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 THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL 
 
 GRAMMAR 
 
 OF THE 
 
 FREXCH TONGUE, 
 
 JN WHICH 
 
 THE PRESENT USAGE ON PRONUNCIATION, 
 
 ORTHOGRAPHY, AND THE RULES OF 
 
 SYNTAX IS DEVELOPED, 
 
 AND 
 
 'ail. GREAT DIFFICULTIES CLEARED UP, 
 
 ACCORDING TO THE DECISIONS 
 
 Of THE 
 
 FRENCH ACADEMY. 
 
 By M. DE LEVIZAC. 
 
 Kthil e\ ^rammatica no-uerit, n'ni quod tuptr-vacuum est .... nun 
 slant hte dtsc'ipUncP per tUas euntibui, sed circa illas harentibus. 
 
 Ci;iNT. J'JST. L. I. CAP. /. 
 
 LONDON: 
 FRIKTED BY BAYLIS, GRE VILLE-STREET, 
 
 And sold by A. DutAU & Co., No. 107, Wardour- Street. 
 
 179?. 
 ^Pricc Four Shillings bound-l
 
 [Entered at Stationers Hall.^ 
 
 Sold also by 
 T. BoosEY, Broad Street, near the Royal Exchahsrc. 
 Earle andHE.MKX, thecornerof Frith and Church Streets, 
 Soho, or No. 4.7, Albemarle- Street, Piccadilly. 
 And by 
 Cook; W. Han well and J. Parker, Oxford. 
 Deighton; and LuNNf, Cambridge, 
 Bar RAT, Bath. 
 
 Manners and AIiLLER, Edinburgh. And 
 Archer, Dublin.
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 JL H I S Grammar was, at first, intended solely for 
 my own use ; but reasons of a peculiar nature, and 
 which I did not well know how to resist, have induced 
 me to consent to its publication. To these reasons I 
 may add another still more powerful, my wish to ex- 
 tend to a greater number of individuals the rapid pro- 
 gress made by the few who have followed its method, 
 and thus to evince my most heartfelt gratitude towards 
 a nation, from which I have received the most flat- 
 tering encouragements, and which has bestowed 
 upon me the only praise I am most emulous to de- 
 serve : that of having, in some measure, contributed 
 to the instrudlion of youth, during my stay in Eng- 
 land. If the works which I have hitherto published 
 have met with such distinguished marks of approba- 
 tion *, what may I not hope from this, which I 
 presume to hope will prove of more general utility, 
 and v/hich, for this reason, I have composed with 
 the utmost care and attention ? Happy, indeed, shall 
 I deem mvself, as also most amply rewarded, if my 
 labours can save youtli one single tear, inspire it with 
 one single honest sentiment, develope one single idea, 
 
 ■•'• Set A>ta!}!icai Re'view for September, 1797, page 3 04-, 
 and for Ottober, 1798. page 42-!; Briitsh Critic, for May, 
 1798, page 90 ; Monthly Revievj, for May, 1798, page 87| 
 for June, page 219, Appendix to the 2Gth vol. page 553, and 
 563. Critical Reviezu for July 1798, page 34(^ and the Ap- 
 pendix to the 23d vol. page 549, Sec. 
 a 2 
 
 200796:
 
 ( fv ) 
 just, noble or sublime, or, in short, furnish it with one 
 single principle of taste. 
 
 In order to ensure to this work the greatest possible 
 degree of utility, I huve, in imitation of the most 
 celebrated grammarians, as well as of the Academy, 
 suppressed every thing foreign to the genius of our 
 language ; and I have been particularly careful to give, 
 in the most plain and perspicuous manner, the only 
 rules we acknowledge, and to admit the only deno- 
 minations we avow. I have given the grammar 
 wiiich has long been taught in the University of Paris,, 
 and not the grimmar of the Grecians and Laiinl{>ts 
 rif the bi^t, and the K'llnning of the present century, 
 because, as the Abbe Girard expresses it: " we ought 
 to speak French, in speaking about French." 
 
 Ir will not, therefore, appear surprising that I 
 should continue to proscribe that multitude of artlcks, 
 and those denominations of cases, which the want of 
 knowledge of the real genius of our language had 
 mtix>duced, and which, in fa6i:, did only impede the 
 progress, and retard the unfolding of our ideas. In 
 point of art or science, every thing that is not per- 
 fe6tly clear, or obviously useful, should be rejcdled,. 
 as tending to obscure the subje(5t. 
 
 *' The custom of studying the French language^ 
 but for the mere purpose of learning Latin, '^ says 
 one of the most enlightened members of the French 
 National Institute, '' mduced Ihe greatest part of. 
 grammarians to frame the rules of our grammar upon 
 tbose ot the Latin ; hence the GodVic introdu(5lion of 
 declensions into a language which has no casns. &c.
 
 ( V ) 
 
 French was learned, as it were, In Latin ; how could 
 it be expedled that it should ever be properly known ? 
 But philosophy, whose illuming flambeau had dis- 
 persed so much darkness, and thrown so great a light 
 upon the exadt sciences, made use of the same flam- 
 beau in elucidating the art of speech. This art, cal- 
 culated to bring forth all the others, was well worthy 
 of the attention of metaphysicians an<l of enlightened 
 minds." 
 
 This is the motive that has induced the National 
 Institute to endeavour to hn<l out the most useful and 
 most proper way of teaching the French language. 
 We shall here mention their decision about the cases. 
 
 In one of their sittings, last vear, thev examined 
 the following question : " Are we, or are we not to 
 admit cases in the French language r" Two divS- 
 courses were then read, which, in the most scientific 
 and critical manner, were intended, the first to prove 
 the existence of cases in all languages, and the second 
 to combat and reject that opinioji. After a discussion 
 of some length, the National Institute, unwilling to 
 do any thing but upon serious ai>d mature investiga- 
 tion, commissioned the Abbe SIcard, institutor of the 
 deaf and dumb, to make a report, in which both sides 
 of the question should be compared, and reason op- 
 posedi to reason : this was done in one of the subse- 
 quent sittings. That learned grammarian did not 
 hesitate in taking his determination. <' I have,'* said 
 he, *' insisted in a strong manner, icit/i all the modern 
 grammarians, upon the impossiblllcy of admltt!n<r 
 cases iu those languages- in which the nouns, adjcilives 
 as
 
 C ^i } 
 
 and articles (the article and other words performing 
 the same fundtion) have invariable forms." In con- 
 sequence of that report, the National Institute has 
 proscribed cases in the public schools where 
 French is taught, a thing v^hich had long been ob- 
 served in the University of Paris. 
 
 Having proscribed the multiplicity of articles and 
 the denominations of cases, one may naturally sup- 
 pose that I would not be more favourable to that dis- 
 dindlion between conjoined and disjoined pronouns, 
 imagined with as littl-e foundation by the ancient gram- 
 marians, and which has been exploded in Fiance for 
 these fifty years, as -calculated only to introduce ob- 
 scurity and intricacy into a subjed already but too 
 <)l>S(-ure and intricate of itself. 
 
 I'liere is another alteration wblch 1 also wished to 
 irsake, viz. in the denominations of veibs, borrowed 
 likewise from the Latin grammar ; but, after some 
 rcfie<Slion, I thought I might preserve them, because, 
 .IS I say in the " Table of correspondence of the 
 moods and tenses," they are attended with very little 
 mconvenlence, as long as the definitions are clearly 
 understood. 
 
 From what I have been saying, could any one still 
 'Uppose that the alterations which I have proposed, and 
 those which I bring forward in this work, are the pri- 
 vate system of a few grammarians, and not the publia 
 method of teaching the French language ? I wouU 
 not have been so positive in my assertions, had they 
 i not been warranted by the most celebrated gramma- 
 rians, by the University of Paris, by the French
 
 ( vii ) 
 
 Academy, and by the National Institute, who ought 
 to know better than any body tlie proper way ot 
 teaching the French language. 
 
 With respedl to the plaiiof this grammar, T have, 
 as much as possible, followed the march of the human 
 mind. In the first nine chapters, I have presented 
 the ideas one by one, that they may be conceived 
 witliout confusion. T he learner will find no other 
 roles of syntax, that is, of government and concord,^ ' 
 but what are absolutely necessary for the connexion 
 of ideas : nevertheless, they are treated in such a 
 manner, as, by the help of the exercises which I have 
 subjoined, to show the whole mechanism of the lan- 
 guage. It is only in the tenth tliat we give the grand 
 rules and principal difficulties ; and they are more or 
 less developed, according to their degree of import- 
 ance : the reason is, tliat the mind of the learner be- 
 ing then prepared to receive them, finds no difficulty 
 in understanding the theory and making the applica- 
 tion to pra6lice : and, therefore, I have a little devi- 
 ated in that chapter from my first plan, by making 
 relie^lions and entering into discussions, which I had 
 bctore deemed improper.. 
 
 A grammar which is intended to teach foreigners a 
 language, ought to be comparative. In the compa- 
 risoa which I have made between the English and 
 French; I have considered that t^vo languages are 
 compared in dieir principles, not in their expressions. 
 There are, indeed, some idiomatical differences whiclx 
 ought to be remarked ; but they are only such as con- 
 stitute the genius of one of those languages, and even 
 this is but momentary, as the learner finds these com_
 
 ( v/Ii ) 
 
 parisons in the examples before him ; and should he 
 pass over those differences unperceived, the teacher 
 ought to be careful in pointing them out. Having 
 learned the English language long before 1 came to 
 England, it would have been easy for me to multiply 
 those sorts of comparison ; but my own experience 
 has convinced me tliat it v«'as nothing but a loss of 
 time. 
 
 My design being to give, in a single volume, and 
 a pretty short one, considering the great number of 
 exercises which it contains, every thing that was es- 
 sentially necessary for arriving at a perfect knowledge 
 of the French language, I have paid the greatest at- 
 tention to that part which relates to sounds, and 
 which is the more impr. riant, as upon dial knowledge 
 gtx)d pronunciation dej)cnds. I have everv reason to 
 think that I have elucidated it to a certain degree. In 
 it will be found the present usage, and tJie pronuncia- 
 tion of the li^abitants of the metropolis, who have 
 lived in the great world, and frequented the besr 
 companies. I have also made a distinction, as far as 
 I have thought necessary, between the pronunciation 
 of familiar conversation, and that of oratorical dis- 
 course and poetry, because I thought that distin<5tion 
 was not sufficiently known or attended to. That I 
 might give to d\is little treatise a still greater degree of 
 utility, 1 have added to it the theory of the three 
 properties of syllables, which are acce)2t, aspiration 
 and quantity, with some refleCbions on the manner of 
 reading well. However, as in so short a treatise it 
 was impossible for me to enter into every minute de- 
 tail, i have every reason to hope that leache?^ will
 
 ( ix ) 
 supply the want of them*: but, at all events, one 
 may tind some advantage in consulting The Explana^ 
 tory Prononncing Diillonary of the French Language 
 hy the Ahbe Tardy ^ which seems to me well calcu- 
 lated for facilitating the pronunciation, if one studies 
 the key. 
 
 To complete the subjefl, I have given, at the end 
 of the grammar, a treatise upon orthography and an- 
 other on pun6luation. 
 
 With respe6t to the first, I have conformed myself 
 to the last edition of the Di6tionary of the French 
 Academy, because, in a work intended for the in- 
 srruiftion of foreigners, there ought to he ViO devia- 
 tion from the decisions of that tribunal, the sole com- 
 petent judge on this matter. Here, the man who pro- 
 fesses to he a sure guide, must sacrifice his own pri- 
 vate opinion, because it would be deceiving foreigners 
 to give them, as the orthography of a language, that 
 which is but the ill-digested system of one particular 
 author. 
 
 Should any errors have escaped me in the course of 
 the work, and I think it almost impossible that there 
 should be none, considering the great number of ob- 
 jedts I have had to mention, T request the persons 
 who may find any, to point them out to me: they 
 will see how thankful 1 am for their advice, by the 
 care I shall take to correft them. As my labours 
 have no other objeft in view than public utility, I 
 
 * For further particulars about pronunciation, I must refer 
 to my Treatise on the Sounds of the. Frcfuh Laiiguage, now in 
 the press.
 
 ( X ) 
 
 shall spare neither trouble nor expence to remove 
 every faulty sheet by a cancel. 
 
 Thus much had I to say about the theory of this 
 grammar ; it only remains for me to say a few words 
 about the practical part of it. 
 
 I have made it as pradl'.cal as it is possible for a 
 grammar to be, both as to the order and connexion of 
 ideas, and with regard to the exercises, which I have 
 extended or contracted in proportion to their utility. 
 If the method of proceeding, which I am going to 
 point out, be strictly followed, there can be no doubt 
 but that the learner will, in a short time, become 
 acquainted with the mechanism of the language, and 
 find in his progressive knowledge a strong incitement 
 to wish for further improvement. This is my reason 
 for placing at the head of the exercises what the learner 
 is to observe, and for giving them a gradual increase 
 of usefulness or difficulty. 1 know very well that 
 teachers would have said tlie same things that I do ; 
 but I likewise know that the pupil has frequently for- 
 gotten every thing they have taken the trouble to sayy 
 even before they have left him. But having the ruls 
 before h'lrn, no pretence, no excuses can be admitted, 
 should he fail to conform to it. 
 
 Let it be remembered that tlie pupil must proceed 
 mechanically through die ftist nine chapters: he is to 
 know no other rules thun diosc which he will find in 
 tl)tin, because thev are the only ones he is able to un- 
 derstand. It is not till the tenth chapter, that is, when 
 all the common constructions are known to him, that 
 he hnds himself enabled to see the reason of the pre- 
 tediiig operations. One will then be astonished ut the
 
 ( xi ) 
 fjcility with which all the ideas will successively enter 
 into his head and class t'lemselves in regular order. 
 I have mvoclf tried the experiment, and have it in my 
 power to warrant the success of the method. 
 
 The exercises "have two objects ; the first, to give the 
 pupil the facility of conversation , the second, to form 
 his mind, heart and taste. 
 
 For this purpose, I have inserted the eleinents of con- 
 versation into the first nine chapters, particularly into 
 the exercises upon the verbs. When they have beea 
 gone over, the pupil will know the construction of all 
 the forms of phrases, and have his memory stored 
 with a multitude of the words that most usually occur. 
 But, true to my plan, I have interspersed some pas- 
 sages calculated to improve the judgment and taste, 
 because that is the chief object of this gramrnar. 
 
 My second object I have endeavoured to accom- 
 plish in the exercises on the tenth chapter. As they 
 are intended to prepare the pupil for the study of rhe- 
 toric, or to teach him how to distinguish the beauties 
 of all places and of all times, from beauties which are 
 cither accidental, local, or depending upon circum- 
 stances, I have, now and then, thrown in, either some 
 fine descriptions, noble and sublime thoughts, or 
 notions upon all those kinds of knowledge which dis- 
 tinguish the well-bred gentleman from him that has 
 received but a common education. In short, nothing 
 v/ill be found in it but what can furnish youth with 
 just ideas, honest sentiments, a sound judgment, the 
 l;ve of the belief lettrcs, or a greater nicety of taste.
 
 ( xii ; 
 
 I shall conclude, by observing tljat I had already 
 gone some way into the translation of this grammar, 
 which, as 1 have before hinted, was originally written 
 ill French, when the impatient desire of my friends to 
 see it speedily published, obliged me to desist from an 
 undertaking, which the multiplicity of business upon 
 my hands would not permit me to forward so soon as 
 I could have wislied- I have, therefore, . requested 
 the assistance of a man of great literary abilities, and 
 whose thorough knowledge of both languages is air- 
 ready known by some of his translations ; and I trust 
 he will be found to have acquitted himself with credif 
 to the work and satisfaction to the public. 
 
 AlEAK
 
 ( xlii ) 
 
 MEANS TO BE ADOPTED IN ORDER TO HASTEN 
 THE PROGRESS OF THE PUPIL. 
 
 The first three or four lessons should be devotee! 
 to make the pupil thoroughly acquainted with the 
 proniinciatiou of the 19 or 20 French vowels, and to 
 learn the chapter on the substantive. When he is 
 come to the formation of the plural, he must begin 
 to learn the auxiliary vei-b avoir ^ and make the exer- 
 cises upon it. 
 
 When the chapter on the substantive is gone 
 tlirough, he is to learn the formation of the feminine 
 gender and the plural of adjectives. As soon as he 
 is perfect in this, he must turn back and begin the 
 article. 
 
 In this manner, the pupil must learn, at the same 
 time, the sounds, the tirst four chapters, and the verbs. 
 It rests with the teacher to fix how much is to be 
 learnt of each of these three objects, from one lesson t^) 
 another: this will depend entirely upon the quickness 
 of apprehension in the pupil. 
 
 Let no one think that this method is too complicated. 
 I can assert, from mv own experience, that it is not 
 so ; but, on the contrary, very simple. I have tried 
 the experiment, both with persons whose judgment 
 was already formed, and with children : and my suc- 
 cess has been'the same ; that is, on the very first day, 
 my- pupils have seen clearly, and very clearly, into the 
 object of their study. 
 
 Every eight lessons, a general recapitulation shoulc} 
 be made of every thin-g that has preceded, the better 
 to impress it upon the mind. This is a matter of great 
 importance, and which ought not to be neglected. 
 
 As soon as the first five chapters are gone over, 
 the work becomes more simple and easy ; tlae pupil 
 has onlyto follow the grammar. 
 
 As the pupil is '-eading, he should be asked to <?\v<t 
 the reason of every sound, according to tiie different 
 ■tables which I have given in the first part. 
 
 h Whe.i
 
 ( ^iv ) 
 
 When the pupil is come to the tenth chapter, some 
 alteration must be made to the plan pursued till then. 
 Care must be taken to make him point out the words 
 to which the rule applies, and the nature of every word 
 composing the. sentence given as an application : be- 
 cause, as he has now seen the nine kinds of words, he 
 ought to know thtm immediately, without mistaking 
 their pi'oper use, and the reason of their being in such 
 or such a place. The only thing to be attended to 
 by the teacher is, never to anticipate upon the rules 
 ■which have not yet been seen. None can truly be 
 said to know a language, but when every expression 
 that is used can be properly accounted for. 
 
 Alter the tenth chapter, no more exercises are 
 given, because the pupil must by this time be very far 
 advanced ; and, as he has seen not only all the rules, 
 but also all the difficulties of the language, he needs no 
 longer to be guided by a particular rule : it is time he 
 should enter a larger field, and bring the whole of 
 his knowledge into use. For this reason, >ve have, now 
 and then, left some examples untranslated, on purpose 
 to try his ingenuity. While he is studying the last 
 four chapters, he should make the free exercises which 
 are at the end of the grammar. 
 
 Another thing which I deem very essential, and per- 
 haps more so than is commonly thought, is that the 
 rules and definitions should be learned both in English- 
 and French. The abridgment of mv gran.imar ^^•]lich 
 is translated in this, all to a few alterations, occa- 
 sioned by the last edition of the dictionary of the 
 French Academy, should be learned along with this, as 
 soon as the pupil is able to understand a little T'rench. 
 I can confidently affirm that nothing is better calculated 
 to hasten his progress;
 
 ( XV ) 
 
 EXPLANATION 
 
 OP THE jABRKVIATIONS USED IN' THE EXERCISES. 
 
 Stands for masculine, 
 feminine. 
 
 pliiril. 
 singular, 
 pr. . . ■ . . preposition. 
 
 art article. 
 
 pr. art. . . . article contrafted. 
 
 • pro pronoun. 
 
 * denotes that the word under nhich it is placed, is not 
 
 expressed in French. 
 ind-1 .... present of the indicative. 
 • ind-2 .... i:rperfc6t. 
 
 ind-3 .... prtterit titfinitc. 
 iT)d-4 .... preterit indthiiite. 
 ind-5 .... preterit anterior. 
 ind-6 .... plupe-rfech 
 ind"-? .... future ab";c!ute. 
 ind-8 .... future a.iterior. 
 
 imp im{cr::',!ve 
 
 con-1 . . . present of the conJiilon:;!. 
 con-2 . . . first ccnditional paft. 
 con-3 . . , suCvond conditional past. 
 subj-1 . . . present of the bubjuiiCtive. 
 subj-2 . . . i'.r.pcrfeft. 
 subj-3 . . . prcrsrit. 
 subj-t . , . pluperfcrft. 
 inf- 1 .... present 'jf the infinitive, 
 inf- i . . , , participle present. 
 inf-3 .... participle pist. 
 Those French words which are followed by the ahove 
 signs, are to take the form which they printout. 
 
 N.B. In spire of all the care wc have taken, a few errors 
 will still be found in the oercises, particularly with respect to 
 the ■' which in s ime few" e.xamp!e3 <loes not always comspond 
 to the word which it is meant toaftlft. 1 beg that the teacher 
 will have the goodness to point it ou: to nis pupil, every time 
 it occurs. 
 
 In the tenth chrijver, the * is nc longer placed under the 
 word, but after it, in ihc inargin. 
 
 A THEO-
 
 ■ g M M- BM u u> aMJ— W Wr ^ >» i ^ m ■ ■ mjwwiu 
 
 THEORETICAL and TRACTICAL 
 
 GRAMMA R 
 
 OF THE 
 
 FRENCH TO X CUE. 
 
 jrRAMMAR is the art of speaking and writing 
 'vvith corrc6lncss. 
 
 To speak is to manifest externally, by cenain signs 
 upon \vhich men iiave agreed, the thoughts that are 
 combined ijitcrtmlly in our mind. 
 
 Nature herself has furnished its those signs, which 
 aie the sounds, mechanically produced by the organs 
 of speech : the union of some of these signs forms 
 words. 
 
 But, as these signs leave no kind of trace, men 
 wished to fix them, and this they have efFc6lcd by 
 means of other signs, visible and permanent, which 
 are the characters used in writing. 
 
 " Were it not for this double convention," ob- 
 serves Mr. Diderot, " v/hich thus attaches ideas to 
 sounds, and sounds to characters, every thing would 
 remain within man, and be totally lost in him." 
 
 We are, therefore, to consider words, both as 
 fcoiinds and as signs of our thoughts. 
 
 PART 1. - 
 
 OF WORDS COMSIDERED AS SOUNDS. 
 
 The sounds niadc use of for speaking are called /ff- 
 ■ters, and the collection ma^le of tlrem in a language is
 
 ( 2 ) 
 
 called alphahst. Tli'" French alphabet contanis twenty- 
 
 fivc letters, viz. 
 
 a, b, c, d, c,f, g, h, i,j, k, /, m, n, o, p, q, r, s, /, 
 u, z', X, y, z. 
 
 Of these twenty-five letters, some express a sound 
 by themselves, and are called vowels ; others, only by 
 the help of vowels, and are, therefore, called conso~ 
 nants : the combination of these difFercnt letters forms 
 syllables. 
 
 Whatever relates to sounds will be divided into 
 three chapters : the first will treat of vowels, the se- 
 cond of consonants, and the third of syllables. 
 
 CHAP. I. 
 
 OF VOWELS. 
 
 There are five vowels, «, r, ?', o, u : the y, which 
 we call ^^)Yf, is not reckoned as one of them, be- 
 cause it does not difi'er froin the /, when it is not used 
 as two i's. 
 
 But these five vowels are not the only ones we have 
 in the French language : we reckon nine more, viz. 
 €u, ou, /, e, which are called French, the first five 
 being called Latin ; and five nasal, viz. an, en, in, 
 en, un, so called, because they are, in a manner, pro- 
 nounced through the nose. 
 
 Some of these vowels are represented by a single 
 charadler, or letter, and others by two, which, how- 
 ever, we must not confound with diphthongs, that iij, 
 ■with that combiiiatf<"n of vowels which expresses a 
 double sound. 
 
 • OF SIMPLE VOWELS. 
 
 Two things are to be considered in vowels, the 
 sound, and the duration of sound. 
 
 The sound of a vowel is cipher broad or slender, as it 
 tiepends upon the form oi the passage which the mouth 
 .illows to the air which it emits. Thus, if we place 
 the vowels in this order, a, o, e, /', u, we shall find 
 that the first is the slenderest, and the last the broadest. 
 
 The duration of a vowel is the time we are in pro-
 
 ( 3 ) 
 nouncing it. This time varies, according as the vowel 
 is accompanied with sucli and such lecter. 
 
 Had languages been the work of reflc6lion, we 
 should have had as many signs as there are vowels ; 
 but none can boast of that advantage. To make up 
 this deficiency, we have been obliged to introduce 
 in our language difFerenr kinds of i<'s, e*s, o's, and 
 f«'s, according as the sound expressed by these letters 
 is flat, or sharp. We shall here speak of the principal 
 sounds only, leaving it to tlie care of the teacher to 
 show to his pupil those minutis of pronunciation which 
 it is iiardly possible to represent. 
 
 A TABLE OF SIMPLE VOWELS. 
 
 a grave J>aie, do'.v. / ic/', here, 
 
 a acute patte, paw. o grave liote, hoit. 
 
 /acute doHle. goodness, o acute . rfotti^, dowser. 
 
 <f grave, common .pere, father. u 'vcrtu, virtue. 
 
 ■e more jpen . . . .f-.rmete, firmness, eil . . . .jcune, fast. 
 
 e very oren .... succes, success. en acute Jeufie, young. 
 
 e mui: . nesure, measure, cu . . . . sou, penny. 
 
 0!.:£?.vATioN, — The e mute has two sounds; 
 the o::^ very short, in the middle and at the end of 
 words; the other less short, in monosyllables, sucii as 
 nic, tc, sc, que, 8cc., in which it has nearly the sound 
 ofw. _ >^^ 
 
 We are, therefore, to distinguish, according to the \ 
 precefiing tabic, fourteen simple vowels or sounds ; '■ ^ 
 but those sounds are sometimes expressed by certain 
 com-binations of vowels, which ouglit, seemingly, xa^tyx 
 produce different ones. V^ 
 
 ao has tu-o souads { " * !" ^^^'^^ f'''"^ f '^ '^'^'' J=ri^--ti^-«- ^^ 
 
 ( . in taon, haone, Sec. 
 ea, without an accen: over the e, a ; songea, mangea, &lc. -ji;^^ 
 
 1 a .... in douairicre. ^ 
 
 a, has four sounds } ^"""^^ in/;:.//^.:/.;V/wV5M,and compounds _ 
 
 ^ / acute in J' a/, je dtnai, je diner ai, 8iC. 
 ( ^ era 
 
 grave in rnattre, Launai, 8ic. 
 
 Observation. This combination has the sound 
 
 of e acute, in the preterit ;ind future tenses of verbs, 
 
 and of e grave in the middle and at the end of words. 
 
 Accojding to aome gram.manans, we are to except 
 
 B 2
 
 ( 4 ) 
 
 thaison and raisin, with their derivatives, and' we' think 
 the same, notwithstanding many are of a contrary 
 opinion. — With regard to the sound of <3i' before / or 
 //, we shall speak of it in the next chapter. 
 
 eat \ 
 
 ti (have the san 
 
 ly C b^y, hcue. 
 
 aie ' 
 
 same sound, c grave, di'mangeaisjn, seigneur. 
 
 Observation. Some grammarians would give 
 to these combinations the sound oft' atiuc, especially 
 at the end of words ; but we do not hold this opinion 
 altogether right. 
 
 ( c acute aVid / not liquid .... paytarty 
 
 /y has f.vo sounds < ^^^f.';. ., ,,, 
 
 \ a and i liquid lUayiy 
 
 ' May e nee. 
 
 PronouncCj pfisan., abeie, Bla'le, Ma'lence. 
 
 ait \ ^^^'^ ^^^ same sound o , . . bateau, hauteur. 
 
 ci, vowcl, sounds <? or / faisolent, connoUre. 
 
 Observation. Oi is a vowel, having the scv.nd 
 of d' grave, i''. in the inipeifefl and conditional tenses 
 of verbs, ar, : jc disoi^, je dirois : 2^. in tiie verbs 
 ending in oUic^ wliich have more than two syllables : 
 2,^- \n foible and its derivatives ; in roidc, but not in 
 roidir ; in monnoie, and its compounds ; in hanwisy 
 and Charohis: 4^. in the names of nations fret^ucntly 
 spoken of, a? ; Franrois, Anglois., Pohnois, occ— 
 The e mute, in the diird person plural of the impcr- 
 fedl and conditional tenses, serves only to lengtlien the 
 sound. — N. B. Messrs. Garat, Guinguene, Celis, 
 &;c. editors of the Di6lionary of the Acauemy, from 
 the notes left by that illustrious body, intended to have 
 adopted die change of c/ into ai, but in the names of 
 nations only. I'hey have not, however, done it, as 
 in this ihey would have followed their own private 
 opinion, not that of the Academy. 
 
 i mute in ci.coignure. 
 
 ie'wi the middle of wvjrds, / . . . je prieroii.,renie7nent. 
 
 Observation. On this account, some will omit 
 tlie e in-spelling ; but it ought not to be, whin wiillug 
 prose. 
 «?« sounds cu mivurt, sccur, na'uJ.
 
 ( 5 ) 
 
 Orservations. i''. rt is not pronounced in y^(37jf, 
 aoutcron, aonstc, buc )t is in uoutc. 
 
 20. eu has the sound of u in the different tenses ot" 
 the verb avoir, as : en, y V«;f, J'eusse, il eui. It is 
 wrong to give this sound to the lirst syllable oi hcu- 
 rcux. 
 
 3*^. gea, gc:, gcu, are prnnoiinfcd j'a. Jo, hi, as : 
 songra, songcons, gageurc : in these kinds of words, 
 tht £ serves merely to soften the sound of ^, 
 
 OF NASAL VOWELS. 
 
 The nasal vowels are formed of some of the pre- 
 ceding sounds, and the letters m or n final. But are 
 these real vowels ? This is what the Abbe Regnier, 
 and the Abbe Dangeau have contended. " Whoever 
 will pronounce la nuk est loin encore,''^ says the latter 
 to the academicians, " either will adopt the Normaii 
 pronunciation, and say ; la nuii est loin-n-cncore , or 
 he will put a ^ after loin, and say: la nuit est loing 
 encore ; or he will make a little pause between loin 
 and encore : now, the tirst two ways are wrong ; the 
 third alone is right:" whence this learned academi- 
 cian concludes that the nasal vowels are real vowels ; 
 and his opinion is almost universally followed. 
 
 But the Abbe d'Olivet, who, at lirst, had adopted it, 
 afterwards thought otherwise, and, although he al- 
 ways acknowledged that they express an indivisible 
 and simple sound, yet he did not hold tiiem to be real 
 vowels, because they retain so far the consonant n, 
 that on its position defends wliether that consonant 
 ought to be sounded or not. 
 
 Without entering into a discussion which is foreign 
 to these elements, we shall only point out those cases 
 wherein the consonant n Is to be mute or sounded. 
 
 General principle. The nasal termination 
 is never sounded, unless the word containing, and the 
 word following it, be iramediandv, necessarily and in- 
 separably united. 
 
 Thus, the consonant n is sounded in on, before Its 
 verb ; on arrive, on est arrive, which are pronounced 
 tn-n-arrive, on-n-cst arrive : but this pronoun is i^ute 
 
 B 2
 
 { <^ ) 
 
 /7//er the vcib : arrivc-t-on aujourd'' hiii ^ an'iz'a-t-on 
 hicr ? 
 
 It is sounded in the possessive pronouns mon^ ton, 
 ion, and all adjectives placed beioie their subscantives, 
 as : ton esprit;., son atnc, bon angc^ certain auteur, 
 which are pronounced ton n-csprit, son-n-amcy bon- 
 n-ang'e, certaln-n-aiitcur : but it is mute in all substan- 
 tives, and in all adjediives followed by a preposition, 
 as : la ma/son est bcll-e, bon a monier, bon a dcsccndre. 
 This is conformable to the decision given by the 
 Frencli Academv, in answer to the question from the 
 Academy of Caen. 
 
 Such also is ^k, preposition, which is always 
 sounded, as : en Italic, and pronoun, when placed 
 before the verb : jc n'en a'l point ; but we preserve the 
 jnute sound in donnez-m' en un pen. 
 
 The adverbs bicn and rien are always sounded, as : 
 il est bicn elevc, il na rien oublic ; but, when they are 
 substantives, the nasal sound is preserved. 
 
 This principle being thus established, we shall pass 
 to the nasal terminations. 
 
 {amhmon 
 venda/it 
 songt\:tfii 
 ^,7/;pLoi 
 t/zdive 
 
 Exception. Em and en are pronounced as 
 ^ grave, 1°. in words taken frorii foreign languages : 
 'Jerusalem^ triennal, hymen. 2**. in words ending in 
 en or ten, withcftt any other consonant, and their 
 derivatives, as: cxamen, chritlcn-te. 3". in the veibs 
 z-enir, tcnir, and their compounds, queje vicnnc, que 
 j'entretidnne. 4°. in words ending in cue and ai/ie, 
 arene, que je prenne, and at the beginning ot the word 
 hmemi. 
 
 len takes die sound of ^, in words ending in cnt and 
 ence, and their derivatives : patient, patience, patientcr. 
 
 Em sounds a mfemmc, in the adverbs in cnwicnt : 
 diff'eremmcnt, imprudemmcnt, tec. and in solemnel 
 and derivatives. 
 
 Observation. Em is not sounded in die third
 
 rt/»z > sar 
 ain I 
 
 ( 7 ) 
 
 persons of verbs: It merely serves to lengthen the 
 sound: ih a'lment^ ils periscnt \ but, it it be followed 
 by a vowel, then the t is sounded : 'tis aimcnt a rire, 
 pronounce, ils aimet a tire, 
 
 , . mpoli 
 
 ime sound aifz , . ialm 
 
 fin -^ . . . . . p^/«tre 
 
 Exception. The sound of i is preserved, 1°. in 
 proper names taken from foreign languages, as: 5'«?- 
 iirn, Ephra'tm, which are pronounced as if m were 
 followed by e mute. 2°. in all words where / forms a 
 syllable, as : i-vanime., i-nodore, i-nhumain. 3°. at the 
 beginning of words mimm or inn, as: innocent, immoler. 
 Observation. Grammarians do not agree about 
 the nature of tliis sound. Some will have it to be a 
 very weak /, or a particular sound partaking of the 
 e and the /; others sav it is the e f(/liowed by a liquid 
 sound. Mr. Duclos thinks it ought to be pronounced 
 ain. 
 
 om ^ .... cox»jp!ec 
 
 on J- same sound on . donji5« 
 
 enn 3 • • • * nous rongfo«j 
 
 urn ^ .... parf«OT 
 
 un > same sound eun . importi^« 
 £!tn } .... z-]eun 
 
 Observation. The u preserves its natural sound 
 in die adjedlive un, used in the feminine, as: um 
 J'emmc, or in the masculine before a vowel, or an /i 
 mute, as: un esprit^ unhomme. 
 
 l;rn is sounded oni in some words taken from foreign 
 languages, as: facium, duumvir^ triumvir ^ centum' 
 vir-y and dieir derivatives. 
 
 OF DIPPITHONGS. 
 
 The combinations of vowels already mentioned, form 
 only indivisible and simple sounds ; but there are others 
 that give the sound of two vowels at one and the same 
 time, and by a single impulse of the voice : these are 
 called diphthongs. 
 
 Two things, therefore, are to be considered in the 
 nature of a diphthong; 1". that there ought not to be, 
 ai least in any sensible manner, two successive mouons
 
 ( 8 ) 
 
 in the organs of speech; 2°. that the ear ought di- 
 stinctly to hear the sound of the two vowels in one 
 single impulse of the voice. W!ien I say Dieu, I 
 hear i and eu\ and these two sounds are united in one 
 single syllable, and pronounced at one and the same 
 time. 
 
 Grammaiians do not agree about the number of 
 diphthongs. The following table appears to us the 
 most exadl. 
 
 at 
 ia 
 
 ie 
 
 {i 
 
 pat/if«t 
 \ieu 
 
 ^ie . ; . v/VlIe ion . -pion 
 
 l^iai . , . hiais iou . ch/oz/rme 
 
 ioi . . \oi oe . mo'AlQ 
 
 Jeot . , willageois ouan . JLcouafz 
 
 l^dual . . ouais oua . eqrfauuT , 
 
 < o/'n . . \o!fz oue . oue-iX. 
 
 \ oiiin , • niarso«/'« out •> oui, houi^ 
 
 iio. , , p/(?che tie . icueWc 
 
 \iait . . -piaiiuc ui . l.'</, tud 
 
 ien . . xien uin . q«/;;quagesime 
 
 -Observations. I. We have already seen, in 
 the first section of this chapter, the cases wherein 01 is 
 pronounced as a vowel ; the following are those 
 wherein it is pronounced as a diphthong. 
 
 10. In monos'^'Ilables, and in verbs of two sylla- 
 bles ending in oirc and oitre, as: moi,froid, boh, satty 
 &c. croire, croUre: the contrary pronunciation of 
 some v/omon and piths-mailres is altogether absurd 
 and ridiculous. 
 
 2°. In polysyllables ending in ol, o'lc, oir, aire, eolrCy 
 as: emploi, ccurroic^ vouloir, observatolrc^ nagioire. 
 
 30. In 0/, oy, followed by a vowel, as : ondoiemcnt, 
 
 royah 
 
 4". In the middle of v.-ords, as: poison, court oisie. 
 
 50, In the names of nations seldom mentioned, as : 
 Br.nols, Chinois^ Iroquois, &:c., except Japo?iois, 
 which is pronounced as a vowel ; Francois, a man's 
 name, is pronounced as a diphthong. 
 
 This diphiliong has not always the same sound : the 
 most natural is tint followed in Greek, wherein both 
 the and die i are heard, as in voi-ieHc, roi-iaume; but 
 it has also tlucc oiher sounds, which it is difficult to
 
 f 9 } 
 represent in writing, and wliich can only be learnt of 
 a skilful teacher. They are nearly r\ that of oc^ 
 where the e has an open sound, approaching to that 
 of a, nsfoi^/roid; 2°. that of oa, mois^ pois; 3°. that 
 of oua, bois ; pronounce, foe, moa, bona. 
 
 In words where oi is followed by e mute, its sound 
 seems to be a little more open than when it is a simple 
 diphthong: sole, 7ro/V, differ from joi, moz ; but this 
 shade cannot be easily ascertained. 
 
 II. Some of these combinations of vowels are diph- 
 thongs only in prose: in poetry, they arc pronounced 
 as two syllables. Of this kind are ic and ion: we say 
 in poetry hi-cr, vous devri-ez,actt-on, amhhi-on, vizt 
 tor ;>, in all verbs ending in /Vr, in rie%, sounc-z. ; in 
 those verbs which, aiihough they do not end in iery 
 yet have in their tenses le preceded by br^ tr, dr^ vr, 
 as: -vous mettri-ez, voudri-ez, &c.; in nouns in the 
 above cases, and whenever ie is followed by a ^, as : 
 impi-ttc : and z5 in all cases, except in yzo/t'. picche. 
 
 O'e is but one syllable in boete, t-^'i^* mocle, poele^ ; 
 but always two, except in common conversation, in 
 pQcme^ pohe, pocsie, poi'tique. Tho^e who pronounce 
 these last words like the four preceding ones are 
 wrong, especially in the last two, which are now 
 written with e acute, the better to mark the true pro- 
 nunciation. This is also the opinion of the Academy. 
 
 The French have no triphthongs, although they 
 have syllables composed ot three vowels, because there 
 is no syllable that conveys three sounds in one single 
 impulse of the voice. Dun and uiais (the latter in 
 prose) are only diphthongs, because we hear but twa 
 sounds i-cu and i-ai : Jout, akhough composed of 
 three vowels, is only a monothong, because wc hear 
 only the simple sound on. 
 
 CHAP. 11. 
 
 OF CONSONANTS. 
 
 The vowels represent the sounds, or the simple 
 emission of the sonorous air : but the consonants re- 
 present the articulations, that is, the explosion which 
 the voice receives by the sudden and instantaneous mo- 
 .tionof some of themoveableparts of the organs ot speedi»
 
 ( 10 ) 
 
 The French language has nineteen consonants, or 
 twenty, if we include the >•, which, according to 
 Mr, Duclos, seems to be a consonant in some words. 
 They are b^ c, d^ /, ^, h^ j, k, /, m, n, p, q, r, 
 Sj '> y, X, y, z. 
 
 It is acknowleged as a principle, that a consonant 
 has no sound of itself: to be heard, it must be 
 accompanied by a vowel. 
 
 Some grammarians sound the consonants by means 
 of sonorous vowels, and others by the help of e mute. 
 The first manner has long been the only one in use, 
 and, in this case, the consonants are pronounced l;e, ce, 
 de, efe, 6cc. But Meffrs. de Port-Royal, who saw 
 the inconvenience to which this gave rise, proposed 
 the second in 1660. This method, by which we pro- 
 nounce the consonants be^ ce, de, fe, &:c. remained 
 for some time unattended to, for this reason alone, 
 viz. that it was contrary to the general pradlice : but 
 it was renewed with success by Messrs. Launai, 
 father and son, and adopted in the typographical. 
 Bureau of J\lr. Dumas. " This new method," says 
 Air. Duclos, " inserted in the last edition of the 
 Dfctionary of the Academy, and adopted in the best 
 schools, v/ill at last prevail over the old one, on 
 account of the advantages which it must be acknow- 
 ledged to possess ; but it will be the woik ot time, 
 because it is reasonable." Mr. Duclos was mistaken; 
 for, it has long been the only one in use, even in the 
 most insignificant schools of Paris. It, indeed, pos- 
 sesses very great advantages : by following it, we 
 accustom ourselves to a good pronunciation, as we 
 then give to each syllable its true sound and just 
 value, and get rid of every vicious habit in speaking: 
 this has been experienced in those provinces that were 
 noted for a bad accent. In short, it lessens die diffi- 
 culties of spelling, since to spell so is to read. If I 
 tell a child to spelt these two syllables, fri, pro, I 
 shall find, according to the first method, that tfe, err^ 
 :', makes ^yiri, and^t', err, 0, mdkcs pcCrro. Then, 
 th.it I may have the true sound of these syllables, 1 
 must remove ihosc sounds that are entirely false iind
 
 ( II ) 
 
 foreign to their pronunciation, an inconvenience to 
 wliich the other method is not hable, since fe^ re, i, 
 makes at once fri, and pe, re, o, pro. 
 
 Every consonant should have hut one sound, viz. 
 tliat which is proper to it ; but they often change it 
 according to their position ; tliis we shall call acci- 
 dental sound, in the following 
 
 TABLE OF CONSONANTS, ACCORDING TO THEIR. 
 PROPER OR ACCIDENTAL SOUND. 
 
 X-ettcrs. Names. 
 £, h. be proper sound . . . Babylcr.e, beat, bible, bonnet, 
 P.KCdphale. 
 
 h, at the beginning of a word, always preserves 
 its proper sound. 
 
 It is always pronounced in the middleof the word, 
 ahJiqucr, suhvcn'ir, &cc. 
 
 Likewise, at the end of proper names, ^5^, Calebf 
 tec. and in radoub, rumb. 
 
 When double, which only happens in abbe, and 
 its derivatives, only one is sounded. 
 
 ( que . . proper sound before a, 0, u . . cadre, coco, cure, 
 C, c.Kse . . . accidental sound before e, i , . ceci. 
 
 t^ue . . accidental sound through custom, second, secon- 
 dement, &c. 
 
 C, at the beginning and in the body of the word, 
 preserves its proper sound before a, 0, u, I, n, r, f, 
 and at the end of tlie syllable : before 7^, however, 
 its sound is not quite so hard : clcmcnce, creduUte, 
 Ctcsiphon, cupidhe. It is not sounded in the middle 
 of words, before q, ca, co, cu, cl, cr : acquer'ir, ac- 
 cablcr, accomplW, accuser, acclamation, accrcd'iter ; 
 nut it is pronounced with its proper sound before c^, 
 cl : succcs, accident. It preserves its accidental sound 
 sc, only before e and i, or when there is a ccdllle 
 under the c : facade, fagon, re'gu. As to the other 
 accidental sound gue, it is also preserved, according 
 to the practice of some persons, in secret and all its 
 derivatives, though less marked : but the new dic- 
 tionary of the Academy does not make any men- 
 tion of it. 
 
 At the end of words, it is generally pronounced.
 
 { 12 ) 
 
 ecgnar, trictrac^ avec, bee, slndlc, cstoc, aqueduc^ 
 Sec. and then it has its proper sound ; but it is not 
 sounded in hroc, clcrc^ marc, jonc, ironc, Lcfranc^ 
 almanack, am'ict, estomac, I abac, cotignac, lac (a 
 ribband knot) and in done ; but this last, only when, 
 in the body ot a sentence, it is followed by a con- 
 sonant. In the adje(5livesyV^;?f and blanc, the c is 
 never sounded, except in these expressions : franc 
 ctourdi, du blanc au no'ir. 
 
 cc are both pronounced only before c and ;', snccts^ 
 accident. 
 Let. Names. 
 
 T) ^ $ de proper sound .... Dai'id, de, Diane, dodit. 
 ' ' X t accidental sound, before a vowel, or /^mutc. .grand 
 arbrc, grand homvie. 
 
 D, at the beginning of a word, always pre- 
 serves its proper sound ; and also in the body of it, 
 when followed by a consonant, adjeB'if, advcrbc. Sec. 
 
 At the end ot words, d preser\es its proper 
 sound in proper names : Obcd, Da-aid, and is sound- 
 ed as t in the other words before a vowel : quand H 
 "jiendra. It is never sounded in gond, nid and mv.'id; 
 but it sounds in pled, in the expression, de fled en 
 cap, and never in other words before a consonant. 
 
 dd are both pronounced, addition, reddltion, &:c. 
 T, f' f£ proper sound . . . fnveur, feminin, Jtni, for't, funesfe, 
 which sound is always preserved at the beginning, or 
 in the middle cf words. 
 
 Finaiy is pronounced in y?///*, «£/", ^^If, cxpres- 
 slf, serf, chef, rierf hosif, vceuf ; but not in clcf^ 
 cerf, chcf-d' ceuvrc, nerf de bcevf, du bceufsale, un 
 ceuf frals. In ticuf signifying new, custom has 
 not decided on the pronunciation of they, un habit 
 neuf, or ncu ; but it is never sounded in the plural, 
 elcs habits ticus : we also say dcs bceus, des ceus. lu 
 Wf?//" signifying 7ilne, they" sounds like v, before a 
 vowel or h mute, neuf ans, dlx~ncif hommes, say : 
 fieu-'vans : to sound the y so in any other word is 
 akogerher wrong. It is not sounded at all before a 
 CO Pr •: nt, as; neu-c/ievaux : but it is sounded 
 wi. > itself, as: lis ctolcntncuf. 
 
 Wiieu
 
 ( 13 ) 
 When double, it sounds only like one : affolbl'ir^ 
 effaroucher^ oj^r'ir^ &cc. 
 
 Ph is pronounced /: phllosophley pharmactc. 
 
 Let. Names. 
 
 / guf proper sound before a, o, u . . . . ^uUr, gorier, 
 
 -''"■') ic accidental sound before f, / gele'e, rib:er. 
 
 ' ke accidental sou.nd, only in raKg, l(ing, satfg, ioWoswii 
 by a vowel. 
 
 G, in the beginning, or middle of a word, nevci 
 has its accidental sound except before e and / ; ia 
 every other case, it has its proper sound, with this 
 difference, that it v->unds very hard before a, o, /, 
 r, ua, ne^ ucn ; gateau, fester, gloticux, grmuiir, 
 hriguey gucnon, briguay "voguons, and les^ in gUf 
 gue, gueu, giiiy guo:t, guoient ; guttural^ gturirt 
 guerre, gueulc, guider, voguoit, voguoient. 
 
 Observation. GkI is pronounced at one and 
 the same time, though sounding the «, in aiguille. 
 and its derivatives ; in aiguisement, oigmser, and in 
 these proper names : Aiguillon, Guise, le Guide ; 
 tut the K is not sounded in these words : guider^ 
 guidon, nnguiHe, vivre a sa guise, &c. 
 
 G final sounds ^^d- in proper names : Agag, Doeg, 
 Sigeleg, &CC. and injoug, even before a consonanr, 
 although a little softer. It is not pronounced in 
 doigt, un legs, le poing^ vitigt, hareng, etang, rang^ 
 sang, long, (these last three before a consonant) 
 seing (signature) and fauxbourg : it sounds gue in 
 i/ourgmestre. 
 
 When double, only one is pronounced, except 
 before ge and gi, and then the first sounds ;^«tf ; sug- 
 gerer. It has the same sound in the middle of word* 
 before d, rn, h : Magdebourg, cugmenter, Ghilany 
 Berghem. 
 II, h. he proper sound . . . harrfau, he'r'jS, hih'.u, hoquiton, hupe. 
 
 As we shall speak of this letter in the next chap- 
 ter, we shall only observe here, tliat it has na va- 
 lue but when aspirated, 
 
 C
 
 ( 14 ) 
 
 "^ Let. Names. 
 y,j. je proper sound . . . jamais, JL-su'ite, yU-ai, joU, ju^fr. 
 
 y^ at the beginning, or in the middle of a word, 
 always preserves its proper sound ; but we have al- 
 ready seen that g before c and i has the same sound : 
 also before ea, eo, ru, mangea, mangeons, gagcure. 
 
 Observation. Geu has two sounds ; that of 
 Jm, in some words, as : gageure, mangatre, &c. 
 and that ofjcu in others, as : mangeur, gageur^ 6cc. 
 Practice alone can teach this difference, 
 
 A'j k. que very hard, proper sound . . . kalendes, kcrma, kiini, 
 kiritlle. 
 
 This letter, which might be very useful to dis- 
 tinguish ^?^^ hard from gue soft, is hardly ever used, 
 
 X, I, le proper sound . . . Latonc, legion, livre, lege, lime. 
 Z,, at the beginning of a word, always preserves 
 its proper sound ; but, in the middle, or at the end, 
 it sometimes has a liquid sound, which we shall 
 mention hereafter. It is sounded in the word 
 quelqucfois-y but, in conversation, the most general 
 pracSiice is for not sounding it in quelque, qtulfuun. 
 Final / is generally sounded, as : moral, mortel, 
 Mogol, scul, pueril, &:c. We are only to except 
 haril, chcnil, ml, fusil, out'il, fenil, founul, coutily 
 soul, sQurcil and gentil followed by a consonant ; 
 but before a vowel, il has the liquid sound, gentil en- 
 fant, gentil- homme; but it is mute in the plural, 
 gentils-hommcs, and also in un fils. In conversa- 
 tion, it is not sounded in the personal pronouns il 
 and ils. 
 
 When double, we commonly sound but one, as 
 jn allumer, college, collation (luncheon), &:c. ; but 
 they are both sounded in allusion, allcgorie, appcl- 
 latif, belUqueux, collation de benefice, vaciller, mil- 
 lionaire, collusion, constellation, cglise gallicancy 
 and perhaps a few others : they are also pionounced 
 in all words beginning with //, as illustrc, illuminer^ 
 &c. 
 
 A/, m. me proper sound. . . . machine, methode, midi, modelCf 
 7ms e.
 
 ( 15 ) 
 
 ^/, at the beginning of a word, always preserves 
 its proper sound. In the middle, it sometimes as- 
 sumes the nasal sound mentioned before, as in 
 ambition, humble, and sometimes not. It is not 
 sounded in automnc, colomne, c/amncr, and its de- 
 rivatives, which it would be better to spell with nn : 
 but it is sounded in amnistie, hymne, automnal, ca- 
 Icmnie, somnambule^ Agamemnon, indemniser^ in~ 
 demmte. 
 
 Final m has a nasal sound, as ; Adam, /aim, 
 7tom, parfitm, &c. ; except, l°. Jerusalem, Ephrdim, 
 Selim ; 2°. hem I item, septemvir, and such others 
 •which are merely Latin. 
 
 When double, we generally sound but one, as 
 in commode, commis, 6cc. ; except, 1°. proper 
 names, such as Ammon, Emmanuel, &c. ; 2°. the 
 words beginning with imm, such as immortel, im- 
 mobile, immoler, bcc. ; 3^. the words in which ^m is 
 followed by m, such as emmailloter, cmmancher, &c. 
 but in this last case em assumes the nasal sound. 
 
 Let. Names. 
 
 li, II. ne proper sound . . . nager, Nt'.on, Nieaise, novice^ 
 
 nudite. 
 
 N, at the beginning of a word, always preserves 
 its proper sound, as al;>o in the middle, when before 
 a vowel, as in anerie : but, if followed by a conso- 
 nant, it then assumes the nasal sound, as in ancre, 
 engraver, ingredient, &c. 
 
 Final n is sounded in abdomen, amen, hymen, exa^ 
 men ; it always has the nasal sound in the other 
 substantives, as well as in adverbs, pronouns, and 
 adje6lives, except in those cases mentioned in the 
 nasal sounds. 
 
 When double, we generally sound but one, as in 
 annee, connoitre, sonner, 6cc. ; except in annexe, an- 
 nal, annuel, annotation, a'lnuler, inne, innover, and 
 their derivatives. In the word ennemi, en has the 
 seund of e, but in ennui, it has that of a. 
 P, /. pe proper sound . . . pape, pitie, pose, puce^ 
 
 C2
 
 ^ i6 ) 
 
 P, at the beginning, or in the middle of a word, 
 always preserves its proper sound, except as we have 
 already seen, when followed by /;. It is sounded 
 'in baptismal., sceptiqiie, scepticisme, Septembre, les 
 sepiaritSy septenolrc, septef/fial, septentrion, septen- 
 ^tri'onal, septuagenairc, septuaghitne ; in accepter^ 
 (tiicepiery and their derivatives ; in ademption, cx- 
 fniption, rcdempteur, redemption, contempteitr, and 
 contemptible : but it is always jnute in haptemCf 
 baptiser, baptistaire, exempt, exempter, compter 
 •compter, comp table, comptant, compteur, cotnptoir ; 
 in prompt and iis derivatives ; in symptomaiique, 
 iymptovie \ in sept and its derivatives : it is sounded 
 in impromptu. 
 
