,
while Constantinople itself was besieged in 668. By the end of the
century they had reached the Oxus in Asia, and the invasion of Turke-

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PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

stan with the conquest of Bokhara and Samarcancl in the extreme
East was coincident with the invasion and conquest of Spain and Lower
Gaul in the West. The subjugation of Spain was quickly succeeded
by the second fruitless siege of Constantinople in 716. Sixteen years
rater the battle of Tours set a limit to Saracen conquest in Western
Europe. Crete became Moslem in 823 and Sicily was completely theirs
in 878, while in 846 Rome itself was partially sacked by the Arabs, and
only saved by the bravery of Leo IV. Though repulsed from Rome the
Moslems made good their footing at one or two points in Southern
Italy, from which they were not finally driven until 1058, A. D. So
nearly did Italy experience the same fate as Spain.

It was not until the eleventh century that the Saracens really in-
vaded India under Mahmud of Ghaziri, and within half a century of
that time had begun the advance of the Turkish hordes which was des-
tined to carry the green banner of the Prophet into the heart of Eu-
rope and almost to sweep away the remnants of Eastern Christianity.
In 1076 the Turks had reached Jerusalem, and when the Ottoman
Turks took up the sword of Islam from the failing hands of the Sel-
juchians, their victorious progress was not destined to be checked till
Suleiman the Magnificent was foiled before the walls of Vienna. It
was at the end of the 13th century that the Ottoman Turks first became
powerful. By the middle of the 14th century they had made good their
footing in Europe. Thrace, Bulgaria, Wallachia, Servia were rapidly
and thoroughly conquered and by the end of the century Greece had
become a Turkish province, and in 1453 the fall of Constantinople
sealed the doom of the Eastern Empire. Seventy-six years later the un-
successful siege of Vienna formed the high water mark of Moslem
conquest in that direction. But many of the fairest provinces of South-
eastern Europe became parts of the Turkish Empire, which extended on
the Adriatic as far as the Venetian territory, including Bosnia, Herza-
govina, and the ancient Illyricum as far as Histria. From thence their
border ran through Hungary, midway between Buda and Vienna, and
Buda and Cracow, Transylvania and Moldavia were theirs, and Bes-
sarabia and Podolia as far as the River Bug on the north. On the
Euxine. the Turks were in possession of the Crimea; the shores of the
Sea of Azoph were theirs, and a part of Caucasia. So that a large
slice of Europe was under Moslem sway, and there needed only the
capture of Rome, so confidently predicted by Bajazet, for the whole
of Southern Europe to acknowledge the Moslem supremacy. Spain,
too, might have been won back for the Spanish Arabs, the decay and

RELIGIONS OF PERSIA.

-279

final extinction of whose power synchronizes with the fall of Con-
stantinople and the firm establishment of the Turks in Europe.

In Christian lands it is usually called Mohammedanism, from
the name of its founder, which signifies "The Prophet of God." But
believers in the creed call it Islam, meaning- "Full Submission to God,"
and call themselves Moslems, or the people of the Islam.

Well might the founder call his faith Islam, or surrender, for it
did mean a complete surrender, social, political, national and religious
to a semi-barbarous nation of vagabonds and freebooters.

The life of Mohammed most naturally divides itself into two very
distinct parts, which are apparently in marked contrast to, not by any
means in harmony with, each other. The first part brings him forward
as a man of correct principle, and irreproachable character ; a faithful
husband, generous friend and loyal citizen ; a devotee of melancholic
temperament and meditative turn of mind ; a religious teacher, fond of
retirement and contemplation, lifted by a lofty ideal above the low level
of popular ambitions and efforts, and led by a series of visions and
ecstatic transports to a belief in and a public declaration of his divine
commission. The second part places before us a voluptuary, not
ashamed to call down the sanction of heaven to the gratification of the
vilest of his passions ; an unscrupulous propagandist, determined to
spread his religion by the terror of his sword ; an intriguing warrior,
gaining victories oftener by strokes of a tortuous policy than by deeds
of prowess and bravery ; a vindictive tyrant, gloating over the sufferings
of the victims sacrificed to his rage, and a shameless truce-breaker, ready
on the flimsiest of pretexts, to set aside the most solemn of treaties in
furtherance of schemes of self-aggrandizement. The two pictures are
so very dissimilar to each other that we instinctively recoil from the
necessity of representing them as two phases of one and the same life.

Mohammed was subject to epilepsy, or rather some hysterical
disorder, and was on that account most likely to see visions and dream
dreams and hear voices. He could not distinguish the normal and ab-
normal exercise of his faculties. After a time he was probably led to
voluntary self-deception. At least, such is often the case with charac-
ters of similar organization. He did not believe in the religion of his
associates.

THE CHARACTER OF MOHAMMED.

When Ayesha was questioned about Mohammed, she used to say :
"He was a man just such as yourselves ; he laughed often and smiled

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PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

much." "But how would he occupy himself at home?" "Even as any of
you occupy yourselves. He would mend his "clothes, and cobble his
shoes. He used to help me in my household duties ; but what he did
oftenest was to sew. If he had the choice between two matters, he
would choose the easiest, so as that no sin accrued therefrom. He
never took revenge excepting where the honor of God was concerned.
When angry with any person, he would say 'What hath taken such a
one that he should soil his forehead in the mud !' "

His humility was shown by his riding upon asses, by his accepting
Ihe invitation even of slaves, and when mounted, by taking another
behind him. He would say, 'I sit at meals as a servant doeth, and 1
eat like a servant ; for really I am a servant ;' and he would sit as one
that was always ready to rise. He discouraged fasting, and works of
mortification. When seated with his followers, he would remain long
silent at a time. In the mosque at Medina they used to repeat pieces
of poetry, and tell stories regarding the incidents that occurred in the
days of ignorance ; and laugh ; and Mohammed, listening to them, would
smile at what they said.

Mohammed hated nothing more than lying; and whenever he knew
that any of his followers had erred in this respect, he would hold him-
self aloof from them until he was assured of their repentance.

HIS SPEECH.

He did not speak rapidly, running his words into one another, but
enunciated each syllable distinctly, so that what he said was imprinted
in the memory of every one who heard him. When at public prayers,
it might be known from a distance that he was reading, by the motion
of his beard. He never read in a singing in chanting style; but he
would draw out his voice, resting at certain places. Thus, in the pref-
atory words of a Sura, he would pause after bismillahi, after al Rahman,
and again at Rahim.

GAIT.

He used to walk so rapidly that the people half run behind him,
and could hardly keep up with him.

HABITS IN EATING.

. He never ate reclining, for Gabriel had told him that such was the
manner of kings ; nor had he ever two men to walk behind him. He
used to eat with his thumb and his two forefingers ; and when he had

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281

done he would lick them, beginning with the middle one. When offered
by Gabriel the valley of Mecca full of gold, he preferred to forego it ; say-
ing that when he was hungry he would come before the Lord lowly, and
when full, with praise.

MODERATION.

A servant-maid being once long in returning from an errand, Mo-
hammed was annoyed, and said : "If it were not for the law of retaliation,
1 should have punished you with this tooth-pick."

CUSTOM OF PRAYER.

He used to stand for such a length of time at prayer that his legs
would swell. When remonstrated with, he said : "What ! shall I not
behave as a thankful servant should ?" He never yawned at prayer.
When he sneezed, he did so with a subdued voice. At funerals he never
rode; he would remain silent on such occasions, as if conversing with
himself, so that the people used to think he was holding communication
with the dead.

REFUSED TO MAKE PERSONAL USE OF TITHES.

While he accepted presents, he refused to use anything that had
been offered as alms; neither would he allow any one in his family to
use what had been brought as alms ; "For," said he, "alms are the im-
purity of mankind." His scruples on this point were so strong that he
would not eat a date picked up on the road, lest perchance it might
have dropped from a tithe-load.

FOOD RELISHED.

Mohammed had a special liking for sweetmeat and honey. He was
also fond of cucumbers and undried dates. When a lamb or a kid was
being cooked, Mohammed would go to the pot, take out the shoulder
and eat it. He used to eat moist dates and cooked food together. What
he most relished was a mess of bread cooked with meat, and a dish of
dates dressed with butter and milk.

Mohammed used to have sweet (rain) water kept for his use.

WOMEN AND SCENTS.

A great array of traditions are produced to prove that the prophet
was fond of women and scents, and liked these of all things in the world
the best. Ayesha used to say : "The Prophet loved three things —
women, scents and food ; he had his heart's desire of the two first, but
not of the last.

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PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

STRAIGHTENED MEANS AT MEDINA.

Ayesha tells us that for months together Mohammed did not get a
full meal. "Months used to pass," she says again, "and no fire would
be lighted in Mohammed's house, either for baking bread or cooking
meat." "How then, did ye live?" "By the two black things (dates and
water) and by what the citizens used to send unto us ; the Lord requite
them ! Such of them as had milch cattle would send us a little milk. The
Prophet never enjoyed the luxury of two kinds of food the same day;
if he had flesh, there was nothing else; and if he had dates; so
likewise if he had bread."

"We possessed no sieves, but used to bruise the grain and blow off
the husks."

APPEARANCE, HABITS, ETC.

He used to wear two garments. His izar (under-garment) hung
down three or four inches below his knees. His mantle was not wrapped
round him so as to cover his body, but he would draw the end of it
under his shoulder.

He used to divide his time into three parts : one was given to God,
the second allotted to his family, and the third to himself. When public
business began to press upon him he gave up one-half of the latter por-
tion to the service of others.

When he pointed he did so with his whole hand ; and when he
was astonished he turned his hand over (with the palm upwards). In
speaking with another, he brought his hand near to the person ad-
dressed ; and he would strike the palm of the left in the thumb of the
right hand.

Angry, he would avert his face ; joyful, he would look downwards.
He often smiled, and, when he laughed, his teeth used to appear white
as hailstones.

In the interval allotted to others he received all that came to him,
listened to their representations, and occupied himself in disposing of
their business and in hearing what they had to tell him. He would say
on such occasions: 'Let those that are here give information regarding
that which passeth to them that are absent; and they that cannot them-
selves appear to make known their necessities, let others report them to
me in their stead; the Lord will establish the feet of such in the Day
of Judgment,"

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SEAL OF PROPHECY.

"This." says one, "was a protuberance on the Prophet's back of the
size and appearance of a pigeon's egg." It is said to have been the divine
seal which, according to the predictions of the Scriptures, marked Mo-
hammed as the last of the Prophets. How far Mohammed himself en-
couraged this idea, it is impossible to say. From the traditions, it would
seem to have been nothing more than a mole of unusual size ; and the
saying of Mohammed, that "God had placed it there," was probably the
germ of supernatural associations which grew up concerning it.

HAIR.

His hair used to be combed ; it was neither curling nor smooth. He
had, says one, four curled locks. His hair was ordinarily parted, but he
did not care if it was not so. According to another tradition, the Jews
and Christians used to let their hair fall down, while the heathen parted
it. Now, Mohammed loved to follow the people of the Book in matters
concerning which he had no express command. So he used to let down
his hair without parting it. Subsequently, however, he fell into the habit
of parting it.

MUSTACHE.

Mohammed used to clip his moustache. A Magian once came to him
and said : "You ought to clip your beard and allow your mustache to
grow." "Nay," said the Prophet, "for my Lord hath commanded me to
clip the mustache and allow the beard to grow.

DRESS.

Various traditions are quoted on the different colors he used to
wear — white chiefly, but also red, yellow and green. He sometimes put
on woolen clothes. Ayesha, it is said, exhibited a piece of woolen stuff
in which she swore that Mohammed died. She adds that he once had a
black woolen dress, and she still remembered, as she spoke, the contrast
between the Prophet's fair skin and the black cloth. "The odor of it, how-
ever, becoming unpleasant, he cast it off, for he loved sweet odors."

He entered Mecca on the taking of the city (some say) with a black
turban. He had also a black standard. The end of his turban used to
hang down between his shoulders. He once received the present of a
scarf for a turban, which had a figured or spotted fringe; and this he
cut off before wearing it. He was very fond of striped Yemen stuffs.
He used to wrap his turban many times round his head, and "the lower
edge of it used to appear like the soiled clothes of an oil-dealer,"

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He once prayed in a silken dress, and then cast it aside with abhor-
rence, saying: "Such stuff it doth not become the pious to wear." On
another occasion, as he prayed in a figured or spotted mantle, the spots
attracted his notice ; when he had ended, he said : "Take away that
mantle, for verily it hath distracted me in my prayers, and bring me a
common one." His sleeve ended at the wrist. The robes in which he
was in the habit of receiving embassies, and his fine Hadramaut mantle,
remained with the Caliphs ; when worn or rent, these garments were
mended with fresh cloth ; and in after times, the Caliphs used to wear
them at the festivals. When he put on new clothes (either an under-gar-
ment, a girdle, or a turban), the Prophet would offer up a prayer, such
as this : "Praise be to the Lord who hath clothed me with that which
shall hide my nakedness and adorn me while I live. I pray Thee for the
good that is in this, and the good that hath been made for it ; and I seek
refuge from the evil that is in the same, and from the evil that hath
been made for it.

SHOES.

His servant, Anas, had charge of his shoes and his water-pot.
After his master's death, Anas used to show his shoes. They were
after the Hadramaut pattern, with two thongs. In the year 100 or i [O
A. H., one went to buy shoes at Mecca, and tells us that the shoemaker
offered to make them exactly after the model of Mohammed's, which, he
said, he had seen in the possession of Fatima, granddaughter of Abbas.
His shoes used to be cobbled. He was in the habit of praying with his
shoes on. On one occasion, having taken them off at prayers, all the
people did likewise, but Mohammed told them there was no necessity,
for he had merely taken off his own because Gabriel had apprised htm
that there was some dirty substance attaching to them (cleanliness being
required in all the surroundings of prayer). The thongs of his shoes
once broke, and they mended them for him by adding a new piece ; after
the service, Mohammed desired his shoes to be taken away and the
thongs restored as they were ; "For," said he, "I was distracted at prayer
thereby."

TOOTHPICKS.

Ayesha tells us that Mohammed never lay down by night or by day
but on waking he applied the toothpick to his teeth before he per-
formed ablution. He used it so much as to wear his gums. The tooth-
pick was always placed conveniently for him at night, so that when he
got up in the night to pray, he might use it before his laudations. One

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285

says that he saw him with the toothpick in his mouth, and that he kept
saying aa, aa, as if about to vomit. His toothpicks were made of the
green wood of the palm tree. He never traveled without one.

ARTICLES OF TOILET.
He very frequently oiled his hair, poured water on his beard, and
applied antimony to his eyes.

ARMOR.

1 jur sections are devoted to the description of Mohammed's
armor, — his swords, coats of mail, shields, lances and bows.

MISCELLANEOUS.
The Prophet used to snuff simsin (sesamum), and wash his hands in
a decoction of the wild plum-tree. When he was afraid of forgetting
any, he would tie a thread on his finger or his ring.

HORSES.

The first horse which Mohammed ever possessed was one he pur-
chased of the Bani Fazara, for ten owckeas (ounces of silver) ; and he
called its name sakb (running water), from the easiness of its paces. Mo-
hammed was mounted on it at the battle of Ohod, when there was but
one other horse from Medina on the field. He had also a horse called
Sabaha (Shumjah) ; he raced it and won, and he was greatly rejoiced
thereat. He had a third horse, named Murtajis (neighbor).

RIDING CAMELS.

Besides Al Caswa (al-Oaswa)_, Mohammed had a camel called Adhba
(al-'Azba), which in speed outstripped all others. Yet one day an Arab
passed it when at its fleetest pace. The Moslems were chagrined at
this, but Mohammed reproved them, saying: "It is the prophecy of the
Lord, that whensoever a man exalt anything, or seek to exalt it, then the
Lord putteth down the same.

MILCH CAMELS.
Mohammed had twenty milch camels, the same that were plundered
at Al Ghaba. Their milk was for the support of his family ; every even-
ing they gave two large skinsful. Omm Salma relates : "Our chief
food when we lived with Mohammed was milk. The camels used to be
brought from Al Ghaba every evening. I had one called Aris, and
Ayesha, one called Al Samra. The herdman fed them at Al Juania, and
brought them to our homes in the evening. There was also one for
Mohammed.

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PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

MILCH FLOCKS.

Mohammed had seven goats which Omm Ayman used to tend (this
probably refers to an early period of his residence at Medina). His flocks
grazed at Ohod and Himna alternately, and were brought back to the
house of that wife whose turn it was for Mohammed to be in her abode.
A favorite goat having died, the Prophet desired its skin to be tanned.

Mohammed attached a peculiar blessing to the possession of goats.
''There is no house," he would say, "possessing a goat, but a blessing
abideth thereon ; and there is no house possessing three goats, but the
angels pass the night there praying for its inmates until the morning."

SERVANTS.

Fourteen or fifteen persons are mentioned who served the Prophet
at various times. His slaves he always freed.

HOUSES.

Abdallah ibu Yazid relates that he saw the houses in which the
wives of the Prophet dwelt, at the time when Osmar ibu Al Aziz, gov-
ernor of Medina (about A. H. 100) demolished them. They were built
of unburnt bricks, and had separate apartments made of palm-branches,
daubed (or built up) with mud ; he counted nine houses, each having
separate apartments, in the space extending from the house of Ayesha
and the gate of Mohammed, to the house of Asma, daughter of Hosein.
Observing the dwellingplace of Omm Salma, he questioned her grand-
son concerning it, and he told him that when the Prophet was absent on
the expedition to Duma, Omm Salma built up an addition to her house
with a wall of unburnt bricks. When Mohammed returned, he went in to
her, and asked what new building this was. She replied, "I purposed
O Prophet, to shut out the glances of men thereby!" Mohammed
answered: "O, Omm Salma! verily, the most unprofitable thing that
eateth up the wealth of the Believer is building!" A citizen of Medina
present at the time, confirmed this account, and added that the curtains
of the door were of black hair-cloth. He was present, he said, when
the dispatch of the Caliph Abd al Malik (A. H. 86-88) was read aloud,
commanding that these houses should be brought within the area of the
mosque, and he never witnessed sorer weeping than there was amongst
the people that day. One exclaimed: "I wish, by the Lord! that they
would leave these houses alone thus as they are ; then would those that
spring up hereafter in Medina, and strangers from the ends of the earth,
come and see what kind of building sufficed for the Prophet's own abode,

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287

and the sight thereof would deter men from extravagance and pride."

"There were four houses of unburnt bricks, the apartments being
of palm-branches ; and five houses made- of palm-branches built up with
mud and without any separate apartments. Some say they had leather
curtains for the doors. One could reach the roof with the hand.

"The house of Haritha (Harisah) was next to that of Mohammed.
Now whenever Mohammed took to himself a new wife he added another
house to the row, and Haritha was obliged successively to remove his
house and to build on the space beyond. At last this was repeated so
often that the Prophet said to those about him : 'Verily, it shameth me
to turn Haritha over and over again out of his house. "

PROPERTIES.

' There were seven gardens which Mukheirick, the Jew, left to Mo-
hammed. Omar ibu Al Aziz, the Caliph, said that, when Governor of
Medina, he ate of the fruit of these, and never tasted sweeter dates. Oth-
ers say that these gardens formed a portion of the confiscated estates of
the Bani Nadhir. They were afterwards dedicated perpetually to pious
purposes.

"Mohammed had three other wives :

"I. The confiscated lands of the Bani Nadhir. The produce of
these was appropriated to his own wants. One of the plats was called
Mashruba Omm Ibrahim, the 'summer garden of (Mary) the mother of
Ibrahim,' where the Prophet used to visit her.

"II. Fadak; the fruits of this were reserved as a fund of indigent
travelers.

"HI. The fifth share, and the lands received by capitulation, in
Kheibar. This was divided into three parts. Two were devoted for the
benefit of the Moslems generally (i. e., for State purposes) ; the proceeds
of the third, Mohammed assigned for the support of his own family; and
what remained over he added to the fund for the use of the Moslems."

THE WIVES OF MOHAMMED.

"The pure wives." According to the traditions, Mohammed took
to himself eleven lawful wives, and two concubines.

(i) Khadija, a Quraish lady, the daughter of Khuwailid ibu Asad.
She was a rich widow lady, who had been twice married. She was mar-
ried to Mohammed when he was twenty-five years old, and she was forty
years, and remained his only wife for twenty-five years, until she died
(A. D. 619), aged 65, Mohammed being 50 years old. She bore Moham-

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med two sons, al-Qusim and 'Abdu 'llah, surnamed at-Tahir and at-
Taiyib, and four daughters, Zainab, Ruyaiyah, Fatimah, and Uramu
Kulsum. Of these children only Fatimah survived Mohammed.

(2) Saudah, daughter of Zama 'ah, the widow of as-Sakran. Mar-
ried about two months after the death of Khadija.

(3) Ayesha, the daughter of Abu Bakr. She was betrothed when
she was only 7 years old, and was married at 10, about the ninth month
after the flight to al-Madinah.

(4) Juwairiyah, a widow, the daughter of al-Haris ibu Abi Zirar,
the chief of the Bann Mustalig. Mohammed ransomed her from a citi-
zen who had fixed her ransom at nine ounces of gold. It is related that
Ayesha said, "No woman was ever a greater blessing to her people
than this Juwairiyah."

(5) Hafsah, the daughter of Omar. She was the widow of Khu-
nais, an early convert to Islam. Mohammed married her about six
months after her former husband's death.

(6) Zainab, the daughter of Khugaimah, the widow of Mohammed's
cousin 'Ubaidah, who was killed at the battle of Badr. She was called
"Mother of the Poor," Ummu '1-Masakin, on account of her care of des-
titute converts. She died before Mohammed.

(7) Ummu Salimah, the widow of Abu Salimah, one of the Refu-
gees, who was wounded at the battle of Uhud, and afterwards died of
his wounds.

(8) Zainab, the daughter of Jahsh, the wife of Mohammed's adopted
son Zeid. Zeid divorced her to please the Prophet. She was (being the
wife of an adopted son) unlawful to him, but Sura xxxiii .ifi was pro-
duced to settle the difficulty.

(9) Safiyah, daughter of Hayi ibu Akhtab, the widow of Kinanah,
the Khaibar chief, who was cruelly put to death. It was said that Mo-
hammed wished to divorce her, but she begged that her turn might be
given to Ayesha.

(10) Ummu Habibah, the daughter of Abu Sufian and the widow
of 'Ubaidu 'llah, one of the "Four Enquirers," who after emigrating as a
Moslem to Abyssinia had embraced Christianity there, and died in the
profession of that faith.

(11) Maimunah, the daughter of al-Haris and widowed kinswoman
of Mohammed and the sister-in-law of al-'Abbas. She is said to have
been 51 years of age when she married Mohammed.

Mohammed's concubines were :

(1) Mary the Copt, a Christian slave girl sent to Mohammed by al-

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389

Mugangis, the Roman Governor in Egypt. She became the mother of
a son by Mohammed, named Ibrahim, who died young. •

(2) Rihanah, a Jewess, whose husband had perished in the massa-
cre of the Banu Quraizah. She declined the summons to conversion,
and continued a Jew; but it is said she embraced Islam before her
death.

At the time of Mohammed's death he had nine wives and two con-
cubines living (Sahibu '1-Bukhari, p. 798). Khadija and Zainab bint
Khuzaimah having died before him.

According to Shi'ahs, Mohammed had, in all, twenty wives. Eight
of these never consummated the marriage. Their names are Khadija,
Sandah, Hind (or Ummu Salimah), Ayesha, Hafsah, Zainab bint Juhsh,
Ramalah bint Abi Sufian (or Ummu Habibah), Maimunah, Zainab bint
'Umais, Jawairiyah bint al-Haris of the Banu Mustalig, Safiyah, Khaulah
bint Hakim, and Ummiani, a sister to 'Ali. Two were bondwomen:
Mariyatu '1-Qibtiyah and Rihanah.

Resignation to the will of God. The word generally used by Mo-
hammedans themselves for their religion. 'Abdu '1-Hagg says it im-
plies submission to the divine will; and Mohammed explained it to men
the observance of the five duties : (1) Bearing witness that there is but
God ; (2) reciting the daily prayers ; (3) giving the legal alms ; (4) observ-
ing the Ramazan or month's fast; (5) making the Pilgrimage to Makkah
once in a lifetime.

There are three words used by Mohammedan writers for religion,
namely : Din, Millah, and Mazhab ; and in the Kitabu 't-Ta'rifat, the
difference implied in these words is said to be as follows : Din, as it
stands in its relation to God, e. g., Dinu'llah, the religion of God; Mil-
lah, as it stands in relation to a prophet or lawgiver, e. g. Millatu Ibra-
him, the religion of Abraham; and Mazhab, as it stands in relation to
the divines of Islam, e. g. Mazhab Hunan, the religion or religious teach-
ing of Abu Hanifah. The expression Din, however, is of general appli-
cation.

Those who profess the religion of Islam are called Musselmans,
Moslems, or Mu'mins.

Ahlu '1-Kitab, "The people of the Book," is used for Mohammedans,
Jews, and Christians.

The Din, or religion of the Muslim, is divided into Iman, or
"Faith," and 'Amal, or "Practice."

Faith consists in the acceptance of six articles of belief:

1. The Unity of God.

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PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

2. The Angels.

3. The Inspired Books.

4. The Inspired Prophets.

5. The Day of Judgment.

6. The Decrees of God.

Practical religion consists in the observance of — ■

1. The recital of the Creed. — "There is no deity but God; and Mo-
hammed is the Prophet of God."

2. The five stated periods of prayer.

3. The thirty days' fast in the month Ramazan.

4. The payment of Zakat, or the legal alms.

5. The Hajj, or Pilgrimage to Makkah.

A belief in these six articles of faith, and the observance of these
five practical duties constitute Islam. He who thus believes and acts
is called a Mu'min or "believer;" but he who rejects any article of
faith or practice is a Kafir, or "infidel."

Mohammedan theology, which is very extensive, is divided into —

1. The Koran and its commentaries.

2. The Traditions and their commentaries.

3. Usui, or expositions on the principles of exegesis.

4. Agaid, or expositions of scholastic theology founded on the six
articles of faith.

5. Figh, or works on both civil and religious law.
Mohammedism is, therefore, a system which affords a large field of

patient study and research, and much of its present energy and vitality
is to be attributed to the fact that, in all parts of Islam, there are in the
various mosques students who devote their whole lives to the study of
Moslem divinity.

The two leading principles of Islam are those expressed in its well-
known creed, or kalimah, namely, a belief in the absolute unity of the
Divine Being, and in the mission of Mohammed as the messenger of the
Almighty.

GOOD WORKS (Arabic as-Salihat).

According to the preaching of the Koran, good works without faith
will not save from the torments of hell.

Sura xviii 1103-5: "Shall we tell you who are they that have lost
their labor most ; whose efforts in the present life have been mistaken,
and who deemed that what they did was right? They are those who
believed not in the signs of the Lord, or that they should ever meet Him.

RELIGIONS OF PERSIA.

291

Vain, therefore, are their works ; and no weight will we allow them on
the day of resurrection."

Faith in the above is belief in the mission of Mohammed ; all' Mos-
lems being considered in a state of grace, no matter what their actions
may be. With reference to the good deeds of Moslems, the following
is the teaching of Mohammed, as recorded in the Traditions :

"When a man is brought to Islam and he performs it well, God
covers all his former sins, and he gets ten rewards for every good act,
whereas the reward of misdeeds is as one to one, unless God passes that
over likewise."

"There are three persons- whose actions are not written ; one a per-
son asleep until he awakes ; the second, a boy not arrived at puberty ;
the third, a madman until he recovers his reason."

"Verily, God recordeth both the good deeds and the evil deeds. He
who has proposed to do evil and did not do it, for him God recordeth
one perfectly good deed. And he who intended to do good and put his
intentions into practice, for him God recordeth from ten to seven hun-
dred good deeds (according to their merits). And he who intended to
do evil but did it not, God recordeth one good act ; but he who intendeth
to do evil and doeth it, for him God recordeth one evil deed."

"Verily, the condition of that person who does evil and after that
good deeds, is like the condition of a man with light armor on, which
has troubled him. He does one good- deed and the rings of the armor
become open. He does another good deed, and the armor falls from
his body."

"Verily, there was a man amongst those who were before you to
whom the angel of death came to take his soul, and he was asked : 'Have
you done any good act?' He said in answer, T do not remember that
I have done any good.' It was said to him, 'Look well into yourself,
and consider if you have done any good work?' He said, T do not find
any good in myself, except that I used to buy and sell in the world and
used to claim my right from the rich, but allowed them their leisure to
pay me when they liked, and I forgave the poor.' Then God brought
that man into Paradise."

"An adulteress was forgiven, who passed by a dog at a well, and
the dog was holding out his tongue from thirst, which was near killing
him. The woman drew off her boot and tied it to the end of her veil,
and drew water for the dog, and gave him to drink, and she was for-
given on account of that act. It was asked the Prophet, 'Verily, are
there rewards for our doing good to quadrupeds, and giving them water

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to drink?' He said, 'There are rewards for benefiting every animal hav-
ing a moist liver.' "

"Your smiling in your brother's face is alms; and your exhorting
mankind to virtuous deeds is alms ; and your prohibiting the forbidden
is alms; and your showing men the road when they lose it is alms; and
your assisting the blind is alms ; and your removing stones, thorns, and
bones, which are inconvenient to man is alms; and your pouring water
from your bucket into that of your brother is alms for you."

FASTING (Arabic Saum).

Persian Rozah. Fasting was highly commended by Mohammed
as an atonement for sin. The following are the fasts founded upon the
example of the Prophet and observed by devout Moslems :

(1) The thirty days of the month of Ramazan. This month's fast
is regarded as a divine institution, being enjoined in the Koran and is
therefore compulsory.

(2) The day 'Ashura.' The tenth day of the month Muharram.
This is a voluntary fast, but it is pretty generally observed by all Mos-
lems, for Abu Qatadah relates that the Prophet said he hoped that the
fast of 'Ashura' would cover the sins of the coming year.

(3) The six days following the Tdu-'l-Fitr. Abu Aiyub relates that
the Prophet said, "The person who fasts the month of Ramazan and
follows it up with six days of the month of Shawwal will obtain the re-
wards of a continued fast."

(4) The Monday and Thursday of every week are recommended as
fast days, as distinguished from the Christian fast of Wednesday. Abu
Hurairah relates that the Prophet said, "The actions of God's servants
are represented at the throne of God on Mondays and Thursdays."
These days are only observed by strictly religious Moslems.

(5) The month of Sha'ban. Ayesha relates that "the Prophet used
sometimes to fast part of this month and sometimes the whole." It is
seldom observed in the present day.

(6) The 13th, 14th, and 15th of each month. These days are termed
al-ayyamu '1-biz, i. e. the bright days, and were observed by Moham-
med himself as fasts. These are generally observed by devout Moslems.

(7) Fasting alternate days, which Mohammed said was the fast
observed by David, King of Israel.

In the Traditions fasting is commended by Mohammed in the fol-
lowing words :

"Every good act that a man does shall receive from ten to seven

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393

hundred rewards, but the rewards of fasting are beyond bounds., for fast-
ing is for God alone, and He will give its rewards."

"He who fasts abandons the cravings of his appetites for God's
sake."

"There are two pleasures in fasting, one when the person who fasts
breaks it, and the other in the next world, when he meets his Lord.
The very smell of the mouth of a keeper of a fast is more agreeable to
God than the smell of a musk."

"Fasting is a shield."

"When anyone of you fast utter no bad words, nor raise your voice
in strife. If anyone abuse one who is fasting, let him refrain from re-
plying; let him say that he is keeping a fast."

HIJRAH.

(i) The departure of Mohammed from Makkah. (2) The Moslem
era. (3) The act of a Moslem leaving a country under infidel rule. (4)
Fleeing from sin.

The day of Mohammed's flight from Makkah was the fourth day of
the first month of Rabi, which by the calculation of M. Caussin de Per-
ceval, was June 20th, A. D. 622. The Hijrah, or the era of the "Hegira,"
was instituted seven years later by the Khalifah Omar, which dates
from the first day of the first lunar month of the year, viz., Muharram,
which day in the year when the era was established fell on Thursday,
the 15th of July, A. D. 622. But although Omar instituted the official
era, according to at-Tabari, the custom of referring to events as hap-
pening before or after the Hijrah originated with Mohammed himself.

The Persian era of Yezdegird commenced on June 16th, A. D.
632, or ten years later than the Hijrah.

THE YEAR OF ELEPHANT.

The year in which Mohammed was born. Being the year in which
Abrahatu '1-Ashram, an Abyssinian Christian and Viceroy of the King
of San'a' in Yemen marched with a large army and a number of ele-
phants upon Makkah, with the intention of destroying the Ka'bah. He
was defeated and his army destroyed in so sudden a manner as to give
rise to the legend embodied in one of the Suras of the Koran, known
as the Chapter of the Elephant.

RAMAZAN.

The ninth month of the Mohammedan year is observed as a
strict fast from dawn to sunset of each day in the month. The word

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PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

Ramazan is derived from ramz, "to burn." The month is said to have
been so called either because it used to occur in the hot season, or be-
cause the month's fast is supposed to burn away the sins of men.

The observance of this month is one of the five pillars of practice
in the Moslem religion and its excellence is much extolled by Moham-
med, who said that during Ramazan, "the gates of Paradise are open,
and the gates of hell are shut, and the devils are chained by the leg, and
only those who observe it will be permitted to enter at the gate of
heaven called Raiyan." Those who keep the fast "will be pardoned all
their past venial sins."

The express injunctions regarding the observance of this month are
given in the Koran, Sura ii :i79-i84:

It must be kept by every Moslem, except the sick, the infirm, and
pregnant women, or women who are nursing their children. Young
children, who have not reached the age of puberty, are exempt, and
also travelers on a journey of more than three days. In the case of a
sick person or traveler, the month's fast must be kept as soon as these
are able to perform it. This act is called Qaza, or expiration.

The fast is extremely rigorous and mortifying, and when the Ram-
azan happens to fall in the summer and the days are long, the prohibi-
tion even to drink a drop of water to slake the thirst is a very great
hardship. Mohammed speaks of this religious exercise as "easy,* as
most probably it was when compared with the ascetic spirit of the times.
Sir William Muir thinks Mohammed did not forsee that, when he
changed the Jewish intercalary year for the lunar year, the fast would
become a grievous burden instead of an easy one ; but Mohammedan
lexicographers say the fast was established when the month occurred in
the hot season.

During the month of Ramazan twenty additional rak'ahs, or forms
of prayer are repeated after the night-prayer. These are called Tarawih.

Devout Moslems seclude themselves for some time in the mosque
during this month, and abstain from all worldly conversation, engaging
themselves in the reading of the Koran. This seclusion is called Ftikaf.
Mohammed is said to have usually observed this custom in the last ten
days of Ramazan. The Lailatu '1-Oadr, on the "night of power," is
said by Mohammed to be either on the twenty-first, twenty-third, or
twenty-fifth, or twenty-seventh, or twenty-ninth of the month of Ram-
azan. The exact date of this solemn night has not been discovered by
any but the Prophet himself, and some of the Companions, although
the learned doctors believe it to be on the twenty-seventh of this night.

RELIGIONS OF PERSIA.

295

The following sayings of Mohammed regarding the fast of Ramazan
are found in the Traditions :

"The difference between our fast and that of the people of the book
(i. e. Jews and Christians) is eating only before the first dawn of day
(and not afterwards)."

"Keep not the fast till you see the new moon, and if the moon be
hidden from you by clouds, count the days." And in one Tradition it
is thus :

"A month is twenty-nine nights, then keep not the fast till you
see the new moon, which, if she be hid from you by clouds, then com-
plete thirty days."

"When the darkness of the night advances from the west and the
day departs from the east, and the sun sets, then the keeper of the fast
may begin to eat."

"There are eight doors in Paradise, and one is called Raiyan, by
which only the keepers of the fast shall enter."

The Ramazan begins with the new moon, but sometimes in some
parts of the land it is cloudy and they cannot see the moon. So men
will be appointed by the government throughout all the empire to watch
carefully for the new moon, sometimes from the peaks of mountains.
They will fast from one hour before sunrise to one-half hour after sun-
set, or till it becomes too dark for a man to discriminate between red
and black thread. During this time they abstain from eating, drinking
and smoking. The poor class work till noon. The rich do not work
at all. The most of the day is spent in reciting the Koran, praying in the
street, for the Moslems might long to eat also, or even take a taste and
thus break their fast.

They do not converse much in the day, but wear a sad counte-
nance. They do not allow a Christian to speak to them. At morning
and evening in the cities a cannon is fired for the beginning and ending
of the fast. During this month much alms are given. The lords and
princes especially send meals from their table. They believe fasting and
alms-giving will secure absolute forgiveness of sins and admittance to
heaven. The night is changed to a feast. They eat and drink and con-
verse till twelve o'clock. They then retire, but are up again at three arid
eat and drink till one hour before sunrise.

Death among them occurs most often in that month because many
eat too much. So many different meals hurt their stomach and they
fall sick and die.

While this fasting is easy for the rich, as they can sleep all day

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and keep awake all night, it is a heavy burden to the poor, who must
work during the day, especially when the fasting comes in the farming
season. The month, however, in course of time has been changed.
They are also strictly prohibited from doing much talking in this month
of fasting that they may not obtain much air.

Many observe the fast faithfully, but often through fear of persecu-
tion.

FOOD (Arabic ta'am).

The injunctions contained in the Koran respecting food are as fol-
lows : "O ye who believe ! eat of the good things with which we have
supplied you, and give God thanks if ye are His worshipers. Only
that which dieth of itself, and blood, and swine's flesh, and that over
which any other name than that of God hath been invoked, has God
forbidden you. But he who shall partake of them by constraint, without
desire, or of necessity, then no sin shall be upon him. Verily, God is
forgiving and merciful." Sura v. 92: "O Believers! wine and games
of chance, and statues, and divining arrows are only an abomination of
Satan's work ! Avoid them that ye may prosper."

The other injunctions concerning food are found in the Traditions
and sayings of Mohammed.

No animal, except fish and locusts, is lawful food unless it be
slaughtered according to the Mohammedan law, namely, by drawing
the knife across the throat and cutting the windpipe, the carotid arteries,
and the gullet, repeating at the same time the words "Bi'smi'llahi, Allahu
akbar," i. e., "In the name of God; God is great." A clean animal, so
slaughtered, becomes lawful food for Moslem, whether slaughtered by
Jews, Christians, or Mohammedans, but animals slaughtered by either an
idolater, or an apostate from Islam, is not lawful. Zabh, or the slaying
of animals, is of two kinds : Ikhtiqari, or of choice and Iztirari, or of
necessity. The former being the slaughtering of animals in the name
of God, the latter being the slaughter effected by a wound, as in shooting
birds or animals, in which case the words Bi'smi 'llahi, Allahu akbar
must be said at the time of the discharge of the arrow from the bow or
the shot from the gun.

According to the Hidayah, all quadrupeds that seize their prey
with their teeth and all birds which seize it with their talons, are unlaw-
ful, because the Prophet has prohibited mankind from eating them.
Hyenas, foxes, elephants, weasels, pelicans, kites, carrion crows, ravens,
crocodiles, otters, asses, mules, wasps, and in general all insects, are for-
bidden.

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207

The prohibition of wine in the Koran under the word khamr is held
to exclude all things which have an intoxicating tendency, such as
opium, chars, bhang, and tobacco.

A Moslem can have no religious scruples to eat with a Christian,
as long as the food eaten is of lawful kind. Saiyid Ahmad Khan Baha-
dar, C. S. I., has written a treatise proving that Mohammedans can eat
with the Ahl-i-Kitab, namely, Jews or Christians. The Mohammedans
will not eat food cooked by idolators, refuse to touch that cooked either
by Europeans or Christians ; and they refuse to allow Christians to draw
water from the public wells.

EATING.

According to the Traditions, Mohammedans have been enjoined by
their Prophet to eat in God's name, to return thanks, to eat with their
right hand, and with their shoes off, and to lick the plate when the meal
is finished. The following are some of Mohammed's precepts on the
subject :

The Devil has power over that food which is eaten without remem-
bering God."

"Repeat the name of God. Eat with the right hand and eat from
before you."

"When a man comes into a house at meal-time, and remembers the
name of God, the devil says to his followers, 'There is no place here for
you and me tonight, nor is there any supper for us.' "

"When any one eats he must not wash his fingers until he has first
licked them."

"Whoever eats a dish and licks it afterwards, the dish intercedes
with God for him."

"When victuals are placed before you eat them with your shoes
off, because taking off your shoes will ease your feet." ('Abdu '1-Hagg
adds, "And do it out of respect to the food.")

"Whoever eats from a plate and licks it afterwards the dish says of
him, 'May God free you from hell as you have freed me from the devil's
licking me.' "

Qatadah says that Anas said : "The Prophet did not eat of a table,,
as is the manner of proud men who do it to avoid bending their backs.'^

The following directions are given for eating by Fagir Mohammed
As'ad, the author of the Akhlag-i-Jalali :

First of all he should wash his hands, mouth and nose. Before be-
ginning he should say, "In the name of God" (Bismillah) : and. a r fter

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ending he must say, "Glory to God" (Al-hamdu lillah). He is not to
be in a hurry to begin, unless he is the master of the feast ; he must not
dirty his hands, of clothes, or the table linen; he must not eat with more
than three fingers, nor open his mouth wide; not take large mouttisful,
nor swallow them hastily, nor yet keep them too long unswallowed. He
must not suck his fingers in the course of eating; but after he has
eaten, he may, or rather ought, as there is scripture warrant for it.

"Let him not look from dish to dish, nor smell the food, nor pick
and choose it. If there should be one dish better than the rest, let him
not be greedy on his own account, but let him offer it to others. He
must not spill the grease upon his fingers, or so as to wet his bread and
salt. He must not eye his comrades in the midst of his mouthsful. Let
him eat from what is next him, unless of fruit, which is allowable to eat
from every quarter. What he has once put into his mouth (such as bones,
etc.), he must not replace it upon his bread, nor upon the tablecloth ;
if a bone has found its way there, let him remove it unseen. Let him be-
ware of revolting gestures, and of letting anything drop from his mouth
into the cup. Let him so behave that, if any one should wish to eat the
relics of his repast, there may be nothing to revolt him.

"Where he is a guest he must stay his hands sooner than the master
of the feast ; and whenever the rest discontinue eating, he must act in
concert with them, except he be in his own house, or some other where
he constitutes part of the family. Where he is himself the host, he must
not continue eating when the rest have stayed their hands, so that some-
thing may be left for any one who chances to fancy it.

"If he has occasion to drink in the course of his meal, let him do it
softly, that no noise in his throat or mouth may be audible to others.
He must not pick his teeth in the view of the company, nor swallow
what his tongue may extract from between them; and so of what may
be extracted by the toothpick, let him throw it aside so as to disgust
no one.

'"When the time comes for washing his hands, let him be exceed-
ingly careful in cleasmg his nails and fingers. Similar must be his par-
ticularity in washing his lips, mouth and nostrils. He must not void
his rheum into the basin; even the water in which his mouth has been
rinsed, let him cover with his hand, as he throws it away.
^ "Neither must he take the turn from others in washing his hands,
when he is master of the entertainment, and then he should be
the n-t to wash."

RELIGIONS OF PERSIA.

299

B ISM ILL AH.

Lit. "In the name of God." An ejaculation frequently used at
the commencement of any undertaking. There are two forms of the
Bismillah :

1. Bi-'smi 'llahi 'r-rahmani 'r-rahim, i. e. "In the name of God, the
Compassionate, the Merciful." This used at the commencement of
meals, putting on new clothes, beginning any new work, and at the
commencement of books. It occurs at the head of every chapter or Sura
in the Koran, with the exception of the IXth.

2. Bi-'smi 'llahi 'llahi '1-akbar, i. e. "In the name of God, God the
Most Great." Used at the time of slaughtering of animals, at the com-
mencement of a battle, etc., the attribute of mercy being omitted on such
occasions.

The formula Bi'smi 'llahi 'r-rahmani 'r-rahim is of Jewish origin. It
was in the first instance taught the Quraish by Umaiyah of Ta'if, the
poet, who was contemporary but somewhat older than Mohammed, and
who , during mercantile journeys into Arabia Petraea and Syria had made
himself acquainted with the sacred books and doctrines of Jews and
Christians.

The man to the right is Mohammed, the one to the left is the Devil, who intends to
sweep Mohammed away, who stands close to him, to hell, but Mohammed interferes, saying:
'• You can not do so, for Mohammed has repeated my creed, so there is no hell for Moham.
med. " The person standing on the left is awaiting his trial, the person in the center is
being judged, while the two below were condemned to go to hell

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CREED.

The Mohammedan Creed, or Kalimatu'sh-sha-hadah (shortly Kali-
mah) is the well-known formula: "I testify that there is no deity but
God, and Mohammed is the Apostle of God."

It is the belief of Mohammedans that the first part of this creed,
which is called the naf'i wa isbat, namely, "There is no deity but God,"
has been the expression of belief of every prophet since the days of
Adam, and that the second portion has been changed according to the
dispensation ; for example, that in the days of Moses it would be :
"There is no deity but God, and Moses is the Converser with God."
In the Christian dispensation it was : "There is no deity but God, and
Jesus is the Spirit of God."

Jabir relates that Mohammed said "the keys of Paradise are bearing
witness that there is no deity but God."

The recital of the Kalimah, or Creed, is the first of five pillars of
practical religion in Islam ; and when any one is converted to Islam he
is required to repeat this formula, and the following are the conditions
required of e,very Moslem with reference to it :

1. That it shall be repeated aloud, at .least once in a lifetime.

2. That the meaning of it shall be fully understood.

3. That it shall be believed in "by the heart."

4. That it shall be professed until death. ■

5. That it shall be recited correctly.

6. That it shall be always professed and declared without hesitation.

GOD.

The name of the Creator of the Universe in the Koran is Allah,
which is the title given to the Supreme Being by Mohammedans of
every race and language.

Allah is supposed to be derived from ilah, a deity or god, with the
addition of the definite article al-Al-ilah, "the God"— or according to
some authorities, it is from lah, i. e., Al-lah, "the secret one." But Abu
Hanifah says that just as the essence of God is unchangeable, so is His
name, and that Allah has ever been the name of the Eternal Being.

These names (or attributes) are given as follows:

1. Ar-Rahman (the Merciful).

2. Ar-Rahim (the Compassionate).

3. Al-Malik (the King).

4. Al-Quddus (the Holy).

5. As-Salam (the Peace). - ' *

RELIGIONS OF PERSIA.

301

6. Al-Mu'mim (the Faithful).

7. Al-Muhaimin (the Protector).

8. Al-Aziz (the Mighty).

9. Al-Jabbar (the Repairer).

10. Al-Mutakabbir (the Great).

11. Al-Khalig (the Creator).

12. Al-Bari (the Maker).

13. Al-Musawwir (the Fashioner).

14. Al-Ghaff'ar (the Forgiver).

15. Al-Qahhar (the Dominant).

16. Al-Wahhab (the Bestower).

17. Ar-Razzag (the Provider).

18. Al-Fattah (the Opener).

19. Al-'Alim (the Knower).

20. Al-Oabiz (the Restrainer).

21. Al-Basit (the Spreader).

22. Al-Khafiz (the Abaser).

23. Ar-Rafi (the Exalter).

24. Al-Mu'izz (the Honorer).

25. Al-Muzil (the Destroyer).

26. As-Sami (the Hearer).

27. Al-Basir (the Seer).

28. Al-Hakim (the Ruler).

29. Al-'Adl (the Just).

30. Al-Latif (the Subtle).

31. Al-Khabir (the Aware).

32. Al-Halim (the Clement).

33. Al-'Azim (the Grand).

34. Al-Ghafur (the Forgiving).

35. Ash-Shakur (the Grateful).

36. Al-'Ali (the Exalted).

37. Al-Kabir (the Great).

38. Al-Haf'iz (the Guardian).

39. Al-Mugit (the Strengthener).

40. Al-Hasib (the Reckoner).

41. Al-Jalil (the Majestic).

42. Al-Karim (the Generous).

43. Ar-Ragib (the Watcher).

44. Al-Mujib (the Approver).

45. Al-Wasi' (the Comprehensive).

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PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

46. Al-Hakim (the Wise).

47. Al-Wadud (the Loving).

48. Al-Mazid (the Glorious).

49. Al-Bais (the Raiser).

50. Ash-Shahid (the Witness).

51. Al-Hagg (the Truth).

52. Al-Wakil (the Advocate).

53. Al-Qawi (the Strong).

54. Al-Matin (the Firm).

55. Al-Wali (the Patron).

56. Al-Hamid (the Laudable).

57. Al-Musi (the Counter).

58. Al-Mubdi (the Beginner).

59. Al-Mu'id (the Restorer).

60. Al-Muhyi (the Quickener).

61. Al-Mumit (the Killer).

62. Al-Haiy (the Living).

63. Al-Oaiyum (the Subsisting).

64. Al-Wajid (the Finder).

65. Al-Majid (the Glorious).

66. Al-Wahid (the One).

67. Al-Samad (the Eternal).

68. Al-Oadir (the Powerful).

69. Al-Mugtadir (the Prevailing).

70. Al-Mugaddim (the Bringing Forward).

71. Al-Mu'akhkhir (the Deferrer).

72. Al-Awwal (the hirst).

73. Al-Akhir (the Last).

74. Az-Zahir (the Evident).

75. Al-Batin (the Hidden).

76. Al-Wali (the Governor).

77. Al-Muta'ali (the Exalted).

78. Al-Barr (the Righteous).

79. At-Tauwab (the Accepter of Repentance).

80. Al-Muntagirn (the Avenger).

81. Al-'Afmv (the Pardoner).

82. Ar-Ra'uf (the Kind).

83. Maliku '1-Mulk (the Ruler of the Kingdom).

84. Zu '1-Jalali wa'l-Ikram (the Lord of Majesty and Liberality).

85. Al-Mugsit (the Equitable).

RELIGIONS OF PERSIA.

303

86. Al-Jami' (the Collector).

87. Al-Ghani (the Independent).

88. Al-Mughni (the Enricher).

89. Al-Mu'ti (the Giver).

90. Al-Mani' (the Withholder).

91. Az-Zarr (the Distresser).

92. Ari-Nafi' (the Profiter).

93. An-Nur (the Light).

94. Al-Hadi (the Guide).

95. Al-Badi' (the Incomparable).

96. Al-Bagi (the Enduring).

97. Al-Waris (the Inheritor).

98. Ar-Rashid (the Director).

99. As-Sabur (the Patient).

The list either begins or closes with Allah, thus completing the
number of one hundred names, which are usually recited on a rosary in
the ceremony of Zikr, as well as at all leisure moments, by devout
Moslems. The ^Yahhabis do not use a rosary, but count the names
on their fingers, which they say was the custom of the Prophet, for from
the Traditions it appears that Mohammed did not use a rosary.

AZAN.

Lit "announcement." The call or summons to public prayers pro-
claimed by Mu'azzin (or crier) — in small mosques from the side of the
building or at the door, and in the large mosques in the minaret.

It is in Arabic as follows :

Allahu akbar ! Allahu akbar ! Allahu akbar ! Allahu akbar ! Ash-
hadu an la ilaha ilia 'llah ! Ashhadu an la ilaha ilia 'llah ! Ashhadu
anna Muhammadan rasulu-llah ! Ashhadu anna Muhammadan rasulu-
llah ! Hayya 'ala 's-salati ! Hayya 'ala 's-salati ! Hayya 'ala '1-
falah ! Hayya 'ala '1-falah ! Allahu akbar ! Allahu akbar ! La ilaha
ilia 'llah !

Which is translated :

"God is most great! God is most great! God is most great! God
is most great ! I testify that there is no god but God ! I testify that
there is no god but God ! I testify that Mohammed is the Apostle of
God ! Come to prayer ! Come to prayer ! Come to salvation ! Come
to salvation ! God is most great ! God is most great ! There is no god
but God!"

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PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

In the Azan in the early morning, after the words, "Come to sal-
vation !" is added :

As-salatu khairun mina 'n-naumi! As-salatu khairun mina 'n-
naumi ! "Prayer is better than sleep ! Prayer is better than sleep !"

The Shi'ahs make a slight alteration in the Azan, by adding the
words :

Khairi l-'amali ! Hayya 'ala khairi 'l-'amali ! "Come to the best of
works ! Come to the best of works !" and by repeating the last sentence
of the Azan, "There is no god but God," twice instead of once, as in the
Sunni Azan.

The summons to prayer was at first the simply cry, "Come to pub-
lic prayer." After their Qiblah was changed, Mohammed bethought
himself of a more formal call. Some suggested the Jewish trumpet,
others the Christian bell; but neither was grateful to the Prophet's
ear. The Azan, or call to prayer was then established. Tradition
claims for it a supernatural origin, thus : "While the matter was under
discussion, Abdu 'llah, a Khazrajite, dreamed that he had met a man
clad in green raiment carrying a bell. 'Abdu 'llah sought to buy it,
saying that it would do well for bringing together the assembly of the
faithful. "I will show thee a better way," replied the stranger ; "let a
crier cry aloud, 'God is most great,' etc." Waking from sleep, 'Abdu-
'llah proceeded to Mohammed, and told him his dream.

The Azan is proclaimed before the stated times of prayer, either
by one of the congregation, or by the Mu'azzin or crier, who is paid for
the purpose. He must stand with his face towards Makkah, with the
points of his forefingers in his ears, and recite the formula which has
been given above.

It must not be recited by an unclean person, a drunkard, a madman,
or a woman.

ABLUTION.

Ablution is described by Mohammed as "the half of faith and the
key of prayer and is founded on the authority of the Koran, sura v.
8, 'O, Believers ! when ye prepare yourselves for prayer, wash your faces
and hands up to the elbows, and wipe your heads and your feet to the
ankles.' "

These ablutions are absolutely necessary as a preparation for the
recital of the liturgical form of prayer, and are performed as follows:
The worshiper, having tucked up his sleeves a little higher than his el-
bows, washes his hands three times, then he rinses his mouth three

RELIGIONS OF PERSIA.

305

times, throwing the water into it with his right hand. After this, he,
with his right hand, throws water up his nostrils, snuffing it up at
the same time, and then blows it out, compressing his nostrils with his
thumb and finger of the left hand — this being also performed three
times. He then washes his face three times, throwing up the water with
both hands. He next washes his right hand and arm, as high as the
elbow, and in the same manner he washes the left. Then he draws his
wetted right hand over the upper part of his head, raising his turban
or cap with his left. If he has a beard, he then combs it with the wetted
fingers of his right hand, holding his hand with the palm forwards and
passing the fingers through his beard from the throat upwards. He then
puts the tips of his fore-fingers into his ears and twists them round,
passing his thumbs at the same time round the back of the ears from
the bottom upwards. Next he wipes his neck with the back of the fingers
of both hands, making the ends of his fingers meet behind his neck,
and then drawing them forward. Lastly, he washes his feet, as high
as the ankles and passes his fingers between the toes. During this cere-
mony which is generally performed in less than three minutes, the in-
tending worshiper usually recites some pious ejaculations or prayers.
For example :

Before commenceing the wuzu' : — "I am going to purify myself from
all bodily uncleanliness, preparatory to commencing prayer, that holy
act of duty, which will draw my soul near to the throne of the Most
High. In the name of God, the Great and Mighty. Praise be to God
who has given us grace to be Moslems. Islam is a truth and infidelity
a falsehood."

When washing the nostrils : — "O my God, if I am pleasing in Thy
sight, perfume me with the odors of paradise."

When washing the right hand: — "O my God, on the day of judg-
ment, place the book of my acting in my right hand, and examine my
account with favor."

When washing the left hand: — "O my God, place not at the resur-
rection the book of my actions in my left hand."

The Shiya' is, acting more in accordance with the text of the
Koran as quoted above, only wipe or rub the feet, instead of washing
them, as do the Sunnis.

The ablution need not be performed before each of the five stated
periods of prayer, when the person is conscious of having avoided every
kind of impurity since the last performance of the ablution. The private
parts of the body must also be purified when necessary. When water

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cannot be procured, or would be injurious to health, the ablution may be
performed with dust or sand. This ceremony is called Tayammum. The
washing of the whole body is necessary after certain periods of impurity.
The brushing of the teeth is also a religious duty. The benefits of ab-
lution are highly extolled in the sayings of Mohammed, e. g., "He who
performs the wuzu' thoroughly will extract all sin from his body even
though it may be lurking under his finger nails." In the day of resurrec-
tion people shall come with bright faces, hands and feet, and there will
be jewels in every place where the waters of the wuzu' have reached."

In all the principal mosques there are tanks, or wells, which supply
water for the purposes of legal purification.

WUZU'.

The ablution made before saying the appointed prayers. Those
which are said to be of divine institution are four in number, namely :
to wash (i) the face from the top of the forehead to the chin, and as
far as each ear ; and (2) the hands and arms up to the elbows ; (3) to rub
(masah) with the wet hands a fourth part of the head ; also (4) the feet
to the ankles. The authority for these actions is the Koran, Sura v.
8 : "O Believers ! when ye address yourselves to prayer, wash your
hands up to the elbow, and wipe your heads, and your feet to the ankles."
The Sunnis wash the feet : the Shi'ahs are apparently more correct, for
the}- only wipe, or rather rub (masah) them. In these ablutions, if the
least portion of the specified part is left untouched, the whole act be-
comes useless and the prayer which follows is vain.

The Sunnah regulations (or those established on the example of
Mohammed) regarding it as fourteen in number. (1) to make the inten -
tion or niyah of wuzu', thus: "I make this wuzu for the purpose of
putting away impurity ;" (2) to wash the hands up to the wrist, but care
must be taken not to put the hands entirely into the water, until each has
been rubbed three times with water poured on it ; (3) to say one of the
names of God at the commencement of the wuzu'. thus: "In the name of
the Great God;" or "Thanks to God;" (4) to clean the teeth (miswah);
(5) to rinse the mouth three times ; (6) to put water into the nostril three
times; (7) to do all the above in proper order; (8) to do all without
any delay between the various acts; (9) each part is to be purified three
times; (10) the space between the fingers on one hand must be rubbed
with the wet fingers of the other ; (i 1) the beard must be combed with the
fingers; (12) the whole head must be rubbed once; (13) the ears must be
washed with the water remaining on the fingers after the last operation ;

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307

(14) to rub under and between the toes with the little finger of the left
hand, drawing it from the little toe of the right foot and between
each toe in succession.

PRAYER [Arabic salat).

Persian Namaz. Prayer is^ the second of the five foundations, or
pillars, of practical religion in Islam, and is a devotional exercise which
every Moslem is required to render to God at least five times a day,
namely, at the early morning, midday, afternoon, evening, and night.

According to the traditions, Mohammed professed to have received
instructions to recite prayers five times a day, during his mi'raj, or
ascent to heaven. The tradition runs thus :

"The divine injunction for prayer was originally fifty times a day.
And as I passed Moses (in heaven, during my ascent), Moses said to
me. 'What have you been ordered?' I replied, 'Fifty times!' Then
Moses said, 'Verily your people will never be able to bear it, for I tried
the children of Israel with fifty times a day, but they could not manage
it.' Then I returned to the Lord and asked for some remission. And
ten prayers were taken off. Then I pleaded again and ten more were
remitted. And so on, while at last they were reduced to five times.
Then I went to Moses, and he said, 'And how many prayers have yon
been ordered?' And I replied, 'Five.' And Moses said, 'Verily, I tried
the children of Israel with even five, but it did not succeed. Return to
your Lord, and ask for further remission.' But I said, T have asked
until I am quite ashamed, and I cannot ask again.' "

This Salat, or liturgical service, has thus become one of the most
prominent features of the Mohammedan religion, and very numerous
are the injunctions regarding it which have been handed down in the
traditions. There are various minor differences amongst the numerous
sects of Islam regarding the formula, but its main features are alike
in all countries.

When the prayers are said in a congregation or in the mosque, they
begin with the Igamah, which is a recitation of the same words as the
azan, with the addition of the sentence, "Prayers are now ready !" The
regular form of prayer then begins with the Xiyah, which is said stand-
ing, with the hands on either side : —

"I have purposed to offer up to God only, with a sincere heart this
morning (or as the case may be), with my face Qiblah-wards, two (or
as the case may be) rak'ah prayers Tarz (Sunnah, or Nafl)."

Then follows the Takbir-i-Tahrimah, said with the thumbs touching

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the lobules of the ears and the open hands on each side of the face.

The Qiyam, or standing position. The right hand placed upon the
left, below the navel (the Shaft-is and the two other orthodox sects, place
their hands on their breasts, as also the Wahhabis ; the Shi-ahs keep
their hands on either side. In all the sects the women perform the
Qiyam with their hands on their breast), and the eyes looking to the
ground in self-abasement. During which is said the Subhan (the Shi-
ahs, omit the Subhan) : —

"Holiness to Thee, O God!
And praise be to Thee !
Great is Thy name !
Great is Thy greatness !
There is no deity but Thee!"

The Ta'awwuz, or A'uzubillah, is then said as follows : —

"I seek refuge from God from cursed Satan."

After which the Tasmiyah is repeated : —

"In the name of God, the compassionate, the merciful."

Then follows the Tabihah, viz., the first chapter of the Koran : —
"Praise be to God, Lord of all the worlds !
The compassionate, the merciful !
King of the day of reckoning!
Thee only do we worship, and to Thee

only do Ave cry for help.
Guide Thou us in the straight pass,
The path of those to whom Thou hast been gracious;
With whom Thou art not angry,
And who go not astray. — Amen."

After this the worshiper can repeat as many chapters of the Koran
as he may wish ; he should, at least, recite one long or two short verses.
The following chapter is usually recited, namely, the Suratu' 1-Ikhlas,
or the 112th chapter: —

"Say: He is God alone:

God the Eternal !

He begetteth not,

And is not begotten.

And there is none like unto Him."

The Takbir-i-Ruku', said whilst making an inclination of the head
and body and placing the hands upon the knees, separating the fingers
a little.

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300

"God is great!"
The Tasbih-i-Ruku' said in the same posture.

"I extol the holiness of my Lord, the Great !
"I extol the holiness of my Lord, the Great !
"I extol the holiness of my Lord, the Great !"

The Qiyam-i-Sami' Ullah or Tasmi', said with the body erect, but,
unlike the former Qiyam, the hands being placed on either side. The
imam says aloud (when the prayers are said by a person alone, he re-
cites both sentences) : —

"God hears him who praises Him."
The people then respond in a low voice : —

"O Lord, Thou art praised."
Takbir-i-Sijdah, said as the worshiper drops on his knees.

God is great !

Tasbih-i-Sijdah, recited as the worshiper puts first his nose and
then his forehead to the ground :

"I extol the holiness of my Lord, the most High !
"I extol the holiness of my Lord, the most High !
"I extol the holiness of my Lord, the most High !"

Then raising his head and body and sinking backward upon his
heels, and placing his hands upon his thighs, he says the Takbir-i-Jalsah
(the Shiahs here omit the Takbir, and say instead, "I rise and sit by
the power of God !")

"God is great!"
Then whilst prostrating as before, he says the Takbir-i-Sijdah.

"God is great !"
And then during the prostration the Tasbih-i-Sijdah as before :

"I extol the holiness of my Lord, the most High !
"I extol the holiness of my Lord, the most High !
"I extol the holiness of my Lord, the most High !

Then, if at the close of one rak'ah, he repeats the Takbir standing,
when it is called Takbir-i-Qiyam ; but at the end of two rak'ahs, and at
the close of the prayer, he repeats it sitting, when it is called Takbir-i-
Ou'ud. (The Shi'ahs here recite the Takbir) : "God is great !" with the
thumbs touching the lobules of the ear, and add, "I seek forgiveness
from God my Lord, and I repent before Him."

"God is great."

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Here ends one rak'ah, or form of prayer. The next rak'ah begins
with the Fatikah, or first chapter of the Koran. At the close of every
two rak'ahs he recites the Ta-hiyah, which is said whilst kneeling upon
the ground. His left foot bent under him, he sits upon it, and places
his hands upon his knees and says (the Shi'ahs omit the Ta-hiyah:

"The adoration of the tongue are for God, and also the adorations
of the body, and alms-giving! Peace be on thee, O Prophet, with the
mercy of God and his blessing!"

"Peace be upon us and upon God's righteous servants!"

Then raising the first finger of the right hand he recites the Tas-
h a blind :

"I testify that there is no deity but God; and I testify that Moham-
med is the servant of God, and the messenger of God !"

"God have mercy on Mohammed and his descendants" (the Shi'-
ahs merely recite) :

"( rod have mercy on Mohammed ; (and omit the rest), as Thou didst
have mercy on Abraham and on his descendants, as Thou didst bless
Abraham and his descendants!"

"Thou art to be praised and Thou art great !"

Then the Du'a :

"() God our Lord, give us the blessings of this life, and also the
blessings of life everlasting. Save us from the torments of fire."

The Du'a is omitted by the Shi'ahs, who recite the following in-
stead: "Peace be on thee, O Prophet, with the mercy of God and His
blessing! Peace be upon us and upon God's righteous servants!"

He then closes with the salam.

Turning the head around to the right, he says: "The peace and
mercy of God be with you."

At the close of the whole set of prayers that is of Farz, Sunnah,
Nafl, or Witr, the worshiper raises his hands and offers up a Munajat,
or "supplication." This usually consists of prayers selected from the
Koran or Hadis. They ought to be said in Arabic, although they are
frequently offered up in the vernacular.

Such supplications were highly commended by Mohammed, who
is related to have said. "Supplication is the marrow of worship."
"There is nothing better before God than supplication."

"Supplicate God when ye are certain of its approval, and know
that God accepts not the supplication of a negligent heart."

"Verily, your Lord is ashamed of his servants when they raise up
their hands to Him in supplication to return them empty."

RELIGIONS OF PERSIA.

311

These daily prayers are either Farz, Sunnah, Nafl or Witr. Farz
are those rak'ahs (or form of prayer), said to be enjoined by God.
Sunnah, those founded on the practice of Mohammed. Nafl, the
voluntary performance of two rak'ahs. or more, which may be omitted
without sin. Witr, an odd number of rak'ahs, either one, three, five,
or seven, said after the night prayer. These divisions of prayer are en-
tirely distinct from each other. They each begin afresh with the Xiyah,
and worshipers may rest for awhile between them, but not converse
on worldly subjects. The Wahhabis think it correct to say the Sunnah
prayers in their houses and only the Farz prayers in the mosque.

The five times of prayer are known as Zuhr. 'Asr, Maghrib, Tsha,
and Fajr. There are also three voluntary periods called Ishrag, Zuha,
and Tahajjud.

The official prayer of Islam, which is used throughout all the
Mohammedan countries and is daily repeated in the Cairo University
by ten thousand Mohammedan students from all countries, reads thus :

"I seek refuge with Allah, from Satan the accursed, in the name
of Allah, the compassionate, the merciful. O Lord of all creatures, O
Allah, destroy the infidels and thine enemies, the enemies of religion.
O Allah, make their children orphans and defile their abodes. Cause
their feet to slip. Give them and their families, their children, house-
hold and women and relations by marriage, their brothers and friends,
their possessions and their race, their wealth and lands as booty to the
Musselman, O Lord of all creatures !"