 Final p is hardly ever pronounced, as : un camp 
 itendu, ee drap est.-bon. We only except ^Icp, cap^ 
 •Gap, cep, jalap, the two words trap and beaucoup 
 before a vowel ; also, in solemn speaking, the word 
 coup, before a vowel ; coup inattendu, coup e^itraor^ 
 dinairt. 
 
 When double, we never pronounce but one. 
 
 Ji^t. Names. 
 
 ^, q. que proper s^un(^ .... qualite, qiienouille, quitter, quoti- 
 dien, plqure. 
 
 Q, at the beginning, or in the middle of a word, 
 always preserves its proper sound, but \Vith this dif- 
 ference, that, in qj4a, quo, que, its sound is hard, 
 like k, qualite, quotidien, quenouiUe, and in quiy 
 nut, qiiu, it is rather softer, aoquerir, quitter^ pi' 
 quure, or piqiire. 
 
 This letter is never doubled. 
 
 Observation. Qua, que, qui, preserve the 
 Latin sound in the following words, where they 
 are pronounced r5«<7, cue, a//, viz : aquatile, aqua- 
 tique, equateur, equation, quukre, quadragesime, qua-- 
 dragenaire, quadrangle, quadrangulaire, quadra- 
 ture, quadrlcolor, quadriennal, quadrifolium, qua- 
 drigCj quadr I latere, quadrinome, quadrupcdcy 
 quadruple, quadrupler, in-quarto, quaternaire, qua~ 
 ternite, questeur, questure, equestre, a- quia, quin- 
 decagoncy quinquagenaire, quitiquagtsime, quin^uen-
 
 ( 17 ) 
 
 nal, quinquennium, quintuple, cquiangle, equtdistattti 
 equilateral, eqiinnultiple, liquation, liquefaction. 
 
 Let. Names. 
 
 R, r, re proper sound . . . rarete, regie, rivage, Rome, ruche. 
 
 R, at the beginning, or in the middle of a word, 
 always preserves its proper sound. In conversation, 
 it is but little sounded in notre, voire, before a con- 
 sonant, except in l>iotre Dame (the Holy Virgin), 
 but it sounds in those words, when followed by a 
 vow©4 or preceded by the article, votre ami, la 
 notre. 
 
 Final r is founded in all terminations which are 
 not in er, as : car, air, or, sur, soupir, sieur, Sec, 
 except Alonsieur. In words ending in er, it is 
 sounded in cher, fier, mer, amer, belveder, cancer y 
 la cuiller, enfer, ether, frater, garter, hier, hiver^ 
 Lucifer, magistcr, pater, and in proper names, Ju- 
 piter, Esther, Munster, le Niger, Statouder, &cc. 
 According to the French Academvi we ought to 
 sound the r in a/tier and leger, but this is contrary 
 to the general custom, and has been altered in the 
 last edition of the didionary. In all other words, 
 the r is not sounded: cepoirier est mart, ces poiriers 
 ont peri ; pronounce, ce poirie est mart, ces poiries 
 ont peri. 
 
 Observation. Many persons, brought up in 
 the provinces, do not sound the r in the termina- 
 tion//"; but it IS wrong, even in conversation. As 
 for the termination er, it ought to be sounded in so- 
 lemn speaking, and especially in pocrr)-, when fol- 
 lowed by a vowel or h mute, and then, we ought to 
 give it the sound of ^^ grave common : aimer ajouerf 
 ought to be pronounced aimc ra joue, whereas, 
 when it is mute, the termination assumes the sound 
 of e acute : aimer la promenade^ pHonounce; aimi la 
 promenade. But, in conversation, custom autho- 
 rises the hiatus, and we pronounce aimer d jouer, 
 folatrer l£ rire, without sounding the r, aime a 
 jcui,folatre l^ rire. " To pronounce odierwise," 
 says the Abbe d" Olivet, '* betrays the pedant oi the 
 provincial." 
 
 r "
 
 ( i8 ) 
 
 When (double, we pronounce but one : arroser^ 
 arr'tver, penuque, &c. : except, lo. in abirration^ 
 dbhtrrer, errtr, erreur, tcrreur, and their deriva- 
 tives. 2°. in words beginning vt^ith irr^ as irriteVf 
 irreconcUiab/e, &cc. 30. in the future and condi- 
 tional tenses of the verbs acquirir, mourir, cotairy 
 and their derivatives ; j^acquenai, je mourrois^ 6cc, 
 
 Let. Names. 
 
 i se proper sound !og£, sejour, Sion, Solofiy 
 
 S, i. < Sucre. 
 
 {^ ze accidental sound . . . usage, user, risible, raison- 
 
 ner, resume. 
 
 S, at the beginning of a word, always preserves its 
 proper sound : except before c/w, chi^ where it is 
 mute, as in schcllng, schisme, &c. 
 
 In the middle ot a word, it also has its proper 
 sound, except, 1°. between two vowels, as in mi- 
 son. usage ; 2^^. before b and d, as in presbytcre, 
 Asdrubal ; 3°. in AlsacCy bahamlnc, baham'Kjue, 
 and in the syllable trans, followed by a vowel : we 
 only except these three words; translr^ transisse- 
 incnt, Transyhanie. 
 
 When followed by ce or x'l, the sound of s is 
 cnly heard, as in sc^ne, science, which are pro- 
 nounced si'ne, s'unce : but it is sounded in all the 
 Other combinations : seapidalre, scolarlte, scrupuie, 
 catec/iisnu'f ostentation, &c. 
 
 Final s is sounded in as, aloes, la vis ; in word$ 
 irierely Latin, Afomus, I'^euus, Fabius, droit de 
 {ommittimiis, un agnus, See, ; in b:bi<s, bo/us, ca- 
 fifs, Phehus, rebiis, sinus ; in lis (a flower) and 
 /a Lis, (a river). It is,, however, mote wjieur de- 
 lis. But it assumes its accidental sound, when, in 
 pronunciation, it unites with a word beginning with, 
 a yowct, as : de plus en- plus. 
 
 When double, we only pronounce one,. biU with 
 its proper sound. 
 
 Observation. The e preceding ss has some- 
 times the sound of / acute, as in pressentir, dessaUr^ 
 ressusdtcr, See. and soaietimes that of # mute, us in.
 
 C 19 ) 
 
 de<;sus, dcssausy nssembler, rrssir/ra, Sec. but prac* 
 tice alone can teach this difference. 
 
 Lett. Names. 
 
 rp ife proper sound . .fid/lt,'rfiiebres, Tihulle^tepitive^^be. 
 *'' \ce accidental soond .... abhAtial, />ati£nt, propfyetHf 
 a£tiofty Vinitien. 
 
 7", at the beginning of a word, always preserves 
 its proper sound, even when followed by two vow 
 els : also in the middle, whenever followed by any 
 other vowel than /', and when followed by tliat 
 vowel in st'i, xti, th'i : question, indigestion, mixtion^ 
 Afatthias, &c. ; but in ti, its souml is sometimes 
 proper, sometimes accidental. 
 
 It assumes the latter, 1°. in the adjectives ending 
 in tial and tieux : ahbatiali captieux. 2°. in those 
 ending in tient, and their derivatives : patient, pa- 
 ticncc, impaticKter, &;c. 3°. in the words ending in 
 atie, ttie, aptie, otie and utic : primatii, ineptir, 
 Beotie, prophetic, minutie, &c. 4». in the veibs 
 initicr, balbutier, and iheir derivatives. 5°. in the 
 names of nations, or persons ending in tien : Dio^ 
 ciitien, Venitien, &cc. 6s. in the nouns ending in 
 tion, and their dc^rivatives. 
 
 In other words, / presei-ves its proper sound in 
 tie : galimatias, chatier, le tien, chfetien.^ &c. 
 Hence, we see why we pronounce 
 With the accidental sound. W'ith the proper sound. 
 
 5 ^eiibutier chatier 
 
 ' ' initier entier 
 
 C°. 
 
 J I'iultien lesotdien 
 
 ( Gratlen fent ret tens 
 
 les atteiitions nous attentions 
 
 les intentions nous intentions 
 
 les inventions nous inventions 
 
 Ui portions, &c. nous portions, &•■ 
 
 T final is sounded in bruty apt, Christ, la dot^ 
 fat, indult, le lest d'un vuisseau, rapt, le zetutk, 
 entre le xist l^ le zest. 
 
 in sept and huit, the t is sounded, when they 
 are used by themselves : ils etoient sept ; combien 
 itie%-vons ? huit : or when followed by a vowel : 
 sept hommes, huit abricots ; but never beiore a con* 
 £ouanu sept piches^ /mit maimns.
 
 ( 20 ) 
 
 In vingt, it is sounded through the whole series 
 from twenty to thirty ; vingt-rm, vingt-dcux, &c. ; 
 but not in the series from quatre-v'tngt (eighty) to 
 a hundred, nor in six-vingt. It is also mute in 
 v'lngt, when by itself, or followed by a consonant : 
 nous et'ions vingt, vingt soldats. Before a vowel, 
 it is sounded in the singular ; vingt abricots ; but 
 not in the plural : — quatre-vlngts abricots^ say 
 i^uatre-vin-zabricots. 
 
 In words ending in e£f^ it is not sounded, except 
 in correal and dire^. 
 
 In all other words, it is sounded when followed 
 by a vowel with which it unites : an savant homme, 
 je suis tout a vous, s^il vient a partlr. 
 
 When double, we pronounce but one, except in 
 attique^ atticisme, guttural^ battologie, and pltto- 
 resque. 
 
 Let. Names. 
 y, V. nje proper sound .. . valeur^ velours, 'ulc/ame, •volant e, 
 "vue. 
 
 V, at the beginning, or in the middle of a word, 
 always preserves its proper sound : it is never 
 double. 
 
 ■cs axe, sexe, axiome, Xinophon, Xav'ur. 
 
 gz c . . . . tX'imen, exemple. exil, Exode, exhorter, ex- 
 o hiimer, and derivatives. 
 
 », ^ s Z. .... Auxerre, Bruxelles, six, dix (when by them- 
 Ji^,x.\ ^ selves), soixante, Aix-la-Chupelle. 
 
 ' f £ . . . . excellent, exceller, &c. 
 z o ' • "deuxicme, sixicme, dixienie, dix-htdt, diX' 
 s neuf, and derivatives. 
 
 Some persons soften the pronunciation cs in pro- 
 per names, and say, Scnophon. 
 
 At the end of words, x is pronounced cs in Styx, 
 fhenix, index, borax., storax, larynx, cn'ix, prefix, 
 Pollux, Ast'ianax, and other proper names. 
 
 In other words, x is not pronounced, before a 
 consonant : six jours., dix livres ; but, before a 
 ' vowel, it sounds as %: six amis, heureux enfant. 
 
 This letter is never double. 
 
 Y is a vowel, when by itself, or placed between
 
 ( 21 ) 
 
 two consonants, in words derived frorti the Greek: 
 ;7 y va, systcme, a^yle. But, according to Mr. 
 Boindin and Mr. Duclos, it is both a vowel and a 
 consonant, as to the sound, in payer, royaume, &c. 
 that is, an ; uniting with the a, to give it the sound 
 oi e, and with the o, to form the diphthong oi ; and 
 the second stroke of the ^ is a weak hquid sound : 
 pal-icr, roi-iaume. According to them, it is a con- 
 sonant in ycux^ poysan, abbayc, which are pro- 
 nounced icux, pehan, abcie, and in a'kux-, which 
 for a long time was spelt ayeux. 
 Let. Names. 
 Z, z. xi proper sound. . Zacharle, zt'pfiirt, ^iicamie, r.one, Zurich, 
 
 Z preserves its proper sound at the beginning, 
 and in the middle of a word. 
 
 Final 2 sounds'i in ATetz, Rodez. It is not pro- 
 nounced in the second persons plural of verbs, when 
 , followed by a consonant ; voiis aimcz, vous ririez. 
 
 We never double this letter, except perhaps in a 
 few Italian words, as : ^huzze. 
 
 Beside the above consonants, there are three 
 others, for which wc have no simple chara<5ter, viz. 
 CH, cL die proper souiid . . chapeau, chcrir, chicane, chose, chute. 
 
 This consonant is perhaps the most puzzling we 
 have for foreigners ; for, sometimes it pieserves its 
 proper sound, and sometimes it assumes that of ^, 
 w-hich happens, i*'. when it is followed by I, h, 
 or r : chritlen, Arachnc, Chloris. 2°. in words 
 taken from the Hebrew or Greek, when followed 
 by a, 0, u : Achab, Chanaan, Catcchumene, Na~ 
 hitchodcnosor, &c. 3*'. in several words taken from 
 foreign languages, in which it is tiius sounded before 
 e, e, i : Michel- Aiige^ Machiavel, archetlpe, archie 
 episcopal, Ciz'ita-l'ecchia, Achelous, chimosc, &c, ; 
 but in this last case there are so many exceptions, 
 that we must refer the learner to pra6fice alone ; 
 for, we pronounce soft Zachce,'Joachim, archeveque^ 
 archipretre. In conversation, Acheron is also pro- 
 nounced soft.
 
 ( 22 ) 
 
 Letters. Names. 
 
 CN, g!i. g}7e proper sound . . . Champagne, regfie, Avignon^ 
 
 ligne. 
 
 The liquid sound of this consonant takes place 
 only in the middle of words, where it is always 
 preserved, except in Progne, agnat, agnation, ag- 
 natique (law-teims), dlagnostiqtte, cognat, impreg- 
 nation, regnicole, inexpugnable, in which the g and 
 the n are heard each separately. 
 
 {i heard distinft from the liquid sound . . .peril, Jille, 
 ILL 'II < bahillc. 
 
 ' * y / blended with the liquid sound . . . tjn'il aille, email, 
 C maille. 
 
 This liquid sound is represented sometimes by a 
 single /, sometimes by //, and sometimes by Ih : 
 peril, fille, Milhau, Pardalhac. 
 
 It generally takes place in the middle, or at the 
 end of the word ; but the i and die / are distinctly 
 heard, with each its proper sound, in Achille, im- 
 hecillc, campanille, Gille, pupille, ville, tranquille, 
 and their derivatives : in Jil, Nil, file, a la file, 
 ar gille, mil (a numeral), mille, Lille, and in the 
 adjedlives ending in // and He : pueril, ^jil, faciky 
 ^c. except gcntil, before a substantive beginning 
 with a vowel, and gentille in the feminine. 
 
 As this liquid sound never takes place at the be- 
 ginning of a word, we ought of course to except 
 ail those beginning with ///; illustre, illegal, Sec. 
 
 The Abbe de Dangeau was the tirft who divided 
 the consonants into soft and hard. Having ob- 
 served that there are several which are easily pro- 
 nounced one for anodier, because those letters arc 
 produced by the same organs, only used with moie 
 or less force and stress, he composed tables of con- 
 sonants, according to that division, and in this he 
 has been followed by our best grammarians. In 
 imitation of them, we shall give the following table 
 ot soft and hard consonants, to which we shall sub- 
 join the nasals, the liquids, and the aspirate.
 
 ( 23 ) 
 
 TABLE. 
 Soft Consonants. Hard Consonsnts. 
 
 of bon . . . 
 
 • / 
 
 of pont 
 
 of c/o» . 
 
 . / 
 
 of ton 
 
 of gueide 
 
 • 5- 
 
 of guenoH 
 
 of jurnais 
 
 . c/t 
 
 of c/ie'val 
 
 of duller^ queue 
 
 . k 
 
 of kalendei 
 
 of 'vin . 
 
 . f 
 
 oi Jill 
 
 of zcie . . . 
 
 . i 
 
 of Jf/r^ 
 
 s 
 j 
 
 Nasals. 
 TO of mon ..,./? of «{77 
 
 Liquids. 
 T of /(?«/ . . . . y of rond 
 
 Strong liquid sounds. 
 /// of paille, fille . . gfi of reg7!e 
 
 Soft liquid sound. Aspirated sound. 
 
 ? with a diuresis of pa:en, a'leul . .A of heros. 
 
 From ihe above table it appears, that the two nasals 
 m and ;z, the two hquids / and r, and the aspirated 
 letter //, are the only ones that do not change their 
 sound from soft to hard, or from hard to soft 
 
 If we count the articulations represented by the 
 consonants, we shall find that they form twenty-one 
 or twenty-two simple sounds, wliich added to the 
 nineteen formed by the vowels, make together forty 
 or forty-one sounds. These sounds, which may be 
 called primitive, are the elements of all languages: 
 we, therefore, find them all,. to a few, in all nations, 
 even the least civilised, because they necessarily 
 result from the organ of the voice. From these sounds 
 are all languages derived, and to them they are all 
 reduced, however they may differ from one another^ 
 For, this diversity does not arise from any difference 
 in the nature of sounds, but from the difference which 
 men have put in the combination of those sounds. 
 
 We have said, page 3, that a'l has the sound of e 
 mute in falsant, jc faisols. Sec. But in hlcnfa'isant, 
 bienfaisance, the sound of ^ mute takes place in con- 
 versation, and that of e open on the stage, in the pul- 
 pit, and at the bar. We have also said, page 4, that 
 ci is pronounced in cncoigyiure ; whereupon the 
 Academy observes, drat many persons omit tire i iu
 
 ( 24 ) 
 
 tliis word. AVe have not mentioned opion and its 
 derivatives, because the i is omitted by the Academy 
 itself, and therefore, there is no occasion to except 
 them. 
 
 CHAP. III. 
 
 OF SYLLABLES. 
 
 The vowels and consonants mix and combine to- 
 gether, and from these combinations generally result 
 the syllables. We say generally, because it some- 
 times happens tliat a single vowel forms a syllabic, as 
 in a-tni, o-deur. The nature of syllables consists in 
 their being pronounced with a single impulse of t!ie 
 voice. 
 
 There are three things to be considered in syllables, 
 viz. accent, aspiration, and quantity. 
 
 OF THE ACCENT. 
 
 The accent expresses an impulse of the voice, either 
 raised or depressed : for, there are in all languages 
 certain inflexions of the voice which raise the tone, 
 others which lower it, and others again, which first 
 raise and then instantly lower it on the same syllable. 
 The raised tone Is called acute accent ( ') ; the de- 
 pressed tone grave accent {) ; and that which is suc- 
 cessively raised and depressed on the same syllable, 
 circumflex accent (^). 
 
 These accents were very sensible in ancient lan- 
 guages, and are so even in many of the modern ones : 
 and, though they are less sensible in ours, yet they 
 are really to be found in it ; because it is a law ot na- 
 ture, that the passage from motion to rest should be 
 marked, and to mark that passage, the syllable which 
 precedes the fall must be raised higher. 
 
 It may be established as a general principle, that 
 there can be but one accent in the saine word, how- 
 ever long it may be, and that this unique accent can 
 only be placed either on the last, or the penultimate, 
 or the antepenultimate syllable. 
 
 We do not speak here of monosyllables ; for, every 
 body agrees that they have no accent, unless we con- 
 sider as such those words composed of a masculine 
 
 syllable,
 
 ( 25 ) 
 
 syllable, followed by e mute, as : ngg, g/te ; for, in 
 this case, the masculine syllable is evidently afledted 
 by the accent. 
 
 Rule I. Masculine polysyllabks have, after the 
 accent, either one short, or two very short syllables. 
 
 EXAMPLKS. 
 
 Masculine Dissyllables. Masculine Trisyllables. 
 
 1. two long, drdeur 1. three long, 3d very long, 
 
 Us s'efUr'aimoient 
 
 2. second syllable very long 2. three equally shof:, a/z/rcT^ 
 
 etoietit, taniot attiaper 
 
 G. two short, flc-uri, sommet 3. three ihcrt, 2d and 3d very- 
 short, )iuti'j>i 
 
 4. long and short, mahofi, bru-i one short between two long, 
 
 ler io-'Ctnjoir - 
 
 5. thort and long, hasard, 5. one long between two short, 
 
 amou )'. aiiCfUir 
 
 C. long, and two very short, 
 
 champignon 
 7. two long and one very shorty 
 vunionge. 
 
 We may see by the above examples, i". that 
 \vhen the accent is followed by a long syllable, this 
 last is sensibly less long ; 2°. that when it aHecls a 
 last syllable very long, this syllable has sensibly a 
 double time : ttoient, s^e7itr''a'!moie}n have two sounds, 
 that of e grave, and that of e mute, which merely 
 serves to lengthen the syllable ; 3°. that when it is 
 laid on a short syllable very short, this breve is sensi- 
 bly less short than that which precedes it;; fall, &:c. &c. 
 
 Rule II. Feminine polysyllables have, after the 
 accent, either the remainder of a semi-long, or a very- 
 short syllable, with e mute. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 Feminine Dissyllables. Feminine trisyllables. 
 
 1. two long, temptte 1. the last long, entendue 
 
 2. one short and one \ong,Jolic'2. the last shorter than jhe pe- 
 
 3. two short, adro.'W nultimate, ifisensille 
 
 4. one long and one short a«- 3. the last two equally long, 
 
 dace. insip'ide. 
 
 In words of four, five and six syllables, as the ac= 
 cent can only affect one of the last tliree, we ought to 
 D
 
 ( 26 } 
 
 leave, after the syllable which has the accent, nearly 
 the duration of one time. Now, this duration may 
 be divided between two short syllables, conformitey 
 sometimes filled with a syllable less short, probabiltte^ 
 or with a mute, having part of the duration of the 
 preceding syllable, insurmontable. 
 
 Such are the rules of the prosodial, or grammatical 
 accent. It were to be wished that we had a dictionary 
 iri which it were exactly marked. 
 
 P'rom the above details, it is easy to understand the 
 meaning of this axiom : *' Ts speak French ivell, one 
 must have no accent.'" It is, andean only be, that 
 one must have neidier the Italian, the Swiss, the 
 Gascon, nor the Norman accent ; but we ought 
 ^ilways to have one, that of well educated persons of 
 the capital, who mechanically place the accent on the 
 syllable that ought to have it. 
 
 The oratorical accent occasions some change in 
 Vhat we have said, but those slight variations do not 
 fall within the notice of a grammar. 
 
 We ought not to confound the accent we have 
 been mentioning with die accents of which we shall 
 treat in Chapter XIII of the second part, although 
 they have the same names and the same signs : these 
 are mere characters of orthography, serving to dis- 
 tinguish the different sorts of e and the long vowels. 
 
 OF ASPIRATION. 
 
 Aspiration is a guttural and strong impulse of the 
 voice. It takes place before vowels in some words, 
 and sometimes not in odicrs, although with the same 
 vowel and in a similar syllable. We say with aspi- 
 ration le hiros, and without aspiration Vheroisme. 
 In le heros^ the letter h makes us pronounce from the 
 throat the vowel which follows it, and then we call it 
 h aspirate. In I'heroismc, on the contrary, the letter 
 h is not^ pronounced, and then it is called // mute. 
 Thus, we may see that the aspiration has no other 
 efl'edl than to communicate to the aspirated vowel, the 
 properties of a consonant. Hence, if the preceding 
 word end witli a vowel, this vowel makes no elision i
 
 ( 27 ) 
 
 and if it end with a consonant, this consonant is not 
 pronounced. Thus, ahhough \ve say P heroine, le-zhe- 
 roines, we say without any* elision le htros, and with- 
 out any joining le heros. 
 
 There would be no difficulty about the pronuncia- 
 tion of the words that have an k, were this letter 
 always the charadler of aspiration ; but it is only a 
 mark of etymology in a number of words where it is 
 entirely mute. " Several of our grammarians," says 
 the Abbe d' Olivet, " wished to establish certain rules 
 on this subje6l ; but their pretended rules are both 
 difficult in their application, and liable to too many 
 exceptions." The shorter and safer v/ay is to give an 
 accurate list of those words in which the hh aspirated 
 cither at the beginning, in the middle, or at the end. 
 
 H is aspirated at the beginning of ha /, hahle'r, 
 hache, hagard, haie, hail Ion, haine, hair-, haire, hulage^ 
 halbran, halbrene, hale, halcner^ haler, haleter, la 
 halle, halleharde, hallehreda, hallecret, hallier, hake, 
 hamac, hameaii, hampe, hanap, hanche, hangar, han- 
 iieton, hanter, happekurde, happer, haqucnee, haquet^ 
 harangue, haras, harasser, harceler, hordes, hardiy 
 hareng, hargneux, haricot, haridelle, harnois, haro^ 
 harpailler, harpe, harper, harpie, harpon, harty 
 hasard, hase, hater, haubans, haubereau or hobereau, 
 haubcrt, have, havir, havre, havresac, hausscr, hauty 
 he ! heaumc, hem! hcnnir, herauf, here, herisser, heris- 
 son, hernle, heron, heros, herse, hetre, heiirter, hibouy 
 
 hlC, h'.dcux, h'tc^ hiStrarehie , hi-fiev; ha I h-fic; hne-n^ • 
 
 hoche, hochepot, hocher, hochet,' hola t HoUandey 
 homard, Hongrie, honnir, hsnie, hoouet, hoquetoriy 
 horde, liorion, hors, hotte, h&ublon, houe, houille, hou- 
 lette, honle, houppe, houppelande, -hmtrdage, hoiirdcVy 
 houret, houri, houryari, hotisardl home, houseauxy 
 housplller, houspillon, houssaic, housse, housser, houz- 
 sine, houxy hoyai(, huche, hucher, huer, huguenot, 
 hulotte, humcr, hune, huppe, hure, hurler, huttCy 
 ar.d in all the words which are derived from them and 
 begin with h. We only except the derivatives o£ 
 heros, in all of which the /; is mute, viz. heroine, 
 keroismey heroiqusy herdide, and heroiquement : h is abo 
 
 D 2
 
 ( 28 } 
 
 aspirated in almost all proper names of countries, or 
 towns. 
 
 Observations. There are some words in 
 which the pronunciation of the h is doubtful, and 
 others which are aspirated, although they do not begin 
 with an h. It is sufficient to know the custom with- 
 out attempting to explain it. 
 
 I®- In Hcnri^ the /i is always aspirated in solemn 
 speaking, but never in conversation. 
 
 2°. Many persons do not aspirate i\\t h in huguenot, 
 but in the countries where this word is most frequently 
 used, it is generally pronounced with aspiration. 
 
 .3°. According to «ic present general pradliee, // is 
 not aspirated in hesltcr. 
 
 4°. ii/is always aspirated in Hollandc and Hongne^ 
 except in the following expressions, which from the 
 vulgar, have passed into common practice : toUe- 
 d"" Hollandc, fromagc (T Hollandc, du point d'Hongrir^ 
 euude la Renie d' Hong) le, though it is better to pre- 
 serve the aspiration. 
 
 .5°. Sonie grammarians do not diink h aspirated m 
 hult ; but, whether they be right or not, we write and 
 pronounce, without elision or connedlion, le hult, Ics 
 hult volumes, le or la huitieme, de le or la huit'ieme, a la 
 hu'itaine. According to the Academy, it is aspirated. 
 
 6°. We say./'(3//2t' and l'on%'ieme, or le onze and le 
 cn^^ieme, as if the word onze were aspiiated : the last 
 .way is certainly the best, since we ought to say, with- 
 out sounding the .f, sur lt><; nvKf hent-i^s, JLauis ojize. 
 Why shoidd >ve have recourse to exceptions, Avhen 
 .■vyecan .very well do without. According to the Aca- 
 demy, w-e ought to write : de onze enfants quails eioicnty 
 ](/ en.eU met dix ; de vingt, il n]en est teste que onze. 
 Therefore, we cannot say that this pronunciation is 
 limited to dates. 
 
 70. Qui, used substantively, is pronounced as if writ- 
 ten with an h aspirated; althc;ugh we say : je croh 
 qiioui, yet we pronounce with an aspiration : le out 
 ft le mn, un oiu, to/is vos suis ne me persuadent pas. 
 We also aspirate tine iri the expression : sur Us une 
 h€\{re.
 
 ( 29 ) 
 
 Hy in the middle of a word, is aspirated only In 
 those compound of the preceding ones, as : dfhar- 
 nacher, enhardir,. rehaiisser. Sec. ; we only except ex- 
 hausser, exhaussement, in which the h is mute. In 
 other words not derived from the preceding ones, the 
 /i has theefFedt of a diseresis, and merely shows that 
 the vowel following ir, does not form a diphthong 
 with the vowel which precedes it, as : trahir^ envahir. 
 
 Final // is aspirated only in tire three interjedlioiis : 
 ah ! eh ! oh J 
 
 OF QUANTITY. 
 
 Quantity is an emission of the voice either longer 
 or shorter. In all languages there are some sounds 
 which require more, and others less, time in pronoun- 
 cing : the former produce long syllables, and the lat- 
 ter short syllables. There are also, in every language 
 some variable sounds, that is, sounds which either 
 custom has not fixed, or which become more or less 
 long, according to their position. There are agaia 
 short syllables shorter, and long syllables longer, than 
 others : the duration of sound is measured by com- 
 parison. In the following tables, a long syllable is 
 marked by (-), a short one by (^) and a doubtful one 
 by the union of both marks ( "). As we have but few 
 doubtful sounds in our language, we shall not make 
 a separate table of them, but include them among the 
 short ones. 
 
 TABLE I. 
 
 Long sounds. 
 
 I. A. 1st. letter of the al- 
 phabet , un petit a, une 
 pause d'a. 
 
 In the beginning of a 
 word, in acre, age, ag- 
 nus, ame, une, anHs,apre, 
 and their derivatives : 
 acrete, anesse, aprete, 
 &c. Also, according to 
 the Abbe d'Olivet, in 
 
 . anhcs^ as. 
 
 Short sounds. 
 
 I. In the preposition a : a 
 Londres : a from avoir: 
 il d. I acute and very^ 
 short in the preterit and 
 future tenses of verbs : 
 il aima^ il aimer d: in 
 the article Id : in , the 
 pronouns md,. td, sdy. 
 and in the adverbs- ^a, 
 Id, dcjd, Old-da, &c. 
 
 Lc^s acute and less 
 short in most of tliesub-
 
 ( 30 > 
 
 Long sounds. 
 
 2. Ale, in thesetwo words: 
 Arahe, asirolahe. 
 
 3. Able, in substantives : 
 cable, fahlcy sable, bcc. 
 and in verbs : llm^acca- 
 hlcjenCensable, ilhable. 
 
 4. Aire, without excep- 
 tion : Sabre, Calabre^ 
 tie. even in the mascu- 
 line termination. 
 
 5. Ac. 
 
 6. Ace, only in cspace, 
 grace, J e lace, dclace, cn- 
 t re lace. 
 
 7. Ache, in I ache, taclic 
 (a X'li.'^Xi), gache, re'uc/ie, 
 mache, fache, and in the 
 verbs fucker, gacher, la- 
 cker, machcr, relacher, 
 tacher (to endcavom), 
 although with the mas- 
 culine termination. 
 
 8. Acle, in miracle, obsta- 
 cle. 
 
 ^. Acre, only in acre 
 (sour] J and in sacre (a 
 
 Short sounds, 
 stantives borrowed from 
 foreign languages : so'^ 
 pha, opera, agenda, et 
 aetera. According to 
 Mr. d'Alembert, a is 
 long in opera ; but he is 
 mistaken ; it is at best 
 doubtfuL Lastly in 
 most of ancient proper 
 names : Cinna, Attilay 
 Canada, Spa, Sec. 
 . In syllabe, &c. 
 
 . Doubtful iTLtable, c(7i~ 
 blc, erJtblc, and in all ad- 
 jcdlives : aimablc, for- 
 midable y 6cc. 
 
 Without exception, ta- 
 hac, &c. 
 
 , In all other words -.facty 
 gUice, preface, &c. 
 
 , In all other words : 
 vachc, cache, tache (a 
 stain), and in the verbs 
 tacher (to stain), atta' 
 cher, &c. 
 
 Doubtful according to 
 Wail.y, in oracle, tabcr- 
 n:,clc obstacle : but is it 
 wit'^ any foundation ? 
 In all other words: acre^ 
 (an acre), sacrc (cojo-
 
 C 3 
 
 Lcmg sounds. 
 
 saker), accurdjng to 
 WaiUy. 
 
 JO. Adr€^ in every word: 
 cadre, es cadre, &c. even 
 with e acute : madre, 
 encadre. 
 
 11. Jdg. 
 
 12. Afcy affe, aplie. 
 
 I-T^. Afre, ajfre, in (iffre, 
 bufrc. 
 
 14. Jfie, in every word, 
 even with the mascu- 
 line termination : ruflc, 
 vTiJlcr. 
 
 15. Age, only in a^^. 
 
 1 6. Avne, in je g'lgne, and 
 gagner. 
 
 17. Ague.. 
 
 1 8. ^^/, a vowel with two 
 sounds, always long, 
 when followed by a 
 final s, as well as when 
 ir has e mute after it : 
 /ulie, vra'ie, &C.. 
 
 19. Aigne. 
 
 20. Aigre, only in maigrc. 
 
 21. yf/7, followed by j, 
 that is, in the plural, : 
 event alls, details, &c. 
 
 22. y^/7/f, in the substan- 
 tives : rocaillc, &cc. and 
 in the imperative and 
 6ubjun6live of verbs : 1 
 
 : ) 
 
 Short somuTs. 
 nation), and even in^^- 
 ere (a saker), according 
 to the Abbed'Olivet. 
 10. Only in ladre. 
 
 1 1 . Always short : auha^e^ 
 cascade, Sec. 
 
 12. Always short : carafe, 
 agrafe, epitaphe. 
 
 iq. 1 n all otiier words: ha-' 
 
 Idfr 
 
 14. 
 
 15. Very short 
 others : r'ruage, 
 
 m 
 &c. 
 
 all 
 
 16. In all others : cocagne. 
 
 17. Always short : bague, 
 vague. Sec. 
 
 1 8. Short with the sound 
 of f' acute : J'aimai ; but 
 doubtful vv'ith the sound 
 ot e grave, in vrai, S>cc. 
 
 19. Always short : c^a" 
 ta'tgne, &e. 
 
 20. In all other words : 
 aigre, bcc. 
 
 21. In all words, in the 
 singular : event ail, de- 
 tail, &Cv 
 
 22. Only in the substan- 
 tive, medaille, and in 
 the indicative of verbs , 
 il detMille^ emaille,- Je
 
 C 3^ J 
 
 Long sounds. 
 qu'' il ditaillcy emallle, 
 &c. 
 
 23. A'llle., alller, ailloii, in 
 dibrailler^ railler, un 
 baillon, nous taillons, un 
 ■penaillon^ haillon. 
 
 24. Jillct^ ai//i}\ 
 
 25. y^im, aln, followed by 
 a consonant ; srdnt, 
 
 ' crainte, Sec. 
 
 26. y^ine, in halm, cha'ine, 
 galne, trainey and their 
 ilerivatives. 
 
 27. Jj!ir, followed by s, 
 that is in the plural, les 
 airs, les chairs, See. 
 
 28. j^ire, without excep- 
 tion : precaire. 
 
 ,29. j^is, aix, aise, aissc, 
 without exception : 
 epFiis, abalssCy mtsaise, 
 
 30. Aity a:te, in- // pliiU, 
 nii'h, paU, fatte (sum- 
 mit) and in plurals mas- 
 culine : attraits, par- 
 fa'its, &c. 
 
 o^l. Al, ale, alle, in hale, 
 pale, male, rale.. 
 
 52. Am, followed by a 
 consonant, besides m, 
 without exception ;t 
 
 Short sounds. 
 travaille,- je bailie ( I 
 give).. ^ 
 
 23. In medailler, medal l-^ 
 Ion, detailler, detaillons., 
 emaille, emaillcr, email- 
 Ions, tr.avalller, travail" 
 Ions. 
 
 24. Without exception : 
 maillet, juillir, &c. 
 
 25. Doubtful, when net 
 followed by a consonant: 
 pciin, faim, pro chain, 
 &CC. alme, in II ciime 
 
 26. Doubtful, aceordingr 
 to some grammarians, 
 in all other words :fon~ 
 taine, &cc. and we are of 
 this opinion. Short, ac- 
 cording to others : fon- 
 taine, <kc. 
 
 27. Doubtful in. the sin- 
 gular : air, chair, &c. 
 
 29. 
 
 30. In 
 
 lait. 
 
 all other 
 
 attrdit. 
 
 words : 
 
 parfdit. 
 
 par f ait e, parfditeSy^c 
 
 31. Tn all otiier words : 
 
 roydly moriilcy mdllSj 
 &c. 
 32.-
 
 Long sounds. 
 champ y chambre^ &CC. 
 
 33. j^me, amme, in cime, 
 infame, blamme,Jiamme, 
 
 j'cnflamme, and in the 
 preterites of tlie first 
 conjugation : nous ai- 
 mamcs, 6cc. 
 
 34. Jn^ in the middle of 
 words : blanche, dansc, 
 6iC. and followed by s, 
 that is, in the plural : 
 romans, coitrtisuns, Sec. 
 
 35. Ane, anne, in Ftnc, 
 crane, manes, miinne, 
 and Je danne, je con- 
 danne., which it is bet- 
 ter to spell je damney 
 je condamne. 
 
 36. Ant, without excep- 
 tion ; pihsant, &c. 
 
 37. Ap, ape, appe, in rape, 
 raper, rape. 
 
 38. Apre, in capre, apre, 
 the only two words of 
 this termination. 
 
 39. Aque, acque, only in 
 Paqucs, ydcques. 
 
 40. Ar, art, in all plurals : 
 Cesars, arts, See. 
 
 ,41. Arbe, always long 
 rhubarbe, bcc. 
 
 42. ArCy arte, without ex- 
 ception : avare, bizarre, 
 Liirron, &cc. 
 
 43. Ari, arle, only m 
 matrix /fwrvuri, equiir- 
 
 Short sounds. 
 
 33. In all other words : 
 dame, epipamme, &c. 
 
 34. At tlie end of words, 
 in the singular, without 
 exception : reman, Cour- 
 tis an, Sec. 
 
 6:> 
 
 In all other v.-crds : 
 cabaney panne, 6£C. 
 
 36. 
 
 37. In all other words: 
 
 agapes, 6cc. 
 38. 
 
 39. In all other words. 
 
 40. In the singular, Cesar , 
 art, and at the begin- 
 nintr or in the middle of 
 words : artifice, curte^ 
 6cc. 
 
 41. 
 
 42. 
 
 43. In all other won 
 mart, A'larie, &c.
 
 ( 34 
 
 Long sounds. I 
 
 44- -^^i t^se, without ex-t 
 
 ception : Pallas, Pe 
 
 gase, &CC. 
 45' -^sque. 
 
 Short sounds- 
 
 46. Asse, in the substan- 
 tives basse, casse, classe, 
 echasse, passe, nUsse, 
 tasse, savantasse, chasse 
 (shrine), masse (mace); 
 in the adjedlives femi- 
 nine, grasse, basse, lassc; 
 in the verbs amasss, en- 
 chasse, casse, passe, 
 compasse, fasse, and 
 their compounds ; last- 
 ly, in the first and se- 
 cond persons singular, 
 and third person plural, 
 ending in asse, asses, as- 
 sent, in the subjundlive ; 
 que j^aimasse, tu ai- 
 masses, quails aimasscrit. 
 All these words preserve 
 tlieir quantity, even 
 . when, instead of the fe- 
 minine, they take the 
 masculine termination : 
 chasser, passer, casse?-, 
 6cc. 
 
 .47. Arte, art re. 
 
 ^. At in the substantives 
 but, mat, appcit, dtgat 
 and the third person 
 singular of the subjunc- 
 tive : qu'il aimat. Sec. 
 
 49. Ate, ntes, in hate, pate, 
 il gate, il mate, U de- 
 
 44- 
 
 45. Always short; fan- 
 tasque, &c. 
 
 46. In all other substan- 
 tives : chasse (chace), 
 masse (mass), &c. and 
 in the first and second 
 persons plural of the 
 the imperfect of the 
 subjundlive : que nous 
 aimassions, que vous ai" 
 massiez, &c. 
 
 47. Without exception : 
 carte, 6cc. 
 
 48. In all other substan- 
 tives : cambat, avocat, 
 &c. in the adjedlive 
 plat, and in the present 
 tense of the indicative ; 
 il se bet', &CC. 
 
 49. In all other words^
 
 ( 35 ) 
 
 !} 
 
 Long sounds. 
 i-nat£, and in the second 
 j>erson of the indicative, 
 ending in ates : vous 
 aimates, &CC. 
 
 50. yitre, attre^ always 
 long, exce|3t 
 
 51 . tt, followed by a 
 consonant, in the last 
 syllable : haut, chaud, 
 filux, and when it forms 
 a syllable followed by 
 the feminine termina- 
 tion : ciuge, autre, ato:e, 
 auhe, taupe. 
 
 52. J^ve, always long, ac- 
 cording to some gram- 
 marians: entrclve, grave, 
 &c. and we are of their 
 opinion. 
 
 Short sounds. 
 
 50. In quatre, battre, and 
 derivatives. 
 
 51. Doubtful, when it> 
 precedes a masculine 
 syllable : aubade, da- 
 dace, and when at the 
 end of a word : joyaUy 
 coteau ; but it is short • 
 in Paul. 
 
 cadavre, havre, &c. 
 54. Ax, axe 
 
 52. Doubtful, according 
 to some others : en- 
 trave, grave, &cc. short 
 when followed by a 
 masculine syllable : gra- 
 vier, conclavist e, 6cc. 
 ^'^^ Avre, always long:' 53. 
 
 54. Always short : JjaXf 
 iaxe, &c. 
 
 TABLE II. 
 
 E. 
 
 £ Is sometimes grave and long, sometimes acute r.nd 
 short, and otien mute: in this last case, it is 50 
 short, that it is in some manner null, except in mo- 
 nosyllables. "■ •.. •, 
 
 No word, in our language, begins with e very open, 
 except et7-e. 
 
 1. Eble, ebre. 
 
 2. Ec, ece, in the mascu- 
 line plural : Gr'ccs, 
 ecliecs. See. 
 
 3. Kche, very open In heche, 
 leche, gruche, feche 
 
 1. In hleble,funebre, &.C. 
 
 2. In all other words: bec^ 
 niece, &c. 
 
 3. Little open in caleche, 
 Jlechc,^ammeche, creche.
 
 ( 36 } 
 
 Long sounds. 
 (fishing, a peach), rt- 
 I'^c/i^, cmpcc/w, dvpeche, 
 free he, 
 
 4. Ecle^ e£iy eiie^ ide, 
 ider, 
 
 5. ^e^ without exception: 
 crl'e^ c/iduc'ee. 
 
 6. Ef, followed by s, that 
 is, in the plural : des 
 ehefs, sons l/>7/'sf 6cc. 
 
 7. Efe,mgr?ffc\ 
 5J. Ejfle, in M?^.'. 
 
 ^. Ege, without exception: 
 saeriiege, coUige, &c. 
 
 10. Egk, 
 
 1 1 . Egtte in tigney dn- 
 
 egne. 
 
 J 2. £/7, ellk. 
 
 33. £i«, f//jf, in all plu- 
 rals : desst'insf attcints, 
 &c. 
 
 34. Einte, without excep- 
 tion : J^hitey attcintc, 
 &c. 
 
 1-5. Eiirey in rcitre^ the 
 only w<5rd of this ter- 
 mination. 
 
 16. Ely in the plural : au- 
 tels, solemticls, &c. 
 
 1 7 . Ele, very open in s;?/^ , 
 poclcyfrele.^ 
 
 1 8. J?;«, ^«, in the middle 
 of a word, and followed 
 by a consonant : temple^ 
 excmpk) Unter, &c. 
 
 Short sounds. 
 seche, brechty il peche 
 (he sinsj. 
 
 4. Always short ; s'lecle^ 
 r€sp€^, se^if, tiede, ce- 
 de r, &c. 
 
 5. But short, when follow- 
 ed by e masculine : cret\ 
 
 6. In cJtefy href. 
 
 8. In trliffle, 
 9- 
 
 10. Always short: r'cgUy 
 shghy &c. 
 
 1 1. In p eigne, ens eigne. 
 Some make reg7ic short, 
 but they are wrong. 
 
 1 2. Always short : soleili 
 vermeiile, &c. 
 
 12,- Doubtful : dessTiri, ai" 
 tlinty bic. 
 
 14. 
 
 15- 
 
 16. In j^/, aulel, and all 
 others. 
 
 17. Almost acute in all 
 the others : modeJe, re- 
 be lU, &c. 
 
 1 8. At the end of the 
 word : iihn, hvmhii 
 Sec. 
 
 19.
 
 ( 37 ) 
 
 Long sounds. 
 
 19. Erne, almost always : 
 
 If apt erne, diadhne^ &c. 
 
 ao. Em, in chine , cene^ 
 scene, gene, aline, Jt-ene, 
 rene, arcne, pine. 
 
 21. Ent, in tlic plural : 
 moments, lints, Sec. 
 
 22. Epe, epre, always : 
 gulpe, crlpe., &c. 
 
 23. Edre, epte, eptre. 
 
 24. Eque, ecque, only in 
 evlquc and archevlque. 
 
 25. Ef, open common, in 
 fir, enfer, mlr, amir, 
 
 vlr, hivlr, and in the 
 inrini five when followed 
 by a vowel, and the r is 
 sounded : aimer a rire : 
 in this case, e is open 
 common. 
 
 26. Erhe, erce, erse, erc/ie, 
 enle, erde, erdre. 
 
 27. Ert^ in the plural : 
 concerts, &cc, 
 
 28. Ercy according to 
 some '.plre, sinclre, chi- 
 mlre, Sec. 
 
 29. Erge^ erguCjerky erme^ 
 
 Short sounds. 
 
 19. Doubtful in creme^ 
 but short in je semcy it 
 seme. 
 
 20. Doubtful in propftr 
 names ; Diogtne, AtJic- 
 nes, 6cc. but short in all 
 other words ; pheno' 
 mency tbency ttrenne, 
 &c. 
 
 21. In the singular: me- 
 mint, lent, &c. 
 
 22. Only in lepre. 
 
 23. Always : sp^/fre, hu 
 epte, sceptre, &c. 
 
 24. Iix all other words. : 
 bibliothcque, Gr ecque or 
 Greque, &c. 
 
 25. Less open and short, 
 in Lucifer, yupiter, 
 ether, cher, clerc, can-' 
 cer, pater-, magisth ; 
 and in the infinitive, 
 when followed by a 
 consonant, and the r h 
 not sounded : aimer la 
 promenade : in this case 
 e is acute. 
 
 26. Without exception ; 
 herbe, commerce, tra" 
 verse, il cherche, circle, 
 qu'il perde, pcrdre. 
 
 27. Doubtful in the sin- 
 gular : concert, &c. 
 
 28. Doubtful, according 
 to others: pTre, thhr^rt^ 
 &c. but in our opinion, 
 they are wrong. 
 
 29. Without exception .' 
 
 E
 
 ( 38 ) 
 
 Uong sounds. 
 ertn'i erpe. 
 
 30. En-y very open, in 
 • ttrre, guerre, tonnerre, il 
 £rre, p^rruque, ferrer, 
 tlrrein, nous vlrrons. 
 
 31. Ersy ■without excep- 
 tion, whether the r be 
 pronounced or not : uni- 
 liersi dangers, &c. 
 
 32. Es, open, in Ics (the), 
 . succt's, dues, and other 
 
 such words ; but acute 
 in the plural of words 
 ending in e : bcautes, 
 hontis, &:c. and in the 
 second person plural of 
 verbs, where z is instead 
 of J : vous aimez. 
 
 33. Ese, in all words, with- 
 . out exception : diocese, 
 
 t/u'sc, &c. and in il pesc. 
 
 34. Esque. 
 
 35. Esse, in ahbesse, pro- 
 Jesse, conflsse, presse, 
 compresst', expresse, cesse, 
 [esse, on s^empresie, il 
 prof esse. 
 
 36. Este, estre. 
 
 37. Et, in arret, ben~t,fo- 
 
 , ret^ and ;ill the other 
 
 words which formerly 
 
 Short sounds. 
 aspicrge, exergue, perle, 
 caverne, epiderme, shpe, 
 6cc. 
 
 30. Doubtful in guerrier, 
 terroir, terrible, atferrer^ 
 derriere,ferriere. The 
 e is less open, but 
 short in : erreur, ier~ 
 ieur, errant, errone, er- 
 rata, in which both rr 
 are distindtly heard. 
 
 31- ■ : 
 
 ?2. 
 
 33. But this verb becomes 
 short, if immediately 
 followed by its pronoun: 
 pese-t-il ? 
 
 34. Without exception : 
 grotesque, &c. 
 
 35. In all oilier words : 
 /rarhse, paresse, ten- 
 drhse, Sec. 
 
 36. Without exception : 
 modeste, terrhtre, &c. 
 
 37. In all other words: 
 bidet, cadet, &cc. and in. 
 the conjun(Slion h.
 
 ( 39 
 
 Long sounds, 
 were spelt with an s 
 mute, instead of which, 
 ■we now place a circum- 
 flex accent ; and like- 
 wise in all plurals : // 
 7si. 
 38. Ete, in l>etf,fete, and 
 the other words ending 
 in cte, from which they 
 have suppressed the s 
 mute. 
 
 Short sounds. 
 
 39. Etre, in the verb etre, 
 salpetre, ancetres, and 
 the odier words, in 
 which the s mute is 
 omitted. 
 
 40. Eu, in the plural : 
 J^ux,Jeux, Sec. 
 
 41. Eve, in trcve, g'^cve, 
 il reve, and all the ten- 
 ses of this verb. 
 
 ^1. Enf, eu:!, eul, in the 
 plural. 
 
 43. EuU, in mlnhf lb 
 veulent. 
 
 44, Eune, mjetine (fast) . 
 45* Eur, in the plural ; 
 
 Jiatteurs, &c. 
 46. Eure, when no other 
 word is expedled after 
 it; c'' at lotcjille majeure, 
 
 38. In all other wo.rds^ 
 prophete, pocte, houlette, 
 V0U5 etes: this last word, 
 in poetry, may be made' 
 either long or short, ac- 
 cording to the Abbe 
 d'Oliver. 
 
 39. In all other words : 
 diamhre, paietre, 6c c. 
 
 40. In the singular : fgUy 
 jeu, &€. 
 
 41. Doubtful in the other 
 words : feve, breve^ 
 acheve, crlve, &cc. 
 but short, according 
 to some, in trez-e ds 
 complimens, il grevs 
 son vol sin : upon this 
 we will form no opi- 
 nion. 
 
 42. In the singular : neuf\ 
 f anthill, tilleul, die 
 
 43. In all other words :' 
 gucule, &c. 
 
 44. Injeune (young). • 
 
 45. In the singular : pcur^< 
 jiatteur. See. 
 
 46.^ When the word is ive- 
 cessarily to be followed 
 by another : une hews 
 E2
 
 ( 40 ) 
 
 Long sounds. 
 dans une hlurc^ 
 
 47. Eux^ euse, without 
 exception : heurlux, heu- 
 rei-ise, &c. 
 
 48. Evre^ wltliout excep- 
 ception, orfcvre^ luvre, 
 &c. 
 
 49. £*". 
 
 Short sounds, 
 enticre^ la majeure par" 
 tte. 
 
 47- 
 
 48. Some make it doubt- 
 ful in Ilevre, c/ievre ;. 
 but we prefer making it 
 long. 
 
 49. Always short, at the 
 beginning, in the mid~ 
 die, or at the end of a 
 word, when the x is 
 pronounced cs or g% ; 
 exempley sexe, perplex. 
 
 TABLE III. 
 
 I. 
 
 As t!ie number of short sounds greatly exceeds 
 that of long ones, particularly in the three remaining 
 vowels, we shall omit mentioning those terminations 
 which only produce short sounds : we ought, there- 
 fore, to consider as short all those which are pot 
 pointed out as either long or doubtful. 
 
 Long sounds. 
 
 1. Iclrs, mcldre, hydre^ in 
 which thej/hasthe same 
 sound. 
 
 2. le^ diphthong. 
 
 3. le^ dissyllable, when 
 the e is mute: vle^ sai- 
 sle, prle, &c. 
 
 4. Ige, in tlgn, obtige, af- 
 flgc ; the Abbe d'OU- 
 
 vet makes it doubtful. 
 
 5. Ilcy'm 7le, presqu'lle^ 
 which formerly were 
 
 Short sounds. 
 
 , Doubtful : micl, ficty 
 amiiie, mien, Ditu, Sec. 
 
 , When the e is acute : 
 crier, prier, supplier^ 
 &:c. m^cn, r7f«, ike. 
 In all other words : 
 vertige, and in the tenses 
 of verbs where the e is 
 not mute : affligery o~ 
 bllger,. &c. 
 In style, huilc, tuile : 
 the Abbe d'Oiivct makes
 
 ( 41 ) 
 
 Long sounds. i 
 
 spelt with an s. 
 .16. Im, in, before any o- 
 ther syllable, besides 
 their own : simple, pin- 
 te, &CC, 
 
 "J. Ime, in ablme, dime, 
 and in the preterit de- 
 finite ; nous vlmes, nous 
 repondlmes, Sec. 
 
 8. Ire, ise, always long : 
 Ire, empire, souplre, sur- 
 prise, ils llsent, &c. 
 and in the preterit defi- 
 nite of verbs: 'tis vlrent, 
 ils rt'poncilrent, qitib 
 llsent, ils dlsent. 
 
 o. Isse, in the imperfe6l 
 tense of the subjun6live : 
 que je flsse, que tuflsses, 
 qu'ils f Is sent. 
 
 10. Jt, in the imperfe6l 
 tense of the subjunc- 
 tive : qu'ilflt, qu^il sen- 
 tit, &c. 
 
 11. Ite, in benlte, glte, 
 vlte, and the second 
 person of verbs in the 
 preterit : vousfites,vous 
 dites. Sec. 
 
 12. Itre, in epltre, regl- 
 tre : this last is better 
 spelt and pronounced re- 
 gist re. Nevertheless, the 
 Academy says nothing 
 about the pronunciation 
 of this word. 
 
 13. Ive, only in the fe-_ 
 minine of. the adje(5lives 
 ending 'it\if: nalve^Scc: 
 
 ■l^. Ivre., on\^ An.yl^iJrc 
 (living). 
 
 6. 
 
 Short sounds. 
 it long in these words. 
 
 In all 
 
 maxims. 
 
 other 
 Sec. 
 
 words J 
 
 When the e 
 mute : soupirer, 
 
 IS not 
 desirer^ 
 subtil I sery'&cc. TheAb-. 
 be d'Olivet makes it 
 doubtful in Y<;rbs end- 
 ing in ire. 
 
 In all substantives : /- 
 crevisse. Sec. 
 
 10. In all other words ; 
 maudity Sec. 
 
 II. In all other words ; 
 hermite. Sec. 
 
 12. Doubtful in mitre; tl~ 
 tre. Sec. where some 
 make it. short; but it is 
 so, only when the e is 
 not mute : mitre, titre^ 
 Sec. .• 
 
 13. In all other words; 
 dive^^, Sec. 
 
 f«= 
 
 14.. In atl-.othea: swords; lU 
 tre, vivrc (to hve), oec*
 
 t 42 > 
 
 Long sounds. 
 
 1. O'm OS, oser, osier, oter, 
 hote, the only words in 
 which it is open, when 
 it begins a word. 
 
 2. Obe, open m globe, lobe. 
 
 TABLE IV. 
 
 o. 
 
 Short sounds. 
 I. In all other words: 
 
 odeur, hotel, hotelleris*. 
 
 3. Ode, inje rode, 
 
 4. Oge, in doge, 
 
 5. Ogne, inJe rogue. 
 
 6. 0/, in the plural 
 emplois, &c. 
 
 7. 0/f, without exception: 
 lajole, &c. 
 
 8. Oient, in the third per- 
 son of verbs : Us avoietit. 
 Us auroient, &c. 
 
 -9. Oin, when followed by 
 a consonant : solns, 
 point, &c. 
 
 10. Oir. 
 
 11. Oire, without excep- 
 tion : gloire, vi^oire, 
 &c. 
 
 22. Ois, without excep- 
 tion, whether forming a 
 diphthong : fois, Da- 
 ftvis, or pronounced 
 with the sound of e 
 grave : J^avois, Anglais, 
 
 13. Oise, oisse, oitre, olvre, 
 without exception : 
 framboise, paroisse, cloi- 
 
 m all other 
 
 2. Acute, 
 words. 
 
 3. In all other words : 
 epode. 
 
 4. In all other words : logef 
 
 &CC. 
 
 5. [n all other words : be^ 
 sogne, dec. 
 
 vis, 6. Doubtful, and not short? 
 r^i, emploi, &c. 
 
 9. Doubtful : soln, loin, 
 
 &CC. 
 
 10. Doubtful 
 voir, 2tc, 
 II. 
 
 12. 
 
 driHiivf 
 
 13. Observe that oisse and 
 citre have the sound of 
 e grave in connoUre, pa*
 
 f 43 ) 
 
 Long sounds. 
 tre, poivre, Sec. 
 
 14. Ok, in il paroitf il 
 conrioity il crdtt (he 
 grows), and its deriva- 
 tives. 
 
 15. Ole, in drllcy geole, 
 mole, role, contrVe, en- 
 jole, enrdle, il v'ole (he 
 steals). 
 
 16. Om, on, in the middle 
 of a word, and before 
 a consonant, not their 
 own: bombe, tdmbe, 
 conte, monds, &c. 
 
 17. 0/re, one, without ex- 
 ception : autnonc, atome, 
 p /ran to me, &c. 
 
 18. Ofis, without excep- 
 tion : nous domians, gar- 
 fons, des frnds, Sec. 
 
 19. Or, of'd, art, followed 
 by s: hors, carps, birds, 
 torts, &c. 
 
 20. Ore, orre, without ex- 
 ception I aurlre, eclorre, 
 &c. 
 
 21. Os, ase, without ex- 
 ception : reposy dose, 
 &rc. 
 
 22. Osse, in gr'ssse, fosse, 
 enddsse, il dJsosse, en- 
 grdsse, and even with a 
 masculine termination t 
 
 fosse, cndosser, grosseur, 
 &c. 
 
 23. Ot, in impot, tot, de- 
 pot, entrepot, supplt, 
 prev'oti rot (roast), 
 
 Short sounds, 
 r 01 tre, and their deriva- 
 tives. 
 
 14. In all other words : it 
 croit (he believes)-, il 
 avoit, il aiirait, &c» 
 
 15. In all other words: 
 obole, symbole, il vslsr 
 (he flies) . 
 
 16. When redoubled : 
 somme, consomme, &c. 
 
 17. When the consonant 
 is doubled as before. 
 
 18. 
 
 19. Not followed by i t 
 caster, bord, effort, &c.. 
 
 20. Only when o is fol- 
 lowed by a masculine 
 termination : evaporey 
 except when there arf 
 two rr^ 
 
 21. 
 
 22. In all other words ; 
 crossc, rhse, bosses &c. 
 
 23. In all other words, 
 and in rot (eructation) .
 
 ( 44 
 
 Long sounds, 
 • which words were for- 
 merly spelt with an s. 
 
 24. Oie, in k^te, cote, mal- 
 tote, J'ote, even before a 
 masculine syllable, in 
 these last three words : 
 cote, maltotier, oter, : in 
 
 ', Kbtesse, Pentec'ote. 
 
 25. Otre, in apotre, and 
 in le notre. le votre. 
 
 26* OUf.oue, in p'dudre^ re- 
 sotidre, bdue, &€. 
 
 27. Ou'ille, in r'ouille 
 'J its derivatives.. 
 
 and 
 
 a8. Ow/^, in moule, sadule, 
 il foule, la fmle, il 
 riule, il ecrouU. 
 
 29. Ourc. 
 
 2P, Ourre, in bourre., il 
 bourrCf ilfZiirre, cdurrc 
 
 Short sounds. 
 
 24. In hotel f hot{llerle,hc^' 
 
 f 1. 0«if, in epouse, qu'il 
 cause, &CC. 
 
 32. Oiissc, only in ^V 
 
 33. 0«f, \nadut, aoiltcron, 
 le cout, le gout, le niout, 
 
 . .and their derivatives., 
 
 34. Oute^ in absoiite, 
 joute, croute, vlute, il 
 
 c'olite, je goute, j'ajdute. 
 
 35. Outre, in cout re, pou- 
 tre. 
 
 25. In nstre, votre, follow- 
 ed by a noun : notre 
 ami, votre livre. 
 
 26. Ou, when followed by 
 amasculine termination: 
 poudre, moulu, roue. 
 
 27. When the termination 
 is masculine : rouillei. 
 
 &G. 
 
 28. When followed by a 
 masculine termination x- 
 moulu, foulc, &c. 
 
 29. Doubtful : bravourey 
 ils cuurent, &c. 
 
 30. When the following 
 syllable is masculine : 
 courrier, bourrade, &c.. 
 which is an exception. to 
 the general rule. 
 
 31- 
 
 32. In all 
 
 sccouise, 
 
 33- 
 
 other 
 &c. 
 
 rords 
 
 34. When the termination 
 is masculine : ajoute, 
 
 35. In all other words.
 
 ( 45 ) 
 
 Long sounds. 
 
 1. Vche,\n buche,€mbuche, 
 en dcbuche, Sec. 
 
 2. Ue^ without exception: 
 'uue, cigut'i 6cc. 
 
 3- ^'^'^• 
 
 TABLE V. 
 U. 
 
 I Short sounds. 
 
 I. In bucher, bucherottf de-^ 
 
 bucher^ &c. 
 2. 
 
 4. Uii diphthong. 
 
 5. C//>, without exception: 
 pluiey &c. 
 
 6. 67^, in Je brule, and 
 thioughout ths whole 
 of this verb. 
 
 7. Um, un, in the middle 
 of a word : hJimlle, em- 
 pruntCy and at the end, 
 when followed by s : 
 parfums, importms, 
 Sec. 
 
 8. Umes, without excep- 
 tion, in the iirst person 
 plural of the preterit : 
 nous regumes, &:c. 
 
 9. Ure. 
 
 JO. Use, without excep- 
 tion : tnusCy excuse, 6cc. 
 and ruse. 
 
 1 1 . Usse, in the verbs : 
 que je regusse ; aumusse, 
 according to the pre- 
 
 3. Doubtful : juge, deluge, 
 refuge, &c. ; but short 
 wiien the last syllable 
 is masculine, juger, re- 
 
 fugicr, &c. 
 
 4, Doubtful : cuWy luif, 
 fu'ir, 6cc. 
 
 6. In all other words : fe^ 
 rule, &C. 
 
 7. At the end, in the sin- 
 gular : parfuniy impor-^ 
 tU>Jf &c. 
 
 8. 
 
 9. Doubtful: augure, ver- 
 dure, Sec. but sliort 
 when the termination 
 is masculine : augurer, 
 Sec. 
 
 10. When the termination 
 is masculine : refuser^ 
 excuser. Sec. 
 
 1 1 . Only in a few proper 
 names i la PrusiCy 6cc».
 
 ( 46 }. 
 
 12. In all other substan- 
 tives : hilt, debut ^ &c. 
 and in all verbs, in the 
 indicative : il fut, &cc. 
 
 13. In all other words. 
 
 Long sounds. Short sounds, 
 
 sent pra61icc. 
 
 12. Ui, in fut (a cask), 
 , .and in all verbs, in the 
 
 ' subjunctive : qu'i/ fut, 
 qu'il re gilt, bcc. 
 
 13. Ute^ utes, \xifS{te,JIu- 
 tcCy JJuteur, Jluter (to 
 drink), and in the pre- 
 terit of verbs : votts 
 refutes. 
 
 From the preceding tables, wc may deduce the 
 folio wing general principles. 
 
 Principle 1. x\ll S3-Ilables, where there is an s 
 written, but not pronounced, or which was written 
 in the ancient orthography, bu.t not in the moderir 
 oiie, are long without any exception. Hence, 
 
 1°. All final syllables ending iii s, x, or z, which 
 are not pronounced, are long : accordingly, all plurals 
 are so : /e temps, les jaloux, les ncz, les chassis y &c. 
 
 2°. All syllables marked witK the circumflex ac- 
 cent^ eitlier in the middle, or at tlie end of a word, 
 are long : temfetc, fete, clegat, gout, 6cc. 
 
 Principle II. All vowels and diphthongs, fol- 
 lowed by e mui.c, are long : fensle, cree, vole, essale^ 
 &c. ; but these vovv'els and diphthongs become ^hort^ 
 if this e mute be changed into another e, or another 
 vowel : cree, frie, joycux, essayons, Sec. 
 
 Observations. 1°. Although it is true, in ge- 
 neral, that djj)hthongs lengthen tlie syllables of which 
 they make a part, yet there are some that arc doubt- 
 ful, as : s^'in. loin, &cc. and even some that are short, 
 as : oel/, faidhul, bic,. 
 
 2°. A proof that the masculine sound shortens that 
 which precedes it, is, that almost in every in- 
 stance where that preceding syllable is, by its nature, 
 long, it becomes short, wlien followed by the mascu- 
 line sound, save tliose exceptions which we havQ 
 already mentioned. Thus, afjilge, pdudrc, couirey 
 bTtche, excuse, bcc. change into affligcrj bucher, ^ea- 
 drerj courtier, excuser, 6cq,
 
 ( 47 ) 
 
 3". Ail penultimate vowels followed by 2, or s, 
 Laving the sound of 2, are long : trapeze, Siize, rusff 
 perm'ise, a lose, &cc. 
 
 Principle 111. When nasal vowels are followed 
 by a consonant which is not their own, that is, neither 
 m, nor «, and which begins another syllable, they 
 lengthen the syllable to which they belong : ambitiofjf 
 danse, temple, sombre, humble, Sec. But when they 
 are the veiy consonants of the nasal vowels, that is, 
 m, or «, they shorten the syllable to which the first 
 of those double consonants belongs, which then re-, 
 mains mute, and is no longer nasal : ep'igrdmme, can- 
 Sonne. We ought to except^.lmme^ bldmme, mdnnCy 
 and perhaps a few others. 
 
 Principle IV. Double consonants, bb, cc, ddy 
 ff-> SS^ ^A ppi lif generally shorten the preceding 
 syllable ; dbbe, accuser, addition, . dffinitc, aggraver^ 
 cller, dppas, bctte. Sec. ; but double rr, or ss, gene- 
 Tally lengthen it : carrosse, eclorre, passer, comprcsse, 
 fosse, aumusse. There are, however, some exceptions, 
 which have been mentioned in the preceding tables. 
 
 Principle V. In general, we ought to lay but 
 little stress, in pronunciation, on the last syllable 
 masculine of a word, whether long, doubtful, or 
 short, when that word is to be pronounced in imme- 
 diate conjundlion with the following, and the stress 
 ought to be greater in the contrary instance. Thus, 
 the penultimate syllables of agreable, deluge, and the 
 last of devoir, besoin, require but little stress, in these 
 expressions : agreable nouvelle, le deluge universel, U 
 a -besoin de repos, le devoir de.s rois : . but the same 
 syllables require a greater stress when followed by a 
 stop, as: cctte maison est agreable, jitsqu' an d-ilugey 
 il est dam le bcscin, il a fait son devoir. So true is 
 this principle, that the ch^inge of position will shorten 
 a syllable that was long before the change took place; 
 for, as the Abbe d' Olivet oJ)serves, we say : un homme 
 honnete, un homme brave ; ; but we ought to say : un 
 honnete homme, un brave homme. 
 
 • The observation of the rules we have given on 
 quaatity is so important, that upon it alone frequently
 
 ( 48 ) 
 
 depends the meaning we are to apply to many words. 
 We shall here give a 
 
 TABLE OF WORDS WHICH HAVE DIFFERENT 
 MEANINGS, AS THEY ARE PRONOUNCED 
 
 EITHER Long or short. 
 
 Short sounds. 
 
 Long sounds. 
 
 1. Aline y an awl. 
 
 2. Avanty before. 
 
 3. Baty a pack-saddle. 
 
 4. Bateleur, juggler, 
 
 5. BttCy a beast. 
 
 6. BoltCy a box. 
 
 7. Bond, a jump, 
 S. Chair, flesh, 
 9. Clair, clear. i 
 
 10. Corps, a body. 
 
 J I. Cours, course, 
 «2. // craint, he fears. 
 
 13. // degdute, he is dis- 
 gusting. 
 
 14. Dint, of which, 
 whose. 
 
 -15. Eteint, extinguished. 
 
 /- rFaite, summit. 
 
 \i^W^, feast. 
 
 {Faix, a load. 
 Tufais, thou dost. 
 ■18. Nous fumes, we were. 
 
 19. II goute, he tastes. 
 
 20. ^«/^, sun-burning. 
 
 21. /f5/r, landlord. 
 a 2. 3^rt/J, jet. 
 
 23. Jeune, a fast. 
 
 24. Z.«/j. 
 
 25. Llgs, legacy. 
 
 26. ^f /«;i5t', I leave. 
 
 1. Halehie, breath. 
 
 2. Avent, advent. 
 
 3. // j^ bat, he is fighting. ^ 
 
 4. Batelier, boatman. 
 
 5. Bette, beet. 
 
 6. // ^ofi^, he limps. 
 
 7. ^^«, good. 
 
 8. Cher, dear. 
 
 9. Clerc, a clerk. 
 
 10. C^r, a French horn, 
 a corn. 
 
 1 1 . Cour, the court, 
 
 12. Crhi, horsehair. 
 // dcgouttc, it drops. 
 
 13- 
 14. 
 
 Don, gift. 
 Etal 
 
 {litaim,- 
 htain, 
 
 16. Faite, done, feminine 
 of fait. 
 
 17. 11 fait, he does. 
 
 18. // fiime,he smokes. 
 
 19. Goutie, a drop, the 
 gout.' 
 
 20. Halle, market. 
 Hotte, a dosser. 
 ^^/, throw. 
 Jeune, young. 
 Lai, a layman. 
 
 {Laid, vgly. 
 Z,^/>, Hi ilk. 
 
 26. Z^^jf, leading-string. 
 27. Lis. 
 
 21. 
 22. 
 
 24. 
 25-
 
 ( 49 ) 
 
 Long sounds. 
 Lis, a Illy. 
 Alakre, master. 
 Matin, a mastifF. 
 Alois, a month. 
 Afotit, a hill. 
 Pate, dough. 
 Paume, palm of the 
 
 hand. 
 Picker, to fish. 
 
 Pine, bolt of a lock. 
 Plaine, a plain. 
 
 Je rlgne, I cut off. 
 Rot, roast. 
 
 Saint, a saint, sacred. 
 
 34' 
 
 6y 
 [36. 
 
 37 
 38 
 
 39 
 
 oaj, a sieve. 
 
 , Scene, scene. 
 
 \ Cene, the Lord's Sup 
 
 I Sainc, sound, fcmi- 
 ^ nine of sain. 
 
 . Saut, a leap. 
 
 , Tete, the head. 
 
 . Tache, eiFort. 
 
 . Tr'es, very. 
 
 46. Vaine, vain, ^minine 
 
 of vain. 
 
 47. Vlr, a worm. 
 4^. Voix, voice. 
 49. V'Jer^ to steal. 
 
 27. 
 28. 
 29. 
 
 Shon sounds. 
 Lit, bed, 
 Afcttrc, to put. 
 A'Tatin, the moinlng. 
 yJ-/(5/, I, me. 
 Mon, my. 
 Pattc, paw. 
 Pommc, an apple. 
 
 Pecker, to commit a 
 
 sin. 
 Peine, pain, &c. 
 Pleine, full, feminluC' 
 
 of ^/i'/W. 
 
 Rogjur, scurf. 
 i?^.% eruclation. 
 
 {5'tv«, bosom. 
 Ceint, girt, encircled. 
 Sting, signature. 
 f (-i, here. 
 
 ? i'i, her, possessive 
 ' pronoun. 
 
 4 1 . Seine, the river Seine. 
 
 42. 
 
 43- 
 44- 
 45- 
 
 47- 
 48. 
 49. 
 
 Set, foolish. 
 
 11 tette, he is sucking. 
 
 Tacke, stain. 
 
 Dait, an arrow, a 
 
 dash, &:c. 
 Fei?ie, a veiii^ 
 
 Vert, green. 
 // voit, he sees, 
 Folcr, to fl5%
 
 ( so ) 
 
 There are three species of pronunciation : tJiat of 
 common conversation, that ot reading, and that of 
 oratory. 
 
 The quantity ouglit to be strongly marked in this 
 la&t, either at the bar, in the pulpit, or on the stage : 
 and it is of the greatest importance, not only to give 
 to every syllable, either long or short, its proper dis- 
 tinct sound, but also to lay a greater or less stress upon 
 those syllables, according as they are more or less long, 
 or more or less short. Upon this depends that har- 
 mony of language, which ought to be tiie aim both of 
 the orator and of the poet. 
 
 In reading, although our pronunciation should be 
 less nrarked, yet it ought to be so in a certain degree ; 
 because, as it is slowly progressive, reflecSlion has time 
 to perceive the faults w^hich we might commit. He 
 only can be said to read well, who gives to each syl- 
 lable Its true accent, and real grammatical sound. 
 But declatnation ought to he avoided in reading ; were 
 it even a scene of a tragedy, we should recollcil that 
 we are not adting, but reading ; and that the luries of 
 Orestes are not to animate the soul of the reader. In 
 general the tone should be kept regular throughout, and 
 be distinguished by no other inflexion than that arising 
 fioni tlie prosodial accent. The passage from grave 
 to acute, and from acute to grave, should be marked 
 only by semi-tones, and perhaps even by quarters of 
 tones. Nothing can be more shocking than to hear 
 three or four notes of an ocSlave in the same sentence, 
 and yet nothing is more couimon, particularly in fo- 
 reign countries. To read well in French, and to read 
 v/ell in English, are two ways altogether opposite, and 
 this opposition is owing to the prosodial accent in both 
 languages. But we have said enough on this subje6l, 
 as it is not our intention to give here a treatise on t/ie 
 art of reading ivcll. 
 
 The pronunciation of comrnon conversation is still 
 different from the other two ; for, in this, most of the 
 syllables seem to. be short, though, with a little atten- 
 tion, we shall perceive that the quantity is regularly 
 observed by those who speak well. As there is no
 
 ( 51 ) 
 
 other rule in this pronunciation, but that of right cus- 
 tom, foreigners can only acquire it, either by frequently 
 conversing with persons who have had a good educa- 
 tion, or by the assistance of one who has been in tb^e 
 habit of seeing good company, and has had the means 
 of improving his mind in it as well as his language. 
 But, at the same time that we are to observe the quan- 
 tity, we ought to avoid every kind of affediation and 
 stiffness : this will serve to distinguish the man who 
 has lived in the world, from the man whom his pro- 
 fession has confined to a sedentary hfe. A lady at 
 court pronounces every syllable with exaifl measure, 
 even without suspedling it ; the man that seldom leaves 
 his study, will frequently lengthen or shorten it by the 
 very pains he takes to be exat^, and whatever he savs 
 is widiout grace. If this attention be too much marked, 
 It degenerates into pedantry. Evei y thing is pleasin.'; 
 and interesting in the court lady ; there is too much 
 art in the sedentary man : every thing the pedant ut- 
 ters is altogedier outn, and even ridiculous. 
 
 ERRATUM. 
 
 Page 35. 1 17. for, it is better to spell, read: which 
 is spelt. 
 
 Fa
 
 ( 52 ) 
 
 PART IL 
 
 er WORDS CONSIDERED AS SIGKS OF OVR 
 THOUCKTS. 
 
 The number of different kinds of v/ords is and 
 ought to be in proportion to the wants of the mindo 
 But \vhat are those wanes of the mind to manifest its 
 operations ? This is what grammarians are not agreed 
 upon : and, as metaphysical discussions are foreign to- 
 a grammar like this, we shall, without any farther 
 enquiry, distinguish nine kinds of words, because 
 there are nine that have, or at least appear to have, 
 different fun6lions. These are • the substantive, the 
 article, the adjecSlive, the pronoun, the verb, the pre- 
 position, the adverb, the conjun6lion, and the inters 
 jedtioQ. 
 
 C H A P. I. 
 
 OF THE SUBSTANTIVE. 
 
 The suhsiant'i-ve is a word which serves to name 9. 
 person or a thing : it expresses the idea of a substaiic* 
 considered in itself, and without any regard to its cjua- 
 •lities ; as, pierfSy stone ; livrCy book ; mcntagney 
 mountain. 
 
 There are two 'sorts of substantives ; the substantive 
 ccmrnof.! and the suhitantive proper . 
 
 The substantive common is that which belongs to 
 .«cvcral persons or several things of the same kind ; 
 homme, man ; cheval, horse ; maison^ house, arc 
 common ; for the name hommc, man,, belongs ta 
 Peter, Paul, &:c. 
 
 I'his substantive is more or less general, according 
 as it is common to a gteater or less number of indivi- 
 ('jals. Of these words, ammal, animal ; quadru^ 
 pi'clc, quadruj-)ed ; chlcn^ dog ; barhtt, spaniel ; the 
 first is more general than the second, die second than 
 the third, and the diird than the fourth. 
 
 The substantiz't p^jp^r is th4t which belongs to oae
 
 ( 53 ) 
 
 person, or one thing only, as : Ctsar^ Cesar ; let 
 Tamise, the Thames. 
 
 There is this ditFerence between the substantive 
 common and the substantive proper, that the tirst de- 
 notes beings by the general idea of a nature common 
 to many, and the second by the single idea of an indi- 
 vidual nature. 
 
 We have only those two sorts of substantives ; but 
 among the substantives common, we ought to distin- 
 guish the colle^ilves, on account of certain la\vs which 
 are peculiar to sonie of them in our language. 
 
 Collc£livcs are those which, though in the singular, 
 presenr to our mind the idea of several objc(5\s of the 
 same kind, as if united and forming a colle6lion. 
 
 They are divided into two sorts, viz. those that ex- 
 press~ a whole colledlion, as ; urmcey army ; peuple, 
 people ; foret, forest ; and those that express only a 
 partial one, as : infinite., intinity ; la plupart, the 
 most part ; the first are called general ccUefiiveSf^vA 
 tlie others, partitive. 
 
 In substantives we are to consider the gender and 
 die number, 
 
 § I- 
 
 OF THE GENDER OF SUBSTANTIVE?. 
 
 To the difference of the sexes must be attrihute<T 
 the division ot die genders of substantives into mascu-^ 
 line axii\ feminine. The masculine belongs to mea 
 and the animals of the male kind, and die feminine 
 to women and the animals of the female kind. la 
 order to express the difff rence of sexes, we- sometimes 
 give different names to the males and the females, as : 
 homme, man ; femme, woman •, cheval, horse ; ju- 
 ment, rtiare. Sometimes they are distinguished by 
 giving the names a different terminition, as : lion, lion; 
 iionne, lioness ; chat, he-cat ; chaite, she-cat : but 
 the same word is frequently u;ed lo express the male 
 and female, as : ■ aigle, eagle ; perdrix, partridge ; 
 which is an imperfcclion iji the language. In vhis 
 case, the substantive is always of the same gender, 
 whether we speak of the male or of the female : we 
 always say; uk ai^Ic, iine perdri.^.
 
 (54 1 
 
 llils cHstm^^rGn being once established, it haa^ 
 through imitation, been extended to all the substan- 
 lives. I'he French language does not admit of the 
 ueuter gender, which is found in several others. 
 
 General principle. In French, ^very sub» 
 ^tantive, other than those belonging to men or auiraalsr 
 is, exclusively, eitlacr masculine or feminine. 
 
 Several grammarians have given rules for distin- 
 guishing the gender of substantives ; by the termination 
 ^f their last syllable: but most of those rules arc uncer- 
 tain, some aie liable t(5 many exceptions, and all are 
 pf no use to beginners. Besides, the only way of ac- 
 quiring a certain knowledge of the geuder of nouns, is 
 to consult a didtionary, whenever any doubt arises. 
 
 However, as it is our intention not to omit any 
 thing that may contribute to facilitate the knowledge 
 ©f the French language^ we shall, at the end of thi« 
 ^amniar, insert the table of those teiminations, 
 •ivhich may be consulted whenever there is occasioa. 
 
 To the general principle which we have established^ 
 ■\vc ought-to make tlic following exceptions. 
 
 1". yJ?nour, love, mastuiine in the singular : un fal 
 amour ; but teminine in the phual : d'e fdlles amours,. 
 
 2^. j^uioKine, 'dutunni, masculine ch' feminine : iin 
 ^litomnc pluvicu.", or laie automve pluv'ieuse : thefemi- 
 nme is moie generally used, particularly in prose. 
 
 3". Comtc, couaiy, e^irldom, and d'uchc, du(hy,are 
 auasculine : le contc dc, Ic duchc dc ; belt we say; 
 Mtie duchc pail i?, unc comitpanic, la F) unchc-Catnte^ 
 ^ic v:comiL 
 
 4". Couple, coujile, feminine, when it means tw® 
 things of the s:ime kind put together ; ims couplg 
 .4'cenjs, a couple of eggs, nne couple de mules, a cout- 
 |)le of mules : Init it is muscuHiie, when it means two 
 married people : im beau, un Jieureux couple, a fine, ^ 
 happy couple. 
 
 5°. Gtm, people, subs mtiv e plural, is masculine 
 when followed by an adjei'?\ive : dcs gt)h Juureux^ 
 happy people ; but feminine, when preceded by aa 
 adjedtive : de bor.ncs gens, good people. With tout, 
 it is masculine, it this adjective be not accompanied 
 hy attother ; tous ks gem dc i/hn ; but when it is join-
 
 r 55 ) 
 
 td to another, then ^^ «j is masculine, If this seconif 
 adjeitive does not change its tei mination in the femi^ 
 nine : tous Us honnetcs gens : otherwise it is feminine, 
 toutes lesvicillcs gens. \\\ this last case, custom, dis- 
 playing the whole of fts despotism, as the Abbe Gi- 
 rard expresses it, commands that the adjetftive or pro- 
 noun relating to the substantive gens, be put in the 
 masculine : les vielUes gens sont toujours hargneux ; 
 Ics sottes gens que voila ! ils nc sont bons a rlen. 
 
 6p. D-elice, delight, and orgus, organ, are mascu- 
 line in the singular : un pur cie/ice, un orgue harm'i^ 
 n'leux ; but they are feminine in the plural : dc purcs 
 delices, des argues /larmonieuses. 
 
 7°. Foudre, thunder, liglitning, is always feminine^ 
 when taken in its proper sense : la foudre est tombce \ 
 but masculine wiien used figuratively : un foudre ven^ 
 gear, ce foudre de guerre, 
 
 8". Pt/.fo««f,. person, J6 always feminine, but /fr- 
 s'mne) nobody, ii alwa.ys mastuiinc^ 
 
 §. il. 
 or THE Mi;:\iBER of substantives. 
 
 There are two numbers : the singuiur, when we 
 sneak of one person, or oik? thing, as : un hoynmey 
 a man ; un iivre, a book ; antl the plural when we 
 speak of several persons or several things, as : /es 
 komnics, tile men ; les livres, the bocks. 
 
 Number, therctore, is the property which aubstan^ 
 tives have of denoting either one thing, or several 
 things. 
 
 Proper names have no plnrrvl, as : Londres, Lon- 
 don r Afihon, iVIikon. The names of persons, hov.--. 
 ever, are put in the plural, when, under those names, 
 we comprehend all the persons that resemble those 
 who bore them, as : les Miltons, les CorneUles, les 
 Fenelons scrcnt toujours rarcs, the ?\'Iiltoiis, the Cor- 
 neiltes, the Fenelons, wiH always be scarce. The 
 Abbe de Condillac is of a contrary opinion. 
 
 There are some common n uTies which are never 
 used in the plural, i'^. The names of metab, consi- 
 dered in themselves and in ih^ir original state^ as ; cr.
 
 C 56 ) 
 
 gold ; />/a;/«^, platen. 20. The names of virtues and 
 vices, as : chastete^ chastity ; pudeiir^ modesty ; IvrO" 
 gnerle, drunkenness. 3°. Some words relating to man, 
 either in a physical or moral sense, as : Vouie^ hear- 
 ing ; Vodorat, smelling ; sang, blood ; sommeil, sleep ; 
 pauvrete, poverty. 4°. The infinicive of verbs and 
 adje£lives used substantively, when custom does not 
 allow them to be accompanied by an adje6live, as : /<?• 
 lever .i rising; Ic voucher^ setting; le beau, the beautiful; 
 te vral, truth. 5". Lastly, a few other words, whicli 
 it is impossible to reduce to any particular class. 
 
 There are others on the contrary which have no 
 singular. These are : annates, anccttes, acquets, ar^ 
 refages, assises, atours, besicleSy broussailles, broutillcsy 
 catacombes, ciseaux, confins, decombres, depens, en- 
 iraves, entra'iLles, entrefaites, epousailles, jian^aillcs, 
 funer allies, fonts, frais, hardes, immoitdlces, Jim'itcs,. 
 manes, materiaux, mceurs, mouehettes, nipes, obsequcsy 
 pleurs, proches, premices, tenebres, vergettes, vivres. 
 
 General rule. The plural is formed by ad- 
 ding j at the end of a word, as: le rot, the king, la 
 ro/'i, kings, ; lareine, the queen, Ics re'ines,G^tQ.\\%. 
 
 Exceptions. 1°. Nouns ending in the singular,. 
 in J, X, z, do not change in the plural, as : h fils, the 
 son, les fils, the sons ; la vo'ix, the voice, les^^voix, 
 voices ; le nez, the nose, les nez, noses. 
 
 qP. Nouns ending, in the singular, in au, eu, oity 
 
 take X in the plural, as : bateau, a boat, hateaux,.hoz.\.s; 
 
 feu, i\.\^,fcux, fires ; caillou, a stone, cailloux, stones. 
 
 ^ultrou,.chu, filou, matou, licou, loup-garau, follow 
 
 tlie general rule. 
 
 3'. Alostcf tlie nouns ending. In the singular, in <»/, 
 ail, end their plural in aux, as : mal, evil, maux, evils ; 
 travail, work, tmvaux, works. But bal, pal, regain 
 cal, local, carnavai, attirail, camail, detail, cventail, 
 epouvantail, gouvernail, mail, poi trail, portail, se~ 
 rail, follow the general rule. Bcrcail has no plural. 
 Betail, dieul, ciel, and (eily make bestiaux, dicuxy 
 cieiix -dMilyeux. 
 
 Observation. In seveial Printing-offices ofParls, 
 a custom has prevailed to form the plural of polysylla- 
 bles cuding in nt by omitting tlie / in the plural bciore s^
 
 ' ( 57 ) 
 Mr. DIdot has not adopted this change in the fine 
 editions that have come tiom his press. We are to ob- 
 serve that it ought never to take place in monosyllables. 
 
 There are also, in French, some compound words 
 which follow particular rules in the formation ot their 
 plural. 
 
 lo. When a noun is compound of- a substantive 
 and an adjedlive, they both take the mark of the plu- 
 ral: un gcntil-homme, a gentleman, des gentlls-hommeSy 
 gentlemen. 
 
 2°. When a noun is compound of two siilistantives, 
 uniteil bv a piepositiou, the first only takes the mark 
 of the plural : i<n aiT-en-cJel, dcs o.ycs-en-cicL 
 
 3°. When it is compound of a preposition, or verb, 
 and the substantive, the substantive alone is |)ut in the 
 plural: un entresol, des entresols -y un garde- fou^ dis 
 gardc-fou*. 
 
 C H A P. II. 
 
 OF THE ARTtCi E. 
 
 The art!cle\h a litile word, placed before commow 
 nouns, as if to announce them, and to show that they 
 are going to be used in a determinate sense. 
 
 It has been a general sentiment in France, for above 
 half a century, that the French language has but one 
 article, which is le. This is the opinion of the best 
 grammarians since that lime^ and likewise that ot the 
 Academv. 
 
 This article takes both gendeis anJ numbers, and is, 
 moreover, liable to two kinds of siate, viz. to elision 
 and to contraction. 
 
 Le is put before a masculine substantive singular: 
 le pere, the father : this le changes into la, bef;)re a 
 feminine substantive singular : la viire, the mother, 
 aiid into les,, before plur il substantives of both gen- 
 ders : les pl'res, les meres. The gender ot the article, 
 therefore, is known in the plural, only by the gender 
 ot the noun which it precedes. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 T/ie sun,' t^e moon and t/ie Mars, are f/ig 
 
 soldi I m. Iv.ne i. eloilc f. pi. elre 
 
 glory of nature and the delight of the eves. 
 
 glolre f. dc art. " t. et dtUce I. pi. de yei'.x.
 
 ( 58 ) 
 
 The king, ihe queen, and tke princes were there. 
 
 ro; 111. rcinei. pi, tirt2\n(\-2 j \. 
 
 The top of tlie rnbiintjfins and /y^^ bottom of the 
 
 sommet m. nwntagne i, '^X. fond n\. 
 
 vallies have their beauties, i The rose, the violet 
 
 •Vallee i. pi, avoli hur ieatde f. p\. f. violette i. 
 
 the tulip, the narcissus, the hyacinth, the gilliflower, the 
 
 tulipe f. narcisie m. jacinte f. girofiee f. 
 
 jasmine, the lily, the honeysuckle, the ranunculus, 
 
 jasmin m. lis m. chi-'vre-feidlls m. renoncule f. 
 
 are the ornaments of the gardens. Poetry, paint- 
 
 ornement pi. jardin pi. art. pocsit f. art. pein- 
 
 iiig, music, dancing, and architcftiire are 
 
 ture f. art. musique f. art. dansc f . art. f. 
 
 si' t;.T-arrs, The i\7^y and //t night arc equally useful. 
 ;«'.vj' pi. * jvifrm. nuit f, egalement iit.it pi. 
 
 Eihion is the emitting of the t- in the inaeculine arti- 
 cle Ic, or the a in the tlmmine article la, when those ar- 
 ticles precede a noun beginning with a vowel or // mute. 
 Thus, we say : r argent fur le argent, and Vhisto'ire 
 for la hhtolre ; but then, instead of the letter thus 
 omitted, we put this little mark C) caWzd apostrophe. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 The soul of man, without cultivation, is like 
 
 ame 1. zrt.Jicrtime m. sans culture comme 
 
 a rough diamond. The water of the mountains is 
 
 zw* b) ut 2 diarnant I . eau f. montagne pi. 
 
 always pure. The history of Spaiti is sometimes 
 
 ioujoitrs f. /«r f. histoire f. Espagne f. quelqiufois 
 
 very interesting. Look at /,^d' amaranth and //;e 
 
 tris-interessant f. Considej-ez amaranthe f. 
 
 anemone ; whaf beauty 1 Self-love and 
 
 f. quelle be ante ! art. amour-propre m. art. 
 
 pride were always the lot of blockheads. 
 
 orgeuil m. ind-3 partage m. 50/ 
 
 Honesty, innocence, honour and love 
 
 zrt. honnitete i. art. f. zrt.honneurm. zri.amourm, 
 
 of virtue are very much esteemed. Summer, au- 
 
 art. 'vertuf. fort * estime'^\.m. art. <?7«' m. art.aw- 
 tumn and winter, are very changeable. France 
 
 tomne f. art. kiver m. 'vai/able pi. art. 
 
 is separated from Italy by the Alps, and from 
 
 se'pare de avx. Italje L par Alpcs, \i\. 
 
 Spain by the Pyrenees. The scholar who wishes 
 zxt.Espagnef. pi. ecolier tn. qui desire 
 
 to improve ought to study. 
 
 * Jaire des pr-jgres doil ■■•' e'tudier.
 
 ( 59 ) 
 
 To join a noun to a word preceding it, we put 
 ^e ox li before diat nomi: fruit dc rarbre, fruit of 
 the n-ee ; utUe a Vhomnie, useful to man. Then, 
 instead of putting de Ic before a masculine singular, 
 we put du ; instead oia le^ we put au ; and in plural 
 nouns of both genders, de les, change into des, and 
 a Ics \nto aux. We say : le roi, Icpalais du roi,yobeis 
 au roi ; les rois, Ics palais des rois, J'obeis anx rois ; 
 les reinesylcs devoirs des r/ines, etre soutnis aux reines- 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 Silk is soft /<? tie touch. What is agreeable to 
 Soie{. douce La toucher. Cequi agr table 
 
 taste is often contrary to health. He obeyed 
 ■2.x\.. goutva, souvejit contraire art. santii. obeit a 
 
 the Olders of the king. The warbling of. 
 
 ordre pi. roi m. gaxoudlement m. art. 
 
 birds, the murmuring of streams, the enamel 
 
 oiscau pi. murmure m. art. ru'nseau pi. emailxa. 
 
 of meadows, the coolness of woods, the fragrancy 
 zxt. prairie pi. fralcbeur f. art. bois pi. parfum m. 
 of flowers, and the v-aricty of plants con- 
 
 art. ^/Ji'/^r pi. iiariete {. art- plante ^\. con- 
 
 tribute a great deal to the pleasure of //:<? mind 
 
 tribuent * heaucoup plaitir ffsprit 
 
 and the health of the body. A man given up to 
 a f. corps m. Un livre ^ 
 
 pleasure never was a great man. The happiness 
 art. ne fut jamais %tn grand bonhe.ur 
 
 of a feding man is to relieve the wants , of 
 
 sensible 2 1 de subvenir a hesoin pi. 
 
 the poor. Shun the company of the wicked 
 
 pauvre pi. Enjitez compagnie f. mechant pK 
 
 and seek that of honest men.' 
 
 rechcrch(% ctllc art. hoti/icte gens pi. 
 
 Ds' and a are never contradled with la ; we sav : 
 la reitie, de la reine, d la rci)ie. " 
 
 Likewise, de andu are not contra6led with le^ before 
 a masculine substantive singular, beginning with a 
 vowel, or h mute ; we say : de resprit, d Pesprit^ 
 de fhommc, d Vhornme. 
 
 Neither does the contraftion take place before 
 nouns masculine of both numbers, when custom -re- 
 quires a word to be placed between de or d and the 
 article. Thus we say, without any contradlion : de 
 tout le monde, d tout le monde ; dc tcus les /iommcs, d 
 t-:ui les hommes.
 
 ( 6o ) 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 The hope of success strengthened the cause 
 
 ^spiranct i. axX-.Tcnssitei. fmiifia cau<ei. 
 
 mj virtue and weakened the audaciousness of rebellion, 
 art. affolblit audace f art. f. 
 
 Fire of imagination, strength of mind and 
 ■^n.fcu m. art. f. art. force art, esprit 
 
 firmness of soul arc gifts of nature. We 
 
 fermetcf. art. ame i. (t/es)doH p\. art. f. 
 
 looked with horror upon man given up /o avarice 
 regardio/is horrciir "*" art. f. 
 
 and voluptuousness. It is the pifture of man- 
 
 pr-art. 'volupte i. Ce tableau m. art. gtnre 
 
 kind. The history of man in every cir- 
 
 nuniain m. h'utoire i. art, dans toutes art. 
 
 <cumstancc of life is the study of the wise, 
 f. pi. art. 'vie f. etude f. sage. 
 
 Observe that the English article the^ which answers 
 to the French article Ic, is invariable, as it takes nei- 
 ther gender, nor number. It is never confounded 
 with, the preposition, which affords still greater facility 
 to the English learner of knowing tlie double function 
 of those small contradted words. 
 
 General rule. In French, the article always 
 agrees in gender and number with the substantive to 
 which it belongs, as : le llvre que je ch^rche^ the book 
 which I am looking for ; La fcmme que jc vols-, the 
 woman whom 1 see ; /es hommes qui ctudient, the men 
 that study ; l£s societes que jt frequente, the societies 
 which I frequent. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 The father, mother, brothers, sisters, 
 
 pcre m.ZTt. mcrei. art. y?-i*r^ m. pi. art. .fO'/^'r f. pi. 
 uncles, aunts and several other relations 
 
 art. oncle pi. art. ta>ite pi. plusieurs autres parent pi. 
 
 were present at the ceremony of the marriage. What 
 jad-3 m. a celebration f. mariagt m. Ce que 
 
 we esteem is health, frugality, liberty, 
 
 estintons art. f. zxx.frugalite f. art. liberte f. art 
 
 vigour of mind and body ; it is the love of virtue, 
 
 tigueur pr. cest m. art. 
 
 reverence for the Gods, zeal for our 
 
 art. crainte f. de Dieu pi. art. attachement m. a nos 
 
 friends, fidelity for all mankind, modera- 
 
 ami pi. art. fidelite pour tout art. wonde m» art. 
 tion in prosperity, fortitude in adversity, 
 
 f. dans art. pruspcriteL d^rt. force f. art. ad'orrsite f. art. 
 
 courage, good manners and an abhorrence •f 
 
 m. art, l-^;>ne moeur pi. * art. horvcur
 
 ( 6i ) 
 
 flattery. The apple, the pear, the peach, the 
 art. flatten'^, f. pomvie f. poire f. pe.clie f. 
 
 pineapple, the plumb, apricois, currants 
 
 ananas m. prune i, art. abricot ^\. iVt, groseil/e TpL 
 
 strawberries, raspberries and grapes 
 
 art. fraisf pi. art. framboise pi. art. raiun m. 
 
 are wholesome and delicious fruits ; but chcs- 
 
 {dei) sain pi. 2. 3. delicicux -t. pi. 1. art. cha- 
 
 nuts, walnuts, hazel nuts, filberts, 
 
 /a/^w<?pl. art. Ko/> pi. art. «o/.'f//<f pi. art. a-ve-iinf p\. art, 
 medlars and other fruits of this kind are hurtful la 
 nefie pi. autres pi. cctte sorte nuisible pi. 
 
 health. The horror of vice &nd the love 
 
 art. horreur m. art. in. 
 
 c;/ virtue are the delight of the wise, 
 art. _ dilice pi. 
 
 CHAP, in. 
 
 OF THE ADJECTIVE. 
 
 The adje£live is a word which is added to the sub- 
 stantive, to express the quality of a person or thing» 
 as ; bonpere, good father ; bon/ie mere, good mother ; 
 beau livre^ fine book ; belle image, fine image. These 
 words bon, bonne, beau, belle, are adjedlives, as they 
 express the quahties of pere, mere, iivre, image : such 
 is the function of the adje6live in every language. 
 
 We know a word to be an adjecflive, when it can 
 be properly joined with the word personne, or the 
 word chose : thus, habile, skilful, and agreable, agree- 
 able, are adje6lives, because we may say : personne- 
 habile, skilful person ; chose agreable, agreeable thing. 
 
 The better to express the quality of a person or 
 thing, the adjedlive takes, in French, the gender and 
 number of ihe substantive to which It is joined. This 
 difference of gender and number is generally marked 
 by the last letter. 
 
 HOW THE FP.ENCH ADJECTIVES FORM THEIR 
 FEMININE. 
 
 All adjedtives, ending in the singular in e mute, 
 are of both genders. Those that end differently form 
 their feminine in the following manner, 
 
 G
 
 ( 62 ) 
 
 General rule. When the adjcifllve does not 
 end in c mute, the e mute is added to it, to form its 
 feminine : prudent, prudente ; poll, pol'i-e \ sense, scnsee; 
 imiruit, instruite. 
 
 Exceptions, i", IVIost of the adjectives in el, eily 
 nl,an, ien, on, as, ais, cs, et and ot, form their feminine 
 by doubling the last consonant and taking e mute after 
 it. Cruel, vermeil, nul, paysan, ancicn, ban, gras, 
 epais, cxpres, gros, net, sot, make in the feminine 
 cruelle, vermeille, nulle, paysanne, anciejine, bonne^ 
 grasse, epa'tsse, cxpresse, grossc, nette, sotte. 
 
 The adjectives ?nauvais, niais, ras, complet, discrct, 
 pret, rcplct, secret, clos, devot, follow the e-neral rule, 
 Espagnol makes Espagnole. 
 
 The adjectives yi^.'^, mou, beau and nouveau, form 
 their feminine from the old words fol, mol, bel and 
 nouvel, which are always used before nouns, begin- 
 ning with a vowel or h mute : they make folk, molle^ 
 belle and noiiv-elle. 
 
 2*^. T\\t z^]Q.€t\\e^ b lane, franc, sec,frais, make 
 hlanchc,franche, scche, fraiche : caduc, Turc, public^ 
 Grec, make caduquc, Turque, publique, Greque or 
 Grecque : favori ix\'Jtk.&s favorite. 
 
 3*^. Bnf, fi^'if, neuf, make" breve, naive, neuve, 
 changing the f into v : br'uf makes brieve, but this 
 adjeCtive is no longer used but as a law-term : briefs 
 delais, short delays ; brieve justice, quick justice. 
 Long makes longue. We now write nu, naked, cru^ 
 raw, and vert, green, instead of nud, crud, verd ; 
 tlierefore, these adjeClives are no longer exceptions. 
 
 4°. Alalin, malignant, and benin, benign, make ' 
 maligne, benigne. Fat, coxcomb, has no teminine, 
 nor the participle pa^t resous, resolved : absous, absolv- 
 ed znCidissQus, dissolved, make absoiite, dissoute. 
 
 5°. The adjectives in eur have generally their femi- 
 nine in euse : trompeur, deceiver, trompeuse ; chanteur^ 
 singer, chanteuse. However, enchanteur, enchanter, 
 makes enchanteresse ; a^eur, aCtor, a^rice, aCtress. 
 About these three terminations of the adjeCtives in 
 eur, custom alone ought to be consulted. 
 
 These twelve adjectives, antcrieur, cithleur^ exti"
 
 ( 63 ) 
 
 rJeur, hifc'rieur, mitieui; majeur, poitttleur, uhcrleur^ 
 supirieur, inter ieur, jneilleur, prieur, follow the gene- 
 ral rule. 
 
 6°. The adjedtlves ending in x change this letter 
 into se, as : jaloux, jalousc, &cc. But }oux, reddish, 
 ^sux, sweet, faux^ false, make rousse^ douce, fciusse. 
 Vieux, old, makes vieiile, from the old adjc6live vieil 
 still used in this dogmatical expression : k vieil homme, 
 the old man : for, every where else we say : un vieux 
 homme, an old man, un v'lcux habit ^ an old coat. Pre- 
 fx, follows the general rule. Ivrogne, drunk, and 
 truUre, traitor, make ivrognesse, traUrcsse. 
 
 HOW THE PLURAL IS FORMED. 
 
 General rule. Every adjeflive, of whatever 
 termination, forms its plural by the mere addition of 5 
 either in the masculine or the feminine, as bon^ bans-; 
 honnc, bonnes ; po/2, polis ^ poiie, polies. 
 
 This rule is without any exception, as to the femi- 
 nine termination ; but the masculine has the two fol- 
 - — -Jowing 
 
 ExcEPTioKS. I?. The adjeilives ending in s 
 or X, do not change their termination in the plural, 
 as : gi'os, big, gy'ds, fat, h'ldeux^ hideous, &;c. 
 
 2°. Those ending in au take x in the plural, and 
 those ending in al change this termination into aux\ 
 beau, fine, nouveau, new, egal, equal, general, gene- 
 ral, make beaux, nouvcnux, egaux, generaux. 
 
 But most of the adje6tives ending in al have no 
 plural masculine, as : austral, boreal, canonial, conju- 
 gal, fatal, filial, final, frugal, jovial, pastoral, mral^ 
 natcd, total, nuptial, special a.ni^ peroral. 
 
 We have no doubt th:it these aljeil res will soon be 
 used in the plural, and that without any opposition; 
 since the expressions : combats navoh, ccmmentaires 
 litteraux, details trtviaux, have Ij -en introduced ; and. 
 as no obje6tion has been made to them, why should 
 there be any to rits nuptiaux, devoirs canonioux, faits 
 speciaux, combats pastoraux ? 
 
 G2
 
 ( 64 ) 
 
 DEGREES OF SIGNIFICATION IN THE 
 ADJECTIVE. 
 
 Adjectives have three degrees of signification, viz. 
 Alt positive, the compaiative'diid the superlative. 
 
 The p'Bsitive is the adje6live itself, without any 
 increase or diminution, as : heau, belle, fine. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 A child gentle, amiable and docile is beloved by 
 enfant doux, aiviahle aime de 
 
 every body. An ingenious candour, an amiable simpli- 
 
 i)igcnti2. candctir i. 1. 
 city and a lii'ely engaging artlessnes.s> are all the 
 
 piquant 2. naivete f. 
 
 charm of youth. 
 
 iharme ta. zn.jeunesse L 
 
 The comparative is the adie6live, with comparison' 
 of one degree to another. When two things are com- 
 pared> the one is either superior, or inferior, or equal 
 to tlie other: hence three sorts of comparisons. 
 
 The comparative of superiority is formed by put- 
 ting plus, more, before the adjcSlive, as : la rose est 
 plus belle qu£ la violette, the rose is mors beautiful 
 than tlie violet. 
 
 Tiie comparative of inferiority is formed, by putting 
 moins, less, or ne si, not so, before the adjciSiive, as ; 
 la violctte est moins belle que la rose, the violet is less 
 beautiful than the rose ; or, la violette ti'cst pas si belle 
 que la rose, the violet is not so beautiful as the rose. 
 
 The comparative of equality is formed by putting 
 anssi, as much, before the adjective, and aiitant before 
 the participle, as : la tiilipe^ est aussi belle que la rose, 
 the tulip is as beautiful as the rose ; Louis XII fat 
 au^ant aime que Louis XI avoit etc hdi, Louis XII 
 was as much beloved as Louis XT had been hated. 
 
 Si and tant also mark tire comparison, and we 
 shall see how they are to be used. The word que^ 
 than, serves to join the two objefls compared. 
 
 These three adjectives, meilleur, better, moindre^ 
 less, pire, worse, express by themselves a comparison. 
 Aleillcur is the comparative of bon, good, and is in- 
 stead olplus bon, which is not used, although we say : 
 aussi bon and moins bon. A'foindre is the comparative 
 of petit, little, and is instead of plus petit, which is
 
 C 65 ) 
 
 also used. Pir-c Is the comparative of mauvais, bad^ 
 and is instead oiplus mauvais, which is also used. 
 
 EXERCl SE. 
 
 The Republic of Athens has been more illustrious 
 Republique f. Athenei illustre 
 
 than that of Lacedemon. Homer had per- 
 
 celle Lacedcmone. Homer e ind-4. peut- 
 
 haps more genius than Virgil ;• but Virgil had incon* 
 cue plus de genie Firgile man incon- 
 
 testably more taste than Homer. Mihon appears to 
 te:tablement parojt 2. * 
 
 me to be more sublime than all the other epic 
 ffjg 1, * autre 1. epique 2. 
 
 poet«. Tasso has an imagination less lively, but better 
 
 f/ete^\.2. LeTasse f- "^'Z- f- plu^ 
 
 regulated t/ian Ariosto : but Ariosto has more hre, 
 regie f. V Arioste _ de _ 
 
 imre imagery, in a word more poetical genius 
 
 de image -[^X^ en mot de 2. I. 
 
 than Tasso. Shipwreck and death are less 
 
 art. naufrage m. art. mort f. 
 
 fatal than pleasures which attack virtue,- 
 
 m.pl. art. pi. qui attaquent art. 
 
 Gross vice and brutish impudence, are not 
 
 art. grassier 0. \.. brutal \, C, re pas 
 
 sometimes so dangerous as a modest beauty. The 
 qu-Hquefois danger eux '2. 1. 
 
 violet is less glittering to the eye than the 
 
 •violette i.'-^' etlater ind-1. o-z/pl. 
 
 lily : a true emblem of modesty and 
 
 Us m. " veritable C. embieme 1. art. modestie 
 
 pride. Autumn is not so varied as spring, 
 
 Y>r-2Tt. orgueil. art. Automne 'varie (. zxi. print fmps 
 
 but it is richer. Pope's images are as perfedt 
 
 elle riche. de Pope2.zn. pi. 1. pnrfailf.p], 
 
 as his style is harmonious. Delicacy of taste 
 
 son harmonieux. art. Delicatessc f. art. m. 
 
 is a gift of nature as scarce as true genius. 
 
 don nrt. rare art. v/<2/ 
 
 The colours of life in youth and age 
 
 couleur pi. art. dans art. pr-art. dge 
 
 appear as different as the face of 
 
 a'-jance' avoir tine apparence f. f, 
 
 nature in spring and winter, 
 
 art. art. pr-art. 
 