Here are some of the commandments of the Koran :

(1) They are surely infidels who say: "Verily God is Christ, the
son of Mary."' Koran, chapter 5.

(2) O true believers, take not the Jews or Christians for your
friends ; they are friends to each other ; but whosoever among you
taketh them for friends, he is surely one of them. Koran, chapter 5.

(3) War is enjoined upon you against the infidels, but this is hateful
unto you ; yet perchance ye hate a thing which is better for you, and
perchance ye love a thing which is worse for you; but God knoweth
and ye know not. Koran, chapter 2.

(4) Fight, therefore, against them until there be no temptation to
idolatry, and the religion be God's. Koran, chapter 2.

(5) Fight against the friends of Satan for the stratagem of Satan
is weak. Koran, chapter 4.

(6) And when the months wherein ye are not allowed to attack
them shall be past, kill the idolators wheresoever ye shall find them,

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and take them prisoners and besiege them and lie in ambush for them
ill every convenient place. Koran, chapter 9.

(7) When ye encounter the unbelievers strike off their heads until
ye have made great slaughter among them. Koran, chapter 47.

(8) Ye are also forbidden to take to wife free women who are
married except those women whom your right hand shall possess as
slaves. This is ordained you from God."

So you see they have for a guide in this life the Koran and the
reward hereafter, Paradise.

SALATU 'S-SAFAR.

"Prayers of travel." A shortened recital of prayer allowed to
travelers. It is founded on a tradition by Ya'la ibu Umaiyah, who says,
"I said to 'Umar, God hath said, 'When ye go to war in the land, it
shall be no sin for you to shorten your prayers if ye fear that the infidels
may attack you ;' but now, verily, we are safe in this journey, and yet we
shorten your prayers. 'Umar replied, T also wondered at the thing that
astonished you ;' but the prophet said, 'God hath done you a kindness
in curtailing your prayers, therefore accept it.' Ibu 'Umar says, T
traveled with the Prophet, and he did not say more than two rak'ahs
of prayer, and Abu Bakr and 'Umar and 'Usman did the same.' Ibu
'Abbas says, 'The Prophet used to say on a journey the noon and after-
noon prayers together, and the sunset and evening prayer together.' "

The established prayers for a traveler are, therefore, two rak'ahs
instead of the four farz rak'ahs at the noon and afternoon and evening
prayers, and the usual two farz at the morning and the usual three farz
at the sunset prayers ; all voluntary prayers being omitted.

SALATU 'T-TARAWITR.
"Prayer of rest." So called because of the pause or rest made
for ejaculations between every four rak'ahs. Twenty rak'ah prayers
recited after the night prayer during the month of Ramazan. They are
often followed with recitations known as zikrs, and form an exciting
service of devotion. The Imam recites the Tarawitr prayers- with a
loud voice.

Abu Hurairah says : "The Prophet used to encourage people to say
night prayers in Ramazan without ordering them positively, and would
say, 'He who stands up in prayer at night, for the purpose of obtaining
reward, will have all his sins pardoned;' then the Prophet died, leaving
the prayers of Ramazan in this way." It is said 'Umar instituted the
present custom of reciting the twenty rak'ahs.

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313

SALATU T-TASBIH.

"Prayer of praise." A form of prayer founded on the following-
tradition related by Ibu 'Abbas, who says :

"Verily, the Prophet said to my father, 'O 'Abbas ! O my uncle !
shall I not give you, shall I not present unto you, shall I not inform
you of a thing which covers acts of sin? When you perform it, God will
forgive your sins, your former sins, and your latter sins, and those sins
which you did unknowingly, your great sins, your small sins, your dis-
closed sins and your concealed sins ! It is this, namely, that you recite
four rak'ahs of prayer, and in each rak'ah recite the Fatihatu '1-Kitab
(i. e., the Introductory chapter of the Koran), and some other Sura
of the Koran ; and when you have recited these portions of the Koran in
the position of Qiyam, then say, 'Holiness to God !' and 'Praise be to
God !' and 'There is no deity but God !' and 'God is most great !' fifteen
times. Then perform a ruku' and recite it ten times ; then raise up
your head and say it ten times ; then make the sadjah and say it ten
times ; then raise your head and say it ten times ; then make another
sadjah, and say it ten times, then raise your head again and say it ten
times ; altogether seventy-five times in every rak'ah ; and do this in each
of the rak'ah. If you are able to say this form of prayer every day, then
do so, but if not, do it once every Friday, and if not each week, then say
it once a month, and if not once a month, then say it once a year, and
if not once a year, then do it once in your lifetime.' "

The foregoing is a striking illustration of the mechanical character
of the Moslem religion as regards its system of devotion.

PRAYERS FOR THE DEAD.

According to the teaching of Mohammed, it is the duty of all •
true Moslems to pray for the dead (Durru '1-Muktar, p. 135). See
also Mishkat, book v. chapter iii.

"God most certainly exalts the degrees of a virtuous servant in
Paradise, and the virtuous servant says, 'O my Lord, from whence is
this exalted degree for me?' and God says, 'It is on account of your
children asking pardon for you.' "

"The Prophet passed the graves in al-Madinah and turned his face
toward them, and said, 'Peace be to you, O inhabitants of the graves !
May God forgive us and you. Ye have passed on before us, and we are
following you."

"A dead person in the grave is like one over his head in water, who
calls to somebody to take him by the hand. For he has hope that his

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father or mother, or his brother, or his friend will pray for him. For
when the prayer reaches the dead person, it is more esteemed by him
than the whole world, and all that is in it; and verily God most certainly
gives to the dead, on account of the prayers of the people on earth,
rewards like mountains, for verily the offerings of the living for the
dead are asking forgiveness for them."

Sura lxxi. 29 : "And Noah said, 'O my God, forgive me and my
parents.' "

Sura ix. 114, 115: "It is not for the Prophet to pray for the for-
giveness of those who, even though they be near of kin, associate
other gods with God, after it has been made clear to them that they are
to be inmates of hell. For neither did Abraham ask forgiveness for his
father, but in pursuance of a promise which he had promised him, and
when it was shown him that he was an enemy of God, he declared him-
self clear of him ; yet Abraham was pitiful and kind."

It is related in the Traditions that the Prophet visited his mother's
grave, and wept in such a way as to cause those who were standing
around him to weep also. And the Prophet said, "I have asked my bene-
factor permission to ask pardon for my mother, which was not granted
then. I asked my Lord's permission to visit her grave and it was
granted, therefore do ye visit graves, because they remind you of death."

FRIDAY (Arabic Jum'ah).

"The day of Assembly." The Mohammedan Sabbath, on which
they assemble in the Jumi' 'Masjid, or chief mosque, and recite two
rik'ahs of prayers and listen to the oration or khutbah at the time of
midday prayer. Mohammed claims in the Traditions to have estab-
lished Friday as a day of worship by divine command. He says, "Friday
was ordered as a divine day of worship both for the Jew and Christian,
but they have acted contrary to the command. The Jew fixed Saturday
and the Christians fixed Sunday."

According to the same traditions, Friday is "the best day on which
the sun rises, the day on which Adam was taken into Paradise and
turned out of it, the day on which he repented and on which he died.
It will also be the Day of Resurrection."

There is only a certain hour on Friday (known only to God), on
which a Moslem obtains all the good he asks of the Almighty. Mo-
hammed prayed that God put a seal on the heart of every Moslem who
through negligence omits prayer for three successive Fridays. Moham-
med said: "Whoever bathes on Friday and comes to prayers in the be-

RELIGIONS OF PERSIA.

315

ginning and comes on foot and sits near the Imam and listens to the
khutbah, and says nothing playful, but sits silent, every step he takes
will get the rewards of a whole year's worshiping and rewards of one
year's fast and one year's prayings at night."

"There are three descriptions of people present on Friday ; one
of them who comes to the Masjid talking triflingly, and this is what
he gets instead of rewards; and there is a man who is present for mak-
ing supplications, and he asks God, and if He wills He gives him; if not,
refuses ; the third a man who attends to hear the khutbah and is silent,
and does not incommode any one, and this Friday covers his sins till the
next, and three days longer; for God says, 'Whoever doth one good
act will receive ten in return.' "

ZAKAT.

In its primitive sense the word zakat means purification, whence
it is also used to- express a portion of property bestowed in alms, as
sanctification of the remainder to the proprietor. It is an institution of
Islam and founded upon an express command in the Koran, being one
of the five foundations of practical religion.

It is a religious duty incumbent upon any person who is free, sane,
adult, and a Moslem, provided he be possessed in full property of such
estate or effects as are termed in the language of the law nisab, and
that he has been in possession of the same for the space of one complete
year. The nisab, or fixed amount of property upon which zakat is due,
varies with reference to the different kinds of property in possession, as
will be seen in the present article.

The one complete year in which the property is held in possession is
termed hauho '1-haul. Zakat is not incumbent upon a man against whom
there are debts equal to or exceeding the amount of his whole property,
nor is it due upon the necessaries of life, such as dwelling houses or
articles of clothing, or household furniture, or cattle kept for immediate
use, or slaves employed as actual servants, or armour and weapons de-
signed for present use, or upon books of science and theology used by
scholars, or upon tools used by craftsmen.

(i) The zakat of camels. Zakat is not clue upon less than five
camels, and upon five camels it is one goat or sheep, provided they
subsist upon pasture throughout the year, because zakat is only due
upon such camels as live on pasture, and not upon those which are fed
in the home with forage. One goat is due upon any number of camels
from five to nine ; two goats for any number of camels from ten to four-

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teen; three goats for any number from twenty to twenty-four. Upon
any number of camels from twenty-five to thirty-five the zakat is a bint
mikhaz, or a yearling female camel ; from thirty-six to forty-five, a bint
labun, or a two-year-old female camel ; from forty-six to sixty, a higgah,
or a three-year-old female camel; from sixty-one to seventy-five, a
jiz'ah, or four-year-old female camel; from seventy-five to ninety, two
camels' female two-year-old colts ; and from ninety-one to one hundred
and twenty, two camels' female three-year-old colts. When the num-
ber of camels exceeds one hundred and twenty, the zakat is calculated
by the aforesaid rule.

(2) The zakat of bulls, cows and buffaloes. No zakat is due upon
fewer than thirty cattle, and upon thirty cattle which feed on pasture for
the greater part of the year, there is due at the end of the year a tabi 'ah,
or a one-year-old calf; and upon forty is due a musim, or a calf of two
years old ; and where the number exceeds forty, the zakat is to be cal-
culated according to this rule. For example, upon sixty, the zakat is
two yearling calves; upon seventy, one tabi 'ah; upon eighty, two mu-
sims ; upon ninety, three tabi 'ahs ; upon one hundred, two tabi 'ahs and
one musim ; and thus upon every ten head of cattle a musim and a tabi
'ah alternately. Thus, upon one hundred and ten kine, the zakat is two
musims and one tabi 'ah ; and one hundred and twenty, four tabi 'ahs.
The usual method, however, of calculating the zakat upon large herds
of cattle is by dividing them into thirties and forties, imposing upon
every thirty one tabi 'ah, or upon every forty one musim.

(3) Zakat upon sheep and goats. No zakat is due upon less than
forty, which have fed the greater part of the year upon pasture, upon
which is due one goat, until the number reaches one hundred and
twenty; for one hundred and twenty-one to two hundred it is two
goats or sheep ; and above this, one for every hundred. The same
rules apply to both sheep and goats, because in the Traditions the
original word ghanam applies to both species.

(4) Zakat upon horses. When horses and mares are kept indis-
criminately together, feeding for the greater part of the year on pasture,
it is the option of the proprietor to give a zakat of one dinar per head
for the whole, or to appreciate the whole, and give five per cent upon the
total value. No zakat whatever is due upon droves of horses consisting
entirely of males, or entirely of mares. There is no zakat due upon
horses or mules, unless they are articles of merchandise, nor is it due
upon war horses, or upon beasts of burden, or upon cattle kept for
drawing plows and so forth.

RELIGIONS OF PERSIA.

317

(5) Zakat upon silver. It is not due upon silver of less value than
two hundred dirhams, but if one be possessed of this sum for a whole
year, the zakat due upon it is five dirhams. No zakat is due upon an
excess above the two hundred dirhams till such excess amount to forty,
upon which the zakat is one dirham, and for every succeeding forty, one
dirham. Those dirhams in which silver predominates are to be accounted
silver, and the laws respecting silver apply to them, although they
should contain some alloy; and the same rule holds with regard to all
articles falling under the denomination of plate, such as cups and
goblets.

(6) Zakat upon gold. No zakat is due upon gold under the value
of twenty misquals, and the zakat due upon twenty misquals is half a
misqual. When the quantity of gold exceeds twenty misquals, on every
four misquals above twenty are due two qirates, and so on in propor-
tion.

Zakat is due upon gold and silver bullion, and upon all gold and
silver ornaments and utensils.

(7) Zakat upon articles of merchandise. Articles of merchandise
should be appraised and a zakat of two and one-half per cent paid upon
the value, if it exceed two hundred dirhams in value.

(8) Zakat upon mines, or buried treasures. Mines of gold, silver,
iron, lead, or copper, are subject to a zakat of one-fifth ; but if the mine
is discovered within the precincts of a person's own home, nothing is
due. And if a person find a deposit of buried treasure, a fifth is due
upon it. No zakat is due upon precious stones.

(9) Zakat upon the fruits of the earth. Upon everything produced
from the ground there is a tenth, whether the soil be watered by the
overflow of rivers or by periodical rains, excepting the articles of wood,
bamboo, and grass, which are not subject to the tithe. Land watered
by means of buckets, or machinery, or watering camels, is subject to a
twentieth. Honey and fruits collected in the wilderness are subject to
tithe.

The zakat is received by a collector duly appointed for the purpose,
although it is lawful for the possessor to distribute his alms himself. If
a person come to the collector, and make a declaration on oath as to the
amount of his property upon which zakat is due, his statement is to be
credited.

There are seven descriptions of persons upon whom zakat may be
bestowed.

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

(1) Fagirs, or persons possessed of property, the whole of which,
however, does not amount to a nisab.

(2) Miskins, or persons who have no property whatever.

(3) The collector of zakat.

(4) Slaves.

(5) Debtors.

(6) Fi sabili llah, i. e., in the service of God, or religious warfare.

(7) Travelers.

The above laws with reference to zakat are those according to the
Hanafiyah sect, but the differences amongst the Imams of the Sunnis
on this subject are but small. They may be seen upon reference to Ham-
ilton's translation of the Hidayah, vol. 1. p. 1.

HAJJ.

Lit. "setting out," "tending towards." The pilgrimage to Makkah
performed in the month of Zu '1-Hijah, or the twelfth month of the
Mohammedan year. It is the fifth pillar of Mohammedan practical re-
ligion, and an incumbent religious duty, founded upon express injunc-
tions in the Koran. According to Mohammed it is a divine institution,
and has the following authority in the Koran for its due observance :

"And proclaim to the people a pilgrimage. Let them come to thee
on foot and on every fleet camel, arriving by every deep defile:

"This do. And he that respecteth the sacred ordinance of God, this
will be best for him with the Lord."

"And some say, 'Our Lord! give us good in this world and good in
the next, and keep us from the torment of fire.'

"They shall have the lot which they have merited; and God is swift
to reckon.

"Hear God in mind during the stated days; but if any haste away
in two days (i. e., after the hajj), it shall be no fault in him: And if any
tarry longer, it shall be no fault in him, if he fear God. Fear < rod, then,
and know that to Him shall ye be gathered."

Sura iii 190 : "The first temple that was founded for mankind was
that in Bakkah (i. e., Makkah). Blessed, and a guidance to human
beings."

For a lawful hajj there are three actions which are farz, and five
which are wajib; .all the rest are sunnah or mustahabb. The farz are:
to wear no other garment except the ihram ; to stand in 'Arafat; to
make the tawaf, or circuit round the Ka 'bah.

The wajib duties are: To stay in al-Muzalifah ; to run between

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319

Mount as-Safa and Mount al-Marwah ; to perform the "Ramyu'r-Rijam,
or the casting of the pebbles ; if the pilgrims are non-Meccans, to make
an extra tawaf ; to shave the head after the pligrimage is over.

The hajj must be made at the appointed season. Sura ii :i93 :
"Let the pilgrimage be made in the months already known." These
months are Shawwal, Zu '1-Qa'dah, and the first ten days of Zu '1-Hij-
jah. The actual hajj must be in the month of Zu '1-Hijjah, but the
preparations for, and the niyah, or intention of the hajj can be made
in the two preceding months. The 'umrah, or ordinary visitation, can
be done at any time of the year except on the ninth and four succeeding
days of Zu '1-Hijjah. On each of the various roads leading to Makkah,
there are at a distance of about five or six miles from the city stages
called Migat. The following are the names : On the Madinah road, the
stages are called Zu '1-Halifah; on the 'Irag road, Zatu 'Arg; on the
Syrian road, Hujfah; on the Hajd road, Oarn ; on the Yaman road,
Yalamlam.

The following is the othodox way of performing the pilgrimage,
founded upon the example of the Prophet himself.

Upon the pilgrim's arrival at the last stage near Makkah, he bathes
himself, and performs two rak'ah prayers, and then divesting himself
of his clothes, he assumes the pilgrim's sacred robe, which is called
ihram. This garment consists of two seamless wrappers, one being
wrapped round the waist, and the other thrown loosely over the shoulder,
the head being left uncovered. Sandals may also be worn, but not shoes
or boots. After he has assumed the pilgrim's garb, he must not anoint
his head, shave any part of his body, pare his nails, nor wear any other
garment than the ihram. The pilgrim having now entered upon the
hajj, faces Makkah, and makes the niyah (intention), and says : "O God,
I purpose to make the hajj ; make this service easy to me and accept it
from me." He then proceeds on his journey to the sacred city and on
his way, as well as at different periods in the pilgrimag-e he recites or
sings with a loud voice the pilgrim's song, called the Talbiyah (a word
signifying waiting or standing for orders). In Arabic it runs thus (as
given in the Sahihu '1-Bukhari, p. 210) :

"Labbaika ! Allahumma ! Labbaika !
Labbaika ! La Sharika laka ! Labbaika !
Inn '1-hamda wa 'n-ni-mata laka, wa'l-mulka laka !
La Sharika laka!"

320

Which, following the Persian commentator, 'Abdu'l-Hagg, may be trans-
lated as follows :

"I stand up for Thy service, O God ! I stand up !
I stand up ! There is no partner with Thee ! I stand up !
Verily, Thine is the Praise, the Blessing and the Kingdom !
There is no partner with Thee!

Immediately on his arrival at Makkah he performs legal ablutions in
the Masjidu'l-haram, and then kisses the black stone (al-Hajaru'l-as-
wad). He then encompasses the Ka'bah seven times; three times at
quick step or run, and four times at a slow pace. These acts are called
the tawaf and are formed by commencing on the right and leaving the
Ka'bah on the left. Each time as the pilgrim passes round the Ka'bah
he touches the Ruknu'l-Yamani, or the Yamani corner, and kisses the
sacred black stone. He then proceeds to the Magamu Ibrahim (the
place of Abraham), where he recites the 119th verse of the 22nd Sura of
the Koran, "Take ye the station of Abraham for a place of prayer," and
performs two rak'ah prayers, after which he returns to the black stone
and kisses it. He then goes to the gate of the temple leading to Mount
as-Safa, and from it ascends the hill, reciting the 153rd verse of the 2nd
Sura of the Koran, "Verily, as-Safa and al-Marwah are the signs of
God." Having arrived at the summit of the mount, turning towards the
Ka'bah, he recites the following:

"There is no deity but only God ! God is great ! There is no deity
but God alone ! He hath performed His promise, and hath aided His
servant and hath put to flight the host of infidels by Himself alone !"

These words are recited thrice. He then runs from the top of
Mount as-Safa to the summit of Mount al-Marwah seven times, repeat-
ing the aforesaid prayers on the top of each hill. This is the sixth day,
the evening of which is spent at Makkah, where he again encompasses
the Ka'bah.

Upon the seventh day he listens to the khutbah, or oration, in the
great mosque in which are set forth the excellences of the pilgrimage
and the necessary duties required of all true Moslems on the following
days.

On the eighth day, which is called Tarwiyah, he proceeds with his
fellow pilgrims to Mina, where he stays and performs the usual services
of the Moslem ritual, and remains the night.

The next day (the ninth), after morning prayer, he proceeds to
Mount 'Arafat, where he recites the usual prayers and listens to another

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321

khutbah. He then leaves for al-Muzdalifah, a place midway between
Mina and 'Arafat, where he should arrive for the sunset prayer.

The next day, the tenth, is the Yaumu'n-Nahr, or the "Day of Sac-
rifice," known all through the Moslem world and celebrated as the Tdu-
'1-Azha. Early in the morning, the pilgrims having said their prayers at
Muzdalifah they proceed in a body to three pillars in Mina, the first of
which is called the Shaitanu '1-Kubir, or Great Devil." The pilgrims
cast seven stones at each of these pillars, the ceremony being called the
Ramyu'r-Rijam, or casting of stones. Holding the rijam, or pebble
between the thumb and forefinger of the right hand, the pilgrim throws
it at a distance of not less than fifteen feet, and says, "In the name of
God, the Almighty, I do this and in hatred of the devil and his shame."
The remaining six stones are thrown in the same way. It is said that
this ceremony has been performed ever since the days of Bahira, a Nes-
torian monk whom Mohammed met when he was journeying back from
Syria to Makkah, and who is said to have perceived by various signs that
he was a prophet. His Christian name is supposed to have been Sergius
(or Georgius).

Sprenger thinks that Bahira remained with Mohammed, and it has
been suggested that there is an allusion to this monk in the Koran,
Sura xvi 1105 : "We know that they say, 'It is only a man who teacheth
him.' " Husain, the commentator, says on this passage that the Prophet
was in the habit of going every evening to a Christian to hear the
Taurat, and Injil. Another Syrian writer has said that Sergius said to
Mohammed, 'T will write you a book and make you a prophet."

Mohammed consented to this. After the book was ready, two men
agreed to meet at a certain well, the teacher going down in the well.
Mohammed was to take with him messengers who carried ropes. The
Ghristian teacher said that he would not send the book in the first two
which came to him, but the third rope was to contain the book.

Mohammed said to the people: God has spoken to me in a vision,
that I am to be the last Prophet. He has sent me a book from heaven,
which is in a certain well. Come and be my witness of the truth, and
bring my book up. They did as he had said, and in accordance with the
promise of the teacher, the book was sent up the third time. When they
saw the book they all believed him to be the true Prophet. Then Mo-
hammed said : "Whoever believeth in me to be the last Prophet, and
believeth in my book, let him throw a stone in that well ;" so each one
of them did what was asked, and the man who wrote the book was
killed, without their knowing what they had done. Since, it has been

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kept by them, this casting- or throwing of stones. The pilgrim then re-
turns to Mina and performs the sacrifice of the Tdu '1-Azha. The victim
may be a sheep or goat or a cow or a camel, according to the means of
the pilgrim.

Placing its head towards the Ka'bah, its forelegs being bandaged
together, the pilgrim stands on the right side of his victim and plunges
the knife into its throat with great force, and cries with a loud voice,
''Allah Akbar!" "God is great! O God, accept this sacrifice from
me !"

This ceremony concludes the pilgrimage, and the hajj, or pilgrim
then gets himself shaved and his nails pared, and the ihram or pilgrim
garment is removed. Although the pilgrimage is over, he should
still rest at Makkah the three following days, which are known as the
Ayyamu't-Tashrig, or the days of drying up of the blood of the sacrifice.
Three well earned days of rest after the peripatetic performance of the
last four days.

Before he leaves Makkah he should once more perform the circuits
round Ka'bah and throw stone at ihe Satanic pillars at Mina. seven
times. He should also drink of the water of the Zamzam well.

Most Moslems then go to al-Madinah. and make their salutations
at the shrine of Mohammed. This is regarded as an incumbent duty
by all except the Wahhabis, who hold that to make the visitation of
the Prophet's tomb a religious ceremony is shirk, or associating the
the creature with God, From the time the pilgrim has assumed the
ihram until he takes it off, he must abstain from all worldly affairs
and devote himself entirely to the duties of the hajj. He is not allowed
to hunt, though he may catch fish if he can. "O Believers kill no game
while ye are on pilgrimage." (Sura v. 96). The Prophet also said:
"Ik- who shows the place where game is to be found is equally as bad
as the man who kills it." The hajj must not scratch himself, lest vermin
be destroyed, or a hair be uprooted. Should he feel uncomfortable, he
must rub himself with the open palm of his hand. The face and head
must be left uncovered, the hair on the head and beard unwashed and
uncut. "Shave not your heads until the offering reach the place of
sacrifice." (Sura ii. H)2). ( )n arriving at an elevated place, on descend-
ing a valley, or meeting any one, on entering the city of Makkah, or the
sacred temple, the hajj should continually repeat the word "Labbaika,
Labbaika ;" and. whenever he sees the Ka'bah he should recite the
Takbir, "God is great!" and the Ta'lih "There is no deity but God!"

The pilgrimage known as the hajj, as has been already stated, can

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323

only be made on the appointed days of the month of Zn'l-Hijjah. A
visit at any other time is called the 'Umrah. If the pilgrim arrives as
late as the ninth day, and is in time to spend that day, he can still perform
the pilgrimage legally.

The pilgrimage cannot be performed by proxy by Snnni Moslems,
but is allowed by the Shi'ahs, and it is by both considered a meritorious
act to pay the expenses of one who cannot afford to perform it. But if
a Mohammedan on his deathbed bequeath a sum of money to be paid
to a certain person to perform the pilgrimage, it is considered to satisfy
the claims of the Moslem law. If a Moslem have the means of per-
forming the pilgrimage, and omit to do so, its omission is equal to a
kabirah, or mortal sin. According to the saying of the Prophet, the
merits of pilgrimage to Makkah are very great :

"He who makes a pilgrimage for God's sake, and does not talk
loosely, nor act wickedly, shall return as pure from sin as the day on
which he was born."- "Verily, they put away poverty and sin like the
fires of a forge removes dross. The reward of a pilgrimage is paradise."
"When you see a pilgrim, salute and embrace him, and request him to
ask pardon of God for you, for his own sins have been forgiven and
his supplications will be accepted."

The ceremonies of the pilgrimage could not be entirely done away
with. The universal reverence of the Arab for the Kaabah was too
favorable and obvious a means for uniting all the tribes into one con-
federation with one common purpose in view. The traditions of Abra-
ham, the father of their race, and the founder of Mohammed's own
religion, as he always declared it to be, no doubt gave the ancient tem-
ple a peculiar sanctity in the Prophet's eyes, and although he first
settled upon Jerusalem as his qiblah, he afterwards reverted to the
Kaabah itself. Here, then, Mohammed found a shrine, to which, as
well as at which, devotion had been paid from time immemorial ; it was
one thing which the scattered Arabian nation had in common — the
one thing which gave them even the shadow of a national feeling; and
to have dreamed of abolishing it, or even diminishing the honors paid
to it, would have been madness and ruin to his enterprise. He, therefore,
did the next best thing, he cleared it of idols and dedicated it to the
service of God.

This same pilgrimage is often urged as a sign of Mohammed's
tendency to superstition, even idolatry. It is asked how the destroyer
of idols could have concealed his conscience to the circuits of the Ka"-
bah and veneration of the black stone covered with adoring kisses.

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PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

The rites of the pilgrimage cannot, certainly, be defended against the
charge of superstition ; but it is easy to see why Momammed enjoined
them. They were hallowed to him by the memories of his ancestors,
who had been the guardians of the sacred temple, and by the traditional
reverence of all his people ; and besides this tie of association, which in
itself was enough to make it impossible for him to do away with the rites,
Mohammed perceived that the worship in the Ka'bah would prove of
real value to religion. He swept away the more idolatrous and immoral
part of the ceremonies, but he retained the pilgrimage to Mecca and
the old veneration of the temple for reasons of which it is impossible
to dispute the wisdom. He well knew the consolidating effect of form-
ing a center to which his followers should gather; and hence he re-
asserted the sanctity of the black stone that 'came down from heaven
he ordained that everywhere throughout the world the Moslem should
pray looking towards Ka'bah, and he enjoined him to make the pilgrim-
age thither. Mecca is to the Moslem what Jerusalem is to the Jew.
It bears with it all the* influences of centuries of associations. It carries
the Moslem back to the cradle of his faith, the childhood of his Prophet ;
it reminds him of the struggle between the old faith and the new, of the
overthrow of the idols, and the establishment of the worship of the one
God. And most of all it bids him remember that all his brother
Moslems are worshiping towards the same sacred spot ; that he is one of
a great company of believers, united by one faith, filled with the same
hopes, reverencing the same thing, worshiping the same God. Moham-
med showed his knowledge of the religious emotions in man when he
preserved the sanctity of the temple of Islam.

The Meccan pilgrimage admits of no other explanation than this,
that the Prophet of Arabia found it expedient to compromise with
Arabian idolatry. And hence we find the superstition and silly customs
of the Hajj grafted on to a religion which professes to be both mono-
theistic in its principles, and iconoclastic in its practices.

A careful and critical study of Islam will, we think, convince any
candid mind that at first Mohammed intended to construct his religion
on the lines of the Old Testament. Abraham, the true Moslem, was
his prototype, Moses his law-giver, and Jerusalem his Oiblah. But
circumstances were ever wont to change not only the Prophet's revela-
tions, but also his moral standards. Mecca became the Oiblah; and the
spectacle of the Moslem world bowing in the direction of a black stone,
whilst they worship the one God, marks Islam, with its Meccan pil-
grimage, as a religion of compromise.

DAVID BAR JOSEPH.
(in hajj costume.)

The young man whom I met in Berlin, Germany, in 1889, through whose kindness a
friend of his, Mr. Schmidt, paid all my expenses to New York.

325

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PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

Apologists of Islam have endeavored to shield Mohammed from
the solemn charge of having "forged the name of God," but we know
of nothing which can justify the act of giving the stupid and unmean-
ing ceremonies of the pilgrimage all the force and solmenity of a divine
enactment.

The Wahhabis, the Puritans of Islam, regard the circumambulation
of the Prophet's tomb as superstitions (as shirk, or associating some-
thing with God, in fact), but how can they justify the foolish ceremonies
of the hajj ? If reverence for the Prophet's tomb is shirk, what are
the runnings at as-Safa and al-'Marvvah, the stonings of the pillars, and
the kissings of the black stone? No Moslem has ever yet attempted
to give a spiritual explanation of the ceremonies of the Meccari pilgrim-
age, for in attempting to do so he would be charged with the heresy
of shirk !

'IDU 'L-FITR.

The festival of the Breaking of the Fast." It is called, also, Tdu
Ramazan, the Tdu's-Sadayah (Feast of Alms), and the Tdu's-saghir
(Minor Festival). It commences as soon as the month's fast in Rama-
zan is over, and consequently, on the first day of the month of Shawwal.
It is specially a feast ol alms-giving. "Bring out your alms," said Ibu
'Abbas, "for the Prophet has ordained this as a divine institution, one
Sa' of barley or dates, or a half-Sa' of wheat : this is for every person,
free or bond, man or woman, old or young, to purify thy fast (i. e., the
month's fast just concluded) of any obscene language, and to give
victuals to the poor."

On this festival the people having previously distributed the alms
which are called the Sadagatu '1-Fitr, assemble in the vast assembly
outside the city in the Idgah, and, being led by the Imam, recite two
rak'ahs of prayer. After prayers the Imam ascends the mimbar, or
pulpit, and delivers the khutbah, or oration. We are indebted to Mr.
Sell for the following specimens of one of these sermons :

"In the name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful.

"Holy is God who has opened the door of mercy for those who
fast, and in mercy and kindness has granted them the right of entrance
into heaven. God is greater than all. There is no God save Him. God
is great! God is great! and worthy of praise. It is of His Grace
and favor that He rewards those who keep the fast. He has said: T
will give in the future world houses and palaces and many ex-
cellent blessings to those who fast.' God is great! God is great! Holy
is he who certainly sent the Koran to our Prophet in the month of Ram-

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327

azan, and who sends angels to grant peace to all true believers. God is
great and worthy of all praise. We praise and thank him for the
Tdu '1-Fitr, that great blessing; and we testify that beside Him there
is no God. He is alone. He has no partner. This witness which we
give to His Unity will be a cause of our safety here, and finally gain us
an entrance to Paradise. Mohammed (on whom be the mercy and peace
of God) and all famous prophets are His slaves. He is the Lord of
genii and of men. From Him comes mercy and peace upon Mohammed
and his family, so long as the world shall last. God is greater than all.
There is none beside Him. God is great ! God is great ! and worthy of
all praise. O company of Believers, O congregation of Moslems, the
mercy of the True One is on you. He says that His feast day is a
blessing to you, and a curse to unbelievers. Your fasting will not be re-
warded, and your prayers will be stayed in their flight to heaven until
you have given the sadagah. O congregation of Believers, to give alms
is to you a wajib duty. Give to the poor some measures of grain or its
money equivalent. Your duty in Ramazan was to say the Tarawih prayer,
to make supplication to God, to sit and meditate and to read the Koran.
The religious duties of the first ten days of Ramazan gain the mercy
of God. those of the second ten merit His pardon; whilst those of the
last ten save those who do them from the punishment of hell. God
has declared that Ramazan is a noble month, for is not one of its nights
the Lailatu '1-Oudr, better than a thousand months? On that night
Gabriel and the angels descended from heaven : till the morning breaks
it is full of blessing. Its eloquent interpreter, and its clearest proof
is the Koran, the Word of God, most Gracious. Holy is God who says
in the Koran : 'This is a guide for men, a distinguisher between right
and wrong.' O Believers, in such a month be present, obey the order of
your God, and fast ; but let the sick and the travelers substitute some
other days on which to fast, so that no days be lost, and say : 'God is
great !' and praise Him. God has made the fast easy for you. O Be-
lievers, God will bless you and us by the grace of the Holy Koran.
Every verse of it is a benefit to us and fills us with wisdom. God is
the Bestower, the Holy King, the Munificent, the Kind, the Nourisher,
the Merciful, the Clement."

The Khutbah being ended, the whole congregation raise their hands
and offer a munajat for the remission of sins, the recovery of the sick,
increase of rain, abundance of corn, preservation from misfortune, and
freedom from debt. The Imam then descends to the ground, and makes
further supplication for the people, the congregation saying "Amin" at

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the end of each supplication. At the close of the service the members
of the congregation salute and embrace each other, and offer mutual
congratulations, and then return to their homes, and spend the rest of
the day in feasting and merriment.

The assemblies of the ladies on this festival are marked by all the
amusements and indulgences they can possibly invent or enjoy in their
secluded state. Some receiving, others paying visits in covered con-
veyances ; all doing honor to the day by wearing their best jewelry and
most splendid dress. The Zanawatr rings with festive songs and loud
music, the cheerful meeting of friends, the distribution of presents to
dependents, and remembrances to the poor; all is life and joy, cheerful
bustle and amusement, on this happy day of festival, when the good
lady of the mansion sits in state to receive presents from inferiors and
to grant proof of her favor to others.

Soon after sunrise on the first day, the people having all dressed in
new, or in their best clothes, the men assemble in the mosques, and
perform the prayers of two rak'ahs, a Soonneh ordinance of the 'eed ;
after which, the Khateeb delivers an exhortation. Friends, meeting
in the mosque, or in the street, or in each other's houses, congratulate
and embrace and kiss each other. They generally visit each other for this
purpose. Some even, of the lower classes, dress themselves entirely in a
new suit of clothes, and almost everyone wears something new, if it be
only a pair of shoes. The servant is presented with at least one new
article of clothing by the master, and receives a few piasters from each
of his master's friends, if they visit the house; or even goes to those
friends to congratulate them, and receives his present; and if he has
served a former master, he also visits him and is in like manner rewarded
for his trouble; and sometimes he brings a present of a dish of sweet
cakes, and obtains in return money of twice the value, or more. On the
days of this 'eed, most of the people of Cairo eat salted fish and thin,
folded pancakes and a kind of bun. Some families also prepare a dish
consisting of stewed meat, with onions, and a quantity of treacle, vine-
gar, and a coarse flour, and the master usually procures dried fruit, such
as nuts, raisins, etc., for his family. Most of the shops in the metropolis
are closed, except those at which eatables and sherbet are sold ; but the
streets present a gay appearance, from the crowds of passengers in their
holiday clothes.

One or more days of this festival, some or all of the members of
most families, but chiefly the women, visit the tombs of their relatives.
This they also do on the occasion of the other grand festival ('Idu 'L-

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329

Azha). The visitors, or their servants, carry palm-branches, and
sometimes sweet basil, to lay upon the tomb which they go to visit.
The palm-branch is broken into several pieces, and these, or the leaves
only, are placed on the tomb.

Numerous groups of women are seen on these occasions, bearing
palm-branches, on their way to the cemeteries in the neighborhood of
the metropolis. They are also provided, according to their circum-
stances, with cakes, bread, dates, or some other kind of food, to dis-
tribute to the poor who resort to the burial-ground on these days. Some-
times tents are pitched for them ; the tents surround the tomb which
is the object of the visit. The visitors recite the Fat'hhah, or if they can
afford it, employ a person first to recite the Soorat Ya'-Seen, or a
larger portion of the Koran. Often a Khutmeh (or recital of the whole
of the Koran) is performed at the tomb, or in the house by several
fickees.

Then men generally return immediately after these rites have been
performed, and the fragments or leaves of the palm-branch laid on the
tomb : the women usually go to the tomb early in the morning, and do
not return until the afternoon; some of them (but these are not gen-
erally esteemed women of correct conduct), if they have a tent, pass
the night in it and remain until the end of the festival, or until the
afternoon of the following Friday; so, too, do the women of a family
possessed of a private, enclosed burial ground, with a house within it for
there are many such enclosures, and not a few with houses for the ac-
commodation of the females in the midst of the public cemeteries of
Cairo. Intrigues are said to be not uncommon with the females who
spend the nights in tents among the tombs. The great cemetery of Bab
en-Nusr, in the desert tract immediately on the north of the metropolis,
presents a remarkable scene on the two 'eeds. In a part next the city
gate from which the burial ground takes its name many swings and
whirligigs are erected, and several large tents, in some of which dancers,
reciters of Aboo-Zeyd, and other performers, amuse a dense crowd
of spectators; and throughout the burial-ground are seen numerous
tents for the reception of visitors to the tomb. About two or three
days after the 'eed above described, the 'Kisweh', or covering of the
Kaabeh, which is sent annually with the great caravan of pilgrims is
conveyed in procession from the citidal of the metropolis, where it is
manufactured at the Sultan's expense, to the mosque of the Hhasaneyn,
to be sewed together and lined preparatory to the approaching pilgrim-
age. . - . . _ . _ | , i

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The visiting of the tombs on the occasion of the two festivals is not
a custom in India. It is generally done in the Maharram, both by the
Sunnis and the Shi'ahs.

TDU'L-AZHA.

Called also Yaumu'n-Nahr ; (i. e., the cow festival) ; and in Turkey
and Egypt, Tdu Bairam. It is also called the Tdu'l-kabir, the great
festival, as distinguished from the Tdu'l-Fitr, which is called the minor
festival, or al-Tdu's-saghir.

It is celebrated on the ioth day of Zu '1-Hijjah, and is part of the
rites of the Meccan pilgrimage, although it is observed as well in all
parts of Islam both as a day of sacrifice and as a great festival. It is
founded on an injunction in the Koran, Sura xxii ."33-38.

"This do. And they who respect the symbols of God perform an ac-
tion which proceedeth from piety of heart.

"Ye may obtain advantages from the cattle up to the set time for
slaying them; then, the place for sacrificing them is at the ancient
House.

"And to every people have we appointed symbols, that they may
commemorate the 'name of God over the brute beasts which He hath
provided for them. And your God is the one God. To Him, therefore,
surrender yourselves : and bear thou good tidings to those who humble
themselves, —

"Whose hearts, when mention is made of God, thrill with awe; ami
to those who remain steadfast under all that beialleth them, and observe
prayer, and give alms of that with which we have supplied them.

"And the camels have we appointed you for the sacrifice to God;
much good have ye in them. Make mention, therefore, of the name
of God over them when ye slay them, as they stand in a row; and when
they are fallen over on their sides, eat of them, and feed him who is
content and asketh not, and him who askelh. Thus have we subjected
them to you, to the intent you should be thankful.

"By no means can their flesh reach unto God, neither their blood;
but piety on your part reacheth Him. Thus hath He subjected them
to you, that ye magnify God for His guidance : moreover, announce glad
tidings to those who do good deeds."

The institution of the sacrifice was as follows: A few months after
the Ilijrah, or flight from Mecca, Mohammed, dwelling in al-Madinah,
observed that the Jews kept, on the tenth day of the seventh month, the
great fast of the Atonement, A tradition records that the Prophet asked

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them why they kept this fast. He was informed that it was a memorial
of the deliverance of Moses and the children of Israel from the hands
of Pharaoh.

"We have a greater right in Moses than they," said Mohammed, so
he fasted with the Jews and commanded his followers to fast also. This
was at the period of his mission when Mohammed was friendly with the
Jews of al-Madinah, who occasionally came to hear him preach. The
Prophet also occasionally attended the synagogue. Then came the
change of the Qiblah from Jerusalem to Mecca, for the Jews were not
so ready to change their creed as Mohammed had at first hoped. In the
second year of the Hijrah, Mohammed and his followers did not par-
ticipate in the Jewish fast, for the Prophet now instituted the Tdu '1-Azha.
The idolatrous Arabs had been in the habit of making an annual pil-
grimage to Mecca at this season of the year. The offering of animals
in sacrifice formed a part of the concluding ceremony of that pilgrimage.
That portion— the sacrifice of animals — Mohammed adopted in the feast
which now, at al-Madinah, he substituted for the Jewish fast. This was
well calculated to attract the attention of the Meccans and to gain the
goodwill of the Arabs. Mohammed could not then make the pilgrimage
to Mecca, for as yet there was a hostile feeling between the inhabitants
of the two cities; but on the tenth day of the month Zu '1-Hijjah, at the
very time when the Arabs at Mecca were engaged in sacrificing
victims, Mohammed went forth from his house at al-Madinah, and,
assembling his followers, instituted the Tdu '1-Azha. Two young kids
were brought before him. One he sacrificed and said : "O Lord, I
sacrifice this for my whole people, all those who bear witness to Thy
unity and to my mission. O Lord ! this is for Mohammed and for the
family of Mohammed."

The following is the account given by Mohammedan writers : "When
Ibrahim founded Mecca, the Lord desired him to prepare a feast for
Him. Upon Ibrahim's (the friend of God) requesting to know what
He would have on the occasion, the Lord replied, 'Offer up thy son
Ismail 'il.' Agreeable to God's .command, he took Ismail to the Ka'bah
to sacrifice him, and having laid him down, he made several ineffectual
strokes on his throat with a knife, on which Ismail observed, 'Your eyes
being uncovered, it is through pity and compassion for me you allow the
knife to miss ; it would be better if you blindfolded yourself with the
end of your turban and then sacrificed me.' Ibrahim acted upon his
son's suggestion and having repeated the words, 'Bi'-smi'llahi allahu
akbar' (i. e., 'In the name of God! God is great!'), he drew the knife

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across his son's neck. In the meanwhile, however, Gabriel had sub-
stituted a broad-tailed sheep for the vouth Ismail and Ibrahim unfolding
his eyes observed, to his surprise, the sheep slain, and his son standing
behind him."

It is a notable fact that whilst Mohammed professed to abrogate
the Jewish ritual, and also ignored entirely the doctrine of the Atone-
ment as taught in the New Testament, denying even the very fact of our
Savior's crucifixion, he made the "day of sacrifice" the great central fes-
tival of his religion.

There is a very remarkable Hadis, related by Ayesha, who states
that Mohammed said : "Man hath not done anything on the Tdu '1-Azha
more pleasing to God than spilling blood ; for verily the animal sacri-
ficed will come, on the day of resurrection, with its horns, its hair, and
its hoofs, and will make the scale of his (good) actions heavy. Verily, its
blood reacheth the acceptance of God, before it falleth upon the ground,
therefore, be joyful in it."

Mohammed has thus become a witness to the doctrine of the Chris-
tian faith that "without shedding of blood, there is no remission." The
animal sacrificed must be without blemish, and of full age; but it may
be either a goat, a sheep, a cow, or camel.

The religious part of the festival is observed as follows : The peo-
ple assemble in the morning for prayer, in the Tdgah, or place erected
outside the city for these special festival prayers. The whole congre-
gation then standing in the usual order, the Imam takes his place in
front of them and leads them in two rak'ahs of prayer. After prayers
the Imam ascends the mimbar or pulpit and delivers a Khutbah, or ora-
tion, on the subject of the festival.

The Khutbah being ended, the people all return to their homes.
The head of the family then takes a sheep, or a cow, or a goat, or a
camel, and turning its head towards Mecca says :

"In the name of the great God.

"Verily, my prayers, my sacrifice, my life, my death, belong to God,
the Lord of the worlds. He has no partner; that is what I am bidden:
for I am first of those who are Moslem."

And then he slays the animal. The flesh of the animal is then
divided into three portions, one-third being given to relations, one-third
to the poor, and the remaining third reserved for the family. Quite apart
from its religious ceremonies, the festival is observed as a great time of
rejoicing, and the holiday is kept for two or three days in a similar way
to that of the minor festival or the Tdu '1-Fitr.

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'333

THE PERFORMANCE OF RELIGIOUS DUTIES.

Strictly according to Mohammedan law, it is not lawful to accept
any remuneration for the performance of religious duties. But these
injunctions are now totally disregarded, and fees are taken for almost
every religious duty performed by an Imam. The teaching of the Hida-
yah on the subject is as follows :

"It is not lawful to accept a recompense for summoning the people
to prayers, or for the performance of pilgrimage, or of the duties of an
Imam, or for teaching the Koran, or the law ; for it is a general rule,
with our doctors, that no recompense can be received for the perform-
ance of any duty purely of a religious nature. According to Shafer, it is
allowed to receive pay for the performance of any religious duty which
is not required of the hireling in virtue of a divine ordinance, as this is
only accepting a recompense for a certain service ; and as the acts above
described are not ordained upon the hireling, it is consequently lawful
to receive a recompense for them. The argument of our doctors upon
this point are twofold. First, the Prophet has said, 'Read the Koran,
but do not receive any recompense for so doing;' and he also directed
Othman-bin-Abeeyas, that if he were appointed a Mawzin (a crier to
prayer), he should not take any wages. Secondly, where an act of piety
is performed, it springs solely from the performer (whence regard is had
to his competency), and consequently he is not entitled to any recom-
pense from another, as in the cases of fasting or prayer. A teacher of
the Koran, moreover, is incapable of instructing another in it, but by
means of qualities existing in his scholar, namely, capacity and docility,
and therefore undertakes a thing the performance of which does not
depend upon himself, which is consequently invalid. Some of our mod-
ern doctors, however, hold it lawful to receive wages for teaching the
Koran in the present age, because an indifference has taken place with
respect to religion, whence, if people were to withhold from paying a
recompense for instruction in the sacred writings, they would in time
be disregarded; — and decrees pass accordingly.

"It is not lawful to receive wages for singing or lamentation, or for
any other species of public exhibition, as this is taking a recompense for
an act which is of a criminal nature, and acts of that nature do not
entitle to a recompense in virtue of a contract."

THE DYING.

Very special instructions are given in Moslem books as to the
treatment of the dying. In the Durra'l-Mukhtar (p. 88), the friends of

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the dying arc recommended, if possible, to turn the head of the dying
person towards Mecca ; but if this be not convenient, his feet should
be placed in that direction and his head slightly raised. The Kalima-
tu'sh-Shahadah should then be recited, and the Sura Ya Sin (xxxvi)
and Saruta 'r-Ra'd (xiii) should be read from the Koran. When the
spirit has departed from the body, the mouth should be tied up and the
eyes closed and the arms straightened, and the body should be per-
fumed, and no unclean person should be suffered to approach the corpse.
Immediate steps should then be taken for the washing of the corpse.

VISITING THE SICK.

Arabic 'iyadah. An incumbent religious duty enjoined by Moham-
med on his followers. The following traditions illustrate his teaching on
the subject (Mishkat, book v., ch. i):

"When a Moslem visits a sick brother he gathers the fruits of Para-
dise from the time he leaves his home until he returns.

"If a Moslem visits a sick person, and say seven times, T ask the
Almighty God, who is Lord of the great throne, to give thee health,'
the prayer shall be granted, unless the appointed time of his death has
surely come.

"Verily, God will say at the Day of Resurrection, 'O sons of Adam !
I was sick and ye did not visit me.' And the sons of Adam will say, 'O
OUr Defender! how could we visit Thee, for Thou art the Lord of the
Universe and art free from sickness?' And God will say, 'O men! did
you not know that such a one of my servants was sick, and you did not
visit him ? Do you not know that had you visited that servant you
would have met me there ?' "

Ayesha says : "When anyone of us was sick, the Prophet used to
rub his hands upon the sick person's body, after which he would say,
'O Lord of man ! take away this pain and give health; for Thou art the
giver of health; there is no health but Thine that health which leaveth
no sickness'.

"When any person complained of being out of order, or having a
wound or sore, the Prophet would say, when passing his finger over
the part affected, Tn the name of God, the earth of our ground mixed
with the spittle of our mouth ; we have done this in order to restore the
sick to health, by permission of our Lord.' "

DEATH. ARABIC MAUT; WAFAT.

It is distinctly taught in the Koran that the hour of death is fixed
for every living creature.

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335

Sura xvi 163 : "If God were to punish men for their wrongdoing,
He would not leave on the earth a single living creature ; but He re-
quites them until a stated time ; and when their time comes they cannot
delay it an hour, nor can they hasten it."

Sura iii : 182 : "Every soul must taste death, and ye shall only be
paid your hire on the day of resurrection."

Sura i : 17 : "The agony of death shall come in truth, that is what
thou didst shun."

In the Traditions, Mohammed has taught that it is sinful to wish
for death : "Wish not for death, not even if thou art a doer of good
works, for peradventure thou mayst increase them with an increase of
life. Nor even if thou art a sinner, for with increase of life thou mayst
obtain God's pardon."

One day the Prophet said : "Whosoever loves to meet God, God
will love to meet him, and whoever dislikes to meet God, God will dis-
like to meet him." Then Ayesha said, "Truly, we all dislike death and
consider it a great affliction." The Prophet replied, "Thou dost not
understand me. When death comes near a believer, then God gives him
a spirit of resignation, and so it is, that there is nothing which a be-
liever likes so much as death."

Al-Bara'ibu 'Azib, one of the Companions, says : "I came out with
the Prophet at the funeral of one of the assistants, and we arrived just at
the grave before they had interred the body, and the Prophet sat down,
and we sat around him with our heads down, and were so silent that
you might say that birds were sitting upon our heads. And there was
a stick in the Prophet's hand with which he kept striking the grounds.
Then he raised his head and said twice or thrice to his companions,
'Seek the protection of God from the punishment of the grave.' After
that he said : 'Verily, when a Moslem separateth from the world and
bringeth his soul to futurity, angels descend to him from the celestial
regions, whose faces are white. You might say their faces are the sun,
and they have a shroud of the shrouds of paradise, and perfumes there-
from. So' they sit apart from the deceased, as far as the eyes can see.
After which the Angel of Death comes to the deceased and sits at his
head, and says, 'O pure soul, come forth to God's pardon and pleasure.'
Then the soul comes out, issuing like water from a bag, and the Angel
of Death takes it; and when he takes it, the angels do not allow it to re-
main in his hands for the twinkling of an eye. But when the Angel of
Death has taken the soul of a servant of God, he resigns it to his assis-
tants, in whose. hands is a shroud, and they put it into the shroud and

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with the perfumes, when a fragrance issues from the soul like the smell
of the best musk that is to be found on the face of the earth. Then the
angels carry it upwards, and they do not pass by any concourse of angels
who do not say, 'What is this pur£ soul and who is owner of it ?' And
they say, 'Such a one, the son of such a one,' calling him by the best
names by which he was known in the world, till they reach the lowest
region of heaven with him. And the angels ask the door to be opened
for him, which is done. The angels follow it through each heaven, the
angel of one region to those of the next, and so on till it reaches the
seventh heaven, when God say, 'Write the name of My servant in
Tlliyun, and return him towards the earth, that is, to his body, which
is buried in the earth, because I have created man from earth and return
him to it, and will bring him out from it again as I brought him out at
first.' Then the souls are returned into their bodies, when two angels
(Nunkar and Nakir) come to the dead man and cause him to sit up, and
say to him, 'Who is thy Lord ?' He replies, 'My Lord is God.' Then
they say, 'What is thy religion?' He says, 'Islam.' Then they say,
'What is this man who is sent to you?' (i. e., the Prophet.) He
says, 'He is the Prophet of God.' Then they say, 'What is your proof
of his mission?' He says, T read the book of God, and believed in it, and
I proved it to be true.' Then, a voice calls out from the celestial regions,
'My servant hath spoken true, therefore throw for him a bed from Para-
dise, and dress him in clothes from Paradise, and open a door for him
towards Paradise.' Then peace and perfumes come for him from Para-
dise, and his grave is enlarged for him as far as the eye can see. Then
a man with a beautiful face comes to him, elegantly dressed, and per-
fumed, and he says, 'Be joyful in that which has made thee so, this is
the day which was promised thee.' Then the dead person says to him,
'Who art thou, for thy face is perfectly beautiful?' And the man re-
plies, T am thy good deeds.' Then the dead person cries out, 'O Lord,
hasten the resurrection for my sake !'

"But," continued the Prophet, "when an infidel dies, and is about
to pass from the world and bring his soul to futurity, blackfaced angels
come down to him and with them sackcloths. Then they sit from the
dead as far as the eye can see, after which the Angel of Death comes in
order to sit at his head, and says, 'O impure soul ! come forth to the
wrath of God.' Then the soul is disturbed in the infidel's body. Then
the Angel of Death draws it out as a hot squit is drawn out of wet wool.

"Then the Angel of Death takes the soul of the infidel, and having
taken it, the angels do not allow it to remain with him the twinkling of an

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337

eye, but they take it in the sackcloth, and a disagreeable smell issues from
the soul, like that of the most feted carcass that can be met with upon
the face of the earth. Then the angels carry it upwards and do not pass
by any assembly of angels who do not ask whose filthy soul is this.
They answer such an one, the son of such an one, and they mention him
by the worst names that he bore in the world, till they arrive with it at
the lowest heaven, and call the door to be opened, but it cannot be done.
Then the Prophet repeated this verse: 'The doors of the celestial re-
gions shall not be opened for them, nor shall they enter into Paradise
till a camel passes through the eye of a needle.' Then God says, 'Write
his history in Sijjin,' which is the lowest earth; then his soul is thrown
down with violence. Afterwards the Prophet repeated this verse : 'Unite
no partner with God, for whoever uniteth gods with God is like that
which falleth from high, and the birds snatch it away, or the wind waft-
eth it to a distant place.' Then his soul is replaced in his body, and two
angels (Munkar and Nakir) come to him and set him up, and say, 'Who
is thy Lord?' He says, 'Alas! alas! I do not know.' Then they say,
'What is thy religion?' He says, 'Alas! alas! I do not know.' And they
say to him, 'What is the condition of the man who is sent down to you ?'
He says, 'Alas ! alas ! I do not know.' Then a voice comes from above,
saying, 'He lieth ; therefore spread a bed of fire for him and open a door
for him toward hell.' Then the heat and hot winds of hell come to him,
and his grave is made tight upon him, so as to squeeze his ribs. And a
man with a hideous countenance comes to him shockingly dressed, of a
vile smell, and he says, 'Be joyful in that which maketh thee miserable ;
this is the day that was promised thee.' Then the dead man says, 'Who
art thou? Thy face is hideous, and brings wickedness.' He says, T am
thy impure actions.' Then the dead person says, 'O Lord, delay the
resurrection on my account !' "

The ceremonies attending the death of a Moslem are described as
follows by Jafir Sharif in Herklot's Qanun-i-Islam :

Four or five days previous to a sick man's approaching his dissolu-
tion, he makes his will in favor of his son or any other person, in the
presence of two or more witnesses, and either delivers it to others or
retains it by him. In it he likewise appoints his executor. When about
to expire, any learned reader of the Koran is sent for, and requested to
repeat with a loud voice the Sura Ya Sin (or chap, xxxvi). in order that
the spirit of the man, by the hearing of its sound, may experience ease
and contentment. It is said that when the spirit was commanded to
enter the body of Adam, the soul having looked into it once, observed

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that it was a bad and dark place, and unworthy of its presence ! Then
the Just and Most Holy God illuminated the body of Adam with "lamps
of light," and commanded the spirit to re-enter. It went in a second
time, beheld the light, and saw the whole dwelling, and said, "There is
no pleasing sound here for me to listen to." It is generally understood
from the best works of the mystics of the East, that it was owing to this
circumstance that the Almighty created music. The holy spirit, on hear-
ing the sound of this music became so delighted that it entered Adam's
body. Commentators on the Koran, expositors of the Traditions and
divines having written, that that sound resembled that produced by the
repeating of the Saratu Ya Sin ; it is therefore advisable to read at the
hour of death this chapter for tranquilizing the soul.

The Kalimatu'sh-shahadah (creed) is also read with an audible voice
by those present. They do not require the patient to read it himself, as
at such a time he is in a distressing situation, and not in a fit state of
mind to repeat the Kalimah.

Most people lie insensible, and cannot even speak, but the pious
retain their mortal faculties and converse till the very last. The follow-
ing is a most serious religious rule amongst us, viz., that if a person
desire the patient to repeat the Kalimah, and the sick man expires with-
out being able to do so, his faith is considered dubious ; whilst the man
who directed him so to do thereby incurs guilt. It is therefore best that
the sitters-by read it, in anticipation of the hope that the sick man, by
hearing the sound of it, may bring it to his recollection, and repeat it
either aloud or in his own mind. In general, when a person is on the
point of death, they pour sherbet, made of sugar and water, down his
throat, to facilitate the exit of the vital spark, and some procure the holy
water of the Zamzam well at Mecca. The moment the spirit has fled
the mouth is closed ; because if left open, it would present a disagreeable
spectacle. The two great toes are brought in contact and fastened to-
gether there with a thin slip of cloth, to prevent the legs remaining
apart. They burn perfumes near the corpse. Should the individual have
died in the evening, the shrouding and burial take place before midnight;
if he die at a later hour, or should the articles required not be procurable
at that late hour, he is buried early on the following morning. The
sooner the sepulchral rites are performed the better, for it is not proper
to keep a corpse long in the house, and for this reason the Prophet said
that if he was a good man, the sooner he is buried the more quickly he
will reach heaven; if a bad man, he should be speedily buried, in order
that his unhappy lot may not fall upon others in the house ; as also that

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339

the relatives of the deceased may not, by holding the corpse, weep too
much or go without food. There are male and female washers, whose
province it is to wash and shroud the corpse for payment. Sometimes,
however, the relatives do it themselves. In undertaking the operation
of washing, they dig a hole in the earth to receive the water used in the
process, and prevent its spreading over a large surface, as some men
and women consider it bad to tread on such water. Then they place
the corpse on a bed, country cot, plank, or straw. Some women, who
are particular in these matters, are afraid even to venture near the place
where the body has been washed. Having stripped the corpse and
laid it on its back, with its head to the east and feet to the west, they
cover it with a cloth— reaching, if it be a man, from the navel to the
calves of the legs, if a woman, extending from the chest to the feet —
and wash it with warm or cold water. They raise the body gently and
rub the abdomen four or five times, then pour plenty of water, and
wash off all the dirt and filth with soap, etc., by means of flocks of cotton
or cloth; after which, laying the body on the sides, they wash them;
then the back, and the rest of the body ; but gently, because life having
but just departed, the body is still warm and not insensible to pain.
After this they wash and clean it well, so that no offensive smell may
remain. They never throw water into the nostrils or mouth, but clean
them with wicks of cloth or cotton. After that they perform wuzu' for
him, i. e., they wash his mouth, the two upper extremities up to the
elbows, make masah on his head, and throw water on his feet; these
latter constituting the four parts of the wuzu' ceremony. They then
put some camphor with water into a new large earthen pot, and with
a new earthen pot they take out water and pour it three times, first from
the head to the feet, then from the right shoulder to the feet, lastly from
the left shoulder to the feet. Every time that a pot of water is poured
the Kalimatu'sh-shahadah is repeated, either by the person washing or
another. Having bathed the body and wiped it dry with a new piece
of cloth, they put on the shroud. The shroud consists of three pieces of
cloth, if for a man, and five, if for a woman.

The corpse must be carefully brought by itself from the place where
it was bathed, and laid in the shrouds. Surmah is to be applied to the
eyes with a tent made of paper rolled up, with a ring, or with a pice, and
camphor to seven places, viz., on the forehead, including the nose, on
the palms of the hands, on the knees and great toes, after which the dif-
ferent shrouds are to be properly put on one after another as they lay.
The color of the shroud is to be white ; no other is admissible. It is of

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no consequence, however, if a colored cloth is spread over the bier;
which, after the funeral, or after the fortieth day, is given away to the
fagir who resides in the burying-ground, or to any other person, in
charity. Previous to shrouding the body, they tear shreds from the
cloths for the purpose of trying them on ; and after shrouding the body,
they tie one band above the head, a second below the feet, and a third
about the chest, leaving about six or seven fingers' breadth of cloth
above the head and below the feet, to admit of the ends being fastened.
Should the relict of the deceased be present, they undo the cloth of the
head and show her his face, and get her, in the presence of two wit-
nesses, to remit the dowry which he had settled upon her ; but it is prefer-
able that she remit it while he is still alive. Should the wife, owing to
journeying, be at a distance from him, she is to remit it on receiving the
intelligence of his demise.

GRAVE AND BURIAL CEREMONIES.

The graves of the Mohammedans are so dug as to allow the body
to lie with its face toward Mecca. It is usual to dig a grave the
depth equal to the height of the breast of a middle-sized man, and to
make a recess at the bottom, which is called lahd, in which the body is
placed. The body having been placed in the recess, it is closed with
unburnt bricks, and the grave is filled with earth and a mound raised
over it.

The traditions of Mohammed, as well as the works of Moslem
doctors, all teach that a dead body is conscious of pain, and therefore
great care is taken to prevent any pressure upon the body.

Amir relates that his father Sa'd ibu Abi Waggas said on his death-
bed, "Make a lahd for me toward Mecca, and put unburnt bricks upon
my grave, as was done in the case of the prophet. Safyan at-Tammar
relates that he "saw the prophet's grave, and the top of it was like a
camel's back."

Ibu 'Abbas says, "a red cloth was placed upon the prophet's grave."

Jabir says, "The prophet prohibited building with mortar on graves,
and also placing inscriptions upon them." But notwithstanding this
tradition, masonry tombs are most common in all parts of Islam, and
form some of the most striking specimens of Mohammedan architecture.

The term Janazah is used both for the bier and for the Moham-
medan service. The burial service is founded upon the practice of
Mohammed, and varies but little in different countries, although the
ceremonies connected with the funeral procession are diversified. In

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341

Egypt and Bukhara, for instance, the male relations and friends of the
deceased precede the corpse, whilst the female mourners follow behind.
In India and Afghanistan, women do not usually attend funerals, and
the friends and relatives of the deceased walk behind the bier. There
is a tradition amongst some Mohammedans that no one should pre-
cede the corpse, as the angels go before. Funeral processions in Afghan-
istan are usually very simple in their arrangement, and are said to be
more in accordance with the practice of the prophet than those of
Egypt and Turkey. It is considered a very meritorious act to carry the
bier, and four from among the near relations, every now and then relived
by an equal number, carry it on their shoulders. Unlike our Christian
custom 1 of walking slowly to the grave, the Mohammedans carry their
dead quickly to the place of interment; for Mohammed is related to
have said, that it is good to carry the dead quickly to the grave, to
cause the righteous person to arrive soon at happiness, and if he be
a bad man, it is well to put wickedness away from one's shoulders.
Funeral should always be attended on foot ; for it is said that
Mohammed on one occasion rebuked his people for following on
horseback. ''Have you no shame?" said he. "since Gods and angels
go on foot and you go upon the backs of quadrupeds?" It is a highly
meritorious act to attend funerals, whether it be that of a Moslem, a
Jew, or a Christian. There are, however, two traditions which appear
to mark a change of feeling on the part of the prophet of Arabia toward
the Jew and Christians.

"A bier passed by the prophet and he stood up ; and it was said to
the prophet, this is the bier of a Jew. 'It is the holder of a soul,' he
replied, 'from which we should take warning and fear.' " This rule is
said to have been abrogated for "on one occasion the prophet, sitting
on the road when the bier passed, and the prophet disliked that the bier
of a Jew should be higher than his head, and he therefore stood up."
Notwithstanding these contradictory traditions we believe that in all
countries Mohammedans are wont to pay great respect to the funerals
of both Jews and Christians.

The Mohammedan funeral service is not recited in the graveyard,
it being too polluted a place for so sacred an offer, but either in a
mosque, or in some open space near the dwelling of the deceased person,
or the graveyard. The owner of the corpse, the nearest relative, is the
proper person to recite the service, but it is usually said by the family
Imam, or the Qazi.

The following is the order of the service :

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Some one present calls out :

"Here begin the prayers for the dead."

Then those present arranged themselves in three, five, or seven
rows opposite the corpse, with their faces Qidlah-wards (i. e., toward
Mecca). The Imam stands in front of the ranks, opposite the head
(the Shi-ahs stand opposite the loins of a man) of the corpse, if it be that
of a male, or the waist, if it be that of a female.

The whole company having taken up the Qiyan, or standing
position, the Imam recites the Niyah.

"I propose to perform prayers to God for this dead person, con-
sisting of four Takbirs."

Then placing his hands to the lobes of his ears, he says the first
Takbir :

"God is great!"

Then folding his hands, the right hand placed upon the left, below
the nazel, he recites the Subhan :
"Holiness to Thee, O God,
And to Thee be praise ;
Great is Thy name ;
Great is Thy greatness ;
Great is Thy praise;
There is no Deity but Thee."
Then follows the second Takbir:
"God is great !"
Then the Dnrud :

"O God, have mercy on Mohammed and upon his descendants, as
Thou didst bestow mercy, and peace, and blessing, and compassion, and
great kindness upon Abraham and upon his descendants.

Thou art praised and Thou art great !

"O God, bless Mohammed and bis descendants, as Thou didst
bless and didst have compassion and great kindness upon Abraham
and upon his descendants."

Then follows the third Tabir:

"God is great!"

After which the following prayer (Du'a) is recited :
"O God, forgive our living and dead and those of us who are
present, and those who are absent, and our children, and our full grown
persons, our men and our women. O God, those whom Thou dost
keep alive amongst us, keep alive in Islam, and those whom Thou cau-
sest to die, let them die in the faith."

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343

Then follows the fourth Takbir :
"God is great !"

Turning the head round to the right, he says :
"Peace and mercy be to Thee."
Turning the head round to the left, he says :
"Peace and mercy be to Thee."

The Takbir is recited by the Imam aloud, but the Subhan, the
Salam, the Dnrud, and the Du'a, are recited by the Imam, and the
people in a low voice.