 The adje6live is in the superlnt'ivc, when it expres- 
 ses the quality in a very high, or in the highest degree v 
 hence, we have two sorts of superlatives, the one aeso^ 
 lute, and the otlicr nlatlve, 
 
 G3
 
 ( 66 ) 
 
 Tlie superlative absolute Is formed by putting treif 
 fart^ bieriy very, extremement, extremely, &c. before 
 the adjective, as : Londres est line tvcs-bellc ville, Lon- 
 don is a very fine city •, Paris est extr cmcmeni pe7iplc'y 
 Paris is exceedingly populous. We call it absoliitey 
 because it does not express any relation to another 
 thing. 
 
 The superlative relative is formed by putting the 
 article le either in its natural, or contracted state, be- 
 fore the comparative adverbs, meillciir, molndre, pire, 
 plus and moins, as : Londres est la plus belle dcs villes-y 
 London is the finest of cities ; jeprefereime maisonde 
 campngne au plus beau des pala'is, 1 prefer a country 
 house to the finest palace. We call it relative, be- 
 cause it expresses a relation to another thing. 
 
 The superlative relative is always followed by de. 
 
 Observation. There is this material difference 
 between the comparative and the superlative relative, 
 that tiie first expresses only a particular comparison, 
 and the second an universal one» 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 That landscape is muck varied, -very far exfended, and 
 
 Ce pay sage 'varie * etendu 
 
 Infinitely agreeable on every side. The style of Fenelon 
 infiniment de tout c6te^\. 
 
 is very rich and i/^iy agreeable, but it is sometimes prolix ; 
 
 ;/ prolixe ; 
 
 that of Bossuet is extremdy ' lofty, but sometimes harsh 
 telui extre'/nement t'le-ve dur 
 
 and rough. Fenelon, in painting nature, would wish 
 
 yudt' en pclgnnnt art. 'uouloir c.on-\. 
 
 to express all its beauties ; but Bossuet never 
 * en rendre le f. pi. ne jamais 
 
 paints it but in a mass. Th/: most beautiful 
 
 feint Q. la 1. que en * 7,v<<i.>f pi. 
 
 comparison that is _ perhaps in any 
 
 comparaisoni. que y aiicir %\^y \. pcut-ttre aiicun 
 
 language, is that " which Pope has drawn from the 
 langue'i. cclle que tire f. de 
 
 Alps, in his Essay on Criticism. The pi^ure 
 
 dans son Essai sur art. critique. _ tableau m. 
 
 of Hippolitus' death, in Racine's Phedra, 
 
 Uppcltte 2. de art. 1. 2. d^xt. Pkcdre i.\. 
 
 k, in the opinion of many persons of taste, the 
 
 a jugement m. bten dcs person^e'^l.
 
 ( 6; ) 
 
 finiU piece of descriptive and imitative poetry among- 
 morceaum., 2. 3. f. 1. farmi 
 
 the moderns. 
 modernc. pi, 
 
 AGREEMENT OF THE ADJECTIVE WITH THE 
 SUBSTANTIVE. 
 
 Rule I. The adjcifVive always agrees in gender 
 and number with the substantive to which it relates. 
 Examples : 
 
 Le bonpere, De beaux jardinsy 
 
 The good father. Fine gardens. 
 
 La bonne mere, De belles piomenades. 
 
 The good mother. Fine walks. 
 
 Bon is in the masculine singular, because pere Is 
 masculine and in the singular ; bonne is in the femi- 
 nine singular, because mere is feminine and in the 
 sinijular ; beaux is in the masculine plural, because 
 jardlns is masculine and in the plural, &c. 
 
 Exceptions. The adjedlives nu, bare, znddemi, 
 half, placed before the substantives, and feu, late, 
 placed before the article, or a possessive pronoun, 
 ought to be excepted from this rule. We say : nu- 
 pleds, bare-footed, nu-tete, bare-headed, feu la reine^ 
 the late queen, feu sa mere, his late mother, demi 
 heure, half an hour ; but we ought to say : les p'leds 
 nus, la tete nue, la feue reine, sa feue mere, une hcure 
 et denue, an hour and a half. We also say : suppose 
 la ventc du fait, supposing the fadl to be true ; .?.v- 
 ctpte quelques pcrsonnes, except a few persons ; al- 
 though we ought to say : la verlte du fait supposee, 
 quelques personnes exceptees. 
 
 Rule II. When the adjeflive relates to two sub- 
 stantives singular, it ought to be put in the plural. 
 Example : 
 
 Le rol et le berger sont egaux apres la mart,. 
 The king and the shepherd are equal after death. 
 
 Rule III. When the two substantives to which 
 the adje£live relates are of different genders, this ad-* 
 je6live is to be put in the masculine. ' Example : 
 Mon pere et ma mere sont contcns, 
 My father and mother are contented. 
 
 Observation. These three rules do not obtain in 
 English, as the adjeflive is always the same, both for the 
 masculine and feminine, for the singular and plural.
 
 ( 68 ) 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 Hills ecvered with trees, loaded with fruitf 
 
 des cote ait pi. couvert dc arbre pi. charge pU 
 
 already ripe, and spread over with odoriferous plants ; 
 iiieja mnr * "' odoriferant plarile f. ph 
 
 a pure water which rolls its limpid chrystal in the 
 
 2. 1. qui roide son 2. 1. « 
 
 midst of meadows enamelled with flowers ; a gloomy 
 milieum. pi. emaille sombre 
 
 forest whose delicious coolness carries into 
 
 sing, dont art. 2. fraicheur L\. porter dans- 
 
 the senses an enchantivg calmness ; every thing 
 
 sens pi. enclianteur 2. calme m. 1. tout 
 
 interests the heart, every thing attaches it in 
 
 inter esser attacher 2 le \. dans- 
 
 that abode full of allurements. Fly, inconsiderate 
 ce sejour plein attrail pi. F/iyez, icnonsidere 2 
 
 youth, fly from the enchanting allurements of a vain- 
 
 I . ^^ 2. pi. 1. 2. 
 
 world : its perfidious sweets are a slow poison, which- 
 
 1. ses perfide douceur ■^\. lent 2. 1.. qui 
 
 would destroy \\\your soul the noble enthusiasm 
 
 con. 1. detruire -votre enthousiasme 
 
 of good, and the precious seeds of sublime vir- 
 
 art. bien precieux gerjne m. art. pi. art. 
 
 tucs. Uprightness and piety are very much." 
 
 pi. art. droiture f. art. f. 
 
 esteemed, even by the wicked. Amzn\n the most 
 
 estiine f. pi. mime de mechant. art. 
 
 elevated, and a man in the most abjeSi 
 
 ilcve 2. itatm. 1. art. 2; 
 
 situation, are equally precious in the eyes of God* 
 
 etat 1. a pi. 
 
 Pilpay and Confucius are very illustrious among the 
 
 nations of Asia. His probity and disinterestedness 
 
 peuple Y>^. art. Sa ' son dcsiyiteressemcnf ■ 
 arc known. The love of life, and the fear of 
 
 connu art. art. 
 
 death, are natural to man. Ignorance and 
 
 fiaturel art. art. art,. 
 
 self-love are equally presumptuous.. 
 
 egalement presomptueux 
 
 GOVERNMENT OF ADJECTIVES.. 
 
 There are adje£lives whii h are always used with- 
 out any government, because they have a determinate 
 signification, as : coutagcux, courageous ; sage, wise. 
 Others have no signification but when followed by 
 another word, as : ^ret a, ready to ; capable cie, ca-
 
 ( ^9 ) 
 
 {)able of. Lastly, there are some which may or may 
 not be followed by another word, according as we 
 wish either to give them a determinate sense in regard 
 to some particular thing, or leave them the general 
 sense they have of tliemselves, as : content^ sensible : 
 for, we may say with equal propriety : Je suis con- 
 tent ^ I am satistied; il est sensible., he is sensible ; and 
 je suis content de vous, I am satisfied with you ; it 
 est sensible anfroid^ he is sensible of cold. 
 
 Rule. To join a noun to an adjective tliat pre- 
 cedes it, we put de or a between that adjective and the 
 noun : then, that noun is called the government of 
 tlie adjcdlive. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Digne de recompense. Utile a Vhommey 
 
 Worthy of reward. Useful to man. 
 
 Content de son sorfy Propre a la guerre, 
 
 Satisfied with his lot. Fit for war. 
 
 Recompense is the government of the adje<£tlve 
 digne., because it is joined to that adjective by the "word 
 de : I'homme is the government ot the adjective k/'//^, 
 becay§§ '\\ is joined ijQ that adjective by die word a. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 Virtuous men are always worthy 0/ esteem. A fine land- 
 art. 2. 1. digne 
 
 scape is always pleasing to the eye. Alcibiades, enraged 
 agreable ijue f. enrage 
 
 at being proscribed, resolved to ruin his country. A 
 de lire proscrii rtsolut de perdre sa patrie 
 M'cak mind is liable to many contradidtions. A heart 
 
 foible 2. 1. sujet bien des 
 
 f)ee from cares enjoys the greatest possible felicity. 
 Itbre de soin ^\. jouit de 1 3. 2. 
 
 The wise Socrates did not shew himself affe6ted bjt the 
 
 * se montrer ind-3. sensib.'e d 
 
 hatred of his enemies and the injustice of the Athe- 
 baine f. ses pi. pr. Athe- 
 
 nians. Voltaire has been with reason accused 0/ avarice 5 
 nien pi. avec accuse 
 
 he was always greedy of praise and insatiable 5/ glory. 
 
 ind-3. wvide louange pi. 
 
 Rousseau, endowed loitk a strong and fiery imagi- 
 
 doue de f: rt 2. bouillant 3. 
 
 nuion was all his Ufe-time subjeft to frequent fits o£ 
 
 : • 1 . ia f . * encUn a de acces pL
 
 ( 70 ) 
 
 and liable to all the variations 
 
 f. 
 
 attcndfant 
 qui en 
 
 misanthropy, 
 7.tisa7itropic 
 upon it. 
 serit la suite, 
 
 "NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES OF NUMBER. 
 
 Adjectives of number are those that are used in 
 computation, and they are divided into two sorts, viz. 
 cardinal and ordinal : the cardinal number serves to 
 express the quantity of things, and the ordinal to de- 
 note the rank which they hold between them. 
 The cardinal numbers are : 
 
 Dix-huit Eighteen] 
 
 Dix-neuf Nineteen 
 
 Vingt Twenty 
 
 Vinet & un, or) ^^ 
 Vinit-un 3 Twenty-one 
 
 Vingt-deux T\venty-two,&c- 
 
 Trente, &c. Thirty, &c. 
 
 C^uarante &c. Forty, &c. 
 
 Cinquante, he. Fifty, &c. 
 Soixante,&c. Sixty, &c. 
 
 Soixante-dix, Sec. Seventy, &c. 
 Quatre-vingts, .Vc. Eighty, &c. 
 Quatre-vingts-dix Ninety, &rc. 
 v^ciiik rltiiiuicti 
 
 I>eux cents, &c. T\vohundred,(icc.. 
 Mille Thousand 
 
 Deux mille, &c. Two thousand, &:c, 
 being togcdier twenty-three adjectives of cardinal 
 numbers. 
 
 The adjectives of the ordinal number are : 
 Premier First Quatrieme Fourth 
 
 Second Second Cinquieme Fifth 
 
 Troisicme Third Sixicmc, &c. Sixth &rc. 
 
 and so on through the cardinal numliers. 
 
 All the ordinal numbers are formed from the car- 
 dinal, by changing in viime those that end in f, as^ 
 ticuf., ncuvieme, ; by clianging into ieme the e mute in 
 those whicli have this termination, as :• quatre, qua- 
 trieme ; and by adding il'me t» those ending with a 
 consonant, except cinq, whicli, besides, requires u 
 before icme, as : trois-, troisiemc ; cinq, cinquieme. 
 
 There are three sorts of substantives of numbe?, 
 viz. colletiive, dislyihutive ^.n^ proportional. 
 
 The collective serve to denote a certain quantity of 
 things, as : line dcmi-dcu^aine^ half a dozen ; um 
 
 Un 
 
 One 
 
 Deux 
 
 Two 
 
 Trois 
 
 Three 
 
 Quatre 
 
 Four 
 
 Cinq 
 
 Five 
 
 Six 
 
 Six 
 
 Sept 
 
 Seven 
 
 Huit 
 
 Eight 
 
 Neuf 
 
 Nine 
 
 Bix 
 
 Ten 
 
 Onze 
 
 Eleven 
 
 Douze 
 
 Twelve 
 
 Treize 
 
 Thirteen 
 
 Quatorze 
 
 Fourteen 
 
 Quinze 
 
 Fifteen 
 
 Seize 
 
 Sixteen 
 
 Dix-sept 
 
 Seventeen
 
 ( 7^ } 
 
 douza'ine, a doz,en ; un mill'icr, a thousand ; iin miU 
 Hon, a million ; un milUcvd, a tiiousand millions, &c. 
 
 The distributive are those which serve to express 
 tlie difFcrent parts of a whole, as : la mohie, a half ; le 
 quart, a quarter ; un clnquieme, a tifth part, c-.c. 
 
 The proportional serve to denote the progressive 
 increase of diings, as: le double, double ; le tilple^ 
 treble ; le centuple, a hundred-fold, &:c. 
 CHAP. IV. 
 
 OF THE PRONOUN. 
 
 "^ht pronoun is a word which supplies the place of 
 the noun ; a substitute performing its fun6tions : it 
 conveys no precise idea of itself, but it presents to 
 the mind one that has been expressed before, or is 
 known from circumstances. 
 
 Grammarians do not agree upon the manner of 
 dassing the pronouns, nor upon the number ot classes 
 into which they are to be divided. We do not mean 
 to enter into the merits of any particular system, but 
 only, for cl-iarness' sake, divide the pronouns into 
 personal, possessive, relative, absolute, demonstrative^ 
 aind indefinite.. 
 
 § I 
 
 OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 
 
 "Personal pronouns are those which denote the 
 persons. 
 
 There are three persons: the first is that who 
 speaks, the second is that to whom one speaks, and 
 the th.rd is that of whom one speaks. 
 
 The pronouns of the first person are : je, I, me, mst, 
 me, for the singular, and nms, we, us, for the plural. 
 Thev are of both genders, that is, masculine, if it he 
 a man that speaks, and leminine, if it be a woman, 
 as . je me pr amine, 1 walk ; rcgarde-z-moi, look at me ; 
 parlez de moi, speak of me -, nous nous promenons^ we 
 are walking. 
 
 Observe, that tae is instead of a moi, moi, as: 
 // me dit, that is, il dit a moi, he tells me ; // me re-' 
 ^arde, that is, il regarde moi, he looks at me. 
 
 The pronouns of the second person are : rw, thou.
 
 ( 72 ) 
 
 iCy toiy thee, for the singular, and vousy you, for tlie 
 plural. They are of both genders ; that is, mascu- 
 line, if it be a man to whom one speaks, and femi- 
 inine, if it be a woman, as : tu te promenes, thou 
 walkest ; rcgarde-toi, look at thee ; on park de to'i^ 
 one speaks of thee ; vous vous premcnez^ you walk. 
 
 Observe, that te is instead of a to2, tvi, as : o?i tc 
 d'tt, that is, on dit a toi^ one tells thee ; on te regards, 
 that is, on regarde toi, one looks at thee. 
 
 Through politeness, we say vous, you, instead of 
 iu, thou, in the singular, as : vous etes bien bon i^ 
 bien honnete, you are very good and very polite. 
 
 The pronouns, either of the first or the second 
 person, are applied only to persons or personified 
 things. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 Observation. Through the whole of this exer- 
 cise, it will be sufficient to tell the jearner that }c, me, 
 tu, te, are put before the verb ; moi, toi, after, and nous, 
 •vous, generally before, but sometimes after the verb : 
 the reason of it he will see afterwards. The examples 
 mentioned are sufficient to show him that construction. 
 Some of them are placed after the verb, only when 
 the sentence is interrogative, or when the verb is in 
 the imperative, or when they are preceded by the 
 preposition de. 
 
 I cast my eyes upon the objects that surrounded 
 
 porter ind.-3. ma lue sur pi. qui environner 
 
 me, and saw with pleasure, that all was 
 
 ind.-2. me je i'o/Vin<l.-3. que ind.-2. 
 
 calm and tranquil. / was telling thee that dancing 
 
 dire ind.-2. te art. danse 
 
 is to the body what taste is to the mind. Look 
 
 cc que art. Regardez imp. 
 
 at me '. dost tliou not see in all my features that 1 am 
 
 * moi * iJois mes traits pi. que 
 satisfied with //i(»^. What wast Moa saying of me? 
 tatisfait de toi * dire ind.-2. moi ? 
 We are often deceived through too much prc- 
 On iowvent se tromper par trap * de 
 cipitation. You have said the most flattering things 
 
 dire\v\d.-\. fiatteur2. f. pi. I. 
 
 to us. We have told you the truth. You have 
 
 * ncus, dire iDd-4. 
 
 shewn
 
 ( n ) 
 
 sho-vvn us great talents: when will _>■;?« show 
 
 W79w/;rr inf.-3. de ina-7» 
 
 ui great virtues. My dear child, go on, and ytw 
 
 de Mon coiitinuer imp. 
 
 will be beloved and esteemed by every body. How amiable 
 a'une de Que i- 
 
 you are ! How good you are to have thought of 
 
 I. 2. 3. 1. '2. Je vcus tire ocaepe 
 
 vs ! Let us think of useful things in ouy youth. 
 
 s'occuper imp. '^- !• »otre 
 
 Amuse yourselves ; but let not your amusements take 
 iamuser imp. *' '^^'^ 
 
 away from you the love of employment. It was 
 oter imp. gout art. h-avail m. On ind.-2. 
 
 said of you the other day, that you intended ^ to 
 
 autre ' que se proposer \x\A.-2. de: 
 
 spend some winters in London, (in order) to see every thing- 
 passer un a Londrts pour tout ce 
 
 curious that that city affords. 
 
 5. que 1. cette2. 3. offrir de 4. 
 
 The pronouns of the third person are, //, he, elle^ 
 she, /«/, Icy him, it, la, lier, it, for the singular, and 
 //j, or euxy elles, leury les-, they, them, for the plural. 
 //, /<?, ils and eux, are always masculine ; elU, la and 
 elles, always feminine ; /«/, leur and les, masculine 
 or feminine, according to the gender of the persons 
 spoken of. 
 
 Observe, that lul is instead of a lu'i, a elk, as : 
 je lu'i parte, may signifv, jc park a lui, I speak to 
 him, and^V park a elk, 1 speak to her. Le is for liu, 
 and la for elk, as : je k vo'is, je la vols, that is, je 
 vols lui, I see him, je vols elk, I see her. Leur is 
 for a eux, a elks, and les for eux, elks, as : je leuf 
 park may signify, je park a eux, I speak to them 
 (men), je park a elks, I speak to them ( women} . 
 je ks vols, that is, je vols eux, I see them (■men), 
 jc vols elks, I see tliem (women). 
 
 There is still another pronoun of the third person -• 
 sol, sc, one's self: it is of both gc-nders and of both 
 ■ numbers, and is called rejlc£icd, because it expresses 
 the relation of a person to himself. 
 
 Observe, that se is for a sol, sol, as : il se donne 
 des huan^cs. that is, 11 donne dcs buanges d ioi, he 
 
 H
 
 { 74 ) 
 
 gives himself praise : il se fattc, that is, iljlutte soi, 
 he riatters himself. 
 
 Tlieic are also two vvortls ^^•hich are used as pro- 
 nouns, viz. 
 
 1°. En, which is put instead of de lu'i, d''eUe, d''eUx, 
 dalles : thus, when we say, j' en -park, we mean to 
 say, jc park de lu'i, d'cUe, &cc. I speak of him, 
 of her, &c. according to the person or thfng 
 whose najue has been mentioned before, 
 
 2**. Y, which means a cctte chose, to that thin^, 
 a res choses, to those things ; as, when we say : je 
 iny applique, that is, jc vC applique a cctte chose, a ces 
 choses, I apply myself to that thing, to those things. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 Observation. // and ils, and the other per- 
 sonal pronouns, are always to be placed before the 
 verb, except in the cases mentioned in the preced- 
 ing observation. 
 
 I was saying to him : do not you know that 
 
 •'■•■ ^/V<? ind.-2. ' lui * sn-voir \r\f\-\. 
 
 the property of merit is to excite envy ? He 
 
 proprc m. art. dc exciter art. 
 
 often exhorted me to the study the most useful, that 
 
 exhorte.r ind.-'2. celje 
 
 of the human heart. T1iey make us love vir- 
 
 kurraxin 2. 1. fairemi.-\. art. 
 
 tue, more by their examples than by their words. 
 
 pur tcxrs excmplc pi. parole pi. 
 
 What has been said of them r Do not you 
 
 f^ue dire ind.-4. cjx ^- ind.-l. 
 
 see them ? With what pleasure tfiey play ! He 
 
 •voir les ijt"i joucr 
 
 flattered himself of having your proteftion. In 
 
 se flatter ind.-2. a^joir inf.-l. "JOire 
 
 a "thousand instances, we do not watch sufficiently 
 
 "^ milk occasion pi. on "'' "jcilltr assez 
 
 over ourselves. I'hcy make themselves too busy about it. 
 jur ioi-mtme On \. s" ottuper'i. -tr'^p^. en 2. 
 They speak a' great deal of it. - Sec them ; I 
 " On 1. parler 3. •!■ en 'J. imp. les 1. 
 
 consent to it, but <lo not trust them. 
 
 consents 3. y 2. ' se fier imp-'J. y 
 
 Of the above pronouns, some relate to persons, 
 otlicrs to things, and otivcrs again, with ciiual pro- 
 priety, to both perbons and things.
 
 C 75 ) 
 
 //, Us, Ic, la, Ics, are said equally'of persons and 
 CP.ings, but elle, dies, eux, lu'i, Iciir, cannot be said 
 of things, except in the cases v/hich we shall mention 
 in Chap. X. 
 
 Se may be said of persons and of things, as : cctte 
 fcmme se promene, that woman is walking ; cctte J/tur 
 se Jit'trit, that flower withers. Sol is also said ot 
 both in the singular, as : onpense trop a soi, one thinks 
 too much oi one's self; cettc chose est bonne dc soi^ 
 that thing is good of itself. As for the plural, we 
 shall speak of it in Chap. X. 
 
 En is said of both persons and things ; in this sen- 
 tence : j''cn parle avcc connoissancc dc cause, i speak 
 of it from a certain knowledge of tlie matter, en mav 
 "hc understood, according to circumstances, oi one 
 person, or diing, of many persons, or thing.:. 
 
 Y is generally understood of things only, as : fiiye% 
 les procl-s ; souvent la conscience s''y intnrsse, la sa.itJ 
 s'y rulnc, l^ Ics b'lcns s''y dlss'ipcnt, avoid enrerinjr into 
 Jaw-suits ; in them, conscience is often iiitercited, 
 health ruined, and fortune wasted ; y is for dans U: 
 proces. Some grammarians observe that in certain 
 cases y may relate to persons ; but those cases are so 
 rare, that it is not worth while to make an exception 
 to the rule already laid down. 
 
 Rule. The pronouns of the third person ouglit 
 to convey the same idea as the nouns of which- they 
 supply the place, and be m the sam.e number and the 
 same gender. 
 
 Thus, in speaking of the rose, say : clje a un 
 parfuni ex qui s ; uussi 6\«/-erie lafAur la plus rcc/urchce, 
 it has an exquisite perfume?, and therefore it is the 
 mo^t sought after of all the flowers; because the pro- 
 nomVcUc relates to rose, which is ieminine and in the 
 singular; and in speaking of several ladies replete 
 witli amiable qualities, say : ellcs ont aiitant de mo~ 
 dcstie que de heautc, d"" esprit ij de grace, they have 
 as much modesty as they have beauty, v/it and graces ; 
 because the pronoun ellcs reiates ro dames, which i> 
 feminine and in the plural. 
 
 Ha
 
 ( 76 ) 
 
 Observation. The pronoun moi, tol, sol., nous, 
 i.$us, enx, hit, clky elles, sonietinics denote the rela- 
 tion of a person to himself. In tliis case, in order' 
 to give a greater degree of energy to the language, 
 we add mcmc, self, to those pronotuis, as : ilfaut de 
 temps en temps rentrer en soi, pour se rendre compte « 
 soi-meme, we ought, now and then, to examine into 
 our minds, that we may reckon with ourseives. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 Look at that magnificent building ; it unites 
 
 Rfgardcr imp. ce superbe il rennit arr. 
 
 gracetulucss to beauty and elegance to simplicity. 
 irdce art. art- art. 
 
 Licero owed every thing to himself : he rose 
 
 t/tvo/r ind.-3. // s' clei' cr \n-^ ^ 
 
 by his own merit to the first dignities of the 
 
 S071 propre art. premier f. pi. 
 
 state. Ignorance is jealous, presumptuous and vain : // 
 
 art. f. eli'e 
 
 sees difficulties to nothing, is surprised" at nothing, 
 }ie vott rien ne s\Uon>ier de 
 
 and stops at nothing. Let us gather ther-e roses : 
 
 ne 5' arrcter Cueidir imp. ccs 
 
 heavens ! -what a sweet perfume tliey exhale ! Europe 
 
 ciel quel * doiix exfialcr 
 
 stretches out her arms to her companions : ihe calls 
 tefulre ses cornpagne pi. apptUer 
 
 them : in v.ain tlicy try to reach her. Imi^ate 
 
 en •vain $' efforcer Imiter imp. art. 
 
 nature in your writings : never lose sight of iter in 
 
 •vos pedre de vue * imp. 
 
 your boldest flights. Never judge from ap- 
 
 rjos grand /lurdiesse Lp\. _;V^(rimp. srtr art. 
 
 pearances ; t/ify arc often dccc'.tfui : the wise man- 
 
 trompeur f. pi. nxge 
 
 examines them and does not decide upon //»rw, till 
 * se decider d'opris qui 
 
 he has had time to fix hi> judgment. 
 ionque ar-t. de son 
 
 ^. 11. 
 POSSESSIVE PRONOUKS. 
 
 The possessive pronouns are those wliich denote 
 tlie possession or property of a thing. When we 
 sav : mon habit, my coat ; 'dot re maison, your house i
 
 ( 77 ) 
 it is the same thing as saying : Vhah'it tic mo:, la mai- 
 son de voiis. They might with much more propriety^ 
 be denominated adje^iives prono7n:nal possess'rjc. 
 
 There are two sorts of possessive pronouns, viz. 
 tliose that arc al'j.'ays, and diosc chat arc never joined 
 to a noun. 
 
 Among those that are always joined to a noun, 
 some relate to one person, and others to several per- 
 sons. 
 
 Those that relate only. to one person are, for tlie 
 first, mon, ma, in the singular, and mcs, in the plural, 
 my : for the second, ton, ta, in the singular, and tes, 
 in the plural, thy; and for the third, son, sa, in the 
 singular, and ses, in the plural, his or her. 
 
 Those that relate to several persons are, for the 
 first, noire in the singular, and ncs in the plural, our: 
 for the second, voire in the singular, and vos in the 
 plural, vour ; for the third, leur in the singular, and 
 leurs in the plural, their. 
 
 A/on, ton, son, are masculine ; ma, ta, sa, fenii- 
 ninc ; and all the rest are of both genders. 
 
 Obser-vation. We have already seen that po- 
 liteness recjnired that we should say vcus, instead of 
 iu, aithough we speak hue to one person. We ought, 
 in that ca.se, to make use of the correspondiiig pronoun 
 votre, and not ion, as : vous c'tcs trap applique dans 
 votre travail, l^ trop dlsupe dans vos amusejnens ; 
 you have too much application in your work, and 
 too much dissipation, in your amusements. 
 
 Rule. These adjective pronouns always agree in 
 gender and number with the nouns to which they are 
 j(.m.J. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 IVIon pere, ma mere. ^ mes frcrcs, sont a la cani- 
 pagiie avcc vos amis ^ leurs cufans. 
 
 My father, mother, and brothers, are in the country 
 with your friends and their childien. 
 
 Exception. Afon, ion, son, are used in the femi- 
 nine, before a noun feminine beginning wirh a vowel 
 or ii mute ; we say : ton ume, thy soul, ton humeut', 
 thy humour, iiistead or ta r,,':u\ t i humeur. 
 
 H 2
 
 ( 78 ) 
 
 £XF.RCISE.- 
 
 Oesetivation. la English, the!?e adjectivc-s 
 agree with the noun possessing ; but, in French, they 
 are of the same gender and number as the substantive 
 to which they are pretixed, 
 
 J^rfy principles, my love of retirement, my taste 
 
 principe pi. goi'j pour 3.xt. amour 
 
 for every thing that is conncfled with instruftion, 
 
 tout ce qui tenir '\r\d-\. a art. 
 
 and wy dctestatton of all intrigue and all spirit of party, 
 
 haine pour esprit 
 
 every thing has induced me to prefer a life passed 
 
 porter ind-4. * art * 
 
 in the closet to the aftive life of the world. Do not think, 
 (ie * cabinet 2. 1. rrc/r^ imp. 
 
 my daughter, that thy candour, thy ingenuity, thy 
 
 taste so delicate and so nice, and even thy graces can 
 
 . fin m.'me 2. 1. ^07/a'wVsub.l. 
 
 shelter thee from censure. His wit, his talents, 
 
 mettre a V ahri art. 
 
 hii honesty, and even his over-good nature make him be- 
 '2. bfinhomie 1. fairs ai- 
 
 loved and sought after by every body. Our constancy 
 ;r;£Tinf-l. rechtrcher de 
 and (.iir efforts will at last surmount all obsta- 
 
 * e^ifin iiirmonlcr ind-7. art. 
 
 cles. I do not see anything that can be rcpi-ehensi- 
 
 rien que on subj-1. rejr'.iu're 
 
 ble in y:ur conduit and in ymr conne6tioi)s. Their taste 
 
 liancn. pi. 
 
 for the fantastical, the monstrous and the marvellous, gives 
 
 bizar: e me.'fciUi'ux donner 
 
 to all their compositions, although very fine in themselves, 
 
 quoiqut' f. ell' i-mancs 
 
 an air of deformity, which is shi eking at first sight. 
 
 chot.uer a art 
 
 ^^le pronouns wliich aie never joined to nouns 
 al-n relate to one person, or to several persons, 
 
 Tliose which relate only to one person are, for the 
 first, Ic mien, ma.-culine, /a mlernie, feminine, in the 
 singular, and Ics m:c?i:,, masculine, Ifs micnnes, femi- 
 minc, in the plural, mine : for the second, le iutj, 
 masculine, /a t':enne, feminine, in the singular, and 
 lei tiens, masculine, ies tiennes, feminine, in the plu- 
 ral, :hjne; for tlie third, U iien^ masculine, la sjcnne,
 
 ( 79 ) 
 
 feminine, in the singular, and les siens, masculine'. 
 Us sieft7iesy feminine,, in the plural, his or hers. 
 
 Those which relate to several pasoiis are, for the 
 first, le or la notre, according to the gender, in the 
 singular, and les nCtres, for both genders in the plural, 
 ours ; for the second, le ox la voire, according to the 
 gender, in the singular, and les voires, for both gen- 
 ders, in the plural,, yours : for the third, le or la leur, 
 according to the gender, in the singular, and les leurs, 
 for both genders, in the plural, theirs. 
 
 Rule. These pronouns are never used but wh^n 
 the nouns to which they, relate, have been expressed 
 before. 
 
 We say : avc'z-vous tonjours votre cheval ? j'e n'ai- 
 plus le mien. Have you still your horse r I have v\o 
 longer mine. But we cannot begin wiiting a letter 
 in these words: j\u re^u la votie, \ have received 
 yours, because the word A'/O'^ has not yet been ex- 
 pressed. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 Is it your humour, or hers, that hindeM's you from living. 
 ce hunutfr i. qui empecher de inf.-l.. 
 
 well together : Ir it \)tyoi'.rs, it is easy for you to remedy 
 ensemble si ce 'ini-\. il * Reporter re- 
 
 it, by taking a little more upon yourself ; if 
 
 tnede y ctt prendre 'w^i.-l. 
 it be hers, redouble your complaisance, attention, 
 
 redoubler dc imp. * pr. 
 
 and ' good proceedings ; it is but seldom that this way 
 
 pr. proeidi raie may en 
 
 proves unsuccessful. If my friends had ■served 
 
 ne riussir subj.- \. servir ind.-6. 
 
 me as well z.%yours, it is most certain that I should have 
 
 // cond.-2. 
 
 succeeded ; \i-Mycurs have been all fire, ar.d mrne all ice. 
 rcussir de de g'.ace. 
 
 Ail the pifrurcs which we expcfted from Rome are 
 
 iaUeau-pl. ind.-'J. de 
 
 arrived ; there are some that are a little damaged; 
 
 // y a en qui endonnnager inf.-3. 
 
 but mine, his, ^x^i yours, are in good condition. We know 
 
 elat m. 
 pcrfeftly what are your amusements in town, and I assure 
 
 quel 'vos a art. 
 
 you we are very far from envying them to you ; 
 
 i'^e envier inf.- 1. * 
 
 H 3
 
 C 80 ) 
 
 E)Ut, if you knew oiirs in the country, it is mrtrt likely 
 ind.-2. ily a tcule appa- 
 
 you would not be long in giving the 
 
 rence qud lardfr q.ox\A:-\. a inf.-l. 
 
 preference to them. You have opened your heart to 
 
 owvrir ind.-4. * . 
 
 me with that noble frankness v-^hich so well becomes aa 
 
 Cftte franchise qui 2. sied \.u 
 
 honest man : this confidence well deserves mine. 
 i. 2. meritcr 1. 
 
 §. III. 
 RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 The relative pronouns- are (hose which relate to a 
 noun preceding I'hem. When we say : r/iommc qui 
 jsue, the man who plays, qui relates to the substan- 
 tive homme. The word to which qui relates is called 
 antecedent. In the above example, Vhomme is the 
 antecedent of the relative qui. 
 
 Some grammarians give to these pronouns the de- 
 rromination of conjuntirje, because being the only 
 ©nes that do the office of a conjundtion, ihev are the 
 only ones that can be so denominated, 
 
 There are six relative pronouns, viz. qui, who or- 
 which, que, wliom or which, lequcl, which, dont,. 
 whose or of which, quoi, what, and ofi, wlierc, whi- 
 dier, ^:c. 
 
 Qui and que are of both genders and numbers. 
 
 Rule. 1 he rrlutive pronouns qui ami que always 
 agree with their antecedents in gender, number and- 
 person. 
 
 EXAMPLES.. 
 
 Mui qui suisjoKji.'s, Nci's qui etudions^. 
 
 I who am his sou. We who study. 
 
 Toi qui €s SI I tune, P'ous qui )'iez, 
 
 Thou who art so young, You who -laugh. 
 
 V enfant qiii juuc, Les livr.es qui instruijent. 
 
 The child who pl.iys. The books which instrud^. 
 
 in the first example, qui is in the singular, and of 
 the first pcison, b; cause ihc pronoun inoi is in the 
 singular and of the tirst person. In the second, it is 
 in the singular and. the second peison, for a similar 
 reason, and, moreover, it is masculine, if it be a boy 
 dtatis spoken to, and feminine if k be a girl, &c. 2>-:c.
 
 f 8i ) 
 
 It is the same witli que : VcniavA queyV dcmande^ 
 the child whom I ask ; ia pronienude i\\xc j' a'lmc ^ the 
 walk which I like ; les hommes que j'cstbne^ the 
 men whom I esteem, &c. 
 
 Lequel is of both genders, and of both numbers, 
 accorviing to circumstances: les places auxquelles il 
 aspircy tne places to which he aspires; les rcvenus 
 sur lesquels vous- compte%, the incomes upon which, 
 you depend. 
 
 Observation. The article /^ is so far united 
 with the word quel, that they form together but one antl 
 the same word, either In its natural or in its contracted 
 state ; w^e sav : lequel, laquclle, lesquels, lesquellesy 
 duqiiel, de laquellc, &;c. auqucl, a laquclle, bic. 
 
 Dont is for de qiii^ or duquel : I homme dont (de 
 qui) vous parlez, the man of whom you speak: la 
 Tcimise dont ^de laquelle) le lit . . . the Thames, tlie 
 channel of which ... It is of both genders, and both 
 numbers. 
 
 Quoi is for le^ucl preceded by a preposition : la 
 chose a quoi (a laquelle) on pcnse le nioms, the thing 
 of which wc think the least. 
 
 Ou, d^oii, par oii, are of both genders, and both 
 numbers, according to circumstances : voild k 
 but ou il tendy that is die end he aims at: c^est une 
 chose d'ou depend le bonheur public, it is a thing upoa 
 which public happiness depends : les lieux par ou // a 
 passe, the places through which he has passed. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 I ivho did not suspeft so much falsehood, 
 
 moi so7^pgonner'mA.-Q. de fausscte 
 
 cunning, and perridy, in a man whom I loved, 
 pr. ruse pr. que aimer ind.-2. 
 
 blindly followed his counsels. Tiiou ivho art can- 
 
 je suivre ind.-3. art. 
 
 dour and innocence itself, do not confide toa 
 
 art. mane se confhr imp. * 
 
 lightly. The great empire of the Egyptians ivhick 
 
 Icgerenient. 
 
 SciOjtns founded, and ivhick was as it were 
 
 fonder ind.-3. comme *
 
 ( S2 ) 
 
 detached from all the others, was not of long durati-orr. 
 detacher de duree f. 
 
 What ! is it you, my daughter, ivhc would wish that 
 
 f'-luoi ce f.lle i.c;^/c/)'cond.-l. qu£\ 
 
 I should love you less ? We, who know the value of 
 
 time, ought to make a good use of it, instead of wast- 
 
 de'Voir\vidi..-\.'* faire en au lieu demi.-\. 
 
 ing it in idleness and frivolity. The greatest men that 
 
 art. art. i/mtiiiic 
 
 have been the ornament and glory of Greece, Homer, 
 
 art. art. Grice 
 
 Pythagoras, Plato, even Lycurgus and Solon, thojc two 
 Pythagore mtmc 2 Lycurgue ces 
 
 celebrated legislators, and so many others, went 
 
 le'gislateur tant de alley ind.-3- 
 
 -to learn wisdom in Egypt. Every thing in the 
 
 * appYtndre art. 
 universe alters and perishes; but the writings which 
 
 i' alt ever ferir 
 
 genius has didatcd shall be immortal. The art of 
 
 differ inf.- 3. pi. 
 rendering the bodies sound and robust, which our carelessncDS 
 inf.-] sain uonchalance 
 
 has made us lose, was welt known to the ancients. 
 
 perdre co>i?ioUre inf.-3. de 
 
 A power lu/tich terror and force have founded 
 
 puissance f. art. art. fonder £► 
 
 cannot be of long duration. Persons of a middle 
 
 powvolr i n d . - 1 . conwiun 2. 
 
 condition have not the same need of being cautioned 
 
 f. I. bcsoin-m. \v>.l.-\. prhautionner 
 
 against dangers to ivhich elevation and 
 
 inf.-3. art. ecufil pi. art. ar% 
 
 authority expose these vrho are destined to govern 
 
 ceux if,.itinf-r inf. -3. art. 
 
 mankind. The proic<fUoii 5« "ly/z/V/; he relied has 
 
 hc7nmc^\. sar conplcr im^.-Q. 
 
 been too wenk. The satire •:c7/,t/; you have mentioned to 
 foia/e dent parUr '* 
 
 me has not even the merit of malignity. That after 
 
 mcne art. muhancctcl. 
 
 ?!('//. W^ the man who wishes for god, sighs most 
 
 i'o«/'y;Vind. 1. art. soupirct 
 
 ardently, is to spread that sciuimcnt of bcn;vV.ence 
 ordc7?:ment ce de re pan are ce Hcnveil'ancc 
 
 whicJi should unite and bring together all men. 
 
 ^i'Tc;; cond.-l. rappnchcr arc.
 
 c h ) 
 
 The onfy moments in which iiis $oul still opens 
 
 j(f/// instant pi. ou son encore 2. s^owurir 1, 
 
 to pleasure are those -which he devotes to study, 
 art. c£ux qui comacrer art. 
 
 §. IV. 
 
 ABSOLUTE PRONOUNS. 
 
 /Absolute pronouns are so called, because they never 
 liave any relation to an antecedent : they are generally 
 used in an interrogation. These are : qui, que, quel, 
 ^uoi, oii. 
 
 Qui is for quelle perscnne, what person, or qui est 
 ce qui, who is it that .... Qui vous a dit cela? who ' 
 told you that ? that is : qui eU-cc qui vous a dit cela ? 
 or, quelle per Sonne vous a dit cela ? 
 
 Qiie and quoi, are for quelle chose, what thing: qut 
 {quelle chqse) dit-on f what do they say ? d quo't 
 (a quelle chost) s'occufc-t-on? what are thev about? 
 It they be followed bv an adjective, the word dc is put 
 before that adjecllve : as, que dit-on dc nouveau ? 
 what news is there? quoi de plus amusa'nt et de plus 
 histru^hf ? what more amusing and instruclive f" 
 
 Quel always precedes a substantive, with which it 
 agrees in number and gender: it generally expresses 
 admiration : quelle iyistabiiiie dans les choses humanies / 
 what instability in human affairs ! 
 
 Oil, d^oii, and par, oii, are absolute pronoun'?, 
 when they are at the beginning of a sentence, and 
 stand for the name of a thing, joined to the pronoun 
 quel, or when thev are for quoi, as : oii (en quel lieu) 
 allcz-vous ? whither (to what place) are vou going ? 
 oil (a quoi) aspircz-vous P where (what) do vou ami 
 at? Par Oil (par quels lieux) passerez-vous P where 
 (through vvhicli places) shall you pass ? 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 IV/io will net agrc-e that life has few real pleasure; 
 convrr.ir art. />eu de 2. \. 
 
 and many dreadful piins ? What have you read 
 
 beaucoup de affreux 2. i-pl. 1. /ire ind-4. 
 
 in that book, that can have raised in your souJl 
 
 ce qui f>ouvo:r^uh].-3. porter 
 
 agitation and enthusia-,m ? At ichat did you 
 art. art.
 
 '( n ) 
 
 Sn3 them employed ? IfTiat have you rc» 
 
 iroicver pi. incl.'-4. oca>/>cpl. re- 
 
 marked good, beautiful, and sublime in Hesiod, Homer, 
 snarqKer de pr. pr. 
 
 Theocritus, and Sophocles ? IVhat more briUiant, and at 
 Theocrite de 
 
 the same time mote false than the expressions of a man, who 
 
 has a great deal of wit, but wants judgment and 
 
 qui manquer de 
 laste ! What more blind than envy or hatred ! What 
 
 a'veugle 
 then must have been that extraordinary man (Homer), of 
 done etrc ind.-4. ctt 2. 1- 
 
 ■whom seven cities have envied themselves the 
 
 dont se disputer iTid.-4' 
 
 glory of having given him birth ! What gracefulness, 
 
 avoir art. jour. grace 
 
 'u.'hat delicacy, "what harmony, ivhat colouring, ivkat beauti- 
 
 ■celoris m. 
 ful lines in Racine ! Whither shall you go, that 
 
 •vers m. oH aller ind.-7. 
 
 you will not find in the upbraidings of your con- 
 
 trcuver subj.-l. remords 
 
 scieocc, the most terrible enemy of your happiness ? 
 
 redoutable 2. 1. 
 
 §. V. 
 
 DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS, 
 
 Demonstrative pronouns are those which point out, 
 as it were, the objedls of which we are speaking. 
 These are : ce, ci, la, celui-ci, ce/ui-la, ceci, cela. 
 When we say : u livre, this book, ccttt table, that 
 table, we show a book, a table. 
 
 enjoined to a noun, takes both genders, and both 
 numbers. We put ce before a masculine substantive 
 singular, beginning with a consonant, or h aspirated, 
 as : ce livre, this book, ce heros, this hero : cet before 
 a noun beginning with a vowel, or h mute, as: cct 
 hommc, this man, cet enfant, that child : ccttc before 
 a noun feminine, singular, whatever the initial letter 
 may be, as: cctte fierte, this pride, cette ayne, that 
 soul, cette histoire, this history, cette haine, that 
 hatred : and ccs before plural nouns of both genders ; 
 ce% ruses, these tricks, ces injustices^ those pieces of 
 injustice, ces luros, these heroes. 
 
 Of
 
 ( 8s 5 
 
 Of cc and the personal pronoun hi'i, we have made 
 the pronoun cclu'i^ which makes celle in the feminine 
 singular, ccux in the raascuHne ph.iral, and cclles iu 
 the feminine plural. It is noc a demonstrative pro- 
 noun of itself, but only when it is joined to the two 
 following ones. 
 
 a and la are real demonstratives, and formerly, ci 
 was used by itself; for, we freciuendy tind in Madame 
 <le Sevigne's Letters, such expressions as these : entre- 
 c'l et la Fentccotc, between this and Whitsuntide : but, 
 at present, it is always placed at the end of a noun : 
 cct ho:7imc-ci, this man. As for la, it is used eirher 
 by itself, or at die end of a word: cct homme-la, tliac 
 man ; il est la, he is diere, that is, dans cc licu-Ll^ \n 
 ihat place. The first denotes the nearest chjccl:, and 
 thv: second the farthest. 
 
 Ci and la joined with celitl, form the demonstra- 
 tives celut'c'i, and celui-la, which take both genders 
 and both numbers: cclui-ci plaU, this pleases; c<f/?ii-. 
 ia captive, that captivates. 
 
 Ci aiid la joined to ce form the two other demon- 
 stratives ccci and cela, which are used by thcniielves ; 
 but, when they are in opposition, ceci denotes^ the 
 nearest objed, and cela the farthest : ceci nest que 
 risible, mais cela me pcirctt atroce, this is only laugh- 
 able, but tliat seems to me atrocious. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 Nothing is more opposite to that true eloquence, 
 
 ne oppose ijeritable 
 
 ■w^hose fuflftion it is to ennoble every thing, than the use 
 
 de tunoblir emplot 
 
 of those fine thoughts, and the search after thoie ideas, 
 
 recherche de f. pi. 
 
 light, thin, without consistency, and' which, like - a 
 lep;er delie comme * art. 
 
 leaf of metal beaten, acquire brightness, only by 
 
 j'cuille baitu ne prendre de art. eclat que en 
 
 losing from their solidity. 77;/^ man has nothing ia 
 inf. -2.* art. de 
 
 common with that hero. The season ot one year is, for 
 
 arr» 
 man, the same as that of the preceding year, the sam» 
 ^HC precedent 2. f. 1.
 
 ( 86 ) 
 
 as thai of all ages. The pleasures of the wise resemble 
 art. 7ie resiS7ii- 
 
 in nothing those of a dissipated man. He that suffers 
 Her a d'nsipe 2. 1. se iais' 
 
 himself to be ruled by his passions must 
 
 ser * dominer devoir'vRii.-X, 
 
 renounce happiness. "This scene is calculated to 
 
 a art. -ci {aire pour 
 
 interest all men, anJ at ail times ; but thnt cannot 
 interesser art. dans art. -la 
 
 succeed. The body perishes, the soul is immortal ; vet 
 
 cependani 
 all the cares are for //;<3/, while we negleft this. Thls\% 
 
 taiidis que 
 low and mean, but that is grand and sublime. 
 las rampant 
 
 INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 
 
 Indefinite pronouns are those which denote things 
 in a vague, indeterminate manner. 
 
 There are four sorts of indefinite pronouns. 
 
 i'^. Those which are never joined to a substantive, 
 viz. on, quelqu'un, quiconqucy chacun, Vun r autre, 
 cutruiy personne, rien. 
 
 On, eicher an abbreviation or a corruption of the 
 word hoinme, denotes a kind ot third person indeter- 
 minate, and is of very great use in the French lan- 
 guage : on fruppe a la porte, somebody knocks at the 
 door ; on kit, they say^ 
 
 Observation. We put /' before on, when 
 following et, on, si, unless that pronoun be followed 
 1)Y Ic, la, Irs, as : on pense et Ton dit tout haut, peo- 
 ple diink and say aloud ; le lieu oil ran va, the place 
 whither they are going : but we ought to say : et on 
 la lira, and people will read it. 
 
 We observe the same thing before the c which has 
 the sound of q : on app rend plus aisement les ckoses que 
 Ton comprend, que cclles que Ton ne comprenj pasy 
 we learn inore easily what we understand, than what 
 we do not understand. 
 
 Qjielqu'iin is used either with or without relation to 
 a noun. 
 
 Jn die first instance, it means quelque personne, 
 some person; it never is put in tlie plural, but when
 
 ( 87 ) 
 
 it is the subje^l of the sentence, and Is only applied to 
 persons, as : qiielqu'un croit-il encore mix revenans ? 
 does any body still believe in ghosts ? tenir de quel- 
 qu'urii to have of somebody ; nuire ci quelqti'un, to 
 injure somebody ; quelques-uns assurenf, some peo- 
 ple affirm. We no longer say : un quelquun. 
 
 In the second instance, that is, when quelquun is 
 used without any relation to a noun, it takes gender 
 and number, and applies to both persons and things. 
 In this case, it is always followed by a noun or pro- 
 noun, preceded by the preposition de, as : quelqu'un 
 de vous, some one of you ; pretez-moi quclqucs-uncs 
 de ces brochures, lend me some ot diose pamphlets. 
 
 Quiconque, whoever, means toute pcrsonne, every 
 person : it is of itself masculine singular, and is ilevtr 
 said but of persons, as : quicsiique^ connoU les hommes 
 apprend a s'en difier, whoever knows mankind, learns 
 to mistrust them : ce discours s'adrase a quiconque se 
 sent coupable, this speech is addressed to (meant for) 
 whoever feels himself guilty. 
 
 Chacun, each, every one, m.eans chaque personnc, 
 chaque chose^ each person, or thing, and is used either 
 with or widiout relation to a «oun» In the first in- 
 stance, it applies only to persons, as : chacun vii d 
 sa guise, every one lives according to his own- liking; 
 rendre a chacun ce qui luiest du, to give every one his 
 due ; we no longer say : uh chacun. 
 
 In the second instance, it applies both to persons 
 and things, and is followed by ihc preposition dc, as : 
 eprouve-z scparement chacun de vos amlsy try each of 
 your friends separately: quel est le prix de chacune do ces 
 medcdlles ? what is the price ot each or the e iiiedals? 
 
 Uun r autre, one another, applies both to persons 
 and things : it takes both genders, and both numbers, 
 and requires the article before the tw'o words of which 
 it is composed. 
 
 These two words may be used either joindy or 
 separately. 
 
 When jointly, they express a reciprocal relatiorx 
 between several persons, or several diings. The 
 first isnever preceded by a preposition, but die second 
 
 1 2
 
 ( 88 } 
 
 may, as : »n doit se secourir Vim V autre, we ought to 
 assist one another: Icspcuples souffrent presqnc toujoios 
 des giterrcs que les hats ie font les uns aiix atttres, the 
 people always suffer from the wars which govern- 
 ments are waging against one another. 
 
 When used separately, they denote a division, and 
 in this case, they may be preceded by a preposition, 
 L''un relates to the person or thing mentioned first, 
 and P autre to the person or thing mentioned last, as ; 
 ies passions s^entcndent tes unes avec les autre s ; si Pon 
 se la'isse alkr aux unes, on attire bieniot les autresy 
 our passions always go hand in hand with one an- 
 other; if we give way to some, wc soon bring on the 
 others. 
 
 Autrui, in general means les autres, other people: it 
 only applies to persons, is never joined to an adjeilive, 
 takes neither gender nor number, and is never used in 
 a sentence without being preceded by a pteposition, as : 
 n'eni'iez pas le bicn d'' autrui, do not covet other 
 people's property: nefailes pas ciautrui, ce que vous ne 
 X'Qudrlez pas qu on zcus fit, do not to others what 
 you would not wish that otliers sh<>uld do to you. 
 
 Per Sonne means either nul homme, nobody, or 
 quelquun, somebody. 
 
 When it means nobody, it is always either preceded 
 or ff)llowed by the negative ne, except in cases which 
 denote exclusion, as: la fierte ne convient a personnel 
 pride becomes nobody : personne ne sa'it s'il est digne 
 ^''amour on de hainc, nobody knows whether he de- 
 serves love or hatred. But we sav, without a nega- 
 tive : cette place lui convient m'leux qu a petsonne, that 
 place suits him better than any body else. 
 
 When it means somebody, it is used without a ne- 
 gative in phrases of interrogation or doubt, as : per~ 
 Sonne a-t-'il jamais contc plus ndivement que la Fofi" 
 taine P did any body [(or somebody) ever write a tale 
 with more naivete than la Fontaine ? jfe doute que per- 
 sonne ait mieux peint la nature dans sou aimable sim- 
 flicite, que le sensible Gessncr ? 1 doubt whether any 
 man ever painted nature in its amiable simplicity bet- 
 ter than the sentimental Gessner.
 
 ( 89 ) 
 
 Kien, nothing, masculine singular, is used either 
 with or without a negative. When with a negative, 
 It mea.ns mdk c/iose, nothing, as: ilm s^ attache a run 
 dc sol'ide, he applies himself to nothing solid. With- 
 out a negative, it means aucune chose, any thing, or 
 quclqiie chose, something, as : je donte que r'len so'it 
 plus propre a f aire impression, que, &c. 1 doubt whe- 
 ther any thing be more fit to make an impression, 
 than, bcc. 
 
 It always requires dc before the adje6live that fol- 
 lows it. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 0;z(r cannot read Tclemachus, without becoming 
 On art. Telemaque de'uenir inf.- 1, 
 
 better ; ive there find every where an amiable philoso- 
 nuilleur on y trouroer par-tout cloux 
 
 phy, noble and elevated sentiments: wi? there find in 
 
 pr- art. 2. 3. 1. 'voir a 
 
 every line the eiFusions of a noble soul; and ad- 
 
 chaque ligne ipaneliement leait on 
 
 mire precepts calculated to operate the happiness of 
 
 pr. art. pro [ire faire 
 
 the world. Can «^'2io^/k be still ignorant thst it is from 
 
 cond.-l. ignorer 
 
 the earliest infancy that ive ought to form the mind, 
 
 tendre on dfjoir m<S.-\. ""■' 
 
 the heart and the taste ? IVhoever has studied the principles 
 
 of an art or science, kn.^ws that it is only by length 
 
 pr- adj. sa-voir ne que a lalongiis 
 
 of time and by deep relieftions, th;.t he can succeed 
 
 * \iT. profond f. pi. on * parvenir 
 
 in makin^ them his own. E-vcrj one 
 
 ind.-l.« se rendre\ni.-\, * propre ^\. 
 
 should, for the sake of his own happiness, listen 
 
 <s'^ !;<?/)• cond.-l. •" " ne Scout er 
 
 only to the voice of reason and truth. Examine 
 
 qne '^ art. art. examiner m^, 
 
 with the greatest care eijery one of these engravings. All 
 
 gravure f. pi. 1 
 
 our author's episodes are c.mnetled, and so art- 
 
 art. 2. 5. f). '^r.A. episodes2. continu ha-' 
 
 fully interwoven into each other, that the former 
 bilemciit enclave dans premier 
 
 brings on that which follov/s. The passions which belong 
 amcncr * mit.- appMteyiit 
 
 I q
 
 C 90 ) 
 
 to tragedy, arc terror and pity : those which 
 art. art. art. 
 
 agree with epopjea are admiration and love: 
 convenir a art. art. art. 
 
 in onii the aftors speak ; in the ether, the poet makes the 
 
 narration. To most men the evils of others are but 
 
 Pour la plupart de autrui ne que- 
 
 a dream. An egotist loves nobody, not even his own chil- 
 
 egoiiie 
 dren : in the whole universe, he sees nobody but himself. 
 * fie ■•■■ que lui srul 
 
 He was, more than any body else, tvoi thy of the confidence 
 
 ind.-2. 
 ■with which the king honours him. Did a}7y body ever 
 dont ^, ■■'■ con- 
 
 paint nature with more majesty than Buifon ? There 
 Lnd.-4. ^ y 
 
 was nothing but grandeur in the designs and 
 
 mvoJr tnd.-2. que de grand art. 
 
 works of the Egyptians. 1 doubt whether ther^ is any 
 
 que //r<? subj.-I. rien 
 
 thing better calculated to raise the soul than the contempla- 
 
 jdus propre clei.'fr 
 
 tion of the wonders of nature. 
 merveille pi. 
 
 Observation. Mr. du Marsais observes, that, 
 after rien, quclque chose, quoi que cc salt, Sec. we ought 
 to put the preposition dc, because, in tlrat case, tlie 
 adje(5live is used substantively, and that we only put 
 the preposition de, because the adjective that becomes 
 a substantive, is taken in a qualifying, and not in an 
 individual sense. 
 
 2°. 'Ilie.jndeterminate pronouns, which are always 
 joined to nouns, arc : quclque, chaqtic, quelconque^ 
 certain. These words should not have been classed, 
 among the pronouns ; for, they are real adjcdtives : 
 quclqiics personnel, some persons ; chaqiic pcuplc, each 
 {^ople ; raison quelconque, leason whatever ; certain 
 tintcur^ a ceitain author; we also say: un certain 
 eiutenr. 
 
 Some enlightened people, among the Egyptians, pre- 
 
 eclane '2. esprit pi. parmi eo>i- 
 
 strved the idea of a First Being, whose attributes 
 
 /cncr ind.-C. ctre art. attyibut
 
 ( 91 ) 
 
 they represented under various symbols : this Is 
 pi. 3. \. vcpicsejiterz, sous diffcniU cestcequs 
 
 proved by the following inscription upon a temple ; 
 
 pronver ind.-l.* cette * de 
 
 i am all that has been, is, and shall be : no mortal ever 
 
 ce qui 
 removed the veil that covers me. Every nation has 
 
 lever ind.--i. coworir penile 
 
 in its turn shone on the theatre of the world. There is no 
 a britler scene 
 
 reason luhatever that can bring him to it. 
 
 f'owvoir subj.-l. determiner y. 
 
 Some figures appear mmstrous and deformed, considered 
 
 difforme 
 separately, or too near j but if they are put in their proper 
 
 de trop pres on Us mettre * 
 
 light and place, the true point of view restores their 
 
 jour pr. n^ue leur rendre * 
 
 beauty and grace. A certain author, whose name I 
 art. art art. 2. 
 
 do not recoUeft, contends that an Egyptian colony was esta- 
 se rappeller 1. prelendre 2. 1. s'eta^ 
 
 blished in China, towards the year 1122 before 
 
 blir ind.-3. a art. "vers an avani 
 
 Christ, and transported thither the history of Egypt, which 
 J. C. :ra>is}>crtcr y 
 
 was ingrafted on the true Chinese history. 
 enter Chinois 2. i . 
 
 3°. Those which are sometimes joined te nouns 
 and sometimes not, are mil, aucun, pas un, autre, 
 Vuii et Vaulre^ meme, tel, pluskursy tout. When 
 joined to nouns they are adjectives, otherwise, they 
 are pronouns. 
 
 Nul, aucun, pas iin, none, not one, denote ex- 
 clusion: thev have nearly the same signification; yet 
 they are not used indiscriminately one for the other. 
 Kid and pas un are always accompanied by a nega- 
 tive ; but not aucun, in interrogations, or when a 
 doubt is expressed. 
 
 Nul, Nul nc salt s'll est dlgne cP amour ou de halne, 
 nobody knows whether he is deserving of love or of 
 hatred: nulle vcrite clans ce tableau, (there is) no 
 truth in that pidture. 
 
 Aucun, none, is obsolete in the singular, when it 
 is not joined to a noun, and used in the plural only
 
 ( 92 ) 
 
 in the mar otic style: il ne se rend a aucim raison, he 
 will yield to no kind of reasoning. 
 
 Observe, that it is now better to say : ne se rendre 
 % aucune raison^ than u nulle raiscn. 
 
 Pas un, not one, is but seldom used, except in a 
 familiar style, or in proverbial expressions, as: pas 
 un rCy croit^ not one will believe it ; il est aussi savant 
 que pas un, he is as learned as not one. 
 
 JNul, aucun, pas un^ when joined to substantives^ 
 take the feminine gender, but are never used in the 
 plural. Racine committed a fault in saying aucum 
 monstres. 
 
 Those three pronouns are followed by the preposi- 
 tion de, as, ?2«/ de vons, none of you ; aucune de ces 
 brochures, none of these pamphlets; pas un de ces 
 tableaux y not one of those pidlures. 
 
 y^utre, odier, pronoun; un autre pourroh-ll vous 
 etreplus utile? could any odier be more useful to you? 
 demanded a un autre ? ask of another ? Adje6live : 
 Ics anclcns ne cioyolcnt pas d la riallte d'un autre 
 incndc, the ancients did not believe in the reality of 
 another world. 
 
 L'un ct rautrc, both, denote the assemblage of 
 several persons or things, and take both genders and 
 both numbers. Vun etV autre U pcnsent alnsl, both 
 think it so: // est tris rare qii on se serve cgnlcmcnt 
 lien de rune et de Taut re main, we seldom see a per- 
 son use both hands equally well. 
 
 A'Icme, same, is used with both genders and both 
 numbers: as a pronoun, it denotes Identity, that is, 
 that the person, or thing, spoken of, is the same that 
 has already been mentioned, as : le memc m'est vcntt 
 voir, the same man is come to see me. 
 
 Tel, such, pronoun, is put for a person one wishes 
 to denote in an indeterminate manner, or for celul, 
 he, as: Parage tomhera sur tcl qui n'y pense pas, the 
 liglitning will strike him who least suspe61:s it: teh 
 seme qui souvent ne recuellle rien, such sow that often 
 reap nothing. Adjective, it expresses the compari- 
 son of a person or thing, but without saying in whaj 
 that person or diing is compared, its : im liomme tcl
 
 ( 93 ) 
 
 que vous Bit fait pour les grandes choscs, a man lH e 
 yoii, or, such a man as you, is born for great things. 
 
 Plusieursy many, several, pronoun, applies to per- 
 sons only, and denotes an indeterminate number, as : 
 plusicurs sent trompcs en voulant tromper les autirs^ 
 many are deceived in wishing to deceive others. Ad- 
 jeilive, it applies both to persons and things, as : 
 plusicurs officlersy several officers: plusieurs arbres, 
 many trees. 
 
 l^out, all, every, pronoun, means every thing, as : 
 tout disparoU decant Dlett, eveiT thing vanishes be- 
 fore God. Adje6live, it has rv^'o different meanings : 
 citlier denoting the generality, or the whole extent of 
 a thing ; or, being put for chaque, each. In the first 
 instance, it requires the article betwixt it and the 
 noun, as: tous les hcmmes, all men: toute la famille, 
 the whole family. In the second, it rejc6ls the article, 
 and always remains in the singular, as : tout hommt 
 est sujet u la mort, every man is doomed to die. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 J^one likes to sec himbclf as he is. No expression, «# 
 aimer lel que 
 
 truth of design and colouring, no strokes of genius in that great 
 
 trait 
 work. He is so ignorant, and, at the same time, so obstinate, 
 
 that he will not be convinced by any reasoning. tnone 
 
 se rendre a raisonnfment, 
 of his works will be handed down to posterity. Would 
 
 ■"= passer art. 
 
 mnj other \id.vchtcn so self-conceited as to think 
 
 avoir de I' amour-propre cond.-2. asse% -^ 
 that his own opinion could balance the public 
 
 particidier f. poniJoirsuhj.'Q. 2. 
 
 one ? Reason and faith cqunlly demonstrate 
 
 opinion 1. art. art. egalemcnt de'/nontrer 
 
 that we have been created for anotiicr hfe, of which this is 
 
 only a shadow. Both relate the same story, 
 
 ne que * art. ombre rapporter fait 
 
 though neither of them believes it to be true. Both 
 
 ni ni '■" ne penser que s\i\y].-\. 2. 
 
 those means appear to me chimerical. Does he always 
 3. mojien paroitre *
 
 ( 94 ) 
 
 *naintain the same principles ? Yes, they are absolutely th«" 
 loittenir ce absolttment 
 
 came. Such a conduft is inexplicable. Many, by endeavour- 
 
 2. 1. en s'efforcer 
 
 ing^ to injure others, injure themselves more 
 inf,-2. nuire a se tmire a eux-metnes 
 
 than they think. Several philosophers are justly ac- 
 
 ne on justenunt re- 
 
 cused of having kept truth captive. 
 
 procher a inf.-l. tenu art. 
 
 4^. Those which are followed by que-, which arei 
 ^ul que ce soit, quoi que ce soil, quoi que, quelque que, 
 quel que, tout que, &CC. These pronouns evidently 
 partake of the nature of conjundlions. 
 
 Qui que ce soil, whoever, always masculine singu- 
 lar, applies only to persons, and is used either with or 
 without a negative. With a negative, it means pcr- 
 sonne, nobody, as : il n'ahne qui que ce soii, he loves 
 nobody* whatever. Without a negative, it means, 
 que/que personne que ce soit, what person soever, as : 
 qui que ce soit qui vienne, dites que je yCy suis pas, 
 whoever comes, say I am not at home. 
 
 Quoi que ce soit, whatever, always masculine sln^ 
 gular, relates to things only. With a negative, it 
 means ricn, nothing, as : sam application, on ne pent 
 exceller en quoi que ce soit, without application, one 
 cannot excel in any thing. Without a negative, it 
 means, quelque chose que ce soit, what thing soever, 
 as : quoi que ce soit qui lui arrive, il est toujours le 
 meme, whatever may happen to him, he is always 
 the same. 
 
 Quoi que, always masculine singular, i elates only to 
 things, and means, quelque chose que, wliich it is ofterl 
 better to use instead of quoi que : quoi que vousJassie-Zy 
 vous tie Ic fcyc% pas rtvctiir de ses prcjuges, whatever 
 you do, you will never make him get over his pre- 
 judices. 
 
 Quelque que is either joined to a substantive alone, 
 or accompanied by an adjc«£live, either before or after, 
 and then it means quel que soit le . . que, a.s : quelquss 
 richcsses que vous aye%, whatever riches you may 
 have ; quelques belles anions que vms fassiez, what-
 
 ( 95 ) 
 
 ■ever fine actions you may do. Or it Is joined to an 
 adje6live separated from its substantive, and then it 
 means, a quclquc point que^ to what degree soever, as ; 
 ces anions quelque belles qiC on les suppose, 6cc. Those 
 actions, however fine, or how fine soever, they may 
 bt supposed, &c. 
 
 Quel que has the same meaning as quelque que, 
 joined to a substantive : it applies both to persons and 
 tilings, and takes gender and number, as : Ics hommesy 
 quels quails sclent, men, whatever they may be : 
 quelles que soient les offres d'un ennemi, whatever an 
 enemy's offers may be. 
 
 Observe, that quelque qiie^ and quel que, are not . 
 used indiscriminately one lor another, as will be seen 
 in Chap. X. 
 
 Tel que, such as, seri'cs to express comparison, as : 
 en craint de se voir tel qu on est, we are afraid of see- 
 ing ourselves such as we really are. 
 
 Tout que. Tout sage qu'il est, howevei' wise he 
 may be, for all he is wise, though he is wise, for all 
 his wisdom, &c. ^ 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 Passenger, lohoever thou art, contemplate with a re* 
 Passant, co>tlempler i-.Tip. 
 
 ligious respeft this monument ercfted by gratitude ; 
 
 2 1 elever inf-3. art. 
 
 it is the tomb of ajnst and beneficent man. How 
 ce tombeau 2 bienJaisantZ. 1 Comment 
 
 •v^'ill you have any body to love him ? He has no 
 
 Toa/cz/Vind-l. que on ■■■ subj-1. anjoir 
 
 regnrd for any body luhatevcr. Whatever he may 
 
 des egards {pas is not expressed) •■' 
 
 do or say, he finds it very difficult to destroy pre- 
 
 /a/V^sub-1. djre avoir '^ ds la peine detruirc {des) 
 judices so deeply rooted. A mind vain, presumptuous, 
 
 profundement enraeiner 
 and inconsistent, will never succeed in any thing luhatevcr. 
 
 sans consistanee .reus sir en 
 
 IFhatever a frivolous world may think of you, neves 
 
 2 1 pouvoir subj-1 
 
 swerve from the path of triuh and virtue. 
 
 se detourner de art. route art. pr- art. 
 
 About quelque que^ see Chap. X
 
 ( 96 ) 
 
 The n\an who descends into himself only to perceive 
 
 tic rentrer en que pour y dcmcUr 
 
 his own defeats, and correft them, likes to see himself ai 
 
 corriger je 'voir 
 
 he is. 
 
 About ioiit que, see Ghap. X. 
 
 CHAP. V. 
 
 OF THE VERB. 
 
 The vcrh is a word the chief use of which is to e5C- 
 press affirmation. Wiien we say: la vertii est ai- 
 mabk, virtue is amiable, we affirm that the quality 
 aimabk belongs to la vertu. Likewise, when we say : 
 ie vice n^est point aimablc, vice is not amiable, wc 
 affirm that the quality aimahlc does not belong to le 
 vice : the verb est expresses that affirmation. 
 
 Observation. — Every verb, to denote affirma- 
 tion, must have a subjcfi and an attribute. The sub- 
 je(5t is tiiat of which something is affirmed, and, in 
 French, it ought always to be expressed. The attri- 
 bute is that which is affirmed of the subjedt. The 
 Jittribute is included in the verb ; except etre, to be, 
 when it does not mean to exist : j'aime) I love, is for 
 Jc suis aimant, I am loving. 
 
 We know a verb, in French, when we can add to 
 it these pronouns, je, tu, il or elle, nouSf i/ous, iis or 
 £lles, as : 
 
 ye lis, I read. Nous lisons, Wc reid. 
 
 Tu lis. Thou readest. Fous liscz. You read. 
 
 i/, or elle lit, H^, or she, reads. lis, or elles lisent, They read. 
 
 We reckon five sorts of verbs, viz: the active, pas- 
 sive, neuter, reflected, and impersonal. 
 
 The verb aitive is that after which we may put 
 ^uelquun, or quclquc chose : aimer, to love, is an ac- 
 tive verb, because we may say : aimer Dieu, to love 
 God ; aimer l^ etude, to love study. 
 
 The word which follows the verb adtive is called 
 the government or regimen of that verb, and we know 
 this regimen by asking the question : qu'est ce que ? 
 what is it ? Example: (ju'est-ce que j'aime? What 
 «lo I love ? Answer ; Dicu, God, DieUf theiefore, is 
 the regimen of the verb faime. 
 
 The
 
 f 97 ) 
 
 The verb passive is tliat which is formed of tlic 
 active, by making its regimen the subject of the pas- 
 sive, and adding de or par afcer the verb, as : je suis 
 «}me de mon pere, I am loved by my father. 
 
 The verb neuter is that after whicli we cannot put 
 qjiclqu'un, or quelque chose. Dormir, to sleep, lan- 
 guir, to pine, are neuter, because we cannot say : 
 dormir quelquun, to sleep somebody, languir queljue. 
 chose, to pine something. 
 
 The verb rcjiefled is that which is conjugated 
 through all its tenses with two pronouns of tltc same 
 person. Se trpentir, to repent, is a reilected verb, 
 because we conjugate it thus : 
 
 ^<f mer/;p£n$ I repent. Nous nousrepentons We repent, 
 
 Tu te repens Thou repentest/Wi 'uous repentex You repenr, 
 11 se rep£nt He repents, Us se repentent They repent. 
 
 The verb mpersonal is that which Is never useci 
 but in the third person singular. Pleuvoh\ to rain, 
 is impersonal, because it has only the third person, 
 through all its tenses : il plenty it rains ; ;/ pL'uvohp 
 it did rain, &:c. 
 
 'I'he attainment of the Ficuch language would be 
 attended with less difficulty, if all the verbs ware re- 
 gular ; but it is far otherwise ; for, some are irregular, 
 and others defective. Regular verbs are tliose which 
 through all their tenses, have terminations conforma- 
 ble to those of the verb which scitcs them as a model. 
 Irregular verbs are tliose to wliich the terminations 
 •of the verb serving as a model do not conform throu^^h 
 all its tenses ; and defetllve verbs are those which 
 are wanting in certain tenses or persons, which cus- 
 -tom does not admit. 
 
 The terminations of verbs vary according to the 
 -different ;if;.f(?/7j-, numbers, tenses mid mcods. 
 
 We have already seen that there are three persons 
 and two numbers. The tiist person is marked hy Je, 
 I, in the singular, and nous, we, in the plural: the 
 second by tu, thou, in the singular, and vous, ye, or 
 you, in thepluial: and tlie third by il, he, or elle, 
 she, in the singular, and Us, or ellcs, they, in the
 
 ( 98 ) 
 
 plural. All substantives, either common or proper, 
 are in the third person. 
 
 There are three tenses, viz. the present, denoting 
 that the thing is, or is "doing, at the time it is men- 
 tioned, as : je lis, I read : the past, or preterit, denot- 
 ing that the thing has been done, as : j'ai lu, I have 
 read : 'Cat future, denoting that the thing will be done, 
 as : je I'lrai, 1 shall read. But these tenses are sub- 
 divided into others, so that we have several preterit, 
 and several future tenses. 
 
 There are hve moods, or ways of expressing affir- 
 mation, in the French verbs. 
 
 1°. The Indicative, when the different tenses are 
 expressed, with plain simple affirmation. 
 
 2°. The Conditional, when the affirmation is ex- 
 pressed, with a dependance upon some condition. 
 
 3°. The Imperative, when, besides the affirmation, 
 we express the act of commanding, exhorting or re- 
 questing. 
 
 4° The Siihjuncitvc, when we express the affir- 
 j^iation, with a dependance upon something before 
 anentioncd. 
 
 5°. The Infinitive, when the affirmation is expres- 
 sed in an indefinite manner, without either number 
 or person. 
 
 OF CONJUGATIONS. 
 
 To conjugate a verb is to recite its different moods 
 with all their tenses, numbers and persons. 
 
 We have four conjugations, which are distinguish- 
 ed by the termination of the present of the infinitive. 
 The 1st. has the infinitive in er, aimer, to love : the 
 ad. in ir, finir, to finish : the 3d. in oir, recevoir, to 
 receive : and the 4tli in re, rendre, to render. 
 
 We have also two auxiliary verbs, viz. avoir, to 
 have, and etre, to be, so called, because they serve to 
 conjugatt all the otb.ers : they ought, therefore, to be 
 known well, before we give the models of tlie dif- 
 ferent conjugations.
 
 ( 99 ) 
 
 CON^JUGATION OF THE AUXILIARY VERBS. 
 
 Avoir, To have. 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 Present. 
 
 fat I have 
 
 Tv as Thou hast 
 
 //, or ellc a He, or she ha.s 
 
 Nous avons We have 
 
 Vous ave-z You have 
 
 //j, or dies out They have. 
 Imperfcfl. 
 
 TavQis I had, or did have 
 
 Tu avois Thou hadst 
 
 // avok He had 
 
 Nous avions We had 
 
 Vous aviez You had 
 
 I/s avoient. They had. 
 Preterit definite. 
 
 feus I had 
 
 Tu ens Thou hadst 
 
 // eut He had 
 
 Nous eumes We had 
 
 Vous eutes You had 
 
 Us ewcnt They had. 
 
 Preterit indefinite. 
 
 Tai eu I b.ave had 
 
 Tu as eu Thou hast had 
 
 // a en He has had 
 
 Nous avons eu We have had 
 
 Vous ave-z eu You have had 
 
 Us ont eu 1'hey have had. 
 
 Preterit anterior. 
 
 Tens eu I had had 
 
 Tu eus eu Thou hadst Iiad 
 
 // eut eu He had had 
 
 K2
 
 Nous crimes cu 
 Vous cutcs cu 
 lis curent en 
 
 Tavcls eu_ 
 Tu avals eu 
 Jl avoit eu 
 Njjus avians eu 
 V^ous aviez eu 
 Jls avoient eu 
 
 Xaurn'i 
 Tu auras 
 II aura 
 Nous aurons 
 Vous aurcz 
 Jls auront 
 
 Taurai eu 
 Tu auras eu 
 
 Jl aura cu 
 Nous aurons eu 
 Vous aure% eu 
 Jls auront eu 
 
 T auro'is 
 Tu aurois 
 Jl auroit 
 Nous aurions 
 Vous auriez 
 Jls auroient 
 
 ( 100 ) 
 
 We had had 
 You had had 
 They had had, 
 
 PlupcrfcB. 
 
 I had had 
 Thou hadst had 
 He had liad 
 We had had 
 
 You had liad 
 They )iad had. 
 
 Future ah solute, 
 
 I shall have 
 Thou shalt have 
 He shall have 
 We shall have 
 You shall have 
 They shall have. 
 
 Future past. 
 
 I shall have had 
 Thou shalt have had 
 He shall have had 
 We shall have had 
 You shall have had 
 Tiiey shall have had, 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 Present. 
 
 I should, coufd or would 
 Thou shouldst iiave [hav« 
 He should have 
 We should have 
 You should have 
 They should have 
 
 Past. 
 
 1 should have had 
 Thou shouldst have had 
 He should have had 
 
 jTaurc'is, or J^cusse eu 
 
 Tu aurois, or eusses eu 
 
 Jl auroit, or eut eu 
 
 Nous aurions, or eussions cu We should have had 
 
 Vous auruz, or eussiez eu 
 Jls auroient f or eussent eu 
 
 You should have had 
 They should luve had
 
 ( loi ) 
 
 Observation.^ All iecond persons singular end 
 with an s, l^ (i-£^^/-> 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 
 Have (thou) 
 Let him have 
 Let us have 
 Have (ye) 
 Let them have 
 
 The imperative has no first per- 
 
 A'le 
 
 Qull ait 
 Ayons 
 uiyez 
 
 Quils a lent 
 Observation. 
 son singular. 
 
 Que j^aie 
 Que tu aies 
 Qu'il ait 
 Que 710US ayons 
 Que vous ayez 
 Qu'ils aient 
 
 Que j^eusse 
 Que tu eusses 
 Qu'il eut 
 Que nous eusuons 
 Que vous eussiez 
 Quits eussent 
 
 Que faie eu 
 Que tu aies eu 
 Qu'i/ ait eu 
 Que nous ayons eu 
 Que vous aye-z eu 
 Qu'ils aient eu 
 
 Quej'eusse eu 
 Que tu eusses eu 
 Qu'il eut eu 
 Que nous cusslons eu 
 Que vous eussiez eu 
 (^uils eussent cu 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 Present. 
 
 That I have or may have 
 That thou may St have 
 That he may have 
 That we may have 
 That you may have 
 lliat they may have 
 
 ImperfeSi^ 
 
 That I had, or might have 
 That thou mightst have 
 That he might have 
 That we might have 
 That you might have 
 That they might have 
 
 Preitrit. 
 
 That 1 may have had 
 That thou ma v5t have had 
 That he may have had 
 That we may have had 
 That you may have had. 
 That they may have had.. 
 Pluperfefl. 
 
 Tl.at I might have har} 
 Thatthou mightst have had 
 That he might have had 
 That we might have had 
 That you might have had 
 Thattliey might have had. 
 
 K3
 
 ( 102 ) 
 
 Observation. The gubjundlve is always pre- 
 ceded by que, 
 
 INFINITIVE. 
 
 Present. 
 Avoir To have 
 
 Past. 
 Avoir eti To have had. 
 
 Participle present. 
 .,',•:. ■- Avant Havincr. 
 
 "^r~ Participle past. 
 
 Eu Had. 
 
 Ayant eu Having had. 
 
 Participle future. 
 Devant avoir Being to have 
 The auxiliary verb avoir serves not only to con- 
 jugate itself, in the compound tenses, but also to con- 
 jugate die compound tenses of die verb etre, the active, 
 the impersonal, and almost all the neuter verbs. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 Observation T. As every teacher who wi<^hes 
 to forward the progress of his pupils oiighc tirst ta 
 make them learn peife611y the two auxiliary verbs> 
 we have taken care to give exercises extremely sim- 
 ple, but nevertheless calculated to put a great quan- 
 tity of words in their memory, and to shevvr them the 
 mechanism of the French construcStion. The teacher 
 must content himselt with observing to tlie pupil, 
 that, in die following exercises, he is to put betwieea 
 the auxiliary and the substantive, dcs, if diat sub- 
 sta'itive be in the plural ;• clu, if it be in the masculine 
 singular, and beguming with a consonant ; dc lay if 
 at be in the feminine singular and beginning wid\ a 
 consonant ; and de V , it it bo in the singidar, au4 
 i»€ginriing with a vowel. 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 Present. I have books. Thou hast friends He 
 livve pi. ami pi. 
 
 has honesty. She has sweetness. Wc have 
 
 ' ' i^(tff'i^icl^. h> mu. douceur, f.
 
 ( »o3 ) 
 
 credit. You have riches. They have virtues. 
 
 iTi. richesse. pi. in. 'vcrtu. pi. 
 
 They have modesty. 
 f, modeitiC' 
 
 2. Imperfect. I had ambition. Thou hadst 
 
 f. 
 wealth. He had sincerity. She had graces. We 
 
 bien.m. sJ»centJ.{. pi. 
 
 had oranges. You had pears. They had apples. 
 
 pi. />c;)V. pi. IT). /e/nme. pt* 
 
 They had lemons. 
 f. Cilf'jrl. pi; 
 
 3. Preterit DEFiNitfT 
 
 hadst cherries. He had strawberries. 
 
 tvy/id". pi. /raise, pi. 
 
 pine-apples. We had almonds. You had goose- 
 
 ananas. pi amnnde. p!. gyo- 
 
 berries. They had raspberries. They had 
 
 icille. pi. m. jramluiie^ pi. f. 
 grapes. 
 raisin, s-m. 
 
 4. Preterit indefjnjte. I have had pleasure. 
 
 plaisir 
 Thou hast had gold. He has h?.d patience. Sh& 
 
 or. m. f. 
 
 Kas had beauty. We hav<i had honours. Ycu have 
 
 b/mitte. f. hcn/ieitr. pi. 
 
 hid friendship. They have had sentimema. They 
 
 a/niiie. f. m. itntimcnt. pi, f. 
 
 tave had- sensibility. 
 
 sensibiUtti. f. 
 
 Observation JI. In the following exercises, 
 we have added an adjective to the substantive ; upoa 
 which the pupil ought to be told that he is to make 
 no change to the preceding observation^ if the adjec- 
 tive be placed after the substaniive; but, if it be pla- 
 ced before, then he is cnly to make use of dcy when 
 the adjective begins with a consonant, and ^' , when 
 it begins with a vowel. Vv'e shall sul^joia the figure 
 2 to the adjective, when it is to be placed aitci the 
 substantive. The pupil ought to be told also that the 
 adjective must agree in gender and number with che 
 substantive, that the feminine of adjeclives is formed 
 )iy the cdduioii of c mute, when it Ijas not this tenni*
 
 f 104 ) 
 
 cation, and that the plural is formed by the addition 
 of i^ to the singular. 
 
 5. Pketerit ANTERIOR- I had had fine clothes. 
 
 SHperbe habit, pi, 
 Thou hadst had great riches. He had had excellent 
 
 grand f-pl. 
 
 fruit. We had had good pens. You had had cruel 
 
 pi. bofi plume, f-pl. 
 
 moments. They had had immense treasures, 
 
 m-pl. . tresor. pL 
 
 6. Pluperfect. I had had good paper. Thou 
 
 papier, m. 
 tadst had very black ink. She had had uncommon 
 
 fort nmr'2. encre 1. f. rare 2. 
 
 graces. We had had good proceedings. Yoa 
 
 pi. 1 , precede pL- m . 
 
 had had honest proceedings. They had had charming 
 
 konncte 2. . pi. 1. charmant 
 
 flowers. 
 fieur^-^\-i. 
 
 7. Future absolute. I shall have very ripe grapes- 
 
 bicn mnr 2. 1 . 
 
 Thou shak have then exquisite figs. He shall hava 
 
 done exquis 2. figue pl-f. I. 
 succulent peaches. Wc shall have good tea, and excel- 
 
 2. pcclie. pl-f. r. the 
 
 lent coffee. Yoa shall have Ene roses. They 
 
 caffe. rose pUf. 
 
 shall have ready money. 
 
 compioM?.. argent. xnA, 
 
 8. Future anterior, I shall have had wise conn- 
 
 iage con~ 
 sels. Thou shall have had ridiculous ideas. She 
 
 4^/V pi. ridicule '2. idee 1. 
 
 •will have had poignant griefs. We shall have had' 
 
 cnisant 2. c/iagrin pl-ra. 1 . 
 true and real pleasures. You will liave had 
 
 *vrai2 reel 3. 1. 
 
 unavailing cares. They will have had horrid pains. 
 inutile 2. 5oi;t pi. 1. iiorrible 2. peine pl-f. 1 . 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 Observation III. In the following exercises, 
 the substantive sometimes -will, sometimes will not be 
 accompanied by an adjective. Tlie pupil nrust be told, 
 that, when the verb is t'olovved by several substantives, 
 each of these is to be preceded by the words agree- 
 ing with it. Another very importanl observation tOp
 
 ( 105 ) 
 
 be made is, that the English auxiliaries, should, wcnldy 
 and could, of tlie conditional, and may and might, of 
 the suhjuniflive, are not to be considered as essentially 
 and necessarily appertaining to those tenses, so that 
 / should have, or / might have, ought always to be 
 translated hy j^aurois andy'VHij-f, and vice versa. It 
 will be seen hereafter that it is not so ; but, at present, 
 we shall use those auxiliaries, merely to indicate what 
 tense the exercise is on. 
 
 Present. I should have studious pupils. Thou 
 
 applique 2. eleve^A-vn. 1. 
 shouldst have precious engravings. He would have 
 
 precieux gravure pl-f. 
 piftures and looking-glasses. Wc should have 
 
 tableau pi. miroir pi. 
 
 repose aad glory. You would have pretty playthings. • 
 ripos m. gloire f. joU joujou. pl-ra. 
 
 They should have pleasures and fine days. 
 
 pi. lean jour. pl-m. 
 
 Past. I should have had formidable rivals. Thou 
 
 redoMablt 2. pl.-nn. 1. 
 "wouldst have had powerful enemies. He should have 
 
 puissant 2. ennemi ■p'i-m. 1. 
 had just superiors. Wc would have had silver. 
 
 juste 2. supSrieur pl-m. 1. argon, nu 
 
 You would have had fortune, honors and friends, 
 
 f. pi. pi. . 
 
 They would have had experience and knowledge. '{ 
 
 f. sa-voir. m. F 
 
 IMPERATIVE. } 
 
 H»vc complaisance, regard and politeness. Lw 
 
 f. eganlpl. honntieti i. 
 
 him have success Let us have courage and firmness, 
 
 succesvn. m. fcrv.ete i^ 
 
 Have magnanimity. Let them have manners and 
 
 magna:iimili. f. moturs pi. 
 
 ccnduft. 
 conduite. f. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 Observation IV. In the following exercises, 
 the learner must be told that a or an is to be rendered by 
 un or une, according to the gender of the substantive. 
 Present. That I may have a tender friend. That th?»l; 
 
 iendre m. 
 mayst have a good watch. That he may have rich presents. 
 
 fKimtrc f. prisent pi. 
 
 That wc may have fme weather. That you may have. 
 aa tem^ m.
 
 C io6 ) 
 
 delightful days. That they may have a good master, andl 
 delicieux 2 pi. 1. maitre m. 
 
 gratitude. 
 recennoissance f. 
 
 Imperfect. That I might have a sword, a musket, 
 
 epe'e f. fusil m. 
 and pistols. That thou mightst have a knife, a spoon^- 
 
 pistolei pi' m. couteau m. cuiller f„ 
 
 and a fork. That he might have a penknife, pencils, 
 
 fonrclieite i, canif m. pinceau p].m. 
 
 and gocd models. That we might have a coach, a good 
 
 inodtle pi. m. <:arr<?i.'(f m. 
 
 house, and furniture simple but elegant. That yos 
 maison f. meuble pi. m. w^/i 
 
 might have health and great consideration. That they 
 
 sante f. vtt f, 
 
 might have rich vassals. '' 
 
 t'assal pi. m. 
 
 Preterit. That I may have had tulips, roses, and 
 
 iu'ipe pi. pi. 
 ranunculuses. That thou may3t have had a good horse and a 
 renoncule pi. che'valxn. 
 
 fine dog. That he may have had enlightened judges. That 
 
 chten eclair e 2. j«ge pi. m. 1 . 
 
 we may have had snow, rain, and wind. That you may 
 
 neige f. piuie f. vent m. 
 
 Vave had a great dining-room, a beautiful drawing- 
 
 salle a mattger f. supf.rht: sallon de 
 
 room, a pretty dressing-room, and a charmiirg 
 
 compagnie m. joti cabinet de ioiletle m. 
 bed-room. That they may have had vast possessions, 
 
 ehamlrs a cottcher i. 'vaste pi. f. 
 
 fine meadows and delightful groves. 
 
 prairie pi. f. 2 bob pi. m. I. 
 
 Pluperfect. That I miglu have had friendship. That 
 
 thou mightst have had gloves, boots and horses. That 
 
 gant pi. botte nl. pi. 
 
 he might h?"^- had zealous and faithful servants. That 
 
 2<f7tf fidele dom£st'(]uep\.m. 
 
 .wc might have had warm friends. That you might have 
 
 chaiid 2 pi m. I 
 had fiae clothes, precious jewels and magnificent furniture. 
 bijou pi- magyiifiiiiic 2. I. 
 
 That they might have had greatness of soul and pity. 
 grandeur ame pitii 
 
 Observation V. When the pupil has gone 
 , throujr]! the preceding exercises, he must be made to 
 go over again tlirough those of the indicative.
 
 ( 107 ) 
 
 i^. With a negative, telling him to put only de or 
 d^ before the substantive, according as it begins with 3. 
 consonant or a vowel ; likewise to put ne between the 
 personal prono-^u and the verb, and j>rtj or ^0/;/^ after 
 the verb, in the simple tenses, or between the verb and 
 the participle in the compound tenses. 
 I have no books. Jeu'ai pas de U-jres. 
 
 Thou hadst no wealth. Tu nwjois pas de bien. ^ 
 
 She had no honesty. Elle n eut pas d'hrnnetefe. _^ 
 
 Wc have had no friendship. Nous n'ai'ons pas eu d'amitict 
 You had not had powerful Feus n'a'viee^ pas eude puissani 
 
 friends. amis. 
 
 They will not have formida- lis nauront pas d'ennemis re- 
 
 ble enemies. doutables.^ 
 
 2°. With interrogation and affirmatively, observing 
 that, to form the interrogation, he is to put the per- 
 sonal pronoun after tne verb, ia the simple tenses, and 
 between the verb and tiie participle, m the compound 
 tense:,, joinmg tiiem with a hyphen (-) ; and that, 
 when the verb ends witli a vowel, he is to put be- 
 tweea tlie verb and the pronoun a f, preceded and 
 followed by a hyphen, thus, -t- , and that for the rest 
 he ought to attend to what has been said in the obser- 
 vations upon this mood. 
 Have I books ? Ai-je des I'rores ? 
 
 Hadst thou wealth ? A'uois-tu du bien ? 
 
 Had she honesty? Eut-elle de V honnetete f 
 
 Have we had good counsels r Avons-fious eude bons conseiU? 
 Had vou had prudence ? Aviez-'vous eu de la prudence? 
 
 Will 'he have money? Aura-t-il deV argent ? 
 
 Will she have had prote£tofs :Aura-t-elle eu des prcteSleurs? 
 
 30. Witli interrogation and negatively, observing 
 that he ought to conform to what we have said in 
 N°. I & 2, but always placing />a5 or poltit after the 
 pronoun, whether in the simple or compound tenses. 
 
 Have I no books ■ N' ai-je pas de livres ? 
 
 Hadst thou no friends ? Is' a'vus-tu pas d" amis ? 
 
 Has she no wit .- N'a-t- file point d' esprit ? 
 
 Have vve not had good pro- N'avons -nous pas eu de bciis 
 
 ccedings ? precedes ? 
 
 Had you not had new gowns? N' a-^iez-vous pas eu de noU' 
 
 If lies robes ? 
 Will he have no resources ? N'aura-t-il pas de ressources? 
 Will they have had no conia-N' auront-elles pas eu de con- 
 
 lations ? sulatior.s ?
 
 Jie suis 
 7u es 
 
 Jl est 
 Elte at 
 
 Nous sommcs 
 
 Voiis etes 
 
 lis or dies sont 
 
 Tttih 
 I^u ttois 
 II ttoit 
 Nous etions 
 Vous cticz, 
 lis etolent 
 
 ( io8 ) 
 
 Etrc, To be. 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 Present, 
 eim^i tie I am loved* 
 
 Thou art 
 He is 
 She is 
 
 almh, ees We are lovcJ,, 
 
 You are 
 They arc 
 
 Impcrfctf. 
 
 aime, ee I was lovetl. 
 
 Thou wast 
 He was 
 aims, ecs We were Iove«l 
 You were 
 They were 
 
 Preterit definite. 
 
 Jefus aime, ee I was loved. 
 
 Ill jus Thou wast 
 
 II jut He was 
 
 Nous fumes alnus^ i^s We were loved 
 
 Vous jutes You were 
 
 Ihfnrent They were 
 
 Preterit Indefinite. 
 
 J^ai ete T have been. 
 
 Til as ete Thou hast been. 
 
 // a ete He has been. 
 
 Nous avons ete We have been. 
 
 Vous avez ete You have been. 
 
 lis ont ete They have been. 
 
 Present anterior^. 
 
 Jfcus He 1 had been. 
 
 Tu eus etc Thou liadst been. 
 
 // cut ete He had been. 
 
 Nous eumcs etc We had been. 
 
 Vous cutes etc You had been. 
 
 Jls curent Cte. They had been. 
 
 Pluferfed
 
 Tavois he 
 Tu avnis tie 
 J I avoit ete 
 Nous anions ttc 
 J'ous az'iez etc 
 lis az'olent ete 
 
 Jc serai 
 Tu seras 
 II sera 
 Nous serons 
 Vo7is serez 
 lis seront 
 
 J' aural ete 
 Tu auras ete 
 II aura ete 
 Nous auroHS ete 
 Vous aurez ete 
 lis auront ete 
 
 Je serois 
 Tu serois 
 II seroit 
 Nous serions 
 Fous seriez 
 lis seroient 
 
 Taurois, or j^eusse ete 
 Tu aurois, or eusses ete 
 II auroit, or eut ete 
 Nous aurioHs, or eussions ete 
 Vous auriez, or eussiez ete 
 lis auroiefitf or eussent ete 
 
 L 
 
 ( 109 ) 
 
 Pluperfcd. 
 
 I had been. 
 Thou hadst been. 
 He had been. 
 We had been. 
 You had been. 
 They had been. 
 Future absolute. 
 
 I shall be. 
 Thou shalt be. 
 He shall be. 
 We shall be. 
 You shall be. 
 They shall be. 
 
 Future past. 
 
 I shall have been. 
 Thou shalt have been. 
 He shall have been. 
 We shall have been. 
 You shall have been. 
 They shall have becR, 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 Present, 
 
 I should he. 
 Thou shouldst be. 
 He should be. 
 We shW be. 
 You shomd be. 
 They should be. 
 
 Past. 
 
 1 should have been. 
 Thou shouldst have beet! 
 He should have been. 
 We should have been. 
 You should have been. 
 They should have been.
 
 ( no ) 
 
 Soh_ 
 
 Quil so IS 
 Soyons 
 Soyez 
 Qu'ils solcnt 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 
 Be (thou). 
 Let him be. 
 Let us be. 
 Be (you). 
 Let them be. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 Present. 
 
 That I may be. 
 That thou mayst be. 
 That he may be. 
 That we may be. 
 That you may be; 
 That they may be. 
 
 Imperfeil. 
 
 That I might be. 
 That thou mightst be. 
 That he might be. 
 •That we might be. 
 That you might be. 
 That they might be. 
 
 Treterit. 
 
 Tliat I may have been, 
 Tliat thou mayst have been. 
 That lie may have been. 
 That we may have been. 
 That you may have been. 
 That they may have been. 
 
 Pluperfe^. 
 
 That I might have been. 
 
 That thou miglitst have been. 
 
 That he might have been. 
 Que nous eus-:ons etc 'I'hat we might have been. 
 Que vcus eussiez ete That you might have been. 
 Qii'ils eusscnt ttC- That they might have been. 
 
 INFINITIVE. 
 
 Present. 
 Etrc To be. 
 
 Que Jc sols 
 ■Que tu sots 
 Quil sou 
 Que nous soyons- 
 Que t>ous soyez 
 Qu'lls soient 
 
 Que jc fusse 
 Que tu fusses 
 Quil Jut 
 Que nous fussions 
 Que vous fussiez 
 .Quils fussent 
 
 Que J aie cte 
 Que tu aics .cte 
 Qu^il ait etc 
 'Que nous ayons etc 
 Que vous ^M^ t'/t' 
 Quails aiel^^tc 
 
 Que feussc etc 
 Que tu eujisci etc 
 Qu^il edt cte
 
 ( III ) 
 
 Past. 
 
 Aco'ir etc To have been. 
 
 Participle -present. 
 Etant Being 
 
 Participle past. 
 Etc, ayant etc Been, having been. 
 
 Participle future . 
 Devant etre Being to be. 
 
 The auxiliary verb, ctre, serves to conjugate the 
 passive verbs through all their tenses, the compound 
 tenses of the refle61:ed verbs, and those of, about titty 
 neuter verbs. 
 
 EXERCISE, 
 
 Observation. The pupil must here be told, 
 that, as the adjedlive takes gender and number, he 
 ought to put it in the masculine or feminine, the sin- 
 gular or plural, as the pronoun subjetl may require: 
 and that, besides, he ought to place before the ad- 
 jedf ive the adverb which will be found in the following 
 exercises. 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 Present. I am very glad. Thou art quite amiaMe. 
 bien aise 
 He is very lively. She is very lively. 
 irti gai f. 
 
 You are always just. They are \vitty. 
 toitjours juite m. spintucl 
 
 iMPERFtCT. I was very busy. ' T 
 fort orcupd 
 dissipated. He was sometimes lazy. 
 disiipe quelqutfijii payessenx 
 
 lazy. We were quiet. You were sad. They were 
 
 f. tranqu'ille tris'e m. 
 
 laborious. They were laborious. 
 laboneux f. i. 
 
 Preterit DEFINITE. I was constant. Thou wast al- 
 ways wise and sedate. He was ingenious. She was sensible. 
 
 sage pose iKge'nseux 
 
 We were firm and courageous, "iou were good. They 
 
 ferme courageux bon m. 
 
 were vicious. They were virtuous. 
 'Jicieux f . 'VtrrU::ux f. 
 
 L * 
 
 ton. -..-fait a'nnable. 
 We are happy. 
 
 /leureux 
 They arc witty, 
 f.' 
 wast often 
 sciroent 
 5'was sometimes 
 
 sSv
 
 ( "2 ) 
 
 Fi/TUKE ABSOLUTE. I shall be modest and perliaps 
 
 jnodcste peut-etre 
 timid. Thou wilt always be pettish, obstinate and 
 ti.'uide. quinteiix opinidtre 
 
 captious. He will be reasonable. She will be civil and 
 
 pmntilleux rais'jnnable . f. 
 
 polite. We shall be good and complaisant. You will be- 
 poll f. 
 
 mad and rash. They will be firm, generous, and valiant. 
 foti tenieraire m. njaUlant 
 
 They will be modest and handsome. 
 
 i> beau f. 
 
 Present of the condition al. I should be invincible. 
 Thou wouklst be imprudent. He would be incorrigible. 
 She would be beautiful. We snould be victorious. You 
 
 beau I'iSiorieux 
 
 would be learned and skilful. They would be inhuman and 
 
 sa-uant habile m. inhumain 
 
 cruel. They should be discreet and circumspe(5t 
 f. discret circonspeHi. 
 
 Observation. As the compound tenses are 
 formed of die difFcjeut simple tenses of the verb avoir, 
 and of the participle ete, we shall merely mention 
 here their formation, and the teaclier may make his 
 pupil go through them, if he think proper. We are 
 even of opinion, diat this exercise will prove infinitely 
 useful in acquiring the facility of speaking. 
 
 PiiETERiT INDEFINITE. I have been imprudent. 
 
 Preterit anterior. I had been more consec^uent. 
 
 Pluperfecx^^ had been young and thoughtless. 
 
 ^^^ jeunc etonrdi 
 
 Future anterior. I shall have been circumsped and 
 prudent. 
 
 Conditional past. I should have been curious and 
 
 curicux 
 deceived. 
 irompfi 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 
 Be just, liberal, honcat and disintercstel. Let him he 
 
 dt-uiiU'rciit; 
 methodical and clear.- Let her be gentle, chaste and good., 
 mclli'jdi'juc clair doux bou 
 
 Let us be equitable, homanc and prudent. Be sober, qoe.- 
 ;obri
 
 ( "3 ) 
 
 stant and moderate. Let them be simple and judicious. 
 modert juduitux 
 
 Let them be sprightly, \vit:v and amiable, 
 f. -Jif. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE, 
 
 Present. That I may always be steady in 
 
 inebranlable dans 
 my principles. That thou mayst be invariable. That ht 
 mes principcs 
 
 may be docile and grateful. That she may be saving 
 
 reconnoissant econ'j/ne 
 
 and careful. That we may be perfect. That you may be 
 
 soigntux parfuit ■ 
 
 illustrious. That they may be punctual. That they may be 
 illustre ponduel f. 
 
 judicious. 
 
 Imperfect. That I might be proud and haughty. 
 
 oigtieilhux fier 
 That thou miglust be envious and jealous. That he might 
 
 envieux jaloux 
 be impudent. That she might be fickle, vain and imperti- 
 
 Itger 
 nent. That we might be flatterers, mean and cringing. 
 
 fiatttur bas ramp wit 
 
 That you might be hasty, crdss and whimsical. That 
 
 brustfue bowru bizarre 
 
 they might be wicked or malicious. That they might be 
 
 m. mccha)ii malicicux f. 
 
 scornful and arrogant. 
 dtdaigneux 
 
 Preterit. That I may have been grossly diipcd 
 
 grossiererneni dupe 
 and deceived. ^^ 
 
 trompe ^JP 
 
 Pluperfect. That 1 might have been so foolish and 
 
 ii tmbecHle 
 so stupid. 
 sot 
 
 Observation. The exercises on the indintive 
 should be gone through, first negatively, and then 
 with interrogation, either affirmatively or ncgativelv ; 
 observing, that the personal pronoun, whicii serves for 
 the interrogation, and the two negative words, 77e and 
 fas, preserve the same place with the auxiliary verb 
 €tye, as with avoir. In all those phrases, the'adjec- 
 tive is the last word. It is also to be observed, thiit,
 
 ( 114 ) 
 
 "when there is an adverb, it ought to be placed after 
 the verb, in the simple tenses, and between the aux- 
 iliary verb and the participle, in die compound tenses, 
 which is a general rule for all verbs, when that ad- 
 verb is only a single word, except in a few instances, 
 which shall be mentioned in their proper place. 
 
 FIRST CONJUGATION 
 
 la er. 
 Winter, to love. 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 Present. 
 
 Taime I love 
 
 7« aimes Thou Icn'esi. 
 
 // aime He loves 
 
 l^ous aimnns We love 
 
 ^^ous alme% You love 
 
 lis aiment They love 
 
 Imperjcft. 
 
 Taitno!^ I tliJ If^^s 
 
 7« aimois Thou didst love 
 
 7/ aimoit He did love 
 
 Nous aimions We did love 
 
 Fous aim'icz You did love 
 
 Jls aimcient They did love 
 ^ Prctsnt definite. 
 
 J'aimal W^ I loved 
 
 Tu aima% Thou lovedst 
 
 // alma He loved 
 
 Nous a'lmames Wc loved 
 
 Vous annates You loved 
 
 lis almHent They loved 
 
 Preterii indefinite. 
 
 Xai ame I have loved 
 
 Tu as aime Thou hast loved 
 
 // a aime He has loved 
 
 Nous avons aime We have loved 
 
 Vous ave-z aim<i You have loved 
 
 Ms gut aim They have loved
 
 ( "5 ) 
 
 Preterit anterior. 
 
 J'eus aime I had loved 
 
 Tu CU5 aime Thou hadst love J 
 
 II cia aime He had loved 
 
 Nous eumes aim^ We had loved 
 
 yous elites aime You had loved 
 
 lis eurent aime They had loved 
 Flupcrfen, 
 
 JPavols aime I had loved 
 
 Tu avois aime Thou hadst loved 
 
 // avoit aimi . He had loved 
 Jsious avians aime We had loved 
 
 Vous aviez aime You had loved 
 
 lis avoient aime They had loved* 
 
 Future absolute, 
 
 J^aimerai I shall love 
 
 Tu aimerar Thou shalt love 
 
 // aimera He shall love 
 
 Nous aimerons ^Vc shall love 
 
 f^'ous aimercz You shall love 
 
 J/s aimeront They shall love. 
 
 Future past. 
 
 J*auyai aime I shall have loved 
 
 Tu auras aime Thou shalt have loved* 
 
 // aura aime He shall have loved 
 
 Nous aurom aime We shall have loved 
 
 Vous aurez aime Yon^hall have loved 
 
 lis auront aime They sViall have loved. 
 
 Observation. There is a fourth preterit, which 
 is but seldom used. We shall give it here, and ob- 
 serve that it is in every one of the four conjugations ; 
 j'ai eu aime, tu as eu aime^ il a eu aime, nous avons 
 eu aime, vous avcz eu aime, ils ont eu aimL 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 Present. 
 
 faimercis T should love 
 
 Tu airnerois . Thou shouldst loye 
 
 // aimeroit He should love
 
 ( ii6 ) 
 
 No?4s amerions We should love 
 
 Vous aimeriez You should love 
 
 lis abncroient Tliey should love 
 
 Past. 
 
 fauroiSy or j^ettsse alme 1 should have loved 
 
 Tu auroh, ox cusses aime Thou shouldsthave loved 
 
 // auroit, or eut aime He should have loved 
 
 Nous aurions, or eussions We should have loved 
 
 aime 
 
 Vous auricz, or cussicz aime You should have loved 
 
 lis auroient, or eusscnt aime They should have loved 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 
 j^ime ' Love (tliou) 
 
 Q«'z7 aime Let him love 
 
 Aimons Let us love 
 
 Aimez Love (ye) 
 
 QiHils aiment Let them love 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 Present. 
 
 Qjie j^aime That T may love 
 
 Que tu aimcs That thou mayst love 
 
 Qu'il aime That he may love 
 
 Que nous aimions That we inay iove 
 
 Que vous aimiez That you may love 
 
 Quails aiment That they may love. 
 
 Jmpctfcff. 
 
 QueJ^aimasse That T might love 
 
 Que tu aimasses That thou mightst love 
 
 Qu'il aimcit That he might love ■ 
 
 Que nous aimnssions That v/e niicht love 
 
 Que vaus ainuissicz L hat vou might love 
 
 Quils aimasscnt That they might love 
 Preterit. 
 