The people then seat themselves on the ground, and raise their heads
in silent prayer, in behalf of the deceased's soul, and, afterwards address-
ing the relatives, say: "It is the decree of God." To which the chief
mourner replies : "I am pleased with the will of God." He then gives
permission to the people to retire by saying: "There is permission
to depart."

Those who wish to return to their homes do so at this time, and
the rest proceed to the grave. The corpse is then placed on its
back in the grave, with the head to the north and feet to the
south, the face being turned toward Mecca. The persons who
place the corpse in the grave repeat the following sentence: "We
commit thee to earth in the name of God and in the religion of the
prophet."

The bands of the shroud having been loosened, the recess, which is
called the lahd, is closed in with unburnt bricks and the grave filled in
with earth; in some countries it is usual to recite verse 57 of the 20th
Sura of the Koran as the clods of earth are thrown into the grave, but
this practice is objected to by the Wakhabis, and by many learned
divines. The verse is as follows : "From it (the earth) have We (God)
created you, and unto it will We return you, and out of it will We bring
you forth the second time." After the burial, the people offer a fatihah
(i. e., the first chapter of the Koran) in the name of the deceased, and
again when they have proceeded about forty paces from the grave they
offer another fatihah; for at this juncture, it is said, the two angels,
Munku and Maku, examine the deceased as to his faith (punishment
of the grave). After this, food is distributed to beggars and religious
mendicants as a propitiatory offering to God, in the name of the
deceased person. If the grave be for the body of a woman, it should be
the height of a man's chest, if for a man, to the height of the waist. At
the bottom of the grave the recess is made on the side to receive the
corpse, which is called the lahed, or lahd. The dead are seldom

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interred in coffins, although they are not prohibited. To build tombs
with stones or burn bricks, or to write a verse of the Koran upon
them, is forbidden in the Hadis ; but large stone and brick tombs are
common to all Mohammedan countries, and very frequently they bear
inscriptions. On the third day of the burial of the dead it is usual
for the relatives to visit the grave and to recite selections from the
Koran. Those who can afford to pay Manlavis, employ these learned
men to recite the whole of the Koran at the graves of their deceased
relatives, and the Koran is divided into sections to admit of its being
recited by the several Manlavis at once. During the days of mourning
the relatives abstain from wearing any article of dress of a bright color,
and their soiled garments remain unchanged. A funeral procession
in Egypt is graphically described by Mr. Lane, in his Modern Egyptians.
We give the account as it contrasts strikingly with the simple processions
of Sunni Mohammedans in India.

The first persons are about six or more poor men, called
"Yamaniyah," mostly blind, who proceed two and two, or three and
three, together. Walking at a moderate pace, or rather slowly, they
chant incessantly, in a melancholy tone, the profession of faith (There
is no Deity but God ; Mohammed is God's Apostle ; God favor and pre-
serve him !). They are followed by some male relations and friends of
the deceased, and, in many cases, by two or more persons of some
sect of darweshes, bearing the flags of their order. This is a general
custom at the funeral of a darwesh. Next follow three or four more
schoolboys; one of them carries a mushal (or copy of the Koran), or
a volume consisting of one of the thirty sections of the Koran, placed
upon a kind of desk, formed of palm-sticks, and covered over, generally
with an embroidered kerchief. These boys chant, in a higher and livelier
voice than the Yamaniyah, usually some words of a poem called the
Hashriyah, descriptive of the events of the last day, the judgment, etc.
The schoolboys immediately precede the bier, which is borne head-
foremost. Three or four friends of the deceased usually carry it for a
short distance, then three or four other friends bear it a little further,
and then these are in like manner relieved. Casual passengers also
often take part in this service, which is esteemed highly meritorious.
Behind the bier walk the female mourners, sometimes a group of more
than a dozen, or twenty, with their hair disheveled, though generally
concealed by the head-veil, crying and shrieking, as before described,
and often the hired mourners accompany them, celebrating the praises
of the deceased. Among the women the relatives and domestics of

RELIGIONS OF PERSIA.

the deceased are distinguished by a strip of linen or cotton stuff or
muslin, generally blue., bound round the head and tied in a single knot
behind, the ends hanging down a few inches. Each of these also carries
a handkerchief, usually dyed blue, which she sometimes holds over her
shoulders, and at other times twirls with both hands over her head,
or before her face. The cries of the women, the lively chanting of the
youths, and the deep tones uttered by the Yamaniyah, compose a
strange discord. The funeral procession of a man of wealth, or of a
person of the middle classes, is sometimes preceded by three or four
or more camels, bearing bread and water to give to the poor at the tomb,
and is composed of a more numerous and varied assemblage of persons.
The foremost of these are the Yamaniyah, who chant the profession
of the faith, as described above. They are generally followed by some
male friends of the deceased, and some learned and devout persons who
have been invited to attend the funeral. Next follows a group of four
or more fagihs, chanting the Suratu 'l-An'am (the sixth chapter of the
Koran), and sometimes another group, chanting the Surat Ya-sin (the
thirty-sixth chapter, another chanting the Suratu '1-Kahf (the eigh-
teenth chapter), and another chanting the Suratu 'd-Dukhan' (the
forty-fourth chapter). These are followed by some munshids, singing the
Burday, and these by certain persons called Ashabu '1-Ahzab, who are
members of religious orders founded by celebrated shaikhs. There are
generally four or more of the order of the Hizbu 's-Sadat, a similar
group of the Hizbu 'sh-Sha'rawi ; each group chants a particular form
of prayer. After them are generally borne two or more half-furled
flags, the banners of one or other of the principle orders of darweshes.
Then follow the schoolboys, the bier, and the female mourners, as in
the procession before described, and, perhaps, the led horses of the
bearers, if these be men of rank. A buffalo, to be sacrificed at the tomb,
where its flesh is to be distributed to the poor, sometimes closes the
procession. The funeral of a devout shaikh, or one of the great Ulama,
is still more numerously attended, and the bier of such a person is not
covered with a shawl. A wali is further honored in his funeral by
a remarkable custom. Women follow his bier, but, instead of wailing,
as they would after the corpse of an ordinary mortal, they rend the
air with the shrill and quavering cries of joy called Zagharit, and if these
cries are discontinued but for a minute, the bearers of the bier protest
that they cannot proceed, that a supernatural power rivets them to the
spot on which they stand. Very often, it is said, a wali impels the
bearers of his corpse to a particular spot. The following anecdote,

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describing an ingenious mode of puzzling a dead saint in a case of this
kind, was related to me by one of my friends. Some men were lately
bearing the corpse of a wali to a tomb prepared for it in the great
cemetery of the north of the metropolis, but on arriving at the gate,
called Babu 'n-Nase, which leads to the cemetery, they found them-
selves unable to proceed further, from the cause above mentioned. "It
seems," said one of the bearers, "that the shaikh is determined not to
be buried in the cemetery of Babu 'n-Nase, and what shall we do?"
They were all much perplexed, but being as obstinate as the saint him-
self, they did not immediately yield to his caprice. Retreating a few
paces, and then advancing with a quick step, they thought by such an
impetus to force the corpse through the gateway, but their efforts were
unsuccessful, and the same experiment they repeated in vain several
times. They then placed the bier on the ground to rest and consult,
and one of them, beckoning away his comrades to a distance beyond
hearing of the dead saint, said to them : "Let us take up the bier again,
and turn it around several times till the shaikh becomes giddy, he then
will not know in what direction we are going, and we may take him
easily through the gate." This they did ; the saint was puzzled, as they
expected, and quietly buried in the place which he had so striven to
avoid. |
In the funerals of females and boys the bier is usually only pre-
ceded by the Yamaniyah, chanting the profession of faith, and by some
male relatives of the deceased, and followed by the female mourners,
unless the deceased were of a family of wealth, or of considerable station
in the world, in which case the funeral procession is distinguished by
some additional display.

I shall give a short description of one of the most genteel and
decorous funerals of this kind that I have witnessed. It was that of a
young unmarried lady. Two men, each bearing a large furled, green
flag, headed the procession, preceding the Yamaniyah, who chanted in
an unusually low and solemn manner. These fagirs who were in
number about eight, were followed by a group of iakihs, chanting a
chapter of the Koran. Next after the latter was a man bearing a large
branch of "Nabg" (or lotetree), an emblem of the deceased. On each
side of him walked a person bearing a tall staff or cane, to the top of
which were attached several hoops ornamented with strips of various
colored paper. These were followed by two Turkish soldiers, side by
side, one bearing on a small tray a gilt silver "gumgum" of rose water,
and the other bearing, on a similar tray, a "mibharah" of gilt silver, in

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347

which some odoriferous substance (as benzoin, or frankincense) was
burning. These vessels diffused the odor of their contents on the way,
and were afterwards used to perfume the sepulchral vault. Passengers
were occasionally sprinkled with the rose water. Next followed four
men, each of whom bore, upon a small tray, several small lighted tapers
of wax, stuck in lumps of paste of "hinna." The bier was covered
with rich shawls, and its shahid was decorated with handsome ornaments
of the head, having, besides the safa, a gussah almas (a long ornament
of gold and diamonds worn over the forehead), and upon its flat top,
a rich diamond gurs. These were the jewels of the deceased, or were,
perhaps, as is often the case, borrowed for the occasion. The female
mourners, in number about seven or eight, clad in the usual manner of
the ladies of Egypt (with the black silk covering, etc), followed the bier,
not on foot, as is the common custom in funerals in this country, but
mounted on high-saddled asses, and only the last two or three of them
were wailing, these being, probably, hired mourners. In another
funeral procession of a female, the daughter of a Turk of high rank,
the Yamaniyah were followed by six slaves, walking two by two. The
first two slaves bore each a silver gum-gum of rose water, which they
sprinkled on the passengers, and one of them honored me so profusely
as to wet my dress very uncomfortably, after which, he poured a small
quantity into my hands, and I wetted my face with it, according to
custom. Each of the next two bore a silver mibharah, with perfume,
and the other two carried a silver azgi (or hanging censer), with burning
charcoal of frankincense. The jewels on the shahid of the bier were of a
costly description. Eleven ladies, moamted on high-saddled asses,
together with several naddabahs, followed."

HEAVEN (Arabic Sama).

Persian Asman, which expresses the firmament as distinguished
from Firdaus, or Paradise, the abodes of bliss. In the Koran it is stated
that there are seven paths, or stages in heaven. Sura xxiii:i7: "And
we have created above you seven paths nor are we heedless of the cre-
ation." By which the commentators understand that there are paths of
the angels and of the celestial bodies. The creation of the heaven is de-
clared to be for God's glory and not for his pastime. Sura xxi :i6 : "We
created not the heaven and the earth, and that which is between them,
by way of sport." It is the general belief that at the last day the heavens
will fall, but that they are now upheld by God's power. Sura xxii -.64 :
"He holds up the heaven from falling on the earth save at His bidding."

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According to the Traditions, Mohammed during the mu'raj, or night
journey, passed through these seven heavens, and they are stated to be
as follows: (i) That which is of pure virgin silver and which is Adam's
residence ; (2) of pure gold, which is John the Baptist's and Jesus' ; (3)
of pearls, which is Joseph's ; (4) of white gold, which is Enoch's ; (5) of
silver, which is Aaron's ; (6) of ruby and garnet, which is Moses' ; (7)
which is Abraham's. These accounts are, however, most confused ; for
in some books and according to popular tradition, the fourth and not
the second heaven is assigned to Jesus. This view is in harmony with
the seven spheres of Ptolemy, the first of which is that of the moon, the
second Mercury, the third Venus, the fourth the Sun, the fifth Mars,
the sixth Jupiter, the seventh Saturn ; each of which orbs was sup-
posed by the ancients to revolve round the earth in its proper sphere.
Mohammed said the distance between each heavenly region is five hun-
dred years' journey.

THE EARTH (Arabic arz).

Mohammed taught his followers that just as there are seven heavens
above another, so there are seven earths one beneath another, the dis-
tance between each of these regions being five hundred years' journey.

In the Koran the earth is said to be stretched out like a carpet or
bed, which expression the ancient commentators understood to imply
that the earth was a vast plane, but circular ; and to be but a handful in
the sight of God, which in the last day shall be changed into another
earth.

The earth is believed by Mohammedan writers to be surrounded by
a great sea called ail-Bahru '1-Muhit, or the circumambient ocean, which
is bounded by the mountains of Qaf. The extent of the earth is said to
be equal to a journey of five hundred years ; two hundred years' journey
being allotted to the sea, two hundred to the uninhabited desert, eighty
to the country of Gog and Magog and the rest to the civilized world.
Certain terrae incognitae in the midst of the mountains of Qaf are said
to be inhabited by the jinn, or genii. According to some, Mecca (or
Jerusalem according to others) is situated in the center of the earth. On
the Muhit is the 'Arshu '1-Iblis, or "Throne of Satan." The Western
portion of the Muhit is often called the Bahru 'z-Zulmat, or "Sea of
Darkness," and in the southwest corner of the earth is the Fountain of
Life of which al-Khizr drank, and in virtue of which he still lives, and
will live till the Day of Judgment. The mountains of Qaf which bound
the great sea Muhit, form a circular barrier round the whole earth, and

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349

are said to be of green chrysolite, the color of which the Prophet said
imparts a greenish tint to the sky. The general opinion is that the
mountains of Qaf bound our earth, but some say there are countries
beyond, each country being a thousand years' journey.

The seven earths, which are five hundred years' journey from
each other, are situated one beneath the other, and each of these seven
regions has its special occupants. The occupants of the first are men,
genii, and animals ; the second is occupied by the suffocating wind which
destroyed the infidel tribe of 'Ad; the third is filled with the stones of
hell, mentioned in the Koran as "the fuel of which is men and stones ;"
the fourth by the sulphur of hell ; the fifth by the serpents of hell ; the
sixth by the scorpions of hell, which are in size and color like black
mules, and have tails like spears ; and the seventh by the devil and
his angels. Our earth is said to be supported on the shoulders of an
angel, who stands upon a rock of ruby, which rock is supported on a
huge bull with four thousand eyes, and the same number of ears, noses,
mouths, tongues, and feet ; between every one of each is a distance of
five hundred years' journey. The name of this bull of Kujuta, who is
supported by an enormous fish, the name of which is Bahamut.

The above is but a brief outline of the Mohammedan belief as re-
gards the earth's formation, but the statements of Mohammedan com-
mentators are so wild on the subject, that it seems quite useless to quote
them as authorities, for they contradict each other in endless variety.

GABRIEL (Arabic Ji'bra'-il).

In the Koran, Jibril. The angelic being who is supposed to have
been the medium of the revelation of the Koran to Mohammed. He is
mentioned only twice in the Koran by name Sarutu '1-Baqarah ii 191 :
"Whoso is the enemy of Gabriel — for he has by God's leave caused to
descend on thy heart the confirmation of previous revelations," etc.
And again in Sarutu 't-Tahrim, lxvi. 4: "God is his protector and
Gabriel." He is, however, supposed to be spoken of in Sura ii:8i,
254; v. 109; xvi. 104, as "the Holy Spirit," Ruhu l'Qudus; in Sura
xxvi. 193, as "the Faithful Spirit," ar-Ruhu '1-Amin ; and liii. 5, as "one
terrible in power," Shadilu '1-Quwa.

The account of Gabriel's first appearance to Mohammed is re-
lated as follows by Abu '1-Fida : "Mohammed was wont to retire to
Mount Hira for a month every year. When the year of his mission
came, he went to Mount Hifa in the month of Ramazan for the purpose
of sojourning there, having his family with him; and there he abode

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until the night arrived in which God was pleased to bless him. Gabriel
came to him, and said to him, 'Recite!' And he replied, 'What shall I
recite?' And he said, 'Recite thou, in the name of thy Lord who cre-
ated. Created man from clots of blood. Recite thou! For the Lord
is most Beneficent. Who hath taught the use of the pen. Hath taught
man that which he knoweth not.' After this the Prophet went to the
middle of the mountain-, and heard a voice from heaven which said,
'Thou art the messenger of God and I am Gabriel.' He continued in
his place to contemplate Gabriel until he withdrew."

It is clear that at a later period at last, if not from the first, Moham-
med confounded Gabriel with the Holy Ghost. The idea may have
arisen from some such misapprehension as the following. Mary con-
ceived Jesus by the power of the Holy Ghost, which overshadowed
her. But it was Gabriel who visited Mary to announce the conception
of the Savior. The Holy Ghost was, therefore, another name for Ga-
briel. We need hardly wonder at this ignorance when Mohammed
seems to have believed that Christians held Mary to be the third person
in the Trinity!

With reference to the verse quoted above, from the Sura '1-Baga-
rah, Sale says the Commentators say that the Jews asked what angel
it was that brought the Koran to Mohammed, and on being told that
it was Gabriel, they replied that he was their enemy and the messen-
ger of wrath and judgment ; but that if it had been Michael they would
have believed on him, because that angel was their friend, and the mes-
senger of peace and plenty.

It is also important to observe that the only distinct assertion of
Gabriel being the medium of divine revelation, occurs in a Madaniyah
Sura.

Gabriel is called in Moslem books ar-Ruhu '1-A'zam, "The Supreme
Spirit;" ar-Ruhu '1-Mu-karram, "The Honored Spirit;" Ruhu '1-Ilga,
"The Spirit of casting into ;" Ruhu '1-Qudus, "The Holy Spirit ;" and ar-
Ruhu '1-Amin, "The Faithful Spirit."

MOHAMMED'S JOURNEY TO PARADISE.

The following brief description of Mohammed's traditional journey
to Paradise may fittingly illustrate some of the singular ideas of Islam.

The angel Gabriel appeared to Mohammed with an Alborak, a
strange animal, a cross between an ass and a mule. This long-eared
brute began to talk, demanding some concession from the new Prophet.
Having promised the creature a golden stall in heaven, Mohammed

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351

was permitted to mount. In the twinkling of an eye he arrived at Jeru-
salem, where, after a pleasant interview with the patriarchs, and pro-
phets of all ages, he ascended with Gabriel upon a ladder extending
from the "City of David" to the "City of God." As he arrived at the
portals of heaven he saw this large inscription on one side, "There is
no God but God," and on the other, "Mohammed is his Apostle." The
heavenly host being informed that Mohammed had come, at once the
pearly gates were thrown wide open, and upon entering he was quickly
embraced by Father Adam, who was happy to meet his most illustrious
son. From this heaven, the stars which he described as being hollow
silver balls, were suspended by golden chains. What would become of
faith in Mohammed's visions if modern science were introduced among
his followers.

Quickly Mohammed was taken from the first to the second
heaven, — a journey of five hundred years, — where he met the angel of
the Cocks, who was so tall as to reach from the first to the second
heaven. Nearly every morning this big rooster joins God in singing
a song that fills the entire universe with its melodious strains. Every
being on earth hears them but man. In this heaven he met Noah, who
was the presiding dignitary, and he was tendered a most cordial re-
ception as he passed through the golden streets. In the third heaven,
he describes the angels as being very large. One of the most gigantic
required seventy thousand days' journey between the eyes. Here, too,
he found the same inscription as in the first and second heaven. After
a short interview with Moses in the fourth, or emerald, heaven, he was
taken to the fifth to meet Joseph; then the sixth heaven, of carbuncle,
where he beheld John the Baptist.

Radiant with light and ruled over by Jesus was the seventh heaven
in which he was attended by a vast multitude of joyous inhabitants and
innumerable angels of dazzling beauty, each of whom possessed seventy
thousand heads, with seventy thousand mouths to each head, and
seventy thousand tongues to each mouth — all singing and singing day
and night unceasingly. Here the Prophet, with glorious pomp, was pre-
sented to God, whose face was concealed by seventy thousand veils.
Here too, on the side of the divine throne, Mohammed beheld the in-
scription: "There is no God but God," and on the other, "Moham-
med is His Apostle." God, after saluting Mohammed, commissioned
him to return to earth with full authority. All this the faithful most
firmly believe.

Chastity is prescribed by the Koran for the faithful in two forms —

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voluntary and compulsory. The latter amounts to the fortieth part of
his possessions, but it is only imposed when the property aggregates
a certain sum. Voluntary charity dispensed at the time of the feast fol-
lowing the annual fast.

The pilgrimage to Mecca, as a pious duty, is believed to secure cer-
tain inestimable privileges for all who can possibly make the trip. Noth-
ing could test faith more than this long, tiresome journey. All the
world has heard of the vast concourse there annually assembled from
all parts of Asia, Africa and Europe. At that time every highway lead-
ing to the sacred Kaaba is a field hospital for the sick and dying; and in
the general lack of physicians and nurses when cholera prevails, as it
usually does, Mecca becomes the disseminating point for the plague.

Honors are bestowed on the survivors of the hazardous ordeal of
this journey, and they are addressed by the title of hadji.

Mohammed has declared that he will not intercede in heaven for
unmarried men. So marry you must or take your chances. Remember
Mohammed, old bachelors and old maids, or you will be miserable in
this world and in the world to come. The Prophet would have them
bring up large families, that his followers may outnumber all others
in Paradise. The widows actually pray, "Let me be married before
I die, that I may not be ashamed when I meet Allah !" Allah will re-
ward the parents of children, those who pay the debts of another, and
the soldiers in holy wars.

As we pursue the career of such a heathen religion, so infernally
atrocious in theory and practice, our pained hearts cannot help but
exclaim, "How long, O Lord, how long! May we not confidently
cherish the hope that the shining cross of the humble Nazarene, that
has conqueringly risen above the powers of darkness and tyranny, shall
soorier or later, as its final achievement, triumph over the blood red
crescent of Mohammed?"

ETERNITY OF PUNISHMENT.

The Mohammedan religion teaches that all Moslems will be ul-
timately saved, although they will suffer for their actual sins in a purga-
torial hell. But those who have not embraced Islam will suffer a never-
ending torment in "the fire." Sura ii. 37 : "Those who misbelieve
and call our signs lies, they are the fellotyvs of hell, they shall dwell
therein for ever."

Sura xi. 108, 109: "And as for those who are wretched — why in

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353

the fire shall they groan and sob ! to dwell therein forever as long as
the heavens and earth endure."

Al-Baizawi says the expression "as long as the heavens and the
earth endure," is an Arabic idiom expressing that which is eternal.

Ibu 'Arabi (died A. D. 638), in his book Tususu '1-Hikam, says
the word khalid in the verses quoted above does not imply eternal
duration, but a period, or age, of long duration. Al-Baizawi, the com-
mentator, also admits that the literal meaning of the word only ex-
presses a period of extended duration ; but the Jalalau and Husain both
contend that its meaning is that of abadi, or "never ending," in which
no being will be annihilated, and which no one can ever escape.

It is also to be observed that this word khalid is that used for the
eternity of bliss of those in Paradise : —

Sura xi. no: "As for those who are glad — why in Paradise! to
dwell therein forever."

HELL.

The place of torment is most frequently spoken of in the Koran
and Traditions as an-Nar, "the fire," but the word Johannam occurs
about thirty times. It is said to have seven portals or divisions. Sura
xv. 44: "Verily, hell is promised to all together (who follow Satan).
It has seven portals, and at every door there is a separate party of
them."

The Persian word used for hell in books of theology, is dozakh.

The Mohammedan commentators, with that utter recklessness
which so characterizes their writings, distribute these seven stations
as follows : (1) Johannam, the purgatorial hell for Moslems. (2) Laza,
a blazing fire for Christians. (3) Al-Hutamah, an intense fire for the
Jews. (4) Sa'ir, a flaming fire for the Sabians. (5) Sagar, a scorching
fire for the Magi. (6) Al-Jahim, a huge hot fire for idolators. (7) Ha-
wiyah, a bottomless pit for hypocrites.

OATH (Arabic yamin).

The teaching of the Koran with reference to an oath, is expressed
in the following verses : —

Sura ii. 225 : "God will not punish you for an inconsiderate
word in your oath, but he will punish you for that which your hearts
have assented to."

Sura v. 91 : "God will not punish you for an inconsiderate word
in your oaths, but He will punish you in regard to an oath taken seri-

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ously. Its expiation shall be to feed ten poor persons with such mod-
erate food as ye feed your own family with, or to clothe them ; or to set
free a captive. But he who cannot find means shall fast three days."

Sura xvi. 96 : "Take not your oaths between you deceitfully."

The following 1 is the teaching of Mohammed, as given in the Tra-
ditions : —

"Whoever swears to a thing and says, 'If it please God," and acts
contrary to his oath, it is no sin."

"Swear not by the idols or by your own fathers."

"Swear not by God except it be to the truth."

"Whoever swears by the prayers, or by the fast, or by the pil-
grimage, is not a Moslem."

The Prophet used generally to swear in these words : "No by the
Turner of Hearts."

According to the Hidayah, yamin is constituted by the use of the
name of Almighty God, or by any of those appellations by which the
Deity is generally known or understood.

False oaths are of three kinds : —

(1) Al-Yaminu '1-Ghamus. An oath taken concerning a thing
already past, in which is conveyed an intentional falsehood on the
part of the swearer: such an oath is highly sinful, the Prophet having
declared — "Whosoever sweareth falsely, the same shall be condemned
to hell."

(2) Al-Yaminu '1-mun'agid. An oath taken concerning a matter
which is to come. Thus, a man swears that he will do such a thing,
or he will not do such a thing and where he fails in this, expiation is
incumbent upon him, which expiation is established on the authority
of the sacred writings.

(3) Yaminu '1-Laghw. An oath taken concerning an incident or
transaction already past, where the swearer believes that the matter
to which he thus bears testimony accords with what he swears, though
it should happen to be actually otherwise; in which case it may be
hoped from the divine mercy that the swearer will not be condemned
for such an oath.

The expiation, or kaffarah, is of no avail for the Yaminu '1-Ghamus,
but it is necessary for the Yaminu '1-mun 'agid. It consists of either
feeding or clothing ten poor persons, or releasing a Moslem captive.

(4) By saying, "I impose upon myself divorcement."

RELIGIONS OF PERSIA.

355

OATH.

The following are considered the most solemn and binding methods
of taking an oath: —

(1) Saying three times "by the Great God."

(2) Taking the Koran and saying, "by what this contains of the
word of God."

(3) By placing a sword on the Koran.

(4) By saying, "I impose upon myself divorcement."
Mohammed himself was rather given to swearing, and the Koran

is full of wild oaths, one of the most terrible of which, according to
the Prophet's own words, is to "swear by the setting stars."

As might be expected from the examples set them by their Prophet,
Mohammedans are commonly guilty of taking God's name in vain, by
swearing upon every petty occasion.

THE ADMINISTRATION OF AN OATH.

An oath in a court of justice is not worthy of credit, unless it be
taken in the name of God, because Mohammed said* "Whosoever takes
an oath otherwise than in the name of God, is most certainly a poly-
theist." It is incumbent upon the Qazi, or judge, to request the
swearer to corroborate his oath by reciting some of the attributes of
God. For example, "I swear by God, the Righteous, the Knower of
Secrets, etc. A defendant must not be required to swear by divorce
or emancipation, as if he should say : "If it be true my wife is divorced,
or my slave is free."

If an oath be administered to a Jew, he should say, "I swear to
God who revealeth the Tawrat to Moses."

If to a Christian he should say, "I swear by God, who revealeth
the Injil to Jesus."

If it be to a Majusi, or fire-worshiper, he should say, "I swear by
God who created fire."

An oath cannot be administered to an idolator otherwise than in the
name of God, in accordance with this verse in the Koran : "If ye ask
of them who hath created you, verily, they will say God Almighty."

An oath cannot be administered to infidels in their places of wor-
ship, because the Qazi is not allowed to enter such a place. This ap-
plies to the places of worship of Jews and Christians as well as of idol-
ators.

Women are not, in Moslem law (as in Jewish, Mishna Sheb. iv. 1),
forbidden to bear witness on oath.

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PERSIA BYcA PERSIAN.

BEAUTY (Female).

The maiden, whose loveliness inspires the most impassioned ex-
pression in Arabic poetry and prose, is celebrated for her slender figure ;
she is like the cane among plants, and is elegant as the twig of the
Oriental willow. Her face is like the full moon, presenting the strong-
est contrast to the color of her hair, which (to preserve the nature of
the simile just employed) is of the deepest hue of night, and descends
to the middle of her back. A rosy blush overspreads the center of each
cheek; and a mole is considered an additional charm. The Arabs,
indeed, are particularly extravagant in their admiration of this natural

beauty spot, which, according to its place, is compared to a globule of
ambergris upon a dish of alabaster, or upon the surface of a ruby. The
eyes of the Arab beauty are intensely black, large and long, of the form,
of an almond ; they are full of brilliancy ; but this is softened by a lid
slightly depressed, and by long silken lashes, giving a tender and
languid expression, which is full of enchantment, and scarcely to be
improved by the adventitious aid of the black border of the kuhl ; for this
the lovely maiden adds rather for the sake of fashion than necessity,
having what the Arabs term natural kuhl. The eyebrows are thin and
arched, the forehead is wide, and fair as ivory; the nose straight, the

A MOHAMMEDAN LADY SMOKING A WATER PIPE.

RELIGIONS OF PERSIA.

357

mouth small ; the lips are of brilliant red, and the teeth "like pearls set
in coral." The forms of the bosom are compared to two pomegranates ;
the waist is slender ; the hips are wide and large ; the feet and hands
small; the fingers tapering, and their extremities dyed with the deep
orange-red tint imparted by the leaves of binna.

The following is the most complete analysis of Arabian beauty,
given by an unknown author, quoted by Al-Ashagi : —

Four things in a woman should be black : the hair of the head,
the eye-brows, the eye-lashes and the dark part of the eyes ; four white :
the complexion of the skin, the white of the eyes, the teeth and the legs ;
four red : the tongue, the lips, the middle of the cheeks and the gums ;
four round : the head, the neck, the forearms, and the ankles ; four long :
the back, the fingers, the arms, and the legs ; four wide : the forehead,
the eyes, the bosom, and the hips ; four fine : the eye-brows, the nose, the
lips, and the fingers ; four thick : the lower part of the back, the thigh,
the calves of the legs, and the knees; four small: the ears, the breasts,
the hands and the feet.'"'

PUBERTY (Arabic bulugh).

The puberty of a boy is established as soon as the usual signs of
manhood are known to exist ; but if none of these signs exist, his
puberty is not clearly established until he have completed his eighteenth
year. The puberty of a girl is established in the same way; but if the
usual signs of womanhood are known not to exist, her puberty is not
established until her seventeenth year has been completed. This is
according to the teaching of the Imam Abu Hanifah. But his two
disciples maintain that upon either a boy or girl completing the fifteenth
year, they are to be declared adult. The Imam ash-Shafi'i concurs in
this opinion, and it is said there is also a report of Abu-Hanifah to the
same effect. The earliest period of puberty with respect to a boy is
twelve years, and with respect to a girl nine years.

When a boy or a girl approaches the age of puberty and they declare
themselves adult, their declaration must be credited, and • they then
become subject to all the laws affecting adults, and must observe all
the ordinances of the Moslem faith.

Syed Ameer Ali says : —

"The validity of marriages contracted for minors by any guardian
other than the father or the grandfather, is not established until ratified
by the parties on arriving at puberty. Such ratification in the case of
males must be express, and in the case of females may be either express

358

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

or implied. On arriving at puberty, both the parties have the right of
either ratifying the contract entered into during their minority or of
cancelling it. According to Sunnis, in order to effect a dissolution of the
matrimonial tie, in exercise of the right of option reserved to the parties,
it is necessary that there should be a decree of the judge ; the marriage
remains intact. If before a decree has been obtained one of the parties
should die, the survivor would be entitled to inherit from the deceased.

"The Shiahs differ materially from the Sunnis on this. They hold
that a marriage contracted on behalf of minors by any unauthorized
person (fazuli), i. e., any person other than a father or a grandfather,
remains in absolute suspension or abeyance until assented to by the
parties on arriving at puberty; that, in fact, no legal effect arises from
it until such ratification, and if in the interval previous to ratification,
one of the parties should die, the contract would fall to the ground and
there would be no right of inheritance in the survivor."

MARRIAGE.

The celebration of the marriage contract is called nikah. The fes-
tive rejoicings; Persian shadi. Marriage is enjoined upon every Mos-
lem, and celibacy is frequently condemned by Mohammed. It is related
in the Traditions that Mohammed said : "When the servant of God'
marries, he perfects half of his religion ;" and that "on one occasion Mo-
hammed asked a man if he was married, and being answered in the
negative, he said, 'Art thou sound and healthy?' Upon the man reply-
ing that he was, Mohammed said, 'Then thou art one of the brothers
of the devil.' " Consequently in Islam, even the ascetic orders are
rather married than single.

It is related that one of the Companions, named 'Usman ibu
Maz'un, wished to lead a life of celibacy, but Mohammed forbade him.

The following are some of the sayings of Mohammed on the sub-
ject of marriage :

"The best wedding is that upon which the least trouble and expense
is bestowed."

"The worst of the feasts are marriage feasts to which the rich are
invited and the poor left out, and he who abandons the acceptation of
an invitation, then, verily disobeys God and His Prophet."

"Matrimonial alliances (between two families or tribes) increase
friendship more than anything else."

"Marry women who love their husbands and be very prolific, for I
wish you to be more numerous than any other people."

RELIGIONS OF PERSIA.

359

"When anyone demands your daughter in marriage, and you are
pleased with his disposition and his faith, then give her to him; for if
you do not so then there will be strife and contention in the world."

"A woman may be married either for her money, her reputation,
her beauty, or her religion; then look out for a religious woman, for
if you do marry other than a religious woman, may your hands be
rubbed with dirt."

"All young men who have arrived at the age of puberty should
marry, for marriage prevents sins. He who cannot marry should fast."

"When a Moslem marries he perfects half his religion, and he
should practice abstinence for the remaining half."

"Beware ! make not long settlements upon women ; because if
great settlements were a cause of greatness in the world and a right-
eousness before God, surely it would be most proper for the Prophet
of God to make them."

"When anyone of you wishes to demand a woman in marriage, if he
can arrange it, let him see her first."

"A woman ripe in years shall have her consent asked in marriage,
and if she remain silent her silence is her consent, and if she refuse she
shall not be married by force."

"A widow shall not be married until she be consulted, nor shall
a virgin be married until her consent be asked." The Companions
said, "In what manner is the permission of a virgin ?" He replied, "Her
consent is by her silence."

"If a woman marries without the consent of her guardian, her mar-
riage is null and void, is null and void, is null and void; then if her
marriage hath been consummated, the woman shall take her dower; if
her guardians dispute about her marriage, then the king is her guardian."

The subject of Moslem marriages will noiw be treated in the present
article under the headings — I. The Validity of Marriage. II. The Legal
Disabilities to Marriage. III. The Religious Ceremony. IV. The
Marriage Festivities.

I.— THE VALIDITY OF MARRIAGE.

Moslems are permitted to marry four free women, and to have as
many slaves for concubines as they may have acquired. See Koran,
Sura iv. 3 : "Of women who seem good in your eyes, marry two, or three
or four ; and if ye still fear that ye shall not act equitable, then one only ;
or the slaves whom ye' have acquired."

Usufructuary or temporary marriages were sanctioned by the

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PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

Prophet, but this law is said by the Sunnis to have been abrogated,
although it is allowed by the Sh'ahs, and is practiced in Persia in the
present day. These temporary marriages are undoubtedly the greatest
blot in Mohammed's moral legislation, and admit of no satisfactory
apology.

Marriage, according to Mohammedan law, is simply a civil contract,
and its validity does not depend upon any religious ceremony. Though
the civil contract is not positively prescribed to be reduced in writing,
its validity depends upon the consent of the parties, which is called
ijab and gabul, "declaration" and "acceptance ;" the presence of the
two male witnesses (or one male and two female witnesses) : and a
dower of not less than ten dirhams, to be settled upon the woman. The
omission of the settlement does not, however, invalidate the contract,
for under any circumstances, the woman becomes entitled to her dower
of ten dirhams or more. (A dower suitable to the position of the woman
is called Mahry '1-misl).

Liberty is allowed a woman who has reached the age of puberty,
to marry or refuse to marry a particular -man, independent of her guard-
ian, who has no power to dispose of her in marriage while the objec-
tion is reserved for the girl, married by her guardian during her infancy,
to ratify or dissolve the contract immediately on reaching her majority.
When a woman, adult and sane, elects to be married through an agent
(wakil), she empowers him, in the presence of competent witnesses, to
convey her consent to the bridegroom. The agent, if a stranger, need
not see her, and it is sufficient that the witnesses, who see her, satisfy
him that she, expressly or impliedly consents to the proposition of
which he is the bearer. The law respects the modesty of the sex, and
allows the expression of consent on the part of the lady by indirect
ways, even without words. With a virgin, silence is taken as consent,
and so is a smile or a laugh.

A contract entered into by a person who is insane is null and void,
unless it is made during a lucid interval. A slave cannot enter into a
contract of marriage without the consent of his master. The Musselman
lawyers, therefore, add freedom (hurriyet) as one of the conditions to
the capacity for marriage.

Majority is presumed, among the Hanafis and the Shiahs, on the
completion of the fifteenth year, in the case of both males and females,
unless there is any evidence to show that puberty was attained earlier.

"Besides puberty and discretion, the capacity to marry requires that
there should be no legal disability or bar to the union of the parties;

RELIGIONS OF PERSIA.

361

that in fact, they should not be within the prohibited degrees, or so re-
lated to or connected with each other as to make their union unlawful."

With regard to the consent of the woman, Mr. Syed Ameer Ali
remarks : —

"No contract can be said to be complete unless the contracting
parties understand its nature and mutually consent to it. A contract of
marriage also implies mutual consent, and when the parties see one
another, and of their own accord agree to bind themselves, both having
the capacity to do so, there is no doubt as to the validity of the mar-
riage. Owing, however, to the privacy in which Eastern women gen-
erally live, and the difficulties under which they labor in the exercise
of their own choice in matrimonial matters, the Mohammedan law,
with somewhat wearying particularity, lays down the principle by which
they may not only protect themselves from the cupidity of their natural
guardians, but may also have a certain scope in the selection of their
husbands.

"For example, when a marriage is contracted on behalf of an adult
person of either sex, it is an essential condition to its validity that such
person should consent thereto, or, in other words, marriage contracted
without his or her authority or consent is null, by whomsoever it may
have been entered into."

Among the Hanafis and the Shiahs, the capacity of a woman, who
is adult and sane, to contract herself in marriage is absolute. The
Shiah law is most explicit on this point. It expressly declares that, in the
marriage of a discreet female (rashidah) who is adult, no guardian is
required. The Hidaya holds the same opinion. A woman (it says) who
is adult and sound of mind, may be married by virtue of her own con-
sent, although the contract may not have been made or acceded to by
her guardians, and this whether she be a virgin or saibbah. Among
the Shafais and the Malikis, although the consent of the adult virgin
is an essential to the validity of the contract of marriage entered into on
her behalf, as among the Hanafis and the Shiahs she cannot contract
herself in marriage without intervention of a wali.

When the woman has authorized her guardian to marry her to a
- -ticular individual, or has consented to a marriage proposition to
her by a specific person, the guardian has no power to marry her to
another. Under the Shiah law, a woman who is adult and discreet is
herself competent to enter into contract of marriage. She requires
no representative or intermediary through whom to give her consent.
"If her guardians," says the Sharaya, "refuse to marry her to an equal

362

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

when desired to do so, there is no doubt that she is entitled to contract
herself, even against their wish." The Shiahs agree with the Hanafis
in giving the females the power of representing others in matrimonial
contracts. In a contract of marriage, full regard is to be paid to the
words of a female who is adult and sane, that is, possessed of sound
understanding; she is, accordingly, not only qualified to contract her-
self, but also to act as the agent of another in giving expression, either
to the declaration or to the consent. The Mafatih and the Jama-ush-
Shattat, also declare 'that it is not requisite that the parties through
whom a contract is entered into should both be males, since with us
(the Shiahs) a contract made through (the agency or intermediation of)
a female is valid." To recapitulate. Under the Maliki and Shafai law,
the marriage of an adult girl is not valid unless her consent is obtained
to it ; but such consent must be given through a legally authorized wali,
who would act as her representative. Under the Hanafl and Shiah law,
the woman can consent to her own marriage, either with or without
a guardian or agent.

II.— THE LEGAL DISABILITIES TO MARRIAGE.

There are nine prohibitions to marriage, namely:

(1) Consanguinity, which includes mother, grandmother, sister,
niece, aunt, etc.

(2) Affinity, which includes mother-in-law, step-grandmother,
daughter-in-law, step-granddaughter, etc.

(3) Fosterage. A man cannot marry his foster-mother, nor foster-
sister, unless the foster-brother and sister are nursed by the same mother
at intervals widely separated. But a man may marry the mother of his
foster-sister, or the foster-mother of his sister.

(4) A man may not marry his wife's sister during his wife's life-
time, unless she be divorced.

(5) A man married to a free woman cannot marry a slave.

(6) It is not lawful for a man to marry the wife or mu'taddah of
another, whether the iddah be on account of repudiation or death. That
is, he cannot marry until the expiration of the woman's 'iddah, or period
of probation.

(7) A Moslem cannot marry a polytheist, or Majusiyah. But he
may marry a Jewess, or a Christian, or a Sabean.

(8) A woman is prohibited by reason of property. For example, it
is not lawful for a man to marry his own slave, or a woman her bond-
man.

RELIGIONS OF PERSIA.

363

(9) A woman is prohibited by repudiation or divorce. If a man
pronounces three divorces upon a wife who is free, or two upon a slave,
she is not lawful to him until she shall have been regularly espoused
by another man, who having duly consummated the marriage afterwards
divorces her, or dies, and her 'iddah from him be accomplished.

Mr. Syed Ameer Ali says: —

"The prohibitions may be divided into four heads, viz., relative or
absolute, prohibitive or directory. They arise in the first place from
legitimate and illegitimate relationship of blood (consanguinity) ; sec-
ondly, from alliance or affinity (al-musahrat) ; thirdly from fosterage ; and
fourthly, from completion of number (i.e. four). The ancient Arabs
permitted the union of step-mothers and mothers-in-law on one side,
and step-sons and sons-in-law on the other. The Koran expressly
forbids this custom : ' Marry not women whom your fathers have had
to wife (except what is already past), for this is an uncleanliness and
abomination, and an evil way. (Sura iv:26). Then come the more
definite prohibitions in the next verse : 'Ye are forbidden to marry
your mothers, your daughters, your sisters, and your aunts, both on the
father's and on the mother's side ; your brother's daughters and your sis-
ter's daughters ; your mother's who have given you suck and your foster-
sisters ; your wives' mothers, your daughters-in-law, born of your wives
with whom you had cohabited. Ye are also prohibited to take to wife
two sisters (except what is already past), nor to marry women who
are already married.'

"The prohibitions founded on consanguinity are the same among
the Sunnis as among the Shiahs. No marriage can be contracted with the
ascendants, with the descendants, with relations of the second rank, such
as brothers and sisters or their descendants, with paternal and maternal
uncles and aunts. Nor can a marriage be contracted with a natural off-
spring or his or her descendants. Among the Shiahs, marriage is for-
bidden for fosterage in the same order as in the case of nasah. The
Sunnis, however, permit marriage in spite of fosterage in the following
cases : The marriage of the father of the child with the mother of his
child's foster-mother, or with her daughter ; the marriage of the foster-
mother with the brother of the child whom she hath fostered ; the mar-
riage with the foster-mother of an uncle or aunt. The relationship by
fosterage arises among the Shiahs when the child has been really nour-
ished at the breast of the foster-mother. Among the Sunnis, it is re-
quired that the child should have been suckled at least fifteen times, or
at least a day and a night.

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PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

"Among the Hanafis, it is enough if it have been suckled only once.
Among the Shafais it is necessary that it should have been suckled four
times. There is no difference among the Sunnis and the Shiahs regard-
ing the prohibitions arising from alliance. Under the Shrah law, a
woman against whom a proceeding by laan (li'an) has taken place on
the ground of her adultery, and who is thereby divorced from her hus-
band, cannot undeir any circumstances re-marry him. The Shafais and
Maliks agree in this opinion with the Shiahs. The Hanafis, however,
allow a re-marriage with a woman divorced by laan. The Shiahs as
well as the Shafais, Malakis and Hanbalis hold that a marriage with
a woman who is already pregnant (by another) is absolutely illegal.
All the schools prohibit contemporaneous marriages with two women
so related to each other that supposing either of them to be a male a
marriage between them would be illegal. Illicit intercourse between a
man and a woman according to the Hanafis and Shiahs, prohibits the
man from marrying the woman's mother as well as her daughter. The
observant student of the law of the two principal sects which divide the
world of Islam, cannot fail to notice the distinctive peculiarity existing
between them in respect to their attitude to outside people. The nations
who adopted the Shiah doctrines never seem to have come into con-
tact with the Christian races of the West to any marked extent ; whilst
their relations with the Mago Zoroastrians of the East were both in-
timate and lasting. The Gunnis, on the other hand, seem always to have
been more or less influenced by the Western nations. In consequence of
the different position which followers of the sects occupied toward non-
Moslems, a wide divergence exists between the Shivah and Sunni schools
of law regarding intermarriages between Moslems and non-Moslems.
It has already been pointed out that the Koran, for political reasons, for-
bade all unions between Musselmans and idolators. It is said in explicit
terms, 'Mary not a woman of the Polytheists until she embraces Islam.'"
But it is also declared that 'such women as are muhsinas (of chaste repu-
tation) belonging to the scriptural sects,' or believing in a revealed or
moral religion, 'are lawful to Moslems.' They allow, however, tempo-
rary contracts extending over a term of years, or a certain specified
period with a Christian, Jew, or a Magian female.

"A female Moslem cannot under any circumistances marry a non-
Moslem. Both schools prohibit a Mohammedan from marrying an idol-
atrous female, or one who worships the stars or any kind of fetish what-
soever.

"These prohibitions are relative in their nature and in their effect.

RELIGIONS OF PERSIA.

365

They do not imply the absolute nullity of the marriage. For example,
when a Mohammedan marries a Hindoo woman in a place where the
laws of Islam are in force, the marriage only is invalid, and does not
affect the status of legitimacy of the offspring."

III.— THE RELIGIOUS CEREMONY.

The Mohammedan law appoints no specific religious ceremony, nor
are any religious rites necessary for the contraction of a valid marriage.
Legally, a marriage contracted between two persons possessing the ca-
pacity to enter into the contract, is valid and binding, if entered into by
mutual consent in the presence of witnesses. And the Shiah law even
dispenses with witnesses.

In all cases the religious ceremony is left. entirely to the discretion
of the Qazi or person who performs the ceremony, and consequently
there is no uniformity of ritual. Some Qazis merely recite the Fatibah
(the first chapter of the Koran), and the durad, or blessing. The follow-
ing is the more common order of performing the service. The Qazi,
the bridegroom, and the bride's attorney, with the witnesses, having
assembled in some convenient place (but not in a mosque), arrange-
ments are made as to the amount of dower or mahr. The bridegroom
then repeats after the Qazi the following :

1. The Istighfar. "I desire forgiveness from God."

2. The four Quls. The four chapters of the Koran commencing
with the word "Qui." These chapters have nothing in them connected
with the subject of marriage, and appear to be selected on account of
their brevity.

3. The Kalimah, or Creed. "There is no Deity but God, and Mo-
hammed is the Prophet of God."

4. The Sifwatu '1-Iman. A profession of belief in God, the Angels,
the Scriptures, the Prophets, the Resurrection, and the absolute Decree
of good and evil.

The Qazi then requests the bride's attorney to take the hand of the
bridegroom, as to say, "Such an one's daughter, by the agency of her
attorney and by the testimony of two witnesses, has, in your marriage
with her, had such a dower settled upon her; do you consent to it?"
To which the bridegroom replies, "With my whole heart and soul, to
my marriage with this woman, as well as to the dower already settled
upon her, I consent, I consent, I consent."

After this the Qazi raises his hands and offers the following prayer :
"O great God! grant that mutual love may reign between this couple, as

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PERSIA BYcA PERSIAN.

it existed between Adam and Eve, Abraham and Sarah, Joseph and
Zalikha, Moses and Zipporah, his highness Mohammed and 'Ayesha,
and his highness 'Ali-al-Murtaga and Fatimatu'z-Zahra."

The ceremony being over, the bridegroom embraces his friends and
receives their congratulations.

According to the Durru'l-Mukhtar, p. 196, and all schools of Mos-
lem law, the bridegroom is entitled to see his wife before the marriage,
but Eastern customs very rarely allow the exercise of this right, and
the husband, generally speaking, sees his wife for the first time when
leading her to the nuptial chamber.

HAREM, OR HAREBM.

A word used especially in Turkey, Egypt, and Syria, for the female
apartment of a Mohammedan household. In Persia, Afghanistan, and
India, the terms haramgah, mahallsarai and zananah are used for the
same place. The seclusion of women being enjoined in the Koran in all
Mohammedan countries it is the rule for respectable women to remain
secluded at home, and not to travel abroad unveiled, nor to associate
with men other than their husbands or such male relatives as are for-
bidden in marriage by reason of consanguinity. In consequence of these
injunctions, which have all the force of a divine enactment, the female
portion of a Mohammedan family always reside in apartments which
are in an inclosed courtyard and excluded from public view. This in-
closure is called the harem and sometimes hareem, or in Persian zananah,
from zan, a "woman." "The habitable buildings of a native Mohamme-
dan home are raised a few steps from the court, a line of pillars forms
the front of the building, which has no upper rooms ; the roof is flat, and
the sides and back without windows, or any aperture through which air
can be received. The sides and back are merely high walls, forming an
inclosure, and the only air is admitted from the fronts of the dwelling
place facing the courtyard. The apartments are divided into long halls,
the extreme corners having small rooms or dark closets purposely built
for the repository of valuables or stores ; doors are fixed to these closets,
which are the only places I have seen with them in a zananah or mahall
(house or palace occupied by females) ; the floor is either of beaten
earth, bricks or stones; boarded floors are not yet introduced. As they
have neither doors nor windows to the halls, warmth or privacy is se-
cured by means of thick wadded curtains, made to fit each opening be-
tween the pillars. Some zananah s have two rows of pillars in the halls
with wadded curtains to each, thus forming two distinct halls for service

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367

or greater warmth, as occasion may require; this is a convenient ar-
rangement, where the establishment of servants, slaves, etc., is extensive.

"The wadded curtains are called pardahs ; these are sometimes
made of woolen cloth, but more generally of coarse calico, of two colors,
in patchwork style, striped, vandyked, or in some other ingeniously con-
trived and ornamented way, according to their individual taste.

"Besides the pardahs, the openings between the pillars have blinds
neatly made of fine bamboo strips, woven together with colored cords ;
these are called chicks. Many of them are painted green, others are
more gaudy, both in color and variety of patterns. These blinds consti-
tute a real comfort to everyone in India, as they admit air when let down,
and at the same time shut out flies and other annoying insects ; besides
which, the extreme glare is shaded by them — a desirable object to for-
eigners in particular.

"The floors of the halls are first matted with the coarse date-leaf
matting of the country, over which are spread shatranjis (thick cotton
carpets, peculiarly the manufacture of the Upper Provinces of India,
woven in stripes of blue and white, or shades of blue) ; a white calico
carpet covers the shatranji on which the females take their seat.

"The bedsteads of the family are placed, during the day, in lines
at the back of the halls, to be moved at pleasure to any chosen spot for
the night's respose; often into the open courtyard, for the benefit of the
pure air. They are all formed on one principle,, differing only in size
and quality; they stand about half a yard from the floor, the legs round
and broad at bottom, narrowing as they rise towards the frame, which is
laced over with a thick cotton tape, made for the purpose, and plaited in
checquers, and thus rendered soft, or rather elastic, and very pleasant to
recline upon. The legs of these bedsteads are in some instances gold
and silver gilt, or pure silver; others have enamel paintings on fine
wood ; the inferior grades have them merely of wood painted plain and
varnished. The servants' bedsteads are of the common mango-wood
without ornament, the lacing of these for the sacking being of elastic
string manufactured from the fiber of the cocoanut.

"Such are the bedsteads of every class of people. They seldom
have mattresses ; a white quilt is spread on the lacing, over which a calico
sheet, tied at each corner of the bedstead with cords and tassels; sev-
eral thin flat pillows of beaten cotton for the head; a muslin sheet for
warm weather, and a well wadded razai (cover-lid) for winter is all these
children of Nature deem essential to their comfort in the way of sleeping.
They have no idea of night-dresses; the same suit that adorns a lady

368

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is retained both night and day, until a change be needed. The single
article exchanged at night is the dupatta (a small shawl for the head),
and that only when it happens to be of silver tissue or embroidery, for
which a muslin or calico sheet is substituted.

"The very highest circles have the same habits in common with the
meanest, but those who can afford shawls of cashmere, prefer them for
sleeping in, when the cold weather renders them bearable. Blankets are
never used except by the poorest peasantry, who wear them in lieu of
better garments night and day in the winter season ; they are always
black, the natural color of the wool. The quilts of the higher orders
are generally made of silk of the brightest hues, well wadded, and lined
with dyed muslin of assimilating color; they are usually bound with
broad silver ribbons, and sometimes bordered with gold brocaded trim-
mings. The middling classes have fine chintz quilts, and the servants
and slaves coarse ones of the same material ; but all are on the same
plan, whether for a queen or the meanest of her slaves, differing only
in the quality of the material. The mistress of the house is easily dis-
tinguished by her seat of honor in the hall of a zananah, a masnad not
being allowed to any other person but the lady of the mansion. The
masnad carpet is spread on the floor, if possible near to a pillar about
the center of the hall, and is made of many varieties of fabric — gold
cloth, quilted silk, brocaded silk, velvet, fine chintz, or whatever may
suit the lady's taste, circumstances, or convenience. It is about two
yards square, and generally bordered or fringed, on which is placed the
all-important masnad. This article may be understood by those who
have seen a lacemaker's pillow in England, excepting only that the mas-
nad is about twenty times the size of that useful little article in the hands
of our industrious villagers. The masnad is covered with gold cloth,
silk, velvet, or calico, with square pillows to correspond, for the elbows,
the knees, etc. This is the seat of honor, to be invited to share which
with the lady owner, is a mark of favor to an equal or inferior; when a
superior pays a visit of honor, the prized seat is usually surrendered to
her, and the lady of the house takes her place most humbly on the edge
of her own carpet. Looking-glasses or ornamental furniture are very
rarely to be seen in the zananah, even of the very richest families. Chairs
and sofas are produced when English visitors are expected ; but the
ladies of Hindoostan prefer the usual mode of sitting and lounging on
the carpet; and as for tables, I suppose not one gentlewoman of the
whole country has ever been seated at one ; and very few, perhaps, have
any idea of their useful purposes, all their meals being served on the

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301)

floor, where dastarkhwans (table-cloths we should call them) are spread,
but neither knives, forks, spoons, glasses, nor napkins, so essential to
the comfortable enjoyment of a meal amongst Europeans. But those
who never knew such comforts have no desire for the indulgence, nor
taste to appreciate them.

"On the several occasions, amongst native society, of assembling
in large parties, as at births and marriages, the halls, although extensive,
would be inadequate to accommodate the whole party. They then have
awnings of white calico, neatly flounced with muslin, supported on poles
fixed in the courtyard, and connecting the open space with the great
hall, by wooden platforms which are brought to a line with the building,
and covered with shatranji, and white carpets to correspond with the
floor furniture of the hall; and here the ladies sit by day and sleep by
night very comfortable, without feeling any great inconvenience from
the absence of their bedsteads, which could never be arranged for ac-
commodation of so large an assemblage — nor is it ever expected.

"The usually barren look of these almost unfurnished halls is on
such occasions quite changed, when the ladies are assembled in then
various dresses; the brilliant display of jewels, the glittering drapery of
their dress, the various expressions of countenance, and different fig-
ures, the multitude of female attendants and slaves, the children of all
ages and sizes in their variously ornamented dresses, are subjects to at-
tract both the eye and the mind of an observing visitor; and the hall,
which when empty, appeared desolate and comfortless, thus filled, leaves
nothing wanting to render the scene attractive.

"The buzz of human voices, the happy playfulness of the children,
the chaste singing of the domnis fill up the animated picture. I have
sometimes passed an hour or two in witnessing their innocent amuse-
ments, without any feeling of regret for the brief sacrifice of time I have
made. I am free to confess, however, that I have returned to my tran-
quil home with increased delight after having witnessed the bustle of a
zananah assembly. At first I pitied the apparent monotony of their
lives ; but this feeling has worn away by intimacy with the people, who
are thus precluded from mixing generally with the world. They are
happy in their confinement ; and never having felt the sweets of liberty,
would not know how to use the boon if it were to be granted them. As
the bird from the nest immured in a cage is both cheerful and contented,
so are those females. They have not, it is true, many intellectual re-
sources, but they have naturally good understandings, and having learned
their duty they strive to fulfill it. So far as I have had any opportunity

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of making personal observations on their general character, they appear
to me obedient wives, dutiful daughters, affectionate mothers, kind mis-
tresses, sincere friends and liberal benefactresses to the distressed poor.
These are their moral qualifications, and in their religious duties, they
are zealous in performing the several ordinances which they have been
instructed by their parents or husbands to observe. If there be any
merit in obeying the injunctions of their law-giver, those whom I have
known most intimately, deserve praise since 'they are faithful in that
they profess.'

"To ladies accustomed from infancy to confinement, this kind of
rife is by no means irksome; they have their employments and their
amusements, and though these are not exactly to our taste, nor suited
to our mode of education, they are not the less relished by those for
whom they were invented. They perhaps wonder equally at some of our
modes of dissipating time, and fancy we might spend it more profitably.
Be that as it may, the Moslem ladies, with whom I have been long inti-
mate, appear to me always happy, contented, and satisfied with the se-
clusion to which they were born ; they desire no other, and I have ceased
to regret they cannot be made partakers of that freedom of intercourse
with the world, we deem so essential to our happiness, since their
health suffers nothing from that confinement, by which they are pre-
served from a variety of snares and temptations; besides which, they
would deem it disgraceful in the highest degree to mix indiscriminately
with men who are not relations. They are educated from infancy for re-
tirement, and they can have no wish that the custom should be changed,
which keeps them apart from the society of men who are not very
nearly related to them. Female society is unlimited, and that they enjoy
without restraint.

"Those females who rank above peasants or inferior servants are
disposed from principle to keep themselves strictly from observation;
all who have any regard for the character or the honor of their house,
seclude themselves from the eye of strangers, carefully instructing their
young daughters to a rigid observance of their own prudent example.
Little girls, when four years old, are kept strictly behind the pardah
(i. e., "curtain"), and when they move about it is always in covered con-
veyances, and under the guardianship of a faithful female domestic, who
is equally tenacious as the mother to preserve the young lady's reputa-
tion unblemished by concealing her from the gaze of men.

"The ladies -of zananah life are not restricted from the society of
their own sex; they are, as I have before remarked, extravagantly fond

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371

of company, and equally as hospitable when entertained. To be alone
is a triaj to which they are seldom exposed, every lady having com-
panions amongst her dependants ; and according to her means the num-
ber in her establishment is regulated. Some ladies of rank have from
two to ten companions, independent of slaves and domestics; and there
are some of the royal family at Lucknow who entertain in their serv-
ice two or three hundred female dependants, of all classes. A well-
fitted zananah is a mark of gentility, and even the poorest lady in the
country will retain a number of slaves and domestics, if she cannot af-
ford companions ; besides which they are miserable without society, the
habit of associating with numbers having grown up with infancy to
maturity: "to be alone," is considered, with women thus situated, a
real calamity.

"On occasions of assembling in large parties, each lady takes with
her a companion besides two or three slaves to attend upon her, no one
expecting to be served by the servants of the house at which they are
visiting. This swells the number to be provided for; and as the visit
is always for three days and three nights (except on 'Ids, when the visit
is confined to one day) some forethought must be exercised by the lady
of the house, that all may be accommodated in such manner as may
secure to her the reputation of hospitality.

"The kitchen and offices to the zananah, I have remarked, occupy
one side of the quadrangle ; they face the great or center hall appropri-
ated to the assembly. These kitchens, however, are sufficiently distant
to prevent any great annoyance from the smoke — I say smoke, because
chimneys have not yet been introduced into the kitchens of the natives.

"The fire-places are all on the ground, something resembling stoves,
each admitting one saucepan, the Asiatic style of cooking requiring no
other contrivance. Roast or boiled joints are never seen at the dinner
of a native ; a leg of mutton or sirloin of beef would place the hostess
under all sorts of difficulties, where knives and forks are not understood
to be amongst the useful appendages of a meal. The varieties of their
dishes are countless, but stews and curries are the chief; all the others
are mere varieties. The only thing in the shape of roast meats are
small lean cutlets bruised, seasoned and cemented with pounded poppy
seed. Several being fastened together on skewers, they are grilled or
roasted over a charcoal fire spread on the ground, and then called kabab,
which word implies roast meat.

"The kitchen of a zananah would be inadequate to the business of
cooking for a large assembly; the most choice dishes only (for the

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highly-favored guests) are cooked by the servants of the establishment.
The needed abundance required in entertaining a large party is pro-
vided by a regular bazar cook, several of whom establish themselves in
native cities, or wherever there is a Moslem population. Orders being
previously given, the morning and evening dinners are punctually for-
warded at the appointed hours in covered trays, each tray having por-
tions of the several good things ordered, so that there is no confusion
in serving out the feast on its arrival at the mansion. The food thus pre-
pared by the bazar cook is plain boiled rice, sweet rice, khir (rice milk),
mutanjan (rice sweetened with the addition of preserved fruits, raisins,
etc., colored with saffron), salans (curries) of many varieties, some
cooked with vegetables, others with unripe fruits with or without meat ;
pulaos of many sorts, kababs, preserves, pickles, chatnis, and many other
things too tedious to admit of detail.

"The bread in general use amongst natives is chiefly unleavened;
nothing in the likeness of English bread is to be seen at their meals ;
and many object to its being fermented with the intoxicating toddy
(extracted from a tree). Most of the native bread is baked on iron plates
over a charcoal fire. They have many varieties, both plain and rich, and
some of the latter resembles our pastry, both in quality and flavor.

"The dinners, I have said, are brought into the zananah, ready
dished in the native earthenware, on trays ; and as they neither use
spoons nor forks, there is no great delay in setting out the meal where
nothing is required for display or effect, beyond the excellent quality
of the food and its being well cooked. In a large assembly all cannot
dine at the dastarkhwan of the lady hostess, even if privileged by their
rank; they are, therefore, accommodated in groups of ten, fifteen,
or more, as may be convenient ; each lady having her companions at the
meal, and her slaves to brush off the intruding flies with a chauri, to
hand water, or to fetch or carry any article of delicacy from or to a
neighboring group. The slaves and servants dine in parties after their
ladies have finished, in any retired corner of the courtyard — always
avoiding as much as possible the presence of their superiors.

"Before anyone touches the meal, water is carried round for each
lady to wash the hand and rinse the mouth. It is deemed uncleanly to
eat without this form of ablution, and the person neglecting it would
be held unholy. This done, the lady turns to her meal, saying, 'Bismillah !'
(In the name or to the praise of God!), and with the right hand conveys
the food to her mouth (the left hand is never used at meal) ; and although
they partake of every variety of food placed before them with no other

RELIGIONS OF PERSIA.

37:!

aid than their fingers, yet the mechanical habit is so perfect that they
neither drop a grain of rice, soil the dress, nor retain any of the food
on their fingers. The custom must always be offensive to a foreign
eye, and the habit none would wish to copy; yet everyone who wit-
nesses must admire the neat way in which eating is accomplished by
these really 'Children of Nature.'

"The repast concluded, the lota (vessel with water), and the lag-
gan (to receive the water in after rinsing the hands and mouth), are
passed round. To every person who, having announced by the 'Ash-
Shukrn li'llah !' (All thanks to God !) that she has finished, the attend-
ants present first the powdered peas, called besan, — which answers the
purpose of soap in removing grease, etc., from the fingers — and then
the water in due course. Soap has not even yet been brought into fash-
ion by the natives, except by the washermen ; I have often been sur-
prised that they have not found the use of soap a necessary article in
the nursery where the only substitute I have seen is the powdered pea.

"Lotas and laggans are articles in use with all classes of people;
they must be poor indeed who do not boast of one, at least, in their
family. They are always of metal, either brass or copper lacquered over,
or zinc; in some cases, as with the nobility, silver and even gold are
converted into these useful articles of native comfort.

"China or glass is comparatively but little used ; water is their
only beverage, and this is preferred, in the absence of metal basins, out
of the common red earthen katora (cup-shaped like a vase).

"China dishes, bowls, and basins, are used for serving many of the
savory articles of food in ; but it is common in the privacy of the palace,
as well as in the huts of the peasantry, to see many choice things intro-
duced at meals served up in the rude red earthen platter; many of the
delicacies of Asiatic cookery being esteemed more palatable from the
earthen flavor of the new vessel in which it is served.

"China tea sets are very rarely found in the zananah, tea being used
by the natives more as a medicine than a refreshment, except by such
gentlemen as have frequent intercourse with the 'Sahib Log' (English
gentry), among whom they acquire a taste for this delightful beverage.
The ladies, however, must have a severe cold to induce them to partake
of the beverage even as a remedy, but by no means as a luxury. I
imagined that the inhabitants of a zananah were sadly deficient in actual
comforts, when I found, upon my first arrival in India, that there were
no preparations for breakfast going forward ; everyone seemed engaged
in pan-eating, and smoking the huggah, but no breakfast after the

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morning namaz. I was, however, soon satisfied that they felt no sort
of privation, as the early meal so common in Europe has never been in-
troduced in Eastern circles. Their first meal is a good substantial din-
ner at ten, eleven, or twelve o'clock, after which follows pan and the
huggah ; to this succeeds a sleep of two or three hours, providing it does
not impede the duty of prayer — the pious, I ought to remark, would
give up every indulgence which would prevent the discharge of duty.
The second meal follows in twelve hours from the first, and consists of
the same substantial fare; after which they usually sleep again until the
dawn of day is near at hand.

"The huggah (pipe) is almost in general use with females. It is a
common practice with the lady of the house to present the huggah she is
smoking to her favored guest. This mark of attention is always to be
duly appreciated ; but such is the deference paid to parents, that a son
can rarely be persuaded by an indulgent father or mother to smoke a
huggah- in their revered presence; the praiseworthy feeling originates
not in fear, but real genuine respect. The parents entertain for their son
the most tender regard ; and the father makes him both his companion
and friend ; yet the most familiar endearments do not lesson the feeling
of reverence a good son entertains for his father. This is one among
the many samples of patriarchal life, and which I can never witness in
real life, without feeling respect for the persons who follow up the pat-
terns I have been taught to venerate in our Holy Scripture.

"The huggah (pipe) as an indulgence or a privilege, is a great de-
finer of etiquette. In the presence of the king or reigning nawab. no
subject, however high he may rank in blood or royal flavor, can pre-
sume to smoke. In native courts, on state occasions, huggahs are pre-
sented only to the Governor-General, the Commander-in-Chief, or the
Resident at his court, who are considered equal in rank, and therefore
entitled to the privilege of smoking with him ; and they cannot con-
sistently resist the intended honor. Should they dislike smoking, a hint
is readily understood by the huggah bardar to bring the huggah,
charged with the materials, without the addition of fire. Applications
of the munhnal (mouthpiece) to the mouth, indicates a sense of the
honor conferred."