 Que j^aie aime That I may have loved 
 
 Que tu aics aime That thou mayst have 
 
 loved 
 Qu'il ait aime Th;ithe may have loved
 
 ( "7 ) 
 
 Que^ mm ayons alme That v/e may have lovctl 
 que vous ayc-z a'lmc That you may have loved 
 qulh a'lcnt alme Thattheymayhaveloved 
 
 Fluperfed. 
 Que feussc alme That I might have loved 
 Que tu cusses alme I'hat thou mightst have 
 
 loved 
 Qu'il cut alme That he might have loved 
 
 Que nous cusslons almeThd.X. we might have loved 
 Que vous eusslez alme That you might have love<l 
 Qulls eusscnt alme That they might have loved. 
 
 INFINITIVE. 
 Present. 
 Jlmcr to love. 
 
 Past. 
 Avoir alme To have loved. 
 
 Participle present. 
 ' Aimant Loving. 
 
 Participle past. 
 
 Ayant alme Having loved. 
 
 Participle future. 
 
 Devant aimer Being to love. 
 
 Observation. To conjugate the passive verb, 
 
 we have only to add to the teiues of the verb etre the 
 
 participle past of the verb adive, in the masculine, or 
 
 feminine, in the singular or plural, according to the 
 
 gender and number, as : je suls almc^ or aimec, I ani 
 
 loved : nous sommes almes, or airnees, we are loved, as 
 
 we have seen in the coiijugaiiun of the verb etre. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 Observation." In the following exercises the 
 pupil must be told : 
 
 I". That a or an are to be translated by un or unCf 
 according to the gender. 
 
 2<'. That t/ie is to be rendered by le for the mascu- 
 line, la for the feminine, /' before a noun beginning 
 with a vowel or // mute, and les before a plural. 
 
 q^ That he must conform to the first two obser-
 
 vatlons on the exercises on the auxiliary verb avoir, 
 ■when the French verb is followed by de. 
 
 4.°. I'hat when the PVench verb is tollowed by the 
 Word a, he is, instead of a, to use an, before a singu- 
 lar masculine, beginning with a consonant > a la before 
 a singular feminine, beginning with a consonant ■■, al\ 
 before a singular beginning with a vowel or // mute ; 
 and aux before a plural : but that he is to use only «, 
 it before the noun there be one of the following pro- 
 nouns. When to is expressed in English or is to be 
 translated by a , this word is not put after the French 
 verb. 
 
 5 • That he is to translate my, thy, his,, her, or 
 its, by moiJ, ton, son, before a masculine, or a feminine 
 beginning with a vowel or // mute ; by ma, ta, sa, be- 
 fore a feminine beginning with a consonant ; and by 
 mcs, tes, ses, before a plural of both genders : and owr, 
 your, their, by notre, votre, leur, before a singular, and 
 ms, vos, leurs, before a plural. 
 
 6°. That he is to translate this or that before a sub- 
 stantive by cc, before a noun masculine beginning 
 ■with a consonant, cet before a noun masculine 
 beginning with a vowel or h mute, ccttc before a 
 noun feminine ; and these or tliose by ca before a 
 plural. 
 
 7°. That though, in English, the is sometimes not 
 expressed, yet it ought always to be in French. 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 Pkesknt. I willingly give that plaything to your sisfcr. 
 
 "volohtieu douncr saur 
 
 Thou aggravates! thy evils. He proposes a salutary advice 
 
 irriter ;;/a/ pi. proposer saluiaire :l afis i. 
 
 to liis friends. "We sincerely love peace and tranquillity. 
 
 iinccrement paix tranquHlne 
 
 You admire the spcftacle of nature, They constantly 
 
 udfnircr art. constammcnt 
 
 comfort the afflifteH. 
 COfiioltr c^iige pi. 
 
 Imperficcx. I incessantly thought of my misfortunes. 
 sam ces»e pemtr d rnalhsur pi. 
 
 Thou drcadest his presence and firmness. She accused her 
 
 redoui<-r f. pro. f. accuser 
 
 friend of levity. We protected the ju«.t man. ■ You 
 ar'iie k'^^Kie pro:cger ii hc,7n7nc- 1
 
 ( 
 
 119 ) 
 
 vam erudition. 
 2 f. 1 
 
 They disdained so weak, an 
 dedal gner foible 2 
 
 despised 
 tTje'p riser 
 enemy. 
 
 1 
 Preterit. I gladly gave peaches and flowers to 
 a'vec plalsir {de) 
 my neighbours. Thou forgettest an essential circumstance. 
 
 'voisin outlier es send el 2 f . 1 
 
 He related that little and charming story with a great 
 
 racontcr p-^tit charmanflustoire^. avec * ifau^ 
 
 deal of grace. VVe visited the grotto and the grove. You 
 coup 1 "jisiier grottel. bois m. 
 
 showed constancy, courage and intelligence. They ge-. 
 jtiontrer (de) _ S'^' 
 
 nerously forgave their enemies. 
 
 nereusement pardonner a 
 
 Preterit indefinite. I haTe given up my favourite 
 
 cider fa'vori 2 
 
 horse to my cousin. Thou hast exchanged watches with 
 
 1 changer de sing, 
 
 thy sister. He gave fine copper-plates to his pupil. "VVe 
 
 {dc^ grai-ure pi. pupile 
 
 have spoken a long while of your adventure. You havB 
 
 parler * long-terns aventure _ 
 
 insisted too much upon that point. They have immediately 
 insister trap sur promptement 
 
 prepared their ball-dresses. 
 J>reparer habit de bal pi. 
 
 Preterit anterior. 1 had soon eaten my money 
 
 bientot manger 
 and exhausted my resources. Thou hadst very soon 
 
 c purser pi. "^i^s 
 
 reinforced thy party. He had in a moment surmounted 
 
 renforcer en instant surmonte 
 
 all obstacles. We had soon shut the shutters 
 
 tout art. pi. fenner %olet pi. 
 
 and let down the curtains. You had quickly done. 
 
 baisser rideauy^X. projNptement acht'ver 
 
 In the twinkling of an eye they had dispersed the 
 En '■■■ un clin * ceil dissiper 
 
 mob. 
 pop'ulace. i. ft 
 
 Pluperfect. •^Sg/ had drained an unwholesome 
 dessecher mal sain 
 
 marsh. Thou hast married a man rich, but without 
 
 marais m. epouser sans 
 
 education. He had rejefled these advantageous offers 
 
 * rejetter avaniageux 2 offn f. 1
 
 ( 120 ) 
 
 with disdain. We had long listened to the singin? 
 
 deddignevH'menl. - lotig-tems dcoutcr '* chant m. 
 
 of the birds. You had already studied geography 
 
 oiscau. deja etudier geographie f. 
 
 «nd history, They had procured him a company 
 
 procurer 2 lui i cotripagnic 
 cf cavalry, horses and arms. 
 
 cavizlcrie, (de) {Jc) arrne. pi. 
 
 jiFuTURE. I shall relieve the poor. Tliou shak 
 
 soidager panvre. pi. 
 faithfully keep that secret. He will consult en- 
 
 Jid: emenl garder consultcr (de) 
 
 lightened judges. We shall prefer glory to 
 
 preferer art. art. 
 
 pleasure, and honour to riches. You will afflift 
 
 art. art. affllger 
 
 your father and mother. They will astonish their 
 
 pere mere. etonner 
 
 hearers. 
 auditeur, pi. 
 
 FuTVRE ANTERtOR. I Shall soon have finished this 
 
 achenjer 
 #»ook. Thou shalt certainly have appeased his anger 
 
 certainement appaiser colcre f. 
 He will no doubt have triumphed over his enemies. 
 
 ians doute Iriompber de 
 
 We certainly shall have rewarded merit. You will have 
 
 recotnpenser me'rite. 
 run to his assistance. They -will have brought 
 
 "voUr secours m. apporter {df") 
 
 money. 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 Presejct. I should form conjeftures without num- 
 
 former (de) nom~ 
 
 "^cr. Thou wouldst avoid so great a danger. ' He 
 
 bre i'uitcr 2. m. 1. 
 
 would unravel that business. We would drive awny 
 
 dibroidlter affaire. c/iasscr 
 
 the importunate. You would discover that atrocious 
 
 imporiun pi. denjoller atroce 2. 
 
 plot. They would unfold the clew of the intrigue. 
 
 iomplat. m. 1. dc7iiel€r jil 
 
 Past. I should have liked hunting, fishing and 
 
 ''aimer chasse f. pic/ie f. 
 
 the country, if, &c. Thou wouldst have played, if, 
 
 campanile, f. sty &.c. ^ jouer
 
 < 121 ) 
 
 Sic. He would certainly have bowed to the company, 
 
 saluer * f. 
 
 if, &c. We would gladly have pratsed hf5 courage 
 
 avec plahir lotter 
 
 and disinterestedness. You would have awakened 
 
 clesint'ressement eveiller 
 
 every body. They would have paid their debts. 
 
 ioitt le mcndr. /-'!7^'' ^^^^^^ pl^ 
 
 Observatiok. The learner should construe the 
 tforegoing phrases negatively, and with interrogation, 
 observing what has been said before upon the aux- 
 iliary verbs avoir and etre. 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 
 Consult the light of reason. Let him love justice, 
 
 Consulter lumiere , f. 
 
 peace and virtue. Let us swear to be true to a 
 
 f. f. jurer de Jidilc '- 
 
 good cause. - Omit useless details. 
 
 art. f. JS\'gliger (dr) inutile 2. 1. 
 
 Let them sacrifice their interest to the public good. 
 
 sacrijier i?ittrct 2 bien. m. l 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 • Present. That I may alwstys listeato a severe censor 
 
 y^ ""^ 2. censeur. ! . 
 
 of my dcfefts. That tho« mayst find real 
 
 dtfaut.-^\. tfouver{de') 'vrai 
 
 friends. That he may adorn Jiis speeches with the 
 
 parer dpcoi0 dt ^ 
 
 graces of a pure di£lion. -^ '^k%3.t,^^^([iay^emdi'ui in hst 
 
 2. l.L y^y'x'^^ rester ' , " 
 
 boildoir. That we,i^a^^/.^^^^^f1^y condemn the 
 
 Js^erement condamnsr 
 -world. That^^i^'^y'pout incessantly,^ That 
 
 tnonde m. ■' ' -^ hoiidev sans c^s^'. 
 
 ■they may thus yxo^ their own '4estrtt«ioH. 
 
 ainsi CQ'nipiyera ferte. 
 
 That 
 
 Imperfect. That I might copy his example. 
 ' irniter exempk. 
 
 thou -rhightst give up treacherous friends. That 
 
 abando7incr (^dt) 
 he might inhabit a cottage instead of a palace. That 
 
 habiter chaiimiere f. an lien palais. 
 
 we might fall at the ftet of a legitimate ' l:in?. 
 
 tombi-r a pifd ^\. ^ ^lU k'S'iime'^, ^ 1. 
 
 M
 
 ( 122 ) 
 
 That you tnight respect the laws of your country. 
 
 That they might speak at random. 
 
 a tort &" a t ravers. 
 Preterit. That I may have caressed insolence and 
 
 cartsser 
 flattered pride. That thou mayst have added to thy 
 
 fintter orgueil ajoutcr 
 
 fault. That he may have carried despair into his soul. 
 
 porter dans ame f. 
 
 That we may have blamed a cop.duft so prudent and so 
 
 blamer condiiite f. 
 ■wise. Tiiat you may have exasperated so petulant a 
 
 exaspircr 
 charafter. That they may have taken advantage of 
 
 car ail ere. m. profiter 
 
 the circumstances. 
 
 Pluperfect. That 1 might have burnt that work^ 
 
 hr filer 
 That thou roightst have contemplated on the beauties of 
 
 co/iienipler ^ 
 the country. That he might have perfefted his 
 
 campagne. perfeffionner 
 
 natural qualities. That we might have gained the 
 
 qualite. pl-f. remporter ' 
 
 •victory. That you might have enchanted the public. 
 
 •vidoire. f. enckatiter 
 
 That they might have struck their enemies with fear. 
 frapptr de 
 
 SECOND CONJUGATION 
 
 In ir. 
 
 This conjugation is divided into four branches, 
 which are distinguished by tac first person of the pre- 
 sent of the indicative. 
 
 In the subsequent tables, we shall not insert the 
 compound tenses, because they are the same in all 
 verbs : for the same reason, we shall only give the 
 tirst person of the imperfedl and future of the indica- 
 tive, and the present of the conditional. 
 
 Branchl. BranchW. Branch \\\. BranchW. 
 
 Finir, loftnisk. Scutir, to feel. Onwnr, to c/tvi.Tenir, to hold. 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 Present absolutt, 
 
 je finis sens ouvre tiens 
 
 tutinis sdns ouvres tiens 
 
 jl ftiiit sent ouvre . tient
 
 ( 123 ) 
 
 Branch I. 
 
 nous tiiiissons 
 vous iinissez 
 ils finissent 
 
 je finissois 
 
 scutons 
 
 scntez 
 
 sentent 
 
 Branch III, 
 ouvrons 
 ouvrez 
 ouvrent 
 
 Branch IV. 
 tenons 
 tenez 
 tiennent 
 
 Imperfect, 
 
 ■sentois ouvrois 
 
 Preterit defiyiite. 
 
 je finis 
 
 sentis 
 
 ouvris 
 
 tins 
 
 tu finis 
 
 sencis 
 
 ouvris 
 
 tins 
 
 il finit 
 
 sentit 
 
 ouvrit 
 
 tint 
 
 nous finimcs 
 
 seniuTies 
 
 ouvvimes 
 
 linmes 
 
 vous finites 
 
 sentites 
 
 ouvrltes 
 
 tintes 
 
 ils finirent 
 
 sentirent 
 
 ouvrirent 
 
 tinrcnt 
 
 je finirai 
 
 je luurois 
 
 Future absolute. 
 scntirai ouvrirai tiendrai 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 Present. 
 sentirois ouvrirois tiendrois 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 
 Presetit and Future. 
 
 finis 
 
 sens 
 
 GUV re 
 
 tiens 
 
 qu'il finisse 
 
 qu'ii sente 
 
 qu'il ouvre 
 
 qu'il tienne 
 
 finisvons 
 
 sentons 
 
 ouvrons 
 
 tenons 
 
 finisscz 
 
 sentez 
 
 ouvrez 
 
 tenez 
 
 qu'ils hnissent 
 
 qu'ils sentent 
 
 qu'ik ouvrent qu'ils tienne 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 Present or Future. 
 
 que je finisse sente ouvre 
 
 que tu finisses sentes ouvres 
 
 qu'il tinisse sente ouvre 
 
 K\v\e. nous finissions sentions ouvrions 
 
 que vous finissiez sentiez ouvpiez 
 
 qu'ils fiflissent sentent ouvrent 
 
 iTT.perfect. 
 
 que je finisse sentisse ouvrisse 
 
 xjue'tu fiuisses sentisses ouvrisses 
 
 qu'il fink scntit ouvrit 
 
 que nous finissions sentissions ouvriisions 
 
 que vous finissiez sentissiez ouvrissiez 
 
 qu'ils finissent sentissent ouvrissent 
 
 tienne 
 
 ticnnes 
 
 tienne 
 
 ten Ions 
 
 tcnicz 
 
 tiennent 
 
 tins^e 
 
 tinsses 
 
 tint 
 
 tinssions 
 
 tinssiez 
 
 tlnssent 
 
 finir 
 avoir fini 
 
 INFINITIVE. 
 
 Present. 
 :ir cuvrir 
 
 Past. 
 ti ■ ouvert- 
 
 M* 2 
 
 /
 
 ( 124 ) 
 
 Branch I. Branch \l. Branch III. Branch lY* 
 
 ParticipU present. 
 ^nissant sentant ouvrant t'tnant 
 
 Participle past. 
 fini, ayp.nt fini -senti ouvert tenu 
 
 Participle future. 
 -dcvant fiiiir scntir ouvrir tenir 
 
 EXERCISE ON BRANCH I. 
 
 Obser'vAtion- As the compound tenses are the 
 ^ame in all verbs, they will not be found in the fol- 
 lowing exercises: teachers may get their pupils to 
 ■repeat them, if they think proper. We shall also 
 make another alteration, viz, intermix simple 
 phrases with interrogative and negative ones. The 
 only tiling to be observed is, that, whenever the 
 pupil shall tind, in the interrogative phrases, a sub- 
 stantive in the third person, he is to "put that substan- 
 tive at the head of the phrase, leaving the pronoun 
 which serves for the interrogation, in the place already 
 pointed out. 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 Present. I choose this pifture. Dost thou never 
 
 c hoi sir tableau * 
 
 obey at the first inaptilse ? Does he thus dtfine that 
 
 obeir a mowvement '■* difinir 
 
 word ? Do you not pity his sorrows ? They 
 
 mot * conipaiir a 
 
 are finishing at this mament. 
 
 fiiiir dans * art. 
 Imperfect. I did forearm his soul against the dangers 
 * premunir contre 
 
 of seduction. . Did Vhe wise Socrates applaud the 
 
 ^rt. » * Socrate applaudir a 
 
 follies of the young Alcibiadcs ? Did we not frequently 
 
 trailers _ Alcibiade ■■ 
 
 warn our friends of the bad state of their affairs ? You 
 avertir 
 
 did not cure their evils. They invaded an immense 
 * guerir pi. , envahir 2 
 
 country. 
 pays m. 1 
 
 Preterit. I softened my father bv my submission. 
 * ficchir par soumission 
 
 He did not succeed through thoughtlessness. Did not Alex- 
 '■■' re'ussir par tiourdcrie *
 
 ( 125 ) 
 
 ander sully his glory by his pride ? We never 
 
 tenjir ne jamah 
 
 betrayed that important secret. You freed your mind 
 
 tralnr 2 1 ajfranchiv 
 
 from the shackles of pnjiidice. Did the ancient 
 
 de chaine \)\. art. prejrtge^l. " » 
 
 philosophers enjoy- gieat coniideration ? 
 
 joiar de un 
 
 Future. Shall I succeed in this business? He will 
 reussir 
 not embellish his house. We shall not sully the splendour 
 
 f::r,btllir maison f. eclat 
 
 of our life by an unworrhy aftion. Will you adorn 
 
 iiidigue 2. 1 . embiUir 
 
 your mind with all the splendour of imagery of Fenelon ? 
 
 de briilaut art. ima^^ pi. 
 
 Will they enrich their courtry by their'industry ? 
 ennchir pays industne 
 
 COMiiTIONAL. 
 
 I- should still- cherish life. Could he cure that 
 
 encore cherir gue'rir 
 
 cruel disease? Should we not fulfil our promise ? 
 
 r.uiladie f. re?nplir promesse 
 
 You Would not perish for misery. Shall men always 
 
 peril' de 
 grow nid without growing wiser ? 
 ijjehlir de'oenir plus 
 
 IMPERATIVE.. 
 
 Do not fs'il thy imagination with th^se images! Let 
 
 sal, r par 
 
 him unite gracefulness to beauty ! Let us feed the 
 
 reu/ur grace nvurrir 
 
 poor. Shudder with fear and shame. Let then:i 
 
 fri.-i.ir de erainte honte. 
 grow pule at the recolh fi:ion of their crimes .' 
 pulir a soiree nir 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE.. 
 
 Present. That I may never blemish my reputation. 
 
 fijfnr. 
 That he may not enjoy his. glory. That we may not 
 
 jouir de 
 supply the wants of the poor. That you may puoisb 
 
 Journir a beioin pi. 
 
 the guilty. That they may establish w^^BHwslI^'s. 
 
 Ci/upabks etabllr ^iTQie) '3. /rtj.
 
 r 126 y 
 
 Tmperfect. That I might stun the whole neigh.»T 
 
 etourdir 2. tout'\. 'voi- ' 
 bourhood. That he might swallow up so many riches. 
 
 sin age m. engloutir tant de 
 
 Tfiat we might disobey the laws. That you might 
 
 ^ desobiir a pi. 
 
 ;<^azzle the eyes of a vain and fickle vvorld. Thasi 
 
 eblouir ceil -^X. 2. 3. 1. 
 
 they might weaken the force of their reasons.. 
 affoiblir raison 
 
 ON BRANCH 11 AND HI. 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 Present. I feel all the unpleasantness of your situition.. 
 de'sagrement 
 Does he go out soon ? Do we not set off for the iiountry ? 
 
 *'"' ioriir '' parfir pour campagne 
 
 Do you not'tell a He ? They feel a great deal of pain. 
 
 ^- mentir * 
 
 Imperfect. I served my friends warmly. 
 
 servir avec chahttr 
 
 He complied at last with the wishes of his relations. ' Did" 
 
 conseniir a erfin * dhir parent pi. ''= 
 
 ive sleep then? Did you not belie your cha- 
 
 dormir alms dcmrntir 
 
 rafter"? Did they often come out from the bottom of 
 
 iortir fond 
 
 their mountains ? 
 
 Preterit. T ^pesaw that terrible catastrophe. 
 pre.ssentir '2. f. I • 
 
 Did he not go back ^gain immediately ? ■ Did we go oufr 
 
 • , repartir^ sur It champ * 
 
 of the city btt'cr* him ? Did you not agree 
 
 inlle f. avattL lui ■' comentir 
 
 to that condition r /; They served their country with cou- 
 
 \jf, scrvir palrie 
 
 rage. V ;r 
 
 Future. ^^Lshall go out this evening. He will not sleep 
 ll'' ioh: 
 
 quietly. Snail wc comply with that ridiculous 
 
 tranquillemcnt con^tntir a ridicule 2 
 
 bargain ? To a certainty, you will set all your readers 
 mavche 1 a coup silr audite:<r pi. 
 
 asleep. What ! they will not serve thtir fricncu, ! 
 tiidormir Qitoi
 
 ( 127 )\ 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 I would open the door and the window. Would he 
 
 ou'jrir porie f. fenctre 
 
 set off again so soon ? We should not easily get out 
 
 tot aistment sortir 
 
 of this scrape. Could you smell the perfume of that 
 
 mawjais pas m. sentir par f urn 
 
 garden ? Could they foresee their misfortune ? 
 
 jardin 
 
 THE FOLLOWING IMPERATIVE AND SUBJUNC- 
 TIVE ON BRANCH IV. 
 
 Support thy charafter in good or bad fortune.. 
 
 Soutenir dam art. art. f. 
 
 Let him come and receive the reward of his labours, 
 
 'venir * receiioir rtco77ipense f. tra'vail pL 
 
 Let U5 gain . the glory by our perseverance. Do not;. 
 
 obtenir 
 maintain so absurd an opinion. Let tnem keep their 
 
 *outcnir 2 I maintenir 
 
 authority. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 Present. That I may prevent such dangerotis 
 
 prJ'-jenir (^de) si 2 
 
 enemies. That he may obtain his ends. That 
 
 1 pariienir a Jin pi," 
 
 we may become just, honest and virtuous. That you may 
 
 deiicyiir 
 return covered, with laurels That they may agree 
 re'venir cmivert dc laurier pi. conijenir 
 
 about the conditions 
 d^ 
 
 Imperfect. That I might not bring about my 
 
 'venir a hout de 
 designs. That he might not bear . his disgrace witK 
 projci pi. souieiiir 
 
 firmness. ' That v/e might belong to that great king, 
 
 a[>partenir 
 That you might renounce y-ur errors and prejudices. 
 
 rcjenir de erreur 
 
 That they might maintain the most absurd ideas. 
 
 ienir a -2 1.
 
 ( 123 ) 
 
 THIRD CONJUGATION 
 
 In oh\ 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 Je recois, tu recois, il revolt; nous recevons, vous 
 fccevez, ils recoivent. 
 
 Je recevois, tu recevois,. il recevoit, &c. 
 
 Je re^us, tu recus, il re^ut; nous resumes, vous.- 
 recutes, ils re^urent. 
 
 Je recevrai, tu recevras, &c. 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 Je recevrois, tu recevrois, &c. 
 
 IMPERATIVE.. 
 
 Recois, qu'il re^oive ; recevons, recevez,^ q^u'ils. 
 recoivent. 
 
 SUBJ.UNCTIVE.. 
 
 Que je receive, que tu re9oives, qu'il receive ; 
 qoe nous rccevions, que vous receviez, qu'ils re(^oi- 
 vent. 
 
 Qtie je re^usse, que tu re9usses, qu'il reciit; que 
 nous recusiions, que vous re^ussiez, qu'ils vecussent.. 
 
 INFINITIVE. 
 
 Recevoir, avoir re^u, recevant, recu,. devant re- 
 cevoir. 
 
 EXERCISE.. 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 Present. I perceive the summit of the Alps covered 
 abpercevoir sonimei Alpes pl-f. 
 
 with perpetual snow. D jes he understand well that 
 
 de. etevusl 7u::ge.\\-'i. * conce'voir bien 
 
 rule so simple ? We do not owe a large sum. 
 
 x^crle * dt-volr groise sommch 
 
 Do you net perceive the snare ? Onght a firm and 
 
 -.* . pit'gf m.. Vc'ioir 'i' 2. 
 
 courageous man thus yield to circumstances? 
 
 3. !• icuidr art. 
 
 Imperfect. I received his advice with respcft and 
 recdTJoir avis pi. 
 
 gratitude. Did he see the castle from such a 
 
 uronnoissance. ■" nppercevoir cliaU'au _ si 
 
 distance r We did not receive our income. 
 
 kin,. * paccvoir wccnu^X^
 
 ( 129 ) 
 
 Did he conceive all the blackness of his crime ? 
 
 con avoir noire eur f. 
 
 Preterit. Did he conceive a great esteem for that 
 
 honest man ? Did wc not immediately perceive 
 
 debien C. 1. ausutot appercci-oif 
 
 the snare ? You did not receive his letters in 
 
 let t re pi. a 
 time. Did they conceive the depth of his plan .*^ 
 
 temps '■'■■' projondeur f. 
 
 Future. Shall I receive visits to-day ? He 
 
 (^de) "jisite aujourd' hut 
 will not discover the spire of his village. We 
 
 apperccvoir c he her m^ m. 
 
 shall conceive well founded hopes. Will you never 
 
 (^<f) fonder, esperance. pl-f. 
 conceive so luminous a principle r Shall men always 
 
 lumineux 2 principe m. 1 
 owe their misfortunes to their faults ? 
 devoir 
 
 CoKDiTiONAL. Should I receive the offers of my 
 
 enemy ? Should he thus give himself up to despair ? 
 
 Devoir s' abandonner art. 
 
 Should we conceive such abstraft ideas ? You 
 
 (^/?) // abitrait 2 pl-f. 1 
 would easily perceive so gross a trick. Would they not 
 
 2 ntse. f-1 
 receive their friend with tenderness? 
 tendresse 
 
 IMPERATIVF. 
 
 Conceive the horror of his situation. Let him re- 
 
 ceive this mark of confidence with gratitude. ^Lec 
 
 marque con fiance 
 us never owe any thing. Receive no more of his 
 
 devoir rien. - plus 
 
 letters. Let tliem at last perceive their errors* 
 
 appercevoir 
 
 SUBJUKCTIVE. 
 
 Present. That I may receive consolations. That 
 
 ide) 
 he may not conceive a thought .so well developed. That 
 
 ^ pcnsee f'_^-,*-- developpe 
 we may always receiwe'* ■ Jyresents. That you may 
 
 • {c!e) 
 not perceive the danger of books contrary to good 
 
 art. contre art. boi^
 
 ( ISO ) 
 
 That they may always gather unjus? 
 
 ^rcevoir {de) injusit 
 
 morals. 
 tnccurs. pl-f. 
 taxes. 
 droit, pi. m. 
 
 Imperfect. That I might conceive that projeft. That 
 he might perceive the secret designs of the enemy's 
 apperce'voir cache 2 desseirt 1 ennemi* 
 
 general. That we might not receive every body with civi- 
 lity. 1 That you might not conceive the depth of this 
 
 profandeur 
 book. That they might not perceive the masts^ o£ 
 
 apperce'voir mat pi. 
 
 the ship. 
 
 'uaisseau m. 
 
 FOURTH CONJUGATION 
 
 In re. 
 
 This conjugation has £ve branches ; the first is irj 
 fl/r*, the second in oitre, the third in ire, the fourth, 
 m aindre^ and the fifth in dre, ere, pre, tre, and vre. 
 
 Branch I. Branch II. Branch III. 
 
 Plaire, to please. I'aTOitre,io appear. Ktduke, to reduce, 
 
 je plais je parois je reduis 
 
 tu piais tu parois tu reduis 
 
 il plait il paj oit iL rcduit 
 
 nous plaisons nous paroissons nous reduisons 
 
 vous plaisez vous paroissez 
 
 ils plaisent ils paroissent 
 
 vous reduistz 
 ils riiduiscnt 
 
 je plaisois 
 
 je plus 
 tu pFus 
 il plut 
 
 nous plumes 
 vous plutes 
 iis pi u rent 
 
 je paroissols je reduisois 
 
 je plairai 
 Je plairois 
 
 je parus 
 tu parus 
 il paiut 
 nous parumes 
 vous ji'arutcs 
 ils parurent 
 
 je paroitrai 
 
 je parol trois 
 
 jc reduisis 
 tu reduisis 
 il rcdulslt 
 nous reduisimes 
 vous reduisites 
 ils reduisIraiL 
 
 je reduirai 
 
 je reduirois:
 
 plais 
 
 qu'il plalse 
 plaisons, &cc. 
 
 { ^31 ) 
 
 parois reduis 
 
 qu'il paroisse qu'il reduise 
 
 paroissons, Sec. reduisons, &c. 
 
 que je plaise que jc paroisse quejereduise 
 
 que nous plai- que nous parois- que nous redui- 
 sions sions sions 
 
 <jue je plusse que je parusse que je reduisisse 
 
 que nous plus- que nous parus- que nous redui« 
 sions sions sissions 
 
 plaire 
 
 plaisant 
 
 plu 
 
 parol tre 
 
 paroissant 
 
 paru 
 
 npla'in 
 
 reduire 
 
 reduisant 
 
 reduit. 
 
 Branc/i IV 
 Plaindre, to con 
 
 je plains 
 tu plains 
 il plaint 
 nous plaignons 
 vous plaignez 
 ils plaignent 
 
 Branch V. 
 Rendre, to render. 
 
 je rends 
 tu rends 
 il rend 
 
 nous rendons 
 vous rendez 
 ils rendent 
 
 je plaignois 
 
 je rendois 
 
 je pla ignis 
 
 je rendis 
 
 je plaindrai 
 
 je rendrai 
 
 je plaindrois 
 
 je rendrois 
 
 plains 
 
 qu'il phignc 
 
 plaignons 
 
 plaignez 
 
 qu'ils plaigneni 
 
 rends 
 
 qu'il rende 
 rendons 
 rendez 
 qu'ils rendent
 
 ( 132 ) 
 
 que je plaigne que je rende 
 
 que je plaignissc ^^^6 je reiidisse 
 
 plaindre rendre 
 
 plaignant rendant 
 
 plaiiit rendu 
 
 £XERCISE ON BRANCH I, II AND III. ', 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 Present. I know his fiery and imp&tuous 
 
 connoitre boiiiUant 2 3 
 
 temper. Does not virtue please every body ? Are 
 
 ■caraiiere 1 ' plaire a 
 
 we not instru61:ing youth ? You seduce your hearers by 
 
 instndre seJiiire 
 
 _your modest exterior. Do they acknowledge their errors ? 
 
 reconnoitre 
 
 Imperfect. I did not displease by my conduft. Did 
 dc'plaire 
 he at last acknowledge his wrongs ? We did not appear 
 
 tort faroitr£ 
 
 convinced. Did you know that charming landscape r 
 coni)aincre 
 
 They led people into error. 
 
 induire en 
 
 Preterit. I soon knew his intention. Did he not 
 do away his prepossessions We led our friend back 
 
 ditrnire pre'vention 1 rcconditire 
 
 to his country-house. Did you lead your children 
 
 maison de campagne f. conduire enfa?it 
 
 from truth to truth? Did those frightful speftres appear 
 
 en cffrajLant2. I. aJ>paroitr-e 
 
 again ? 
 de fiou'veau 
 
 Future. I shall draw a contrary consequence. Will 
 d^duire 2 1 
 
 not a thought true, grand and well expressed, please at 
 
 pen.'te f. exprime dans 
 
 all times r Wc shall make our appearance on this 
 
 art. pi. paroitre 
 
 .great theatre next month. 'Will you know your things 
 zxx..p\ocliain. 2 1 etl^t 
 
 agaia
 
 ( »33 ) 
 
 caln"? Will they always reduce our duties to ^rtefi- 
 reduire art. bien' 
 
 cence ? 
 faisance 
 
 C o >f D I no N A L. I should carry on the undertaking with 
 conduire etitreprise 
 success. Could sincerity displease the man of sense f 
 
 ^ sensf 
 
 Should we build' our house upon that plan ? Would 
 
 coithruire 
 you reduce your child to despair? Would they introduce 
 
 introdKirc 
 an unknown person into the world ? 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 
 Know the powers of thy mind before thou write. Let 
 
 force a~jani de ccrire. 
 
 him not lead the ignorant into error. Let us please 
 
 indiiire 
 by our gentleness and civility. Sweet illusions, vain 
 
 douceur honniiete. Doux pl-f. 
 
 phantoms, vanish ! Let them appear. 
 
 fantome pi. di spar o lire 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 Present. That I may please every body, is impossible,. 
 
 ce 
 That he may lead his pupil step by step to a perfeft 
 
 conduire fas a 
 
 knowledge of the art of speaking and writing. That 
 connoissance inf-1. inf-I. 
 
 we may seduce by an enchanting style. That yoa 
 
 tnciianiti'.r 2. m. 1. 
 may not appear timid. That they may not increase 
 
 accroitre 
 our sufferings. 
 perne pi. 
 Imperfect. That I might acknowledge the truth. 
 That he might not displease by his haughtiness. That 
 
 /lauleur. 
 v,-e might conduft him to court. That you 
 
 2. le art. conr. 
 might know your real friends. That they might not 
 
 appear so scornful and vain. 
 dcdaigneux 
 
 ON BRANCH IV. AND V. 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 Fresent. I wait his return with impatience. 
 o.lttndre retour m. 
 
 N
 
 ( ^34 ) 
 
 Does JK fear death ? ^ We do not confine 
 
 craindte art. 7iiort s'astreindre 
 
 ciu'selves to those frivolous rules. Do you confound 
 
 2. 1. CO nf on (ire 
 
 those notions one with another ? Do they not 
 
 pl-f. 
 
 waste their time about trifles ? 
 fodre a {dc) 
 
 Imperfect. I was pitying those sad viftims of 
 plaindre triste 'victime pi. 
 
 the revolution. Was he not biting his fingers ? 
 
 f. mordre frcin m. 
 
 We did join our sighs and tears. Were you 
 
 joindre soupir pi. larnid pB^i 
 
 painting an historical subjcft ? DM[hey throw 
 
 feindre d' histoirc 2 tableau rtpandre 
 
 the graces of expression into their speeches ? 
 art. 
 
 Preter.it. I aimed at an honest end. Did he 
 tendre -a but. m. 
 
 extinguish the fire of a disordered imagination ? Did 
 tttindre dercgle '2. 1. 
 
 we sell our incense to the pride of a blockheaid ? Did 
 
 njendre cncens sot 
 
 you feign to think as a madman ? Did they not 
 
 fcindrc de en ■• 
 
 come down at the first summons ? 
 descendre a ordrt m. 
 
 Future. Shall I hear the music of the new opera ? 
 entendre 
 Will he constrain the officers to join their respedlive 
 
 contraindrc re^pectif 2. 
 
 corps ? Will you not new-compose that charming 
 
 1 . refondre 
 
 work ? They v/ill assiduously correspond with their 
 
 amdument eorrespondre 
 friends. 
 
 Conditional. Should I, by these means, gain the 
 
 1. atteindre fi 
 desired end ? Would he wait with so much patience ? 
 
 dciire 2. 1. /««/ de 
 
 Should we sell our hberty ? Would you not confine 
 
 yourself to such humane laws t They would 
 
 {de) u 2. 1. 
 
 dread the public's censure. 
 
 craindre de art. f. 
 
 IMPEP.ATI VE. 
 
 Expeft not happiness from external obje^ls ; it is in 
 
 2. 1. en
 
 ( ^35 ) 
 
 thee. Let not thy melancholy paint ,ever.y thing 
 
 toi. milancolii ptindre i 
 
 in black. Let us not descend to useless par- 
 
 noir discenJre danside)' 2. di- 
 
 ticulars. Ye sovereigns, make the people happy 1 
 
 tail. 1. /=■ . rendre pi. 
 
 Let them acknowledge so much goodness, 
 r^pondre a bontc. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 Present. That I may fear that cloud of enemies. 
 
 nute f. 
 That he may not answer such abiurd criticism. 
 
 repondre a un 2. f . 1 . 
 
 That we may confound the arts with the sciences. That 
 you may have the same end in view. 
 tcndre a mhne 
 
 Imperfect. That I might not di>soIve in tears. That 
 
 f on die 
 he might draw a pifture of distressed virtue. That 
 
 peindre malheureux 2. 
 
 we might affcft such low sentiments. That 
 
 feindre{de) 2. 1. 
 
 you might hear their justification. That they 
 
 entendre 
 might wait for the opinion of senuble persons. 
 '•^ scn.e 
 
 CONJUGATION OF THE REFLECTED VERB 
 
 Se Rcpentir. 
 
 INDICATIF. 
 
 Prcsc7it. Jc ine repeirs, tu te repens, il se repent; 
 nous nous repentons, vous vous repcutez, ils se re- 
 pentent. 
 
 Imperfe^. Je me repentois, &c. 
 
 Pret. dcf. Je me repentis, &:c. 
 
 Pret.ind. Je me suis repenti, or repenticr nous 
 nous sommes repentis, or reptncies. 
 
 Pret. ant. Je me fus repenti, or repentie, &:c. 
 
 Plup. Je m'ctois repenti, or lepentie, bcc. 
 
 Fi(t. abs. Je me repentirai^ &c. 
 
 Flit. ant. Je me serai repenti, ar repentie, &c- 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 resent. Je me repentirois, Sec. 
 N z
 
 f ^3^ ) 
 
 Pcis/lk Je me serois repenti , or repentie, i>cc^ 
 
 or 
 Past. Je me fusse repenti, or repentie, &c. 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 
 Repens-tol, qn'il se repente ; repentons-nous, re- 
 pentez-vous, qu'ils se repentent. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 Pres, Queje me repente, &c. 
 
 Impcrf. Que je me repentisse, &c. 
 
 pret. Que je me sois repenti, or repentie, &c, 
 
 Plup. Que je me fusse repenti, cr repentie, &c. 
 
 INFINITIVE. 
 
 Se repentir, s'etre repenti, or repentli^, sc repentant, 
 repenti, s'etant repenti, or repentie, devant se lepen- 
 tir. 
 
 Observation. Refle6led verbs are conjugated 
 after the model which we give here, and accordmg to 
 the fonns of the conjugation to which they belong. 
 The compound tenses are conjugated with etre, and 
 the participle is put according to the gender and num- 
 ber, either in the masculine or feminine, in the sin- 
 gular or plural. 
 
 EXERCISE ON REFLECTED VERBS. 
 
 Observation I. Here we should recolIe6l, that 
 all refleiled verbs are conjugated with two pronouns 
 of the same person ; that is, that/i? is always followed 
 by mc ; tu by tc ; i/, elle, ils, eUes, by se ; nous by 
 nous \ and vous by vous. In interrogative sentences, 
 the pronoun subjedl is the only one that is put after 
 the verb ; and in those that aie simply negative, ne is 
 put betwceivthe two pronouns. 
 
 Observation II. Ad'e, te, se, nous, vous^ 
 which are the regimen of reflected verbs, are some- 
 times regimen direct, as : Jeme Jlatte, that \<,,je flatte 
 mo'i ; tu tc blcsscras, that is, tu blcsseras tot, &cc. and 
 sometimes regimen indirect, as: Jc me fats unelo'i, that 
 is, je fa'is a mo'i nne loi ; il s' est fult honneur, that is, 
 il a fait honneur a soi, &c. 
 
 In the following exercises upon verbs, the tenses 
 will no longer be marked separately..
 
 f 137 ) 
 
 That I might be so grossly mistaken. We shall wallc 
 
 se tromper se promener 
 
 this evening in the park. Have I been mistaken ? He 
 
 a 
 had not missed his way. Should I have iTiisunderstood ? 
 
 s^eparer se meprendre 
 
 One does not trifte with the public with impunity. Do 
 
 se moquer de impunement 
 
 rot fools applaud themselves, even for their own 
 
 sol s'applnudir de ■ 
 
 folly r Do we not nurse ourselves too much ? With- 
 
 sottise pi. s'ecouter ''^■ 
 
 out your care, would he ever have yielded to truth ? 
 
 soi)i pi. s€ rendre 
 
 Ladies, have you been walking long > I wish them. 
 
 Mcsdames ' long- temps qw/ih 
 
 to accustom themselves early to work. 
 
 s^ habituer sub.- 1 de bonne heure a art. 
 
 Did Lucretia put herself to death ? Will not those flowers 
 
 se donner '^ la mort 
 fade r Can his happiness have 30 soon vanished ? 
 
 se f,t':rir s'ci/anouir cond-'i 
 
 I had remembered my promise. We should be more 
 
 se soitvcnir de promesse On 
 
 happy, did we not love ourselves so much. (On the Impe- 
 rative, see the model). O man ! remember that thou arc 
 
 que 
 mortal. Let us give to ourselves an exaft account of 
 
 se rendre 2 compte m. 1 
 
 our aftions. Rest yourselves under the sliade of that oak. 
 
 se re poser a chfne 
 
 (But if the imperative sentence be with negation, the pro- 
 noun is placed before the verb, yet after ne, and foi is changed 
 into /f). Be thou never blind to thy own dcfctts. 
 
 s' wvei'.gler sur 
 Let us not thus seduce our'seh es. Let us not pride 
 
 se seduire m'i/ve s'e/ur- 
 
 ourselves on the gifts of fortune. 
 
 _^u-e!lUr de bien pi. art. 
 
 COl-'JUGATION OF THE IMPERSONAL VERB 
 Fall air. 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 Present. II friut. 
 ImpcrfcSi. 11 falloit. 
 Prtterlt definite, il fallut. 
 Preterit indefinite. I! a faUuf". 
 
 N ?.
 
 ( r3? ) 
 
 Preterit anterior. II eut fallu. 
 
 FluperfcR. II avoit fallu. 
 
 Future absolute, 11 taudra. 
 
 Future anterior. \\ aura fallu» 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 'present. II faudroit. 
 Past. II avoit fallu. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 Present,, ox future. Qu'il faille. 
 Imperfe£l. Qu'il fallut. 
 Preterit. Qu'il ait fallu. 
 Plupcrfc£l. Qii'il eut fallu. 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 Present. Falloir. 
 Participle present. O 
 Participle past. Ayant fallu. . 
 
 Observation. // denotes an impersonal verb^ 
 only when we cannot put a noun in its stead ;. for,, 
 when, speaking of a child, we say, il joue ; this is 
 Bot an impersonal, because, in the room oi the word 
 2/, we may put l^ enfant, and say : V enfant joue. 
 
 EXERCISE ON THE IMPERSONAL VERES. 
 
 Does it rain this morning ? Has it hailed last, 
 
 plewvoir matin grcler art. 'Z 
 
 Jjight ? ll does not snow. I believe it thundtrs. 
 
 1 neiger croire que tvJiner 
 
 Must befall? That is ten years ago. 
 
 falhir \ni-1 qse succomheY ik cela-Ml y a\)oir\ dix-'2 3 
 
 It is a remarkable thing. It is ten o'clock. There are 
 gg 2 1 ll hemes 
 
 few real talents. It was not my fiiend's fault that 
 
 fcude 'vrai ietiir a ' qUe" 
 
 it was not so. Will it freeze long ? It is 
 
 //J f/^05<r ind-Q aimi geier /aire 
 
 horribly cold. It happened as they feared. 
 
 horriblement froid arrrjer ind-3 ce quf on ind-2 
 
 I: is fit to aft sa It was of great importance to succeed. 
 
 corfuenir de ngir . \ importer beaucoup\\^'\-1 de reussir 
 "Would it be proper to write to Paris ? It appears that 
 
 itre a propoi de paroilie 
 
 it lias not attended to that business. Perhaps it 
 
 i'occuper ind-4 d£
 
 ( 139 )' 
 
 ■would be better to give up the undertaking- . It 
 
 valoir miciix ■'" * 
 
 ■was sufficient to know his opinion. There, was 
 
 su_ffire ind-1 de 
 yesterday, a council of war. 
 hier conseil 
 
 IRREGULAR VFRBS 
 
 Of the First Conjugation. 
 
 Jlhr, to go, is irregular in the present of the in- 
 dicative, in the following terminations : je vais, or 
 je vas (seldom used), tu zfas, il va, i/s vont : in the 
 future, j^itai, tu iras, &c : and in the present of the 
 conditional ; j'iroisy tu irois, &c. : in the imperative,. 
 in these three terminations : va^ quil aille, qu'i/s ail~ 
 lent : and in the present of the subjun6live, in these 
 four : que faille, que tu allies, qu^il aille, qu'ils ailleni, 
 7"he indicative of this verb lias fwo preterits definite, 
 the one regular; fallal, tu alias, &c. and the other 
 irregular borrowed through custom from the verb etre: 
 je fus, tufus, &CC. the same in the imperfect of the 
 subjunctive. 
 
 S'en aller, to go away, is conjugated like aller^ exr 
 cept iii the imperative, where en\s shifted after the 
 verb, in the following three forms : va-t-cn, allons- 
 7ious-en, allcz-vous-en. 
 
 Puer, to stink,. dcfec):ive, it is only used in the infini- 
 tive, the present, imperfect and future of the- indica- 
 tive, and tlie present of the conditional. P ormerly they 
 wrote : je pu%, tj{ pus, il put ; but the present custom 
 has corrected that abuse^ and we write : je pue, tis 
 pues, il pue. Academy. 
 
 In the verbs in oje)- and ayer, {he y is changed into 
 2 in die following terminations, viz : in the indica- 
 tive : j^emplcie, 1 employ, tu emploies, il emploie, iU 
 emploient \ j''essaie, I try, tu essaies, &c. In the im- 
 perative : emploie, qu'il emploie, qu'ils emploient ; 
 essaie, &c. In the present of the subjun£five : que 
 J' emploie, que tu emploies, quil emploie, qu'ils emploient; 
 que j' essaie, &c. 
 
 Observation. In the first and second persons 
 plural of the imperfecSl of the indicative, these verbs 
 make : n'^us employionsj vqus essayiez, ^c. but we-
 
 C 140 ) 
 
 should, as much as possible, avoid making use of 
 those forms, on account of their harshness. 
 
 Envoycr, to send, and renvoyer^ to send back, 
 make the future of the indicative, and present of the 
 conditional: fenverrai, &cc.j'cnverro'is, &c. 
 
 In the verbs in gcr^ the e is never omitted in any 
 tense, that the g may jMCserve the same soft pronun- 
 ciation : juger, to judge, jugeant, jugcons : and in 
 those ending in cer^ we put, for the sat«e reason this 
 mark (,) which we call ced'tlle, under the c when 
 followed by « or , su^cr, to suck, sugant, sugons. 
 
 Observation. In the verbs of this conjuga- 
 tion, the second person singular of the imperative 
 takes J after e , when the relative pronouns y and en 
 are to follow, as : portcs-en a tonfrere, cairy some 
 to your brother ; apportcs-y des livres, carry some 
 books thither. The imperative va follows another 
 rule ; it takes a t , wlien followed by en, as : va-t-eft,. 
 begone, and an i , when followed by ^, as: vas-y, 
 CO thither : but it takes no s , when y is followed by 
 a v^rb, as i va y douner ordrc, go and order that 
 matter. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 Will you go this evening into the country ? Perhaps I 
 
 al.'er « 
 
 am going before to pay some visits, and if I be 
 
 aup^iravant '^' faire quelque pi'. ind-l. 
 
 early at liberty, I shall certainly go home. Go and 
 
 iitre s-en allcr chez 7:101 
 
 do that errand. Let him go to church on hoii- 
 
 commission cglise - art. jour de 
 
 <1avs. Bv being so full of scents, and parcicukrly of 
 
 fete pi. u force dr. inf-1 charge odcur ^\. 
 amber, h€ stinks. X shall send spring flowers 
 
 ambre putr envoyer printanicr pl.f.. 
 
 to those ladi-es, I would go to Home., if I could. 
 
 dame powvoir ind-2 
 
 We would send back our horses. Let us not lightly 
 
 renvoyer 
 judge of intentions. Did they not negleft theic 
 
 juger ■'• art. _ nigliger 
 
 friends ? They threatened with their anger.. The bees 
 
 menaccr cU ateille 
 
 were there sucking up the cups of the flower&# Why 
 
 y su^cr ciiiue . . Fwc^tioi
 
 ( Ml ) 
 
 At tliey go awiy so soon ? My brorher and sister went 
 
 s' en alUr 
 vesterdav to Windsor. I shall not go any more a 
 
 a art. 
 
 hunting. 
 ehasie f. 
 
 IRREGULAR VERBS 
 
 Of the Second Conjugation. 
 
 Branch I. Bcnlr, to bless, participle past, /^/«//, 
 htnlte, Avhen speaking of things consecrated by the 
 prayers of the church ; otlierwise, it is always beni^ 
 benie. We say : du pain benit, hallowed bread ; de 
 I'tau be'nite, holy water ; but we ought to say : benie 
 entre toutcs lesfemmes, blessed among all women. 
 
 Fleurir, meaning to blossom, is regular ; but when 
 vised in a figurative sense, that is meaning to flourish, 
 the participle present makes Jlorissant, and the third 
 persons of the imperfect of the indicative make j^srii- 
 soit, f.orissoient. 
 
 Hair^ to hate ; present of the indicative, je haisy 
 tu hats, ilhait^; second person singular of the impe- 
 rative, hais. Ai in these four persons is pronounced 
 as a vowel, having the sound of e grave open ; je hcsy 
 tu hes, il het. 
 
 Branch. II. ^•^BouilUr, to boil ; indicative, je hous, 
 tubous, il bout: future, je bouillirai : present of the 
 conditional, je bouillirois : imperative, bous. Ebouil- 
 lir, to over-boil, and rebouillir, to boil again, are 
 conjugated like bouillir. 
 
 Courir, to run j infinitive, couru : indicative, j? 
 cours, tu cours, il court : preterit, je courus &c. : fu- 
 ture, yV coun-ai, &c. both ry being distinctly pro- 
 nounced : conditional present, je courrois. Sec. ; ino- 
 perative, cours : subjunctive, que je courusse, 6cc. 
 N. B. We also say ; courre le cerf^ to hunt a stag. 
 In the same manner are conjugated accourir, to run to ;. 
 concourir, to concur ; disccurir, to discourse ; encou- 
 rir, to incur ; parcourir, to run over, to survey ; 
 recourir, to have recourse to ; secourir to assist. 
 
 Failitr, to fail } defe6live in some tenses and obsolete 
 in others, is only used in the participle past failli, in 
 the preterit dcfi.nite, je ftniru^ and in the compourid.
 
 ( H2 J 
 
 tenses. The same may be said of dcfaiH'ir, to faint. 
 Some grammarians ^njfaillant, defalilant. It is also 
 the opinion of the Academy. 
 
 Fiiir, to flee, to runaway; infinitive, /?(^Vrt«/ ; in- 
 dicative, je fills ^ yioui fuyjns, vous fnycz, ils fuient ; 
 jefuyois, &cc. Je fuis, &,c. : imperative,y//>'(j«5,_/«)'f2: .• 
 subjun6live, que je fuie, &cc. , que je fuhse^ &c. 
 
 Alcuriry to die ; infinitive, mort : indicative, je 
 meurs, tu mcnrs, il meurt, ils meufent -^je mourns, &c. ; 
 jc mourrai, Sec. : conditional, je mourrois^ &c ; impe- 
 rative, meurs, qu^il mctvre j subjundlive, que je meure, 
 que tu meures, qu'''il mcure, qu''lls meurent ; queje mou~ 
 russe, 8cc. 
 
 Acqucrlr, to acquire ; infinitive, acquis : indica- 
 tive, 7'<7c^K/Vri, til acqulers, il acquiert, ils acquihent ; 
 j^ acquis, &c, ; j'acquerrai, &c : conditional, y'/ac^/r/^r- 
 7ois, &c. ; imperative, acquiers, qu'il acquierc, qu'ih 
 acquierent : subjun6live, que j''acquicre, &c. ; que 
 j^ acquis se, See. 
 
 Cofiqut'rir, to conquer ; infinitive, conquis : indica- 
 tive, preteiit definite, je .conquis, &c ; subjundlive, 
 impevfedl, que jc conquisse, Sec. This verb, which is 
 conjugated like acquerir, is almost obsolete in the 
 other simple tenses, but very much used in the com- 
 pound tenses. 
 
 Ouir, to hear ; defe6live or obsolete, except in the 
 participle oiii, in the preterit definite of the indicative, 
 j^ouis, and the impeifccl of the subjun6livc, que foitisse. 
 It is used in the compound tenses, but then it is gene- 
 rally accompanied by a verb : je I'ai, or je I'avois cu'i 
 dire, I have, or 1 had heard it so. It is conjugated 
 with av!jir. 
 
 Qnerir, to fetch, is used in this form only, and after 
 the verbs envoyer, vcnir, aller : envoye% qnerir, send 
 for ; allez querir, go and fetch. 
 
 ■'f^tir, to clothe ; infinitive, vetu : obsolete in the 
 present of the indicative. The verbs devetir, to di- 
 vest; revitir, to invest ; and survctir, to put on 
 clothes over others, arc conjugated in the same man- 
 ner, and are used in the present of the indicative. 
 
 Observation. Soriir, to go out, rcssortir, to go 
 out again, and repartir, to reply, or to set oft again.
 
 ( 143 ) 
 
 are conjuoatcd like sentir : but sortlr, to obtain, to 
 have, a law term ; ressortir, to resort ; and repaitirt 
 to share, are conjugated like^«/r. Sortir, in the lat- 
 ter sense, is not used in ail its tenses. 
 
 Branch HI. Cuelllir, to gather j infinitive, cue'd- 
 li : indicative, 7V aieille, je cue'iUts^je cueillcrai : con- 
 ditional, je ateillerois. Accuclllir, to make wel- 
 come, and rccuc'dlir^ to colled, are conjugated in the 
 same manner. 
 
 Saillir, to proje6t, is seldom used, except in the 
 two participles sadlant and 50////, and in the third 
 person of the present of the indicative : cette corniche 
 sadletrop^ that cornice projects too far. It is also used 
 sometimes in the future and conditional. But sadl'ir, 
 to gush out, is conjugated like jinir. It is only used 
 hi the participle past, saUlU and in the third persons of 
 some tenses : Ics eaiix saillisscnt, the waters gush 
 out. Nevertheless the Academy gives all its tenses. 
 
 ^iifl/V/n-, lo assault; infinitive, assadl'r. indicative, 
 present, fassaille, tu assail/es, il assa'dle : future, 
 fassaiUhai : conditional, j''assadlirois. 
 
 TressaiUir, to start, has the {)ersons singular of the 
 present tense : je trrssadlc, tu tressadies, il ttessadlc. 
 These two verbs are oftener used in the present 
 of the- infinitive and the participle past, than in the 
 other forms. 
 
 Branch IV. There are no irregidars in this 
 branch. The conjugation of tenir serves as a model 
 tor all its compounds, and the sanie may be said of 
 venir, but with this difference, that tenir and all its de- 
 rivatives, are conjugated with avoir, in the compound 
 tenses, wiiereas venir and its derivatives, except con- 
 trevcnir and subvenir, take the auxiliary verb etrc, in 
 the same tenses. 
 
 EXERCISE, 
 
 The arts and sciences Jiouris/iec/ zt Athens in the time of 
 Pericles. The empire of the Babylonians flourished 
 
 arc and the participle 
 pretty long. Docs she sincerely hate that vain ponip and all 
 asse% kdir 
 
 the paraphtTnalia of grandeur ) By so whimsical a 
 
 appared art. bisam il
 
 f 144 ) 
 
 condinft, should we not concur to our destruftion r Msy 
 
 concoi/rir perie 
 
 he die in the peace of the Lord ! That I should acquire 
 riches at the expence of my honesty. Sesostris, king 
 (d'lf) a depens pi. probiie 
 
 of Egypt, conquered a great part of Asia. I have heard 
 ind-3 ouir dirt 
 
 it.hat news. We ran, at the voice of that honest man, 
 
 accQurir .a 
 and assisted him. The formidable empire which Alexander 
 
 secourir 2 /<? 1 2 1 que 
 
 had conquered, did not last longer than his life. We shall 
 
 durer que 
 
 gather, in the Ancient History, some important and valuable 
 2 \ de 2 precieux'.y 
 
 fa£ls. Were we not overtaken by a horrible storm ? 
 
 fait^l, 1 assaillir 
 
 Would he not avoid flatterers, if he knew all their false- 
 fuir ind-2 faus- 
 
 hood ? He was like to lose his life in that'ren- 
 
 sete f. faillir ind-4 '•* •'• art. ren- 
 
 counter. Will men always run after chimeras ? 
 
 contre f. aprh dechimere pi. 
 
 IRREGULAR VERBS 
 
 Of the Third Conjugation. 
 
 Avoir, to liave, of which we have given the con- 
 jugation. 
 
 Choir, to fall ; dcfe6tiVe, and hardly ever used but 
 in rhisform: ils'est /aisse choir, he let himself fall. 
 
 DSc/ioir, to decay : the infinitive has only d'cchoir^ 
 and participle past dechu : indicative, je dcchois, nous 
 dcchoyonsj ils dechoient : no imperfedt : je dechus ; jc 
 decherrai; conditional, je decherrois : subjunflive, 
 queje dechoic, qiieje dichusse. 
 
 Echoir, to fcdl; infinitive, .eckiant, echu ; without 
 cither first or second person in the present, where the 
 third now makes // echoit, which is sometimes pro- 
 nounced // cchet, ils cchcciit ; no imperfect t j'tchus,, 
 j'' cchcrrai : conditional, j' ccherrois : subjunctive, que 
 j''echoie, que j'' echusse. in general it is only used in 
 the third persons of tlie singular. 
 
 Falloir, must, impersonal, of which we have given 
 the conjugation. 
 
 A'fouvoir, to move j infinitive, mu ; indicative,
 
 ( 145 ) 
 
 je . mexiSy tu mcus, il meiit, i!s mcuvcnl : jc Mus ; }e 
 mouvrai : conuicional, je mouvrois : imperative, mcusy 
 qiCil mcuve : subjuu6tive, que je tneitve \ que jc musse. 
 
 Plcuvoir, to rain, imperbonal : infinitive, phi: in- 
 dicative, ilplcut \ il plut : su'^iunclive, quilplid. 
 
 Pouvoir, to be abic; iufinicive, pu : indicative, jtV 
 piiis^ or je peux fselJom used), tu pcux, il peut, i/s 
 pmvent ; je pus, jc pourrai : conditional, je pourrols : 
 sxibjnn6live, quejepuisse^ que je pusic. 
 
 Savoir, to know; infinitive, sachant, su : indica- 
 tive, je sais, tu sals, il sait ; je sus ; je savrai : con- 
 ditional, je saurois : imperative, sachc, qii'il sachr, 
 sachans, sac/uz, quils sachcnl : subjunctive, que je 
 sache ; que je susse. 
 
 Seoiry to become, to befit, is seldom used but in the 
 third persons of the simple tenses : il sied^ ils siecnt, 
 il sfioU, il siira, il s/ho/t, qii''Jl siee. It is without 
 participle past in the inhnitive, and consequently with- 
 out compound tenses : also without preterit in the 
 indicative, and without imperfedl in the subjun6live. 
 But seoir^ to sit, is used only in these two forms : 
 seoirZiVvl seant; nevertheless, we sometimes find il sled, 
 
 S'asseolr, to sit down ; as used now, infinitive, 
 s'asseycwty assls : indicative, jc m'assicdsy nous nous 
 osicyonsy vous vous asseycz, ils s^asscyent ; je rrCasseyols ; 
 je ni' assls ; je m^assleral, or je m^asseyerai: condi- 
 tional, jV m'assierois, or je rrCasseyerols : imperative, 
 assleds-toly qu'll s^asscyc, asseyoris-nous, asscycz-vous : 
 subjundfive, qiie je m'asslsse, que tu fassissesy qii'il 
 s^asslt, quells s^assissent. According to some gram- 
 marians, there is neither first nor second person plural 
 of these tenses. Asseolr, to sit, to settle, rasscoir, to 
 sit again, to compose, and se rasscoir, to sit down 
 again, are conjugated in the same manner. The 
 Academy does not mentio;i any other way of conju- 
 gating this verb. 
 
 Foir, to see ; infinitive, voyant, vu : indicative, 
 nous voyons, vous voycz ; je voyois ; je vis : jc verral : 
 conditional, je verrols : subjunilive, que je vole, que 
 tu voles, que yious voylons; que je visse. Eutrcvolr, to 
 have a glimpse of, and revoir, to see again, are cou- 
 
 o
 
 ( ^46 ) 
 
 jugated in th^same manner : but prcvolr, to foresee, 
 has Je prt'voirai, jc prevoiro'is \ surseoir, to supersede, 
 sursis,j'e swseoirai, je surseoh'ois ; the rest like voir. 
 
 Valoir, to be worth ; infinitive, valu : indicative, 
 jc vai'.x, tu vaux, il vaut ; jc vaudiai : conditionaJ, 
 jc I'audroh : imperative, vaux, qu'il va'ille : sub- 
 junctive, qi'-C je vaille, que tu vaillcs, quil vaille, 
 quails va'illcnt. Prcvaloir, to prevail, is conjugated 
 in the same manner, except tliat the present of the 
 , subjunctive is regular : que je prcvalc, &cc. 
 
 JPourvoir., to provide ; infinitive, pourvoyant, pour- 
 I'U : indicative, je pourvoyois, je pourvoirai : condi- 
 tional, _;t'^6z^rz;o/roij- ; subjunctive, qucjepourvoic. Sec. 
 Vouloir, to be willing ; infinitive, voulu : indica- 
 tive, je vcux, tu veux, il veut, lis veulent ; jc vou- 
 drai : conditional, jc voudrois : imperative, vcux, 
 qu'il veullle : subjunctive, que je vculllcy que tu 
 vcullks, quil vculllc, quails veu'tllcnt. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 \ I shall" sit down on the top of that hill, whence 
 
 s'asseojr sommei coteau d'ou 
 
 I shall see a prospeft as magnificent as varied. I can 
 
 scene f. aufsi magnijique que -varie powvoir 
 
 and will tell the truth. Does he know that deplorable 
 
 'voidoir sanjoir 
 
 catastrophe ? Should this book be good for nothing ? 
 
 ?7£ fitloir rien 
 Do you think I would deceive him ? Doubt 
 
 qu^ 'voulotr %\x\:>y\. trompcr2 le 1 
 not that reason and truth will prevail at last. 
 
 que * pre'-valoir subj-1 u la lo7igue 
 
 It rained all day yesterday. Let them know 
 
 pleuvoir ind-3 ■■■■ _ sa'i'oir 
 
 that their grace depends upon their submission. This new 
 
 depend} € de 
 fashion becomes young persons admirr.bly well. The 
 
 stoir a a nfrTeiUe 
 
 heavenly bodies are m-vcd by the adtion of two opposite 
 celeste !e niowjoir dcvx oppose 
 
 forces. Has he, at leasr, seen again with pleasure, 
 
 du ».oins revoir ind-4 
 his country and his friends ! Has that land fallen _ 
 
 palrie f. cchoir ind-4 
 
 to your father's lot ? See the admirable order of the 
 
 2 en pfiirtage 1 2 1 
 
 universe : docs it not announce a supreme architeft ? Shall 
 
 . 2 artisan 1
 
 ( 147 ) 
 
 \vc always see the triumph of the wicked ? Had he had a 
 
 trioniphf; 
 glimpse of the dawn of this fine day? We were 
 
 tntrevoir\xi^-^ aurore ind-6 
 
 seated on the banks of the Thames, whence we were con- 
 bord^X. Tam'ne f. con- 
 
 tcmplating those myriads of vessels which bring 
 ttiupUr ind-3 ■nnUier,T^\. -vaisscan qui apporter 
 
 every year the riches of the two hemispheres. My father 
 will provide for every thing. 
 four-voir a 
 
 IRREGULAR VERBS 
 
 Of the Fourth Conjugation. 
 Branch L Braire, to brav ; defcdive, being 
 only used in the third persons of the present and future 
 of the indicative : // Itrak, ils braicyit, il braira, Us 
 brairont, and in the conditional, ii brairoit. 
 
 Falfc, to do, or make ; infinitive, falsant, fait : 
 indicative, Je fais, nous fuisons, vcus fakes, ils font : 
 Je faho'ts ; je fis ; je fcrai : conditional, je fero'is : 
 imperative, fats, qu'il fasse, faisons, fa'ites i sub- 
 junctive, que je fassc, que je fisse. 
 
 In the same manner are conjugated contrefa'ire, to 
 counterfeit, defalre, to undo, rcdfaire, to undo 
 again, refahe, to do again, sathfalre, to satisfy, and 
 surf aire, to exact, to ask too much. These four, viz ; 
 forfaire, to trespass, ma f aire, to do ill, mefaire, to . 
 misdo, ViwA parfaire, to perfect, are only used in the 
 infinitive and participle pa-st, f of ait, ma fait, mefait,, 
 and parfait. 
 
 Trairc, to milk, defective; infinitive, trayant, trait: 
 indicative, _;V trais, nous tiayons, ils traicnt, je trayois ; 
 no preterit definite ; _;V trairai : conditional, yV irti/?'o/j: 
 imperative, trais, quil traie^ trayons^ trayez : sub- 
 junctive, que je traie -,^^0 wvt^Qxiaci. 
 
 Branch II. A^a/^r^, to beborn; infinitive, nais- 
 sant, }ie : indicative, je nais, nous naissons ; je nais~ 
 sois ; je naitrai : conditional, je naitrois : imperative, 
 7iais, quilnaisse, naissons: ^\ih]\::>nci\\c, que je naissei 
 que je naquisse. Renaitre, to be born again, is cou- 
 jtigaced in the same manner. 
 
 Faitre, to graze, and repaitre, to feed, are regtilar, 
 O 2
 
 ( 148 ) 
 
 hui defective, having neither preterit deiinite of the in- 
 dicative, nor imperfect of the subjunctive. 'llie 
 future and conditional are never used, their pronun- 
 cilition being disagreeable and ungrateful to the car. 
 In the compound tenses, they are only used in tliis 
 lamiliar phrase : il a pu ct rcpn. 
 
 Branch III. Bruire, to rustle ; defective, being 
 only used in the participle present : b)uyant, \vhic!> 
 is oftener used as a mere adjective : dcs fiots. bruyantsy 
 and in the third persons of the imperfect of the indi- 
 cative : // bruyoh, ils bruyoicnt. 
 
 Luhe and relu'ire^ to shine, are irregular in the 
 participle past : lid, relui, and defective m the prete- 
 rit definite of the indicative, and the imperfect of the 
 subjunctive. 
 
 Nuirc, to hurt, irregular, only in the participle 
 past : nui. 
 
 Circonclre, to circumcise, irregular only in the par- 
 ticiple past, circoncis, in the preterit definite of the 
 indicative, je circoncis, and in the imperfe£l of the 
 subjunctive; que je circoncisie. According to some 
 grammarians, this verb has neither participle present 
 in the infinitive, nor imperfect of the indicative : but 
 the greatest number are for those forms, which, how- 
 ever, are little harmonious, and therefore, taste ought 
 to proscribe them. The Academy does not mention 
 them, from Avhich we may suppose that they are alto- 
 gether wanting. 
 
 Confire, to pickle ; infinitive, confisant, confit : in- 
 dicative, je conf.s ; je confisois ; je confis : subjunctive, 
 qtie je confisse. Suffire^ to suffice, is conjugated in 
 the same manner. 
 ■ Dire, to say, is irregular only in the second person 
 plural of the present oT the indicative : vous dltcs, in 
 the preterit definite, je dis, and in the imperfect of 
 the subjunctive, que je disse. Conjugate red'ire, to 
 say again, in the same manner. Also the other com- 
 pounds of dire, viz. dcdire, to unsay ; contredire, to 
 contradict ; Interdire, to forbid ; mcdire, to slander ; 
 and pred'ire, to foretel, exxept that the second pcisoii 
 plural 'of the present of the indicative is regular: 
 VQUS didisc'z, contrcdiscz, &c. Mandirc, to curse.
 
 ( 149 ) 
 
 varies in the following forms ; maudissant, nous tnaU" 
 dissons, 1)0111 maudtsscz, ils maudisscnt ; je maudissois, 
 Ecrire, to write ; infinitive, ecrivant : indicative, 
 nous ecrivons, vous ecrivcz, lis ccrlvent \ fecrivois ; 
 j''ecrivis : imperative, quil ecrive, ecrivons, ecrivez : 
 subjunctive, que J'ecrive, &c. que j^ecrivissey &c. 
 Ci) conscrire, to circumscribe, decrlre, ta describe, 
 and the other compounds, are conjugated in the same 
 manner. 
 
 FrirCy to fry ; defective, having onlv that form, 
 and the following : frit ; je fris, tu fr'is, il frit ; je 
 friraiy &:c. jc friroiiy 6cc. To supply the deficiency 
 of the other forms, we make use of tlie verb fairey 
 and the infinitive fi'ire. 
 
 Lire, to read : infinitive, Usant, lu : indicative, jc 
 lis \ je lisois ; je lus : subjunctive, que je Use, que jc 
 lusse. The saine irregularities are found in retire, to 
 read over again, and elire, to elect. 
 
 Rire, to laugh ; mfinitive, riant, ri : indicative, 
 nous rions, vous riiz, ils rient ; je riois ; js ris : im « 
 perative, qu^il rie, rions, riez : subjunctive, que je 
 rie ; que je risse. Sourire, tO smile, is conjugated in 
 the same manner. 
 
 Boire, to drink ; infinitive, buvant, hu : indicative, 
 je hois, nous buvons, vous buvez, ils boivent ; je lu- 
 ^'ois, je bus : imperative, bois, quil boive, huvonsy 
 huvcz : subjunctive, que je boive, que r.ons Luvions^ 
 que vous buvicz ; que je busse. Tne same for rebcire, 
 to drink again. 
 
 Clorre, to close ; defcdive t Infinitive, no participle 
 present, clos : indicative, yV c/oj, tu clas, il clot, no 
 plural in tiiis tense ; no imperted, and no preterit de- 
 finite : je clorrai ; conditional, je clorrois. Neither 
 the imperative nor the subjunctive are used ; though 
 we might very wellsayj clos cc pare, shut up that 
 park ; quil close ce jar din, let him shut up that gar- 
 den ; .'/ vent que je close cctte prairie, he would have 
 me enclose this meadow. This verb is used in ali its 
 compound ten>es. Enclorrc, to enclose, and renclorre, 
 to enclose again, havt; the same irregularities. 
 
 Eclsrrc, to be hatched, to blow like a fiowtr. de- 
 O 3
 
 ( 150 ) 
 
 fe61:ive : mfinltive, eclos, only : Indicative, without 
 cither first or second person, tl klot. Us eclosent : nei- 
 ther imperfe6l nor preterit definite ; // eclorra. Us echv" 
 rent : conditional, il eclorrolt, Us eclorroient : sub- 
 jun6tive, qu'il eclose. The participle is construed 
 with etre. 
 
 Conclure, to conclude ; infinitive, concluaJ7t, con^ 
 clu : indicative, je conclus, nous concluons, vans coti' 
 iluez, lis conclucnt ; je concluois ; je conclus : impera- 
 tive, qu'U conclue., concluons, concluez : subjundtive, 
 ^1^ je conclue, que je conchtsse. 
 
 Exclure, to exclude, is conjugated like conclure, 
 except that the participle past is exclu, or exclus. 
 
 Croirc, to believe; infinitive, croyant^ cru : indi- 
 cative, je crois, nous crayons, votis croyez. Us croicnt ; 
 jg croyois ; je cms \ imperative, qu'U croie, croyons, 
 ■croyez : subjunctive, que je croie ; que je crusse. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 Why do you play the fool ? Will he never leave off his 
 conlrefaire insense sk ciefaire de 
 
 b»d habits? Seated under the shade of palm-trees, 
 tnauvais habitude pi. a ombre palmier 
 
 they were milking their goats and ewes, and merrily 
 
 U-aire\\\&-'2 ciui're brebis avrc joie 
 
 drinking that ncv'tar wliich was renewed every day. 
 
 ioire ind-2 m. cui se rcnoii-veller ind-'2 
 
 It is irme for him to make serious reflcftions upon his 
 
 qui-. 1 1 /fl/jf subj-l (ir/i?) .w/>2v.r ^ pi. f. 
 conduft. Was not Virgil born. at Mantua - He would 
 
 naltre\K\(i-'i a Man tone 
 .have been the most wretched of men, had he ever 
 
 cond-3 malhtureux srt. s 
 
 Mviured any b -dy. Always speak, truth, but with dis- 
 
 Kuire cond-3 a personne dire art. me- 
 
 cretion. Never contradift any bodyJn public. Write every 
 nagenient conttedire en 
 
 diy the reflections which you make upon the books you are 
 
 que f«t' 
 
 reading. Did he not read that interesting story with a 
 itre ind-3 2 1 
 
 great deal of pleasure ? We have laughed heartily and 
 
 rire ind-4 de bon coeur 
 Jiave resolved to go on. Shall you enclose your park 
 
 risoudre ind-4 de enclorre 
 
 with a wall or a hedge ? The silk-worms are hatched 
 
 di mkiaillei, haii'i. 'ver » sole cdorre
 
 ( 151 ) 
 
 very early this year. Let us believe the truth of the Christian 
 2 annee 1 croire d Chretien 2 
 
 religion, 
 f . I 
 
 Branch IV. AH verbs in alndre, e'lndre and oln- 
 dr»f are conjugated like />/i«/«^rr ; therefore, there are 
 no irregular verbs in this branch. 
 
 Branch V. Absoudre^ to absolve, defe6live; infi- 
 nitive, absolvant, absous ; indicative, ^absous, nous 
 absQlvom^ vous absolvez^ Us absolvent ; J'absoivois ; 
 no preterit definite : j'absoudrai : conditional, j^ab- 
 soudrois : imperative, qWil absolve, absolvonsy &c. 
 subjun(5live, que 'f absolve ; no imperfedt. The f©* 
 minine of the paj ticiple past is absonte. 
 
 Rcsoudre. to resolve, is conjugated like absoudre ; 
 but it is used in all its tenses. The preterit definite is, 
 je resolus, and the imperfect of the subjunctive, que je 
 resolusse. It has two participles, viz. resolu when it 
 means decided ; and resous, when It means reduced into : 
 in this last sense it has no feminine. 
 
 Coudie, to sew ; infinitive, cousant, cousu : indi- 
 cative, nous consorts, vous couse'z. Us cousent ; je cou-^ 
 sols ; je cousis : imperative, qn'll couse, cousons, tec, 
 subjunctive, que je couse ; que je couslsse. Conjugate 
 in the same manner, dtcoud)C, to unsew, and recaudre, 
 to sew over again. 
 
 AldLtre, to put ; infinitive, mettant, mis : indica- 
 tive, je mcts, tu mets, 11 met ; je mis : imperative, 
 mcts : subjunctive, que je mlsse. Its compounds, ad^ 
 ynettre, to admit, commcttre, to commit, Sec. are con- 
 jugated in the same manner. 
 
 Afoudre, to grind; infinitive, moula/it, moulu : in- 
 dicative, je mouds, nous moulons, vous moulcz, Us 
 moulent ; je ynoulols ; je ynoulus : imperative, mouds, 
 quil moule, moulons, &c. subjunctive, que je mouhy 
 que je moulusse. In the same mamier are conjugated, 
 emoudre, to grind (knives, Sec), and mnoudre, to 
 grind again. 
 
 Prendre, to take ; infinitive, prcnant, prls : indi- 
 cative, nous prenons, vous praiez.. Us prennent ; je 
 pirenois ; je prls : imperative, qiiU prenne, prenons, 
 6cc. subjunctive, quejeprcnnc, que nous prenions, que
 
 ( 15^ > 
 
 voas prenitz, qnlh prennent ; que je prisse. All its 
 compounds, apprendrcy to learn, comprendre, to un- 
 derstand, bcc. are conjugated in the like manner. 
 
 Rompre, to break ; infinitive, rompajity rompu : 
 in'dicative, je romps, it rompt, &c. 
 
 Siiivre, to follow ; infinitive, suivant, sulvl ; in- 
 dicative, je suis, noils snivons ; je suivols ; je suivis ; 
 imperative, su'is, qu'it su'ive, siiivens, &c. subjunc- 
 tive, que je suiviT, que je sii'ivisse. Conjugate in the 
 same manner s'cnsuivre, to follow, to ensue ; and 
 poursuivre, to pursue. 
 
 Faincre, to conquer ,- infinitive, valnquant, vain- 
 cu : indicative, je vaincs, nous vninqrwns, vous vain- 
 qucz., lis vainqucnt ; je vainqiiois y je vainqius j impe- 
 rative, qi{ ilva'inque, vaimjnons, &c. subjunctive, que 
 je valnque ; que je valnqutsse. Convaincre, to con- 
 vince, is conjugated like vaincre. These two verbs 
 are irregular, only because the c is changed into qu^ 
 before a, e, i, o. 
 
 Battre, to beat, is irregular only in the three per- 
 sons singular of the present of the indicative r je bats^ 
 tu bats, d bat. 
 
 Eire, to be, which has already been conjugated 
 tlirough. 
 
 Vlvre, to live ; infinitive, zrlvant, vecu : indica- 
 tive, je VIS, nous v'lvor.s ; je vecus ; imperative, vh^ 
 qWil Vive, vivons, 6c'c. : subjunctive, que je v'lve ^ 
 que je vecusse. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 Did they not conclude from that luminous 
 
 ccr.dure airf-3 2 
 
 argument the most absurd consequence ? Could that judge 
 ration ntment 12 1 
 
 thus lightly absolve ■ the guilty ? My daughter was 
 s: absoudre z^)Vi^-\. coupable p\. 
 
 sewing all day yesterday. Docs he set a great 
 
 coi'drc ind-3 jouvnte 2 1 mcttre 
 
 value upoa riches : I never admitted those principles. 
 
 d adnitttre ind-3 
 
 Has he committed that fault r I wish you may take 
 
 ro»7Wf//ri' ind-'t ipie prendre %x^y\ 
 
 courage. J took great pr.in?, but at last I ground 
 
 ind-Qt ieaucoup de s, /Mudre iad-2>
 
 (To face pagg 153.) 
 
 A TABLE of ihe Primuivc Tenses of the French Verbs, either Regular or 
 Irregular. 
 « Denolfi, that the Tenst is hul seldom vttd: 
 O DeMta, ttlHer that tfu Tente it obiolclf, or is altogftker uanling. 
 
 FIRST CONJUGATION. 
 SECOND CONJUGATION. 
 
 jj/«,^ 
 
 qu«„, i.,fX^hrtMJJ'/'ilh 
 
 
 rttTni • rtru 
 
 1«- 
 
 
 
 
 je« 
 
 c.v.,;, pit^,l,rt,rJ 
 
 r«lfl 
 
 
 
 !r.il,>'',>!:X" 
 
 
 ."»«"' wmi' 
 
 je* 
 
 uuitllf, ir«jr.i,r 
 lioalllir, imc^dr 
 
 
 atMilhnt. unilll 
 
 I'JI 
 
 
 tiunillut trauilli 
 
 icm 
 
 TMii, (i»nd. 1^ AtfimtA 
 
 /««* 
 
 TWAST itnu 
 
 JIT 
 
 
 TH 
 
 1 hd conj u 
 
 CATION. 
 
 
 
 «y«nt «u 
 
 ""' 
 
 choiri ;rrfX»/n' rtwi i/f/rtriT 
 
 
 chu, 0»i 
 
 t (f mintn) • 
 
 •(*utln8ttlier)it rtti* 
 
 pltuT. 
 
 , ietreconTeiUble.iV. Wrfj^/. ier»nt O ? !^', 
 
 >"'' Ipremre.ianet.fr. »*/«(. ijml »«• jUW^ 
 
 Vooloi,, i/"j./ar vmluil voula i 
 
 FOURTH CONJUGATION. 
 
 btairc, irripilji anJ Jifitlne ^ •** _» »,i, je (»a 
 
 briiire.'iwjt»/4r anidifetUti 
 
 bniyant 
 
 citcoiicire, xrtiRuliT 
 tonfirc, KHjrviu- 
 
 dedirc. /.r,s./ar 
 
 s: 
 
 jt dMis 
 K (pi. 0) 
 
 .nlncre, .nvl^ 
 
 ■■"if" 
 
 •riguUr <uJ J^f rti 
 
 (*<.lu'(dicidO jj,,,„„ 
 
 {icwu((rfduii;uiui. ) 
 
 Jtihol..
 
 ( 153 ) 
 
 al! th: coffee. In the middle of the road, the axle-tree of 
 
 a TrAliut route essieu 
 
 our carriage breaks down. For a long time we followed 
 
 carrcsse se rompre "•' mivre ind-j' 
 
 that method, which was only fit to mislead^ 
 
 qui ne ind-2 que 2 fropre 1 a 3 tgarer 5 
 u-s. What is the consequence ? The Greeks vanquished 
 noKs ^ que s'emuiire Grer pl.aw?:nvind-3 
 
 the Persians at Marathon, Salamis, Piatea and Mycale. 
 
 ii pr. Salaminc pr. Plaiee pr. 
 
 It is during winter that they thrash the corn in cold 
 ce p>;ndant zxt. que on biutre bled art. froid 2 
 
 countries. Happy those who live in solitude ! Has he lived 
 pays qui s. art. retraitei. 
 
 long ? Long live that good king ! 
 
 que 1 ^ subj- 1 3 2 
 
 OF THE FORMATION OF THE TENSES. 
 
 Tenses are eitlier simple, or compound. Simple 
 tenses are those which do not borrow the tenses of the 
 verbs avoir or etrc : compound tenses are those which 
 are formed of the tenses oi avoir, or etre, and the par- 
 ticiple past of a verb. Among the simple tenses, 
 there are five which are called primitive, because they 
 serve to form the other tenses in the four conjugations. 
 Theteare: the presort and preterit of the indicative, 
 and the present, participle present and participle past 
 of rhe infinitive. 
 
 From the present of the indicative we form the 
 second person singular of the imperative, by merely- 
 omitting /V ; /'aiw^', I love; imperative, aime, love 
 thou. We only except these four verbs, viz : in the 
 first conjugation ; Je vais, imperative, va. In the 
 third conjugation ; fai, je sais ; imperative, aie, 
 sache. In the fourth conjugation, branch V ; je suisf 
 imperative, sois. 
 
 From the preterit definite, we form the Imperfect 
 of the subjund^ive, by changing ai into asse, for the 
 first conjugation, and by adding se to fhe other ter- 
 minations of the preterit definitive, as : faimai, j^ai- 
 masse ; je finis, je finisse ; je tins, je tinsse ; je regusy 
 je rerusse. 
 
 From the present of the infinitive, we form the fu- 
 ture of the indicative and present of the conditional.
 
 ( 154 ) 
 
 by changing r or re into rai, for the future, and into 
 roh, for the conditional, as : aimer, J'aimeraif j^aimC" 
 rois ; rendre, je rcndral, je rendrois. 
 
 Exceptions. In the first conjugation, allcr 
 makes j^irai^ flro'is, and envoyer, j^enverraiy J^cri- 
 verro'is : r envoyer has the same irregularity. 
 
 In the second conjugation, branch II, ccurir 
 makes Je conrrai, je courrois ; mourir, je moiirral, je 
 mourrois ; acquenr,j^acqucn-al, yacquerrois ; conquc- 
 r'lr^jt conqnerra'i, je conquerrois, though but seldom 
 used in these tenses. Branch III, cuelllir makes je 
 cue'illcra'i, je cudllcrois. Branch IV, tenir and venire 
 with their compounds, xndk.t je t'lendra'i., je Ucndroh i 
 'e v'lendra'i, je v'lcndroh. 
 
 In the 3d conjugation, avohr makes j''a-nrai, j''aii- 
 rois ; recevoir, je recevrai, je rccevrois ; echolr^ 
 j^echerrai, j' ccherroh ; dcchoir, the same ; falloir, 11 
 Jaudra, il faudroit ; poiiVGir, jc poiirrai, je pour rois ; 
 savoir, jesaurai,je saurois. S'asseoir,je m'assieraiy 
 or je m'asseyerai ; je m'assierois, or je m\isseyeroh. 
 Volr^ je verrai, je verrois ; same irregularity in its 
 compounds, except pourvolr and prevoi/, which form 
 their tenses regularly. Pletivoirj il pleiivra, il pleu- 
 vroit ; zroloir, je vaudrai, je vaudrois ; vouloir, je 
 voudrai, je voudrois. 
 
 In the 4th conjugation, branch I, faire makes je 
 feraiy jeferols. Branch V, ctre makes je serai, je. 
 serois. 
 
 Observation. Some grammarians form the pre- 
 sent of the conditional from tlie future of the indica- 
 tive. In this cat>e, there are no exceptions. 
 
 Prom the particij^lc present, we form : 
 
 i'^. The impcrtecl: of the indicative, by changing 
 ant into ois, as : aimant, j'aimois ; recevant, je rece- 
 vcis. Except in the third conjugation, ayant and 
 sacha>U, which make j'avois, je savals. 
 
 2^. The three persons plural of the present of the 
 indicative, by changing ant inSo ons, ez, ent, as : 
 aimant, nous ainions. voiis almez, ils aimefit. Ex- 
 cept in the diird conjugation, ayant and sachant, which 
 make nous avons, vous avezy ils ent \ nous savonsy 
 pens savcz, ils suvent. In the fourth conjugation.
 
 r 155 ) 
 
 branch I, falsant, and its compounds, which make 
 vous faitesy ils font : branch II, disant, and its com- 
 pound redisant, which make vous dites, vcus rcdites : 
 branch V, ita>if, nous sommes, "uous ctes, ils sont. 
 
 The first and second persons plural of the impera- 
 tive, arc the same as the hrst and second persons plu- 
 ral of the present of the indicative, and, of course, 
 have the same formation. 
 
 3°. The present of the subjunctive, by changing 
 ant, according to the person and number, into e, es, e, 
 ions, icz, ent, as : almant, que ya'imc, que tu almes, 
 tjiC'tl a'lme, que nous aimions, que vous aimleZf qu'lls 
 wment. 
 
 Exceptions, In the first conjugation, allant, 
 ipie J'nil/e, que tu allies, qii'il aille, qii'ils a'lllent. In 
 the second conjugation, v/e except all the verbs in 
 branch IV : tenant, venant, and their compounds : 
 tfueje tienne, que tu ticnnes, quil tienne, quails tiennent ; 
 que je vicnnc, &c. The first and second persons 
 plural are formed regularly. 
 
 In the third conjugation, we except the verbs in 
 evo'ir, as : reccvant, que je resolve, que tu rcgoives, 
 iquil rci^oive, quails recoivcnt ; pmtvant, que Je puissc, 
 ^ue tu puisses, qu'il puisse, que nous puissions, qucvciis 
 puissiez, quils puisscnt ; valant, que je 'uaille, que tu 
 va'illes, -qu^il vaille, qu'ils vaillent ; -voulant, que je 
 "ueuille, que tu veuilles, quil veuille, quails veuillent ; 
 mouvant^ que je meuve, que tu meuves, qu'il mcuz'e., 
 qu'lls meuvent. Falloify without participle present, 
 quil faille. 
 
 In the fourth conjugation, branch I, faisnnt, que 
 je fasse, que tu f asses, quil fasse, que nous fassionsy 
 ^ue vous fassicz, quails Jassent : branch II, buvant, 
 que je hoive, qta tu boives, qii'il boive, qu'ils boivent : 
 branch V, prenant, que je pyemic, que tu prenncs, quil 
 ptemie, qu'ils prennent j etant, que je sois, que tu soisy 
 ^u d soit, que nous soyons, que vous soyez, qu'ils soient. 
 The third person of the imperative, being like the 
 third person of the present uf the subjunctive, they 
 have both the same formation. 
 
 Observation. This formation does not bv any
 
 ( iS6 ) 
 
 fneans prevent the changing of the y into t in veihs in 
 which custom has iniroduccd it, as : voyant, que J£ 
 vo'ie \ employant, que femploic ; essayant, que j'cssale. 
 
 From the participle past are formed the compound 
 tenses, by adding to it the tenses of the auxiliaries 
 avoir and etre, as : j'al a'lmet fai cu ahnc ; jc suis 
 tombe ; j^ai He battu. 
 
 AGREEMENT OF THE VERB WITH 
 THE SUBJECT. 
 
 We have aheady seen that the subject is that of 
 which something is affirmed, and it may always easily 
 be known ; the answer to this question : qui csi-ce qui? 
 who, or what is it ? always pointing it out so as 
 never to be mistaken. When we say : Pierre vit, 
 Peter lives ; Volseau vole, the bird flies, if we ask : 
 qui est-ce qui vit ? Who is it that hves ? qui est-ce qui 
 'Vole ? what is it that flies r the answers : Pierre and 
 Voiseau, show that Pierre and Voiseau are the subject* 
 of the verbs vit and vole. 
 
 Rule. The verb ought to be of the same number 
 and person as its subject. 
 
 examples. 
 yeris. Ilaugh. Nous par Ims, We speak. 
 
 Ta Jones, Thou playest. Fous plaisantez, You jest. 
 llaime, Heloves. Us sontfous, They are mad. 
 
 La 'vertu est almabie. 
 Virtue is amiable. 
 
 Ris is in the singular number, and tlie first per- 
 son, because jc, its subject, is in the singular and the 
 first person. Joucs is in the singular and the second 
 person, because tu is in the singular and the second 
 person, ckr. 
 
 Observations, i". When a verb has t^vo sub- 
 jects in the singular number, that verb is put in the 
 plural. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 Mon pere ^ ?na mere, m^ ainitJit tenilmufnt. 
 My fatlicr and mother love me tenderly. 
 
 c,"^ V/hen a verb relates to subjects of different 
 -'. . t. agrees with the first, in preference to the 
 
 other
 
 ( 157 ) 
 other two, and with the second hi preference to the 
 third. We first name the person to whom we are 
 speaking, and always name ourselves last. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Vous, votre frere & moi, nous lisons ensemble la bro~ 
 chvse nowveUe. 
 
 You, your brother and I, we read together the new pam- 
 phlet. 
 ' Vous & votre frere, 'votts 'viendrez avec moi. 
 
 You arid your brother, you will come w4th me. 
 
 3^. When a verb has qui relative for its subject, 
 it is put in the same number and person as the noun 
 •.or pronoun to which qui relates. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 E'st-ce moi qui ai dit cette nowvelle ? 
 Is it I who told this news ? 
 Est-ce nous qui t'avons iioidu ? 
 Is it we who desired it ? 
 ^ Les hommes quiaiment sinch-ement la vertu sont hcJtrei'S, 
 Those who sincerely love virtue are happy. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 Observation. Should the learner have done 
 the preceding exercises upon the verbs, before he had 
 finished those on the article, adjectives and pronouns, 
 he must stop here, nntil he have gone through the 
 whole of the exercises, and seen the preliminary re- 
 marks on the verbs and the formation of tenses. 
 
 The freest of all men is he who can be free even in sla- 
 
 libre powjoir es- 
 
 very itself. Are we not often blind to our own. 
 
 ila'vage * i' avtugler siir 
 
 defefts ? All men are inclined to Inziness, but the 
 
 tendre art. par esse 
 ■ savages of hot countries are the laziest of all men. D« 
 saicvages chaud - paressenx 
 
 you think of imposing long on the credulity of the public ? 
 
 •■ en itnposdv a credulitti 
 
 His uprightness and honesty make him sought after by 
 
 faire L' rcchcrcberm^-i. 
 every body. Strength of body and of soul do not 
 
 celle 
 .'••vays meet together. A good iKdrtand a fijie 
 
 St: rencontrtsr ensemble.
 
 ( iss ) 
 
 soul arc precious gifts of nature. You, your friend 
 
 and I, have each a different opinion. Take good 
 
 'J. 1. se garder 
 
 care, you and your brother, not to give way to the im- 
 hien de ' ■■■ s' abandonner 
 
 petuosity of your temper. He that complains most 
 
 iC j>laindye le plus 
 of men, is not always he that has most reason to complain 
 
 ctrc fonde 2, 
 
 of them. You that wish to enrich your mind with 
 
 f« 1, I'oidolr '■* de 
 
 thoughts strongly conceived and nobly cxpre-sed, read 
 
 fortcmeyit rendu noblement exprimi 
 
 the works of Homer and Plato. 
 
 The learner ought to be told, In regard to the- first 
 observation, that many authors of the last century- 
 have put in the singular the verb which has two 
 subjects singular, when these subjects express ideas 
 nearly synonimous. Above fifty instances of ft may 
 be found in Bossuet : but now, we follow the rule of 
 the agreement. With regard to the second obser- 
 vation, politeness requires that we should conform to 
 it ; but there are cases wherein we may dispense with 
 the rule. One of the editors of the dictionary of the 
 iVench Academy has said : Ni moi, ni d'antrcsy 
 7i'avons pu r'len comptcndre a cette phrase. Neither I, 
 nor any body else, has been able to understand any 
 thing in that sentence. Here we see that he has 
 placed mo'i first, and that he has not put nous before 
 ria'Vonsj which, however, is required by most gram- 
 marians. A sentence like this is to be found in a 
 work published by one of the most learned members 
 of the French National Institiiic, 
 
 N. 13. It may not be improper to point out to the 
 learner the dilFerence between the French and the 
 English construction. \\\ the translation of the 
 above sentence, the English verb agrees with the sub- 
 iect nearest to it, which is not the case in the French. 
 
 OF THE GOVERNMENT OF VlCRBS, 
 
 We have said that an active verb was that after 
 which we might put quelquun or quelqne chose \ 
 l;kcwisc (page y6j that the word which is put after
 
 ( 159 ) 
 
 the verb is called the government, or regimen of that 
 verb. We then observed, that this regimen might be 
 known by asking the question, quest-ce que ? This 
 regimen we call dircil., and it may be either a noun 
 or a pronoun. 
 
 Rule, When the regimen of the aiflive verb is 
 a noun, it is generally placed afcer the verb ; when a 
 pronoun, it is placed before it. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Ma mere aime ses enfans. Ai'ne^ le prochair. commc loui' 
 
 My mother loves her children. mcme. 
 
 Love your neighlx3ur as your- 
 self. 
 
 We ought to say : je vous aime, I love you, instead 
 oi ya'itne vous : il m\u?ne, he loves me, instead of iJ 
 aime moi. 
 
 Beside this regimen direct, some a£llve verbs may 
 have a second, which is called indirect., and is marked, 
 by the words a or dc., as : 
 
 11 a fait un present a sa saeur, II acet-:se son ami d'im^rw 
 He lias made a present to his . dence. 
 
 sister. He accLi.^es liis frletnl of i;u- 
 
 priidence. 
 
 This second regimen is known by the answer to 
 these questions : ci qui ? to whom? a quoi ? to what ? 
 de qui ? ot whom ? de quoi F of what ? as : yf qui 
 a-t-ii fait un present ? to whom did he make a pre- 
 sent r a sa soeur y to his sister. De quoi accuse -t-il 
 son ami ? of what does he accuse his friend ? 
 d'l.nprudence ; of imprufleuce. 
 
 I'he regiincn of passive verbs is de, or par, he- 
 fore ihe noun, or pronoun that follows them, as : 
 
 La souris est mangee par If chat, Un enfant sags ettaimt- de 
 The moLise is eaten. l>y the cat. se.i parens, 
 
 A good child is loved by 
 its parents. 
 
 Observation'. We ought never to use the 
 word par, by, before Dien, God. We say : Les 
 rnUhans scront punis de Dlcu, whicli, in order to avoid 
 making use of hy, may be dius englished : Gcd 
 will punibh die wicked. 
 
 P 2
 
 ( i6o ) 
 
 Some few neuter verbs have no regimen, as : dor- 
 tnir, to sleep ;■ hut many of them have- 
 
 Rule. We put a or e^e before the noun, or pro- 
 noun that follows the neuter verb. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Toiti genre d exch nuU a !a Ce icntlmeni a plii au roi, 
 
 saute, This sentiment has pleased 
 
 Every kind of excess is hurt- the king. 
 
 t'ul to health. J/_7';a// de toute sa liberty, 
 
 11 uic'dit de tout ie monde^ He has the full enjoyment oF 
 
 He slanders everybody. his liberty. 
 
 We have seen that the reffected verbs have for their 
 regimen the personal pronouns w<f, te, se, nous and. 
 •uciiis, and that this regimen is sometimes direct and 
 sometimes indirect. 
 
 Grammarians have very properly distinguished the 
 reciprocal from the rejiccied verb. The latter expresses 
 an action exercised by a subject upon itself, and not 
 upon an object foreign to it : but the former denotes 
 that tw:o beings are exercising the same action upon 
 each other.at the sam.e time. In the reflected verb, the 
 action is reflected, as it were, upon its own subject : in 
 the reciprocal verb, there is a reciprocity of action. 
 
 The rcg'men of a verb may also be another verb in 
 the infinitive. 
 
 A verb governs another in the infinitive, i°. with- 
 out a prepositioir, as : aller, aimer m'nux, falloir, de- 
 voir, esptrcr, envoycr, daigner, iaisser, oser, &cc. 
 2°. with the preposition de, as : achever, conseiller, 
 aff'c^cr, craindre, promettre, s^assurer, &:c. 3". witli 
 the preppsition a, as : avoir,' aimer, s^appn'cer, con- 
 scntir, sc plaire, &:c. But the knowledge of these 
 differences can only be acquired by loiig habit and 
 continual pra&ice. 
 
 D hirer, to wish, governs the verb that follows if, 
 either without a preposition, or with the preposition 
 de, as : il desire alter, or d'aller vous voir, he wislic,; 
 to go and sec you. Several good authors make use 
 of cither regimen, but the first seems to be more 
 general. According to some grammarians, it is the 
 same with espcrcr, to hope. 
 
 'CiiUanenccr, to begin; continuer, to continue ;. con-
 
 ( i6i ) 
 
 trnlndre, to force; €?ig(7ger, to cngzge ; exporter, to- 
 exfiort ; forcer, to force ; manquer, to fail ; and obii- 
 gcr, to oblige, take a, when we wish to avoid the 
 liiatus which would be produced bv the rcpeiition of 
 several as or the jingle .of several vovvelb, and de, 
 when we would avoid the harsh sound of several de'a 
 in the same sentence, as : i/ me force d'ahandonner 
 a d'autres ccttc entreprise, he forces me to leave this 
 undcrcaking to others: // commengoit a demander de 
 vo.s JiouvelUs^ he hegan to enquire after you.. 
 
 S' cfforccr, idcher,'partlcipcr, manqucr, tardcr, trier ^ 
 and hrcy take d or dcy according to their different 
 meanings. 
 
 When they take a. 
 
 S'eff'orcer, to force one's 
 self ;. to use one's whole 
 sti engtii : A^6' v:u.< ciFor- 
 cez pas a courlr, do not 
 force yourself to run.. 
 
 lacfLcr, to aim at, to 
 try, &c. : f'^ous tachez/ a 
 m'cmbarrasscr/)<2?' dcs ar~ 
 gitniens captieux, you try, 
 vou want to. perplex nie 
 by .sophisiical arguments.. 
 
 Paiticipcr, to partici- 
 pate in, to share, Sec. :. 
 c'est paniciper en quel- 
 que sorte au crime, que 
 de ne pan V empecher 
 quand on le pent, we, in 
 a manner, participate in 
 crime, if we do not pre- 
 vent it, when we have 
 it in our power.. 
 
 Mcniqucr, to fail :: vcus 
 az-ez nianque a faire cs 
 que je vous az'ols dit, 
 vou have failed to do 
 whut I had told you. 
 
 "When they take de. 
 
 To endeavour : efFor- 
 cons-nous de mcrltcr Vcs- 
 t'lnic, &CC. let us endea- 
 vour to deserve the es- 
 teem, &c.. 
 
 To endeavour: tachons 
 d'acquerir des comiois- 
 sanccsy let -us endeavour 
 to acq^uire.- knowledge.. 
 
 To participate of, ta 
 partake of the nature of, 
 Sec. : dcs pierres dont on- 
 tire Valun participent de 
 la yiature dii plomb : the 
 stones from which alum 
 is extracted partake o£ 
 the nature of lead. 
 
 To be h'ke to, to be 
 near, &c.: ila manqne de 
 toraber, he was like to. 
 fill ; he was near falling.. 
 
 3
 
 ( l62 ) 
 
 To long, an imperso» 
 nal verb : il me tarde de 
 /e voir, I long to see him. 
 
 With the Same verbs, 
 when it is a chance invi- 
 tation : // m'a prie de 
 
 diner. 
 
 Tarder, to taiTy, Sec. : 
 
 le corps de reserve tarda 
 
 trcp a donner, the reserve 
 
 delayed too long coming 
 
 to the charge. 
 
 Prier, to pray, to re- 
 quest, &CC. with the verbs 
 
 dejeuner, diner, gouter, 
 
 sauper, when it is a formal 
 
 invitation : il rna prie a 
 
 diner, he has invited me 
 
 to dinner. 
 
 Etre, to belong : ce Meaning, it is the bu- 
 
 falais est au roi, that pa- siness, the duty, with a 
 
 kce belongs to the king^ or de : c'cst an maitre a 
 
 parler, be au disciple 
 d'ecouter, the master is 
 to speak and it is the 
 duty of the scholar to 
 listen. 
 
 OF THE NATURE AND USE OF MOODS AND 
 TENSES. 
 
 OF THE INDICATIVE.. 
 
 The indicative is the manner of expressing the dif- 
 ferent tenses with simple affirmation only. It contains 
 eight tenses, viz. : the present absolute, the imperfctt, 
 or present relative, the preterit definite, the preterit 
 indefinite, the preterit anterior, the pluperfeil, xht fu- 
 ture simple, and \\\r: future anterior. 
 
 The present ahsoUite denotes that a thing is,_ or is 
 doing at the time when it is mentioned, as : j'aime, I 
 love ; lis joucnt, they play. . 
 
 The imptrfeff, or present relative, denotes the past 
 •with regard to the present ; it shows that a tiring was 
 present at a time wliich is past : je soUipois quand il en- 
 tra, 1 was supping when he came in. 
 
 The preterit dfinite denotes a thing done at a time 
 •which is entirely past : fccrivis hier a Rome, I wrote 
 yesterday to Rome, The time is precisely deter- 
 mined.
 
 f r63 ) 
 
 The preterit indefinite denotes a thing either done at 
 a time which is past, but not panicularly determined, 
 as : il ma fait un vrai piaisir en venant me vcir, he 
 has given me real pleasure by coming to see me : or 
 at a time past, though still unfinished, as: J^ai vu, 
 c£tte semaine heaucoup de monde^ I have seen many 
 people this week. 
 
 "^Fhe preterit anterior denotes that a thing was done 
 at a time which is past, and is either definite, or inde- 
 finite. The preterit anterior definite relates to a time 
 which is entirely past, as : j'eus dine hier a niidi, I 
 had dined yesterday at twelve o'clock. The preterit 
 anterior indefinite relates to a time which is not yet 
 quite elapsed, as : fai eu dejeilne ce matin a dix heures^ 
 i had breakfasted this morning at ten o'clock. 
 
 li^he pluperfe ft denotes that a thing was done before- 
 another which was done itself at a time past : ^avois 
 soupCy qiiand il enlra^ I liad supped, when he came 
 In. 
 
 "The future absolute denotes that a thing will be, or 
 will be done at a time which is not yet come : j^iral 
 demain a la campapje, I shall go to-morrow into the 
 country. 
 
 Tiie future anterior denotes that when a thing 
 shall happen, another thing will then have been : 
 q/tand/aurai fini,ie sortirai, when 1 shall have done^ 
 or wlien 1 have done, I shall go out. 
 
 OF THE CONDITIONAL. 
 
 The conditional is the manner of expressinrr the 
 affirmation, with dependance upon some condition^ 
 It has two tenses, viz. the present and tloe iiast. 
 
 The present of the conditional denotes, according 
 to circumstances, either that a thing would be, or 
 would be done now, as : je lirois, sifavois dcs livres, 
 1 would read, if I had books ; or, that a thing would 
 be, or would be done, upon certain conditions : jeferois 
 votre affaire avant qu'il solt peu, si elle dcpendoit 
 iiniquement dc moi, I would settle your business before 
 long, if it only depended upon me. 
 
 The past of the conditional denotes that a thing
 
 ( i64 ) 
 
 would have Been at a time which is past, upon some- 
 conditions ; j'aurois fait voire affaire, si vous ni'en 
 eviez paric, I would have settled your business, if 
 you had mentioned it to me; ox., feusse fait voire- 
 affaire^ si vous ni'en eussicz paric. 
 
 OF THE imperative! 
 
 Tiie imperative, in verbs, is the manner of express- 
 ing, beside the affirmation, the a6l of commanding,', 
 exhorting, or entreating. It hiia but one tense, which 
 denotes the present, with relation, to the adl of com- 
 , manding, and the future with regard to the thing 
 commanded : faitcs cela^ do that. 
 
 OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 The s2//^Ju>!ifive is the manner of expressing the- 
 affirmation with dependance upon somethiiig that pre- 
 cedes. It is called subjunflive, because it depends- 
 so far upon an antecedent, that it makes no longer 
 a complete sense as soon as it is separated trom it. It 
 has four tenses,, viz:, the present, »>x future, the imp er^- 
 feil, t'ne preterit and the pluperfc^. 
 
 The present ?onA future generally present themselves. 
 in the sul*jun61ive unckr tlie fame tbrm, and they aje 
 distinp-uiihcd only by circumstances, VVlien we say :. 
 ilfaut que je vous airne bicn pour supporter toutes vos- 
 inegalites, 1 must love you very much indeed, to bear 
 with all your inequalities ; it is evident thatyV vous airne 
 denotes the present tense.- but if we say, je doute qu'il 
 vienne, 1 doubt whether he. will come, the words il 
 zuefine are evidently for// viendra. 
 
 The imperfedl of the suhiund'ive morit commonly 
 expresses a past action, but it is likcwi.se susceptible 
 of a future signiiication. If to these words : il est. 
 parti, he is gone ; we answer : je ne cro)\cis pas quit 
 partit,. 1 did not think he would go; this tense 
 expresses a time past : but if the same answer be made 
 to these words: il partira, he will go ; then it certainly 
 \s a future. 
 
 'J'he preterit has likewise these two significations :, 
 U a fallu qiic j'aie -^asse chc% Ini, 1 >Yas obliged to-
 
 ( 1^5 > 
 
 oall on- him ; Is a past ; butyV n'entreprendrai pas cetie 
 affaire^ que je n\ne consult (•■, 1 will not undertake this 
 business, before I have consulted ; is a future. 
 
 It is the same with {\\q pluperfcci. This sentence t 
 je ne crovois pas que vous etissifz sUot fait, I did not 
 think you would have done so soon ;. expresses the 
 past : but this ; 'je voudrois que vous eussiez ja'it avani 
 mon reiour, I wish you might have done before i 
 come back ; expresses the future. 
 
 OF THE INFINITIVE. 
 
 The tnJinlttVi; is, in verbs, the manner of express- 
 ing vvithout affiimation, or of expressing affirmation 
 indefinitely. It denotes the action or state in general, 
 and consequently is not susceptible of either numbers 
 or persons. 
 