CONCUBINE.

The Mohammedan religion appears to give almost unlimited license
to concubinage, provided the woman be a slave, and not a free Moslem
woman. These female slaves must be either (i) taken captive in war,

RELIGIONS OF PERSIA.

375

(2) or purchased by money, (3) or the descendants of slaves. Even
married women, if taken in war, are, according to an injunction of the
Koran, Sura iv:28, entirely at the disposal of the Moslem conqueror.
"(Unlawful) to you are married women, except purchased slaves.)" This
institution of concubinage is founded upon the example of Mohammed
himself, who took Rihanah .the Jewess as his concubine after the battle
with the Banu Ouraizah (A. H. 5), and also Maria the Copt, who was
sent him as a slave by the Governor of Egypt.

Should a concubine bear her master a child the Mohammedan law
rules that she and her offspring are ipso facto free.

Among the Shiahs, the temporary marriage called Mut'ah exhibits
the worst form of concubinage.

It is interesting to compare the condition of the concubine under
Moslem law and under the Mosaic. Under the law of Moses, a concu-
bine would generally be either a Hebrew girl bought of her father, or a
Gentile captive taken in war. So that whilst the Mohammedan law
forbids concubinage with a free woman, the Mosaic law permitted it
and legislated for it. See Exodus xxi : "If a man sell his daughter to
be a maid-servant, she shall not go out as men-servants do. If she
please not her master who has betrothed her to himself, then shall he
let her be redeemed ; to sell her unto a strange nation he shall have no
power, seeing he hath dealt deceitfully with her.

With regard to female slaves taken in war, the Mosaic law ruled
(Deut. xxi :io) : "When thou goest to war against thine enemies, and the
Lord thy God hath delivered them into thine hands, and thou hast
taken them captive, and seest a beautiful woman, and hast a desire
unto her, that thou wouldst have her to thy wife; then thou shalt bring
her to thine home, etc. * * * And it shall be, if thou have no de-
light in her, then thou shalt let her go whither she will; but thou. shalt
not sell her," etc.

DIVORCE (Arabic talag).

In its primitive sense the word talag means dismission, but in law
it signifies a release from the marriage tie.

The Mohammedan law of divorce is founded upon express injunc-
tions contained in the Koran, as well as in the Traditions, and its rules
occupy a very large section in all Mohammedan works on jurisprudence.

I. The teaching of the Koran on the subject is as follows :

Sura ii:226: "They who intend to abstain from their wives shall

376

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

wait four months ; but if they go back from their purpose, then verily
God is Gracious, Merciful.

"And if they resolve on a divorce, then verily God is He who Hear-
eth, Knows.

"The divorced shall wait the result, until they have had their courses
thrice, nor ought they to conceal what God hath created in their wombs,
if they believe in God and the last day ; and it will be more just in their
husband's to bring them back when in this state, if they desire what is
right. And it is for the women to act as they (the husbands) act by
them, in all fairness ; but the men are a step above them. God is Mighty,
Wise.

"Ye may give sentence of divorce to your wives twice : Keep them
honorably, or put them away with kindness. But it is not allowed you
to appropriate to yourselves aught of what ye have given to them, unless
both fear that they cannot keep within the bounds set up by God. And
if ye fear that they cannot observe the ordinances of God. no blame shall
attach to either of you for what the wife shall herself give for her re-
demption. These are the bounds of God : therefore overstep them not ;
for whoever oversteppeth the bounds of God, they are evildoers.

"But if the husband give sentence of divorce to her a third time, it
is not lawful for him to take her again, until she shall have married an-
other husband ; and if he also divorce her then shall no blame attach to
them if they return to each other, thinking that they can keep within
the bounds fixed by God. And these are the bounds of God ; He mak-
eth them clear to those who have knowledge.

"But when ye divorce women, and the time for sending them away
is come, either retain them with generosity, or put them away with gen-
erosity: but retain them not by constraint so as to< be unjust towards
them. He who doth so, doth in fact injury to himself. And make not
the signs of God a jest; but remember God's favor towards you, and
the Book and the Wisdom which He hath sent down to you for your
warning, and fear God, and know that God's knowledge embraceth
everything.

"And when ye divorce your wives, and they have waited the pre-
scribed time, hinder them not from marrying the husbands when they
have agreed among themselves in an honorable way. This warning is
for him among you who believeth in God and in the last day. This is
most pure for you, and most decent. God knoweth, but ye know not.

"Mothers, when divorced, shall give suck to their children two full
years, if the father desire that the suckling be completed ; and such

RELIGIONS OF PERSIA.

maintenance and clothing as is fair for them, shall devolve on the father.
No person shall be charged beyond his means. A mother shall not be
pressed unfairly for her child : And the same with the father's heir.
But, if they choose to wean the child by consent and by bargain, it shall
be no fault in them. And if ye choose to have a nurse for your children,
it shall be no fault in you, in case ye pay what ye promised her according
to that which is fair. Fear God, and know that God seeth what ye do.

"It shall be no crime in you if ye divorce your wives so long as ye
have not consummated the marriage, nor settled any dowry on them.
And provide what is needful for them — he who is in ample circum-
stances according to his means, and he who is in straitened circum-
stances according to his means — with fairness : This is binding on those
who do what is right.

"But if ye divorce them before consummation, and have, already
settled a dowry on them, ye shall give them half of what ye have settled,
unless they make a release, or he make a release in whose hand is the
marriage tie. But if ye make a release it will be nearer to piety."

Sura lxv:i: "O Prophet! when ye divorce women, divorce them
at their special times. And reckon those times exactly, and fear God
your Lord. Put them not forth from their houses, nor allow them to
depart, unless they have committed a proven adultery. This is the pre-
cept of God ; and whoso transgresseth the precept of God, assurredly im-
perileth his own self. Thou knowest not whether, after this, God may
not cause something new to occur which may bring you together again.

"And when they have reached their set time, then either keep them
with kindness, or in kindness part from them. And take upright wit-
nesses from among you and bear witness as unto God. This is a cau-
tion for him who believeth in God and in the latter day. And whoso
feareth God, to him will He grant a prosperous issue, and will provide
for him whence he reckoned not upon it.

"And for him who putteth his trust in Him will God be all-suffi-
cient. God truly will attain his purpose. For everything hath God as-
signed a period.

As to such of your wives as have no hope of the recurrence of their
times, if ye have doubts in regard to them, then reckon three months,
and let the same be the term of those who have not yet had them. And
as to those who are with child, their period shall be until they are deliv-
ered of their burden. God will make His command easy to Him who
feareth Him!

"Lodge the divorced wherever ye lodge, according to your means ;

378

and distress them not by putting them to straits. And, if they are preg-
nant, then be at charges for them till they are delivered of their burden ;
and if they suckle your children, then pay them their hire and consult
among yourselves, and act generously : And if herein ye meet with
obstacles, then let another female suckle for him."

II. The teaching of Mohammed on the general subject of Divorce
is expressed in the Tradition as follows :

"The thing which is lawful but disliked by God is divorce."

"The woman who asks her husband to divorce her without a cause,
the smell of Paradise is forbidden her."

"There are three things which, whether done in joke or in earnest,
shall be considered serious and effectual, namely : marriage, divorce, and
taking a wife back."

"Every divorce is lawful except a madman's."

"Cursed be the second husband who makes the wife (divorced) law-
ful for her first husband for whom she is made lawful." (Mishkat, xiii :
cxv.)

The talagu'l-hasan. or "laudable divorce," is when the husband repu-
diates an enjoyed wife by three sentences of divorce, either express or
metaphorical, giving one sentence in each tuhr, or "period of purity."
Imam Malik condemns this kind of divorce, and says it is irregular.- But
Abu Hanifah holds it to be hasan, or "good."

The talagu'l-badi', or "irregular form of divorce," is when the hus-
band repudiates his wife by three sentences, either express or metaphori-
cal, given them one at a time : "Thou art divorced ! Thou art di-
vorced ! Thou art divorced !" Or, "Thou art free ! Thou art free !
Thou art free !" Even holding up three fingers or dropping three stones,
is held to be a sufficiently implied divorce to take legal effect. The Mos-
lem who thus divorces his wife is held, in the Hadayah, to be an offender
against the law, but the divorce, however irregular, takes legal effect.

In both these kinds of divorce, badi' and hasan, the divorce is re-
vocable after the first and second sentences, but it is irrevocable after
the third sentence. After both hasan and badi' divorces, the divorced
wife cannot, under any circumstances, return to her husband until she
has been married, and enjoyed and divorced by another husband. Mo-
hammedan doctors say the law has instituted this arrangement in order
lo prevent divorces other than talagn'l-ahsan.

A husband may divorce his wife without any misbehavoir on her
part, or without assigning any cause. The divorce of every husband
is effective if he be of a sound understanding and of mature age; but

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379

that of a boy, or lunatic, or one talking in his sleep is not effective.

If a man pronounce a divorce whilst in a state of inebrity from
drinking fermented liquor, such as wine, the divorce takes place. Re-
pudiation by any husband who is sane and adult, is effective, whether
he be free or a slave, willing, or acting under compulsion ; and even
though it were uttered in sport or jest, or by a mere slip of the tongue,
instead of some other word.

A sick man may divorce his wife, even though he be on his death-
bed.

An agent or agents may be appointed by a husband to divorce his

wife.

In addition to the will and caprice of the husband, there are also
certain conditions which require a divorce.

The following are causes for divorce, but generally require to be
ratified by a divorce from the Koran, or "judge":

(1) Jubb. That is, when the husband has been by any cause de-
prived of his organ of generation. This condition is called majbub. In
this case the wife can obtain instant divorce, if the defect occurred be-
fore marriage. Cases of evident madness and leprosy are treated in the
same way. Divorce can be obtained at once.

(2) Unnah, or "impotence." (This includes ratg, "vulva impervia
coeunti ;" and garn, "vulva anteriore parte enascens.") In cases of im-
potency in either husband or wife, a year of probation can be granted by
the judge.

(3) Inequality of race or tribe. A woman cannot be compelled to
marry a man who belongs to an inferior tribe, and, in case of such a
marriage, the elders of the superior tribe can demand a divorce; but if
the divorce is not demanded, the marriage contract remains.

(4) Insufficient dower. If the stipulated dowry is not given when
demanded, divorce takes place.

(5) Refusal of Islam. If one of the parties embrace Islam, the
judge must offer it to the other, three distinct times, and if he or she
refuse to embrace the faith, divorce takes place.

(6) La'n or "imprecation." That is, when a husband charges his
wife with adultery, the charge is investigated, but if there is no proof,
and the man swears his wife is guilty, and the wife swears she is inno-
cent, a divorce must be decreed.

(7) Ila, or "vow." When a husband makes a vow not to have
carnal intercourse with his wife for no less than four months, and keeps
the vow inviolate, an irreversible divorce takes place.

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PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

(8) Reason of property. If a husband become the proprietor of his
wife (a slave), or the wife the proprietor of her husband (a slave), di-
vorce takes place.

(9) An invalid marriage of any kind arising- from incomplete nikah,
or "marriage ceremony," or from affinity, or from consanguinity.

(10) Difference of country. For example, if a husband flee from a
darn'l-harb, or "land of enmity," i. e., "a non-Moslem country" to a
darn'l-Islam, or "country of Islam," and his wife refuse to perform hij-
rah (flight) and to accompany him, she is divorced.

(11) Apostasy from Islam. The author of Raddu '1-Makhtar (vol.
ii., p. 643), says : "When a man or a woman apostatises from Islam,
then an immediate dissolution (faskh) of the marriage takes place,
whether the apostasy be of the man or of the woman, without a decree
from the Qazi." And again (p. 645) : "If both husband and wife apos-
tatise at the same time, their marriage bond remains ; and if at any
future time the parties again return to Islam, no re-marriage is neces-
sary to constitute them man and wife; but if one of the parties should
apostatise before the other, a dissolution of the marriage takes place
ipso facto.

In addition to the forms of divorce already explained, there are
three others of a peculiar nature, called khula,' mubura'ah, and zihar.

The form of divorce known as khula' is when a husband and wife
disagreeing, or for any other cause, the wife, on payment of a compen-
sation or ransom to her husband, is permitted by the law to obtain from
him a release from the marriage tie. The khula' is generally affected by
the husband giving back the dower or part thereof. When the aversion
is on the part of the husband, it is generally held that he should grant
his wife's request without compensation ; but this is purely a matter of
conscience, and not of law.

Mubura'ah is a divorce which is effected by a mutual release.

Zihar ,from zahr, "back," is a kind of divorce which is effected by a
husband likening his wife to any part or member of the body of any of
his kinswoman within the prohibited degree. As, for example, if he were
to say to his wife, "Thou art to me like the back of my mother." The
motive of the husband in saying so must be examined and if it appear
that he meant divorce, his wife is not lawful to him until he have made
expiation by freeing a slave, or by fasting two months, or by feeding
sixty poor men.

The Shi'ah law of Divorce differs only in a few particulars from
that of the Sunnis. According to Shi'ah law, a man must be an adult

RELIGIONS OF PERSIA.

381

of understanding, of free choice and will, and of design and intention,
when he divorces his wife. A marked contrast to the license and liberty
allowed by the Sunni law. Nor can the Shi'ah divorce be effected in any
language of a metaphorical kind. It must be express and be .pronounced
in Arabic (if the husband understand that language), and it must be
spoken and not written. A divorce amongst the Shi'ahs does not take
effect if given implicatively or ambiguously, whether intended or not. It
is also absolutely necessary that the sentence should be pronounced by
the husband in the presence of two just persons as witnesses, who shall
hear and testfy to the wording of the divorce.

The idea of conjugal unity is utterly unknown to Mohammedans,
excepting when the Christian example is by chance followed ; and even
there, the continuance of the bond is purely dependent on the will of
the husband. * * * I believe the morals of Hindu society, where
polygamy is less encouraged, to be sounder, in a very marked degree,
than that of Mohammedan society.

WIDOWS (Arabic armalah).

Mourning is incumbent upon a widow for a period of four months
and ten days after the death of her husband. After this period she
may lawfully take another husband, provided she be not pregnant of her
first husband. A widow's share of her late husband's property is one-
eighth where there is no child, or a son's child, how low soever, and a
fourth when there is no child. Though a man may have as many as
four wives, the provision for two or more ♦is the same as that for one :
the fourth or eighth, as the case may be, being divisible among them
equally.

If a Moslem, whose wife was once a Christian, should die, and his
widow appear before a Qazi and declare that she is Moslem, and she
embraced the faith prior to the death of her husband, and the heirs assert
the contrary, the assertion of the heirs is to be credited to the exclusion
of the rights of the widow. And if a Christian die, and his widow appear
before a Qazi as a Moslem, and the heirs declare the contrary, the
assertion of the heirs is to be credited to the exclusion of the widow.

RE-MARRIAGE.

Re-marriage may take place with the divorcer before or after the
completion of the 'iddah, provided only the first or second sentence of
divorce has been pronounced, but it cannot take place after a three-fold
divorce until the divorced wife is married to another man and is divorced

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PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

by him after the second marriage has been consummated. This is both
Sunni and Shiah law.

A widow can marry again at the expiration of four months and ten
days after the death of her former husband. There is no restriction as
to the period for a widower.

PARADISE.

The Mohammedan Paradise is called al-Jannah, "the garden," pi.
jannat, in Arabic ; and Bihisht, in Persian ; the word al-Fidaus, or Para-
dise, being restricted to one religion in the celestial abodes of bliss.
There are eight heavens or paradises mentioned in the Koran, and al-
though they appear to be but eight different names for the place of bliss,
Mohammedan divines have held them to be eight different stages.

They are as follows :

1. Jannatu'l-Khuld, the Garden of Eternity.

2. Daru's-Salem, the Dwelling of Peace.

3. Daru'l-Qarar, the Dwelling which Abideth.

4. Jannatu'l-'Adn, the Gardens of Eden.

5. Jannatu'l-Ma'ma, the Gardens of Refuge.

6. Jannatu'n-Na'im, the Gardens of Delight.

7. Illiyun (Suratu't-Tatfif, Lxxxiii:i8).

8. Jannatu'l-Firdaus, the Gardens of Paradise.

(These eight stages are spoken of as eight doors in the Mishkat,
book II, ch. I.)

The sensual delights of Mohammed's Paradise are proverbial, and
he must have exercised a considerable influence upon the minds of the
people to whom he made known his mission. There are frequent illu-
sions to them in the Koran. The following are specimen passages :

Suratu'l-Isan (lxxvi), 12-22: "God hath rewarded their constancy
with Paradise, and silken robes, reclining therein on bridal couches ;
naught shall they know of sun or piercing cold ; its shades shall close
over them, and low shall its fruits hang down ; and vessels of silver and
goblets like flagons shall be borne round among them ; flagons of silver
whose measure themselves shall mete. And there shall they be given
to drink of the cup tempered with zanjabil (ginger) from the fount
therein whose name is Salsabil (i. e., the softly flowing). Blooming
youths go round among them. When thou lookest at them, thou
wouldst deem them scattered pearls ; and when thou seest this, thou wilt
see delights and a vast kingdom ; their clothing green silk robes and rich
brocade, with silver bracelets shall they be adorned; and drink of a pure

RELIGIONS OF PERSIA.

383

beverage shall their Lord give them. This shall be your recompense."

Suratu'l-Wagi'ah (lvi), 12-39: "In gardens of delight, a crowd of
the former and a few of the later generations ; on inwrought couches re-
clining on them face to face, blooming youths go round about them with
goblets and ewers and a cup of flowing wine ; their brows ache not from
it, nor fails the sense; and with such fruits as shall please them best,
and with flesh of such birds as they shall long for ; and theirs shall be the
Houris (Arabic hur), with large dark eyes, like pearls hidden in their
shells, in recompense for their labors past. No vain discourse shall
they hear therein, nor charge of sin, but one cry, 'Peace ! Peace !' * * *
Unfailing, unforbidden, and on lofty couches and of a rare creation have
we made the Houris, and we have made them ever virgins, dear to their
spouses and of equal age, for the people of the right hand, a crowd of
the former, and a crowd of the later generations."

Saruta 'r-Rahman (lv.), 54-56: "On couches with linings of brocade
shall they recline, and the fruit of the two gardens shall be within their
easy reach. Therein shall be the damsels with retiring glances, whom
neither man nor jiim hath touched before them."

Suratu'l-Mohammed (xlvii.), 16,17: "Therein are rivers of water
which corrupt not : rivers of milk whose taste changeth not : and rivers
of wine, delicious to those who quaff it ; and rivers of clarified honey :
and therein are all kinds of fruit for them from their Lord."

The descriptions of the celestial regions and the enjoyments prom-
ised to the faithful are still more minutely given in the traditional sayings
of the Prophet. (See the Mishkat, book xxiii, ch. xiii.)

Abu Musa relates that "the Apostle of God said, 'Verily, there is a
tent for every Moslem in Paradise; it is made of one pearl, its interior
empty, its breadth 60 kos, and in every corner of it will be his wives;
and they shall not see one another. The Moslem shall love them alter-
nately," etc.

Abu Sa'id relates that "the Apostle of God said, 'He who is least
amongst the people of Paradise, shall have eighty thousand slaves, and
seventy-two women, and have a tent pitched for him of pearls, rubies
and emeralds. * * * Those who die in the world, young or old, are
made of thirty years of age, and not more, when they enter Paradise.' "

Abu Sa'id also relates that "the Apostle of God said, 'Verily, a man
in Paradise reclines upon seventy cushions, before he turns on his other
side. Then a woman of Paradise comes to him and pats him on the
shoulder, and the man sees his face in her cheek, which is brighter than
a looking-glass, and verily her most inferior pearl brightens the east and

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PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

west. Then the woman makes a salam to him, which he returns ; and
the man says, "Who are you?" and she replies, "I am of the number
promised of God for the virtuous." And verily she will have seventy
garments, and the man's eyes will be fixed on them, till he will see the
marrow of the bones of her legs through the calves of them, and she
will have crowns on her head, the meanest pearl of which would give
light between the east and west.' "

One of the attractions of Paradise is the river Kausar. Accord-
ing to Anas, "The Apostle of God said, it is a river which God has
given me in Paradise, its water is whiter than milk, and sweeter than
honey ,and on its waters are birds whose necks are like the necks of
camels."

The following is an instance of the way in which the Prophet en-
deavored to suit his paradise to the taste of the people : —

Abu Aiyub says, "An Arab came to the Phophet and said, 'O
Apostle of God ! I am fond of horses, are there any in paradise ?' The
Prophet replied, Tf you are taken into Paradise", you will get a ruby
horse, with two wings, and you will mount him, and he will carry you
wherever you wish.' "

Abu Harairah said, "Verily the Apostle of God said, when an Arab
was sitting near him, that a man of the people of Paradise will ask
permission of his Lord to cultivate land, and God will say, 'Have you not
everything you could wish for? What will you cultivate?' The man
will say, 'Yes, everything is present, but I am fond of cultivating.' Then
he will be permitted to cultivate, and he will sow, and, quicker than the
twinkling of an eye, it will grow, become ripe, and be reaped, and it
will stand in sheaves like mountains."

The apologists for Islam, Carlyle for example, have suggested that
the sensual delights of Mohammed's paradise may, after all, be taken in a
figurative sense, as the Revelation of St. John or the Song of Solomon.
It is quite true that such an interpretation is hinted at in the Akhlag-i-
Jalali (Thompson's translation, p. 102), and Mr. Lane in his Egyptians
(Vol. i. p. 84), says that a Moslem of some learning considered the
descriptions of Paradise figurative, but such is not the view held by
Mohammedan doctors, whether Sunni, Sh'ah, or Wahhabi. They are
all agreed as to the literal interpretation of the sensual enjoyments of the
Moslem Paradise, and very many are the books written giving minute
particulars of the joys in store for the faithful.

Islam, true to its anti-Christian character, preaches a sensual abode
of bliss, in opposition to the express teaching of our Lord in Matt.

RELIGIONS OF PERSIA.

385

xxii. 30 : 'They neither marry nor are given in marriage, but are as the
angels of God in heaven."

Were proof needed to show that the Prophet taught a real and literal
interpretation of the sensual delights of the abodes of bliss, a tradition
of high authority is found in the Sahihu Moslem (p. 379, vide also
Miahkat, book xxiii. ch. 13), in which the Prophet goes to some trouble
to explain the sanitary laws of the heavenly kingdom, in the most literal
manner possible.

Sir William Muir says : "It is remarkable that the notices in the
Koran of this voluptuous Paradise are almost entirely confined to a time
when, whatever the tendency of his desires, Mohammed was living
chaste and temperate with a single wife of three score years of age. Gib-
bon characteristically observes that Mohammed has not specified the
male companions of the female elect, lest he should either alarm the
jealousy of the former husbands, or disturb their felicity by the suspicion
of an everlasting marriage. The remark made in raillery, is pregnant
with reason, and aims a fatal blow at the Paradise of Islam. Faithful
women will renew their youth in heaven as well as faithful men: why
should not their good works merit an equal and analogous reward?
But Mohammed shrank from this legitimate conclusion. It is note-
worthy that in the Medina Suras — that is in all the voluminous revela-
tions of the ten years following the Hegira — women are only twice re-
ferred to as one of the delights of Paradise; and on both occasions in
these simple words : — 'and to them (believers) there shall be therein pure
wives.'

"Garden of Eden — into which they shall enter together with the
just of their fathers, and their wives and their descendants, and the
angels shall go in unto them at every portal : Peace be with you, say they,
because ye have endured all things * * * The rivers flow beneath
its bowers ; its food and its shades are perpetual."

HUSBAND (Arabic zauj).

A husband is not guardian over his wife any further than respects
the rights of marriage, nor does the provision for her rest upon him
any further than with respect to food, clothing and lodging, but he
may be imprisoned for the maintenance of his wife. The evidence of a
husband concerning his wife is not accepted by the Sunnis, but it is al-
lowed in Sh'ah law. The Mohammedan law demands that a Moslem
husband shall reside equally with each of his wives, unless one wife
bestow her right upon another wife.

:(86

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

PRIESTHOOD.

Men who expound and administer the Shahr are either Mushtaheds
or Mollahs. The chief Mushtahed must have taken a course with the
great Mushtahed of Kerbellah, near Bagdad, who dwells ever at the
tomb of Ali. The highest Mushtahed in Persia, the chief justice of the
supreme court, as it were, is at present Hagdi Mollah Ali. When he
goes abroad he is mounted on a white mule and followed by one single
attendant, but the multitude disperses before him as if he were a super-
natural being. A word from him would hurl the Shah from his throne,
or doom all Christians and foreigners in the country. In his presence
even the Shah stands.

The Mushtaheds are graded into four degrees, the fourth being
the lowest grade and numerically the strongest. Their means of exis-
tence consists in drawing up legal documents, performing marriage
ceremonies and accepting presents. For the marriage of a couple they
charge a large fee. Common people consider it a great privilege to
give a present to a Mushtahed, and a favor on his part if he accepts it.
These men, in consequence, are generally very rich and own one or more
beautiful palaces. Rich ladies feel highly honored to be chosen as the
wife of a Mushtahed.

A Mollah's duty is to visit the sick, call on families and teach
them prayers and make them familiar with the traditions, and conduct
funeral ceremonies. Some also teach the boys, who go to them daily
for instruction. Their meals are furnished by the pupils, each bringing
something to eat for the Mollah (usually choice morsels) every morning.
Besides this each pupil pays one dime tuition a month. In autumn
the Mollah is provided for the winter by his parishioners, who bring
him a collection of grapes, apples, wheat, fuel, etc. He is highly
respected among the community and is always invited by some family
on holidays. He also draws up legal documents and letters for the
people and receives as a remuneration from two to ten cents ; but he is
quite often paid in the form of two or three eggs, a basket of fruit, and
the like. This is the poor Mollah's only income. Some have charge
and do secular work for a living, others recite Koran on the sepulchre
of a lord, for which they are rewarded by the relatives of the deceased.
I have seen a, Mollah who recited Koran for fifteen years at the tomb
of a noted army officer.

There is yet another class of priests, more learned and more devout
than the rest, who act as revivalists. On holidays, which occur quite
frequently, the mosques are usually crowded with worshipers. Then

RELIGIONS OF PERSIA.

387

one of the priests will mount an elevated pulpit very ostensibly, and in
an impressive tone begin to read or repeat Koran. He will chant
traditions on the lives and deeds of the prophets and martyrs, and relate
pathetic stories of the noble sacrifice of departed heroes of faith. His
charming tones and imploring utterances have much effect an his
audience and men and women weep and strike against their bosoms.

Persia acknowledges Ali as the Caliph after Mohammed. The
descendants of Ali are therefore held in high esteem and rank among
the noblest families in Persia. They are called Say-yids (prophets or
masters) and enjoy privileges denied other men. They are very zealous
in perpetuating their own caste. From Ali's time they have kept a
careful record of their geneaolgy. This family record, called Sajjara, is
handed down from father to son and serves as a credential to the
Say-yid tribe. Each family must possess a credential of this kind, at
least 200 years old. Should it be worn by age and use, the heads of
families may draft copies and duly certify to them. The Say-yid may
be easily distinguished by his garments. He wears a green turban and
girdle. Should a common man assume to wear such he would be
severely punished. The Say-yid's turban is to him more precious than
a king's crown ; it is the emblem of his glory — 'the girdle a symbol of
strength. Their rank is higher than any other in the country, and
their high-priest is more honored than a prince. So the Say-yid rules
over other men. He demands and receives their homage. In the
assemblies of lords and influential men the Say-yid occupies a foremost
seat and is always served first. Solemn oaths are delivered by their
heads ; all men fear them, believing that their curse will surely come
to pass. They are never smitten or reviled.

If ever a Christian should raise a hand against a Say-yid, that
hand must certainly be severed from his body. Say-yids are exempt
from all legal punishment. Governors cannot impose fines or imprison-
ment on them. Should a Say-yid kill a common person, it would be
impossible to have him in turn suffer a death penalty, for this would be
a sin against God — for it is universally believed that God created all
other men for the sake of Mohammed and his descendants ; hence a
Say-yid's punishment must come through the leader of that order.
Many promises and vows are made to them. Parents having a sick
daughter will vow to marry her to a Say-yid, should she recover, be-
lieving that God will take the disease away in the Say-yid's behalf.

The Say-yids generally ride gray horses, and claim that all horses
of that particular color belong to them. They conduct the large cara-

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vans, which start out annually to worship the tomb of Ali. Their
presence is supposed to protect the caravans from thieves and robbers.
By virtue of the law, one-tenth of all property is addicted to them.
The majority of them do not work, but live well on the merits of their
position as Say-yids, or holy men. The more noble among them will
sit in their houses and receive tithes of fruit, coffee, tea and money, of
the surrounding people. When these are not willingly given, a servant
will be sent with authority to demand and take them. The less noble
Say-yid will go in person to the houses, vineyards and gardens, and
gather his portion.

FAGIR (Persian Darwesh).

The Arabic word fagir signifies "poor;" but it is used in the sense
of being in need of mercy, and poor in the sight of God, rather than
in need of worldly assistance. Darwesh is a Persian word, derived from
dar, " a door," i. e., those who beg from door to door. The terms are
generally used for those who lead a religious life. Religious fagirs are
divided into two great classes, the ba shar (with the law), or those who
govern their conduct according to the principles of Islam, and the
be shar (with the law), or those who do not rule their lives according
to the principles of any religious creed, although they call themselves
Musselmans. The former are called salik, or travelers on the pathway
to heaven, and the latter are either azad (free), or majzub (abstracted).
The salik embrace the various religious orders who perform the zikrs
described in the article zikr.

The Majzub fagirs are totally absorbed in religious reverie. The
Azad shave their beards, whiskers, moustaches, eye-brows, and eye-
lashes, and lead lives of celibacy.

The Azad and Majzub fagirs can scarcely be said to be Moham-
medans, as they do not say the regular prayers or observe the ordinances
of Islam, so that a description of their various sects does not fall within
the limits of this work. The Salik fagirs are divided into very numerous
orders, but their chief difference consists in their silsilah, or drain of
succession, from their great teachers, the Khalifahs Abu Bakr and Ali,
who are said to have been the founders of religious orders of fagirs.

It is impossible to become acquainted with all the rules and cere-
monies of the numerous orders of fagirs, for,- like those of the Free-
masons and other secret societies, they are not divulged to the
uninitiated.

The doctrines of the darwesh orders are those of the Sufi mystics,

RELIGIONS OF PERSIA.

389

and their religious ceremonies consist of exercises called zikrs, or
"recitals." In the first year of Hijirah, forty-five citizens of Makkuh
joined themselves to as many others of al-Madinah. They took an oath
of fidelity to the doctrines of their prophet, and formed a sect of
fraternity, the object of which was to establish among themselves a
community of property, and to perform every day certain religious
practices in a spirit of penitence and mortification. To distinguish
themselves from other Mohammedans, they took the name of Sufis.
This name, which later was attributed to the most zealous partisans
of Islam, is the same still in use to indicate any Musselman who retires
from the world to study, to lead a life of pious contemplation, and to
follow the most painful exercises of an exaggerated devotion. To the
name of Sufi they added also that of fagir, because their maxim was to
renounce the goods of the earth, and to live in an entire abnegation of
all worldy enjoyments, following thereby the words of the prophet,
al-fagru fakhri, or 'Poverty is my pride.' Following their example
Abu Bakr and Ali established, even during the lifetime of the prophet
and under his own eyes, religious orders, over which each presided,
with Zikrs, or peculiar religious exercises, established by them separately
and a vow taken by each of the voluntary disciples forming them. On
his decease, Abu Bakr made over his office of president to one
Sabmann'l-Farisi, and Ali to al-Hasann'l-Basri, and each of those
charges were consecrated under the title Khalifah successor. The
two first successors followed the example of the Khalifahs of Islam,
and transmitted it to their successors, and these in turn to others, the
most aged venerable of their fraternity. Some among them, led by the
delirium of the imagination, wandered away from the primitive rules
of their society, and converted, from time to time, these fraternities into
a multitude of religious orders.

They were doubtlessly emboldened in this enterprise by that of a
recluse who, in the thirty-seventh year of the Hijirah (A. D. 652) formed
the first order of anchorets of the greatest austerity, named Urvais
ul-Karani, a native of Karu in Yemen, who one day announced that
the archangel Gabriel had appeared to him in a dream, and in the name
of the eternal God commanded him to withdraw from the world, and
to give himself up to a life of contemplation and penitence. This
visionary pretended also to have received from that heavenly visitor the
plan of his future conduct, and the rules of his institution. These con-
sisted in a continual abstinence, in retirement from society, in an
abandonment of the pleasures of innocent nature, and in the recital of

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an infinity of prayers day and night. Urvais even added to these
practices. He went so far as to draw out his teeth, in honor, it is said,
of the prophet, who had lost two of his own in the celebrated battle of
Uhud. He required his disciples to make the same sacrifice. He pre-
tended that all those who would be especially favored by heaven, and
really called to the exercises of his order, should lose their teeth in a
supernatural manner; that an angel should draw out their teeth whilst
in the midst of a deep sleep, and that on awakening they should find
them by their bedside. The experience of such a vocation were doubt-
less too severe to attract many proselytes to the order ; it only enjoyed
a certain degree of attraction for fanatics and credulously ignorant
people during the first days of Islam. Since then it has remained in
Yemen, where it originated, and where its partisans were always but
few in number.

It was about A. H. 49 (A. D. 766), that the Shaikh Alwan, a mystic,
renowned for his religious fervor, founded the first regular order of
fagirs, now known as the Alwaniyah, with its special rules and religious
exercises, although similar associations of men without strict rules had
existed from the days of Abu Bakr, the first Khalifah. And although
there is the formal declaration of Mohammed, "Let there be no monos-
ticism in Islam," still the inclinations of Eastern races to a solitary and
a contemplative life, carried it even against the positive oppostion of
orthodox Islam, and now there is scarcely a maulawi or learned man of
reputation in Islam who is not a member of some religious order.

Each century gave birth to new orders, named after their respective
founders, but in the present day there is no means of ascertaining the
actual number of these associations of mystic Moslems.

The "dancing," or "whirling" darweshes. They were founded by
the Maulawi Jalalu'd-dinar-Rumi, the renowned author of the Masnawi,
a book much read in Persia, and, indeed, in all parts of Islam. They
have service at their takyah, or "convent," every Wednesday and Sun-
day at 2 o'clock. There are about twenty performers, with high round
felt caps and brown mantles. At a given signal they all fall flat on their
faces, and rise and walk slowly round and round, with their arms
folded, bowing and turning slowly several times. Then they cast off their
mantles and appear in long bell-shaped petticoats and jackets and
then begin to spin, revolving, dancing and turning with extraordinary
velocity.

The Shiahs generally become fagirs of this order. They are partial

RELIGIONS OF PERSIA.

391

to vocal music, for the founder of the order remarked that singing was
the food and support of the soul.

The more zealous fagirs devote themselves to the most austere
acts, and shut themselves up in their cells, so as to give themselves up
for whole hours to prayer and meditation; the others pass very often
a whole night in pronouncing the words Hir and Allah., or rather the
phrase, La ilaha ilia 'llah. So as to drive away sleep from their eyes,
some of them stand for whole nights in very uncomfortable positions.
They sit with their feet on the ground, the two hands resting upon their
knees. They fasten themselves in this attitude by a band of leather
passed over their neck and legs. Others tie their hair with a cord to
the ceiling, and call this usage Chilleh. There are some also who devote
themselves to an absolute retirement from the world, and to the most

DANCING DEKVISHES.

rigid abstinence, living only on bread and water for twelve days suc-
cessively, in honor of the twelve Imams of the race of Ali. This
retirement is called Khalwah. They pretend that the Shaikh 'Amr
Khalwati was the first to follow it, and that he often practiced it. They
add that one day, having left his retirement, he heard a celestial voice
saying, "O 'Amr Khalwati, why dost thou abandon us?" and that faith-
ful to this oracle, he felt himself obliged to consecrate the rest of his
days to works of penitence, and even to institute an order under the
name of Khalwatis, a name signifying "living in retirement." For
this reason, darweshes of this order consider it their duty, more than
any others, to live in solitude and abstinence. The more devoted among
them observe sometimes a painful fast of forty days consecutively, called

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by them al-arb-aun (forty). Amongst them all their object is the ex-
piation of their sins, the sanctification of their lives, and the glorification
of Islam ; the prosperity of the State, and the general salvation of the
Mohammedan people. The most ancient and the greatest of the orders,
such as the Alwanis, the Adhamis, the Qadiris, the Rufa'is, the Nag-
shbandis, the Khalwatis, etc., are considered as the cardinal orders ;
for which reason they call themselves the Usuls, or "Originals." They
give to the others names of the Furu', or "Branches," signifying thereby
secondary ones, to designate their filiation or emanation from the first.
The order of the Nagshbandis and Khalwatis hold, however, the first
rank in the temporal line; the one on account of the conformity of its
statutes to the principles of the ten first confraternities, and to the luster
which causes the grandees and principal citizens of the empire to incor-
porate themselves in it ; and the other, because of its being the source
of the mother society which gave birth to many Others. In the spiritual
line, the order of the Qadiris, Maulawis, Bakhtashis, Rufa'is and the
Sa'dis, are the most distinguished, especially the three first, on account
of the. eminent sanctity of their founders, of the multitude of the miracles
attributed to them, and of the superabundance of the merit which is
deemed especially attached to them.

Although all of them are considered as mendicant orders, no dar-
wesh is allowed to beg, especially in public. The only exception is
among the Bakhtashis, who deem it meritorious to live by alms; and
many of these visit not only private houses, but even the streets, public
squares, bureaux and public houses, for the purpose of recommending
themselves to the charity of their brethren.

They only express their request by the words "Shayid Ullah," a
corruption from "Shayim li-'llah," which means, "Something for the
love of God." Many of these make it a rule to live only by the labor
of their hands in imitation of Haji Bakhtash, their founder, and, like
him, they make spoons, ladles, graters, and other utensils, of wood or
marble. It is these, also, who fashion the pieces of marble, white or
veined, which are used as collars or buckles for the belts of all the dar-
weshes of their order, and the kashkuls, or shell cups, in which they
are obliged to ask alms.

Although in no wise bound by any oaths, all being free to change
their community, and even to return to the world, and there to adopt
any occupation which may please their fancy, it is rarely that anyone
makes use of this liberty. Each one regards it as a sacred duty to end
his days in the dress of his order. To this spirit of poverty and per-

RELIGIONS OF PERSIA.

393

severance., in which they are so exemplary, must be added that of perfect
submission to their superior. This latter is elevated by the deep humility
which accompanies all their conduct, not only in the interior of the
cloisters, but even in private life. One never meets them anywhere
but with head bent and the most respectful countenance. They never
salute anyone, particularly the Maulawis, and the Bakhtashis, except
by the exclamation, "Ya Hu !" The words Ai-bi-'llah, "thanks to God,"
frequently are used in their conversation ; and the more devout or en-
thusiastic speak only of dreams, visions, celestial spirits, supernatural
objects.

The order of the Dervishes is one of the holiest orders among the
Moslems. They are men who have voluntarily consecrated their lives to
Allah and his Prophet. Parents, in many cases, dedicate their sons to
the order. Quite often, childless women will vow to Allah to consecrate
a son he will graciously give, back to him, by having him enter into the
order of Dervishes. This order numbers members from all classes of
society, high and low, wealthy and indigent, even from the royal fam-
ily.

A Dervish is expected to be and commonly is humble, kind and
liberal, ready to do anyone a service. He suffers all sorts of hardships,
self-imposed, and leads a very humble life, for this to him is holiness.
He is required to be well informed in all religious stories, traditions,
and the Koran, and particularly in the poetical writings of the Maw-le-
\vi order (which is their own order), founded by Au-wa-ri, the father
of the Dervishes. Some of the members know from one to five thou-
sand of these sacred poems. The majority are sufficiently well edu-
cated to read, and in general they are the most faithful, honest and pure
followers of Mohammed. Some are very intelligent and well educated
and perfectly familiar with all their religious rites and rituals. On the
other hand they are exceedingly superstitious, fanatical and ambitious
to propagate their religion, believing it to be a true religion. Their
main occupation is to sit in the streets during the week days and tell
stories, tales and traditions. Their poems glorify Mohammed and AH,
God's supremest creatures. One of these poems runs in this strain:
"The first of all creatures is Ali ; the supreme of beings is Ali ; the true
Caliph of the Prophet is Ali ; the Lord of all the world is Ali ; the Lord
of my soul is Ali."

The Dervishes wear long hair and a pointed, orange-shaped cap,
a cloak of patch work and a long white robe. In their right hand they
carry a tomahawk or hatchet with a fancy handle ; on the blade are some

394

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

inscriptions consisting- of passages from the Koran, or poems. In the
left hand they hold a kashkul or receptacle for money donated them;
A dozen or more may be seen on every street not far distant from each
other, standing in front of stores singing some poems for the praise of
Ali in a loud voice, and with an earnest and enthusiastic spirit. Then
he will pass his kashkul and the shopkeeper will drop into it some small
coin or only a bit of sugar or ginger. Any gift is acceptable. Some-
times they are called Kalander, which means humble and holy men
of Allah. They are exempted from tax and from military service. Many
presents are given them by the people. The salutation is different from
that among common people. The first says, "Ya-ho" (O living God) ;
the response is, "Ya-mal-ho" (O God, Giver of life) ; "Ya hak"
(O truth, O truth).

Among Mush-to-hids, two tithes are given to those who excel in
holiness, viz : Pish-Namiz and Imam-Juma. The former means medi-
ator in prayer ; the latter, the prophet of holy Friday.

They are, indeed, more devoted to their faith, and at the same
time more fanatical in their hatred against Christianity. When one
of these priests goes to the mosque, he wears a large turban on his
head, a cloak of fur, a staff with gold or silver handle. He wears a long
beard, which is painted black. Following him is a procession of from
fifty to one hundred men. mostly mollahs, or lower class who are faith-
ful Moslems. Proceeding toward the mosque with slow and solemn
tread, he is saluted by people of all classes along the street by their
rising to their feet, crossing the breast with the arms and reverently
bowing before him, uttering the words, "Sallam ali-Kun Agha" (peace
be unto you, sir). This service occurs on holy Friday.

Women are not admitted in these most holy and solemn services.
The Mush-ta-hid stands in the front part of the mosque, facing Mecca,
and all the audience is back of him. As he advances in the prayer, all
the people repeat what he prays. They imitate every motion he makes.
When he kneels, they kneel. When he puts the ends of his front fingers
in his ears, the entire audience does the same. They believe all prayers
prayed in that way are accepted through his mediatorial prayer.

AL-HAJARU 'L-ASWAD.

Lit. "The Black Stone." The famous black stone which forms part
of the sharp angle of the Ka'bah in the temple at Mecca. Mr. Burk-
hardt says, "It is an irregular oval, about seven inches in diameter, with
an undulating surface, composed of about a dozen smaller stones of dif-

RELIGIONS OF PERSIA.

395

ferent sizes and shapes, well joined together with a small quantity of
cement, and perfectly well smoothed ; it looks as if the whole had been
broken into as many pieces by a violent blow, and then united again.
It is very difficult to determine accurately the quality of this stone,
which has been worn to its present surface by the millions of touches
and kisses it has received. It appeared to me like a lava, containing
several small extraneous particles of whitish and of a yellow sub-
stance. Its color is now a deep reddish brown, approaching to black.
It is surrounded on all sides by a border composed of a substance which
I took to be a close cement of pitch and gravel of a similar, but not
quite the same, brownish color. This border serves to support its de-
tached pieces ; it is two or three inches in breadth, and rises a little above
the surface of the stone. Both the border and the stone itself are en-
circled by a silver band, broader below than above, and on the two sides
with a considerable swelling below, as if a part of the stone were hidden
under it. The lower part of the border is studded with silver nails."

Captain Burton remarks, "The color appeared to me black and
metallic, and the center of the stone was sunk about two inches below the
metallic circle. Round the sides was a reddish brown cement, almost
level with the metal, and sloping down to the middle of the stone. The
band is now a massive arch of gold or silver gilt. I found the aperture
in which the stone is, one span and three fingers broad."

According to Ibu 'Abbas, Mohammed said the black stone came
down from Paradise and at the time of its descent it was whiter than
milk, but that the sins of the children of Adam have caused it to be
black, by their touching it. That on the Day of Resurrection, when
it will have two eyes, by which it will see and know all those who touched
it and kissed it, and when it will have a tongue to speak, it will give evi-
dence in favor of those who touched and kissed it.

Maximus Tyrius, who wrote in the second century, says, "The
Arabians pay homage to I know not what god, which they represent
by a quadrangular stone," alluding to the Ka'bah, or temple which con-
tains the black stone. The Guebars, or Ancient Persians, assert that
the black stone was amongst the images and relics left by Mahabad and
his successors in the Ka'bah, and that it was an emblem of Saturn. It
is probably an aerolite, and owes its reputation, like many others, to
its fall from the sky. Its existence as an object of adoration in an icon-
oclastic religious system, can only be accounted for by Mohammed's
attempt to conciliate the idolaters of Arabia.

396

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

PLATE I.

The Arabic verse at the top of the page is from the Koran "Sura
el Bukr" or "The Cow" — (Chap. 1 : 198) :

"And when ye go in procession from Mount Arafat, remember God
near (El Mashaar el Haram) the holy monument."

The words at the bottom of the certificate read as follows :

"Praise to God who has granted us the privilege of the Holy House,
and the well of Zamzam, and the Yukano (station of Abraham) and the
station of the Prophet, may Allah pray for (or bless) him and grant him
peace! * * * After this preface we testify that the Hajj * * *
has performed the holy pilgrimage at the lawful time according to the
holy law and continued clad in pilgrim garb. Ihram, persevering and
praying upon (by the intercession of) the Prophet, may the Lord bless
him and grant him peace ! until he entered Mecca and entered the
House of the Haram by the gate of Es Salam, and went around the
(Kaaba) Haji going and advancing, and went to Mount Arafat, on the
west side, and joined the "rush" to Muzdalifa, and gathered the stones,
and spent the night in it (Mina) until dawn and went to Mina and threw
the seven stones at the pillar (Cairu) of Akaba ; then returned to Mecca
and performed the Towaf of the visit; then returned to Mina and re-
mained there the appointed days, and hurled stones at the three Carius
(Jemeat)and completed the Haji and the 'Omra. Our standing or wit-
ness to this was on the day of the year 130 — and I call God

to witness this, and He is the best of witnesses.

Then follow places for the names of four witnesses.

At the right-hand upper corner of this page is the representation of
the Mosque of Muzdalifa and the tents of the pilgrims ; to the left of
this the Mosque of Nimr near Mount Arafat and below it the Mahmals
of Syria and Egypt, i. e., palanquins carried on camels, surmounted by
flags. I I

To the right is Mount Arafat, a secred mountain, about 12 miles
northeast of Mecca, which, in Moslem tradition, is said to be the place
where Adam and Eve met after the fall. They were in the Celestial
Paradise in the skies, when one day, while walking too near the border,
they stumbled and fell over the edge, so tumbling down into this world.
This is the Moslem idea of the "Fall." Adam landed in Ceylon and
Eve at Jeddah on the Red Sea. He was 200 years searching for his
wife; but at length he set out westward, stepping sixty leagues at a
step, and wherever his foot touched the ground, a city sprang up, until

Plate L

MECCA CERTIFICATE, OR A PASSPORT TO HEAVEN.

398

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

at length he met Eve at this mountain, "Arafat-hoo., she recognized
him," hence the name of this mountain. At the foot of this mountain,
the Mohammedans believe that Abraham offered a ram in sacrifice in-
stead of his son Ishmael (who, according to the Koran, was the favored
son instead of Isaac). Here every year each pilgrim offers a sheep as
a commemorative sacrifice. The Bedowin Arabs from Arabia come to-
gether in thousands at this time, bringing their vast flocks of sheep,
which are sold to the pilgrims, each one of whom, if able, is to buy
and sacrifice a sheep. Formerly the offal of these thousands of slaugh-
tered animals poisoned the air and produced pestilence. The governor
of Mecca now has great trenches dug to receive this offal. In 1893, when
100,000 pilgrims visited Mecca, and 50,000 died of cholera, these trenches
were filled with the dead bodies of the pilgrims. Hundreds dropped dead
along the road from Mecca to Arafat, and while writhing in the contor- -
tions and agonies of the cholera convulsions, no medical aid was asked
or provided. The devout pilgrims only said "Niyalhoo," "happy man —
he has died at Mecca."

The three pillars of Mina, which are also represented here, are an-
cient pagan shrines. At each one every pilgrim must hurl seven stones
at the devil.

Near this is pictured the Mesjed or Mosque of Taif, the altar of
Ishmael, the Dome of Abd-el Kader in Baghdad, and at the extreme
right of the Dome of "Our Lord" Hassein al Kerbela, where thousands
of corpses of deceased Persians are brought yearly to be buried. It is
northwest of Baghdad and lies in Turkish territory.

Then we notice the birthplace of Mohammed, of Ali ibu Abi Talib,
of Abu Bekr, and Fatimeh, and the tomb of Amina and Khadija ; also
two bell-shaped hills, Jebel Thowr, and Jebel Noor.

PLATE II.

At the top of this page is a verse from the Koran (Sura III : v. 90).

"Verily, the first house appointed unto men to worship in was that
which was in Becca (Mecca) blessed and a direction to all creatures."

This page contains the quadrangular court of the Mecca Haram,
within which is the circular colonnade, enclosing the Kaaba or Beit Allah
the House of God. This Kaaba was, in the days of Pre-Islamic pagan-
ism, a pagan temple, and was adopted by Mohammed as a sacred shrine,
out of deference to the time-honored superstitious reverence of the
Arabian people, especially the citizens of Mecca. According to Burck-
hardt, its sides are 18 paces by 14, its height from 35 to 40 feet. It is

Plate 11.

MECCA CERTIFICATE, OR PASSPORT TO HEAVEN.

400

PERSIA BY£A PERSIAN.

covered yearly with Kiswet or vail of black brocade, adorned with a
broad band embroidered with golden inscriptions from the Koran; it
has also a richer curtain for the door.

The old Kiswet is removed on the 25th day of the month before
the pilgrimage, cut up into small pieces, and sold to the pilgrims for
charms.

At the southeast corner of the court is the famous Black Stone, or
Hajr el Asswad, a meteoric stone set in the wall, about a span long,
which is reverently kissed by every pilgrim seven times, as he makes the
seven-fold circuit of the Kaaba. The Moslems claim that this stone
was given by Gabriel to Abraham. It is no doubt a meteorite, which
fell from the skies in ancient days, and was regarded as divine, as was
the "image which fell down from Jupiter" (Acts 19:35). Mohammed,
as a concession to the Pagan superstition of the Meccans, confirmed the
kissing of the Black Stone as a religious rite of Islam. The fiery Omar,
when asked why he kissed the stone, said. "Verily, I know thou art a
stone ; thou doest no good or harm in the world, and if it was not that 1
saw the Prophet kiss thee, I would not kiss thee" — (Miskat ul Masabih,
Book XI : ch. iv. pt. iii). Modern intelligent Mohammedans, when
asked why they kiss the stone, reply, "God knows, we do not."

Below the representation of the Kaaba is depicted the famous
station of Abraham, a stone 20 inches long by 15 inches wide. It is in
the shape of a basin, and is buried in the earth. The name of Abraham
is connected with it from the tradition that he first built the Kaaba.

Below this may be noticed the famous "Beer Zamzam," Well of
Zamzam, or Well of Hagar, which is claimed to be the water which Ha-
gar saw, when Ishmael was dying of thirst. The Moslems ascribe mirac-
ulous virtues to its tepid waters, and the manufacture of bottles or jars
for carrying the water to distant countries has developed into quite a
trade. The curb of the deep well is on a level with the pavement, and
as the vast procession of pilgrims comes to the spot, the keepers of the
well draw up a bucket, the pilgrim drinks a little, and the rest is poured
over his body, and runs back into the well. One can imagine the state
of this water when ten or twenty thousand pilgrims have been washed
in it!

Even when cholera is raging, the same use of this well is continued;
no wonder that it becomes the means of conveying and increasing the
cholera germs among the unfortunate pilgrims, so that the European
governments have urged the Sultan to enforce a reform, cleanse this
water, and protect the lives of the pilgrims.

Plate HL

402

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

Around the circle are the praying places of the'Malikis, the Hana-
fys, the Hanbalys and the Shafi-is, the four great sects of Islam.

Around the quadrangle are 20 gates, such as Bab-su-Nebi, Gate of
the Prophet, Gate of Abraham, of Peace, of Abbas, of the Mare, the
Mule, Safa,* of Farewell, of Wisdom, etc., etc., — besides various shrines.

PLATE III.

On the third page are represented the Holy Places of El Medizet,
the tomb of Mohammed.

The Koranic passage at the top reads as follows :

"Said the Prophet, may God bless and grant him peace! Who
visits my tomb, has my intercession."

The large dome in the upper left-hand corner is the tomb of Mo-
hammed. Around the page are drawn the mosque of Fatimeh, mosque
of the strength of Islam, the mosques of Hamzeh, Abu Bekr, Ali and
Silman, the tomb of Othman, and various other shrines.

PLATE IV.

This page contains the Holy Shrines of Jerusalem. The Haram-es-
Sherif, or the quadrangular area once occupied by the temple of Solo-
mon, occupies the center of the page. The verse of the Koran at the
top is from Sura xvii. :

"Praise be unto Him who transported His servant (Mohammed) by
night from the sacred temple (of Mecca) to the farther temple, the
Mosque El Aksa (of Jerusalem)."

The mosque commonly known as the Mosque of Omar, is here
styled "Beit el Mukdas" or the Holy House. Under the dome in the
black circle is the "Rock of God," or the "Suspended Stone." Every
visitor to this mosque is startled at finding within it, surrounded by
the iron railing, an enormous naked rock. This was very probably the
summit of Mount Moriah. Moslem traditions say that when Moham-
med made the famous "Mi'raj" or midnight journey from Mecca to

*The Hills of Safa and Merwah, a short distance outside of the Herain, be3 T ond
the Bab Safa, are two hills, Sata and Merwah, on the top of which in Pre-Islamic
days stood two stone idols, worshiped by the Pagan Meccans. When they accepted
Islam, it was on condition that these two sacred hill-tops continue to be visited
as a part of the holy pilgrimage. So to this day, every Mohammedan pilgrim,
however grave, learned and dignified, must run seven times from the top of Safa
hill to the top of Merwah hill, as did the old pagan Arabs. When asked, why do
you do this? they reply, "Allah knows, we do not." This is another instance of
the adoption and adaption by Mohammed of the superstitions of paganism in
order to win the Meccans to his cause.

Plate IV.

MECCA CERTIFICATE, OR A PASSPORT TO HEAVEN.
403

404

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

Jerusalem, and started to ascend to heaven, this rock followed him until
he kicked it back with both feet, leaving the prints of his two feet in
the rock, which has ever since remained suspended in the air ! The two
footprints of the prophet are pictured below the rock.

Below this are the Scales of "Mizan," in which all men's deeds are
to be weighed at the last day, together with the shears which cut off the
life of men. Men's good deeds are to be placed in one scale-pan
and their evil deeds in the other. The good deeds are the Mohamme-
dan good works, viz.: (i.) To repeat the Creed or Formula "There is
no God, but God, and Mohammed is His Apostle." (2.) To give alms
to the poor. (3.) To pray five times a day. (4.) To keep the fast of
Ramadan. (5.) To make the pilgrimage to Mecca. If one observes
these outward rites, his good deeds will outweigh any possible evil
deeds. The Arabs have a proverbial saying, "If a man has been to
Mecca once, well and good ; if twice, have an eye on him ; if three times,
have nothing to do with him, he has become so holy that he is dan-
gerous," i. e., he has laid up such stock of religious merit that he can
commit any amount of sin with impunity.

At the bottom of this fourth page of the Certificate is the great
Bridge of Siraat, of vast length, the width of a hair, and sharp as a
razor, over which every mortal must walk barefooted. At the right
of it is the pit of Jehenaam or hell, and to the left Jenneh or Paradise.
A hazardous feat it is to make the journey, since on it depends one's
eternal destiny.

Around this area are pictured the tombs of David, Solomon, Moses
and Jacob, and in the right-hand upper corner is seen Jebel, Toor
Sina, or Mount Sinai.

This certificate is the Moslem passport, as it were, to Paradise. If
gives one in brief an epitome of Mohammedan faith and practice. Islam
is a religion of works, of human merit. There is no way of salvation
by a Redeemer. These 200,000,000 of Moslems sorely need to be
taught the true way of life, even salvation by faith in Jesus Christ, their
true prophet, priest and king.

The pilgrimage is strictly commanded to Mohammedans. There
are many places to be visited, but the most important is Medina, the
burial place of Mohammed. The second place is Mecca, Mohammed's
birthplace. This city is the most holy to all the Mohammedan world.
Here is the old temple of the Arabs, the Kaaba, which was converted
by Mohammed into a mosque. The third place is Karballa. It is situ-
ated near Bagdad, where the most leaders of the religion live. The

RELIGIONS OF PERSIA.

405

fourth place is Mashhad. This city is situated in the northeast part of
Persia, in the state of Khorasan, near the Caspian Sea. This is the most
holy city in Persia. Here many famous persons lie buried, as, for in-
stance, the grandchildren of Mohammed.

This mosque is richer than Mecca and Karballa. The dome is
lined with gold outside and inside. Generally each king of Persia makes
expensive presents, but the most remarkable event in this connection
was 200 years ago. Nadirshah, a powerful king of Persia, who con-
quered India and despoiled Calcutta of its treasures, made a present to
this temple of a crown of gold adorned with precious stones.

Mohammedan law commands all to go to these holy places. Books
of ceremony emphasize the importance of such pilgrimage. The hope
of remission of sins is given to all visitors and they are thereafter called
by a different name from ordinary men. Everyone has confidence in
them, and sometimes witnesses are called from this class of men. Their
law is, every able man must go and God will provide for his family, and
afterward he will be rich. Everyone who refuses to go is not a true
Moslem and does not love his religion.

Preparations for the journey are made by fasting and prayer. They
must repent of every sin, and sometimes one sees men praying in various
ways and it is easy to see that they are preparing for a pilgrimage. They
put on a sorrowful countenance and walk about sadly, all of which is
merely for vain glory. Every day they must wash and cleanse themselves
and go to the mosque. If they are at enmity with any one they must
first be reconciled before their journey will be recognized. Some days
before starting some Say-yids will ride on blue horses with long spears
in their hands. They will walk in the streets crying in a loud voice to
all those who are to make a pilgrimage to prepare themselves and be
ready on a certain day. Together with this command are uttered words
of comfort and encouragement. They tell the people not to fear; God
will send, for the sake of Mohammed, His angels and prophets riding
on blue horses, to deliver them from all robbers and thieves.

One month before starting each man must make donations to the
poor, according to his ability. The pilgrim goes to the leader to inquire
what is necessary for him to do, and how to do it, that his pilgrimage
may be accepted. The priest will say, if the man is rich : "You found a
mosque." If the man is poor, a small amount of money is required.
Those who make their pilgrimage on horseback scatter money on the
way for the benefit of the beggars and the poor. As the pilgrim sets out
he is accompanied by friends for some distance, as a mark of honor to

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PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

the faithful Islam. Before the band of pilgrims the leader rides, calling
out in a loud voice, "Salawat." Not only the living, but also the dead
shall go to these places.

Sometimes when a stingy man dies who has not gone on a pil-
grimage in his lifetime, he exacts a promise from his relatives that a
certain amount of his money will be used to carry his body to the holy
city. If this promise is not kept, the priest will compel his relatives and
heirs to restore the specified money for sacred purposes. Thus one
may see caravans with hundreds, even thousands of horses with the
boxes containing the corpses strapped to their backs, on their way to
the holy places.

When death knocks at any door, the house is the scene of the
wildest demonstrations of grief. Frequently the stillness of night is
disturbed by the professional mourners. The near relatives tear their
hair, scratch their faces, put on them mud and dirt, and often embrace
the lifeless body.

Among the Moslems a death is announced by the Mollah from
the housetop of the dead, by repeating certain portions of the Koran,
and in the case of a wealthy man or a noble this is done twice. The
news of the death is not sent to distant friends, even if it be children,
parents or brothers, as there is no one who would be the bearer or sender
of such sad news. The burial follows rapidly, and in some cases people
have been buried alive, as passers by the cemeteries have heard voices,
and when the graves have been opened it was found that the body had
changed from the position it was placed in. The body is taken first
to a corpse-washing house, located in close proximity to a morgue, or in
his own house, where it is thoroughly washed with soap and water by a
professional body-washer, who is accustomed to take a suit of the dead
man's clothes for his pay. It is then rinsed with abundance of fresh
water, after which water containing camphor and spices is poured on
the head three times, then often the entire body the same num-
ber of times, as a religious ceremony. A new white shroud is
put on and wound around the body, completely covering it from head
to foot. It is then placed on a bier and carried to the mosque, where it
is deposited with the head pointing toward Mecca. The procession con-
sists only of men headed by a Mollah, who repeats passages from the
Koran on the way. Children's corpses are carried on a pillow and adults'
on a bier. They are carried by different companies of men, who change
every few minutes, as there is a merit obtained in helping.

Two priests and the friends take such a position as to face Mecca.

RELIGIONS OF PERSIA.

407

Then the whole company rattles off the Moslem prayer in Arabic, after
which the body is carried to the cemetery. It is then taken off the bier
and laid alongside the selected grave, as they bury without a coffin. In
the meantime prayers are said and the body is lowered and laid on its
right side, the face made bare and facing Mecca. A priest takes his
place at the head and in a loud voice recites in Arabic, the other Mol-
lahs-eontinuing their prayers. When the man at the head of the grave
begins reciting, the grave digger takes the left arm of the corpse and
shakes it gently till the recitation is finished, in order to attract its at-
tention to what the Mollah has to say. The grave is roofed over with
stone about a foot and a half from the bottom, thus leaving the body
in a small underground enclosure. They will also paint his or her
face so they will look pretty, and fill the eyes and ears and the spaces
between the fingers and toes with cotton, to keep the devil away from
the body. After the body is put in the ground the relatives take candies
and fruits to those who attended the service, and the priest, after all are
gone, will sprinkle the grave with holy water and will say to him who
has died : "Give good answer to God and do not be ashamed, neither
be thou afraid, because Mohammed is before God and is making inter-
cession for you."

They believe that, after all have gone away, he will arise and wash
his face in the holy water sprinkled on his grave, and will then be ready
for judgment.

When they cut their finger nails they generally preserve them and
put them in their coffins and bury them. Once there was a very religious
man who cut his finger nails and put them away carefully; some boys
found them and scattered them, and he was very angry and said, "Now
what will I do in resurrection as God will ask for them?"

In shaving the head the hair in the central part of the head will not
be shaven, and this is about two feet long ; this enables Prophet Moham-
med to draw a person up to heaven on the last day.

The friends assemble at the funeral with such expressions as, "May
God be merciful to you !" "May your life be prolonged !" "Our life is
from God !" "It is the will of God !" "It is the act of God ; we must be re-
signed!" Tea and coffee are served, and sometimes pilan and other
viands at great expense. Hired mourners are in attendance. The Mol-
lah recites a dirge telling them not to weep for their friends, but to weep
for Husain and the slaughtered innocents. The tender hearts of the
bereaved are easily moved and their tears and their beatings on their
breasts are a merit as being for the martyrs. Neither the men nor the

408

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

women wash their faces or comb their hair until the first days of mourn-
ing are over.

The men open the seams of their coats as if rending their garments,
and put dust on their hats. A bereaved woman sometimes tears her flesh
with her nails, pulls out her hair, uncovers her head and sits in the hot
sun screaming.

The length and loudness of the wailing are supposed to indicate the
depth of the sorrow. For two weeks wailing is so loud that the neigh-
bors a block away can hear it. The women has companions to some-
times weep with her ; sometimes scold and unbraid her that the death is
not a fact. The putting on of the oldest clothes is a sign of mourning.
"°rayers and reading of the Koran are a part of the ceremony at the
grave. They are also repeated on the eve of Friday and on special
mourning days. On these occasions the people and the Mollahs crowd
the cemeteries, to pray, mourn and eat pilan and taffy.

The grave of a man is dug three or four feet deep ; that of a woman,
two feet deeper. The face is placed toward Mecca. Some bodies are
laid on the ground and incased in bricks and reserved to be removed to
some shrine. Thousands of corpses are taken to Kerbela or Meshed.

Each Friday the Koran must be read at the tombs or graves of the
dead. The friends and relatives will induce some one to go there and
read the Koran every Friday. In this case several families may join
together to obtain a man to go and read the Koran every Friday for
some hours.

Then after seven years or more, the bones will be dug out and put
in boxes and prepared to be sent to Mohammed's burying ground. The
object of these trips is to secure heaven for the dead, because the pro-
phet said, "If the bones of a man shall be near mine, there will be no
doubt of their resurrection with me on the last day ; but if they are too
far from any burying ground, then my power might not reach them
in giving them privilege of resurrection." Thus the people will do all
in their power to send the bones of their beloved ones near to his bury-
ing grounds.

PERSIAN SNAKE CHARMER.

Snake charming has been known and practiced for thousands
of years. In western Asia at present it is practiced by Mohammedans,
who believe that it is done through spiritual power. They are especially
proud of their knowledge and skill and regard it as a gift imparted
to them through their religion and practiced through the aid of some
spirits or genii.

RELIGIONS OF PERSIA.

409

Snake charmers are a very cruel, savage, hard-hearted class of peo-
ple. They curse and swear and revile, using the coarsest and foulest
language imaginable. By their very wickedness they seem to exercise
an influence in overcoming the ugly reptiles.

Sometimes these charmers find snakes who do not want to hear their
voice. So David speaks of the wicked : "They go astray as soon as
they be born, speaking lies. Their poison is like the poison of a serpent ;
they are like a deaf adder that stoppeth her ear ; which will not harken
to the voice of the charmers, charming never so wisely." Ps. lviii. 3-5.

Some snakes are, however, very easily charmed. For instance, if a
charmer sees a hole in which he supposes there is a snake, he will stand
over the hole and utter some incantation in the Arabic language, where-
upon the snake will come out. The charmer will then pick it up in his
hand and put it in his bosom. The snake will do him no harm.

In the public squares of Persian cities, charmers may often be seen
with a great number of different kinds of snake sin boxes. He will talk
about them, taking up one snake at a time, and telling the character-
istics of each ; how it bites, how it lives and where it lives. The Moham-
medans regard a snake charmer as a holy man, whom even the venomous
snakes, the universal enemies of mankind, obey. Therefore, superstitious
people who have been sick, believe that snake charmers can cure them
by their magical power which has been implanted in them by the Imams
or Mohammedan pontiffs.

AL-HASAN.

The fifth Khalifah. The eldest son of Fatimah, the daughter of Mo-
hammed by her husband, the Khalifah 'Ali, Born, A. H. 3. Died A. Ft.
49. He succeeded his father, 'Ali, as Khalifah A. H. 41, and reigned
about six months. He resigned the Khalifate in favor of Mu'awiyah,
and was eventually poisoned by his wife, Ju'da, who was suborned to
commit the deed by Yazid, the son of Mu'awiyah, by a promise of mar-
rying her, which promise he did not keep. Al-Hasan had twenty chil-
dren ; fifteen sons and five daughters, from whom are descended one
section of the great family of Saiyids, or Lords, the descendants of the
Prophet. The history of al-Hasan, together with the tragical death
of his brother, al-Husain, forms the plot of the miracle play of the Mu-
harram.

AL-HUSAIN.

The second son of Fatimah, the daughter of Mohammed, by her
son, 'Ali, the fourth Khalifah. A brother to al-Hasan, the fifth Khalifah.

RELIGIONS OF PERSIA. 411

According to the Shi'ahs, he was the third Khalifah. He was born
A. H. 4, and died at Karbala A. H. 61, being cruelly slain in his conflict
with Yazid, the seventh Khalifah, according to the Sunnis. The martyr-
dom of al-Husain is celebrated by the Shiahs every year during the
first ten days of the Muharram ; an account of his tragic death is there-
fore necessary for understanding the intensity of feeling with which the
scenes and incidents of the last days of the "Imam Husain" are en-
acted in the "Miracle Play."

Shortly after the accession of Yezid (Yazid), Husain received
at Mecca secret messages from the people of Cufa, entreating him to
place himself at the head of the army of the faithful in Babylonia. Yezid,
however, had full intimation of the intended revolt, and long before
Husain could reach Cufa, the too easy governor of that city had been
replaced by Obaidallah ('Ubai-du 'llah ibu Ziyad), the resolute ruler
of Busorah (al-Basrah), who by his rapid measures disconcerted the
plans of the conspirators, and drove them to a premature outbreak, and
the surrender of their leader Moslem. The latter foresaw the ruin
which he had brought on Husain, and shed bitter tears on that account
when captured. His head was struck off and sent to Yezid. On Husain
arriving at the confines of Babylonia, he was met by Harro (al-Hurr),
who had been ssnt out by Obaidallah with a body of horsemen to inter-
cept his approach. Husain, addressing them, asserted his title to the
Khalifate, and invited them to submit to him. Harro replied, "We are
commanded as soon as we meet you to bring you directly to Cufa into
the presence of Obaidallah, the son of Ziyad." Husain answered, "I
would sooner die than submit to that," and gave the word to his men
to ride on ; but Harro wheeled about and intercepted them. At the same
time, Harro said, "I have no commission to fight with you, but I am
commanded not to part with you until I have conducted you into Cufa ;"
but he bade Husain choose any road into that city "that did not go
directly back to Mecca," "and do you," said he, "write to Yezid or Obai-
dallah, and I shall write to Odaidallah, and perhaps it may please God
I may meet with something that will bring me off without my being
forced to an extremity on your account." Then he retreated his force
a little to allow Husain to lead the way toward Cufa, and Husain took
the road that leads by Adib and Cadisia. This was on Thursday, the
first of Mohurrum, A. H. 61 (A. D. 680). When night came on, he
still continued his march all through the night. As he rode on he nodded
a little, and waking again, said, "Men travel by night, and the destinies
travel toward them ; this I know to be a message of death."

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

In the morning after prayers were over, he mended his pace, and
as he rode on there came up a horseman, who took no notice of him,
but saluted Harro, and delivered to him a letter, giving orders from Obai-
dallah to lead Husain and his men into a place where was neither town
nor fortifications, and there leave them till the Syrian forces should sur-
round them.

This was on Friday the 2nd of Mohurrum. The day after, Amer
came upon them with four thousand men, who were on their march to
Dailam. They had been encamped without the walls of Cufa, and when
Obaidallah heard of Husain's coming, he commanded Amer to defer his
march to Dailam and go against Husain. But one and all dissuaded him.
''Beware that you go not against Husain, and rebel against your Lord,
and cut off mercy from you, for you had better be deprived of the do-
minion of the whole world than meet your Lord with the blood of Hu-
sain upon you." Amer was fain to acquiesce, but upon Obaidallah re-
newing his command with threats, he marched against Husain, and came
up with him as aforesaid, on, Saturday the 3rd of Mohurrum.

On Amer sending to inquire of Husain what brought him thither,
the latter replied, "The Cufans wrote to me ; but since they reject me, I
am willing to return to Mecca."

Amer was glad when he heard it, and said, "I hope God I may be ex-
cused from fighting against him." Then he wrote his purpose to Obai-
dallah ; but Obaidallah sternly replied, ''Get between him and the river,"
and Amer did so ; and the name of the place where he cut Husain off
from the Euphrates was called Kerbela (Karbala) : "Kerb (anguish) ami
bela (vexation), trouble and affliction," said Husain, when he heard it.

Then Husain sought a conference with Amer, in which he proposed
either to go to Yezid, to return to Mecca, or, as some add, but others
deny, to fight against the Turks. Odaidallah was at first inclined to
accede to these conditions, until Shamer stood up and swore that no
terms should be made with Husain, adding significantly that he had been
informed of a long conference between Husain and Amer.

Then Obaidallah sent Shamer with orders to Amer, that if Husain
would surrender unconditionally, he would be received ; if not, Amer
was to fall upon him and his men, and trample them under his feet.
Should he refuse to do so, Shamer was to strike off Amer's head, and
himself command the attack against Husain.

Tims passed Sunday Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, and
Friday, the 4th, 5th, 6th, 7th, 8th, and 9th of Mohurrum. On the evening
of the 9th Amer drew up his forces close to Husain's camp, and himself

RELIGIONS OF PERSIA.

413

rode up to Husain as he was sitting in the door of his tent just after the
evening prayer and told him of the conditions offered by Obaidallah ; Hu-
sain desired Amer to give him time until the next morning when he
would make his answer.

In the night his sister came weeping to his bedside, and, awaking
him, exclaimed, "Alas, for the desolation of my family ! my mother,
Fatima is dead, and my father Ali, and my brother Husan. Alas for
the destruction that has passed ! and alas for the destruction that is to
come!" "Sister," Husain replied, "put your trust in God, and know
that man is bound to die, and that the heavens shall not remain ; every-
thing shall pass away, but the presence of God, who created all things
by His power, and shall make them by His power to pass away, and
they shall return to Him alone. My father was better than me, and my
mother was better than me ; and my brother was better than me ; and
they and we and all Moslems have an example in the Apostle of God."
Then he told his men that Obaidallah wanted nobody but him, and that
they should go away to their homes. But they said : "God forbid, that
we should ever see the day wherein we survive you !" Then he com-
manded them to cord their tents close together, and make a line of
them, so as to keep out the enemy's horse. And he digged a trench
behind his camp, which he filled with wood to be set on fire, so that he
could only be attacked in front. The rest of the night he spent in
prayer and supplication, while the enemy's guard patrolled all night long
round and round his camp.

The next morning both sides prepared for the slaughter. Husain
first washed and anointed himself with musk, and several of his chief
men did the like; and one asking them what it meant, Husain replied
pleasantly, "Alas ! there is nothing between us and the black eyed girls
of Paradise but that these troopers come down upon us and slay us !"
Then he mounted his horse, and set the Koran before him, crying, "O
God, Thou art my confidence in every trouble and my hope in every ad-
versity!" And submitted himself to the judgment of his companions
before they opened the pages of the sacred volume. At this his sisters
and daughters began to weep, when he cried out in bitter anguish, self-
reproachfully, "God reward the son of Abbas," in allusion to advice
which his cousin, Abdullah ibu Abbas, had given him, to leave the
women behind in Mecca. At this movement a party of the enemy's
horse wheeled about and came up to Husain, who expected to be at-
tacked by them. But it was Harro, who had quitted the ranks of the
Syrian army and had now come to die with Husain, and testify his re-

414

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

pentance before men and God. As Harro rode into the doomed camp,
he shouted back to Amer, "Alas for you!" Whereupon Amer com-
manded his men to "bring up the colors." As soon as they were set
in front of the troops, Shamer shot an arrow into the camp, saying, "Bear
witness that I shot the first arrow," and so the fight began on both sides.
It raged chiefly in a series of single combats, until noon-day, when both
sides retired to prayer, Husain adding to the usual office the "Prayer
of Fear," never used but in cases of extremity. When shortly after-
wards the fight was renewed, Husain was struck on the head by a sword.
Faint with the loss of blood, he sat down by his tent and took upon his
lap his little son, Abdullah, who was at once killed by a flying arrow.
He placed the little corpse upon the ground, crying out, "We come from
God and we return to him. O God, give me strength to bear these
misfortunes." Growing thirsty, he ran toward the Euphrates, where,
as he stooped to drink, an arrow struck him in the mouth. Raising
his hands, all besmeared and dripping with blood, to heaven, he stood
for awhile and prayed earnestly. His little nephew, a beautiful child,
who went up to kiss him, had his hand cut off with a sword, on which
Husain again wept, saying, "Thy reward, dear child, is with thy fore-
fathers in the realms of bliss." Hounded on by Shamer, the Syrian
troops now surrounded him; but Husian, nothing daunted, charged
them right and left. In the midst of the fighting, his sister came between
him and his slayers, crying out to Amer, how he could stand by and see
Husain slain. Whereupon, with tears trickling down his beard, Amer
turned his face away; but Shamer, with threats and curses, set on his
soldiers again, and at last one wounded Husain upon the hand, and a
second gashed him on the neck, and a third thrust him through the
body with a spear. No sooner had he fallen to the ground than Shamer
rode a troop of horsemen over his corpse, backwards and forwards,
over and over again, until it was trampled into the very ground, a
scarcely recognizable mass of mangled flesh and mud.

"Thus, twelve years after the death of his brother Hasan Husain,
the second son of Ali, met his own death on the bloody plain of Ker-
bela, on Saturday, the ioth day of Mohurrum, A. H. 61 (A. D. 680)."
From al-Husain and his brother al-Hasan are derived the descendants
of the prophet, known throughout Islam as Saiyids.

After the death of Mohammed, the succession was disputed, al-
though the Shiahs affirm that Mohammed had already designated Ali
as his successor. The succession appeared to belong by right, as well
as by nature, to Ali, who was married to Fatimeh, the only surviving

RELIGIONS OF PERSIA.

415

daughter of the prophet. But it was not until the accession and assas-
sination of Abu Bekr, Omar and Othman, that the magnanimous Ali
was elected to the Khalifate. Even then, he was not permitted to enjoy
the long-deferred honors without an opposition which eventually proved
fatal, not only to himself but also to the continuation of the Khalifate
in the family of the founder of the faith. When Ali was in turn
assassinated his oldest son, Hasan, assumed the Khalifate, to which he
was peacefully elected by the people of Medina or Medinah. At the
head of a powerful army, he marched to encounter Noaviyeh. The
enthusiasm of his generals and forces promised a decisive victory, but
Hasan was a man of peaceable disposition, averse to active life, and
preferring the tranquil domesticity of a private citizen. He proposed
to abdicate in favor of Noaviyeh, reserving the succession to
himself after the death of Noaviyeh, who was much the elder, and an
ample revenue during a life of ease and retirement at Medina. The
terms of the pacification were accepted and religiously followed by
Noaviyeh. Yezid, his son, foreseeing that the approaching death
of his father would restore the virtuous Hasan to the Khalifate, caused
the latter to be poisoned by one of his wives.

Husain, a brother of Hasan, was a man of different metal. He
had opposed his brother's abdication, and he now perceived, after
escaping a plot to assassinate him, that the empire was not large enough
to contain, himself and Yezid in peace. He therefore boldly pre-
pared for a final conflict that was to decide the claims of the Aliites
and the Ommiades. Escaping from Medina, whose governor had
schemed to entrap him, Husain hastened wtih his family to Cufa. The
inhabitants of Cufa had hardly sent a pressing message to Husain to
resort to their city, with the offer of a powerful host, and their homage,
when they allowed themselves to be easily diverted from their purpose
by the swift messenger sent by Yezid, who was ordered to seize Cufa.

But, Husain was a man of courage, and, what was more, a true
believer in predestination. "What is written, is written," is the doc-
trine of the Koran, of what worth is faith, if it will not bear the test in
the hour of trial? What better occasion could offer for the son of Ali
to testify to his descent from the prophet, and to his unflinching belief
in the tremendous fiat of Kismet. Therefore, accompanied by his
family and a score or two of Arab horsemen, Husain went forth un-
flinchingly to meet his doom. The heroism of Husain was the more
remarkable, because from the outset of his journey he was oppressed
by a presentment of death stalking in his path across the desert, and

416

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

rapidly overtaking the small troop of devoted victims wearily marching
to the grave. "To God we belong, and to God we return," was his
utterance. His four brothers, sons of Ali by another wife, and all his
companions also declined to accept the safe conduct offered to them,
choosing to share the fate of Husain. In the meantime, the enemy's
forces had planted themselves between the camp of Husain and the
Euphrates, and to the other horrors of this terrible hour was now
added that of thirst, in a land quivering with intolerable heat.

The last night in the little camp was one of solemn preparation,
of portentious dreams and fateful gloom. Zeineb and Husain, brother
and sister, the children of Ali and Fatimeh, held mournful converse on
the creeping horrors of the morrow, the day that should see the destruc-
tion of the family of the prophet of God. Around them gathered, one by
one, their children and kinfolks and the small band of faithful defenders.
Husain urged them to fly while yet there was time, for the enemy
sought only the life of one, his own. "Allah forbid that we desert you
now," exclaimed Abbass, and all united in exclaiming with him that
they would die with Husain. The time for deliberation was passed ;
there remained for them but one thing — to die. The attack was begun
by Shamer, a fierce partisan. The combat continued until the hour
for noon prayer, when there came a cessation of arms. During flvr
for noon prayer, when there came a cessation of arms. During the
over thirty wounds, and his head was struck off by the ferocious
Shamer, who carried it all gory to Obeid Allah. Among the slain were
eighteen descendants of Ali and Fatimeh. Zeineb and some of the
women were spared, and eventually taken into the presence of Yezid,
together with the heads of Husain and his brothers. Yezid acted with
moderation, and the remaining descendants of the prophet seemed to
have retired from further participation in public affairs,' laying aside
ambition and merging themselves into the life of private citizens or of
religious teachers and expounders of the faith. Assuming the office
of vindicator of the growing sect of Sheahs, who cherished the memory
of Ali, Al Muchtar entered on a mission of extermination against all
who were concerned in the slaughter of Husain. The entire Moham-
medan world from Afghanistan to the Straits of Gibralter now seemed
to acknowledge the sway of the caliphs of the line of Moaviyeh and his
successors. The rival claims of Ali and his family appeared laid at
rest and forgotten. But no ; in Iran, or Persia, the sectaries of Ali were
slowly biding their time. It is not a little singular that not at Mecca
nor at Medina, where the prophet first proclaimed his doctrines, were

RELIGIONS OF PERSIA.

41?

the claims of his children accepted, but in a distant land peopled by
another race. His children were buried in foreign soil, and the honor
accorded to their memory is to be found not in Arabia, but in Persia.
This may be due in part to the fact that one of the wives of Husain was
a daughter of Yezdigerd, the last monarch of the Sassanian line. Her
remains were brought to her native land, and her tomb is shown on the
rocky heights which overlook the extensive ruins of Rhei, the last capi-
tal of the Sassanides, where she bade her father farewell.

Moslems of Persia say that when Husain was to be beheaded, he
was very thirsty, and asked for a drink of water before being beheaded.
But this request was not granted and he was executed with his thirst

WATER-CARRIER ON THE ASS.

unquenched. In memory of this tragedy there may now be seen walking
the streets of Persian cities every warm summer day men carrying a
bottle or jar of water and crying, "Sakkaw, sakkaw," (their name) and
giving water to any who may be thirsty in the name of Husain.
Moslems take this drink in a cup carried by the sakkaw, but a Chris-
tian must furnish his own cup or drink from the palms of his hands.
If- offered one or two cents the sakkaw will take it, but he never asks
for money. The killing of Husain and his followers occurred in the
month of Mooharram. This entire month is observed as a time of
lamentation for Hasan, Husain and their followers who were slain.

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

During this period every man, woman and child of the Shute Moslems
are under obligations to wear black garments. The last ten days of
Mooharram are observed in a fanatical spirit as a revival of religion.
This period is called Ashara, meaning ten days. The first seven days
are for preparation. The mosque will be crowded with men and women.
The Masya-Kahns, or revivalist priests, are in charge of these services.
Followed by a large procession this priest goes to the mosque and mount-
ing a high pulpit preaches to large crowds. His general theme is tragic
tales, stories of martyrs, the manner of their death, their last utterances,
and the wailing and moaning of their friends and relatives. Often in the
concluding words of a pathetic story, the entire audience, sometimes
numbering thousands, will be deeply moved, and slapping their fore-
heads with the palms of their hands will cry aloud to give vent to their
emotion. The mosques cannot accommodate all the worshipers during
this period, so some parts of a street are laid with carpets and rugs where
people sit listening to preaching. The last three days are the most
solemn. These people form different companies, and each company
visits from one mosque to another. Passing through the streets the
men bearing the national and religious emblems are followed by musi-
cians playing mournful dirges with such instruments as drum, flute and
cymbal. Surrounding the musicians are hundreds of men marching
with bare breasts, shouting "Hasan, Husain ! Hasan, Husain !" and
pounding upon their breasts with bare hands. Following them is an-
other band surrounding Say-yid, a descendant of Ali, and all of them
are shouting "Hasan, Husain" and beating their breasts. Next in
the procession comes a band of ascetic Dervishes, wearing neither hat
nor shoes nor other garments than a pair of pants, when the weather
is mild. Holding in their hands a whip about two feet long and one or
two inches in diameter, made of small iron strands, they beat their
bare shoulders and back with the same as they march shouting, "Yahu,
Yamal-hu," which are names of their god. Following comes another
band of Dervishes bearing in one hand a knotty club to which is fastened
nails, bits of brass, etc. With the other hand they beat their breasts as
they repeat the cry of the preceding band. These worshipers torture
the flesh by beating it thus and bruise it black.

The greatest demonstration of all occurs on the last of the ten
days at sunrise, the crowds of former days gather around the mosques
to start again on marches. On this day there are also fresh recruits. In
front of the mosque is a band of fifty to one hundred men and boys of
13 to 40 years of age. They are barefooted, and uniformed with a white

RELiGlONS;OFcPERSlA.

419

skirt over the other clothing that reaches to the feet. Held in the
right hand before each one is a two-edged sword. The left hand rests
on the belt of the soldier next in front. The leader standing at the head
of the band, recites their creed : "Allah is God and the only God, Mo-
hammed is the Prophet of God and Ali is his vicar." All the band re-
peat this creed. Immediately the leader smites his own brow with his
sword and this act is imitated by all his followers. Soon the faces and
white clothing of the men are red with blood. Bleeding they go march-
ing through the streets shouting: "Hasan Husain," and waving their
swords in harmony with step and voice. Fearing that these zealous
young men may lose all regards for life, and inflict upon themselves
mortal blows, relatives or friends frequently walk near with long sticks
in hand to hinder them from such deeds. This band first marches to
the court-house to be seen by the governor. Every band has a right to
ask the governor for the freedom of some one prisoner, and these re-
quests are always granted, no matter what the crime of the imprisoned.
These bleeding men are martyrs, and would go direct to heaven if death
resulted from these self-inflicted wounds. After the parade ends the
bloody shirts of these men are divided among their friends and kept as
holy relics. The men who compose these bands are usually the most
wicked in the community. They go through these ceremonies for the re-
mission of sins and to redeem themselves in the eyes of others ; but they
usually continue in their wickedness as time goes on.

Another important feature of the last day in the procession is a
richly decorated hearse containing a coffin, in which lies a man repre-
senting the corpse of Hasan. Beside the coffin sits a woman, the
widow of Hasan, dressed in sackcloth and her head covered with dust.
Following the hearse are three beautiful Arabian horses, finely saddled
and harnessed, with a flake of gold, embroidered with pearls, on their
foreheads. On two of them are seated two girls, representing the
daughters of martyrs. The tops of the girls' heads are covered with
dust and straw. The third horse is riderless, to remind one of the miss-
ing martyr. Following next, is a large number of women, boys and
girls, and some men — all with yokes about their necks, their hands
chained behind them, seated on horses and mules. These are to rep-
resent the captives taken by Yezid, the captain who killed Husain.
Near them are men in helmets, to represent the soldiers of Yezid. They
are armed with whips, and are driving these women and children of
Moslems into captivity. Next in line, may be seen false heads raised
aloft on poles, representing Yezid, Mawya and other ancient enemies

4:20

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

of Husain. Boys and men gather around them, spitting at and reviling
them.

Gathered, all the sword bearers, chain strikers, and the many men
beating their breasts, make a great crowd and tremendous noise. The
bystander is struck with horror when two fanatical bands meet, each
trying to excel the other in self-mutilation. Then are frightful gashes
cut; the thumping of chains on bruised bodies and the pounding of
breasts is heard louder than before. With an upward sweep of the right
arm, every man cries in a loud voice, "Ya Ali, Ya Ali !" as the com-
panies pass each other.

At 4 p. m. on the last day, the marching ceases and the throng halts
by some tents pitched in the middle of a public square. The swords and
chain strikers approach the tents, and with a shout of victory utter the
names of Ali, Hasan and Husain, then set fire to the tents and burn
them and their contents to the ground. They imagine that their enemies
were in those tents, and now that they have been destroyed it is a time of
great rejoicing. The marching clubs disband and the active ones are
soon found at the mosques, drinking sherbet, a sweet drink, as a sort
of reward for performing their religious duties.

The last night is called watch-night, and many Moslems do not
even slumber during the night. It is a holy night, in which Husain
and other martyrs were buried in the tombs. It is a dishonor, and even
a sin, for them to go to bed without meditation on their prophets. In
the mosque services the people shout, "Oh, Hasan and Husain, lot
my soul be a sacrifice for thee." They believe the observance of that
night is absolute remission of sins ; that the gates of heaven are open to
all believers, for the sake of martyrs. Some pious Moslems preserve
(he tears of that night in small bottles, as it is believed they will cure
disease when applied to the brows of sick men. These tears are prized
as a most holy relic. The Musselmen say: "Even David, the prophet,
believed in the efficacy of tears when he wrote in the Psalms, "Put Thou
my tears in Thy bottle, oh, God."

On the last night many Shute Moslems walk to the mosque in bare
feet wearing sackcloth. Often a governor or lord, accompanied by forty
to one hundred servants, all barefooted, will be seen slowly trending
their way toward a mosque. At daybreak these solemn ceremonies end.
Thus thousands of people every year, in different parts of the country,
will slash their bodies to pieces and suffer death, believing this the way
of obtaining salvation.

The Shiahs number about fifteen million ; eight million of whom live

RELIGIONS OF PERSIA.

421

in Persia. The Shiahs or Secrteries, agree with the Sunnis or tradition-
alists., in the main articles of belief. They believe in the existence and
unity of God, the revelation in the Koran, creation, fatalistic, providence,
angels, good and bad, the prophets, the resurrection of the body, the
judgment, heaven and hell. Their creed is, "There is no God but God,
Mohammed is the Apostle of God, Ali is the vice-regent of God." The
latter clause is not received by the Sunnis, who hold different traditions.

They claim that one hundred and twenty-four thousand prophets
have spoken to man. and are mediators between him and God. Six of
these are superior, namely, Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses. Jesus and
Mohammed ; the latter being pre-eminent. Ali and his descendants,
through Fatima, are declared to be the rightful successors of Moham-
med, the Caliphs of Islam. As Imams they have high dignity and honor.
Abubeki, Osman and Omai were usurpers. The twelfth and last Imam
disappeared, is yet alive and will re-appear as the Mahdi.

Their religious rites are the repetition of the creed ; prayer, alms,
pilgrimage and fasting. By the proper observance of these they believe
that they receive forgiveness of sins and a title to Paradise. The min-
isters of their religion are called Mollahs. They are not regarded as
priests or mediators in a ritualistic sense, but are leaders in worship,
instructors, interpreters of the sacred law and its traditions. They are
not a caste, but are drawn from all ranks of the people. They receive
a course of instructions under the chief Mollahs or mrytehids, consisting
of Persian and Arabic, Mohammedan, theology, dialectics and interpre-
tation of the law. Some students go to Kerbela for more advanced study.

The Mollahs are of various grades ; some teach the primary schools
in the village and city mosques, others are leaders of prayers, while
others still, in various degrees of prominence, are interpreters of the
law, writers of contracts, deeds, etc., and judges of civil and religious
•cases at law. They decide according to the Shari, that is, the Koran
and its traditions.

One class of the Mollahs are the marseyakhans, reciters of the tales
of the martyrs. They are eloquent and effective speakers. During the
revival services of Muhanam and Ramadan, sections of the bazaars are
marked off and crowded with people to hear their lamentations. They
are kept very busy going from house to house, and mosque to mosque.
They may be seen hastening on quick pacing horses to their next ap-
pointment, making hay while the sun shines. The Mollahs wear a pe-
culiar dress; their robes are long and flowing, bound by a large girdle
in thi^k folds; their cloak, QX aba, hangs low, their turban is large and

422

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

full. Girdle, cloak ancl turban are often of light colors, frequently white.
Their shoes are of the old style, sandal like, turned up at the toes, and
pointed, and with heavy heels. A semi-religious order are the Say-yids,
direct descendants of Mohammed. When we consider the number of
children that Mohammed had, and that descent through both male
and female lines is counted, we are not surprised that after twelve
hundred years there is an immense multitude of them. But there are also
many false Say-yids..

Another peculiar set of men are the Dervishes. They are orders
of religious medicants of many kinds and degrees. The ordinary ones
seen in Persia is a story teller, with long, disheveled hair, a close fitting
skull-cap, sometimes embroidered with verses from the Koran, or the
names of the. Imams, and bound with a fillet with hanging tassels. His
girdle is a bundle of rough threads ; his cloak a fanciful patchwork and
embroidered cloth, or the skin of a beast with its hoofs, or claws hang-
ing down. He has for his kaeugul or collection box, a large Indian nut
shell, curiously carved, and in his hand a mace or cane. This may be
a heavy stick of iron, a tomahawk or an immense club of uncouth shape
or with a knob driven full of spikes. The Dervishes have altogether
a very romantic appearance. They are generally good-natured souls.
They tell their stories on the street corners and in the bazaars and col-
lect the pennies ; they squat down in a little tent before the gate of some
rich man ; they stroll from village to village, and wherever they are they
cry, "Ya hak, Ya, hak !" (Oh truth, Oh truth) is heard. They are not
highly respected, but are in a manner looked upon as holy and never
ridiculed.

A new convert must first repeat the creed: There is no God but
God ; Ali is the vice-regent of God ; After that he is circumcised. The
Mohammedan boy is often circumcised on the eighth day. Sometimes
it is delayed for some years. It is made the occasion of feasting and
rejoicing. At the age of twelve the youth must begin the exercise of the
rites of the religion. One of the most important rites is prayer. Five
times a day are appointed for prayer; dawn, middle of forenoon, noon,
middle of the afternoon and sunset.

The ablutions are performed not by dipping the hands in a basin,
but by pouring water from an ewer, or from the palm of the hand.

The Sunnis and Shiahs wash their hands differently. One rubs
toward the elbow, the other rubs downwards. They can be distinguished
from each other by the direction of the hairs on the arm. The toes are
also carefully rubbed with water, the ears moistened and the teeth

423

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

cleaned. In addition to the daily prayers there are services in the mosque.
These are usually held on Friday or Jurna, the meeting day, the Sabbath
of Mohammedans. There is a partial cessation from work on that day.
Government offices and some of the bazaars are closed, but the mass
of the people continue to work.

A considerable number assemble in the mosques. The Mollah, or
peesh-namaz, leads the prayer and repeats passages from the Koran in
Arabic. Sermons are not infrequently preached in the vernacular ; at
times fervent and eloquent, at other times deep and incomprehensible,
consisting of the recital of traditions or of exhortations of a practical
nature.

Another religious observance of prime importance is fasting.

They gather from a district to the number of several hundred, a
well mounted and outfitted caravan. Each one passes one end of his
turban or scarf beneath his chin and takes in his hand a staff of bitter
almond. As the bands go out of the city with songs and music and
flying banners, their friends accompany them for a distance. Shop-
keepers and passers-by come up to them, kiss their hands and receive
their peace, wishing them a safe journey. Others sacrifice sheep before
the caravan, while the pilgrims distribute safety money to the beggars.
Rich men go with pomp and display. A Tabriz merchant made the
pilgrimage with two wives, four children, one hundred and fifty ser-
vants and one hundred extra pack animals. His encampment, when he
pitched his tent for the night, looked like a small town. Such a man
must also distribute a large amount of food to the poor each night so
that his expenses are very heavy.

When the pilgrims return from Mecca he is known by the honor-
able title of Hadji, or from the other shrines by a title derived from
the place as Kerbelai or Thesbredi. If he dies on the journey his spirit
goes directly to Paradise, if he dies at the shrine he is still more blessed,
for his body will rise with the prophets and imams on the day of resur-
rection. In avoiding social relations with other races the Shiah go
beyond the Koran and their Samni neighbors. "The people of the
Book," including the Jews and Christians, if not Joroastrians, are
"clean," and they are so regarded by the Arabs and Osmanlis. But the
Persians regard the touch of a Christian as defiling. The touch of a
Christian makes food unclean to him. Hence, a Mohammedan will not
buy meat slaughtered or touched by a Christian nor any kind of moist
food.

Some village children with clothes in tatters and covered with dirt

RELIGIONS OF PERSIA.

42T5

were given a few grapes by a foreigner. Their parents would not permit
them to eat of the fruit until it was washed. If the strict Shiah is under
the business necessity of entering a Christian house, he will not drink tea
from his cup or even in his house unless it is made by a Mohammedan
servant.

He will not smoke a pipe after the Christian nor accept his hospital-
ity in any way. Vessels, also, if used by a Christian are defiled and
unfit for use. A copper vessel may be purified by rinsing it with water
"uid praying over it, or by repeating the creed, but an earthen vessel
must be broken.

Watersellers will sometimes give Christian travelers a drink for more
than the price of the mug, then break it.

They have been known even to break the bowl from which water
was poured out on a Christian's hand to wash them. Wash water, poured
out where the sun cannot shine, makes the place unclean forever.

On such an occasion the owner of the house consults the mollah
as to what he should do. The latter told him he must rebuild the house.
He therefore demanded the price of the house, saying that he must tear
it down.

On account of this feeling, the traveler in many parts of Persia
must take his cooking and drinking vessels along with him, not knowing
at what place he may be refused. Often, indeed, many of these difficulties
are overcome by a little extra money. A Persian proverb says, "By
giving money, the mollah can be cast out of the mosque." The love of
money overcomes many an orthodox Shiah's prejudice. Strict Shiahs
will not sell a Christian a Koran, or anything containing a verse of it,
nor will they allow him even to touch it. For this action they quote
the verse of the Koran : "Let none touch it but the purified." They
even prefer that no translation of the Koran shall be made, though a
Persian interlineary has been published.

ISLAM AND CHRISTIANITY.

There is in Islam no mediator between God and man. The Deity, as
conceived in the sense of severe unity, is approached immediately and di-
rectly. He is known as the just and sovereign Ruler of the universe,
whose special providence extends to minutest concerns on earth, and who
is the Hearer of prayer and the judge of men and angels ; — but not as
the Christian knows Him, "The Father in Heaven;" — Fear thus with the
Moslem worshiper rather than love predominating. Jesus is known
historically as a Prophet; but He did not die; He was taken up into

436

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

Heaven. Sin may be forgiven ; but it is so by the mere act of God — not
for any merit's sake of a Redeemer. And the sanctifying work of the
Holy Spirit is ignored altogether. Islam has not anything to put in
place of these grand influences of grace and love by which the Christian's
life is molded and his heart constrained. Next as to ceremonial. Here
everything is laid down by rule, and hence the tendency to mechanical
performance. The round of ritual is prescribed and stereotyped. Prayer
is divinely appointed to be said, the fixed rule of prostration and of genu-
flexions, at five stated periods of the day. One month for fasting every
year is obligatory upon all, and is observed with singular rigor, day by
day, from early dawn to sunset. The discipline is undoubtedly a severe
exercise of self-denial, and of devotion to the faith, but its virtue is
much neutralized by the indulgence allowed from sunset again till the
dawn of day, during which period restriction of every kind is withdrawn.
Of similar tendency is the ordinance of pilgrimage to Mecca, and the
neighboring holy places — the tour terminated by the slaying of victims
(the Bairam festival of the Turks) ; a sacrificial custom like that of the
Jews, but shorn of its Mosaic lesson. This pilgrimage is enjoined on all
from every land who are possessed of the means to enter on it, all these
solemnities are observed as works of merit in themselves, and also, no
doubt, by many as means of religious elevation and improvement ; but
the tendency with the great mass of the Moslem world is towards the
former end alone. Prayer, fasting and pilgrimage, are services working
out the salvation of a worshiper. No true believer can be lost, but if his
bad deeds outweigh the good he must expiate the same in the life to
come. On the other hand, Heaven is drawn in the Koran in coloring
of the most worldly and material hues. There are black eyed virgins
for wives, rich couches and carpets, fountains and cup bearers of wine,
that exhilarates with inebriating, pictures, the sensuous tendencies of
which must be to deaden the spiritual aspirations of the worshiper.

We turn now to the moral and social aspects of Islam. The relations
established by the Koran between the sexes, will not compare with those
of the Pentateuch, much less of the Gospel. Besides the privilege of
having four free wives at a time, and of having as concubines any num-
ber of slaves he likes, the Moslem husband has, by divine law, the power
of divorcing the former at any moment and without any reason assigned.
He is thus at liberty to "vary" even his married wives at his mere caprice
and fancy. Social and domestic influences happily correct largely the
abuse of this power. Nevertheless, that such is the license given by their
scripture cannot but have a deteriorating effect on the moral habitude

RELIGIONS OF PERSIA.

427

of the people. Even in Mecca, for example, the citidal of the faith, there
is enough to show the scandalous ebb to which, in some quarters, with-
out any transgression of the law, the sacred institution of marriage has
fallen.

The jealous temperament of the Prophet provided restrictions on the
liberty of women, not uncongenial to his followers, but materially affect-
ing the position of the sex. They may be chastised and they may be
shut up in seclusion. They are forbidden to appear abroad without the

DR. ADAMS. I. YOHANNAN.

veil and stringent conditions are enjoined as to the admission into the
rooms of any but the nearest relatives. All these depressing and un-
friendly influences notwithstanding, woman, no doubt, retains by virtue
of the remedial power of domestic life, a dominant, though it may be
an uncertain position within the harem or zenana; but beyond its
bounds her influence is well nigh unknown. She is shut out from all
the walks of outer life, and from all those sweet offices of mercy and

428

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

philanthropy to which — but for the barrier of the Moslem revelation-
she might, like her Jewish and Christian sisters, devote her life.

Nor is there hope of any effective amelioration. The law of the
Koran is not, like the wide and adapted inculcations of the Gospel, fitted
for all time and for every onward movement of mankind. Its rule is hard
and fast, a set of rigid ordinances incapable of change and relaxation.
And thus, so long as the Koran prevails, woman remains secluded, her
soft and purifying power lost upon the other sex outside the walls of the
harem. It is the same with slavery, the curse of Moslem lands. It can-
not be eliminated from the law which the Musselmen hold Divine ; it
must continue to hold its place as an institution, casting a blight upon the
proud slave holder sadder even thart on the poor victim of his pleasure.

It remains only now to notice the contrast to the teaching of the
Gospel in the sphere of politics — namely, in the unity of the secular and
spiritual elements forming the Moslem theory of government. Church
and state are integrally one. The head of the state is also head of the
faith, and the fusion runs throughout. The functions are synonymous.
With the armies of the Islam, for instance, which overran the world,
the Ameer, or chief commander, as such, led also the prayers of his force.
The spiritual function was badge also of secular and military suprem-
acy. In theory, Islam is a theocracy, originating in the Caliphate or
succession from the Prophet ; and when the Caliphate passed away,
breaking up into separate politics, the head of each of which is at once
its secular and its ecclesiastical ruler. The result of such a system is
that the chief must of necessity be absolute sovereign — a despot in the
proper sense of the term. His power is only limited by the patience
of the people, though, also, in a manner by the Tutuas (theological and
legal deliverances) of the Ulema and Doctors, which as vice-regent of
the Prophet the sovereign is bound to follow. The outcome of all this
is that freedom in the political sense of the word, is unknown. Liberal
institutions in which the people can take their share, and through which
they may give effect to their collective wish, are altogether foreign to the
genius of Islam, and under the regime of the Koran beyond the scope of
expectation. In fine, the fatal demerit of Islam, viewed in its social and
political aspect is that, tied and encrusted round as it is by the text of
the Koran, progress and adaptation to varying circumstances are unat-
tainable institutions based on the" sanctions of a revelation held to be
divinely given are unalterable; they present a bar impassable to social
and political amelioration. Elsewhere the world may advance; Islam,

RELIGIONS OFj! PERSIA.

429

with its probity and law, as Mohammed left them twelve centuries ago,
remains the same.

It is hardly necessary to point out the difference of Christian teach-
ing in respect of various points enumerated above. They will, no doubt,
have suggested themselves to the reader, who may have been kindly
giving his attention as he went along. For example, the Gospel, though
holding the wife subject to the husband, has not the less implanted
principles which now culminate in the elevation of the sex to'' a position
of virtual equality. The social rules of the Bible possess a plastic virtue
suitable for every race and clime and time. In place of the veil and
restrictions on social intercourse, it simply enjoins modest apparel and
''chaste conversation." And so, while altogether shut out from her
legitimate influence on Moslem society, woman takes her place with us
in all the walks of mercy and benevolence. She sheds the light and grace
upon the world which the female sex alone can give and the absence of
which keeps Moslem life outside the harem austere and dark.

Not less marked is the contrast to the political environment of Is-
lam. The doctrine of a common Father in heaven has opened the way
to universal freedom. The captive as a "brother beloved" at last is set
at liberty; while the ordinance of slavery must prevail so long as the
scripture of Mohammed is law. So also with political progress. Caesar
and the church are free to go each its own way, and thus advance is pos-
sible on either side. The Gospel sheds its approval on every step of
moral and social progress, if it did not indeed actually point out the way
thereto. '

And finally, instead of the cold lesson of morality which is all that
Islam offers,, with its fixed round of prayer, fasting and pilgrimage, we
have the warm constraining influences of a faith and love which the per-
sonal sacrifice of a Redeemer alone can give.

"In thus was manifested the love of God towards us, because that
God sent His only begotten Son into the world, that we might live
through Him.

"Herein is love, not that we love God, but that He loved us and
sent His Son to be the propitiation for our sins.

"Beloved, if God so loved us, we ought also to love one another."

In this consists the sovereign virtue of the Gospel. We should
search in vain for like virtue anywhere in the Koran or in the teaching
of Mohammed.

It does not teach the law of love as the basis of morality; it does
not believe in the Fatherhood of God or in the brotherhood of man.

43o

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

Love, which is the leaven of all human relations, is practically eliminated
and Mohammedanism, thus failing to call forth so essential a part of
man's nature, must be condemned.

Christianity pleads: "God is love, trust Him;" Mohammedanism
commands : "God is will ; obey him." Mohammedanism is sterile, bar-
ren and irksome in its principles. Christianity is fruitful and permeating
a yoke that is easy, a burden that is light. The Christian God is in us
and with us and it is the delight of His children to breathe out their
souls in prayer to Him.

Mohammedanism was born in the Orient; was the product of
Oriental ideas, and has never ventured beyond the Orient in permanent
conquest. Yet the part it has played in history cannot but give rise
to the double question: Is Mohammedanism of Divine origin? Has its
influence on the whole been for good or evil? These are not idle ques-
tions, and upon their answers hang solutions to many more important
problems. If not to the supernatural, to what or whom can we ascribe
its rapid inception and growth, its miraculous unifying power as ex-
erted over a thousand warring Arab tribes? To what can we ascribe
its dominions over two hundred millions of souls ?

Mohammedanism is essentially a religion Qf form; hence the desciple
of Islam does not thank God for past blessings or implore His protection
for the future, though he rehearses his prayers ostentatiously five times a
day. Islamism means submission; hence the efficacy of the service is
in the number of times the nemaz or prayer is said. Before worship a
preparatory service of abtest, or ablution with cold water is obligatory.
If this were not done in strict conformity with the established usage, the
subsequent prayers would be of no avail.

If a Mohammedan is late, he may at any time join with the con-
gregation in the service, but the blessing to be obtained is deemed far
inferior to what would have resulted had he been on time. Tradition
says that a follower excused himself to the Prophet on the ground of
saving his friend from drowning at the time of devotions, and hoped
that he would be blessed for the kindly act, as well as those who were
early at prayer. The stern Prophet would not accept the apology.
"Though you had camels enough to fill the road from Mecca to Medina,
all loaded with jewels, and should give the cargo to the poor, the bless-
ings would not equal those of promptness at prayer. Should you commit
the whole Koran to memory and repeat it twice every night, the bless-
ings received would not equal those of beginning nemaz with the
imam (priest). Should you kill all the enemies of Islam, the great re-

RELIGIONS OF PERSIA.

431

wards would not compare with those of him who is prompt at the be-
ginning of prayer. If by a word the heavens and earth could become
paper, the sea turned into ink, and all angels stand as scribes, yet they
would be unable to write all the blessings you may enjoy for beginning
prayers with the "imam." The Mohammedans are deeply conscious
of all these warnings of their Prophet, and, though not "in spirit and
truth," yet they worship according to their forms most faithfully.

The interior of the mosque is considered most holy; consequently,
all the people take off their shoes as they step within the shrine, and go
through a series of pious movements. The religion of "the Prophet"
keenly hostile to pagan idolatry, forbids pictures, images or any repre-
sentation of the human form in their houses of worship. On the walls,
however, are many inscriptions from the Koran, with censers of burning
oil suspended from the dome.

The floor is beautiful with the richest rugs of Oriental art, upon
which the suppliants prostrate themselves in their devotions, with
twenty-six postures, each following the movements of the imam, rising
and bowing simultaneously with almost military precision. While at
prayer, certain acts, such as looking around, striking at a fly to kill it,
raising a foot from the floor, scratching more than three times in one
place on the body, laughing loud enough to be heard, must be refrained
from, as they would destroy the efficacy of the devotions.

The imam, who performs the devotional exercises, reads from the
Koran, and then descends to mingle with the many worshipers, placing
himself on a level with the common people. On Friday, however, the
holy day of the Mohammedans, the devotions are conducted with un-
usual pomp and ceremony; the Koran is recited, prayers are said, and
generally a sermon preached.

The Koran, the groundwork of Islam, is divided into one hundred
and fourteen suras, or chapters, originally written "on bits of stone,
leather, thigh bones" and all sorts of material. After the death of Mo-
hammed these scattered materials were collected, and supplemented by
the Arab's retentive memory, they were put together regardless of time
or subject, one chapter following another, without even chronological se-
quence. Thus, while the teachings of the Koran are sufficiently plain,
yet this manifest lack of logical order renders it of all books the least
intelligible. But the Koran is not the whole of Islamism. There are
traditions which are as powerful as, and even more respected than, the
Koran itself. When there is nothing in the Koran to meet an issue, the
Moslem would draw upon the oral laws of the Prophet on the basis of

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what Mohammed said, what he did, and what he did not say, or what he
allowed others to say unrebuked.

The first doctrine which we meet in the Mohammedan creed is
this: "La Ilaha Ilia 'Llahu Muhammadum Rasulu Llahi" "There is
no God but God : Mohammed is the prophet of God." Mohammedans
ascribe ninety-nine names or titles to God, among which some of the
principal are, the Merciful, the Gracious, the Master, the Holy, the
Creator, the Faithful, the Pardoner, the Wrathful, the Provider of daily
bread, the All-wise, the Just, the King, the Great, the Exalter, the Glori-
ous, the Lover, the Witness, the Truth, the Almighty, the First, the
Last, the Pure, the Light, the Guide, the Patient One, etc. Mohammed
taught that God, most high, created the seven days of the week ; on Sun-
day He created the gates of the highest heaven ; on Monday the seven
stories of heaven ; on Tuesday He constructed the seven stories of the
earth ; on Wednesday He made darkness ; on Thursday He created the
produce of the earth and all that is in it; on Friday He made the sun,
moon and stars, and caused the seven celestial spheres to revolve ; and
on the sixth day He created the whole world. One day, however, of
that upper world is said to be equal to one thousand years.

One day while Mohammed was talking' with some of his followers
the archangel, Gabriel, appeared to them in disguise of a very tall and
strong man clothed in white, who for their information and instruction
said to the Prophet : "O, Mohmamed, tell me about Islam." Mohammed
replied: "Islam is that thou shalt bear witness, that there is no God
but God and that Mohammed is the Apostle of God ; second, to offer
five prayers each day; third, to give alms; fourth, to perform pilgrimages
to Mecca; fifth, to fast during Ramazan." The angel continued: "I
accept this as true. Now tell me about the faith." Mohammed said :
"It is to believe in God and His angels and in His books and in His
messenger; in the last day and in fate regarding good and evil." The
angel replied: "I accept this also as true; now tell me about well do-
ing." Mohammed answered: "It is to serve God as if thou didst see
Him, even though thou see Him not, for indeed He seeth thee."

Mohammedans hold, that from the very beginning God taught his
servants by direct inspiration, that Adam, Enoch, Noah, Abraham.
Moses and Jesus, as well as a multitude of the prophets, were sent by
Him as occasion required ; some for all men and some for individual
tribes, that they might guide men to God and reveal His will.

The number of books which have been revealed to the prophets
is 103. Out of this number ten were intrusted to Adam, fifty to Seth,

RELIGIONS OF PERSIA.

433

thirty to Abraham, ten to Moses, one to David, one to Jesus and one to
Mohammed, and they believe when one revelation became lost or cor-
rupted a new message was sent down. The last of all the prophets,
according to them, is Mohammed, and hence the final and most perfect
revelation is that contained in the Koran, and they hold that it is in-
cumbent upon all men, therefore, to accept their creed or they will be
cast into eternal punishment. Mohammedans believe that the entire
Koran was dictated to Mohammed by Gabriel, and is a literal copy of
what was written ages before the creation of the world by Divine decree
upon the everlasting tablet in heaven. With regard to creation of man
the Mohammedans believe that Adam was created in a garden in
heaven; but God sent an angel to obtain a handfull of earth,
of which the body of Adam was then made. When the spirit entered
this body God ordered all the angels to worship Adam. All obeyed
except Iblis, who was thereupon condemned to hell-fire and became
known as Satan. Eve was created from Adam's rib, and when they ate
of the forbidden fruit, which they hold was wheat, they were cast down
from the heavenly paradise and fell to the earth. When Adam fell, he kept
on weeping for his offence for three hundred years, so that from his
tears rivers began to flow and on their banks there grew dates and nut
trees. Every tear of Eve, which fell into the sea, became a pearl and
diamond, and then God commanded Adam to make a pilgrimage to
Mecca and there he met Eve and recognized her because during the
fall Eve was cast in one direction and Adam another.

The doctrine of original sin finds no place in Mohammedan theology,
although they hold that all men are descendants of Adam and Eve —
that Adam did not sin, but simply erred. They believe in the multitudin-
ous existence of the angels, as having all been created ages before
creation by God, from fire, and being superior, therefore, to man. They
are, however, capable of falling into sin, and are appointed to various
offices ; are of different rank, and God uses many of them as messengers
to mankind. In the highest rank are those nearest to God ; these are
the four supporters of His throne. On the judgment day four more
will be appointed to this service, because it is written in the Koran that
the eight angels will support the throne of God on the last day. An
angel predominates in hell, and under his authority are nineteen others,
appointed to aid him in maintaining authority. They are preserved
from being injured by the flames, as they have a seal of divinity impressed
upon their foreheads, with the inscription, "There is no God but God ;
Mohammed is the Apostle of God."

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Five times a day there is a solemn call which sounds forth from the

mosque to prayer in these words : "Assahu Akbar !" (God is most great)
repeated four times in a loud tone of voice, then in a lower tone. The
caller says, repeating each clause separately twice, "I bear witness that
there is no God but God ; I bear witness that Mohammed is the Apostle
of God." Then raising his voice once more, he again recites these two
clauses twice, and then proceeding in the same tone he cries, "Come to
prayer, come to prayer! Come to the refuge, come to the refuge!
God is most great, God is most great ! There is no God but God !" In
the morning call, he adds : "Prayer is better than sleep."

They pray five times a day — in the morning before sunrise, at noon,
before sunset, during the twilight, after sun-set, when night has com-
menced. At these specified times Musselmen, wherever they may be,
in the street or in the house, spread their rugs out upon the ground and,
facing Mecca, recite the set form of prayer in Arabic, claiming that
to be the language of paradise.

The Prophet commanded that the children should be directed
to offer the appointed prayers at the age of 7, and that they should be
beaten if they failed to comply. The public prayers in the mosque are
conducted by a priest or leader, who turns his face toward Mecca. Be-
hind him rank after rank stand on a spot which is marked out tor the
worshiper, space enough for each to enable him to prostrate himself.
Before a man spreads his rug, he takes off his shoes, carefully performs
the ceremony of washing his hands and ears and face, water being always
near at hand. In case there is no water, sand is used. They all have to
cross a bridge after death, the unrighteous will fall down to the lowest
hell; this bridge is as thin as a hair and is sharper than a sword.

Islam teaches that God alone, the Almighty Creator and Preserver,
the Master and Judge of all creation shall be worshiped, but of God's
infinite holiness and love, Mohammedanism knows nothing.

Mohammed said: "Righteousness for you is to believe in God and
the last day, the angels, the books, the prophets, and give your wealth
to the poor, to the beggars and to those in bondage." All Mohamme-
dans believe they will be saved through Mohammed's intercession. Mo-
hammedanism teaches that there is no similitude whatever between God
and man, nor is it desirable that there should be. They confess that they
are sinners, but by inference and conclusions from, the rest of their
teachings we see that they maintain the idea that God is Himself the
author of all their sinful acts.

Again, from the Koran and tradition, it is evident that Mohammed

435

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

regarded sin as a mere external pollution, and capable of being washed
off by performance of certain rites. Five prayers are the means of wiping
out the sin, to a great extent, and pilgrimage and alms-giving is needed
to take away the guilt. Mohammedanism teaches nothing for atonement
of sin. The Shiahs generally believe that Hasan and Husain died as
their redeemers.

Tradition speaks on the subject of the reward in the next world
as follows : In paradise there are palaces made of pearls. In each palace
there are seventy abodes made of rubies ; in each abode there are seventy
houses of emerald ; in every house, a harem ; in every harem,seventy beds ;
of various colors ; on every bed, an houri. In every house there are
seventy tables ; on each table there are seventy kinds of food ; in each
house there are seventy slave girls, and every morning when he is anxious
for food the Musselman is given all that he desires ; besides, their beauty
shall be as moon in the night ; their vessels and combs shall be of gold
and silver. Every one of them shall have two wives. Every man among
the people of paradise shall surely have 500 houries, 4,000 virgins, 8,000
divorced women, and two large-eyed houries shall sing to him with
charming voices. The inhabitants of paradise have horses and camels,
and there the bridles and saddles are of rubies ; and if any man among the
inhabitants of paradise should desire children, they shall be born to him
in one single day. The people of paradise are smooth and beardless,
white and curly-haired ; they shall be thirty years of age, as was Adam
when he was created ; their height shall be sixty cubits.

If a woman of paradise should come down to the earth she would
illuminate and fill the space between heaven and earth with her perfume.
The people of paradise shall be waited upon with seventy dishes of gold,
each dish shall have a different color; they shall have in addition the
liver of the fish ; for them shall be slaughtered the ox. The tales which
Mohammed told of the delights of paradise were equaled by the ghastly
horrors with which he surrounded the future state of all who should
reject his claims.

It is believed that all Musselmen, even those guilty of the most
atrocious crimes, after a period will be ultimately in some manner de-
livered from hell and admitted to paradise, there to enjoy various degrees
of that pleasure peculiar to their carnal nature.

Prophet Mohammed told his people that the earth was originally
made out of the foam of a whale which God created. The earth consists
like heaven of seven stories, and the whole mass rests between the horns
of a bull. This animal has no less than four thousand horns. The dis-

RELIGIONS OF PERSIA.

43?

ance between any two of these horns is five hundred years' journey.
Sis feet rests upon a fish which swims in water forty years' journey
leep. Koran teaches the virgin Mary is the sister of Aaron and the
laughter of Amram. Certainly Islam is an anti-Christian faith, a Christ-
ess creed, and it has preserved in the life and character of its founder
in enduring principle of degradation.

The Koran denies trinity, the divine sonship of our Redeemer, His
itoning death, and His mediatorial office. Mohammed taught his fol-
owers that Christ had prophesied of his coming when promising the
lisciples the gift of the Holy Ghost. Christ Jesus tells us that God
s our heavenly Father, loving, holy and just. Mohammed teaches his
ollowers that God is our Master, arbitrary and despotic, favoring
vhom He will and leading astray whom He will. The Bible informs
is that man was originally created in God's image, that he was once
loly, but is now fallen from his true nature. Yet God loves him and has
Drovided a way for his restoration to peace and full realization of his
oeing the child of God. The Koran on the other hand tells us that man
vas created weak and that he is and always has been separated from his
Creator by a great gulf; that his nature is just and ever will be. Man is
in no sense a child of God, but he is a slave. We Christians believe
that sin is the transgression of the eternal moral law, which is a necessary
part of the divine nature, hence sin is contrary to man's original nature
as a being made in God's image and likeness. Christ tells. His disciples
that the most tolerable of all possible kinds of doom is being left in a
state of eternal sin, eternal alienation or estrangement from God and
to all that is good and true and noble, and to all that is pure and unselfish.
Mohammedans hold that sin is the breach of certain arbitrary rules laid
down by God for man to obey. The Bible informs us that salvation con-
sists in the deliverance from the love and power of sin and in the restora-
tion unto our first nature, and of bringing our whole nature in harmony
with God. According to Mohammedan faith salvation means escape
from the punishment of sin, while their mystics would explain the word
as signifying deliverance from mental ignorance regarding God. We
Christians believe that redemption is to be obtained freely through the
atonement wrought out for us by Christ Himself. Musselmen maintain
that they will be made righteous by their works or through Mohammed's
intercession, while others maintain that Hasan's and Husain's death
were the atonement for sin. We Christians look forward for an eternal
happiness and for many mansions of our heavenly Father's home, where
nothing that defiles can enter, but where we shall know even as we are

4 It 8

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

known and shall be renewed in the image of our Creator and our Re-
deemer. Mohammed promised his followers a heaven of carnal delight
and sensual pleasure, etc. If we believe that only through Christ can
God, the Father, be properly known to us, that only through Christ's
atoning death can we hope for salvation, that only through union with
Him can we possess the true life which He came to give us, then it must
be plain that the Mohammedan religion is entirely out of the question.

Islam as a religion is not true, it has not come from God. It does
not and cannot satisfy the needs of the human heart, it does not reveal
God in His Divine Fatherhood, in His love, His justice and His holiness.
It does not show man what his own original nature was, nor reveal
to him what sin is and how to escape it. Islam is an anti-Christian creed.
It is opposed to all true progress, whether moral or intellectual, political
or religious. This being the case, then Mohammedanism cannot take
the place of Christianity with advantage to any section of the human
race. Mohammed is in every way unfit to be an ideal of a human being.
But Christianity has a duty to the Musselman, one which we cannot
shirk without incurring serious responsibility. We must not be content
to leave them alone in their darkness and bigotry. If we would we
cannot altogether do so, brought in contact with the great Mohammedan
world as we are at the present time. If we would ask what our duty
to the Musselman is, our divine Lord gives us a very clear answer ; "Go
ye and make all nations disciples, baptising them in the name of the
Father, Son and Holy Ghost." Christ died for them as well as for
the heathen and for ourselves, and He has His own chosen among all
nations. To us is committed the ministry of reconciliation, the sacred
duty of calling the followers of the Arabian anti-Christ to the foot of the
cross of 'the crucified Redeemer whose atoning death they deny and
Godhead they blaspheme.

Our duty to Mohammedans is clear and little have we Christians
done or are we doing in bringing them to Christ. The work in Persia is
still in its infancy and likewise in many other countries. There are yet
200,000,000 of Mohammedans. Let each and every one ask ourselves
what we have done in delivering them from the false prophet. We are
not to convert the Mohammedans, but He who has promised to be with
His messengers even to the end can and doth turn the heart of many
wherever the Gospel is faithfully preached to them ; it is not too much
to say, that it is the Gospel of Christ unto salvation to the Musselman,
as well as every other seeker of truth. Oh, thank God, that His word
is strong and able to convict the sinner to His saving grace.

DR. ISAAC ADAMS. JACOB ADAMS. ABRAHAM ADAMS.

DAVID ADAMS.

439

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PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

It may be interesting to know something of the method generally
adopted of bringing the Gospel to bear on Mohammedans. We endeavor
to convince them of their sinfulness and weakness, their need of an atone-
ment for sin ; a Redeemer who can and will deliver them, not only from
its punishment, but also from its power. We invite them to search the
Koran and their traditions and tell us what provision they find therein
to satisfy their deep need. Needless is it to say, Islam knows of no
atonement and no Savior. Or again, we point out the Koran's testimony
to the Bible and induce them to study the holy books thus commended
to all true believers. A Mohammedan, with whom I was thus reading
St. John's Gospel, said to me : "If a Moslem has read the Gospel for
even three days, he may still fear to become a Christian, yet he will never
again believe in Mohammed."

We endeavor once again to get down to the grand truths of Chris-
tianity, to show how true these are, how very much more true than
Mohammed ever suspected. We show how they were recognized by
Jews and Christians ages before Mohammed, and that Islam has forgot-
ten many similar truths and defaced those which it has retained. We
induce them to get to know Christ's character and work and contrast
it with those of the prophet of Arabia. Such a method never fails if pur-
sued in a loving and prayerful spirit, to produce an effect upon the heart
and conscience of any thoughtful Moslem. All such do not embrace
Christianity, but it is impossible for them to entirely reject the attrac-
tion which Christ Jesus exercises, or to make Mohammed their ideal
and their hope. "Some men know God," said a Moslem friend of mine
who had knelt weeping with me to pray to God for life and peace.

"Some men know God in a way that I do not. though I have long
thought of Him. Pray to God for me, that if it be His will, I too, some
day may know Him." Such movements, in the Mohammedan world,
are an evidence of the unsatisfying nature of Islam as a religion.

If we go with the cross of Christ in our hearts, we shall go forth
to conquer, and the crescent shall soon fade before the glory of our re-
turning Lord. May God help us each one to feel the responsibility for
those who are dying with no hope in Jesus.

MOHAMMEDAN SECTS.

The Mohammedans, determined to excel the professors of other
religions in sectarian development, as well as in every other respect,
affirm that, while the Magians have seventy sects, the Jews seventy-one,
and the Christians seventy-two, they have no less than seventy-three

RELIGIONS OF PERSIA.

4-41

sects. The history of the divisions and the subdivisions of what may-
be called the Mosque is fitted to remind one of the rise and progress of
sectarian warfare in the Church. Metaphysical disputes about the na-
ture and attributes of Christ have always been fruitful sources of sec-
tarian division among us Christians, and similar controversies on the
essence and attributes of God have occasioned the breaches by which the
unity of Mohammedanism has been endangered, and to some extent, ex-
tinguished. It is almost impossible and by no means necessary to fol-
low the spirit of sectarianism and heresy from its first appearance among
Mohammedans, through the almost innumerable tangled skeins of con-
troversy and dispute through which it has passed to its present prominent
phases of development. But it is desirable to call attention to some
of these.

The most prominent of Mohammedan sects in these days are four :
the Sunnis — divided into four subordinate sects— the Shiahs — the Wah-
abis and the Sufis.

i. The Sunnis, called also the traditionists on account of their firm
faith in the Sunna or tradition as well as in the Koran, are looked upon
as the orthodox party. They look upon Abu Bekr, Omar and Othman,
as well as upon Ali, as legitimate successors of Mohammed, and they
neutralize by their traditions some at least, of the most repellant features
of the Prophet's legislation. For instance, terminable marriages, called
mutaks are legalized in the Koran ; was repealed by Mohammed himself,
and bring forward a tradition in support of their assertion. The Sunnis
are divided into four great sects — the Hanifis, who are found in Turkey,
Central Asia and North India ; the Shafts, found principally in South
India ; the Malikis, found in Morocco, Barbary and in some parts of Af-
rica ; and Humbalis, found in parts of Arabia and Africa.

The Shiahs are adherents of Ali, the husband of Mohammed's daugh-
ter, Fatimah, and they look upon and represent the first three successors
of Mohammed as usurpers. They believe in traditions, and even call
themselves Ahl-i-Hadis (the people of tradition) ; but their collections
of the almost innumerable sayings of the Prophet, handed down by al-
most innumerable persons, are different from those believed by the Sun-
nis. According to them, true religion consists in a recognition of the
twelve Imams, or supreme pontiffs, beginning with Ali, and ending in
Abu Kasimi, whom they call Imam Madhi, and who, they believe, is still
alive, and concealed in some secluded place whence he will emerge at the
appointed time to deliver the faithful from all their troubles and con-
duct them to victory and domination. They have, in consequence, ad-

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ded a sentence to the Mohammedan creed, and their confession of faith
translated runs thus: "There is no God but God, and Mohammed is
His prophet ; and Ali is the great one of God, the successor of the pro-
phet of God." They observe with solemn pomp the ceremonies of the
Mohauam in commemoration of the first three Imams, .Ali, Hasan,
Husain, while the Sunnis observe the tenth day of the festival as the day
on which God is said to have created Adam and Eve, and' look upon
much of what is done by their opponents as idolatrous. Persia is the
great center of Shia influence, as Turkey is the center of that of the Sun-
nis, and the antagonism between the Turks and the Persians is proverbi-
ally intense.

The Wahbis are followers of Shiekh Mohammed, son of Abdul
Wahat, who was born at Aina, a village in Ared and who, after having
studied the Koran and Hadis, at first under his father's guidance, and
subsequently under that of a learned Mauhie, at Medina, became the
leader of what has been very properly called Mohammedan Puritanism.

Their bigotry, fanaticism and unscruplousness make them dangerous
elements of the populations of the countries where they are numerous,
such as India, Arabia, Persia and Turkey. They look upon other Mus-
selmen as little better than idolators, reject the Ijma, or the embodied
decisions of the learned Doctors., who may be called the fathers of the
Mohammedan Church ; oppose the custom of offering prayers to the
Saints or illuminating their graves or shrines, or performing circuits
around them, or of prostrating before them ; discard, as unlawful, some
of the festivals observed by Musselmen in general, and subtitute their
fingers for rosaries, in counting the ninety-nine names of God. Though
opposed to the slightest approach to, or compromise with idolatry, they
interpret literally the anthropomorphous descriptions of God embodied
in the Koran, so far as to maintain that God literally sits down, and has
a hand, though, they do not pretend to be able to explain how.

The Sufis form a small but by no means insignificant sect; their
learning, philosophical acumen and ascetic self-sacrifice giving them an
importance and an influence out of proportion to their numerical
strength. Their creed occupies the same place in the development of Mo-
hammedan theology which is occupied by gnosticism in the development
of Christian theology ; and it may partly be represented as a strange mix-
ture of Mohammedan unitarianism and pedantic pantheism. According
to it all things are elements of one pervasive essence, and the human soul,
especially, is a part of God separated from him by a strange fate, but
destined ultimately to be reunited to, or rather absorbed in, him. Its

JACOB ADAMS IN HIGH CLASS COSTUME.

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PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

natural state is one of ritualism or strict conformity to the law, and the
glorious consummation before its absorbtion or annihilation of individual
being and consciousness in the all-embracing being of God. Its journey
from its present degraded condition to the goal is divided into seven
stages ; the first is that of proper search after God and spiritual
service; the second that of love; the third that of seclusion;
the fourth that of knowledge ; the fifth that of ecstacy ; the
sixth that of revelation of the true nature of God or the truth ;
and the seventh that of reunion with God, the highest stage attain-
able in this life. The phraseology in which the tenets of the system are
couched is borrowed from a language of love and marriage, and of
wantonness and mirth. The worshiper is the lover. God is the beloved,
love of God is the intoxicating wine, the mysteries of religion and the
ringlets of religious enthusiasm are inebriation and mirth. The most
ardent devotee is called the madman, rendered insane by his passionate
longing to be reunited to the beloved from whom he has been separated
by a deplorable accident. Persian and Uudu poetry derive their rhapso-
dical character, their ambiguous phraseology, their gross imagery, and
their imposing mystification from the speculations of this sect.
SUPERSTITIONS AND PECULIARITIES AMONG THE
MOHAMMEDANS.
Among the low and ignorant, where popular education is of a
meager sort, superstition has full sway — especially among the Mohamme-
dans. Many of their beliefs are amusing to strangers, though Orientals
believe in the absurdities as firmly as they do in religion. For instance,
they deem it a serious matter to be the victim of an evil eye, though fortu-
nately a remedy has been invented for every emergency. Garlic and
a word from the Koran are antidotes for the evil eye. Dog bread is
used as a charm, and blue beads on horses, donkeys, and buffaloes are
charms against the malice of the envious and evil eyed. That nothing
must be wasted that can be used as food by dog or fish, is a superstition
tending to promote economy. You bring bad luck by entering a house
with the right foot. The darkness is peopled by creatures of dim, un-
speakable shapes from the regions of hell. For astrological calculations
some days are unlucky, and even the Shah himself will postpone an
interview if it falls on an unlucky day. Sometimes a long forgotten and
lost grave of a saint suddenly becomes a reputed center of miracles. Some
one will tell his neighbors that while crossing the grave of a certain
saint his disease departed from him ; and although no one knew before
whether the grave was that of a saint or devil, or whether the originator

RELIGIONS OF PERSIA.

445

of the report is worthy of confidence or not, the story goes with light-
ning speed, bringing throngs of the sick and infirm from the remotest
parts to the magic mound.

When at home I scorned and laughed at such spectacles, with a
sense of mingled contempt and pity, but since I have seen Americans
throng about the fortune teller, I have more charity for our Oriental
credulity.

A magician may write a prescription for a woman whose husband
does not love her, and tell her to put it under the hinge of the door of
their house and as much as the door is opened and shut, so much will
her husband's love grow towards her.

Another may write some magical words upon a nail which the lady
is instructed to place close to the stove or oven where it may become
heated. Just as the nail grows hot, in the same proportion does her
husband's love grow warm towards her.

When a child is born to a bride, they stick needles in her clothes,
and let them remain there for forty days, so that no demons may ap-
proach or touch her. Should the child get sick or feel badly they sup-
pose that an evil eye has beaten him. Should they suspect any person
who is supposed to have an evil eye, they will secretly get a small piece
from his clothing and burn it under the child. In so doing, the evil eye is
supposed to be put out.

When the children of a family become fretful they suppose that
an evil eye has touched them. Then they take a little piece of dough
and cast it into the oven. As it swells and bursts they think the evil eye
is put out.

In the clothing of Mohammedan children can be found various
prescriptions which are bound in a triangular form. On them are
written some words from the Koran or from some other magical books.
These are supposed to protect the children from bad spirits and other
dangers.

When a child is born they throw a man's trousers upon him so that
the devils may not take him away. When the children have whooping
cough, they say, "Give them donkey's milk to drink."

If you wish \o keep a cat so that it will never leave you, take a
little stick and measure its tail, then place the stick in the air duct of
the oven and the cat will never leave your premises. When you have
a blister on your tongue, rub your hand upon the head of a first-born
child. That will cure the blister.

446

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

Bind a horn upon the handle of your churn, and you will get much
butter.

They say when dogs howl, it is because they see angels.
If a man should eat the loaf of bread that was baked first, his wife
will die.

Seeing bees in a dream indicates riches.

To dream of eating grapes presages sorrow and flowing tears.

To dream of buffaloes fighting means that the angels will come for
the soul of some member of the family.

The Mohammedan boy's entrance into school, at the age of seven, is
a festive occasion. The whole school goes to the home of the lad, who is
placed on a richly caparisoned donkey ; then, formed in double file pro-
cession they escort the young student to the school house, singing songs,
This is, certainly, a beautiful custom, and tends to impress on the
minds of the young the importance of this new epoch in life. These
Persian common schools present a very singular scene to a stranger.
The pupils are all seated cross legged on the marble pavement in the
porch of the mosque, formed in semicircular clusters around the mollah,
or teacher. The mollah, as a rule, is an old man with a white beard, who
holds in his hand an extremely long stick, which reaches to all parts
of the school. As he is quite old, and too lazy to move from his seat in
case of mischief among the pupils, he stretches this unmercifully long
stick over the unruly ones. He is asleep nearly half the time, and on
opening his eyes, he often finds the entire school a playground of wild
disorder, but his long stick soon establishes peace and order. I remem-
ber of how these young students got even with their patriarch teacher
by anointing his head and whiskers with oil and wax while he was in
his usual sleep in the schoolroom, and of what a time he frequently
had to find his stolen stick. The strangest part of these Persian schools
is the manner of studying. All read their lesson aloud in shrill and deaf-
ening voices, and recite at the same time in a loud, monotone. When I
passed by a mosque where th • j Persian schools are held, I used to cover
my ears.

Some regard Ali, Hasan and Husain as first of all creatures, the
supreme intercessors, and endowed with divine light. Ali is the greatest
of all. On him rests the hope of salvation. The Moslem believes in
written prayers and passages or verses from the Koran. These are laid
on a cloth and placed in leather cases, and are seen suspended from the
neck or tied to the arm for protection.

Charms with the names of the Imams engraved on the stones and

RELIGIONS OF q PERSIA.

44?

beads from Kerballa are carried with them as the belief is that these keep
a man from accident, evil eye and robbery.

The Mohammedans, when they cut their finger nails, wrap them
in paper or cloth and throw them behind their heads. Their idea is that
God will ask where their finger nails are, and they will say that they
have them on their back. Others will save them and bury them with the
person at his death.

If a man has two wives and loves one more than the other, the one
that has been slighted will go to the Persian priest and tell him the case,
then he will send her to her husband to bring one hair out of his head,
also one of her own. When she returns with these, the priest will read
a few verses out of the Holy Koran, and then take the two hairs, burn
them, and put the ashes in a glass of water, which the woman must
give to her husband, who will thenceforth love her more than the other
one, as the power of the words of the prophet having been read over
the glass of water, it will lead him to love her.

All the Mohammedans believe that Mohammed stands at the
gate of heaven. They believe that when they go to heaven, he will let
them pass safely over the bridge, which is sharper than any two-edged
sword and thin as a hair. When a person of some other religion comes,
he will slacken the hair and the person will be cast into hell. They feel
that they are contaminated by touching the Christian Bible, and great
care is exercised to keep the Koran out of the hands of the Christians.

Jonah was three days and nights in the belly of a whale. .After
this example, some Persians fast three days and three nights ; after that
they bring seven kinds of grains, and mixing them together, add seven
parts of salt and eat it; then they retire and dream that they are very
thirsty, and some one of the opposite sex is giving them water — and then
that person will be their mate.

Once a camel strayed into a mosque, mistaking it for a caravansary.
All the worshipers got around it, declaring that even the dumb beast
recognizes the presence of the prophet. They decorated and arrayed
it and then paraded through the streets, each one taking some of the
hairs of the animal as a blessing, and the animal became an attache of the
mosque.

All Christian nations are considered animals by the Mohammedans.
No honor or any compliment is given to anyone out of their circle. When
they meet each other, they say, "Peace unto you." But on meeting any
Christian or Jew, they use a different greeting, to show he is not one of
them. They always try to turn people to their own faith. If anyone

448

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

asks: "How can I believe in your religion, when you do not let me
touch your Koran or allow me to learn your worship rules?" they
say : "It is our duty to keep away from you as long as you are a Chris-
tian, because you are not clean enough to take our holy book in your
hands. Confess in the name of Mohammed and be circumcised. Then
you can come near us and know about our doings."

Among the nominally Mohammedan races of North Africa exists
superstitions akin to fetishism, shamanism. Egypt Arabs believe that
earth, air and water are peopled with spirits who busy themselves with
human affairs. Hardly any act is performed without asking permission
of the spirits of the place. The Arabs of the Barbary States have the
greatest fear of the enchantment of the devils, and the profoundest
reverence for the idiots. Among the Moors of Morocco the evil spirits
have the greatest dominion over the imagination. Every ruin, almost
every object, has its devil.

They eat snakes, scorpions, etc., pretend to be inspired, and commit
the grossest extravagance. At their annual festivals, their chief Mara-
bout, inspires the devotees, who become more or less frenzied. Whirling
round and round, they work themselves into ecstacy, lacerate themselves
and sally forth. The power of taking up scorpions and deadly serpents
is an essential qualification for Marabouthood. The most fanatical sects
of ^Morocco are the Assoui and the Hamduchi. The founder of the
former claimed the power of rendering snake bites harmless to his follow-
ers ; the Hamdouchi that of wounding themselves without injury. The
power of resistance against the bite of a serpent and sting of a scorpion is
obtained by the Assouri blowing upon the seeker of immunity. Both
sects, although formerly Mohammedan, and akin to the howling der-
vishes, borrowed their peculiar superstitions from a more ancient and
degraded devil-worship. It has been surmised that these sectaries are a
remnant of the Ophites. Their peculiar tenets and their custom of wind-
ing enormous serpents around the neck and arms came from the ancient
serpent worship of Egypt.

SLEEPING (Arabic naum).

Heb. num. It is usual for the Moslems to sleep with the head in the
direction of Mecca.

* Abu Zarr relates that on one occasion he was sleeping on his belly,
and the Prophet saw him, and, kicking him, said, "O Jundub! this
way of sleeping is the way the devils sleep!"

Abab says he saw the Prophet sleeping on his back, with one leg

RELIGIONS OF PERSIA.

449

lying over the other, but Jabir says the Prophet forbade that way of
sleeping.

SWINE (Arabic khinzir).

Swine's flesh is strictly forbidden to Moslems in four different
places in the Koran, namely, Sura ii. 168, v. 4. vi. 146, xvi, 116; in
which places its use is prohibited, with that which dieth of itself and
blood.

In the Traditions, it is related that Mohammed said that, "when
Jesus, the Son of Mary, shall descend from the heavens upon your people
as a just king, and he will break the cross and will kill all the swine.

SPITTING.

According to the Traditions, Moslems must not spit on the left
side, and cover it over with earth. Spitting in mosques is forbidden.

Mohammed said : "Spit not in front, for you are in God's presence.
Spit not on the right hand, for there standeth the angel who recordeth
your good actions."

SNEEZING (Arabic f utas).

According to the Mohammedan religion it is a sacred duty to reply
to a sneeze. For example, if a person sneeze and say immediately
afterwards, ' God be praised," it is incumbent upon at least one of the
party to exclaim, "God have mercy on you." This custom of replying
to a sneeze existed among Jews, whose sneezing formula was "Tobim
khayim !" i. e., "God life."

There are interesting chapters on saluting after sneezing in Taylor's
Primitive Culture, and Isaac DTsraeli's Curiosities of Literature.

Replying to a sneeze is amongst the duties called Tarz Kafa'i.

Abu Hurairah relates that Mohammed said, "Verily God loves
sneezing and hates yawning."

DOGS.

Arabic kalb, are unclean animals; for according to a tradition by
Abu Hurairah, Mohammed said that when a dog drinks in a vessel, it
must be washed seven times, and that the first cleansing should be
with earth.

Most people believe that when a dog howls near a house it forebodes
death, for, it is said, a dog can distinguish the awful form of Azra'il, the
Angel of Death.

Ibu Umr says that dogs used to come into the Masjid at Mecca

450

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

in the time of the Prophet, but the Companions never purified the
mosque when the dog was dry.

The Imam Abu Yusuf holds that sale of a dog that bites is unlaw-
ful, whilst the Imam ash-Shafi'i has said that the sale of a dog is abso-
lutely illegal, because the Prophet said the wages of whoredom and the
price of a dog are forbidden. Abu Hanifah holds that dogs which are
trained to hunt or watch may be lawfully sold.

It is lawful to hunt with a trained dog, and the sign of a dog being
trained is that he catches game three times without killing it. The dog
must be let slip with the ejaculation: "Bismillah 'llahi Akbar!" (In the
name of God, the great God!) when all game seized by him becomes
lawful food. This custom is founded upon a verse in the Koran, Sura
v. 6: "Lawful for you all good things and what ye have taught beast
of prey to catch, training them like dogs ; ye teach them as God taught
you. And mention the name of God over it."

THE DEVIL.

The devil is believed to be descended from Jann, the progenitor of
the evil genii. He is said to have been named 'Azazil, and to have
possessed authority over the animal and spirit kingdom. But when God
created Adam, the devil refused to prostrate before him, and he was there-
fore expelled from Eden. The sentence of death was then pronounced
upon Satan ; but upon seeking a respite, he obtained it until the Day of
Judgment, when he will be destroyed.

DREAMS.

Arabic hulm; manam; ruya. The term used for a bad dream is
hulm and for an ordinary dream, manam, ruya being used to express
a heavenly vision.

According to the Traditions, the Prophet is related to have said,
"A good dream is of God's favor, and a bad dream is of the devil's ;
therefore, when any of you dream a dream which is such as he is
pleased with, then he must not tell it to any but a beloved friend ; and
when he dreams a bad dream, then let him seek protection from God
both from its evil and from the wickedness of Satan ; and let him spit
three times over his left shoulder, and not mention the dream to any
one; then, verily, no evil shall come nigh him." "The truest dream
is the one which you have about daybreak." "Good dreams are one of the
parts of prophecy."

RELIGIONS OF PERSIA.

451

HAIR (Arabic sha'r).

The sale of human hair is unlawful in the same manner as the use
of it for any purpose is unlawful. Being a part of the human body, it
is necessary to preserve it from disgrace, to which an exposure of it to
sale necessarily subjects it. It is related in the Traditions that God has
cursed women who use false hair.

A HIGHWAYMAN.

HAND (Arabic yad).

(1) It is a rule with Moslems to honor the right hand above the
left; to use the right hand for all honorable purposes, and the left
for actions which, though necessary, are unclean. The hands must be
washed before prayers.

(2) The expression yadu 'llah, the "hand of God" occurs in the
Koran : —

452

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

Sura v. 69: "The Jews say, 'God's hand is fettered,' their hands
are fettered, for they are cursed."

Sura xlviii. 10: "God's hand is above their hands."

There is a controversy between the orthodox Sunnis and the Wah-
habis, regarding the expression, "God's hand." The former maintaining
that it is a figurative expression for the power of God, the latter holding
that it is literal ; but that it is impossible to say in what sense or manner
God has a hand ; for as the essence of God is not known, how can the
manner of His existence be understood?

EVIL EYE (Isabatu T-Ain).

Mohammed was a believer in the baneful influence of an evil eye.
Asma'bint 'Umais relates that she said, "O Prophet, the family of
Ja'far are affected by the baneful influences of an evil eye; may I use
spells for them or not?" The Prophet said "Yes, for if there were any-
thing in the world which would overcome fate, it would be an evil eye."

EAR-RINGS; NOSE-RINGS.

In the East it is the universal custom of Mohammedan women
to wear ear-rings, and they are not infrequently worn by young men
and children. Gold ear-rings are, however, forbidden in Traditions ; for
Abu Hurairah relates that the Prophet said, "Whoever wishes to put
into the ear or the nose of a friend a ring of hell fire, let him put in the
ear or the nose of his friend a gold ring * * * let your ornament
be of silver." And Asma'bint Yazid relates the same tradition.

FAI.'

Booty obtained from infidels. According to Mohammed ibu Tahir,
iai' is booty taken from a country which submits to Islam without
resistance, as distinguished from ghanimah, or plunder. The Khalifah
'Umar said it was the special privilege of the Prophet to take booty
as well as plunder, a privilege not permitted to any other Prophet.

Auf ibu Malik says the Prophet used to divide booty on the same
day he took it, and would give two shares to a man with a wife, and only
one share to a man without one.

BLASPHEMY (Arabic kufr).

Lit. "to hide" (the truth). It includes a denial of any of the essential
principles of Islam.

A Moslem convicted of blasphemy is sentenced to death in Moham-
medan countries.

RELIGIONS OF PERSIA.

453

BAB AND BABISM.

The Mohammedan religion is to-day divided into many different
sects, and this division greatly weakens it. Within sixty years past a new
religion has been developed in Persia, known by the name of Babism,
which already numbers its disciples by millions, and is steadily making
inroads upon the Mohammedan religion of which it is in fact an offshoot.
It is thought by some to have a large future before it. Christian mis-
sionaries come in contact with it, and from the friendliness of the so-
called Babis to the Christian religion, hopes have been cherished that it
may prove a stepping stone for the Gospel into Moslem hearts. For this
reason, if no other, it deserves the attention of all thoughtful Christians.
Mirza Ali Mohammed, the founder of the new religion, was the son of
a cloth merchant of the city of Shiraz, and first came to public notice
in the year 1843. He began to plan the new religion at the age of 18,
but did not reveal it until he was 25 years old. The foundation of his
faith was this : Mohammed, like Christ, taught that the latter days will
be a millennium. They have a tradition that when all prophets have
died or have been killed by their enemies, a son, six years of age will,
by the direction of Allah, be hid in an unknown well. He is to remain
there until the millennium. It was believed that he would be the ruler
of the Mohammedans in these last days. He was to lead both his victori-
ous armies and conquer all the world, and Islam would become the uni-
versal religion. His early education was limited even for the advantages
Persia affords, but with a strong spiritual bent in his nature he seems
to have given himself much to religious meditation and study. Paying
a visit to Kerbela, the center of theological thought among the Shiahs
of Persia, he sat for a few months under the teaching of a noted and
rather mystical teacher of the Mohammedan theology and became his
enthusiastic disciple. He entered with special zest into the study of
the doctrine which figures so conspicuously in Persian theology, of the
coming "Unseen Imam" whose return as the "Imam Mahdi" is to in-
troduce the Mohammedan millennium, in regard to whom some advanced
and heretical views were taught by the school to which his teacher be-
longed. The impression made on his mind by his devout contemplations
on this doctrine are exhibited in the following passages which we find
translated from his earlier writings : Addressing the absent Imam, he
says:

"When are the days of your empire, that I may struggle for you ?
And when are the days of your glory, that I may obtain the blessings
of your visage? And when are the days of your kingdom, when I may

154

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take revenge on your enemies? And when are the days of your mani-
festation, that I may be independent of all except you? And when are
the days of the appearance of your lordship, that by your permission I
may say 'Be," and it shall become existent before you? And when are
the days which God has promised unto his servants for your coming?"

From his long and earnest meditations on this subject, he seems
to have become convinced that he enjoyed the favor of special com-
munication with the Imam. It was but one step farther to imagine that
his exalted thoughts were veritable inspirations from the supreme foun-
tain all the truth, and that he, himself, was an inspired prophet. Upon
his return from Karbela, the young enthusiast drew about him his par-
ticular friends, and revealed to them his inward consciousness of a pro-
phetic call, announcing himself as the "Bab," i. e., the door, or gate,
meaning the channel of grace from the unseen Imam. He began preach-
ing in the mosques against the prevailing irreligion of the times,
especially berating the Moslem clergy for their scandalous vices and
unfitness to be spiritual guides to the people, emphasizing the need o. : •
morality of deeds, rather than one of words and formal rules. He ad-
vocated temperance, opposed the growing use of opium — while he, him-
self, neither smoked tobacco nor drank liquor or coffee. He discoun-
tenanced polygamy, forbade concubinage, asceticism and mendicancy,
prohibited divorce and taught the equality of the sexes ; encouraged the
practice of hospitality, and demanded justice for all citizens alike.
Though attacking none of the dogmas of Islam, the tendency of his
opinions were undeniably heterodox. The new teachings, however, be-
came popular at once. Numbers of his fellow citizens assented to the
pretensions and creed of the new claimant to prophethood with alacrity
and fervor. Missionaries were sent out to other towns to announce
the tidings, and explain the new doctrines. Adherents sprang up every-
where they went — men of all ranks, educated and unlearned alike wel-
coming the good news, and in turn becoming their earnest heralds. This
great popularity was due not merely to the attractive program of re-
form presented, but largely to the personal sanctity conceded to the
Bab, a quality to which the Oriental mind is ever particularly susceptible,
to the sweetness of his manners, to the eloquence of his voice and to the
apparent depth of meaning in his utterances, all of which exercised a spell
over his hearers even his enemies admitted and feared. In stature, he
was tall and slender, eyes black, eye-brows heavy and long, beard patri-
archal. His countenance was very pleasant and attractive. In con-
versation with high and low classes of people alike v he showed himself

RELIGIONS OF PERSIA.

455

a servant of all. He was poetical, a great orator and a deep thinker.
He wrote many beautiful poems. His epistles to his disciples were phil-
osophical. His words in sermons touched the hearts of men. Later on,
Mirza Ali Mohammed, like a good Moslem, made a pilgrimage to Mecca.
His return was signalized by the renewal of debates and dissensions
between himself and his followers on the one side and the orthodox
party on the other, which finally led to the arrest of the Bab by the
governor of his native province and his detention at Shiraz for a time.
Subsequently he was removed to Isphahan, where a friendly governor
showed him much favor. Meanwhile, his apostles continued more active
in their proselyting work than ever. Notable among these were two
of the regular Mohammedan clergy of great learning and ability, who
rank in the history of this movement as the foremost champions of the
new doctrines — Mullah Hussein and Haji Mohammed Ali. With these
was associated a woman, who obtained a celebrity throughout Persia
almost unparalleled in the annals of that land. She is admitted by friend
and enemy to have been a woman of marvelous beauty and rare intel-
lect ual gifts. As a scholar, she excelled in her knowledge of the Arabic
lang uage and of Islantic traditions and philosophy. S he was a
poetess, and her doquence of speech was fascinating. Her name was
Zerryn Taj, but she is commonly known as Kurratul-Ayn. or "the Con- ,
solation of the eyes," with reference to her surpassing lo vlin ess of coun-
tenance^ _Shene yer met the Ba b during her lifetime, but learned of him
a s a spiritual guide and channel of the new revelation throu gh Mullah
Hussein. From her correspondence with the B ab, he became impressed
•with her rare qualities and attainm ents, and i ncluded her as one of the
eight een dig nitaries of the first Babi H ierarchy. In the c ampaign that
was pushecTb y t hlTcTevotee s of the Bab, the persuasive eloquence of this"
_p_e erless young Persian woman is credited as second to that of no other.
Bydegrees the new sectarians became more and more bold, more
and more sanguine of revolutionizing the ancient faith of the land. Tn
all th> 3 rincipal cities of central and southern Persia, some in every
class in society, publicly or privately, hailed the reform movement as a
welcome change in the old order of things. The orthodox clergy became
alarmed as they saw their religious supremacy in danger of dissolution,
while the turmoils and insurrections which followed from the Babi
preachers, opened the eyes of the government to serious danger to state
as well as church. In the provinces of Khorasan and Mazandaran and
in the city of Zanjan, the Babis assumed a fierce and defiant front, com-
ing into violent collision with the local authorities. The king's ministers,

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as the first step towards checking- the rising tide of revolution, ordered
the Bab to be removed from Isphahan to Tabriz and there secluded
in some safe place. This was in the year 1847, only four years since the
youthful Ali Mohammed first announced his prophetic mission. On ar-
riving at Tabriz he was dispatched by order of the governer to the fort-
ress of Maku, held by a semi-independent chieftain, situated at the base
of Mount Ararat, three of four days to the northwest of Tabriz; but
his confinement there was not so close as to prevent the access of his
friends and an active correspondence with distant and industrious lieu-
tenants. To interrupt this freedom of communication, he was removed
to the fortress of Cherick near Salmas, two days from Oroomiah. The
quiet of his retirement here, lasting two years and a half, was favorable
to meditation and study and he busied himself in practices of devotion
and in the development of his theological opinions and his code of civil
and social regulations. Gradually he assumed higher and higher posi-
tion and authority, until he announced himself to be the "Imam Mahdi."
himself. During this interval the religious war kindled by the Bab's
energetic followers in Mazandaran and Zanjan grew into a blaze, which
taxed all the energies of the local government to extinguish. Meanwhile,
Mohammed Shah died (September 5, 1848) and was succeeded by his
son, Nasreddin, the late sovereign of Persia, who selected as his prime
minister the very able statesman Mirza Taki Khan. Immediately upon
coming into power, this minister addressed himself vigorously to quell-
ing the Babi disturbances in different districts and towns. That in the
town of Zanjan, where the Bab's friends were very numerous and reso-
lute, was only put down after a prolonged siege, lasting from May to
September, 1850. While the contest dragged on, the government deter-
mined on the death of the Bab, as absolutely necessary to the pacification
of the kingdom. On his way from the castle of his imprisonment to
Tabriz for trial and execution, he passed through Oroomiah. We are
told that vast numbers flocked to see him, and even the governor did
not conceal his sympathy with the prisoner of such engaging manners;
the crowd shed tears as they looked upon the interesting young man,
and more than half believed that he might be the very "Imam Mahdi,"
the great desire of Moslem nations. Traditions, about the town relate
that when he went to the bath the people carried away the water in
vessels, in which he had bathed as if it were holy. But at Tabriz, Persian
officialdom and the sternly orthodox populace of that city, did not
so lose their heads. The man was examined before the Moslem high
priests and was condemned, as a heretic, to be shot, along with two of

RELIGIONS OF PERSIA.

457

his companions in arrest. One of these, however, recanted and saved
his life. The Bab was conducted from one priest's house to another in
succession, each in turn ratifying the sentence of death, while in the
crowded streets through which he passed, throngs of zealous fanatics
grossly insulted him and his companion. Arriving at the place of ex-
ecution, a public square in the city, the prisoners were suspended
by their arms against a wall, in conspicuous public view and a company
of soldiers was drawn up to shoot them.

At the first discharge the Bab's companion fell dead, but strange
to say, the bullets only cut the cords which bound the Bab himself,
leaving him fall to the ground, free, and he took to flight. It is thor-
oughly conceivable, indeed it is altogether probable, from a Persian
point of view, that had the man risen and thrown himself upon the con-
fidence of the superstitious populace, declaring his delivery a miracle
of divine power in his favor, and a confirmation of his claims, the whole
town would have acclaimed his pretensions and sooner or later the coun-
try itself would have acknowledged his authority to overthrow the Kajar
dynasty. As it was, in his bewilderment, he fled to a neighboring guard
house where he was cut down and beaten to death by Musselman soldiery.
This occurred July 15, 1850. The execution of the Bab in no wise dis-
couraged the faith and zeal of his disciples; on the other hand, it ex-
asperated them against the government and inflamed them to desperate
efforts for its overturn. By the vigorous efforts of the military power
the several insurrections in the country were brought to an end. But
the spirit of vengeance for the death of their prophet was everywhere rife
among the sect and soon came to a head in the conspiracy against the
life of the Shah. He was attacked while riding out with his suite one day
by three Babis. The attempt was a failure, the king escaping with
only a slight wound, but the recoil of the blow on the Babis was ter-
rible. One of the assailants was killed on the spot, the other two were
tortured with fiendish cruelty to induce them to reveal their fellow con-
spirators, but without avail. Some thirty residents of the capitol were
suspected of being Babis, were seized, and after a month's deliberation
on the part of the Shah and his court, they were put to death in a variety
of methods the most cruel and barbarous, large numbers of the nobility
the ecclesiastics and other citizens of Teheran being forced to aid in their
execution, in evidence of their loyalty to the Shah. Among the victims
was the gifted woman Kurra'l-Ayn. who for some months had been
under arrest and surveillance in the city. All the victims met their
death with stoical, almost superhuman fortitude, refusing the pardon

458

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offered them if they would but recant. Some even in the midst of their
prolonged suffering sang or shouted songs of triumph. The French
writer Renau speaks of this massacre, as a day "without a parallel" per-
haps in the history of the world. It should be borne in mind that some
of these unfortunates had never seen the man whom they called master,
yet thus rapturously did they offer up their lives as a testimony of their
faith in him. This ferocity of vengeance checked, though it did not by
any means extirpate, Babism. While it put an end to the revolutionary
tendencies of its more restless spirits, secret partisanship continued
to keep alive the heresy.

After a time, however, there came a lull. The Babi leaders adopted
a new policy — the policy of concealment and secret propagandism. avoid-
ing all open conflicts with the government. It was under the direction of
a new leader, Mirza Huseyn Ali, called Beha u'llah, a half brother of
Subh-i-Ezel (the successor of the Bab) that this took place. Subh-i-Ezel,
to save his life, disguised himself and fled, and for a long time remained
hidden. When, at length, he ventured to reappear, it was across the fron-
tier, in Turkish territory. As he was more of a scholar and a devotee
than a man of affairs, the interests of the Babi church were plainly be-
ginning to suffer. Too many new claimants of the headship, new incar-
nations of Godhead, were allowed to manifest themselves and distract
the church. The Babis were allowed to take up a too irreconcilable atti-
tude toward the Persian authorities.

Beha'u'llah, thirteen years older than his brother, and a man of more
resolute spirit and executive ability, to whom much of the administrative
work of the church had been already intrusted, became convinced that
Subh-i-Ezel was not equal to the situation. A community of religious
enthusiasts, revolutionaries, visionaries and speculative mystics (for of
such material the Babi church was in a great measure composed) needed
a firmer hand than his gentle and contemplative half-brother could
supply.

For a while the practical and determined Beha'u'llah managed
things in his brother's name. But at length he concluded that he might
as well have the official position as be the unrevered power behind the
throne. It was not a difficult thing to do. He had but to proclaim
himself as the real Point of Revelation, the long expected One who was
to appear, of whose great glory and full divinity in the time to come
the Babi had at first prophesied. As all the Babis agreed, the sign of
"Him whom God shall manifest," who was to perfect and complete the
Babi religion, was the revelation of verses. This was a very easy miracle,

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459

and so in the year 1866 or 1867, at Adrianople, whither the Babi exiles
had been removed because of the strife and disorders they had created
while at Baghdad, Beha'u'llah "revealed" sundry signs in eloquent Arabic
and Persian wherein he summoned all the Babis to acknowledge him as
their supreme and sole chief and spiritual guide. Beha'u'llah was to be
revered as the final Point or Goal of Revelation, to whom all the verses
and prophecies of the Bab pointed, and the Bab was no longer to be
looked upon as a veritable manifestation of the Divine but as a mere
precursor of the more perfect, the ophany of Beha'u'llah. Subh-i-Ezel,
who had been the appointed successor and for so many years had been
revered as their authoritative teacher and incarnation of heavenly wis-
dom and virtue, was to be branded as the "First Letter of Denial" of the
New Dispensation.

This proclamation shook the Babi church to its center and the com-
munities were rent asunder by the most bitter of schisms ; the majority of
the Babis, especially the younger, accepted Beha'u'llah as their master.
The other leaders who had been personal friends of the Bab and had ex-
posed their lives in his behalf, stood stanchly by his nominee, the gentle
visionary Subh-i-Ezel. But, one by one, they dropped away, victims of
the unscrupulous violence of their rivals. Two of the Letters of the Living,
the original apostles, were assassinated, one at Tabeiz, the other at Ker-
bela. At Adrainople and Acca half a dozen more of the older leaders, who
stood by Ezel, were stabbed or poisoned by the followers of Beha. From
sixteen to twenty of the older leaders were thus removed, and it is
charged in the Hasht-Bisht that Beha'u'llah even made an attempt
(which miscarried only by accident) to poison his half-brother. It was
not proved that he ordered the assassinations ; but he was evidently
gratified by their occurence, and said not a word to prevent them.

At any rate, if the end justifies the means, the means were approved
by the victory achieved. The assassinations were a success. The weak
Subh-i-Ezel was deserted. The great majority joined Beha's party. The
Turkish government, to put a stop to the wrangling and disorders,
exiled Subh-i-Ezel to Famagustain Cyprus, where he still lives in ob-
scurity. Beha was sent to Acca, where he peacefully passed away in
1892. His son Abbas Effendi succeeded him, who is now looked upon
as a spiritual head by all the Babis. Before his death he had worked a
momentous revolution in Babism. As soon as he was established in his
authority, he began to exercise the privilege which all the Babis recog-
nized as belonging to the final Point of Revelation, to abrogate, change,
develop and supercede the earlier revelations. He discouraged the vis-

460

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

ionary speculations of his followers, made the religion more moral and
less metaphysical, and abolished many useless and impractical regula-
tions ; especially he did everything he could to conciliate the temporal
authorities, even the Shah of Persia, whom the older Babis were accus-
tomed to revere as the Nero of their faith. Believing that the new faith
could grow better by assimilating the elements already estranged from
the orthodox Musselmen church, he strove steadily to diminish the ratio
of Mohammedan thought in it and to seek a better understanding with
the Christians, Jews, and Zoroastrians. In short, he tried to make
Babism henceforth more of a universal system suitable to all mankind.
The older Babi scriptures and epistles, with their magniloquent rhapso-
dies, foggymysticism and wild visions of the return of the Imam-Mahdi
and the marvels of the new age, he allowed to fall into innocuous desue-
tude. The earlier history of the origin and rise of the Bab and his church
was written over in an entirely new vein ; the Bab was represented as a
mere forerunner of Beha ; Subh-i-Ezel was described as a coward and
fugitive ; his earlier friends, Hazrat-i-Kuddus and "Consolation of Eyes"
were craftily depreciated, and Beha'u'llah and his Neo-Babi doctrines
were profusely glorified, and every expression of detestation of the Shah
which might interfere with the Beha's new policy of conciliating the gov-
ernment was eliminated. The effort to metamorphose thus radically the
whole record of Babism fortunately failed through the fact that many
of the early documents had previously passed into European hands ; but
the effort to establish pacific relations with the Persian government
proved successful, and for thirty years the Babis have been free from
public persecution, by a secret propaganda they have so diffused their
doctrines that their numbers are now estimated about three millions.

We will now briefly consider the Babis literature. The writings of
the Bab are extremely voluminous ; one of his followers claimed that he
wrote not less than a million verses. In general they are called the
Beyan, or Exposition, although in a more special sense this term is
applied only to such compositions as have the form of Arabic verse, a
form considered pre-eminently inspired. Besides the Arabic verses,
there are the commentaries on the Sura of Joseph, the Bismillah and the
Wa'l-ase, and a larger commentary on the Koran ; the Book of Recom-
pense, the Book of Names, the Book of Figures, and a large number
of prayers, supplications and miscellaneous writings. Subh-i-Ezel wrote
"The Book of Light," and many other works. Mr. E. G. Brown, who
has made a more thorough study of these books than any other Euro-
pean, says they contain "noble ideals," subtle metaphysical conceptions,

RELIGIONS OF PERSIA.

461

and splendid, though ill-defined aspirations. But they are so lost in
trackless mazes of rhapsody and mysticism, so weighed down by trivial
injunctions and impracticable ordinances that no casual reader can hope
to find them."

The leading- doctrine is that of Manfestations. Outside of God
there is no other God. From Him all existences emanate; but they
suffer diminution and imperfection in so doing. The world emanates
from divinity by the action of seven attributes or letters ; force, power,
will, action, condescension, glory, and revelation. In the sympathetic
stream that passes between the Infinite and the finite, God shows his
living nature by his continued revelations with his creatures. All the
great prophets and sages are the works of God; they come from him
more really and return to him more directly than other men. As men
cannot know the eternal essence of God but only the manifestation of the
Divine Will, there occur from time to time incarnations of the primal
will. Abraham, Moses, Jesus, Mohammed, were all such intermedia-
ries between God and man. Each was successively more full of truth
and grace than his predecessor, and revealed sufficient for the time. All
these theophanies are identical in their essence, and differ only in cir-
cumstances, just as the sun which shines to-day is the same as the sun
which shone yesterday. The periods when these great prophets or Imams
flourish are the theophanic days, and the periods between are the periods
of occultation. But even in this night, the last revealer still lives in con-
cealment and communicates with his followers by certain gates. When
the revealer is about to reincarnate himself again this great event is
preceded by a number of prophetic gates or channels of communication.

After these new gates or seers appear, and schisms and certain other
signs are observed, then the heaven of will, the proof of God, manifests
himself. Coupled with this doctrine is a curious belief called that of
"The Return." In the first Vahid or section of nineteen chapters in the
Beyan it is asserted that Mohammed, the great prophet, Fatima, his
daughter, the twelve Imams and the four gates (who followed the twelfth
Imam), have returned to the life of the world with such as believed in
them. In the second Vahid, it is taught that by the resurrection is
meant the new manifestation; by the questioning of the tomb, the tid-
ings of it brought by its messengers to those who slumber in ignorance ;
by the raising of the dead, the wakening of those who lie thus dead in
ignorance, and so on; the ideas which prevail of a corporeal resurrection;
a material heaven and hell, and the like, are mere figments of the imagina-
tion. Haji Mirza Yahya, the Babi historian, who had been a personal

462

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

friend and follower of the Bab, declares that this doctrine of the return
means neither incarnation, absorption, nor transmigration. But he
admits that "none knoweth it save those who have returned," and, if it
is not substantially a doctrine of soul-transmigration it is difficult to say
what it is. Not only in the Apostles of the Unity, but also in the bosoms
of all the faithful, according to their respective careers and missions,
does this communication of the divine and reincarnation of the great of
the past occur. When one of them was found fulfilling a certain role
which recalled that of some holy saint preceding him, it was said among
the Babis, "That is the Imam-Riza, or Ali, or Jesus Christ, returned."
Although the Babis constantly affirm their fidelity to the doctrine of
divine unity, it is plain that we have here very potent germs of a luxu-
riant polytheism, and if the religion goes on we shall one day have per-
sonal cults, symbols and temples. Is it, after all, the long smothered
spirit of ancient paganism that is reasserting itself so strangely against
the too bare and hard monotheism of Islam which had been imposed
upon it by force of arms ?

A second peculiar doctrine of Babism is the sacred character of the
number 19. As the word almy, "he who gives life," has 19 for its numer-
ical equivalent, this, it was argued, is the divine number. As the world
is only a divine emanation and rests on these same principles of life,
this number 19 is found at the basis of all things rightly organized. Over
the whole world this number should reign. Accordingly the Bab ordered
his followers to reconstitute all divisions of time and space according to
the sacred number. In the Babi year there were to be 19 months; and
every month to have 19 days, every day 19 hours, and every hour
19 minutes. All measures of length and weight were also revolution-
ized by a division into 19. In the courts, the temples, and the ecclesias-
tical organizations, everything was to be regulated by the same numer-
ical cycle. Naturally, therefore, the Apostles, or "Letters of the Living,"
as the Bab practically called them, were eighteen, who, with the Bab,
constitute again the sacred number. It is worthy of notice that, although
the Bab is the Point, the Divine Manifestation, yet it is not in him by
himself that his virtue is held to be seated, but in that divine unity
formed by this inspired college of 19. Hence when the Bab was put to
death, the divine wisdom and authority which resided in him, constitut-
ing him the Point of Revelation, did not cease to be, but joined itself
to the activity residing with the rest of the sacred college, and the signs
of the Godhead appeared in the next in dignity among the sacred
Letters. At the last judgment, the Point of Revelation is to preside.

RELIGIONS OF PERSIA.

463

All the pure, in recompense for their virtue, will have given to them the
full revelation of truth ; thus prepared, they will be united with God, to
live eternally with Him, participating in all His perfections and happi-
ness. The wicked will be annihilated. On the earth, when the Babi
faith comes to its own, there will be established a faith at once mon-
archical, theocratic, and democratic. On the places where the Babi
leaders died as martyrs, the holiest sanctuaries will be built. In the
temples, there will be employed the most precious materials and richest
stuffs and every kind of costly decorations, with lofty thrones for the
priests. The faithful will have talismans — star-shaped amulets, in which
they can put entire confidence. In the Babi state, when it can be set up,
the unbelievers who reject the Bab, will have no legal rights. All their
property may rightly be taken from them, and five provinces, at the very
heart of the Persian empire, are named in which they are not even to be
allowed to reside. When a town or province of the unbelievers is con-
quered, one-fifth of the spoils belong to the head of the church, then the
warriors are to take what they need and the rest is given to the poor,
but the lives of the unbelievers are not to be taken simply because of
unbelief.

The Babi may not engage in public prayer, except upon specially
solemn occasion, and the ablutions and the doctrines of ceremonial im-
purity of which the Moslems make so much are entirely abrogated, since
they give God neither pain nor pleasure. These two reforms would
remove very great sources of national and religious friction, and be a
genuine service (say those who know the East) to oriental society. To
the government, a certain tax, or per cent, on every miskal of gold or
silver is due. If one pays, he fulfills his duty. If he does not he should
not be constrained, but the punishment should be left to God. The
penalties and chastisements allowed by Babism are very mild. The
death penalty is never mentioned. Torture and blows are formally pro-
hibited. The legal penalties are of two kinds. The first is a fine nineteen
times the injury, or some higher multiple of nineteen, according to the
gravity of the case. The second kind of penalty consists in interdiction
of conjugal indulgences for a number of days or months, according to
the gravity of the transgression. For example, if a man strikes a child
he is prohibited from approaching his wife for ninety days. Begging,
so common in the East, and regarded as rather meritorious than involv-
ing any disgrace, is strictly forbidden.' Everything belongs to God, and
the rich hold their wealth only in trust for Him and must give liberally
to the cause of religion and to those who have not enough.

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The Bab encouraged commerce and recommended tranquillity of
mind, affectionate relations and an extreme politeness. Discussion
should be avoided. The books of the faith are to be diligently studied,
but writings alien to the Babi doctrine should be avoided and even
destroyed. Asceticism is reproved. The Babis should not fear that
which gives pleasure. Rich clothes, silken goods, embroideries and
jewels not only may, but ought to be procured by the faithful according
to the measure of their resources. Especially at weddings should those
who are able adorn themselves richly ; but, if they are not able, they
should not mourn, for their Lord, at the last judgment, will bestow on
his faithful servants these rewards.

The Bab attached extreme importance to marriage and to the estab-
lishment and upholding of the family — that great desideratum in Asiatic
civilizations. To continue the family line is a religious duty, and after
eleven years of age marriage is recommended. A second wife is per-
mitted but not recommended. Concubinage, a common vice of the East,
is severely indicted. There were important measures in the interest of
woman. But the Bab did not content himself with these. He also pro-
hibited divorce and abrogated the use of the veil. The great plague of
Persian and most Moslem societies is not so much the license they give
to have more than one wife, but the freedom which the laws of divorce
allow to the husband to change his wife at any moment and on the most
frivolous pretext. The transitory nature of the usual marriage has
done much more than polygamy or concubinage to deprave the relations
of the sexes and render real marriage unions impossible. Most women
from twenty-two to twenty-four years old, says Gobineau, have had two
or three husbands. The Bab struck at these disorders by prohibiting
divorce except in cases of extreme necessity, and then only after waiting
a year, and by interdicting the covering of woman's face with the veil —
a custom, Eastern observers say, which gives especial opportunity and
encouragement to the most unprincipled intrigues. Those who became
Babis were to associate together freely, though discreetly, without regard
to sex. At the hospitable table which the well-to-do Babi was to spread
women as well as men were to be admitted. Women might also go on
pilgrimages, but they were to be encouraged rather to attend to their
homes and children ; if they go on pilgrimages they are to be very careful
about over-fatigue or danger to their health. No child is to receive a
blow before five years of age ; after that time it must not receive more
than five blows at a time and these must not be on the bare skin. Parents

RELIGIONS OF^PERSlA.

465

should desire the young to laugh, play games and to do everything
which will make them happy.

According to the Bab no divine revelation is final. His was the
latest, but not the last manifestation of the deity in human form. There
are numerous passages in his writings which intimate that he is but
the forerunner of One to come. The expression frequently occurs, "He
whom God shall manifest." His followers have never been agreed as to
the exact meaning of this phrase. The prisoner at Acca came to interpret
it as referring primarily to himself, and boldly claimed that he was the
one predicted, setting aside the Bab's nomination of his brother to the
headship. The larger portion of the Babis have come to acknowledge
his claims, yielding to him divine homage. He assumed the name of
Beha, i. e.. Light. Often he is designated as "Beha 'Ullah," or "Light
of God," and his followers are known as Behais as well as Babis. The
younger brother is commonly known as Subhi-Ezel, i. e., "Light of
Eternity," and his disciples are called Sub-i-Ezelis. Though the Beha
proclaimed himself to be the divine being incarnate, he made no pre-
tense of working miracles, but like the Arabian prophet and like the
Bab, he offered as proof of his claims simply and alone the superlative
excellence of his compositions. Up to the time of his recent death he
resided in no small degree of comfort at Acca in a mansion encompassed
by orange groves furnished him by the Turkish government, numerous
Persian attendants surrounding the place carefully guarding all approach
of strangers to their revered master, keeping up an air of impressive awe
as was supposed to befit the abode of so exalted a personage. In his
writings more is made of himself and his own teachings than of the Bab
and his prescriptions. Among other products of his pen are noticeable
several letters addressed to sovereigns of Europe and Asia and to the
President of the United States, in which he appeals, as by divine author-
ity, for the cessation of wars, for international comity and good feeling,
for the prevalence of justice and righteousness, and for the recognition
of his claims as the present representative of God on earth. Since his
death it is not known what position is taken by his followers with respect
to a successor, but up to the present time the Behais have been gaining
converts widely throughout Persia. He taught that every age must have
its own prophet inspired from God. He claimed that he was inspired
and that he had frequent communications from God telling him how
to direct the people. He openly claimed to be the Imam, and he taught
that the priesthood and the religion were corrupt and that he was ap-
pointed to renew them. He did not oppose the Koran, but at the same

466

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time said that every age needs a new Bible. He claimed to have received
a Bible from God.

He taught the equality of both sexes and paid homage to woman.
He showed that it was against the law of God to marry more than one
woman or to keep concubines. Further, it is against the law of society
and the happiness of women for man to have more than one wife. The
law of divorce, which is common among Mohammedans, was not prac-
ticed by the new sect. The place of women among them is the same
as among Christians. The prophet taught that the spirit of charity ought
to be as a flame of fire in the hearts of his followers. He said we cannot
please God if we see our brother in need and do not help him; if we
pray He will not hear us, if we worship Him He will turn his face away
from us. Believing this, the spirit of charity is very strong among them
and they support the needy. The use of wine and all intoxicants is
strictly forbidden. They are very kind to people of other faiths who are
not Mohammedans, them, they hate. The Babis charge the Christians
with Jewish blindness in not recognizing their prophet as the returning
Christ, with a new gospel. But no true Christian can study the principles
of Babism without a painful conviction of its entire unworthiness to be
called a gospel in any sense. It is a system of crude, mystical ideas,
barren of all spiritual value to humanity. Religion is made by it to consist
chiefly in the worship of God as manifested in the assumed incarnations.
Nothing, scarcely, is taught of the Divine Holiness, nor of sin, nor of
repentance ; nothing of Divine love, nor of a Savior, nor of holy living.
The principles of morality inculcated are in deed somewhat higher than
those current among the Moslems and emphasis is laid on sincerity, as
all essential in religion, a quality conspicuously absent with the Shiahs,
but in fact the followers of the Beha pay slight heed to these nobler
teachings while they seize eagerly upon the freedom granted them from
the exactions of Mohammedan law. They are addicted to drinking wine
even to excess. As to' the doctrine of the equality of men and women
which the Bab enjoined, it is but partially maintained in practice, and
the same may be said in respect to other of his teachings intended to
elevate the position of woman. Indeed, what valuable fruit could we
expect from a religious system which argues against creation and the
resurrection, which has no adequate conception of the nature of sin,
presents no higher motive to goodness than the extinction and final
absorption of the human soul into the Divine Being, and holds up no
fear of punishment nor serious loss to transgressors of the moral law.
It is indeed amazing, that men are so ready to devote themselves to

RELIGIONS OF PERSIA.

4 07

death, at the hands of their enemies, for a system of religious beliefs so
empty of all practical benefit. The enmity between them and the ortho-
dox Mohammedans has been very severe. From the killing of Bab
until the present time, they have been trying to kill the Shah. In their
first attempt they failed, but May i, 1896, while the Shah was worshiping
in the most holy place in the mosque, he became the victim of a
fanatic Babi who had disguised himself as a woman. This Babi, while
under disguise, shot the king, who died two minutes afterwards. Some
thought the government would again persecute them, but there were some
hindrances which would not permit this. In the first place their religion
is kept a secret; it is impossible to know who belongs to the new sect.
Secondly, many of the high classes and royal officers belong to this
sect, and for this reason it would be impossible to persecute them.
Thirdly, their number to-day would reach 3,000,000, or about that, and
to kill this enormous company would certainly damage the government.

Their antagonism against the government, and against orthodox
Mohammedism, is caused entirely by the lack of freedom of religious
worship. We cannot regard it other than wild fanaticism ; and the worst
of it is, that it is fanatacism which has instigated some of its followers
to the assassination of its adversaries, giving color to the prediction of
many that, if the Babi should ever attain to a position of political
power, they would prove the most intolerant and vengeful of all sects.
Our sympathies can but go out to them, for the terrible sufferings which
they have undergone in behalf of what they hold to be the truth, and
above all their pitiful blindness and folly. The chief virtue to be laid
to their credit is their mutual devotion and fraternal affection. This,
and the religious liberty they practice, are the chief ties that bind
them together as a sect, and in these, doubtless, lies the secret of their
constant growth. They are very warm friends of the Christians, plac-
ing in them the greatest confidence; sometimes they will even lodge in
the houses of Christians, and eat with them without questioning. This
a strict Mohammedan would never do. They readily allow the Christian
to preach to them and to discuss religion with them. Yet it is not an
easy matter to convert them, for one must know their manner of life
and religious doctrines to successfully meet their arguments. A few,
however, have been truly converted. This filled the Mohammedans with
hatred, both against the Christians and the converts. When the Chris-
tian shows the superiority of Christ, and of His doctrine, over that of
their Prophet Bab, they are forced into silence. They are now securing
many converts from Mohammedism, and it is believed that the time will

468

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469

come when religious toleration will be obtained by them. This will also
give the Christians a good opportunity of preaching the gospel. It is a
matter of some hopefulness to the Christian that these people listen to
the gospel with the greatest readiness, and consequently by reading with
them it seems possible to lead them to see the errors into which they
have fallen. There is greater encouragement to missionary effort in the
fact that these people are everywhere undermining or relaxing the ortho-
dox Moslem belief, and so are opening the doors of conscience and
faith among the Mohammedans to the saving truths of the gospel of the
Crucified Son of God.

There are about ten thousand Babis in the United States. The Babis
started in the United States since the Columbian Exposition (1893). Now they
have 800 believers in "Chicago, 1,200 in New York City, and the rest are scattered
throughout the United States.

The following are a few extracts from the report of the Behaists:

The following is the report of the meeting of Behaists in New York, as
stenographically taken by two stenographers, Mr. Harris and Miss Stout, at the
Genealogical Hall, on Thursday evening, May 10th, 1900, this being the ad-
journed meeting of Tuesday, May 8th. The meeting was presided over by How-
ard MacNutt, and on the platform were Abdel Kerin Effendi and two inter-
preters, Mr. Haddad for the Arabic, and Mirza Raffle for the Persian.

The following proceedings were had:

Mr. Haddad — Abdel Kerin Effendi wants me to say to you that every
one of us must praise and thank God for His grace and bounty in maintaining
peace and perfect harmony among us, and that all of us have to turn our faces
towards our Lord, Abbas Effendi, and that any one who violates this is just
as if he had turned against God and violated the Covenant of God; and he also
wants to announce to you that he has laid down some rules and laws for the
government and protection of the truth in New York, and that these laws are
to be kept with Mr. MacNutt, and are to be translated into Arabic and sent to
our lord, Abbas Effendi, to be approved of, and then every one of us has to fol-
low these laws as recorded by Abdel Kerim Effendi and approved by our Lord,
Abbas Effendi.

Mr. MacNutt — I stand tonight in a very difficult position. I have just come
down in the car from my home sitting beside our beloved friend, Abdel Kerim
Effendi, unable to speak a word with him, and yet he is a treasury loaded with
riches which are mine if I could reach them, if I had the key of language. In
the course of conversation at my house, Abdel Kerin Effendi has conveyed to
me his wishes, his commands, concerning the Truth and its administration in
this city. I believe him to be, as you must believe him to be, the emissary, the
messenger of Abbas Effendi, our Lord and Master; and when he speaks to me
the authority of Abbas Effendi is conveyed. I shall endeavor to convey to you
as well as I ean, in language, by my force of mentality, what he has said. If
there is a single point which you would question, and I urge you particularly to
question if you do not understand, if you will signify that by simply raising
your hand, I will submit the question through Mr. Haddad in Arabic, and
through Mirza Raffle in Persian, that we may know what he says. I do not
ask you to take what I say at all for fear that I may make a mistake.

And just here let me say, as it fits in this place, let me tell a story he told
me. He said that in Bagdad when the Manifestation was there a believer came
to him and said that he had a very troublesome neighbor, that this man was
wicked and hated him and lost no opportunity for abusing him, and after the
Manifestation had heard his story he said to this believer, "Go and kill him."

4711

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

And the man went off and bought a knife and dagger and put it in the folds
of his garment. That the Manifestation immediately after stating this to the
believer had sent a messenger in another way to the troublesome neighbor and
upon some pretext had gotten him away from the place, so that when the be-
liever upon murder bent reached the spot the neighbor was absent. Then the
Manifestation sent after the believer again, and he said to him, "Did you fol-
low my instructions, did you kill the man?" He said, "No; I could not find him,
but I am ready to kill him." The Manifestation said, "Did I tell you to kill
him with a knife?" The believer answered "No." Then the Manifestatibn said,
"I meant that you should kill him with love." This was a story told by Abdel
Kerim Effendi last night to emphasize the point that we should love our
enemies.

He said wisely that the greatest wisdom among ourselves was to consult
freely with each other, and not to treasure things in secret, but to talk it out
and have it out and be good about it. That when the House of Judges meets
they should have a copy of the Kitab El-Akdas" with them, and as it were, an
oath and covenant of God, and that the blessing of God and His Spirit shall be
invoked upon their actions.

(Report signed by) W. HOOPER HARRIS,

LAVINIA C. SHORT.

A MESSAGE FROM ACCA.

Keep its contents ever before you, as a guide to the path of righteousness.
This is not intended as a tract, and should be known only to those who have
received and respect the message. Consider yourself the guardian of it.

INTRODUCTION TO THE MESSAGE.

My presence before you tonight is in the meek and humble capacity of the
messenger and servant of the Master — Abdul-Beha, and as His messenger I am
sent to you to deliver His words as pronounced from His very lips, and as written
by His hand. The present conditions of the believers in America made Him
very sad and He said that it caused Him more sorrow than all the persecutions
and oppressions combined. But before I begin to read His words, it is necessary
to define as to whom the message is sent and by whom it is sent, then we will
better realize the importance of the words, to comprehend the truth as it is, and
accordingly act and do in the future as will indicate your obedience.

This message is sent by the Master, Abbas Effendi, The Lord of the King-
dom, the Agent of God. It is sent by the one into whose hands the Kingdom
has been delivered and the reins of government have been placed, and for this
reason, he who disobeys His commands disobeys the commands of God. In His
hands the management of the Kingdom has been entrusted, in accordance with
the provisions in the Book of the Covenant, the last will and testament of the
Manifestation. These words are sent to you by the Greatest Branch, Abbas
Effendi, the one whom God has chosen and desired, the one who is branched from
the Ancient of Days, by the Branch who is building the Holy House as referred
to in the prophecies, and who has already begun the structure. It is sent by
Abdul-Beha, the servant of God, who has clad Himself with the mantle of
servitude and devotion for the Beloved of God, and who is the Eldest Son, who
promised to come in the Kingdom with His Father. By the One who was to
renew the Cup with His disciples in the Kingdom with His Father. By the
One who taught the world to pray — "Thy Kingdom come on Earth as it is in
Heaven." By the One who was and now is the living Example of the spiritual
and the righteous. By the One whose blessed Tablets have been spread every-
where, numbering in the thousands, and no one who has been honored with one
of these finds it difficult to distinguish the texts of these Holy Utterances from
those of other human beings, for they are incomparable. By the One whose
Supreme and Exalted position is acknowledged by every one, and even by His
most bitter enemies. By the One to whom the Manifestation referred to In the
Tablet to the Czar of Russia, saying: "The Father has come, and also the Son

RELIGIONS OF PEESIA.

471

in the Holy Valley, who cries out.. 'Labeick, God, Labeick.' " Meaning, I am
ready, God, I am ready. By the One whose Love is incomparable, whose char-
acter is unquestionable. By the One who sends to you His great Love, saluta-
tions and blessings.

The Message is sent to the American Believers, to the Beloved of God, to
the honest, sincere and faithful servants of God. To you who are pioneers, and
whose actions and life will linger in the memories of those who will come after
you. To those upon whose character, uprightness and energy the success of the
Cause depends. To those who are requested to lay a solid and valid foundation
for the Kingdom of God on Earth; a foundation which will not be affected by
storm or wind. To those who will be called upon to oppose, with the sword of
wisdom and truth, the armies of error with whom you are surrounded, and not
to oppose each other. To you whose duty it is to ignore everything for the
sake of union and agreement. To you who are now laboring under trying cir-
cumstances — tested as to your firmness and faith — and who must pass through
the fire of purification. To you who are not to allow any seditious rumors to
prevent you from coming into the Kingdom. To the Beloved Children whose
hearts have been kindled with the love of God. To those who are commanded
to live as one soul dwelling in different bodies, to live as brethren of one family,
and who are expected to make this vivifying truth the basis of their practical
life. To those who are commanded to spare no means within their power to
promote the cause of God and exalt His word. To those on whom rests the
responsibility of creating and maintaining peace and harmony. To those whom
God has chosen to become the vivifiers of the world; and this was written in a
Tablet and decreed by the Supreme Pen.

Therefore, do not let the waves of oblivion roll over this message, which
is most important, and is for our own edification and for our own good.

ANTON HADDAD.

Dear Believers —

It was a great thing for me to have that blessed opportunity to go to
Syria and see the blessed face of our Lord.

Of course my visit to Syria was on private business, but at the same time
I was graciously granted the permission to go and pay a visit to the headquar-
ters, which visit, I hope, will tend to bring everything into perfect peace and
tranquility, especially under such circumstances which are known to you, and
it is hoped also, that now is the time to unite with each other, and live in per-
fect agreement in order to boldly defend our position, and stand firmly before
anything that may come against us.

You know that some time ago, the American believers were not allowed
to go to Acca, owing to the disturbances raised up by the contradictors who vio-
lated the commandments of the Manifestation, [the brothers of our Lord, and
their followers].

On my arrival there, I found that this prevention applied also to all the
believers wherever they are, in order to refute the statement of these contra-
dictors and to show the Turkish Government plainly and clearly that the in-
tentions of our Lord and His followers are only religious and have not the least
connection with politics, as stated by the enemies, but on the contrary, are for
peace and tranquility. Some of the believers who came from Persia, after a
long journey of about sixty days by land and sea, suffering a great deal of trouble
and hardship, were not allowed to remain there more than two days and some
of them were telegraphed, while on their way, to go back home, fearing the
Government might do them harm through the intrigues of those bitter enemies.

These circumstances made me share with them the difficulty in going to
Acca, and spending there a certain time. But on my arrival at Beyreut, through
the grace of Our Lord, I found a telegram, sent to one of the believers known
as Moh'Eff. Martaba Bagdadi, telling him, "Let Haddad come without waiting
for permission." This made me thank God for His mercy to this unworthy
servant, and I proceeded to Acca at once, in compliance with the command.

I need not give you now any description of the headquarters of Our Lord,
His dignity and wisdom, and how He receives guests, etc You have been

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PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

acquainted with all this for some time, hut I wish only to relate to you the very
words pronounced from the blessed mouth of Our Lord regarding the present
condition of ihe believers in America. He said: "The field in America is now
likened unto a field of land in which are planted small trees having not the
powers within themselves to stand any assault or attacks from outside, or to
repel the powers of storm and wind. Therefore, it is very necessary at first
to treat such trees very mildly and take much care of them until they become
very strong, solid and firm.

Consequently the guides and teachers who are in charge of this field must
first deny themselves and practice chastity, purity and love all sincerely, cut
their hearts from the world and not care for the comforts of their bodies or for
any other worldly thing. And they must also abolish from their minds the
word "Ego" or "I," and be servants unto all, faithful and honest shepherds,
watching very strictly day and night, putting all their efforts to the care of their
sheep and secure them inside the fold. If any of the sheep go astray, they must
do their best and not rest until they find it. They have to serve the worshipers
of God, for He (praise to Him) is not in need of our service, our submissiveness
or prayers, our kindness or assistance, etc., but those who are in need of such
things are the worshipers of God, and by this they will please God the Almighty.
Jesus said, And whosoever shall give to drink unto one of these little ones a
cup of cold water, only in the name of a disciple, it is as though he had given
it to me, Verily, I say unto you, he shall in no wise lose his reward.

"Every one of us, and especially the guides or the deliverers of the truth
must know that what He does or acts, He does only to Himself and none will
profit but Himself, and in giving the truth none will enjoy but himself."

"The singer who has a sweet, soft and gentle voice, will, when he sings,
please himself far better than he pleases his audience, and therefore his pleasure
and delight is confined to himself. It is so in the case of the artist, the photog-
rapher and the inventor. Each one of them has a special delight in himself —
in the thing he does — more than others have in their works. The same is true
with the deliverer of the Truth. There is nothing in these days more important
than the delivery of the Truth. It is the best thing and the greatest, because
the future happiness of man and his comfort, the highness of his position and
exaltation, depends on his delivering the Truth to the worshipers of God."

"The guide will not be confirmed by God unless he is a sincere and faith-
ful servant to God. It might be that sometimes it happens that the guide will be
successful, but it is only for a short time, but at last he will fall down if he is
not thoroughly sincere, even if he is the greatest philosopher and the most
learned man. It happens sometimes that the simple surpass and excel the intel-
ligent and bright."

He said also: "Besides my real knowledge, I have realized by experience
that the sincere servants of God have in many cases excelled the learned, and
although ignorant and simple, they were confirmed by God owing to their sin-
cerity, and to such an extent that it made the others astonished and perplexed.
There was a certain riddler once in Persia of low breed, simple and ignorant
of anything, but owing to his pure sincerity of God he was confirmed by God
and became one of the greatest; so that he was envied by even the most learned
men in Persia, through the wonderful knowledge given to him by God. Take
as an example: the disciples of Christ were fishermen of the lowest and mean-
est, simple, ignorant and despised by every one of their time, but owing to their
sincerity they became the greatest and are even now worshiped by Kings and
Emperors; their names are highly honored and respected by the great men of
this age. As it was in the past, so it will be in the future."

We are requested by Our Lord "to live in peace, love, union and agree-
ment, and overlook the faults and defects of others and to see only their good
actions and not their bad ones. These are things that will lead to perfect suc-
cess and thorough happiness."

To illustrate this more fully, Our Lord, Abdel Beha, told the following
story: "Once on a certain time when Christ and his disciples were traveling
from one place to another, they came near a dead dog. One of the disciples said:

RELIGIONS OF PERSIA.

473

•How ugly this dog is;' another said, 'How offensive and putrid he is,' another,
'How bad;' and another, 'Fie on him, how abominable.' On this Christ was
anxious to show to them something that was good in that dog, thus to teach them
that first they should look for the good things without caring in the least for
the bad, and in some manner, he made the dog's teeth appear, saying to his
disciples, 'How white and beautiful are his teeth.' This made the disciples
ashamed, realizing at the same time that they were mistaken and that what
they said was wrong. This lesson teaches us how to behave toward each other
and how to view and treat each other, i. e., to look for the good things in each
other, caring not for the bad."

He said also: "Tell the believers, if they hear some day that something
has happened to their Chief, Abdel Beha, whether killed or crucified, they must
not fear or feel broken-hearted, sad, or afflicted, but on the contrary shoif d
strengthen and comfort each other, stand firm and continue working in the field
of God, teaching and delivering the truth to all the people." "Tell El-Ahbab in
America, that it is very necessary in these days that they should not notice the
bad things of others, nor mind the small, trifling worldly things, but seek the
spiritual, which tends to their strengthening and confirmation, for these days
are the days of persecutions, dangers and perils, and accordingly they ought to
unite with each other, for union is power, and let them take as their example
in everything, Abdel- Beha., The Master."

You know very well that our Lord is suffering from several things besides
what he suffered in the past, but yet he is very patient, and his special desire
and pleasure is to die in the cause of God, although greatly persecuted by his
enemies, he is powerful enough to have them dispersed, yet he is very loving,
compassionate and merciful for the sake of the cause of God, and requests every-
one of the believers to follow his steps, and by this, they will have the desire
of his heart fulfilled.

The Master also said: "Perhaps you have heard some things about Ibn-
Abhar. He is a Persian teacher and one of the greatest in knowledge and
spirituality and holds a very high position among the believers; still, when
asked by any one about any other certain believer he generally says, 'I am not
worthy to unloose the latchet of his shoes.' This teaches us humility and that
we ought to speak very well of others, even to prefer them to ourselves, that
we should not boast by saying, 'I am the man and nobody else.' 'The believers
should be thankful to the guide or teacher, and faithful to him for what he has
done for them, in giving them that treasured thing which could not be esti-
mated or re-compensated."

"What use will it be to you if you are an extinguished lamp and the
other lamps are bright and brilliant, or what harm will it do if you are bright
and the others dark? What profit will you get if you are poor and the others
rich, or what harm will it do you if you are rich and the others are in need of
you? And so on in all cases. Under these circumstances, every one should at
first reform himself and better his condition; when this is settled with him
he will do a great deal of good to others and be competent to fulfill many very
important duties, then his words will have a great effect on the hearts of others.
I love every one of you and therefore I wish you to love each other sincerely."

He also said: "Tell the believers that I want the strong ones among them
to strengthen the weak, just as Mary Magdalen did after the death of Christ.
On that famous event the disciples of Christ became very weak and disappointed,
and some of them were full of doubts, and were likely to disbelieve in him. At
last they went to Mary and said to her,. 'Do you not know He is dead?' She
replied, 'Well it does not matter; was' the soul killed or the body?' They
answered, 'The body.' Then she said to them, 'Do not fear, He is still alive and
will be with us always, and is ready at all times to help us. Go, be firm and
strong, and do not let small things trouble you or fill you with doubts. Go and
preach the word of God to every one with sincere faith and you will be con-
firmed by the Holy Spirit.' So they were encouraged, by her and went on
preaching and teaching, thus she was the cause of strengthening them and pro-
moting the truth among all the people."

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PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

Abdel Beha wants you to follow the steps of that great woman, especially
if you come under similar circumstances. He wants you to take no thought for
any other thing but the cause of God, and to be as St. Paul when he said, 'I
once had knowledge, wisdom and philosophy, but after I knew Christ I forgot
everything, and now I do not know but Christ.' " If believers or guides fall into
temptations, or commit any wrong, the others ought reform such infirmities
with the spirit of sincere love for his edification, that you may with one mind and
one mouth glorify God. Whosoever of you, if he had a certain beautiful tree in
his garden for a long time, during which long time it was giving good fruits,
would cut it down if, for one year he seeks fruit on this tree and find none; will
he not be sad and have pity? Will he not wait another year and take much care
of it, until he removes all cause which stood against that tree and injured it:
this must be the case with the Believers, especially with the teachers and guides.
Whosoever of you, if he had all his clothes saturated with water, would care in
the least if some small drops of water were thrown on him by another? Of
course he would not care, for such drops will not affect him at all. Thus we
should not notice the small faults committed against us by others. To speak
evil against believers, the guides or the teachers, will hurt but yourselves. Every-
one is liable to mistakes and to fall into temptations; therefore we ought not to
expect perfection in anybody. Jesus said, "There is none good but One, and He
is God." "No one can claim the Behaist religion unless very sincere and honest
'and born of water and the Spirit,' as Jesus said. Therefore, he who comes to
this religion with perfect and pure sincerity will prosper and succeed thoroughly;
otherwise, success will be only for a short time and then will fail."

"Fear not any trouble, persecution or calamity which may befall you, for
it is said that when the flag of the truth appears it will be cursed by the people of
the east and west; just as it was in the past, so it will be now without the least
difference."

"Seek ye first the Kingdom of God." One of the believers in Acca spoke
to me (the master), that the only desire he was begging to attain was to get
bread and water only without taking any thought for good clothes, and to devote
himself for the service of his Lord; but owing to his sincerity, God the Almighty,
has given him, without knowing how. instead of bread and water on his table,
more than ten kinds of good food. I have received news from Persia that some-
one there has imitated the picture of the Manifestation and sold it to one of the
believers there for a sum of about $200, thus be careful not to be deceived by
any one, for the real picture is not in the possession of any one but Abdel Beha."

[These are the words of Our Lord translated to you, word by word. May
God the Almighty help us keep them and take them as a lamp for our feet.
Amen.] (Signed) ANTON HADDAD.

January 9, 1900.

THE WORDS OF OUR LORD RELATING TO DISAGREEMENT AMONG THE
BELIEVERS.

"Disagreement among the believers is likened unto the clouds which pre-
vent the rays of the sun from reaching into the space covered by the clouds.
Although it may be for a short time only, the power of the rays will undoubt-
edly demolish the clouds, yet the clouds will stop the rays for a while and con-
sequently deprive the creatures of God from that privilege of enjoying the beauty
of the sun during the existence of the clouds."

"Accordingly, disagreement among the believers has the same effect and
result. It prevents the confirmation of God for a while. No confirmation to
any one as long as disagreement is in existence."

"But know that the cause of God can never be demolished or destroyed
and no one whatever is able to prevent or even stop its appearance and spread-
ing. It may become latent or delayed for one, two or three years, but at last
it will appear in spite of all the hindrances, difficulties, and impediments that
come in its way."

RELIGIONS OF PERSIA.

475

"Every one of you is aware that the tree has a special time for its leaves
to come out, another for its flowers, and another for its fruits; hut it may hap-
pen some year that icy weather and intenseness of cold may prevail for a while
and thus stop the tree from coming out in time. Do you think that if all the
world should unite, can they stop the coming of Spring? O no, it must come
by force, although the circumstances are not suitable, still the trees bring out
leaves, flowers, and fruits. This is the case of the cause of God and is after the
same method. If delayed for a while nothing can prevent its appearance and
promotion, for God is able to raise up some other people who will give their
fruits in time: but the great calamity will be on the souls who were in exist-
ence during that time of disagreement, because these souls will be deprived of
all the benefits that were offered to them. Thus they will be losing and the souls
coming after them gaining. Disagreement is likened unto the destroyer of homes.
It is an old saying that 1,000 builders are not equal to one destroyer — how much
more if there are 1,000 destroyers after one builder? Do your best and use
every effort to unite. Have accord and harmony among you, so that you may
be able to defend yourselves and oppose all the collusions and attacks that may
come against you."

You are a small army and very few in number in comparison with those
around you. If dissension is existing among you and your opinions are different,
everyone of you wishing to fight with a special sort of arms, i. e., some with
swords, some with rifles, some with spears and some with guns, what will be
the result? Defeat! and you will never see victory. But if you will unite to-
gether with one heart, one mind, one opinion, and one word, you will be able
to fight all the armies of the world, and stand firmly before them. Truly, you
have before you all the different armies of the world, and you have to fight them.
You will overcome them if you unite and receive the confirmation of God.
When in Persia we were very few in number, but owing to our unity and har-
mony, and our fighting with one kind of arms, we stood before our numerous
enemies, fought and at last defeated them and gained the victory."

"There are before you so many temptations, trials, afflictions, calamities
and difficulties because you have to be purified through fire and sifted through
the sieve in order to separate the wheat from the tares. Verily I say unto you
none will be saved but the believers, and from the believers only the sincere,
and even those are in great danger, especially in such a time."

"Let no seditious rumors prevent you from coming into the Kingdom of
God and receiving the Spirit of Confirmation. Take for an example Jesus Christ,
when He was here on earth 1900 years ago, how He was despised by the people
to an extent unimaginable. How the Jews and even the Romans refused to have
Him buried in their cemeteries, and at last He was interred in a dung-hill which
they call now Golgotha. How in the second century after Christ some of the so-
called learned people sprang up and wrote many books in which they denied
Christ and His appearance among the people — that there was no person such as
Christ, and, in fact, there was no one by this name, that it was only the inven-
tion of Peter and Paul, and so many other things besides. But look at the re-
sult now, and see! Consider how powerful is the cause of God! Be firm in the
faith and let no doubts come to your mind, for this century is the most im-
portant of all. He who pronounces one word of truth now, that word will con-
tinue to wave and vibrate without end and will never be annihilated; but not
so the contrary. The same result follows those who commit good deeds and bad
deeds. Think of the actions and deeds done in the time of the prophets and
apostles, and consider — what were they? They were nothing but trifling things
in comparison with those done after their times; but we know very well that
these small things became known to everybody and will be forever and ever;
while the great things done after the times of the apostles were known for a
short time only and then were forgotten. What was done by some of the women
and men mentioned in the Scriptures, in the time of the apostles? They did

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nothing of great importance. Some of them received the apostles in their
houses, others rendered them service, while others gave them protection and
assistance. But after the time of the apostles many built churches, others
spent all their money in a charitable way, but nothing is now known about
them. What a great difference there is between their works."

"Look at the time of Christ! What of the two thieves crucified with him?
Each pronounced but one word, and these two words became known for many
generations up to the present time, and will still linger in the memories of those
who will come after us, although a great many people did greater things after
the time of Christ, they were not to be compared with the words of the thieves.
Why is this? Is it because what took place in the time of Christ and apostles
was done in the time of their appearance, the time of distress and persecution.
This is the case at present. He who does a very small thing now, that thing
will be remembered forever by every one, but the things done after this time,
however great they may be, will never have the same effect, but will be remem-
bered by some and last only for a short time. To do now is of greater prefer-
ence and importance than hereafter, owing to the paucity of the number of the
believers and the circumstances they are surrounded with; for after this time
the believers will number millions and millions and they will be the majority
everywhere. You are the pioneers and have to work very hard."

"You have to be firm and solid. If success in the worldly things (which
are nothing in comparison with spiritual) depends on firmness, how much more
is the spiritual? He who stands firm will succeed, but the cowards who draw
back will never see success. Disagreement is just like poison — whenever the
poison enters the body it will kill it at once, notwithstanding its vitality and
strength. So beware not to let this kind of poison enter your heart."

"The Kingdom of God is also likened unto the temple of man. We know
very well that such temple is composed of many members which differ greatly in
shape, form, action and office, and when these different members act in harmony
with each other and have the real perfect affinity and attraction among them,
they form together that temple which will be thoroughly ready to receive the
Spirit- — although so various and different. We cannot say that one member is
preferred to another, or is of greater importance in the formation of the temple.
No, we cannot say that, for each member has its own office and by the action of
all in harmony and unison, a perfect result is produced. So is the case with the
Kingdom of God, which Kingdom is composed of different members, and if these
members, although differing in quality, form, shapes and characters, act in har-
mony with each other and in perfect agreement, they will form the Kingdom of
God and will be ready to receive the confirmation of His Spirit. But if dis-
agreement falls among them and each one wants to make himself greater than
the other, thinking of his high office and importance, the Kingdom of God will
not be formed of such members and they will never be ready or worthy to re-
ceive the confirmation of His Spirit."

"The Kingdom of God is also likened unto a garden of trees. We all know
that a garden in order to be beautiful must contain a good number of trees, va-
rious in size and different in colors, flowers and fruits. Some of the trees are
tall and some short, some bear good and sweet fruits, some sour and some bitter,
but all these trees are necessary to form a garden. No tree can say to the other.
'I am the most important organ of the lot.' or 'I am more profitable than you.'
Not so whatever. Because all the trees in that garden are watered by the same
Hand, having the same sun and the same breeze passing on them. If any dis-
tinction is to be made among them, such distinction must belong to the owner
of the garden and not to the trees themselves."

"So is the Kingdom of God. He is the owner and Lord of the Kingdom,
and everything relating to the members of the Kingdom is in His hands and
belongs to Him only, although the members are not equal in everything, but
different in size, disposition, quality, character, conduct, color, and fruit. Yet,
all of them are necessary to form the Kingdom, but they cannot make any dis-
tinction among themselves. High distinction belongs only to the Lord of the
Kingdom. No one can prefer himself to others, because all are watered by the

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477

same Hand, having the same sun, the same breeze of air passing over them;
therefore, they should be as one, loving and respecting each other and considering
themselves as brothers and sisters and even more, for in spirituality, kinship is
not to be considered whatever. Jesus Christ said, "He who hears my word is
my brother, sister and mother."

"Agreement, union, affinity and attraction have a great effect on the uni-
verse. Take our globe, for instance. It became so large through the great and
perfect union, cohesion, affinity and attraction among the different ingredients
and particles of which it is composed, but the small things which we see could
not be any larger, owing to the lack of affinity between their and other sub-
stance. Thus affinity has a great effect in the enlargement of anything. So
also among the believers. It should be the most important factor and the basis
of their growth, otherwise tbey will go asunder if they ever meet with collision
or difficulty."

"Tell my beloved that great persecutions and troubles are awaiting them.
They have not seen anything yet. They will be attacked by all the people around
them, ridiculed and despised for His sake. A great many books will be written
against them and the papers will attack them very severely." He said also that
"a woman of great ability will write an article against the believers full of lies
and false things, but they ought not to let these things trouble or give them
the least doubt or fear. They will gain the victory and receive His confirmation
and strength if they only listen to His words and unite together as one soul and
spirit."

[These are the translated words of Our Lord spoken to me in response to
the information I gave Him regarding the difficulties among the American be-
lievers. These notes were afterward corrected by His own hand, and may God
help you to accept and practice them.]

(Signed) ANTON HADDAD.
|TO THE AMERICANS— A DECLARATION— HE IS GOD.

O ye, the beloved of God and the children of God, the new heaven is already
come, the new earth is already established, and the new Holy Jerusalem is
already descended from heaven, from the presence of the Almighty, in the form
of a glorious virgin, excellent in her beauty, an unequaled gem among the other
virgins, secluded in the tent, ready to receive. The angels of the Highest of the
Kingdom have called in the ears of the inhabitants of the earth and heaven
with aloud and melodious voice, saying: "This is the city of God and His resi-
dence with the holy and sanctified souls of His servants. He shall live with
them, for they are His people and He is their God." He has wiped their tears,
lighted their candles, given peace to their hearts and widened their breasts;
therefore, the roots of death were rooted out, sorrow, wailing and crying have
ceased, and the lesser King of Majesty (Abbas) occupies the Throne of the
Kingdom, and renews the performance of untold actions. This is the absolute
truth, and of a higher certainty than what was said in the Revelation by St.
John: "He is the Alpha and the Omega." This is He who quenches the thirst
from the spring of life. This is He who heals the sick with the antidote of
safety and confirms with a flood of grace from this Kingdom. He is of the great-
est heirs to the apostles and saints, the Lord is His God and He is His dearest
Son. (Abdul-Beha.)

Good tidings to you, O beloved of God, His people, His children and His
party! Raise your voices in praising and glorifying the glorious Lord, for the
lights have shone, the traces appeared, the seas moved, and gave out every
precius gem.

SELECTED PRECEPTS OF EL-HAK.

(The Manifestation.)

This manuscript contains fifteen clauses called "Good Tidings," each of
which indicates some reform, or law conducive to the general well being of man-

478

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

kind. As indicating the ideals held up by El-Hak for the guidance of His fol-
lowers, it is interesting and important. The inscription at the top is as follows:

"The Divine ordinances and commands, formerly revealed in sundry epis-
tles, have, agreeably to the Supreme and Most Holy Command, been collected,
that all may become cognizant of the grace, mercy and favor of God in this Most
Mighty Manifestation and this Great Announcement, and may engage in praise
and thanksgiving to the Desired Object of all the inhabitants of the world.
Verily, He helpeth His servants unto that which He willeth, for He is the Wise
Ordainer." >

In substance the reforms enacted in the fifteen clauses are as follows:

1. Abolition of religious warfar e.

2. Permission of all sects and peoples to unite in friendly intercourse.

3. Permission to study foreign languages, coupled with a recommendation
that one language and writing (either of those already existing or especially de-
vised for the purpose) should be selected by general consent as a medium of
international communication.

4. All El-Hak's followers are bound loyally to serve and support any king
who extends his protection to their faith.

5. The followers of El-Hak, in whatever land they dwell, must cheerfully
and ungrudgingly submit to the laws and conform to the customs of that country.

6. Promise of the "Most Great Peace."

7. All are permitted, subject to the dictates of decency and good taste, to
follow their own inclination as to dress and the wearing of the hair.

8. The good works and devotions of Christian priests (and ministers) are
recognized and will be accepted, but they must henceforth abandon their seclu-
sion and "engage in that which shall advantage them and whereby mankind
shall be benefited." (See text 12.) They are also permitted to marry.

9. Confession of sins to one's fellowmen and seeking absolution from them
is not permitted. To God only should confession be made, and from Him only
should pardon be sought. A form of prayer suitable for such confession is given.

10. The Bab's command to destroy certain classes of books (e. g., books
of logic, philosophy and other sciences, conducing, in his opinion, only to self-
conceit and disputation) and to "renew" all books after a certain period is abro-
gated.

11. The study of sciences and arts is commended and encouraged, but they
should be such as conduce to the welfare of mankind.

12. All men must learn and practice some craft, trade or profession. The
diligent and conscientious practice of some craft, trade or profession is in itself
an act of worship. Mendicity and idleness are hateful to God.

13. The settlement of differences, the apportionment of alms and the order-
ing of the affairs of the commonwealth generally are intrusted to the "House of
Justice."

14. Visitation of the tombs of martyrs and pilgrimages to the shrines of
saints are no longer to be regarded as obligatory. Nevertheless it is a pious
work for rich men to leave money to the "House of Justice" to enable their
poorer brethren to perform these pilgrimages.

15. Though a republic conduces most to the general welfare, it is not de-
sired that kings, who are the "Signs of God's Power," should cease to exist. If
statesmen can combine these two things in this cycle their reward with God
shall be great.

AMERICAN PILGRIMS.

Cairo, Egypt, April 4th, 1899.

As I have written an account of my first visit to the Holy Household,
and sent to Mr. James, which undoubtedly you have read ere this, I thought per-
haps you might be interested in hearing the description of my last visit there,
though to me it was heart-breaking in the extreme.

On the afternoon of March 20 I said "Good-bye" to Dr. and Mrs. Kheiralla,
Nabiha and Labiba in Haifa (for they were to leave the next day for Port Said)

RELIGIONS OF PERSIA.

479

and set out by myself for Acca, the gardener, Abdul Hasim, who happened to
be in Haifa, being my sole companion in the carriage, and he made the drive
over very pleasant by telling me, in simple Persian, some of the tablets and
words of the Manifestation.

When we reached the city, our Lord and Seyyed Yahya were standing near
the gate, but we passed them without speaking or noticing them apparently, for
there were many of the Turkish soldiers standing about— and went directly to
the house, where I was most cordially welcomed by the "Greatest Leaf" and the
daughters of our master.

It was nearly dark, — so we went to the apartment of the Holy Leaf, where
we had tea and then sat talking, waiting for the "King" to come. At last a
servant announced that He was coming, so the two youngest daughters and my-
self ran out in the court to meet Him. I reached Him first and knelt down
before Him, kissing the hem of His robe. He thereupon took my hand, and,
saying in Persian, "Daughter, welcome," helped me to my feet, and, keeping
my hand, walked with me into the house, where I sat down beside Him while He
drank some tea, — and asked me if I was "well, happy and content." To which

I could only reply that to be in His presence was health, happiness and content-
ment itself. Then He said: "I am sending you back to America that you may
work to gain a place beside me in the Eternal Kingdom."

Soon after this dinner was announced and our Master seated me beside
Him, — then His wife, the "Greatest Holy Leaf," and His daughters made up the
rest of the party, while His sons-in-law waited upon us. This meal was served
according to the Arabic fashion, — on a very low table, around which we sat on
the floor upon cushions. Once during the meal our Lord took a piece of bread,
and putting on it some honey, handed it to me to eat, saying as He did so:
"Let all of your words be as sweetly flavored with kindness to all people — as
this bread is flavored by honey." When I swallowed this mouthful from His
blessed hand I truly felt a great spiritual blessing, — my heart was fairly melted
by the power of love, and the tears fell like rain over my cheeks. The "Greatest
Leaf" took her hankerchief, and, wiping my eyes, said: "You are blessed — be
happy." Indeed I was happy — my tears were tears of joy! After the meal was
over I poured the water on His hands while He washed His face (a custom in
the Orient after eating) ; then He handed me the towel and I did likewise, — He
saying, after I had finished: "Now you must go and wash from the faces of the
people the clouds of ignorance, and from their hearts the love of this world —
that they may receive the Spirit of Truth and shine as lamps in the Kingdom!"

He then went out to see some of the officials and I spent the evening with
the "Greatest Leaf" and the daughters. We were chanting tablets and I was
trying hard to tell them in Persian something about the Believers in America,
and succeeded quiet well for the little time I have studied the language, though
sometimes we had a good laugh over my queer accent, especially on words con-
taining the gutteral sounds. They never tire of hearing about the work in
America, and the four daughters are studying English very diligently so they
can speak to the pilgrims as they come to Acca in the future. We retired about

II o'clock, and I was very happy indeed.

Next morning very early the Babis in Acca began to assemble at the house
of our Lord, the ladies going to the room of the "Holy Leaf" and the men re-
maining down stairs. The occasion of this gathering was on account of March
21st being New Year's Day, according to the Babis, so it was a feast day. Our
Lord came into the room and gave to everybody some sweets from His hand,
after which Rooha Khanum, one of his daughters, chanted a beautiful tablet.
Then He arose, and, saying a few words of welcome, went to the room occupied
by the men. There He gathered all of the children together and gave each of
them a few coins, about ten or fifteen cents, which made them all delighted and
very happy, of course, because He gave it to them. After drinking tea and visit-
ing a little while, they all went away. Then we had lunch, and directly after
prepared to make my last visit to the tomb of the Manifestation. I went in a
closed carriage with Rooha Khanum, and upon our arrival we went into a small
room where we remained hidden until all of the others had made the visit with

480

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

our Master and departed. Then He came and told us to come out, which we
did, — the three of us then being in that sacred place alone! Immediately He led
the way to the room where lies the precious casket which contained the most
brilliant jewel that ever shone upon this earth, — Beha u' llah,— and there He
lifted up his voice in supplication for me, — (worm of the dust that I am! Oh
God, my heart burns like fire and my tears flow like rain when I think of it!) —
asking that I should receive the confirmation of the Holy Spirit, and go forth
to work in the cause of God, guiding souls to the Kingdom! What this day was
to me no one can ever know! My work, my words, my deeds must tell in the
future whether or not He prayed for me in vain! I can only say I wanted to
fall at His feet then and there, and give my heart, my soul and my life for the
dear and sacred mouth that had spoken in my behalf! I then prayed for our
teacher who was the means of giving us the Truth in America, for I felt that if
I should live a thousand years I could never ask God enough to repay him for
what he has done for me and for those I love in my own dear native land. I
can never do it; God only can pay my deep debt of gratitude by answering my
supplications for his welfare! As we turned away, my eyes lingered lovingly
upon the sacred place, — and in my heart I could only feebly thank God for His
great mercy and many blessings which I can never deserve, though I give my
life for His sake by shedding my blood in His cause, — which I pray may be my
happy lot, — when His will in me is done!

It was dark when we reached the house of the Master in Acca, so we had
dinner soon after. The Master was not present as He was obliged to go away
on business directly after our return, to the house of one of the government
officials. We had a pleasant evening in the apartment of the "Greatest Leaf,"
reading tablets, singing, visiting, etc., — after which we retired.

Next morning, March 22d, Mr. Getsinger came and was welcomed by our
Lord, who kissed him tenderly on both cheeks and bade him sit beside Him
while he wrote many tablets, occasionally smiling and speaking a few words to
him, asking after his health, if he were happy, etc. — though writing all the
time. The great power of the Spirit is very apparent when He is thus occu-
pied, and it is a blessing to be in His presence. All the day long He was very
busy as many people came to Him, but in the evening He came into the room
where His son-in-law, Mousin Effendi, Mr. Getsinger and myself were sitting
(we bowing before Him as He entered) and sat down upon the sofa, telling my
husband to sit by His side, while He motioned me to my accustomed place at
His feet. Then, putting one arm around him and laying Mr. Getsinger's head on
His shoulder, at the same time gently stroking my head with His other hand, He
began talking 'to us, His son-in-law interpreting what He said. "My children,"
He began, "tomorrow you leave us, and while we would love to see you always,
would always love to have you with us, it is better that you should go and work
in the cause of God, for thereby He will open upon your faces the door of His
gifts and shower upon you His blessings. Have no fears, God is with you, and
with all those who are striving to advance His Truth throughout your country.
You must say to all the Believers in America that I love them and pray for
them, and in turn I desire that they love and pray for each other, ever seeking
to be united together, living in harmony and concord, for where division is God
is not. The law of His whole universe is unity, and discord must in no wise
enter in among you. You must be kind to each other and act toward each other
like true children of the Kingdom — thus you will all please me and please our
Father Who art in heaven." Oh, if you could have seen the expression of love
and tenderness on His face as He uttered these words — it seemed that His whole
great, noble soul was pleading for the complete union in every respect of the
Believers in America. Oh, I beg of all of you to love each other as He, our Lord,
loves all of us. If you see faults in each other, overlook them quickly and for-
give them — for His dear sake! He then sent His son-in-law for some bread and
syrup, made from the juice of pomegranates, which he brought and placed before
Him on a low table. Our Master took the bread and breaking it dipped it into
the syrup and gave a piece to Mr. Getsinger, another to me, and took one Him-
self; then told us to eat it, — which we did, — it tasting most delicious, after which

RELIGIONS OF PERSIA.

481

He, smiling sweetly, said; "Now I send you out into the world to give to the
hungry souls who are seeking to know their God — the "Bread of Life," which is
the Word of God, and to show them how sweet is the "Water of Life," which is
faith in God."

Then He talked about our journey, inquiring most carefully how long it
would take, land telling us, when we reached Cairo, that we should see Mirza
Abdul Fazl and Abdul Karim, who would tell us some things we wished to know.
(.Mirza Abdul Fazl is. we find, a most learned man. He knows the Bible by
heart and is a great historian.) He then told us that He wished us to be in
America in six weeks after we left Acca, so our stay in Cairo must be short.
Arising and bidding us "good night," He went to sleep.

Thursday, March 23d, our last day at the Holy Household, was a beautiful
day. Early in the morning Rooha Khanum called me and arising hastily I went
with her to the room of the "Greatest Leaf," where the Master was sitting. He
bade me welcome as I entered, and I knelt before Him, kissing His hand, and
then sat down at His feet beside the "Holy Leaf," and we drank tea together.
As I looked at Him and thought "I must leave Him today," the tears came to my
eyes and my heart was very heavy, though I tried hard to conceal my feelings.
He noticed it and said: "Do not cry — be happy. I will go with you in spirit
—the separation of the body is nothing. I will go with you." I dried
my eyes and went with Him to the room where He writes, and with Rooha
Khanum sat down while He began His work for the day. He took up Mr. Chase's
picture which was on the divan beside Kim- — also one of Mr. Clark and one of
Mr. Struven (pupils of mine in Ithaca) — and, looking at them, kissed first one
and then another, then turned and said: "You must tell them that I kissed
their pictures and am glad to have them; that they are my sons and my heart
longs to see them so that I may kiss them."

Soon after He called Mr. Getsinger into the room and gave him a bottle
containing juice of pomegranate; also to each of us a small bottle of oil of
roses. Shortly before noon He went out and we watched Him as He walked
through the court, for we wanted to see Him as much as possible. After a little
time He returned and sat down to luncheon with us, one on each side of Him.
We could scarcely swallow for we well knew it was our last meal with Him, and
the thought of parting was breaking our hearts! As we left the table, a ser-
vant said: "The carriage is ready" — so then began the "Good-byes" which were
painful in the extreme, though everybody was trying to be brave, but it was
impossible — we all cried — and when we went to our Lord I was faint and sick.
He came quickly from the room and, taking me by the hand, led me down one
flight of stairs, and I pressed His hand to my lips, while He turned away and
silently kissed Mr. Getsinger — then left us hastily. When I reached the court
below it seemed that the sun grew dark for I realized I would not see Him again,
and the pain of it was awful!

We rode in silence back to Haifa and very soon went on board the steamer.
From the deck we watched Acca fade cut of sight, and then I knew that only
my body was going away for I had left my heart there — at His feet.

Please give my love to all the Believers, and tell them to all be firm in
the faith for this is the Glorious Truth and we will live forever and ever.
I am yours faithfully in the cause of God,

(Signed) LUA M. GETSINGER.

LETTER FROM MRS. GETSINGER TO THE ASSEMBLY IN CHICAGO.

To the Assembly in Chicago, Greetings:

We reached Haifa Thursday, December 8th, about 10:30 p. m., and were
met by Dr. Kheiralla and two or three Babis; they all welcomed us heartily
and conducted us to a coffee house where we were served with refreshments.
An old man was there waiting for us and he, as I was afterwards informed, is
the uncle of the Greatest Branch, and was sent by the latter to welcome us.
Never have I seen a face more full of love and kindness. He saluted us and his
countenance beamed with pleasure while he expressed himself as being so

48a

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

thankful upon our safe arrival. After drinking some tea, we went from this
place to our hotel, several of the Believers walking. The streets are very nar-
row and dark, so a man, the hotel-keeper, walked ahead of us with a lantern to
light the way. Our friends remained conversing with us at the hotel until after
midnight, excepting the old gentleman; he did not accompany us, as it was
late and he desired to leave early the next morning for Acca to report our
arrival to the Greatest Branch — our Master.

We slept but little that night, our minds being occupied with the thoughts
that perhaps tomorrow we shall see Him, and kiss the hem of the blessed gar-
ment of our Lord. We arose early the next morning, our hearts eagerly expect-
ant, but all day no word came.

In the evening we were invited to the house of Housyn Effendi (one of
the Believers living in Acca), and upon our arrival he met us at the door, wel-
comed us, saying that he was the bearer of good news to us. He had received
a letter from Abbas Effendi that day stating "He would be pleased to welcome
us on the morrow, and that His heart longed to see the first American pil-
grims." We went back to our hotel after spending a most delightful evening,
our host and hostess taking great pains to make us happy, showing us every
kindness and hospitality; often remarking that we must not consider ourselves
guests, for their house was ours, and everything they had at our disposal.

As you may imagine, sleep was out of the question that night, my hus-
band and I were talking all the time, and congratulating ourselves upon our
great blessings and good fortune, and counting the hours which passed too
slowly, until the dawn of the morrow should come! We arose early, dressing
ourselves with great care, feeling the best we had was not half good enough to
wear upon this our first visit to the Holy City, and shortly after 8 o'clock the
carriage drove up and Dr. Kheiralla, his daughter, my husband and myself
started for the place of all places, the New Jerusalem, the Holy Abode of the
Most High and the Dwelling Place of our Gracious Lord.

It is about five miles from Haifa to Acca — the road close to the sea — in-
deed in the sea, for the horses were walking in the water, and at times the
waves dashed nearly to the top of the wheels. After riding about a quarter of
an hour we could see the city in the distance; it was a beautiful morning and
as we looked we could but think of the description in the Bible, "a city all of
gold beside a crystal sea." It was bathed in a flood of golden sunshine and
the sea splashing up against its walls sparkled with splendor. We gradually
approached nearer and nearer until at last we passed "the shed which serves as
a coffee house outside the wall," and entered the city by its "solitary gate,"
and drove straight to the house of Abbas Effendi. We entered the garden,
ascended one flight of stairs, and were shown into a hall, or reception room,
where we removed our wraps, and we were welcomed by the uncle, who told
us to pass into the next room. Dr. Kheiralla went ahead, and by the violent beat-
ing of my heart I knew we were soon to behold the blessed face of the Prince
of the House of David, the King of the whole world. We reached the door and
stopped — before us in the center of the room stood a man clad in a long raiment
with a white turban upon His head, stretching one hand out toward us, while
His face (which I cannot describe) was lighted by a rare sweet smile of joy
and welcome! We stood thus for a moment unable to move — then my heart
gave a great throb and, scarcely knowing what I was doing, I held out my
arms, crying, "My Lord, my Lord!!" and rushed to Him, kneeling at His blessed
feet, sobbing like a child! He put His dear hands upon our bowed heads and
said, in a voice that seemed to our ears like a strain of sweet music, "Welcome,
welcome, my dear children, you are welcome; arise and be of good cheer."
Then He sat down upon a low divan and we sat on one side almost facing Him,
Dr. Kheiralla and his daughter on the other side, and He began to talk to us.
To my husband He said that "He should prosper in his scientific work, and God
would bless him and enable him to do good in many directions. And as the
vibrations of light emanating from the sun magnetize the earth, so should the
Word of God magnetize the hearts and draw them from the West to mingle
in love with the hearts in the East." He remained with us but a few moments

RELIGIONS OF PERSIA.

483

(as His time was so fully occupied) when He arose and again bidding us "wel-
come" went into another room where He writes and meets those who come to
Him for help and counsel.

We were then taken into another room, where we met the Greatest Holy-
Leaf and many other ladies. They welcomed us very graciously, the Holy Leaf
taking Dr. Kheiralla's daughter and myself in her arms and kissing us very
tenderly on both cheeks; then they made tea for us and showed us great kind-
ness! We remained conversing with them until noon, then she took us by the
hand and led us to the table, seating one on each side of her and serving us
most beautifully with many varieties of food, which were very good indeed.
After dinner we were served with coffee, the fragrance and flavor of which was
most delicious. Then a servant brought us some meats from the Greatest Branch,
and such a generous supply that I am going to bring them home that you all
may taste.

In the afternoon they read tablets aloud and told us many interesting
things connected with the early history of the Babis; so swiftly did the time
pass that we were quite astonished when dinner was announced; they served a
special menu for us, as they eat much later than we do, but so anxious was I
to see my Lord again that I begged He would at least come into the room
with us; this request was more than granted, for He came and sat at the table,
seating me on His right and my husband at His left. I felt too happy to eat
and sat with my eyes riveted upon His glorious face. He turned toward me
and, sweetly smiling, said: "The love of God burning in your heart is manifest
upon your face and it gives us joy to look upon you.'' I then called his atten-
tion to St. Luke 14:15, "Blessed is he who shall eat bread in the Kingdom of
God." He thereupon took up the loaf and broke it and gave each one of us a
piece of the same. I have kept mine and am also going to bring it that you
may see it. After the meal was over He left us and went out, as He had some-
thing to attend to, and did not return until 11 o'clock; then He came into the
room where we were sitting (all of us rising as He entered and bowing low
before Him) and sat down and began talking to us in a low, soft, musical voice.
My husband asked permission to sit nearer to Him, which He granted, and sat
him down at His right; I longed intensely to go nearer, but said nothing. After
a moment He turned toward me, smiled, and waived His hand that I also might
come. I sat down at His blessed feet, while He took my hand and, looking
down upon me tenderly as a loving father, He sat and conversed with us nearly
half an hour; then He arose, bade us good night, blessing us, and we all re-
tired. I couldn't sleep! My heart was too full! I was too infinitely happy. I
could only live over and over again the precious moments I had spent in His
presence and long to see Him once more.

I fell into a sweet sleep just as morn was breaking, after which I awoke
feeling greatly refreshed, and arose, dressing myself, impatient to be among my
friends and the holy people, for 1 felt each moment with them to be a great
blessing indeed, and every word from their lips to be a precious gem. Miss
Kheiralla and I went to the apartment of the Greatest Leaf, who kissed us and
inquired if we had rested well. Then a servant brought us some nice fruit and
each a beautiful bouquet of flowers from the Greatest Branch, who had sent her
to ask if we were well and comfortable.

During the day we were conducted to the special garden of the Manifes-
tation, the one (according to Dr. Kheiralla) described in the prophecies thus:
"The place of my throne is part on the water and part on the land, under a
green tent that has neither ropes nor a center pole to sustain it." And it is
literally so, for this garden is on a small island, a river on each side of it, and
there are two places built, upon which the Manifestation nsed to sit, one in the
east and one in the west of the garden, and these places are built in such a way
that they are '"part on the water and part on the land," then two large trees,
one in each end of the garden, their branches meeting in the center, form the
green tent most perfectly. In this most beautiful spot we sat down upon the
seats before "His throne," and were served with tea by those who accompanied
us thither, also the gardener brought us fruits and flowers from the "garden of

484

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

our Glorious God," and they were delicious, both to taste and see. In one part
of this place is a small cottage where the Manifestation used sometimes to stay,
and we were permitted to enter this also, to go into the room which He always
occupied, kneel before the chair upon which He sat, and to kiss the place upon
which the soles of His feet rested. The spiritual atmosphere of this place was
overwhelming; our tears fell like rain over our faces, and some of the Believ-
ers with us cried aloud. Indeed, to enter this room is a great blessing. I have
felt nearer to God since that day! On the chair was a wreath of flowers, and
some beautiful cut roses placed there by the Greatest Branch, who commanded
that they should be given to us (my husband, Dr. Kheiralla, his daughter and
myself); also four large oranges, which were on the table opposite, as we left
that most sacred place.

From here we were taken to the tomb of the Manifestation, and you must
excuse me if I do not enter into detail about this, I cannot find words to ex-
press myself, suffice it to say, that the Greatest Branch let me walk in Hij
footsteps and led me by the hand into this sacred place, where I knelt down
and begged of God to cleanse my heart from all impurity and kindle within it
the fire of His love. I also remembered there the Assembly in Chicago anc
begged God's blessing to be showered upon you. After this visit we walked in
the garden and our Lord, with His own blessed hands, picked flowers and leaves
which He gave us to take to the faithful Believers in America.

That night He sat us all at the table, and dismissed the servants, saying
He would serve us Himself, and He did so. He did not sit at the table witt
us, but waited upon us! At the conclusion of the meal He said: "I have servec
you tonight that you may learn the lesson of ever .serving your fellow crea-
tures with love and kindness." He bade us good-night and advised us all tc
rest early, so we went to bed and this night I had a long delicious sleep anc
rest.

The next morning He brought me a most beautiful bunch of white narcis-
sus and allowed me to kiss His blessed hand as He gave them to me. He sa
down and drank tea with us, then rose and bade us "adieu," as we were goin*
back to Haifa that day and He had been called away. As we were quitting th«
city we saw Him standing by the gate, and He smiled at us as we passed
Then we returned "by the road in the sea" to Haifa, our hearts both happy anc
sorrowful, happy because we had seen Him and sorrowful because we wen
leaving Him.

Oh, dear people, make firm your faith and belief, for truly He is our Lord
It seems to me that no one could doubt should He smile upon them, and no on<
could turn from Him should He seek to confirm them! But this He will no
do, as God had declared that each must seek to confirm himself and gave t<
each of us the power or will for that purpose. I feel these words are very weal
and inadequate, but I assure you no one could describe this place and 'tis foolisl
to try — to know each must see for himself, therefore pray God earnestly tha
the blessing of coming here may soon be bestowed. There is no other place ii
the world worth seeing, and surely no other King worthy of homage.

And now I send you all my love and pray God to bless you all now anc
forever! May your hearts all be united, and your souls become as one sou
living in separate bodies. Thus you will resemble our Lord, and draw neare
unto God, the loving Father of us all!

Your loving sister and co-worker in the cause,

LUA MOORE GETSINGER.

LETTER FROM MRS. KHEIRALLA TO THE ASSEMBLY IN CHICAGO

Haifa, Syria, February, 1899.

To the Akbab in Chicago:

Dear Brothers and Sisters— Though you have already received news of ou
visit to the Holy City, both from my husband and from Mrs. Getsinger, yet
feel sure you are as thirsty as I am to hear and know everything you can lean
about the great Point of Revelation who is now the clear Channel of the Ligh

RELIGIONS OF PERSIA.

485

id Truth of God upon this earth; and so you will be glad to have another
jscription of our visit here from me.

As you will understand, the great difficulty of writing such an account lies
the fact that any statement at all about conditions here seems dull and bare
id colorless besides the reality and also that though the outer expression and
irment of this Radiance is beautiful, yet after all its great glory and perfec-
on is spiritual, to be discerned by the soul that is spiritually awakened, and
so according to the degree of the enlightenment of each individual soul, and as
lly to those who have sacrificed everything is the true greatness revealed and
iderstood, therefore I can only tell you little; it is impossible for me to speak
lout the chiefest realities here, but only of those which are cognizant to the
:ere outer sense (so to Speak) of the soul. But I feel that God will aid my
ideavor to show you something of this greatness and supply to your souls that
hich is lacking in my words; and I am entirely sure that it will be with you
5 it is with us, that the more you know the more you will love. Do not be
'raid of loving and trusting our Lord entirely and unreservedly, and of sac-
ficing yourselves and everything you possess with a great gladness for His
ive and the love of El-Beha, for the only thing worth living for is to do the
ill of our God and serve our Lord, who is the great Ideal, to whom we can
ive all our heart's love without fear of betrayal or disappointment, and after
hose example we must all pattern, if we indeed desire to attain the likeness
J the Sons of God. i

There is just one thing I wish to say before I begin the account of our
isit here — and it is this— that indeed we cannot thank God enough for sending
3 the knowledge of this, His Most Great Revelation, and that also we ought
ideed to honor and respect with a great honor the one through whose instru-
lentality we have been brought from darkness to light, from misery and con-
lsion to peace, and to a great and endless happiness in the Kingdom of El-
eha; personally, I feel I cannot thank my dear husband enough for bringing
le this which is more than all our earthly, for of what use or benefit is all our
fe without this great knowledge.

In order to picture our footsteps here clearly before you, I will begin with
ur journey from Haifa, for it is there, as you know, that the traveler lands,
ecause the steamboats do not stop at Acca.

The way from Haifa to Acca is, for the most part, on the sandy seashore,
rhich is in the form of a half hoop — Haifa being at one end of this, with
lount Oarmel rising up behind the town, and Acca at the other, and lying
lmost at the end of the promontory that ends the half circle of the bay. On
bright sunny day, such as it was when I paid my first visit to the Holy City,
Lcca stands out white and glistening as a dove's wing at the foot of some dis-
ant blue hills, and on the border of the "tide! ess sea" excellent in situation,
he joy of the whole earth! How the heart of the pilgrim throbs with expecta-
ion, love and awe as he comes gradually nearer and nearer the long hoped for
;oal, and white and gray and brown house-sides stand out clearer and ever
tearer, until at last he enters the city gate, drives through its narrow, crooked
treets and archways, and at last, alighting in front of a large, strongly built
tone house (formerly the Governor's residence), enters the courtyard with its
ittle tiled garden, passes up a flight of steps that leads to the living part of
he house which is on the first floor, finds himself in an open stone passage
pith many doors opening out on to it, and entering the first one opposite him,
inds himself at last in the presence of our dear Lord Himself!

What does he see? A small room containing two broad divans, on both
f which are writing materials, a large window with cushions on the floor be-
.eath, a square Persian rug in the middle, and sitting on one of the divans with
/riting materials in hand, writing and answering any questions that may be
ut to Him by those around, is the blessed Center of Revelation. He is dressed
n a large loose dark blue cloak an under robe of dull pink lined with fur,
rhite linen showing at the neck, and on His head a white fez with many folds
f fine white muslin wrapped around its base. But as for His face, who can
escribe it? for it is not His features with the long finely chiselled nose, the

486

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

soft gray-brown eyes, with their long and firm eyelashes, nor the black pen-
ciled gray hair, that alone draws and attracts the heart of the beholder, as
with a drop of living fire; it is the living soul that looks out of those loving
eyes, so full of sympathy and so full of spiritual power; it is the glorious per-
sonality behind the veil that draws towards Him, as with an unseen magnet,
the hearts of all those who are seeking their God! !

I must apologize for now being obliged to intrude myself in the coming
pages, for that which I can chiefly relate are experiences and conversations in
which I took part, and it is by narrating these that I can best mirror the great
light here, however faintly : and my experience will also show each one what he
too can expect, for our Lord's love is not confined to one or two.

Immediately I found myself in the blessed presences, I threw myself on
my knees before Him and sobbed aloud from the stress of the various emotions
that filled my soul. He gave me His dear hands to kiss (such fine, delicate
hands they are!) and patted me tenderly on my cheeks and shoulders, saying
in His gentle voice, "La la la marhabba," "You are welcome, be at ease — be
happy," and congratulated me on having accomplished the journey, inquired if
it»had been an easy one, how I was feeling, and so on. Then He sent to call
my husband, who was not expecting my arrival so soon. He came running in,
and he and his two dear daughters welcomed me, and we all felt most thankful
to meet at last at the Holy House. But all our personal feelings were sub-
merged in the great fact of being in the presence of "Mowlana," as He is chiefly
called by the Akbab — that being the Arabic word for "our Lord" — so I turned
and knelt again in front of the divan on which He was sitting, and then He
looked so lovingly and kindly upon me and said to my husband that the light
of the children of the Kingdom shone in my face, and that I had a very good
pure heart, and other kind things.

But soon I was taken to see the ladies of the Holy Household, and into
the open stone passage again, which, after turning sharply at a right angle,
opened into a much wider hall paved with mosaics. In the center of the wall
that bounds the hall on the right side, hangs a large red curtain. This was
lifted, and I found myself in a long room lighted by three windows facing the
entrance, and which were shielded by wooden lattice-worked screens. Along
the wall beneath the windows is a long divan, while on the two other sides of
the room were cushions spread on the floor. The rest of the furniture consists
chiefly of a beautiful brass charcoal brazier, and beside it on the floor is a big
brass tray, holding a large kettle and receptacle for heating water with charcoal
embers (a samovar).

Here I was introduced to the wife of our Master, who has a face beaming
with motherly love and kindness, and also to His sister, the Most Holy Leaf,
whose thin, worn saintly face smiles lovingly at all, and to His four daughters,
blessed girls! and to many women and attendants of the Holy Household. They
kissed me on either cheek, and folded me in their arms, and then the Most
Holy Leaf, Behya-Khanum, sat down on the divan and motioned me to sit
beside her. They began asking many questions in Arabic, which my husband's
daughter kindly translated for me, asking about my journey, health, and so on,
and gave me tea and biscuits, an invariable accompaniment in a Persian visit.

Before long I heard a little stir in the hall, the sound of approaching
footsteps, then a murmur of "Mowlana, Mowlana," and the blessed figure ap-
peared in the doorway and came towards me. Everyone sprang up hastily from
cushions and divan and stood with folded hands. He asked me how I was
feeling, hoped I was better and happy, told me that I was to feel that this was
my home, and asked if I needed anything; to all of which I told my dear Lord
that I was very happy, that I thanked God with all my heart for this greatest
blessing bestowed upon me of being permitted to come to the Holy House, and
that I was crying because my heart had longed and hungered for such a long
time to be there, and that now at last I had attained! He smiled, patted me
Hgain. let me kiss His hands, and then went out, whereupon a sort of general
\h went round, and then all sat down again on cushions and divan. Then
ued more struggles to express our feelings and answer questions put in an

RELIGIONS OF PERSIA.

487

unknown tongue, until lunch was announced, of which Dr. and Mrs. Getsinger,
my husband and daughters and I partook together.

After lunch and a rest, I was called to have an interview with our Lord
in another room, and Mrs. Getsinger, who had been the first to see me arrive
and welcome me, went with me. I asked Him some questions, and He told me
that I must live and work for the Cause — that He wished me to be as He is —
to be absolutely indifferent to praise or blame, whether I eat or do not eat, sleep
or not, am in comfortable or uncomfortable surroundings, with friends or ene-
mies; all these things must be as nothing to me, for I must cut my heart from
myself and from the world, and must look to my God only, and follow the ex-
ample of my Lord in all things (who is loving to all in look, word and action,
even to those who wish to harm and oppose Him), and that then I would
receive great spiritual gifts and blessings. Many other things He said, but of
course I cannot attempt to write everything, or this account would never go off;
and besides, some things were too purely personal. After the interview was
over, and we had returned to the women's apartment, one came in, bringing
both Mrs. Getsinger and myself a bunch of violets from our Lord; these treas-
ured flowers are carefully pressed.

That, evening we all had dinner with His Holiness, who seated me on
His right hand, as I was the newest guest, and Mrs. Getsinger on His left.
Blessed indeed is he who eats bread in the Kingdom of God! He helped us all
to the various courses of food as they were placed on the table, and most
lovingly and carefully looked after our needs. He talked much of America, and
said that if the Believers there will live in real love and harmony with one
another, as one soul living in different bodies, that the greatest blessings are in
store for that country, but that if they do not, the blessings will be deferred.
His heart is very full of love to all the Believers there and He rejoices greatly,
and all the Holy people with Him, when new applications arrive and new names
are received into the Kingdom. He said also that England shall be blessed,
and should receive light from America, and that when her people learned the
Truth they would be very solid in it.

He emphasized the condition of mutual love as being of the utmost im-
portance if we wish to gain anything spiritually and has spoken of its absolute
necessity many times. In one conversation He said that as everything around
us in the material world, of greatness, beauty and use, is the result of the com-
bination of atoms united by the law of affinity or attraction, and that when-
ever that law ceases to operate at any point, dissolution and death ensues, so
also precisely the same law holds in the spiritual world; unless each separate
soul is united by love to the other souls, he or she is in a condition of death,
out of harmony with and against the spiritual laws, and nothing they do will
succeed. Without love we can attain nothing!

Another point stands out most clearly in all of our Lord's conversations
and actions. It is this — that man is left absolutely free to do as he wills, the
door is open to everyone to attain the greatest blessings and gifts — each can
enter if he chooses. But as each has absolute independence in this, no one will
force him to do or not to do. Our Master never even reproves or rebukes any
one. He simply says: "If you do thus and so, such and such a result will
follow; if you do not, it will not," and every one is left perfectly free to do
as he himself chooses. Or, if He sees any one making mistakes in their
thoughts or actions, He talks lovingly to them, and will tell them some story
or parable bearing on their case, without saying anything directly to them, or
showing that it refers to them; if they are in earnest, they will observe His
words and take it to themselves, and correct their mistakes; if not, they must
suffer from their consequences, for as man sows so shall the reaping be, and
no effort or struggle of the heart, however secret, is unseen or unknown, but
will surely bear fruit in God's time. So let us all labor to be accepted of our
God, with hearts full of joyful confidence, knowing that He is the sure Re-
warder.

"We have had the honor of meeting with many of the holy people who
have suffered for the Cause in a way we know little of in America, and th*

488

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

stories of whose triumphant steadfastness and patience through the most fiery
trials and sufferings, ought surely to make us ashamed of our feeble efforts and
lukewarm faith, for it was the greatness of their faith and love that alone
enabled them to endure. I have no room in this letter to give any detailed
histories of these saints, but on our return to America we hope to bring with us
many such, the reading of which will surely stir us up to greater efforts and
enkindle our zeal. There are women here who have seen their children slowly
starve to death before their eyes, and have nearly been killed themselves; men
and women who were very rich, some of them in princely positions, and who
have given up all their wealth and comforts for the sake of the Cause; others
whose husbands have been put to death before them; men who have been shut
up for years in damp underground cells with heavy chains around their necks,
eating into their flesh, and all this and more they have endured with great
gladness for the sake of the love of their God.

Acca itself and its immediate surroundings is a shrine full of the most
sacred memories the heart of man can hallow. There is the great prison, in
which the Blessed Perfection and the Holy Household were confined, and from
which none of those who sent them there ever expected to see them emerge
alive. There is the high prison wall from which the Cut Branch fell, and for
the sake of whose accepted sacrifice the City Gate of Acca was first opened to
the pilgrims who had traveled for months to get there, and endured all sorts
of hardships from the hope of beholding the Face of their God. There is the
Rizwan, the garden mentioned in prophecy, with the two rivers running on
either side of it, and in which Manifestation used to sit; there is the hill, now
clad in red and white, by its scarlet memories and small white lilies, on the top
of which He loved to sit and gaze at the beautiful view spread out like a glorious
panorama on every side; there is the Tomb of the Mother of our Lord and of
the Cut Branch with its inscription, "0 calm soul, return to thy God with joy
and gladness," and lastly and chiefest the Behja itself, and the Tomb of the
Blessed Perfection rising up close beside it — fullest of all Divine memories,
and containing the Sacred Garment worn by the Lord of the Existence, when,
for the sake of His eternal love of His creatures, He turned His footsteps from
the invisible to the visible world, and veiled His eternal splendor in the body
of the dust. The tomb itself is a building containing a central court in which
is planted flowers and shrubs; around this there is a carpeted passage with a
large carpeted space on the west facing the entrance; at one side of this is the
room with the locked door, hanging in front of which is a beautiful curtain,
and within is the Sacred Garment itself.

As you have heard, this most sacred room was not opened to pilgrims
until my dear husband came from the "wide lands" of America, and then from
the great love and mercy and favors showered upon him, the guarding door
was thrown open and he was allowed to enter, and afterwards a few of our
favored pilgrims have been allowed to enter also. There is no need to speak
of the great favors that have been shown by our dear Lord to our beluved
teacher, who has labored so zealously and untiringly to give the knowledge
of their God to all those seeking Him. This fact speaks louder than words, so
I will only say that time will reveal this, as all other things, and that he is
the chief head in America, to whom we can look for spiritual direction and
guidance, and that the greatest gifts and blessings are promised him.

I must really close this long account, which I send with the hope that
the time is not very far distant before we shall all be able to meet once again,
and then you will learn of many things that are not possible to write, owing to
lack of time and strength.

In the meantime, may our faith and love be increased daily with a most
great increase — may El-Beha look upon us in the greatness of His mercy and
love, and accept our unworthy service, and put within our hearts such a fire of
love to Him that all other desires and wishes may be entirely consumed, and
may the fragrance of His Garment be speedily spread through all lands.

Inshallah!!

Believe me to be ever your affectionate friend and sister,

MARION KHEIRALLA.

490 PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

Is it not amazing that in this country where the Gospel is pro-]
claimed from thousands of pulpits, where the light is shining witn
unparalleled brightness, so many should be found who will give homJ
age to a Christ, who is so evidently an impostor? liut it is a common!
observation that persons, willfully blinding themselves toward thel
truth as it is in Christ, will embrace errors which even human reason!
recognizes as absurdities.

THE KURDS.

Kurdistan is a geographical name applied to the Kurdistan moun-
tains and sometimes to -the whole country inhabited by the Kurds. The
area is estimated at 50,000 square miles, extending to Mt. Ararat, in
Armenia, on the north, to the plains of the Tigris on the south, to the city
of Harput, Sivan, on the west, and to the plains of Oroomiah and the city
of Sakis on the east. Thus, this territory is partly subject to the Shah of
Persia and partly to the Sultan of Turkey. The boundary line is a point
of dispute, although in A. D. 1639 a treaty between the Shah Sefavi and
one of the Sultans of Turkey established the frontier line, which since
has served as a nominal line between the two empires. On the terri-
tory here described not only Kurds reside, but also Turks, Armenians,
Chaldeans, Assyrians and Persians. The Kurds are descendants of the
ancient Carduchi, with whom Xenophon and the 10,000 had so long a
struggle. The region they occupy is as rugged as their character. They
are by far the most turbulent of the subjects of the Shah, and were it
not for the beautiful rugs they manufacture in their rude dwellings, one
would be at a loss to imagine the reason for their existence. Their
origin is wrapped in obscurity; they seem to have no relationship with
any other race, and as with Cain, their hand is against everyone and
everyone's hand against them. The etymologist who places little value!
on his life, might find a few months among the mountains of Kurdistan
of some profit to science. They themselves claim that they are descend-
ants of Esau. They speak a mixed language, collected from Persian,
Syrian and Arabic languages. Their language is called Kurmanji, and
has never been reduced to writing, so they are without books or schools.
If any writing is done, it is done in the Persian or Arabic characters.
They number about 5,000,000; 700,000 are subjects of the Shah and a
few to the Sultan of Turkey, but practically all are lawless and be-
yond the control of either of these two governments. A Kurd is very de-
cided and independent in spirit. He would rather live in a cave, under
a projecting rock, and be unmolested, than to dwell in a palace and be

RELIGIONS OF PERSIA.

491

subject to higher authority. Some of the tribes have a small village in
the mountains, to which they return in winter. Their houses are made
of stone and clay, and are usually under projecting rocks or on the
slope of a hill. The roof is so low that a man cannot stand erect.

The Kurds very seldom cultivate the soil, but keep herds of cattle
and horses and flocks of sheep, and travel from place to place, wherever
they may find good pasture for their flock. A Kurd goes before his
sheep, having a staff in his hand, and on his shoulder hangs a bag in

TWO KURDISH 3IEN AND A BOY.

which he has provisions for the day. , He gives names to his sheep, and
when he calls a certain sheep it comes to him. He may be seen sitting,
singing and playing his flute, his fond flock gathered around about him
for an audience. But the principal occupation is robbery. Many may
be seen asleep during the day, but they rise at sunset and start on their
robbing expeditions. The Kurd has a spear in one hand, sword at nls
side, pistol and dagger in his belt, with many cartridges, and a gun in

492

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

the other hand. Dark eyes, and a turban covering much of his forehead,
makes him a fearful looking fellow. When they start at dusk they are
ready to rob and kill; by the next day at 9 o'clock, they return with
their prey of flocks, herds and valuable goods, and then rest for a time.

During the greater part of summer they live in tents in the cool
places on the mountain slopes and in the valleys. In winter they dwell
in houses built under the ground most of them containing only one room,
with one or two small holes on the top for light. This one apartment
answers the purpose of bedroom, parlor, kitchen and stable. In daytime
all the inmates are out, but towards sunset they come dropping in, one
by one, at least a score of them, men, women and children. The hens,
however, have already turned in in advance and are perched in a corner
for the night; sheep, oxen and horses have been stalled, each in its well-
known place. After night has fairly set in, coarse stale bread and sour
milk are brought in for supper. Two spoons and one big dish is all the
plate, and the spoons are passed to each in turn — all in the dark, as they
have no lights. It is now bedtime, and one after the other finds his place
under the same quilt, without either a pillow or bed, except perhaps, some
hay spread on the floor. In a few minutes all are fast asleep, and soon
the heavy breathing and snoring of men and cattle is mingled, and the
effect is anything but pleasant to the ear.

The children are very pretty, and the features of the women, who
never go veiled, distinguished by great regularity, large eyes, aquilene
nose, robust figure, deep black hair, well harmonizing with a slightly
brown or swarthy complexion. Unfortunately they are too often dis-
figured, like their Hindu sisters, by the gold ring passed through their
nostrils. Both sexes are fond of finery, bright-colored, costly robes,
high head dresses, enveloped by the men in gorgeous turbans. The
Kurd completes his costume by an arsenal of small-arms — revolvers,
knives and yatagans— attached to the girdle, rifle swung to a shoulder-
belt, a long lance decorated with ribbons and carried in the hand. But
this is mere parade, most of such encumbrances being dispensed with in
actual combat.

Parents teach their children how to become successful thieves. A
father will give his son of 6 or 7 years of age, a pistol, dagger and shield
and then play robber with the child, showing him how to use these
deadly instruments. A Kurd once told the writer of his timid son. The
child was afraid to steal. The father wanted to make him a successful
thief and so tried the following plan: The first night he sent the child
to steal grapes from his own yard ; the second night corn from his own

RELlGlONS~OF" ; PEltSIA.

493

crib ; the third night grapes from a stranger, next a chicken, then a
sheep, then to enter a house, and so on until the youth became a most
daring highway robber. Then the father was proud of his son and told
him that he had become a man and could marry. The girls of these
tribes will not marry a man until his reputation as a successful robber is
established. They wish to be assured that they will not starve after
marriage. The Kurds are divided into tribes, each tribe having a chief.
These tribes are generally enemies with one another. The chief of a
tribe will lead his men against another tribe and kill all the men and take
all the flocks, herds and all other property as booty. But they do not
harm the women or children. An old man is not honored by a tribe.
They say he can't fight nor rob and is good for nothing but to feed sheep.
The man most highly honored is the one who has killed the most men.
When a man is killed in battle, or while robbing, he is honored
at the funeral by the singing of many songs, by weeping and
lamentations, but not many tears are shed when one dies a natural
death. The Kurds are very quick-tempered. A slight offense — :i1
make them enemies and they will at once seek revenge. They are
expert in a running fight; they love to revile an enemy, and are con-
tinually trying to invent new and more severe expressions of hatred. It is
their nature to quarrel and fight. Brothers often become angered over a
small matter and fight to the death. They think no more of killing a man
than we do of killing a chicken. They are very licentious, especially
those living in towns and cities. Husband and wife are not loyal to each
other, and this is frequently the cause of murder. As a people they have
no foresight, having no thought for the morrow.

The Kurdish religion is Islam and that of the Sunni sect. They are
very religious, pray five times a day, always before leaving their homes
so as to have success in their robbery. Before each prayer they perform
the ablutions ; when a man is praying no woman must touch him lest
she might get the benefit of his prayer, as women have no soul, and if
she touch him she would get his soul and he would lose it. If a woman
should near to him during his prayer the man would stop, step out of the
circle of prayer and then take up his gun and shoot the woman,
then continue his prayer. Their women wear an exceedingly pic-
turesque costume. They have dark complexions, with eyes and hair
intensely black. Their beauty is not of a refined type but by a mass of
paint is made sufficiently attractive for their easily-pleased husbands.
Almost all of the work, in and out of doors, is done by them. Early in
the morning when they are through with their home work they hasten to

RELIGIONS OF PERSIA. 495

field to attend to the flocks or gather fuel for use in winter. In the even-
ing they come in with large burdens on their backs, which appear to be
quite enough for two donkeys to carry. So industrious are they that
they frequently spin on their way to and from work, singing all the while
apparently as happy as if all the world were theirs. The difficulties and
ailments of womanhood are nothing to them. A woman with child will
go out among the rocks, climbing the mountain heights. Her time of
labor is at hand, but she does not cease her usual toil. In the evening
a woman may be seen coming down the mountain singing with a heavy
burden of fuel on her back, and in her arms the child to which she has
given birth during the day. Even this the men do not appreciate or re-
ward, they will not hesitate, when it is raining, to drag the women from
the tent to make room for a favorite steed.

Their chief priests are called Sheikhs and are honored as gods. They
kneel before a chief priest and kiss his hands, clothes and shoes, and ask
for his blessing. To penitent ones he promises that he will ask God
to forgive their sins. He has absolute power over laymen. They believe
his words are inspired truth and obey implicitly. I knew of one Sheikh
who bathed every morning in a spring and the people would flock to this
place to draw of the water to drink, in which he had washed his body.
The father of the late Sheikh Obeidullah assisted the Sultan in the late
Russian-Turkish war, commanded more than 100,000 Kurds to fight
against Russia. He told them not to be afraid of the big cannons that
would be seen when they met the Russians. He said, "I have, by the
help of Allah, bound the mouth of these cannon and they cannot hurt
you." It is said that he would arise every morning with black hands
and claim they had been blackened by the gunpowder of these cannons,
and that he had been in battle all night with the Russians and was not
harmed at all. This would encourage more Kurds to go into battle, and
believing this statement, they marched wildly and flew into the faces of
these big guns and many thousands were slain. For awhile this Sheikh
had an Armenian servant, who was attending to the horse which the
Sheikh himself rode, and which was one of the most excellent horses.
. One morning while he was taking care of the horse, he kicked him, and
drawing his dagger he thrust it right through the horse; soon he was
brought to answer for this and every one was anxious to shed his blood.
The servant said, "Allow me to speak a word before you take my life.
How long will you be hard to believe, the horse being in front of the
battle, was struck by the enemy, but bravely defended the Sheikh."
This pleased the Sheikh immensely and he gave the servant many gifts

496

and robes, and said to the soldiers, ''Look at this infidel, how he testified
for me, therefore how much more should you believe me." The servant
seeing his master treat the multitude so foolishly, succeeded in treating
his master in the same manner.

These wild Kurds, who are a band of robbers, have no other or-
ganization, being simply a band of robbers. Out of their number the
Sultan of Turkey created the so-called Hamidieh troops in 1891. This

THE SPIRITUAL BEAD OF A LL THE KURDS, sillilK SADIK.

was an application of the same principle that prompts him at other times
to throw open the prison doors and invite the convicts to rob and kill
Christians. The Hamidieh troops will go and attack villages, dishonor
women and abduct girls of tender age. I assure you that the butchery
of Sassoum was but a drop in the ocean of Christian bloodshed, occurring
silently, and few by few all over the empire year after year, month after
month and day after day. Innocent women and children have been
shot down, clubbed to death in their houses and fields, tortured in cells,

RELIGIONS OF PERSIA.

497

or left to exile under the scorching sun of Arabia. The piteous cry of
starving children, the groans of old men who have lived to see what can
never be embodied in words, the violation of maidenhood, nay, of tender
childhood; the shrieks of mothers made childless by crimes, compared
with which murder would be a blessing; the screams of women, scarcely
human, working under the lash; and all the vain voices of blood and
agony that die away in that desert without having found responsive
echoes — all this cannot possibly fail to find an echo in heaven sooner or
later!

THE YEZIDEES, OR DEVIL-WORSHIPERS.

Their chief object of faith and worship is the devil. The world, they
believe, belongs to him. He is "the prince of the world," and as such,
should be honored and worshiped. What Christ is to the Christians,
Satan is to these people. They give alms to him and offer sacrifices in his
name. They trust in him as the Christians trust in Christ, and believe
that he is to be their future mediator, and savior of the world. The
rooster is regarded by these people as a very saqred fowl, as he is sup-
posed to exactly represent the form of his satanic majesty. In the temple,
they keep a golden image of a rooster, which they worship. The priests
are an uneducated class of people, not even able to read.

Their holy book is El Jilweh, i. e., "The Revelation," which was
written by Sheikh Aadi in Arabic. The original is the only copy in ex-
istence, which is guarded at Sheikh Aadi's tomb with great care. They
claim it is a mystery; that no one will be able to understand it until
the devil is converted. Their priestly office consists in taking care of
this golden image. It is, however not kept constantly in one place.
Some society will offer a certain sum of money for the privilege of keep-
ing it with them for a stated time. After a society has secured the image,
it is wrapped in a silk napkin and placed in a very nice basket, overlaid
with gold, and thus carried through the different villages, always ac-
companied by one priest, no other person being allowed to touch it. We
will suppose that they arrive at some village. Immediately the image
is set up on some high place, the people come together, bow their heads
and worship, while the priest bestows blessings upon them. After this,
a napkin is spread at the feet of the image, and upon this the people
place their gifts. Much money is collected in this way. A peculiar super-
stition exists among them. The ground is regarded as most sacred, for it
is believed to be the devil's face, and spitting on the ground is regarded

498

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

as so great a crime that the penalty is death. They are also very careful
not to speak Satan's name.

They are struck with horror when they hear the archangel's name
blasphemed by Moslem or Christian, and the sentence of death is said to
be pronounced against those amongst them who take the name of
"Satan." Those who hear it are bound to kill, first the blasphemer, then
themselves. They scrupulously comply with the orders of their priests,
and many make the pilgrimage to the shrine of Sheikh Aadi, on the
route to Amadiah, north of Mossul. Their pope, or Sheikh Khan, re-
sides at Baadli ; but the sanctuary is in the village of Lalest, where lived
a prophet, the "Mohammed" of the Yezidi. Here are performed the great
ceremonies, and here the holy effigy of the Melek-Taus is exposed to the
venerations of the faithful.

They cannot even speak of Satan, nor hear his name mentioned.
The people endeavor to trick them, for when these poor Yezidees come
to sell their eggs, butter and goods, the purchasers contrive, first to get
their articles in their possession and then begin uttering a thousand

THREE SYRIANS OF THE KURDISTAN MOUNTAINS

RELIGIONS OP PERSIA.

499

foolish expressions against Satan, with a view to lower the price, upon
which the Yezidees are content to leave their goods at a loss rather than
to be the witnesses of such contemptuous language about the devil. They
will not pour any hot water on the ground for fear of scalding the little
devils.

The social customs of these people are peculiar to themselves. Men
and women have more freedom of association in their great feasts, women
are permitted to dance and sing with men. The laws allow every man to
marry not more than six wives; the girl has no freedom to chose her
husband. She is virtually sold by the parents like cattle or land. If
any girl does not prefer to get married she can remain single at her
father's home by paying him a sum of money which she must earn by
hard labor. Women are treated almost like animals, without any rights
or respect. Their idea of immortality is very degrading. They believe
in the transmigration of souls. Altogether they represent a very dark
picture.

Circumcision is a religious rite, but is not rigidly enforced. Once in
every forty or fifty years a priests visits the people and circumcises all
that are willing. The majority, however, are not circumcised. They
consider all nations their enemies. The Kurdish people are their
greatest enemies, and from these they steal and do not hesitate to
kill them. They show no mercy, but are cruel and bloodthirsty.

Yet they are connected with the Musselman world by their very
title of Yezidee, derived from the Yezid, * the detested Caliph, grandson
of the prophet, and murderer of Husain. Lastly, the Kurds confound
them with the Christian sects of the Lowlands, attributing to all alike
every conceivable abomination.

Complete reservation of their religious precepts from strangers is
one of the most binding obligations. To make secrecy more effective,
the founder of the sect, Sheikh Aadi, decreed that only a single person
at a time should be initiated into the mysteries, and designated as the per-
son to whom the secret should be confined, the eldest heir of the tribe
of Hasan el Bassri. Previous to his initiation, this person is to be
instructed in written Arabic, knowledge of whch is forbidden to all others
of the race under penalty of death and loss of eternal salvation. The
instruction takes place in a room from which all other persons are ex-

* Yezide, the son of Muarviyah, the second Khalifah of the house of Umai-
yah (Omiyah), who reigned from A. D. 679 to A. D. 683 (A. H. 60-63). He is cele-
brated in Moslem history as the opponent of Al-Husain.

500

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

eluded. The text-book is the Koran, the only book obtainable in the
country; but as this book contains many unflattering mentions of the
devil, whose name no Yezdidee must hear or pronounce or read, a
friendly Christian is employed to procure the copy to be used and care-
fully cover all places where the devil is named with wax. If now, by
any accident the devil's name should be seen on the page during the
studies, the book is shut at once, with an invocation, and thrown into
the fire, and another one is procured. When the course of instruction
is completed, the Koran is burned at once, because it is a wicked,
blasphemous book, which should not be tolerated in the house of a
Yezidee except under the sternest necessity.

By a most extraordinary accident the author obtained the
sacred book of the Yezidees, whose place of concealment is known
only to the single initiated, and was able to keep it long enough to
copy it.

They belong to the Kurdish race and claim a population of three
million souls. They are distributed in villages, residence in cities being
forbidden, a few living in the provinces of Damascus, Aleppo and Diar-
bekir, a greater number in the province of Mosul and the Russian
district of Erivan and northwestern part of Persia. They are all subject,
body and soul, to a chief, who must be of the family of the Sheikh Aadi,
and who resides at Baadri, in the district of Shechan. He receives a
considerable tribute from his people and has in turn to keep up the
temple and grave of Sheikh Aadi. The present chief is Myrza Bey, a
son of Hussein Bey, who a few years ago died of drunkenness. He was
the third of eight brothers, and had no right to the succession, but he
formed a party and advanced claims. In the contest which followed,
his elder brothers fell by his hand, and he thus made himself master of the
situation. He then managed to make his peace with the Turkish govern-
ment, and was recognized by it. The Myr, as the chief is called, has su-
preme control of all the possessions of the Yezidees. To deny a wish
expressed by him is to incur very unpleasant results in this world, and
also bring upon one's self the consequences of having offended the
bodily descendant and representative on earth of the great prophet,
Sheikh Aadi. All contests are settled at his tribunal, not by any fixed
law, but according to his will and passing mood. Blood shedding is
atoned for by pecuniary indemnity; adulterous women are executed by
their husbands without further proceedings. The Turkish government
it satisfied to receive its tribute, and lets the internal affairs of the peo-

RELIGIONS OF PERSIA.

501

pie alone. It deals with the Myr, to a certain extent, as a state within a
state. The Yezidees will not serve in the Turkish army, because their
religion forbids them to mingle with the hated Musselmans, but escape
by paying a good round commutation fee yearly. The people are at the
lowest stage of civilization, with no hope of rising so long as Sheikh
Aadi's rules are in force. Under the influence of these convictions and
of the prejudices of their neighbors against them, they have become a
sinister, malicious, treacherous people. The rite of hospitality, so sacred
among the Bedouins, is unknown to them. No one can feel safe among
them. They attach no value to human life. To these ordinary dangers are
added those arising from the embarrassing etiquette of conversational in-
tercourse with them ; for if any one inadvertently lets escape the word
devil, Satan, or anything sounding like it, he commits a mortal offense ;
and to cut off his head is a god-pleasing act, and a sacred duty of the
Yezidee, the fulfillment of which will insure him a place in paradise. Sev-
eral letters are in like manner wholly banished from the language,
chiefly those which contain the sound of a "shun;" also the Arabic
word nallet, "Thou art damned," which" was spoken by God to the fallen
angel when He pitched him into hell. Therefore all words containing
similar sounds are set aside, and other combinations not belonging to
any language are used in their stead. The Yezidees in the level regions
of Shedran are quiet farmers and stock raisers, paying their tribute to
the Turkish government without remonstrance ; but on the Jebel Sindiia
they are wild and indomitable, addicted to highway robbery, in constant
antagonism with the goverment, and often compelling the officers to use
force in the collection of the taxes.

The great national sanctuary of the Yezidees is "Sheikh Aadi," the
supposed burial place of the founder and prophet of the religion. It was
formerly a Chaldaic cloister, called Lalish, but was captured by adher-
ents of Sheikh Aadi, about the middle of the tenth century. It is a
beautiful valley, shaded with a rich vegetation, through which flows the
sacred brook, Semsen, coming down underground from Jerusalem, and
here leaping from terrace to terrace. Every Yezidee is baptized and has
his winding-sheet dipped into its holy waters, in order that he may be
more sure of entering the paradise which Sheikh Aadi has promised him.
Here resides the great sheikh, who is next to the Myr, and whose bless-
ing is good for the healing of diseases and for the assurance of a large
posterity. The next place in the hierarchy is held by Mullah Haidar, a

502

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

descendant of the learned Hassan el Bassri, and keeper of the book
with the seven seals.

In one of the apartments of the temple are preserved the six sacred
brazen images. They are roughly cast figures, in the shape of plumply
developed cocks, one of which weighs more than seven hundred pounds,
while the others are smaller. They are a gift from the dying prophet.
There were originally seven of them, but one has been unaccountably
lost. The holy book was also concealed for a time in Sheikh Aadi. This
book was probably written in fairly good Arabic, at about the end of the
tenth century, by Hassan el Bassri, Sheikh Aadi's disciple. It has existed
since then in only a single copy, and is divided into two parts, of which

the first contains the history of the creation, in occasional agreement
with the Biblical narrative ; and some account of the origin of the Yezi-
dees and their subsequent fortunes, not always accurate, and containing
many anachronisms. The second part— which is evidently to a consider-
able extent of later origin, for it shows various handwritings — explains
the doctrines, precepts and rites. The occurrence of Chaldaic words in-
dicates that some Christian or ex-Christian priest or monk had some-
thing to do with its construction. According to this curious book, dark-
ness prevailed before God created the heavens and the earth. He became
tired of hovering over the water, and made a parrot, with which he

A DEVIL WORSHIPER SHEIK.

RELIGIONS OF PERSIA.

503

amused himself for forty years. Then he became angry with the bird
and trampled it to death. The mountains and valleys arose out of its
plumage, and the sky from its breath. God then went up, made the dry
sky, and hung it to a hair of his head. In the same way hell was made.
God then created six other gods out of his own essence, in the same way
that a fire divides itself into several flames. The six gods are the sun,
the moon, morning and evening twilight, the morning star, the other
stars, and the seven planets. Each of them made himself a mare, with
which to travel over the sky. The gods talk with one another in Kurd-
ish, the speech of paradise, the language of languages. The seven gods
together created the angels. It came to pass that the angel created by the
first god rose against his lord, and was cast into hell for it. He at once
set up a great lamentation, with confessions of his faults, and wept con-
tinually for seven thousand years, filling seven great earthen jars with his
tears, till at last the all-good and merciful god had pity on him, and took
him again into paradise. This angel afterward so excelled the others in
doing good that God loved him more than all of them. The other angels
once in a quarrel taunted him with his single sin and punish-
ment. God overhearing this became very angry and said : "Whoever
of you offends this little one with another word shall be accursed ; whom
god hath pardoned the creature shall not make ashamed." He raised this
angel to be first and master of all, called him Melek-Taus, and united
him with his own person and existence, as two flames become one. The
seven jars filled with the tears which he wept in hell are to be preserved
till Sheikh Aadi shall return after having completed his mission on the
earth, to be used in extinguishing the fires of hell. The seventh god
created the various species of animals, gradually, one out of the other,
and finally Adam and Eve. But their posterity could not maintain them-
selves. After ten thousand years the earth destroyed them all, and then
remained desolate for ten thousand years longer. Only the genii sur-
vived. The same thing happened five times again, each god creating a
human pair in his turn. Finally the first god. with Melek-Taus, created
the last first pair, Eve a considerable time after Adam, and not till after
he had been expelled from paradise. Adam lived in paradise, and was
allowed to eat of all the fruits growing there except of wheat.

In the course of time Melek-Taus said to God : "You have created
Adam to people the earth ; but he still lives in paradise, while the earth
is uninhabited." God said: "You are right; take counsel about it."
Melek-Taus went to Adam and moved him to eat of the forbidden fruit,

504

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

upon which his expulsion from paradise followed as punishment. God
then determined to give Adam, who was still alone, a companion, and
made Eve from his ribs, who bore him seventy-two pairs of twins. The
Yezidees are not, however, descended from this race, but from a son
miraculously given by God to Adam, named Shehid-ibu-Giarr and a
houri from paradise. Their posterity, the Yezidees, do not mingle with
the children of Adam and Eve. Shehid's eldest son was Yezdani, from
whom, through his Son, Noah, also called Melik Salim, the blessing
passed to his grandson, Marge Meran, of the Yezidee race. The Mussel-
mans are descended from Ham, who having detected his mother in an
intrigue, mocked her to his father. The children of Eve and of Ham
hate the children of Yezdani, because they are the chosen people of
Melek-Taus, who induced their father to eat the forbidden fruit, thereby
forfeiting paradise.

The children of Eve laughed at Noah while he was building the
arch in anticipation of the flood. When the ark struck on Mount Sin-
diar, it sprung a leak. The snake swelled itself up and stopped the hole
with its tail ; but after the flood, the snakes increased so fast as to do
much harm to men. Noah was so vexed at this that he seized one of
them and threw it into the fire. From its ashes arose fleas.

The history is continued, with a mixture of historical incidents from
the Old and New Testament accounts, the life and sufferings of Christ,
stories of the Koran, and secular history. Christ, after suffering, but
not actually dying, upon the cross, was taken by Melek-Taus into
heaven, where, with him and God, he forms the trinity.

Yezid, who made war upon his father, the Caliph Moanzeh, al-
though he lived in reality a Musselman, but unorthodox, is fabled in
these books to have been a great champion of the religion of Sheikh Aadi,
and to have possessed miraculous powers. He is said to have ordered all
the books of Islam to be brought together and cast into the sea, and to
have pronounced a curse of body and soul against everyone, except those
to whom special license might be given, who shall thereafter read
or write a letter of the Arabic language. Having overcome Hussine
and Hassan, the sons of Ali, Yezid lived three hundred years at Damas-
cus and then ascended to heaven. The Mohammedans obtaining posses-
sion of Damascus again, and beginning to oppress the faithful, Yezid
was set down to earth to protect them. This time he took the name of
Sheikh Aadi. He again performed many wonderful works and effected
some marvelous conversions, receiving the adhesion, among others, of

RELIGIONS OF PERSIA.

505

the Caliph and of Hassan el Bassri, and drove the Christian monks from
Lalish, where he established the seat of his religion. Jews, Christians
and Mohammedans, says the book of Sheikh Aadi, "curse and blaspheme
in the way that they are led by their books. They are blind and hard-
ened, and do not know that God comes down from heaven every thou-
sand years and punishes blasphemers. They habitually speak of Satan,
meaning thereby our holy Melek-Taus, who is one with God. This
wicked name was invented by infamous and accursed people to shame
our august protector. It is no less sinful to let the words of similar
meaning or sound pass over the lips, such as Kaitan (a sting), shat (the
Tigris), shed (to bind), nal (horseshoe), and lal (a ruby). Whoever speaks
one of these words is guilty of the most heinous blasphemy and deserves
to die, and his soul shall be embodied in a mangy dog or beast of bur-
den. Therefore, God forbids the reading of books, because such words
are contained in them. Neither the Bible nor the Koran originally had
these blasphemous passages, but they were added by evil-doers. It is
also a great sin to eat salad, because its name (in Arabic) sounds like
one of the titles of our saints."

The priestly order is hereditary in the lines ordained by God, and
includes, after the Myr, or high-priest, the Apriars. who reside at Sheikh
Aadi, and dispcse of their blessings for good money; the Meshaich, who,
without having any particular ecclesiastic functions, pray for the healing
of diseases and break the bread at marriage ceremonies; the Kovecheck,
who dance at the festivals and on other occasions ; the Kavalin, who con-
stitute the guard of honor to the seven holy images, make music and
attend to the collections ; and the Fakirs, who are organized as begging-
monks, and live wholly on alms. All these priests wear their beard and
hair uncut, and can marry only within their class.

The Sanjak, or Holy Standard of the Yezidees, is asserted to have
come down from King Solomon, having passed from him to the kings
of their nation, and having been committed by Yezid to the Kavalin
to care for. As among them, it is consigned to the one who will bid
highest for the privileges and blessings attendant upon having it in
possession. On stated occasions the Sanjak is carried around and ex-
hibited to the people. The priest dips the standard into the holy water and,
taking some of the consecrated earth of Sheikh Aadi, makes of it pills as
large as a hazel-nut, which he keeps as blessed gifts for the faithful.
Whoever swallows one of these pills will be kept by the grace of Melek-
Taus sound in mind and body for a whole year. The standard, pre-
ceded by a herald to announce its coming, is taken to the villages as they

506

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

are designated by the Myr. The privilege of entertaining it having been
sold at auction, the successful bidder makes a feast in its honor, which
is attended by the priests in their order, and by the people, and, finally,
the women and children. Offerings are brought and laid down, and at
sunset all the faithful march seven times around the standard in honor
of the seven gods, beating their breasts and asking pardon for their sins.
When all the villages in the circuit have been visited, the standard and
the collected offerings are brought to the temple.

Sheikh Aadi is the true Jerusalem, or center of the faith. At the
beginning of the autumn the Myr and the Meshaich meet there in a cave
and inquire of Melek, who appears to them, whether a festival will be
agreeable to him. If the answer is favorable, the report is sent out, and
in the course of twenty-three days thousands of Yezidees. with their
wives and children, will have collected at Sheikh Aadi, bringing with
them provision of a peculiar cake, for no kind of food must be prepared
there during the pilgrimage. On the twenty-third day, the great Sheikh
comes out from the cave, takes his seat upon a stone, and salutes the
people. Every person, thirty years of age and over, must bring an
offering from his live stock, according to his means. The Meshaich
now come out of the cave and join the Emir on a high tribune, where,
with the priests of the other orders, they form the council of the forty.
An ox is stewed in a big kettle from morning till sundown, when at the
call of the Emir a number of young men come up, and, plunging their
bared arms into the hot mess, accompanied by ceremonial music, pull
out the pieces of meat and distribute them among the Emir and the coun-
cil. The skin and flesh of the young men's arms may peel off to the
bone, but those of them who die are at once enrolled among the saints ;
and in their honor the hunters of Sindiar and Chartic climb to the top of
the mountain and loudly clash their shields together, or, more recently,
fire volleys of musketry. This ceremony is called Kabaah. Every one of
the attendant faithful receives a share of the broth, making an offering
equivalent to about a six pence in return. After three days of the fes-
tival, the faithful are all baptized in the waters of the holy Semsen — a
stream which issues from a cave into a broad, stone-lined basin — and
after them the women and girls receive a dip. The water for drinking is
taken from a pond, into which the water flows from out of this basin.
None can be drawn from the upper part of the source. Three of the
holy images are ceremonially dipped in the brook, carefully dressed, and
arranged around the Sanjak ; each of the faithful takes a little of the
sacred earth and presents his offering, and the festival is ended.

RELIGIONS OF PERSIA.

507

The religious ceremony of marriage consists in the couple going
before the Sheikh and eating a piece of bread which he has broken in
two. A feast is given afterward, at which the attendants contribute to-
ward a gift to the Myr, in commutation of his sovereign rights. Wed-
dings are not celebrated in April, or on Wednesdays and Fridays. The
relatives of a widow have a right to give her in marriage, whether she
be willing or not, to the sixth time, after which she is at liberty; but, if
she will pay the relatives as much as the new suitor offers, she discharges
the account, and they have no further control over her. The marriage
bond is dissoluble by death, by removal, by putting the wife away on
account of transgression, and, without cause, after eighty years of it.

THE DEVIL WORSHIPER PRIEST KAVALIN.

The priests claim the power to heal diseases through the inter-
position of the saints, and by the water of the brook Semsen. and the
earth of Sheikh Aadi. They say that Rejel-el-Senne occasionally sends his
plague-soldiers to vex men; when they repent of their sins and confess
them, the saints intervene to vanquish the pest-soldiers and drive them
away.

The souls of the deceased believers are supposed to go into para-
dise to dwell with the seven gods, Melek-Taus, and the saints. Sheikh
Aadi is the doorkeeper there. The souls of unbelievers and of sinful
Yezidees go into the bodies of asses, mules, and dogs. Upon the death

soa

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

of a Yezidee, his mouth is at once filled with the holy earth of Sheik «
Aadi. The body is buried under the direction of a sheikh and the kaM j
alin. The body having been laid in the grave, facing the East, som: ja
sheep's dung is scattered over it, and the grave is filled up with earth ic
The women mourn, sing dirges, beat their breasts, and tear their hai( ji
for three days ; and, if a traveler comes along, he is entertained for th \
salvation of the soul of the deceased. The mourners and their friend
afterward meet in the house of the deceased, where the Kovechek danc
and sing to Melek-Taus till they look him in the face, when they ar
seized with convulsions, and fall senseless to the ground. This is a sig
that the soul of the deceased has entered paradise. The whole winds u
with a funeral feast.

If a man has an evil-disposed son, he secretly buries his wealth, s<
that it shall not be wasted after his death and marks the spot with som
sign. When he is born again, to lead a new life, as his religion teache
him is to be the case, he will go and recover his treasure.

New Year's day is a great festival, and is always observed on th
first Wednesday after the vernal equinox. On this day, God collects h
paradise all the saints and their relatives, and sells the world's comin<
year at auction. The highest bidder is made Rejel-el-Senne. the rulei
of the year, and has the direction of men's fates, according to his will
and the distribution of plenty and happiness, want and disease. On th»
morning of the previous day the Kockeh calls from his house, implorim
from Melek-Taus blessing upon all who are within hearing of his voice
The young people then go to the mountains and woods to gather rer
shkek flowers with which to adorn the doors of their houses; for nc
house not thus ornamented can be secure from the afflictions of the year
The legend of Sheikh Aadi's call to be a prophet relates that, as th<
holy man was riding over the fields one moonlight night, in his twen
tieth year, there suddenly appeared rising from the ground, in front of th<
tomb of Abu Rish. a vision of two camels having legs four cubits it
length, with heads like those of buffaloes, hair long and bristly like i
thorn-bush, large round eyes glistening with a greenish lustre, jet-blacl
skins, and other features like those of men. The tomb had become im
mensely large, and had taken the shape of a minaret towering into th<
clouds. It then began to shake, and Sheikh Aadi in his fright over
turned a water-jar that was standing by his side; and the apparition
which had turned into the shape of a handsome boy with a peacock's tai 1
exhorted him : "Do not be afraid ; the minaret, indeed, will fall am
destroy the earth, but you and those who hear your word, shall not b

RELIGIONS OF PERSIA.

509

tarmed, and shall rule over the ruins. I am Melek-Taus, and have
:hosen you to publish the religion of the truth over the earth." This
aid, he took Sheikh Aadi's spirit with him into heaven, where it stayed
or seven years, receiving instruction in all truths, while the body of the
aint remained asleep by the tomb of Abu Rish. When his soul returned
o it from the sky, the water had not yet run out of the overturned jar.

THE GUEBRES OR FIRE-WORSHIPERS.

Zoroaster, the prophet of Iran, born about 660 B. C, is the founder
)f this religion. There are two prevailing ideas about his birthplace, some
>elieving that it was Babylonia, while others say it was Oroomiah. There
ire many good reasons for believing that Oroomiah was his birth-
)lace. First — The original worshipers were Persians, and their religion
vas started in Persia. Second — All Oriental scholars and writers sup-
>ose this was his native city. Third — In the district immediately sur-
ounding Oroomiah, there are more than twenty-five immense hills of
tshes, the remaining monuments of the fire-worshipers of this region.

The canonical gospels tell us of the three Magi who came from the
iast to worship Christ and an apocryphal gospel adds the statement
hat they came in compliance with a prophecy of Zoroaster. We quote
he following passage, which is a condensed statement of Zoroaster's
lie:

"Tradition says that Zoroaster retired from the world when he came
)f age and that he lived for some years upon a remote mountain in the
;ilence of the forest or taking shelter in a lonely cave. It was the solemn
stillness of such surroundings that lifted him into direct communion with
jod. A divine vision is accorded him on the occasion, apparently, of
iome religious conference; and at the age of thirty, after leaving the
Iranian Sinai, he is prepared to teach a new law. "Righteousness is the
)est good" — "Ashem vohu vahishtem asti" — is his watchword; but he
inds little fruitful soil for his theme. Over the land of Iran he wanders ;
hrough the territory of the modern Afghanistan he turns, and for a
ime he actually tarries in the country of Turan. But it is to deaf ears
:hat he preaches, and his inspiration seems almost destined to have been
n vain.

"The rulers harden their hearts before the newly-inspired prophet;
;he people fail to accept the message of the god Ahura Mazda. And yet
\hura Mazda, or Ormazd, is the 'Lord Wisdom, the Sovereign Knowl-
edge.'

"For ten years, dervishlike he is a wanderer. This we know also

ZOROASTER AT THE AGE OF THIRTY.

510

RELIGIONS^OF^PEESIA.

511

from the tone of dejection which still echoes in some of the Zoroastrian
Psalms. Ir> his peregrinations he appears to have found his way once
more to the region of the Caspian Sea. The darkness of these sad years
is illumined, however, by visions which help to make strong his faith
and to give form to his religious system and creed. Seven times are the
mysteries of heaven revealed to his transported soul. He converses not
alone with Ormazd, but he is also privileged to interview the Archangels
of Good Thought, Best Righteousness, Wished-for Kingdom, Holy Har-
mony (guardian spirit of the earth), Saving Health and Immortality.
Such are the names of the Persian hierarchy of Amshaspands ; and these
allegorical figures or personified abstractions stand in waiting about the
throne of Ahura Mazda with a company of attendant angels. From these
divine beings, Zarathushtra receives commands and injunctions which
he is to convey to mankind. They inculcate the doctrine of purity of
body as well as of soul ; they enjoin the care of useful animals, especially
the cow and the dog; they emphasize the necessity of keeping the earth,
the fire and the water undefiled ; and from several of their ordinances we
can see that Zoroaster was a civil reformer as well as a spiritual guide.
Foremost among the commandments is the abhorrence of falsehood, the
universal obligation to speak the truth. This is one of the most funda-
mental of the ethical tenets that lie at the basis of the entire ancient Per-
sian religious system. A revelation of the future is also vouchsafed to
the soul of the Prophet during his sojourn in the celestial council; but
one of the most precious boons which it is the privilege of his enrapt
spirit to receive in these moments of ecstasy is a premonition of the
resurrection and of the future life. Unlike the Mohammedan visions of
ethereal bliss, there is no jarring note of pleasures of a physical kind to
mar the harmony and spirituality of this glimpse into the world beyond
the present.

"But before the ecstatic Messenger is allowed to return to the world
of material things, one word of warning is given to guard him against
the guile and deceit of the Spiritual Enemy, Angra Mainyu or Ahriman,
as the devil is called. At this moment, then, as he turns from the
dazzling splendor of heaven, a glimpse of the darkness, filth, stench and
torment of the 'Worst World' is disclosed. There in the murky depths
of hell, with mocking howls and ribald jeers, huddle together and cower
the vile crew of the archfiends and whole legions of demons, or 'devs,'
as they still are named in Persian.

"Nor is this caution any too timely, for at once upon the hallowed
Seer's return to earth occurs the temptation by Ahriman. Like the wily

512

PERSIA^BY^ PERSIAN.

Mara seeking to beguile the newly-enlightened Buddha, or the tempter
Satan striving to betray the Savior of mankind, the maleficent Ahriman
endeavors to cause the righteous Zarathushtra 'to renounce the good re-
ligion of worshipers of Mazda.' This moment is a crisis ; it is one of the
turning-points in the history of the faith. The foul fiend is repulsed and
vanquished and the victorious upholder of righteousness chants a kind of
Te Deum — 'yatha ahu vairyo' — as a paean of his triumph. His victory
over Ahriman is complete, and it serves as the prelude to more full and
perfect success, for Zoroaster, who has received the revelation and who
has withstood all temptation, is now to achieve his crowning glory, the
conversion of King Vishtaspa who becomes the Constantine of the
faith."

According to Zoroaster's philosophy, our world is the work of two
hostile principles — Spenta-mainyush, the good principle, and Angro-
mainyush, the evil principle; both serving under one God. All that is
good in the world comes from the former; all that is bad comes from
the latter. Zoroastrian philosophy teaches that your good thoughts,
good words and good deeds alone will be your intercessors. Nothing
more will be wanted. They alone will save you, as a safe pilot to the
harbor of Heaven, as a safe guide to the gates of Paradise. Thus,
Zoroastrianism teaches the immortality of the soul. A plant called
white homa, which is the emblem of immortality, is guarded by innumer-
able guarding spirits. The number of these guarding spirits is 99 999.
Again, Zoroastrianism admits a heaven and a hell. Between heaven
and this world there is supposed to be a bridge called "Genevat." Ac-
cording to the Parsee scriptures, for three days after a man's death his
soul remains within the limits of this world, under the guidance of the
angel Srosh. If the deceased be a pious man, or a man who led a
virtuous life, his soul utters the words, "Well is he, by whom that, which
is his benefit, becomes the benefit of anyone else." If he be a wicked
man or one who led evil life, his soul utters these plaintive words: "To
which land shall I turn? Whither shall I go?" On the dawn of the
third night, the departed souls appear at the "Genevat bridge." This
bridge is guarded by the angel Meher Daver, i. e., Meher, the judge.
He presides there as a judge assisted by the angels Rashue and Astad,
the former representing justice and the latter truth. At this bridge,
and before the angel Meher, the soul of every man has to give an ac-
count of its doings in the past life. Meher Daver, the judge, weighs a
man's actions by a scale-pan. If a man's good actions outweigh his evil
ones, even by a small particle, he is allowed to pass from the bridge to

RELIGIONS OF PERSIA.

513

the other end, to heaven ; if his evil actions outweigh his good ones, even
by a small weight, he is not allowed to pass over the bridge, but is
hurled down into the deep abyss of hell ; if his meritorious and evil deeds
counter-balance each other, he is sent to a place known as "Hamast-
gehan," corresponding to the Catholic "purgatory." His meritorious
deeds would prevent him from going to hell, and his evil actions would
not let him go to heaven. Again, Zoroastrian books say that the merit
of good deeds, and the guiltiness for bad ones, increase with the growth
of time, as capital increases with interest. Thus, a meritorious deed done
in youth is more effective than that very deed done in advanced age.

The Parsee's places of worship are known as fire temples. They
believe that the holy fire was brought down from Heaven by Zoroaster.
Only high priests can approach it, and they must wear a half-mask over
their face, lest their breath should defile it, and dare not ever touch it
with their hands, but with golden tools. Tobacco-smoking is prohibited,
as the smoker would defile the holy fire. "In the eyes of a Parsee his
holy fire's brightness, activity, purity and incorruptibility bear the most
perfect semblance to the nature and perfection of the deity." In estab-
lishing a fire temple fires from various places of manufacture are
brought, and kept in different vases. Great efforts are also made to
obtain fire caused by lightning. Over one of these fires a perforated
metallic, flat tray, with a handle attached, is held. On this tray are
placed small chips and dust of fragrant sandalwood. These chips and
dust are ignited by the heat of the fire below, care being taken that the
perforated tray does not touch the fire. Thus a new fire is created out
of the first fire. Then from this new fire another one is created by the
same process. From this new fire another is again produced, and
so on, until the process is repeated nine times. The fire thus prepared
after the ninth process is considered pure. The fires brought from
other places of manufacture are treated in a similar manner. These
purified fires are all collected together upon a large vase, which is then
put in its proper place in a separate chamber. Again when a Parsee
goes before the sacred fire which is kept all day and night burning in
the fire temples the officiating priest presents before him the ashes of a
part of the consumed fire. The Parsee applies it to his forehead. A
Parsee prays sixteen times during the day, the same prayers have to be
repeated by the fire-worshipers. He repeats his prayers early when he
arises in the morning and before and after washing, before and after
each meal, etc. But three main prayers are to the sun, when the sun
comes up, with bared breast he stands upon the banks of the river, as

514

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

soon as the rays of the sun appear he repeats his prayer. And at noon
when the sun is right above, in like manner he repeats his prayer and at
night, while the sun is going clown, they are all waiting to offer up their
prayers to the sun which is fast disappearing. The children are always
present at these prayers and are standing on the banks of the rivers and
are instructed and taught how to repeat the prayers. The following is
one of the prayers to the sun or to the fire: "O, Omniscient Lord! I
repent of all my sins. I repent of all evil thoughts that 1 might have
entertained in my mind, of all the evil words that I might have spoken,
of all the evil actions that I might have committed. O, Omniscient
Lord! I repent of all the faults that might have originated with me,
whether they refer to thoughts, words, or deeds, whether they pertain
to my body or soul, whether they be in connection with the material
world or spiritual."

To educate their children is a spiritual duty of Zoroastrian parents.
Education is necessary, not only for the material good of the children and
the parents, but also for their spiritual good. According to the Parsee
books, the parents participate in the meritoriousness of the good acts
performed by their children as the result of a good education, imparted
to them. On the other hand, if the parents neglect the education of
their children, and if as a result of this neglect, they do wonderful acts
or evil deeds, the parents have a spiritual responsibility for such acts.
In proportion to the malignity or evilness of these acts the parents are
responsible to God for the neglect of the education of their children.
It is, as it were, a spiritual self-interest that must prompt a Parsee to
look to the good education of his children at an early age. The proper
age recommended by religious Parsee books for ordinary education is
7. Before that age children should have home education with their
parents, especially with the mother. At the age of 7, after a little religi-
ous education, a Parsee child is invested with Sudreh and Kusti, i. e.,
the sacred shirt and thread. A Parsee may put on the dress of any
nationality he likes, but under that dress he must always wear the
sacred shirt and thread. These are the symbols of his being a Zoroast-
rian.

These symbols are full of meaning, and act as perpetual monitors,
advising the wearer to lead a life of purity, of physical and spiritual
purity. A Parsee is enjoined to remove and put on again immediately
the sacred thread several times during the day, saying a very short
prayer during the process. He has to do so early in the morning on
rising from bed, before meals and after ablutions. The putting on of

RELIGIONS OF PERSIA.

515

symbolic thread and the accompanying short prayer remind him to be
in a state of repentance for misdeeds, if any, and to preserve good
thoughts, good words, and good deeds.

Female education claims as much attention among the Parsees as
male education. Physical education is as much spoken of in the Zo-
roastrian books as mental and moral education. The health of the
body is considered the first requisite for the health of the soul. That the
physical education of the ancient Persians, the ancestors of the modern
Parsees, was a subject of admiration among the ancient Greeks and
Romans is well known.

Obedience to parents is a religious virtue with the Zoroastrian re-
ligion. One of the blessings that a priest prays for in a house on perform-
ing the Afringan ceremony is the obedience of the children to the head of
the family. He prays : "May obedience overcome disobedience in this
house ; may peace overcome dissension ; may charity overcome want of
charity ; may courtesy overcome pride ; may truth overcome falsehood."
Zoroastrianism asks its disciples to keep the earth pure, to keep the air
pure and to keep the water pure. It considers the sun as the greatest
purifier. In places where the rays of the sun do not enter, fire over which
fragrant wood is burnt is the next purifier. It is a great sin to pollute
water by decomposing matter. Not only is the commission of a fault of
this kind a sin, but also the omission, when one sees such a pollution,
of taking proper means to remove it. On the domestic and social life
of the Parsees we find that, according to the teachings of the Parsee
books, a husband is a king and the wife the queen of the household.
On the husband devolves the duty of maintaining his wife and children ;
on the wife, that of making the home comfortable and cheerful. The
qualifications of a good husband, from a Zoroastrian point of view, are
that he must be young and handsome, strong, brave and healthy, dili-
gent and industrious so as to maintain his wife and children, truthful, as
he would prove true to herself and true to all others with whom he
would come in contact, and wise and educated. A wise and intelligent
and educated husband is compared to a fertile piece of land which gives
a plentiful crop, whatever kind of seeds are sown in it. The qualifica-
tions of a good wife are that she be wise and educated, modest and
courteous, obedient and chaste. Obedience to her husband is the first
duty of a Zoroastrian wife. Marriage is an institution which is greatly
encouraged by the spirit of the Parsee religion. It is especially recom-
mended in the Parsee scriptures on the ground that a married life is more"
likely to be happy than an unmarried one, that a married person is more

516

RELIGIONS OP PERSIA.

517

likely to be able to withstand physical and mental afflictions than an un-
married person, and that a married man is more likely to lead a religious
and virtuous life than an unmarried one. The following verse in the
Gatha conveys this meaning: "I say (these) words to you marrying
brides and to you, bridegrooms. Impress trlem in your mind. May you
two enjoy the life of good mind by following the laws of religion. Let
each one of you clothe the other with righteousness because then as-
suredly there will be a happy life for you." An unmarried person is
represented as unhappy as a fertile piece of ground that is carelessly
allowed to be uncultivated by its owner. Marriage being thus considered
a good institution, and being recommended by the religious scriptures,
it is deemed a very meritorious act for a Parsee to help his co-religion-
ists to lead a married life. Several rich Parsees have, with this charitable
view, founded endowment funds, from which young and deserving brides
are given small sums on the occasion of their marriage for the prelim-
inary expenses of starting in married life. Fifteen is the minimum mar-
riageable age spoken of by the Parsee books. The parents have a voice
of sanction or approval in the selection of wives and husbands. Mutual
friends of parents or marrying parties may bring about a good selec-
tion. Among the Parsees the wedding ceremony is very interesting.
Children are betrothed whenever the parents find a suitable wife or hus-
band, as the case may be. The "fire priest" then has to decide whether
the match is a suitable one. When the children become of age, the
"fire priest" sets the day for the celebration. In the Parsees* year there
are only a few days which are considered proper for marriage ceremonies,
and when these days do arrive, it sometimes looks as if half the people
in the place were being married. One very queer idea is that the cere-
mony must always take place on the ground floor of the house. It begins
by the young couple bowing to the ground before the "fire priests,"
after which they grasp each other by the hand. Torches are then
lighted with fire, taken from the temple. These the priests wave over
the heads of the couple, while sprinkling them with sacred water. Then
the priests take a large veil, which they place over the heads of the
couple and one of the priests. While they are under the veil, the other
priests intone a chant addressed to the man, telling him to be faithful
to his wife, and calling the blessings of the spirits of the water, fire and
sun upon him. After this the theme of the chant changes, and addresses
the bride. When the chant ceases the veil is taken off and the pair are
made husband and wife. In the selection of a wife, it is held as essential
that she must have a fine, sounding name, no physical defects, beautiful

518

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

hair, eyes and teeth, and a sweet voice, besides being very graceful in
movements and proportions. When the selection is made, and the planets
and stars consulted, the Laganpatrika is made out, in which the names
of the parties and the horoscope of each is cast and written and the most
suitable kind of marriage selected from the eight varieties that are
prescribed in the Shastras. Before presenting himself to his wife, the
bridegroom must prepare himself by prayers. On the wedding day,
the bridegroom takes his seat at one end of the hall on a raised plat-
form in the house of the bride's father. Soon the bride enters, accom-
panied by her father, and takes her seat at the bridegroom's right hand.
A young priest sets a censer of fire at their feet, symbolic of their warm
affections. Before the bride, a stone such as is used for pounding rice
or wheat, is laid on the ground ; this she steps on three times, to show
that she thoroughly realizes the cares and responsibilities she is now
about to undertake. Meanwhile, two priests stand waving lighted
torches over her and repeating a prayer. After the bridegroom has
made an offering of oil to the gods for giving him a wife, the priests
hand him a torch, which he waves around her three times to typify that
his love will always encircle her. The bride then makes her offering
of oil and rice to the gods. A new garment is then put on the bride by
her father, who fastens the foot of it to the foot of the bridegroom's
dress. Bride and groom then clasp hands while the father binds them
together with a cord made of grass, indicative of the marriage tie. After
the bride has gone seven times around the fire repeating the marriage
vows, the priest chants a hymn and the marriage is accomplished.

Marriage can be contracted only with persons of their own creed.
Polygamy is forbidden except after nine years of sterility, then a man
is allowed to marry another woman. Divorces are entirely forbidden.
The crimes of fornication and adultery are very severely punished. The
women are delicate in frame with small hands ; they are fine looking,
with brave beautiful black eyes and long hair. They appear somewhat
free in public, but take charge of household affairs at home.

When the case of a sick person is hopeless the priest advances to
the bed and repeats texts from the sacred book called Avesta, which
are to be consolation to the dying man. After death the body is taken
to the ground floor where it was born and after being washed and per-
fumed, and dressed in white, it is laid upon an iron bier. A dog is then
brought in to take a last look and thus drive away all the evil spirits.
Prayers are said for the repose of the departed soul. All the men friends
go to the door, bow down and raise their heads after touching the floor,

520

PERSIA BY A PERSTAN.

as an indication of their sorrow for the departed. The body, when put
upon the bier, is covered from head to foot, and two men bring- it out of
the house and give it to four pall-bearers who are dressed in clean white
clothes. As they pass with the body all who are present bow to it out
of respect. The men friends form a procession with the priests to the
Dak-ha-na or "Tower of Silence." These towers are constructed of
stone twenty-five feet high, without any entrance except by a ladder to
the top. The tower is unroofed. Upon arriving at the tower prayers
are said in the prayer house which contains a fire sanctuary. After this
the body is placed on a special layer of mortar, where it is exposed. Soon
the flesh disappears, being devoured by birds while the skeleton remains.
After a certain length of time the bones are removed to a place prepared
for keeping them from being exposed to the birds, rain and air. This
work must be done in fine clear weather, in case of bad weather the
body must be kept until the weather is clear, for which purpose places
are provided. When the body is exposed to the birds, etc., there are
signs which tell the character of the dead man. If the birds touch the
right eye first he was a good man, and if they touch the left eye first then
he was a bad man.

Again, on the death of their dear ones, the rich and the poor all
pay various sums, according to their means, in charity. These sums
are announced on the occasion of the Oothumna or the ceremony on
the third day after death. The rich pay large sums on these occasions
to commemorate the names of their dear ones.

A child of the Parsees must be born upon the ground floor of the
house. That is a requirement of their religion, that its life be commenced
in humility and by good thoughts, words and actions. The mother is not
to be seen by any one for forty days. After that she washes herself with
holy water which has been sanctified by the priest. A Parsee rejects
pork, ham and camel flesh, and will not eat anything cooked by one out-
side of the Parsee religion.

With the overthrow of the Persian monarchy, under the last Sas-
sanian king. Yezdegerd, at the battle of Nehavand, in A. D. 642, the
religion received a check at the hands of the Arabs, who, with sword
in one hand and Koran in the other, made the religion of Islam both
state religion and the national religion of the country. But many of
those who adhered to the faith of their fathers quitted their ancient fath-
erland for the hospitable shores of India. Now we have in Persia only
about 15,000 Zoroastrians. The Mohammedans called them "guebres,"
i. e., ungodly. Most of them live in Kerman Yeza, on the soil of the

RELIGIONS OF PERSIA.

521

motherland. The men are good citizens, humble, honest and generous,
especially to their own brethren, and are also industrious, intelligent,
handsome, clean in appearance and faithful to their religion.

HISTORY OF AKHIKAR, THE WISE SECRETARY OF
SANKHERIB, KING OF ASHUR NINEVE.

In the twentieth year of Sankherib, King of Ashur and Ninive, I,
Akhikar, was the secretary of the king, and when I was young it was
told to me that I would have no son, and while I had accumulated riches
and wealth more than can be told, and I married sixty wives, for
each one of them having built a residence and no son was born to me,
then I, Akhikar, built a large room and put wood in it to burn there
spices ; and so I said :

O Lord God, while I die and will not leave any son, what will
the people say about me? They will say Akhikar was a right and good
man and worshiper of the gods and yet he died without leaving a son or
daughter to attend to his funeral and to inherit his riches, and the people
will say his wealth was a curse like that of an accursed man. Wherefore
T beseech thee, O Lord God to give me a male child, so that when I die
he may put some earth upon my eyes. And I heard a voice, saying:

Akhikar, the wise secretary, whatsoever you asked of me I heard and
gave to you, and while you are without a child, it is sufficient for you
not to be sorry. But behold Nadan, your cousin, will be to you a son
whom you can teach everything as he grows. When I heard this I was
greatly sorrowed, but I obeyed the command and I took Nadan, my
cousin, to be my son, and because he was young I left him in the care of
eight women to nurse him, ordering that he should be fed with honey
and cream. I ordered also that his place should be soft and comfortable
and his garments be of precious stuffs. And my son grew rapidly, like
the young of the animals in the wilderness. While he was growing I
began to teach him writing and wisdom. Once, when my Lord King
returned home from a certain place I was called and he told me: "O
Akhikar, the wise secretary and my counselor, when you should be old
and die, who will be after you the man to serve me as you have done."
And I answered to him and said: Forever live my Lord, the King; I
have a son who is as wise as I am and he knows writing and reading as

1 do. And the king said to me, bring him here that I may see him, and
we will see whether he is able to stand before me, then I will allow you
to rest and you will take care of your old age in honor till the end of your

5C2

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

life. Then I brought my son Nadan and presented him to the king.
When my lord, the king, saw him, he exclaimed, blessed be this day
before the Gods. As Akhikar served my father Serkhadum and myself,
he had a good luck that he raised his son in time to be my secretary
after him and he will end his life in peace. Then I, Akhikar, worshiped
before the king and said : Forever live the lord, my king, as I did serve
you and your father to this day, so I trust your goodness will be
bestowed upon my son and double grace be upon him. The king upon
this gave his right hand to my son, and I said while I am in the service I
will not cease to teach my son until he has learned everything.

So I used to say to him ; listen to me, O, my son, Nadan, come to
my thought and you are to remember the words of my Gods. My son,
Nadan, if you heard a word let it die in your heart and do not tell any-
body, if otherwise, it will become like a fire and burn your mouth. You will
bring a spot upon yourself and you will throw the blame upon the gods.
My son, everything that you hear do not tell, and do not reveal every-
thing that you see. My son, do not lift up your eyes to see the woman
who put black color on her eyes, and do not covet for her in your heart.
Because if you give her all that you have, still you will not have any
satisfaction and you will be only a sinner before Gods. My son, do not
commit adultery with the wife of your companion, that others should
not do the same with your wife. My son, do not be in haste with your
words, like the almond tree that flourishes so soon but its fruits
become ripe last of all other fruit trees. But rather like the mul-
berry which blossoms the last but gives fruit the first. My son,
bow your head and command your voice and do not make much
noise about your doings, for if by making noise something could
be done a donkey would make a great deal since no one else can pro-
duce so much noise. My son, it is better to roll stones with the wise than
to drink with the fool. My son, pour out your wine upon the graves
of the saints rather than drink it with bad people. My son, be careful
when you are in the presence of wise men and have no company with the
foolish. Do not mingle with noisy people that you may not be numbered
among them. My son, while you have shoes on your feet try to tread
down the thorns and thistles, that your own children have not to walk
upon them with bare feet. My son, if a rich man should eat serpent flesh,
the people would say that is for medicine, but if a poor man eats of it
they will say he was hungry. My son, if your enemy is in good luck do
not be angry, and if he is in trouble do not rejoice in your heart. Keep
out from the woman that speaks in whispers to you but loud to others.

RELIGIONS OF PERSIA.

523

Do not go after the good-looking women but go rather with those who
have common sense, for their beauty is in their good behavior and decent
words. My son, if you should meet your enemy in the field, be wise in
your words. My son, the bad man falls and will never get up, but the
righteous will forever remain because Gods are with him. My son, whip
your child when it is young, because that will be to him like the dew on
the field, and will keep him on the right way. My son, overcome your
child while it is young before it will grow wild and overpower you. Of
his bad deeds you will be ashamed. My son, keep the good servant that
will not run away and do not keep a maid servant that will steal, that you
may not lose your goods. " My son, the words of untrue men are like fat
sparrows that will soon be caught. Again the words of untrue men are
heavy like iron, but they will soon be lighter than the air and fly away.
My son, do not bring upon yourself the curse of your father and mother,
that you may rejoice in the goodness of your own children. My son, do
not go on the road without arms and weapons because you do not know
what enemy you will meet on the way. My son, as it is delightful to see
a tree with green leaves and delicious fruits, so it is to behold a family
with children. The man that has no wife and children is like a tree on
the wayside, and everyone that passes by will eat of its fruit and stone it
afterwards. My son, do not think yourself wiser than your master, but
do respect and honor him if you see him doing wisely. My son, do not
say lies before your master but be rather truthful that you may be always
welcome to him.

My son, in the days of thy evils do not be discouraged, neither blas-
pheme your Gods that they may not punish you. My son, if you have
two servants do not tell one of them, "you are better" until you are well
acquainted with them. My son, if a dog leaves his master and follows
you, show your stick to him because he will one day leave you also. My
son, the sheep that rambles around too much will become a victim of the
wolf. My son, make your tongue sweet and your words will also be
spiced, because the tail of the dog will give him bread, if he shakes it,
but his mouth gives him whippings. My son, do not give your comrade
opportunity to press your feet because the result will be that he will after
i hat also pinch your neck. My son, whip the wise by wise words, it will
be to him like a fever, but if you whip the fool with many sticks he will
never feel the meaning of it. My son, if you send a wise man on an errand
do not give him too much instruction, but instead of sending a fool to
look after a business it is far better you go yourself. My son, try your
servant with bread and water and you will find whether he is honest.

584

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

My son, if you are invited to weddings or other parties of enjoyment
try to be the first to go in and also the first to leave, for if you want
to be the last or one of them you witness much things that will
vex you. My son, the man who has money to spend is re-
garded to be wise, but the poor is called a fool and the people
will not respect him. My son, I ate bitter things and swallowed
things which were sour, but did not find anything that would equal to
poverty. My son, I carried lead and iron but debt was heavier than both
to be borne. My son, it is better that a man should starve than to live
on money borrowed and cheat the people. My son, teach your child to
bear hardships and endure sufferings, then he will appreciate enjoyment.
My son, it is better to be blind with eyes than to be blind by mind, because
he who is deprived of sight can still find his way in life, but woe to him
that is blind in mind, he will never find his way. It is better to blow a
neighbor than a brother in the face. A good name is better than beauty,
because beauty will soon fade away, while the good name will last
forever. My son, death is better than life to one who has no rest. My
son, it is better to go into the house of mourning than to remain in the
society of those who are given to much pleasure. My son, one sparrow
in your hand is better than thousands that are flying in the air. My
son, it is better to have a little property under your own control than
to have a great wealth that is scattered. A living fox is better than a
dead lion. My son, it is good to keep the secret of your comrades, be-
cause if it comes in the public it will do damage to him. My son,
be careful to assist as mediator between a young man and a young
lady in affairs of matrimony, for if the engagement would prove a
happy one they will not remember you, but if it proves fatal all the
curse of their hearts will come upon you. Give your gods a portion of
what you have. Do not eat bread with a man that does not known how
to behave.

Then I, Akhikar, instructed my son Nadan in this way, and I
thought in my heart that he would be wise and stand before the King
to serve him. But, alas, he let all my words pass upon his head like a
wane, and he thought in his heart, my father is growing old and has
lost his mind, therefore, I will do as I please; and my son Nadan began
to waste my wealth without any consideration, and before my own eyes
he used to ill treat my servants and torture the animals. When I saw
all his foolishness I became angry and commanded him not to touch
anything of my wealth because he proved to be unworthy of my con-
fidence and benevolence. I complained also of him to the king, and

RELIGIONS OF PERSIA.

525

obtained his special orders that Nadan should not touch my riches
while I am alive.

Then I, Akhikar, took the younger brother of Nadan and adopted him
in his stead. When Nadan heard this he became very angry and he put
in his heart evil thoughts against me, and went to the king trying
by his instrumentality to carry out his bad intentions concerning me.
And, besides, Nadan wrote, two letters in my name, and by my signature,
to kings who were enemies of Sankherib, the king; one to the king of
Persia and Elam in which he wrote the following: "From the secretary
Akhikar, and bearer of the king ring seal, peace to you, the king of kings
of Persia and Elam, when you receive this letter, soon, come here to
Assur to hold a kingdom without any fighting or shedding of blood.
The other letter he addressed in like manner to the king of Egypt,
Pharao, in the following words : "Hasten to come to the Eastern parts
of the country and you will meet me there at the month of Addar 25
(March), and I will let you go to Nineve to be king there."

Writing these letters with my own ink and pen, trying to imitate
my handwriting, and sealing with my own seal, he put them
in the palace of the king, where he could soon see them.
He wrote also a letter from the king to me in the follow-
ing words : From Sankherib, king of kings, peace, and greet-
ing to you, Akhikar, my secretary. As soon as you re-
ceive this letter take all the army and come into the field of Eagles at
the 25th of Addar, and when you see me coming toward you begin to
fight because the ambassador and minister of Pharao, king of Egypt,
have come out to try our country and find out our strength. This letter
was sent to me by two messengers of the king and Nadan sent also a
letter from me to the king in the following words : From Akhikar, the
secretary, to Sankherib, the king of kings, peace, as soon as you receive
this writing come please early in the morning to the Eagles field and
we shall have a conversation. This was handed to the king. Then
Nadan went into the palace before the king walking around and as if
it were, he suddenly discovered one of the letters placed there before
by himself, and he seemed to be surprised at this and after reading gave
it to the king. Then Sankherib took it and, after examining it, gave
it back to Nadan, ordering him to read it loud. When the king heard
what it contained he became angry and exclaimed : What evil did I do
to Akhikar, that he should destroy my kingdom and me in this way.
Then Nadan began to speak, saying: My lord, the king, worry not,
neither be angry, but if it please him we shall go to the Eagles field at

526

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

the time mentioned and learn all the truth. Then Nadan brought the
king to the Eagles field where I was awaiting with the army. I, Akhikar]
was doing just as I were fighting according to the king's instructions
the letter contained, that was sent to me previously. When the king saw
this he ran away and he was greatly afraid. Then Nadan told the king,
return thou home, O my lord, the king, and I will bring Akhikar into
your presence and you can do with him as it pleases you. Then Nadan
came to me and said : The king sends me to tell you that everything
that you have done, was done well and the king spoke very highly of
you, now let the army go home and come you into the presence of the
king. And I, Akhikar, went into the presence of the king and he told
me : I had given you such a high position and had made you a great
man and gave you also the privilege of resting in your old age, but you
turned and became one of my enemies. And he handed to me a letter
which was written seemingly by me and sealed by my seal. And when
I read the letter and was aware of its contents, I became excited and
could not speak a word. I tried my best to find in my memory at last
one of those wise words to calm the king, but was at a loss to do so.
Then the king ordered to end my life. Then I answered to the king.
My Lord the King, forever live, now since it is your pleasure to have me
killed let your will be done, but know, O king, that I am innocent and
do not deserve death. Now, I beseech you to let me die in my own
house, and be buried in my own cemetery. The king accepted this re-
quest. Then I sent quickly a word to my wife, asking her to prepare one
thousand girls dressed in red, fine garments, to mourn upon me in order
that I should see and hear how they would do when I should be dead.
J also requested my wife to prepare meals and all necessary for a dinner.
Entertain Nabo-Swapho, the grand minister of the king and his ex-
ecutors. Meet them on the way home and I will also come as their
guest. When my wife received my message, she complied at once
with all my requests and did everything most satisfactory, because she
was a wise woman. And she prepared all the provisions and presented
the cup of wine herself to each one of them. She honored them all
and gave to the executors large cups full of wine, so that they were
drunk and fell asleep. My wife's name was Ash-Pagh-Nith.

And I prayed in my heart and said: "O God, the Savior of the
world, Thou knoweth all things that have elapsed and all things to come ;
Thou give me grace in the eyes of Nabo-Swapho, the great minister of
the king." Then I said to him lift up your eyes and look to heaven
and remember the salt that we have eaten together, and do not think

RELIGIONS OF PERSIA.

527

to destroy me. Remember that the father of the king- -gave you in my
hands to kill, but I spared your life because I was sure you were in-
nocent and I kept you until the king was in need of you again, and I re-
ceived great rewards and presents when I brought you before the king.
Let not the king know that I still live — 'but take the man
guilty of death in our prison, take him instead of me, put on him my
dress, then awaken the executors and let them kill him ; they will not
recognize who was the man, since they have all been drunk. And he did
according to my request and as soon as the guilty man was killed word
was spread all over the country that Akhikar was killed by order of the
king.

Then Nabo-Swapho and my wife prepared a hiding place for me
in the basement, it was about two yards wide, and three and a hah
yards long, and the height was about three yards, it was just between
the entrance of the gate, and they gave me bread and water and went to
tell the king I was killed as he had ordered. Then he called Nadan
and told him what had happened and ordered that he should go to
mourn upon his father. And Nadan came to my house, but he neither
remembered me. nor did he mourn upon me but he brought a multitude
of bad men and women, and they began to eat and drink, and were
rejoicing over my death.

And they took the dresses off my servants and tortured them.
Nadan went so far in his wickedness as to bring my wife to submit
to shameful treatment. I could hear the lamentations and cries of all
my family at the hand of the torturer,, and I was continually praying
to the gods to protect my dear ones from the hand of this wicked man.

After a few days Nabo-Swapho came into my cell and brought
me some provisions. Again I prayed to the gods, saying : O gods, who
are only holy and righteous in heaven and on earth ; I, Akhikar, have
found my refuge in thee. Remember now, O gods, that I gave offerings
and fat oxen for thy service. Now I have been thrown in a dark dun-
geon where there is no light, therefore, hear now my voice, and have
mercy upon thy servant. Then the news reached Pharao, the King of
Egypt, that I, Akhikar was killed, and he was glad and rejoiced over
my death. Then he sent a letter to Sankherib, king of Assur, say-
ing : From Pharao, King of Egypt to Sankherib, King of Assur, peace
and greeting: When you receive this letter, send me. please, a wise man
who understands all the sciences in building, so that he may construct
a mighty fortification between earth and heaven, that is to say, in the air.

528

And also, he ought to be able to give answers to all problems that I
should ask him.

If you can find such a man and send him to me, I promise to give
you all the revenues of my empire for three years ; if not, send with the
messenger, who will hand you this letter, all incomes of your kingdom
at once.

Then Sankherib gathered all the wise men in his country and said to
them : Which one of you will go to Pharao and give answers to his
questions? They unanimously answered, saying: Thou knowest, O
king, that from the time of your father and your own days it was only
Akhikar the wise who was able to stand before the kings and answer
such questions. Now, let Nadan, his son, who was educated in all
the wisdom of the ages, go and satisfy the curiosity of Pharao. When
Nadan was summoned before the king and received orders to go to
Egypt and stand before Pharao to answer his questions, he raised his
voice and began to cry like a child, and said : The gods cannot do such
things, how can I do so, being a poor human thing? The king hearing
this, was much alarmed and he came down from his throne and put on
sackcloths, kneeling down he cried, saying : Alas, how I have put you
to death, O my wise secretary, Akhikar, listening to the words of a boy.
Now I cannot find one among many like you, and if one could bring
you before me, how gladly I would give him gold in your weight. When
Nabo-Swapho heard those words, he fell down before the king and
said : The king may forever live, anyone who does not obey the order
of the king must die. I am the person, that in spite of your order, ven-
tured to do otherwise, and now I am ready to be killed at once because
Akhikar whom you have commanded me to kill is still alive. Then the
king exclaimed, O Nabo-Swapho, my good and right servant, you have
not done evil, but you did good by sparing his life. If you should bring
Akhikar as you say, alive, before me, I shall certainly give you a great
reward and honor you much. I will give you ten thousand talents of
gold and fine clothing. When Nabo-Swapho heard these words of the
king, he worshiped the king, and said : swear and promise that you will
not remember my disobedience any more, and the king gladly swore
by an oath that he would not do any harm. Then- Nabo-Swapho in the
very hour came in a carriage to bring me before the king. He opened
the door of my cell and I went out, for in the gods I trusted and they
heard my prayer. Then I, Akhikar, went and bowed before the king.
My hair was long, also my beard had grown on my breast and the color
of my face had changed, and my nails were grown like the eagles.

RELIGIONS OF PERSIA.

529

When the king saw me he wept very much and said, "O Akhikar,
I have not sinned against you, but your son, whom you have trained,
he betrayed you." Then I said to the king: O lord my king, as I have
seen life and your face again, I am thankful to the gods. The king
answered to me then: Goto your home and shave your beard, wash
your body and take care of yourself, for forty days, until you regain
strength, then come to me.

I went accordingly home, and as the king had commanded me to
do. I spent forty days in rest and recovered my health, and after that
I went again to the king, and he told me all about the letters and the
affairs of my executors. Did you hear O Akhikar, what requirement
the king of Egypt is making, and how much money he demandeth from
Assur and Nineve ? and I said, May the king live forever, do not be
disturbed because of these. I will go myself to Egypt and I will give
answer to the King Pharao and all your enemies, and I will build a
large castle in the air and I will bring the promised offer from Egypt
for you; and the king became much satisfied and made a great festival
and ordered that the best animals should be killed and he gave me
many precious presents; and Nabo-Swapho was honored with a seal
above all the guests and he was made the first minister of the empire.
And in the morning I wrote a letter to my wife, Ash-Pagh-Nith, as fol-
lows: When this my letter reaches you, order my hunters to catch for
me a pair of eagles young, and ordered also my servant to prepare two
wheels of cotton with bags to contain a child each, and ropes in the
length of one thousand yards, and take my two children, Nabo-Khel
and Tabashlan, and give them to seven nurses to train and teach them
every day with the eagles to make exercise in being elevated into the
air on those wheels and let them be tried to say these words: "Bring
mortar, bricks and wood, for the king's servants are waiting to build
the castle in the air. " And my wife did everything better than I desired,
and I ordered a trial with the two children and the eagles which proved
very satisfactory. Then I said to the king: "Permit me now to go
to Egypt, I am ready to comply with the demand of the king of Egypt. "
And he told me, go and may the Gods bless you. And I took my ser-
vants and all that was prepared for my purpose in Egypt, and with an
army I went away. Throughout the long journey every day I exercised
the two children with the eagles and was glad that they were perform-
ing their task wonderfully well.

When we approached Egypt the ambassador of Pharao came to
receive me, and on our arrival at the residence of the king a special

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

house was at my disposal. I was then summoned before the king
Pharao, and presented to him the salutations of my master, Sankherib,.
And he asked me what was my name. And I replied, Abikhan, the
aunt of the king. When Pharao heard this he was very angry, and
said: Did I come down so much in the sight of your master
that he sent an aunt out to give an answer to my questions?
And he ordered me to go to my rooms and see the king the
next morning, and he commanded that all his ministers and statesmen
should appear before him that day in their precious dresses in the recep-
tion room that was most wonderfully ornamented. On the next morn-
ing at the appointed time they were all gathered before the king, Pharao
and the king asked me to what would I liken him, with his ministers
in their splendor and glory, and I replied he was looking like Belius
surrounded by his priests, and he said : ' 'Go home and come to-morrow
morning," and to his ministers he said to come dressed with garments
of white and yellow color. So we have gone all again into his presence,
and the king was also dressed in like manner. And Pharao asked me,
saying, O Abkihan, to whom do you liken me and my dignitaries?
And I said, you look like the sun and your ministers like the stars.
And he said: "Go home Abikhan, and again to-morrow on the next
morning I went at the usual hour and found the king dressed in green
garment while his ministers had a multi-color each on. And the same
question was asked, and I replied, the king is like the month of April
and the ministers are like flowers. And Pharao expressed himself
further and said, now tell me to what you would liken your king? And
I replied, my king is like the gods of heaven and his ministers are as
lightning. Whenever he wishes he can cover the sky with heavy and dark
clouds so that neither the sun nor the stars are visible to the eye, and if
he commands, his lightnings strike and destroy everything on earth,
and if he is angry he makes hail, and commands the wind to scatter all
over the earth and destroy all the glories of spring and its beautiful
flowers. When Pharao heard this he became very much dissatisfied and
said: ''Tell me the truth, what is your name? " I am Akhikar, the
secretary of King Sankherib. And he said, are you still alive? And I
replied I was once in a great trouble that would cost me my life, but the
Lords or Gods helped me out of it because I love truth andrighteousness.
And he said: "Go and come to-morrow to tell me something that was
never told before by any man on earth. ' ' And I heard that to his min-
isters he gave instructions to say next morning in our interview to what-
ever that I should, say yes, it is time we have heard this, and I have

RELIGIONS OF PERSIA.

531

written this — From Sankherib, greeting, to Pharao: kings sometimes
needs the assistance of others. My treasury is at present almost empty,
therefore lend me please 10,000 talent gold for an indefinite time.

I went then and told the king that I had something in my hand
written which was never before told on earth and nobody had heard
at any time of it. And all the ministers were unanimous in declaring
that they knew it very well, and all that he had written was true and
right. But when they read my paper there was no bound to their
astonishment. Upon this the king said, that he wished a castle to be
built a thousand yards in the air, and I said that I was able to fulfill his
desire.

On an appointed day we went into a field to begin the work, and
I brought there the eagles and children trained before to accomplish
the work and soon they were in the air, the children shouting: Bring
material to build the castle; mortar, bricks, stones and wood, for the
king's workmen are idle and waiting for you. Of course they were all
highly astonished at this, and I, Akhikar, took a stick and began to whip
all the servants and ministers of the king, saying: I did my duty, why
are you not doing yours, to carry the material necessary for the castle,
and they all fled away, and the king said: "Did you lose your mind,
Akhikar, who can carry material into the air and how? And I replied,
if Sankherib, my king, were here, we could build two castles in the air
a day. He then said that he did not want anything of the castle and
commanded me to see him next morning. When I went into his pres-
ence he puzzled me with a strange question, asking how could it be that
his master's horse gave a voice at the stable in Nineve and here in Egypt
all the mares conceived? I asked the king to grant me time for reflec-
tionp, and as soon as I was in my room I sent my servant to bring me
a cat (cat being a holy animal and one of the gods in Egypt). I took
the cat and bound its legs and then put it under my arm and went out
walking on the streets and continually beating it so that from its lamen-
tations all the Egyptians were touched, and they went to complain
before the king of my cruelty. And the king at once sent for me and
asked of me why I was so shamefully treating their god. And I said
the king live forever, the cat has done me much damage last night.
I had a very nice rooster in Nineve, and he was so clever that every time
when the king wanted me the rooster would indicate by crowing.
Last night the same cat went to Nineve and ate my rooster's head and
came back. The king said as you are getting old your mind is becoming
weak day by day. From here to Assur it is 360 Faisath (Egyptian

532

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

miles), how could the cat go there,'eat your rooster's head, and return?
I said then, well, if it is so how could it be that your mares conceived
by hearing the voice of my master's horse ? And the king was ashamed
of what he said to me before. And he said, Akhikar, I have a pillar
upon which twelve poplars are planted, and upon each one of them are
thirty carriages, and each carriage has two horsemen, one white, the
other black, can you tell me what is that? I said the shepherds have
interpreted that to be: the pillar a year; the twelve poplars, the twelve
months; the thirty carriages, the thirty days of a month; and the two
horsemen, one dark and the other white, the day and night. And
Pharao said, I want two ropes made of sand, six yards long and two
inches thick. And I replied, let the king order that a pattern of it
should be given to me that I may make accordingly. Then the king
said : I do not know about that, but if you do not make the ropes of
sand you will not get the revenues of Egypt. I went home and all
through the night I thought about the matter, at last occurred to
my mind an idea and early in the morning I went to the reception room
of the palace before the king had risen and made two holes in the win-
dows of his room. Then at the usual time I went before the presence
of the king and, pointing to the rays of the sun coming in, in the shape
of a rope, I said, here are the ropes of sand, let the king now order his
servants to roll it up and take it away. When they saw this both the king
and his ministers were greatly astonished and ashamed too of their
demand. The next thing in order was that a broken hand millstone was
brought in which Akhikar was commanded by the king to mend by
sewing. I then took some bricks of the same color and presenting to
the ministers before the king, asked them to spin and get the thread
ready for sewing, since being a stranger I could not have the necessary
matetrial for that purpose. And the king laughed and said the day in
which you were born, O Akhikar, may be blessed by the gods of
Egypt. Then after answering all the puzzling questions and riddles
of Pharao, I obtained all the revenues of Egypt for three years, besides
the king gave me also the amount that I had written in my paper. And
I returned home to my king, Sankherib, with many presents and honors.
And I was met with on my arrival by the king, and a great festival took
place, and the king gave me the first place after him at the table. And
Sankherib said to me, O Akhikar, ask of me whatsoever your heart
desires. And I replied whatever I may ask of you, O my generous king,
grant to Nabo-Swapho, because it is he who kept me alive. But give
me please my son Nadan, that I may instruct him of something better

RELIGIONS OF PERSIA.

533

since he failed to comprehend the teachings of my first instructions.
And the king said, take him and do with him as you please and no one
shall interfere with you on his behalf.

So I took my son Nadan home with me and I bound him with
chains that were 9 kakia heavy, and gave him a sound threshing of one
thousand blows on his back, and as much to his feet, and I ordered that
for a considerable time he should live on very little bread and water
only, and he was put in the same dungeon where I was put before to
escape that terrible punishment of which he tried to make me a victim ;
and my other son, Naboo-Khel, I appointed as jailor over him, and to
write down whatever I should say on entering or leaving the prison
every day. And I said to him, my son, whoever does not hear by his
ears will feel on his neck. My son, I elevated you on the throne of
success and glory, but you threw me down into misery. But righteous-
ness saved me. My son, you became for me like the scorpion that
stung a stone, and Satan said you have touched something which
was harder than your body. Then you stung a needle, but the needle
said you stuck something that was sharper than your sting. You
became, my son, to me like a goat that was eating poutha (a root of
which some kind of red color is prepared), and the plant said, why art
thou eating me, since of my root they will take the substance to color
your skin. And the goat replied, I will eat thee while I am living, but
they will take thee away with the root to dye my skin.

My son, you became like a man who stoned a sparrow, but could
not reach it and only increased his sins before God. You became like
a man who, seeing that he was trembling from cold poured on him a
jar of ice cold water. Suppose you would kill me, let us see whether
you would be able to take my place? You ought to know it that a
swine's tail could not be put on a horse even were it ten times longer
than its natural size, and if its skin were softer than wool, still noble
men would not wear it. I was thinking of putting you in my place, that
you should be my heir, but you most foolishly demonstrated yourself
to be unworthy before God. You became like a lion that met an ass
and said, welcome, O my good friend. And the ass replied, I wish that
you would greet in that friendly way my master who left me to fall in
your hand. You became like a trap to catch sparrows. A partridge
saw it and asked, what are you doing here, and the trap replied, I am
praying to God. And the bird further asked what is then that in your
mouth, and it said it is meat for hungry people, and the poor partridge
hearing this went gladly to eat of it, but was caught instantly, and said

Jmjxo BftagAZ.-aaaa ^iu? Xmu<& &ax»ao
^jl3?*Vu JabXo Jjoc'Vo laJ-ko l4^aoo:l»bxo

.> faa^ ,£*SV> l5«^*- ^t*?*^

SPECIMEN OF ANCIENT SYRIAC LANGUAGE.

RELIGIONS OF PERSIA-

535

in its agony, if this is the meat you offer the hungry, how can God hear
your prayers ?

You became as a partridge who could not escape from a cage, and
still continued to call his comrades at its side, not knowing they would
fall in the same condition. You became like a lion who met with a fat ox
but despised him because he was not hungry then but afterwards
repented much finding nothing to eat.

You became like a worm that ate the best wheat in the royal
granary but did not do much for the king. You became like a sower
who took much trouble in sowing some seeds in the field and at the
time of reaping he got as much as he had sown, and he said, O shame,
that you did not bring more. You became like a dog that was laying
near a furnace as it was cold, but when he warmed himself he began
to quarrel with the fire for the heat it produced. You became like a
swine that was going to a bath house with the prince, but seeing a dirty
place on the road it went to plunge in it inviting the prince and saying,
come this is the best place to bathe. My son, my finger I put in your
mouth to give you honey, but you put yours in my eye to destroy it.
The dog that will refuse to eat from his master's bread the wolves will
devour him. What have I seen of your good works that my soul should
rejoice? If gods would steal by whom would they swear? I brought
you into honor before the king, but you have brought me into the pit,
and if you were so cruel to do this to a man who did you good, what
would you not do to those who would do you mischief? You became
like a cat that was requested to live in the house, eat and drink and
enjoy himself freely but not to steal, but he replied, even if my hands
were of gold, my leg of silver, and my eyes of diamonds, yet I could
not help to steal because that gives me pleasure. You became like a
serpent that was sitting on a thorne carried by the river. A lion saw
it and said, look at that, men, a rascal is riding on something like
himself, but something worse is carrying both away. The serpent
heard this remark and replied: Of course, you are right to call me a
rascal, but what would you call yourself in your dealings with the poor
animals? My son, I have nursed you with the best meats, but you
caused me to eat the bread of sorrow. I gave you excellent wine to
drink, but you caused me to drink my tears. You became like a bat
that came out from the earth to protest to God for creating it blind,
but fell a victim^to the birds. Nadan' thereupon addressed me,
saying: My lord, though I have sinned against you, you must have
mercy on me, we all sin against God, but he pardons us our trans-

536

PERSIA BY A PERSIAN.

gressions. Make me one of your shepherds. Yoy will have anyhow the
same good name while I will be called a rascal. I told him, you
became like a date tree that did not give any fruit, the proprietor came
to cut it, 'but it besought him, saying, O my lord, let me live for another
year, and I will bring you raisins. The master replied, O thou fool,
thou didst not give once of thine own natural fruit, how can I trust
that thou art going to give me something else. My son, don't you know
that the old age of an eagle is far better than a crow's youth ?

My son, they asked a wolf why he was after the sheep, and he
replied, the dust of their feet is medicine to my eyes. The shepherds
said to him, be thou educated and learn to read, and he replied, all right,
I will do it, and they said, say a, and he said lamb, and they said say c,
and he said goat ; they said e, he said' sheep. My son, they brought an
ass into a nice room, but he would not stay there and asked where was
the stable, because that was his place.

My son, they say a proverb like this : The man whom you raised up
to honor caused your shame. My experience taught me to say, let him
be a son to you who is born of you, but the son of your sister keep you
always under suspicion. My son, let him who brought me out of the
grave judge me and you. Upon this Nadan died instantly as struck
from lightning. Whosoever does good to others will find the same
from the others, but whosoever digs a pit lor another surely himself
will fall in it.

(Translated from an ancient Syriac manuscript by Dr. Adams.)

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