 The infinitive denotes, of itself, nti^tx present, past, 
 Yiox future : nevertheless, it is considered as denoting 
 those tenses when it is following other verbs. The 
 present always expresses a present relative to the pre- 
 ceding verb : as : je le vols, je le vis, je le verrai ve- 
 nir, I see, I saw, I shall see him come (comingf. 
 The past always expresses a past relative to the verb 
 that precedes it, as : je crois, je croyois V avoir vu 
 vcriir, I think, I thought that I had seen hiin coming. 
 To express a ytt/Mrf, the infinitive must be preceded 
 by the infinitive of the verb devoir, as : je croyois de- 
 voir y aller, I thought I was to go thither. 
 
 Observation. The ijifinitive also expresses a 
 future after the verbs promcttre, esperer, compter, 
 s^attcndre and menacer, as : il promet de venir (qu^il 
 vicniLa), he promises to come (that he will come) ; 
 il menace de sy rendre (q'li'il s''y rendra), he threatens 
 to go thither (that he will go thither). 
 
 We call a participle a word which partakes of the 
 r.atiue of the verb and of the adjedlive ; of the verb, as 
 it has its signification and regimen ; of the adjective, 
 as it expresses a quaUty. There are two participles^, 
 vii. i\\c participle preseyit and xh^ participle past.
 
 ( 2 66 ) 
 
 OF THE PARTICIPLE PRESENT, 
 
 The participle present always terminates in an'., 
 aimant, Jinissant, recevant, rendant. 
 
 KuLE. ''The partic'rple present is always invariable,, 
 tiiat is, it -takes neither gender nor number. 
 
 We say : unc muntagney or des montagnes domi- 
 nant sur des plaines immensesy a mountain, or moun- 
 tains commanding immf nse plains ; un homme, da 
 ?hommes, une femme, des fcnuncs lisant, a man, men, a 
 woman, women reading. Thus, this participle is, 
 according to circumstances, either masculine or femi- 
 nine, singular or plural. 
 
 Observation. V/e must not confound the 
 participle present with some verbal adjectives, that is,, 
 adjectives derived- from verbs. We say ; c'est un 
 homme obllgcant^ he is an obliging man ; une femme 
 cbligeante^ she is an obliging woman. These are not 
 participles, because they have no government. But 
 when we say : ccttefemme est d'un bon cara^ere, obli- 
 g^znt tout le monde, qiiand elle le peut, that woman is 
 of a good disposition, obliging every body, whenever 
 she has it in her power ; obligcant is here a participle,, 
 since it governs tout le mande.. 
 
 What grammarians call gerund is nothing but the 
 participle present, to whicii is pretixed the word en : 
 on se forme V esprit^ en lisant dc bons llvres, we form, 
 our minds, by reading good books. 
 
 EXERCISE.- 
 
 That mountain being very high, and th\i% eommanding 3. 
 elcve dompur sur 
 
 vast extent of country, was very well calculated for our 
 trh-etend'i ind-2. trh propre a 
 
 obscrvauous. They go n/'.'^/w^ before the great, that 
 
 Ymnptv (Lvartc pi. afin d& 
 
 they may be insolent to their equai>. The state of purv; 
 
 * a'vcc egal-^\. 
 
 nature is the savage living in the desert, but liz'ing in his_ 
 family, knoiuing his chiklion, lovlttg thcni, making uif of 
 
 user 
 speech, and miiUng himself understood. An agreeable Ian - 
 ^rolc se /aire enter.drs i^'-'*
 
 ( i57 ) 
 
 gour insensibly iiivi'ig hold ut my senses, suspended 
 ^iteiir insensiblfmejit s' eniparer suspendre ind-3 
 
 the aftivity of my soul, and I fell asleep. Time is a real 
 
 s' endormir ind-3 < 
 
 mM^lot, placing, replacing, ordering, disordering, impressing, 
 brouilion tnettre ranger imprimer 
 
 erasing, approaching, removir.g, and making all things good 
 effacer app'ocher eloigner rendre pi. f. - 
 
 and bad, and almost always impossible to be known again- 
 qitasi meconnoissable 
 
 OF THE PARTICIPLE PAST. 
 
 The participle past presents more difficulties than, 
 the preceding one, and grammarians have long been 
 at variance upon this question : In what case does it 
 take gender and number ? Without entering into any 
 discussion, we shall state at full length what is the 
 present practice on this important subject. 
 
 The participle past has various terminations : aime, 
 Jini, refu, ouvcrt, disscus, &c. 
 
 This jiarticiple either agrees with its subject or its 
 regimen. 
 
 JVGREEMENT OF THE PARTICIPLE PAST WITH 
 ITS SUBJECT. 
 
 Rule I. The participle past, when it Is accom- 
 panied by the auxiliary verb etre, agrees with its sub- 
 ject in gender and number ; that is, we add to it e, if 
 the subject be teminine, and 5, if it be in the plural. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Mon frere est tombe, Ma saur es: tombee, 
 
 My brother is fallen down. My sister is fallen down, 
 
 Mes frcres sor.t tombes, Mes sceurs so7it tombecs, 
 
 My brothers are fallen down. My sisters are fallen down. 
 La nult sera bientot paisee. Lis speftacles sont frcquentes 
 
 par Us gens oisifs. 
 The night will soon be over. The theatres arc frequented 
 
 by the idle. 
 EUe est este de tout le CcV/f fleur fiZ/or/ recherchee, 
 
 mor.de, 
 She is esteemed by every This fiower i=; much sought 
 
 body. after. 
 
 Observation. In the compound tenses of re- 
 flected verbs, the participle agrees with the regimen, 
 and not with the subject. In this sentence ; jc me suis
 
 .ffriimenec, promcnee agrees with the government mc ; 
 ■but in this: Lun-ece s'est don?ie la mort, the participle 
 • domic takes no gender, because se is for a sol, and 
 because, in this case, as will be seen hereafter, the 
 participle takes neither-geuder nor number. 
 
 ■•;• .; .' *■>■'- EXERCISE. 
 
 Fire-arms were not knoiun to the ancients. Ishmasl, 
 armed. feu f.^ind-4 connu de 
 the son of Abraham, ^ known among the Arabs as 
 
 * Arabe pi. comme 
 
 the man from whom they are sprung^ and circumcision 
 celui sorti art. L 
 
 has remained with them as the mark of their origin. 
 £ire demeure leur 
 
 Heaven is that permanent city wherein the just are to be 
 
 del ~ cite' f . 1 oii devoir * 
 
 .received ahcr this life. In Abraham's time, the threatenings 
 
 regu 2 1 menace ^l-i. 
 
 of the true Gcd were dreaded by Pharaoh, king of Egypt: 
 
 Dieu in d - 2 redonte Pharaon 
 but in the time of Moses, all the nations were perverted, 
 Moise f. ind-2 perverti 
 
 and the world, which God had made to manifest his 
 
 pour 
 power, was become a temple of idols. That drcadfui 
 puissance i. devenu idolep\. 
 
 crisis, which threatened the state with instant destruftion, : 
 grise.i. ind-2 de proc/iaia 2 I'l 
 
 was happily soon over. She is come to bring us all kinds 
 passe venu * scrtc 
 
 of refreshments. Sciences have always been protefted by 
 
 rafraichissement f. . protege 
 
 enlightened governments. 
 eclair e 2 1 
 
 Rule II. The participle past, when it is accom- i 
 panied by the verb avoir, never agrees with its sub- -| 
 ject. 
 
 EXAJ.IPLES. 
 
 Mon frere a ccrit. Ma soeur a ecrit, 
 
 My brother has written. My sister has written. 
 
 Me: frercs o;z/ ecrit, Mes ?ceurs &>;/ ecrit. 
 
 My brothers have written. My sis-ters have written. ^ , 
 
 /.di Amazoncs &«/ acquis ^t' /a J'ai contraint les soldats a j 
 
 celtbritcU piarcher, _ 'I 
 
 The Amazons have accjuired I have forced tlic soldiers tr 
 
 some celebrity. inarch. 
 
 Os- ■
 
 ( .169 ) 
 
 OBsr.a.vATioN. The participle he \% the only- 
 one in the French language (hat never varies. We 
 
 say, i/, or die a tte, he or she lias been; •'■■ 
 ent itc., they have been. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 The Romans have successively triumphed 
 
 successivemrnt tnoiitphcr 
 
 or ellcs 
 
 ever the 
 de 
 most warlike nations. Lampridius relates that Adrian hud 
 
 bfliiqueux 2 1 
 
 crcfted to Jesus Christ some temples, which were stiil 
 eUver ind-6 de que ok '* encore 
 
 to be seen in his time. Happy those princes who ns - 
 
 'voir ind-2 de '■' art. 
 
 ver made use of their power but to do good ! "We 
 
 user ind-4 ^ue pour art. 
 
 have spent the whole day in tormenting oursclveF. 
 
 paiser journee li sc tour men tsr 
 
 One has seldom seen a great stock of good sense in a man of 
 fonds sens A 
 
 imagination. The errors of Descartes have proved very 
 
 * beauconp 
 useful to Newton. 
 ser'vir 
 
 AGREEMENT OF THE PARTICIPLE PAST WITH 
 ITS -REGIMEN. 
 
 Rule I. The participle past alwavs agrees with 
 its regimen direct, when that regimen is placed before 
 the participle, whatever may be the auxiliary verb, 
 that acc<jjupanies it. 
 
 examples. 
 
 J^fs eolirrs que j'ai eus ont 
 
 fait de grand s progres. 
 Lucrece s' est tuee. 
 'y ai renvoye les li-vres que 
 
 lioi'i m'a\jicfi pretes. 
 i^ue de soins j: me suis don- 
 
 nes ! 
 Qiielle affaire avez-vous en- 
 - treprise .' 
 Qi'ti-id la race de Ca'in se pit 
 
 mulripliee. 
 'Cei yeux que nont emus ni 
 
 ionpirs fii terreur. 
 
 The pupils I have had have 
 made a rapid pra^ress. 
 
 Lucretia has killed herself. 
 
 I have sent back the books 
 which you h^d le r itie. 
 
 What pains I have f ken ! 
 
 What business have you un- 
 dertaken ? 
 
 When the race of Cain had 
 multiplied. 
 
 Thobc eyes which neither 
 sighs nor terror have mov- 
 ed. 
 
 Q-
 
 ( I70 ) 
 
 Observation. The regimen put before the 
 participle is, in general, one of these pronouns que, 
 .m^e, te, .je, le, la, Ics, nous, vous ; but it is some- 
 times a noun joined to tlic pronoun ifwl, or preceded 
 by the word of quantity que, as may be seen in the 
 before mentioned examples, 
 
 . The ancient grammarians made two exceptions to 
 tliis rule. They were of opinion that the participle 
 Ought to take neither gender nor number, i". when 
 the subjedil is put after the participle, as : Ics lettres 
 qiia ecrit Afadame de S[v'ignc, the letters whicli Ma- 
 dame de Sevigne has wiitten : la U^on que vous out 
 donne vos maitres, the lesson which your masters 
 have given you : but this exception, to which Boilcau, 
 Racine, &c. would never submit, is now universally 
 reje6led in France, and we ought to say iciiies in 
 the first example, and donnce in the second. 
 
 1°, When the participle, although preceded bv its 
 regimen dire6l, is followed by an adjective making 
 part of the preceding regimen, as : Adam ct Kvc que 
 Dleuavo'it cree innodm, Adam and Eve whom God 
 had created innocent : la v'llle de Londres s^est rendu 
 florlssante par ion commerce, the city of London has 
 made itself flourishing by its commerce. This like- 
 wise is contrary to the present practice, and we ought 
 to say cries in the first example, and rendue in the 
 second. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 All the letters I have rttV/iW cor. firm that important 
 f. reifvoir confirr.cr 2 
 
 news. The agitated life whicli 1 have led tt!i now 
 nun'velle \ agite '2 If. mtner juiqu a prtsent 
 
 makes me sigh for retirement. The dilticultics whiih 
 
 soi({>ner apris art. retralle f. f- 
 
 tlic Academics liave Ti:ade to one another, do not seem 
 
 se iaire * '^ pavoitre 
 
 to me easy to bo resolved. The scicncts wnirh you have 
 
 aise rhoiulve f. 
 
 :tudi(d will prove infinitely useful to you. Thcdcafh which 
 
 ctre f. 
 
 Lucrctia ^ave herself has made her immortal. 'I he ciru-s 
 St i'vnner immortatnt'r f-
 
 ( 171 ) 
 
 v.'hich those nations have ^v;// to themselves are .but a heip 
 
 peupld se biUir ne que amus 
 
 of cottages. The celebrity which the Amazons have dc- 
 
 chaumitre f. f. 
 
 <lHlredx.o themselves is nothing but the dream of a credulous 
 
 s' acquirir ne que rc-ve ii 
 
 mind. The persons whom you have instructed appear to me 
 
 1 f. histruire 
 
 possessed of reason and taste. The opportunities which he 
 pleln occasion i. 
 
 has ^aJ of beating the enemy, and of which he has not 
 
 batlre inf-1 
 laid hold, have made him suspefted of trei?on. Nothing 
 profit er faire soul<^otncr tru/ii.cn 
 
 can equal the ardour of the troops I have seen setting off. 
 
 collier tr'.upei. i;o:r panir '\nf-l 
 
 The chimeras which she has got in her head, are bcyjiui 
 
 cinmere f. se mettre passer 
 
 all belief. What steps have I not taken ? What fortunes 
 
 cro\ance demar-che faire f, 
 
 has not this revolution overt hrozun ! What tears ha» i^he not 
 
 ren-verser que dt larmes 
 shed, what sighs has she not heaved ! The Amazons have 
 terser soupir pousser 
 
 made themselves famous by their courage. The city of Lon-: 
 
 se rendre cclcbre 
 
 don has inade itself, by its commerce, the metropolis of the 
 
 meirop . le 
 universe. I have thought her agitated by the Furies. The 
 
 croire 
 tongue which Cicero and Virgil have 'written will last 
 
 ecrire vrvre 
 
 through their works. I cjuld have wished to avoid those 
 par de entrer dans 
 
 deuils, but I have thought them necessary. The- Tribunes 
 
 croire 
 demfinded of CloJius the execution of the promise which the 
 demandcr a 
 Consul Valerius had given them. 
 
 N. B We have not found in our most famous 
 ■writers since fifty years, a single instance of the two 
 exceptions which the ancient grammarians make to 
 this rule : ihey all agree, even in poetry, in rejecting 
 them ; which can no longer leave any doubt about 
 the present usage. 
 , Rule II. The participle past never agrees with 
 
 I its regimen, either when tliat participle is without 4. 
 
 \ 0.2
 
 ( 172 ) 
 
 regirrKTi direcr, or when, having a regimen directy 
 that regimen is placed after it. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 La lettre Jont je vous ai par- The letter which I have men- 
 
 le. tiontd to you. 
 
 La perte et les profits aux' The lo.-s and profits in whicii 
 
 queh il a pariicipc. he has participated. 
 
 hei' academies se sont fait dcs The academies have proposed 
 
 objefliofis. objections to one another. 
 
 Vous ave-.: instruit ces per- Ycu have taught those per- 
 
 sonnei a desshidr. sons to draw. 
 
 hucrcce i'esi donne /a mort. Lucretia has put herself to 
 
 death. 
 Observation. We have in French about 600 
 verbs which have no regimen direct, 550 ot which 
 aje conjugated with the auxiliary verb avoir. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 The persons whose "visit you had announced to me are 
 15 2 annencer 4 3 
 
 not come. Men have built themselves cities. The Amazons 
 
 'uenir se bdtir 
 
 have acquired great celebrity. I have forced the sol- 
 
 beaucoup de contraindre 
 
 (tiers to march. That woman has given herself fine goivns. 
 
 marcher se donner (^de) robes 
 
 Letters and writing have been invented to represent 
 
 3 ecriture 4 on \ inventer 2 pour peindre 
 
 speech. He has /cyi' a very splendid glory. %\\.t has cut \ife 
 
 un eclatant se couper * 
 
 fwo fingers. Titus had made his wife mistress of his 
 
 rendre ind-5 
 riches. I have given vjyelf a deal of trouble. Commerce 
 bitn hi en peine 
 
 has made this city flourishing. God has created men ia- 
 
 frt'^rind-3 
 nocent. They have appointed themselves a rendez-vous. 
 
 se donner * 
 
 ' N. B. Some grammarians are of opinion that we 
 may sav : Ales .'"rttrs se sont fait rcligicuses ; elle s^est 
 rendu Ici mattrcsse; elk s^est trouvc guerie ; 'es Arjia- 
 zones se sont rendu celcbres ; Liter ece s' est tue soi-mcmc ; 
 Aladamc s'est trouve rtuil cc matin. But, in all these 
 examples, the regimen is direct and precedes the par- 
 ticiple : of course, they come under Rule 1. and 
 ought to take gender and number.
 
 Rule TIT. The participle past takes neither gender 
 nor number, chher when the participle and tae aux- 
 iliary verb to which it is joined are used impersonully, 
 or when that participle is followed by a verb which 
 governs the nouns or pronouns preceding it. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Les c/ialrurs cxcessives qu il The excessive heats whfchi 
 
 a fait c€t tte ont causi bien - we have had this summer, 
 
 des maladies. have been tlie cause of 
 
 many diseases. 
 %n:lli; fdchcusc a-jcninre'voits What unpleasant adventurs- 
 
 f r/-/7 arrive ? have yuu met with ? 
 
 L.^ maison que j'ai fait butlr. The li'ju^e which I have or- 
 dered to be built. 
 br.it-:z Ifs vertus qve I'ous Imitate the virtues whichryou 
 
 a-vr'z entendii lower. have heard praised. 
 
 Les mathemaliques que 'vous The mathematics Vvhich you 
 
 nave% pas voulu que f c- would uut permit me ta 
 
 tudiasse. study. 
 
 ^lle s'est lalsse ieduire. She has sufttred herself to 
 
 be seduced. 
 
 Observation. To make a right application of 
 the second part o^' this rule, we ought to examine 
 whether w-e can put tlie regimen immediately after the 
 participle. As we cannot say : j'ai fait la maisorr\ 
 "jous OrVi% entendutes vt'rtur, vous ' n'avez pas' voiilu 
 les maiJumat'iques, it follows that the regimen belongs 
 to the seeond veih. Sometimes, however, the regi- 
 men may relate cither to the participle, or to the verb, 
 according to the meaning of the speaker. For in- 
 stance, we. ought to say : je r al i.u peindre, meaning, 
 I saw her picture drawn, and je Fai vue pcindrCf 
 meaning, I saw her painting. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 The great changes ' ivhkh have taken place in a<T- 
 
 y avoir art. . - 
 
 ministration, have astonished many people. The heavy 
 
 l)ien des grand 
 
 rains rvkick we harje had in the' spring, have done .^rcs^t 
 pluiei. {aire d nut- 
 
 injury to the- harvest. The %c7ixsi\x.Y I'jhlck thtye v.'Si 
 
 ire beauccup ■ re'colte ductte .'j. avoir 
 
 last winter, has afforded the oppartuniry cf doing -DjUcA: 
 ^ 1 donner on-asicn Ki-u'iVii i 
 
 0,3
 
 ( n4 ) 
 
 good. IfAat news has come to you ? The scholars luhom 
 
 •venir 
 yo \ made read, have made great progress. The figures 
 
 ind-4 (i/c) 
 
 -ji'hich you have learnt to draw are of a great beauty. 
 
 apprendre dmincr 
 We ought never to swerve from the good path 
 
 failoir \x\i-\ i' eloigner routed, 
 
 ivhich we have begun to pursue. The measures "whuk 
 
 on coTnmencer iulvre mesures 
 
 you have advised me to adopt have not succeeded. Tlie 
 
 comelller de prendre 
 rule lu/iich I h.ive begun to explain seems to tat. very 
 regie expLoi-er paroitre 
 
 easy to understand. You see that 1 have not been mistaken 
 
 saisir que se tromj tr ind--i 
 
 ©n the affairs "which I had foreseen you "xculd ha-ve. 
 prtvoir que cond-1 
 
 N* B. i''. We ought to say, although Restaut 
 and some other graminarians are of a contriiry opi- 
 nion : le dku ATerciire est un de ceux que hs aneietis- 
 ont le plus muh'ipl'ies, the god Mercury is one of thovse 
 the ancients have multiplied the most \ ce jsur est un 
 de ceux tjuils ont consacrcs aux larmes^ this day is one 
 of those whiL-h they have consecrated to teats ; c\est 
 une des plus belles a^lioris (jue fai vues, it ;s otie of 
 the finest actions I have seen. All these exar/iples 
 come under Rule I. 
 
 2°. Here are two examples wliicl^ might puzzle 
 foreigners, and perhaps many Frci^chmen ; the hrst, 
 because the veib which governs the regimen is not 
 expressed, and the second, because the regimen is 
 understood. Jevous ai rendu tous les services que f ai 
 voulUf que j^ai du, que fuipUy I have done you all 
 ^he services I would, I ought, I coidd. De la fa<;on 
 oue fai d:t, or que j^ai fmU, on a dii in entendre ; 
 In the manner 1 have said, or I have spoken, they 
 must have understood me. Add re>tdye at the end of 
 the fiist sentence, and it comes under Rule 111. In. 
 the second, put Us c hoses after dit, and de ces chases 
 aiter parle, and it will come under Rule 11. 
 
 ^3^'. The Abbe d'Olivct, Mr. Duclos, &c. will 
 hive us say : 
 j4vez-vous cntendu chart- Avez-vous entendu chan^ 
 
 ter la nouvcl/e arictu ^ ter la nouvelk afirics ?
 
 ( 175 } 
 
 'Je fill entendu chan- Je Pal entendue chatt'' 
 
 tcr. ter. 
 
 Une personne s'est presen- Une personnc s'est present 
 
 tee a la porte ; je ['ai tee a la porte ; je Paz 
 
 fait passer. laissee passer. 
 
 Avcc des sohts, on atiroit Avec des soinsy on atirolt 
 
 snuvc cette personne \ on sairje cette personne ; on 
 
 Pa fait mourir. I'a Wisse&mourir. 
 
 Thev bring thve examples of the first column under 
 Fule LII. and those of the second uruier Rule I. 
 Bui the Abbe de Condillac thinks otherwise, and con- 
 siders, in all the above cases, the verb and the parti- 
 ciple as forming an indivisible idea. We cannot give 
 our opinion upon this subject in. an elementary work 
 like the present. 
 
 CHAP. VL 
 
 OF PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 Prepositions are words which serve to express the 
 relations of things one to another, and this thev do by 
 joining the noun or pronoun following to the word 
 that precedes ihein. When we say : le fncit de Tar" 
 hre, the fruit of the tree, de expresses the relation 
 between frutt and arbre. When we s'dy: -utile a 
 riiomme, useful to man, a n>akes the noun kornme re- 
 late to the adjective utile. When we say : /'«/ rccu 
 dc mon pi-re, I have received from my fatlier, de serves 
 to join the noun pere to the verb recu. De and a are 
 prt-positions, and the word which tuUow, them i$ 
 called the regimen of the preposition. Some gram- 
 marians term it also complement, because the preposi- 
 tion only expresses a general and imj)erfect sen.NC, 
 which, to beccMiie particular and perfect, needs bciiu 
 restrained by a word. 
 
 Tiiese words arc called prepositions, because they 
 are generally placed before the noun which they cro- 
 i:rn. 
 
 Tliere are various kinds of prepositions ; tlie prin. 
 cipal ones are as tollows. 
 
 Those denoting the place are : 
 
 1'. Chez^ at. // est c/iez lu'i, he is at home, 
 
 2°. Dans, in. // se promhic dans le jardln^ he is 
 walking in the garden.
 
 . 3'^. D-evafit^ before. // est tonjours dcvant ma 
 yeux, he is always betore my eyes. 
 
 4°. Derr'urey behind. // ne rcgarde jamais der~ 
 r'lerc luU he never looks behind him. 
 
 5°. P<?/7M/, among. Que defous parmi les hommes! 
 how many tools among men ! 
 
 6". Sous, under. La taupe vlt sous terrc, the 
 mole lives under ground. 
 
 7°. Sur, u\yon, on. // a le chapeau sur la- tete^ 
 he has hishai on (his head). 
 
 . 8"^. /^(?rj, towards. D a'lmant se tournevers loiord^ 
 the loadstone points towards the north. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 We find less reil happiness in an elevated condition- 
 dc: f. 
 
 than in a middling state. Th«re was a delightful 
 
 ?)/ovc>i 2. etat y avoir '2. 
 
 grove if/i/wt/' his heuse. Among so many diffeccnt 
 
 tant de ii. 
 
 has a iciigioivs worshipv. 
 
 ;itsubj-l. 2. cuUe 1. 
 
 with magnificence undir the 
 
 k 
 
 
 
 
 nations, 
 
 , there is not 
 
 one but 
 
 1. 
 
 
 
 qiU 
 
 Nature 
 
 displays 
 
 ci(^l>!oyer 
 
 her 
 
 riches 
 
 torrid 
 
 zone. 
 
 
 litcrnal 
 
 2. 
 
 l.f. 
 
 d 
 
 ? '2 
 
 en the 
 
 summit of 
 
 the 
 
 Alps. 
 
 snows are to be seen 
 
 1. on 'von-\nd-\^ 
 
 One is never tru^y eas-y 
 
 tyanqutUe 
 
 but at home.. Tczuards the north, nature presents 
 
 que sci. 
 
 a gloomy and savage prospci.'>. He walked ^f-Zirif me 
 
 tri5tc2. .'5. asped m. 1. 
 
 to serve me as a guide. 
 serijir de "■' 
 
 Those denoting the order aj'C : 
 
 1°. Avant. betore. La nouvcUe est arr'ivce avant 
 te courrier, the news are come before the courier. 
 
 2". Aprl-Sy alter. 7/ est trop vain pouf marcher 
 ttpres ies aiitns, he is too proud to walk after othe." 
 people. 
 
 30. Ef/tte, between. Ei'/e a son enfant entre Ies 
 hras, she holds her child between (in) her arms. 
 
 4°. Dtpuis, since, from. Depidi la creation jus- 
 qua nousy trom the creation to the j)resent time. 
 
 5°. Dhf from. Dcs son cufancc, from- his in- 
 fancy : dcs i.a source, from its source.
 
 ( ^77 ) 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 From the cariicst infancy, I have hid a horror for 
 
 tcJre 2. 1. •■ 4e 
 
 Jying. Many very aitoniahing events have 
 
 taken place for these ten years. Btfujccu those 
 
 /t' passer * 
 
 two mountains is a hollow <^eep road. We 
 
 creux2. et protQnd%. chimin m. 1. 
 were up bffofe day light, /« order to enjoy the mag- 
 
 sc- lei-er iod-6. * jcv/r de nia- 
 
 nificent s>peftacle of the rising sun. After such great 
 gnijique lei-a>ii 2 1 (</?) </ 
 
 taohs, it only remained for us to repair . them 
 
 nc rtsti'r ^m i 
 
 as well as we could. 
 de KOtrc mieux. 
 
 Those denoting union are : 
 
 1°. Jvect with. II faut savo'ir avec qui on se lie, 
 we ought ro know the persons witii whom we asso- 
 ciate. 
 
 2°. Durant, during. Durant la guerre^ during the 
 war : durant Vcte, during the summer. 
 
 This preposition expressing a continued duration : 
 
 3°. Pendant^ during, in. Pendant Vhiver, in win- 
 ter lime : pendant la paix, in time ot peace. 
 
 This denotes a duration limited, reicridled to a given 
 time. 
 
 4°. Outre, beside. Outre des quality's aimables, il 
 faut encore, &c. , beside amiable i^ualities there ought 
 still, Sec. 
 
 5°. Sulvant, according. Je me dec'iderai suivant 
 les circonsiancesy I shall determine according to cir- 
 cumstances. 
 
 6" Scion, according, by. Le sa^e se conduit se'oa 
 les max'imes de la rahan, a wise man acts according 
 lu the dictates of reason. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 With wit, politeness, and a little forwardness to oblige, 
 ((3'c') peu dr prc-'jer.anci^ 
 
 one generally succeeds in the world. bdnde tiie ex- 
 
 reuisir 
 terior advantages of figure, and the graces of deporimenr^ 
 art. art. irtdtniwi
 
 ( '78 ) 
 
 she possesses an exctlknt heart, a just mind, and a sen- 
 
 avotr '2. 1. 2. I, 
 
 sibic soul. Always behave yourself according to 
 
 2. I. sc con did re * 
 
 the maxims which I have inculcated in you. In the 
 
 itiadqucr * 
 course o/that siege, the commandant of the city made 
 
 ind-3. 
 some very lucky sallies. We are fit for meditation 
 
 dc hturcux S3r:it. On a 
 
 during- winter. 
 
 Tho.^e denoting opposition are : 
 
 1°. Contre, zgA\nst. Je plaidc contxe lui, I plead 
 against him. 
 
 2°. AJalgre, in spite of. // V a fait malgre wia/, 
 he has done it in spite of me. 
 
 3°. Nonobstant, notwithstanding. Nonobstant ce 
 quon lul a d'Uy notwithstanding what has been said 
 to him. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 We cannot aft long against our own charafter; 
 
 saijoir <:.ox^A-\. agir * 
 
 notivitiw.anding all the pains wre take to disguise it, ic 
 shows itself and betrays us in many occasions : it is ia 
 ie inontrcr trahir nous 
 
 Tain fv>r us, in ?pitc o/ourselrcs,,we are known at last. 
 avoir beav. faire ii l-a longue. 
 
 Those denoting sepanition are : 
 
 1° Sans, without. Deii troupes sans chcfs^ troops 
 without commanders. 
 
 20. Exccptcy except. Excepte qticlques malhcu- 
 reux, except some wretches. 
 
 3"'. HorSy except, save. Tout est perdu hors 
 rhonrteur, all is lost save honour. 
 
 4". //orwi/.f, except, but. ,Tous sont cntrcs hormis 
 mon fyh-e, they are all come in, but^ except, my 
 brother. 
 
 OF SEPARATION". 
 
 Had it not been for your care, I should have beca 
 sans 
 Ignorant all my !:fe-time^ The philosophers of anti- 
 quity, to a fi.:c, have held the world eternal. All 
 
 cruirt 
 have laid do-.vn their armi> ixcrj>t two regiments who- 
 mcttrc bas
 
 ( ^9 ) 
 
 have piLferreJ ir.aking their way through the enemy, 
 
 i€ fii'.re jcur 
 Every thing is absurd and ridiculous in that work, except 
 
 a chapter or two. 
 
 'I'hose denoting the end are ; 
 
 i". Eaz'ers, toward^, to. // est chmitahle envers 
 ie pouvn-y he is charitable to the poor. 
 
 i". Touchanty respecling. // a tcrlt touchant 
 cctte affaire, he has written re.spe6ting that business. 
 
 3°. Pour, for. // travaille pour le blcn public, he 
 labours for the pubHc good. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 T have written to you concern'mg that business in which T 
 take the most lively interest, and as 1 know your benevolence 
 
 bitn-jC'Alance 
 toivardi the unfortunate, I make not the least doubt that you 
 
 Hi dojiter nuHement 
 will bestow all your cares upon it, not so muchy«" the 
 
 donrtj^r %\^)-\ y moins 
 
 satisfaftion of obliging me, as for the pleasure of justifying 
 
 obJigcr juitificr 
 
 innocence and confounding calumny. 
 confondrc: art. 
 Those denoting the cause and the means are : 
 1°. Par, bv. // ra Jlecki ^AX ses pricres, he has 
 softened him by his prayers. 
 
 2°. Moycymajit, by means, for. II reussira moven- 
 nant vos avis, he will succeed by means of your 
 counsels, 
 
 3". Attendu, on account of, for. 11 ne pent partir 
 attend u Ics vents contr aires, he cannot sail on ucoouut 
 of. contrary winds. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 Is there any man that has never been softened by tears 
 
 Jiechlr subj-3. 
 and disarmed by submission ? Through the precautions we 
 
 dcsarmcr 
 tO' k, we avoided the rocks of that dangerous ccabt. 
 
 ind-.'?, icuiil lou. 
 
 Oicing to the bad state of nsy father's health, I Uiall not 
 travel this year. 
 I'oyagcr » 
 
 The use of the three following ones Is much varied 
 and very extensive. 
 
 a generally denotes the end and limii of a relation. 
 It denotes the place we are goinc; to, the aim we have
 
 ( i8o ) 
 
 in view : alter ci Londres, to go to London : courir ^? 
 sa peite, to run to one's ruin : aspirer a la glo'ire, lo seek 
 after glory. It also denotes the place we are at : etre 
 a Ro)ru;, to be at Rome ; time : ii midi, at twelve 
 o'clock ; circumstances : a ce sujet^ on this subject ; 
 the manner ; supplier a mains joi?iUs,, to pray with 
 both hands, to beg hard ; and by analogy : peindre a 
 rhuile, to ])aint in oil-colours ; the state we are in : 
 £tte a son aisc, to be at ease ; the quality of things : 
 has a troisjiis, three thread stockings ; the end and use 
 of a thing : unc table a manger, a dining table ; the 
 disposition of a person : Jiomme a reussir, a man (ca- 
 pable) to succeed; and by analogy: crime a ne pas 
 pardoiner, &c. a crime not to be forgiven, &c. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 Fathers ! give good counsels, and still better 
 
 i/e encore 3 (</<■) meillenr 
 
 examples to your children. Should we go to Paris, would 
 
 L' ind-'J 
 
 it not be rim-iing /o our dcstru<^ion ? A good minister 
 
 ce cond-1 courir 
 
 only aims cU ihe glory of well-serving his country. When 
 ne que ■ servir 
 
 we were ui the country, we devoted the morning /<? study, ^ 
 
 cottsacrt.r 
 we took a walk at noon, and at three or four o'clock, we 
 
 Si promt ner hfiure 
 
 vent a hunting or n hing. J7/»c«this, he reiited tn 
 
 ind-2 cctte (icca.uo>i 
 
 us a cbarn^ing story. Michel Angclo has painted a great 
 
 . Michel Angs * _ 
 
 deal in fresco. It is a bed ivith ivory post' and hind 
 
 fieiqite ce colonne d'ifoirf pied dc 
 
 feet. That man -uuth his gloomy looks and blunt 
 
 Juche ' regard pr. art. brufq'.'.e 
 
 deportment seems to me fit only to serve as a bugbear. 
 
 ne que servir de " epowvanter 
 
 It is a thing not to be forgotten. 
 
 De generally denotes the place where we come 
 fjom, tiie point where a thing begins, horn which it 
 is extracted, from which it takes its name : 7V ^'/V«« 
 de France, I comc from France ; d'un bout d Fautrey 
 fiom one end to the other. It also expresses the rela- 
 tions of appeitenance : /e palais du roi, the king's 
 
 )iaVace
 
 ( i8i ) 
 
 palncc ; /rs facujtcs de fame, the faculties of the sc5ul ; 
 qualities : hr,mme d'esjtnt, a man of wit , frmmt: ae 
 st/h, a woman of sense ; a \xxn of a wliole : molttc di\ 
 the half of; quart dc, the fourth part of; the state: 
 mounr defaim, to die of hunger ; de soif, for thirst; 
 the means : vhne de fnitis, to live upon fruit j sauter 
 i'ejoie, to jump forjoy* Sec 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 J come from London, where I have spent eight days ver^ 
 ou passer 
 
 agreeably. Frotn one end of the horizon to the othet, the 
 sky was covered luith thick. black clouds. The marble 
 del tpais -2 et 3 niui^e 1 
 
 of Paros is not finer than that which we get from Carrara^ 
 
 nous vient Carrare 
 The Romans held themsel'.'cs descended from th« 
 
 sednc ind-2 
 Trojans, and Augustus had the littleness to pride himself on 
 
 petitesse de s'enorgueillir 
 his pretended descent frofn /Eneas. What have the 
 
 pretendu desfendance f. Ene'e , 
 
 faculties o/ the soul in common with the properties 9/" matter* 
 He is a man of wit dull, dry and without any agreement. 
 ce lourd sec * 
 
 Montaigne, Mad. de Sevigne and la Fontaine, 'were writers 
 
 de 
 o/ truly original genius. One half of the terrestrial world Is 
 
 2 3 1 globe 
 
 covered ivith water, and above a third part o/"the rest is with- 
 out inhabitants, either through extreme heat, or through 
 
 ou par ou par 
 
 excessive cold. In that happy retreat, we lived o«- the miik 
 
 2 1 asjle ind--? 
 
 of OUT flocks and the delicious fruits of our orchards. 
 brtbis 2 I lierger 
 
 En generally relates to time and place ; etre en An- 
 gletcrre, to be in England; alter ru Italic, to go to 
 Italy ; it also denotes the state : etrc en homie santcy to 
 be in good health ; en paix, at peace ; en guerre, at 
 war ; the cause ; il rafait en Jia'ine de lui^ he did it 
 through hatred for him, &c. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 He had been for a long while living . in France, of 
 
 depuis * I'i'vre ind-2 
 
 which he was passionately fond : the troubles which agitatt^i 
 aimer le sejour ind -4 
 
 R
 
 ( i82 ) 
 
 that fine kingdom obliged him to retire to Switzerland, 
 
 de Suisse 
 
 whence he soon after set off for Italy. We were at peace 
 d^ oil se rendre ind-2 
 
 and enjoyed all its charms, when ambition rekindled the 
 
 jouir de rai lamer ind-3 
 
 torch of war, and forced us to put our frontiers into a state of 
 fert forcer de ■" 
 
 defence. The savage is almost continually at war : he can- 
 
 presque toujours 
 not remain in quiet. He has adlcd, on this occasion, like a 
 rester repos dans '^ 
 
 great man. 
 
 A^. B. These last three prepositions are called of 
 specihcation ; they have many uses which can only be 
 Jcnown by practice. According to the Ahbe Girartl^ 
 s has twenty-five, dc fifty, and en sixteen. 
 
 CHAP. VII. 
 
 OF THE ADVERB. 
 
 The adverb is a word which is gene^all5^joined to 
 <he verb or the adjective, in order to determine its 
 signification. When we say : cct enfant park dis~ 
 iinfiemcnt, that child speaks distinctly ; by tlie word 
 dli tin dement we give to understand that he speaks one 
 •way rather than another. Nevertheless, we say, 
 though very improperly, that the adverb modiries the 
 verb ; for, it only modities tire attribute contained in 
 tlie verb. 
 
 Obsep.vation. There are ad)e6tives which are 
 sometimes used as adverbs. We say : il chantc juste, 
 lie sings true ; elle cJiantefaux, she sings out of tune ; 
 ils ne z'oient pas cla'ir, they do not see clear ; cctte 
 jieiir sent ben, that rlowcr has a good smell, &c. 
 
 There are adverbs of manner, which express how 
 things are done. They are an abreviated expres- 
 sion, answ-ering the end of a noun and a preposition : 
 sagcment, wisely, is for avec sagrssc\ witli wisdom. 
 This is the most numerous class^ 
 
 Adverbs arcforuicd from adje6fivcs, in the following 
 manner: 
 
 Rule I. When the adje6Vive ends in the mascu- 
 line witli a vowel, tlie adverb is formed by adding
 
 ( r83 ) 
 
 mem, as; modeste-ment, modestly; poli-mrni, po- 
 litely; ingtnu-ment^ ingenuously; assutu-rneni, assi- 
 duously, <Scc. 
 
 Exception. Foikment, foolishly, nouvellcmcnt,' 
 newlv, molUment, softly, are formed according to the 
 following rule. We at present write i;raimcni, truly, 
 galment, gaily, epcrditmoit, desperately, in^cnumenty 
 ingenuously, &c. therefore ':hey follow ihe preceding 
 rule. 
 
 Rule II. When the adjective ends with a con- 
 sonant, in the masculine, the adverb is formed froin 
 tJie feminine termination, by adding ment, as: grand, 
 graiide-ment, grearlv ; franc, franc he -mint, tranklv ; 
 frais, fraic/ic m-ent, freshly ; naif, ndivc-nunt, art- 
 lessly; long, langue-ment, a long time, tkc 
 
 Exceptions. i°. Gent'd, mdkes gniurMh't, prettily. 
 
 2°' The adjectives ending in ant an<l ent form their 
 adverbs by changing ant into atmnent, and ent into 
 emment, as: constant, constamment , constantly; elo- 
 quent, eloquemmcnt, eloquently, hent, and present. 
 are the only two of this class, that follow the general 
 rule. 
 
 Observation. These five adverbs : comment^ 
 how, incessanvnent, incessantly, notammcni, especiallv, 
 iLicmment, kuovvinglv, and nuitaminent, iiiglitly, are 
 not dcrivcxl from any adjectives. 
 
 Adverbs denoting the manner, and a few of the 
 other classes, have the three degrees of comparison, 
 which are formed as in adjectives. AVe say : pro' 
 fondime'ii, in the positive, uuss-'i, pins, or mains pro^ 
 fondancnt, in tlie comparative, f^i't, bicn, or trei 
 profandcment, in the superlative absolute, and le plus 
 profandiment, in the superlative relative. The fol- 
 lowing are ix>t susceptible of any degrees, viz. totale- 
 ment, exiremtment, snjflsammcnt, ainsi, de incme^ 
 cnz'aln, expres, comment^ incessamment, notamment 
 and nuitammenii. 
 
 Mai, bad, and b'l-en, well, have in the comparative 
 pis, worse, and mieux, better ; and in the superlative, 
 U pis or le plui mal, the worst, and k micux, the best. 
 R 2
 
 ( rS4 ) 
 
 EXKRCI SE. 
 
 FouifTaloue and Mr.sbillon have both ?pokcn very elnqucntt'^ 
 •n evangelical truths ; but the former hasj principdlty pro- 
 
 tf'iiingc'uqttc '2 premier 
 
 posed to hjinscll:' to convince tlie mind j the latter has gene- 
 
 ie proposer de connjairiirc second nc 
 
 rally had in view to touch the heart. Several of la 
 
 wjoir en vite (^ue dc toucher 
 Brayerc's charad"tt.rs arc ■i.ijinelyt drawn as delicately cxprcssedi. 
 
 caraftcre tracer 
 
 BufFon is one of the best writers of this age : he thinks deep' 
 
 . f"'°- 
 
 h\ dra-.v? strongly, and expresses himself 
 
 fondJ/nent ptindre j'orti;ncnt s'exprinicr 
 
 nobly. Ckirneille and Racine are the two most famous 
 
 trench tragic writers : the former's pieces arc strojigly, 
 
 3 iragique 2 pcete 1 celui-lu 2 1 
 
 but incctrreiily written; the lattcr's are more regularly 
 
 inc'jrre^ement celles de celui-ci 2 
 
 fine, move purely written, and more delicately thought. 
 
 penser 
 
 There are still various sorts of adverbs. 
 
 1°. Those denoting aflSnnation, as : certes, cer- 
 tainly ; oui, yes; vo/ontiers, willingly ; soit, be it so, 
 
 Ouli c''est mon nom, yes, that is my name: veitcz^ 
 •volontlers, soit, come ; very well ; be it so. 
 
 Doubt. Pcut-etre, petliaps. 
 
 Lefcrex.-vous ? Peut-ctre. Will you do it ? Pcr- 
 fcaj)?. 
 
 JDenial. iVcw, ne, ne pas, tie point, no, not. 
 
 En voulez-vous ? Nort. Will you have some? No. 
 /7V« voufcz-voiis pas P Will you not have some ? 
 J^'y pensez-pas, do not think of it. // n'ose, he 
 dares not. 
 
 2°v Some denote the order and rank, as : premlere- 
 ment, first, secondemciit, secondly, ckc. d'abord, at 
 first, aprcs, after, aveint, (Wparavnut, before, &:c. 
 
 D'abord // /"aut iv'itei de fa'irc U mal, ensuite il 
 fautfaire Ic b'len^ we ought, iirst, to avoid doing evil, 
 afterwards we ought to do good; 
 
 3^. Others denote the place, or the distance, vi/. 
 for the place ; ou, where, ici, licre, la, there, dcc^u^ 
 on this side, dcld, on that side, par-tout^ every- where.
 
 ( ^8s ) 
 
 &CC. Vene'Z id, come hither, allez la, go thither ; 
 for the distance ; pres, near, loin, far, proche, nigh, 
 2cc. Feriez plus pres, come nearer, alle::^ plus loin, 
 go farther. 
 
 4°. There are sotne that denote the time, either 
 in a determinate, or in an indeterminate manner. 
 Those denoting a determinate time are, for the pre- 
 sent : maintcnant, now, a present, at present, atlucl- 
 lement, this moment, &;e. for the past: /«Vr, yester- 
 day, avant-hier, the day before yesterday, autrefois^ 
 formerly, Sec. ; and for the future : demain, to-mor-- 
 rovv, apres demain, the day after to-morrow,. &c.. 
 On s^en affligcoit hicr ; a present on en rit \ on «'j?- 
 pensera plus demain. They grieved at if yesterday,, 
 now they laugh at it, to-morrow it will no longer be 
 thought of. Those denoting an indetermiiiate time,, 
 are; souvent, often, d' ordinaire, most times, quel- 
 quefois, sometimes, matin, morning, tot, soon, tard, 
 late, &c. Venez, plus souyent,. come oftener, cela. 
 arrive d' ordinaire, that generally happens. 
 
 5". Some express quantity, as: peu, little, assezy 
 enough, trop, too much, bcaucoup, much, tanty sa 
 much, &c. // parte beaucoup, ct rtjlhhit peu, he 
 talks niuch, and reflects little. 
 
 6^. Lastly, .some express comparison, as : plusy 
 more, mains, less, aussi, so, autant, as much, bic. 
 plus sage, aussi sage, mcins sage. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 Have ycu ever reail in Racine the famous scene of Pha;- 
 
 dra'5 delirium - Yes, I have, and I own it is one of the 
 
 dre delirt la (Ju) avouer que 
 
 finest of the French theatre. Perhaps you will discover, on 
 
 2 1 dans- 
 
 a second perusal of la Font2.ine's fables, beauties which 
 
 letlnre f. (Je) 
 
 ycu have «c/ perceived on the first. The man who 
 
 apficrc ei^oir ind-6 a 
 k wiUin_^ to do jjood is not stopped bv any obstacle. 
 •voukit * aniter (^as is not expressed) 
 
 aucun 
 Rc.-'.d books of innru<rtion fir-.t, and afierivayJ' vou 
 
 R .5
 
 ( i8> ) 
 
 miv pqss to those of entertainment. The wicked is, 
 
 pn'fer ind-7 agrtment 
 
 'n.:here-ver he goes, agitated with remorse. Con- 
 
 que subj-1 tour?nenter de 
 template at a dhtatue the high mountains, if you wish to- 
 discover prospers varied and alivayi new. Fcrme)!j, edu- 
 
 (^de) site m. 
 cation was, neglefted,. it is noiv ijery much attended to : it is 
 on\ Ac 3 s'occi(pir2 en falloir 
 
 to be hoped that new views will ioon be adopted. 
 * espe'nr on adopter ind-7 (^de) 
 
 Rude and coarse criticism generally dues greater 
 
 malhonnctc gtossicr d' ordinaire nuire pins 
 
 injury to the person who permits himself to exercise it> 
 sowvent se permcttre * 
 
 than to him who is the objeft of it. To bestow too much cm- 
 
 €71 embeilir 
 
 bellishment upon a %\\\s\tES. frequent ly betrays a want of judg- 
 
 etre fame 
 ment and taste. The more ignorant a man is, the less he be • 
 
 1 4 :j. J * 
 
 lieves himself to he so. 
 croire * * 'J le I 
 
 CHAP. viir. 
 
 OF CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 Thus far we have seen how v.'ords are joined to- 
 gether in order to make a sense. Words, thus united, 
 ionn a senteixcc, or proposition. 'I'he smallest pro- 
 position ought to have, at least, two words, viz. the 
 <.iibie6l and the verb, as : Jc cJutnte, 1 sing, vans lisez, 
 you read, r honime mao t\ man dies. The verb al- 
 ways contains an attribute, except rtte, when it docs not 
 mean to exist. Tiie attribute is tlvit which is affirmed 
 of the subject ; Je c/nnite, 1 sing, is for je suis chan- 
 iant, I am singing ; vous lisez, you re;!.d, Ls for voiis. 
 I'tes lisant, you aie reading. Clunitant and Inayit are 
 the attributes of those phrases : but the verb has often 
 ouc regimen and even two, as : je In une Icttrc a man 
 ami, I read a letter to my friend. 
 
 'Ihe conjunction is a word which serves to con- 
 nect sentences. When we say ; // plcure et rit en 
 mcme temps, he cries and laughs at the same time, this 
 word et unites t.hc first s.'ii'.tnge // plcure with the
 
 ( j87 ) 
 
 second z7 rit. Likewise, when wc say : Pierre ct 
 Paul r'lcnt, Peter and Paul laugh, the word et unites 
 these two sentences into one, Pierre rit and Paul rit. 
 
 There are dilferent kinds of conjuniS^ions, and 
 these kinds vary in proportion to the wants of the 
 mind. For, the mind may want 
 
 lo. To unite two nouns or two verbs, under the 
 same affirmation, or under the same iiegation, and it 
 then makes use of et for die affirmation : la sciencg 
 et la- vertu- sont estimables, science and virtue are esti- 
 mable ; and of ni for the negation : il ne boit ni yie 
 mange, he neitlier eats nor drinks. These are called 
 copulative. 
 
 Observattok. V\'^ often find ct instead of ni 
 in negative propositions, but it is incorrect. In this 
 line : /V nc connoissois pas Ahnanzor et P amour, it 
 would have been better to have said ni Vamoury I 
 knew neither Almanzor nor love. 
 
 1°,. To denote an alternative or distinction- between- 
 objects, and it makes use of o«, ou bien^ soit, soit que, 
 tnntot, &c. Efiirez ousortez, either come in or oq 
 out: soit dans la bonne, soh clans la mauvaise fortune, 
 eidier in good or bad fortune : tantot il rit, tantot 
 il pUure, he sometimes laughs and sometimes crie?. 
 These are the alternative ox diijun^ive. 
 
 3°*.. To restrict an idea, and it m;ikes ase of sinori, 
 quoique, encore que, a moins que. "Jc n''ai autre chose 
 4-i vous dire, sinon c|ue je le veux, I have nothing 
 ino.'"e to sav to. you, only that I will have it so : ccla 
 sera, quoique z-ous disiez, that shall be, \\-hatever you 
 may say. These are the restridive. 
 
 4". To express the opposition of an object to an- 
 other, and it makes use of mais, cependant, niun- 
 moins, pourtant, toutejois, bicn que. 11 est Ion, mais 
 il est bicn etourdi, he is good, but lie is vexy giddv. 
 These are the adversative. 
 
 5°. To express a condition, and it makes use of 
 sit sinon, a moins que, pourvu que, a condition que, 
 Sec. Tout est perdu, si vous ne vous /uitez devenir, ail 
 is lost, if vou do not hasten to come : vous rtussirez, 
 pourvu que vius ag:ss;ez avec vt^ueur^ you will sue-
 
 ( i88 ) 
 
 cced, provided you a6t with vigour. These are the 
 
 hypothetical ox conditional.. 
 
 t^. To express consent, and it makes use of a la 
 vertte, a la bonne heure, quand, quand mtme, non que, 
 quoique, encore que, 6cc. A la verite, c^esi etonnant, 
 mais ce- n\st pas mains sur, it is, indeed, very asto- 
 nishing, but it is not the less certain : vans le pensez- 
 ainsi, a la bonne heure, you think so, very vi'ell !.. 
 These are the concessive. 
 
 7°. To explain something, and it makes use of 
 savoir, comme, c'cst-a-dire. La tene est divisee en 
 quatre parties, savoir : FEtirope, V Asie, P Jfrique, i^ 
 rAmaiqtie, the earth is divided into four parts, viz.. 
 Europe, Asia, Africa, and America. These are 
 the explicative. 
 
 EXERCISE,. 
 
 Gold and silver are metals less useful than iron. I< 
 
 or argent {dt) fcr 
 
 like neither the flatterer nor the wicked. You may choose 
 
 aimer fiatltur nitcha^t choisir 
 
 cither a happy mtdiociity, or a sphere more elevated, but 
 
 (.de) 
 exposed to many- storms. I shall not yet pass to the perii- 
 
 bien de ora^e 
 sal of the authors of the second class, unless you advise 
 
 ordre consei/Ur sm\j]-\ 
 
 me t» it. That is certainly a superb piflure ; ne-vtr the less., 
 there is some incorredncss of design. Although Homer, 
 
 incvrrttiion pi. 
 according to Horace, ^lumbers at times, he is, 
 
 sotr.nieiller subj- 1 quelquefots 
 nevcrtheleis, the first of all poets. We have within us two 
 
 en 
 faculties, seldom united, viz. imagination and judgment. 
 rarement 
 
 8'^. To express relation or parity between two 
 propositions, and it makes use of comme, ainsi, de 
 me me, ainsi que, attssi-hien que, atitant que, si que, &c. 
 // n est pas si riche cju'ow le dit, he is not so rich as 
 he is reported to be. These are the comparative. 
 
 90. To express augmentation or diminution, and 
 it makes use, for augmentation, of d^cdlUurs, outre, 
 fue, de plus, an surplus, Rien de plus amusant qui>
 
 ( i89 ; 
 
 t'':isfoif^; d^ullleurs, rien de plus instruifif, nothirig 
 more entertaining than history ; besides, nothing 
 more instructive: and for diminution, of «« ynovis, du 
 nioins, pour Ic mollis. Ilfaut, pour le moins,- ccnnoitff 
 Us principes generaux d^u>?e lartgue, avant ae sc mclcr 
 dc I'eyiseigner, we ought, at least, to kntjw the general 
 princijjles of a language, before Ave take upon oi'.rselvcs 
 to teach it. These are the augmentative and the 
 diminutive. 
 
 ic. To 'express the cause or the Avherefore of a 
 thing, and it makes use of c^r, comme, puree que,puisqney 
 pourquoi, pour, ajin que, 6cc. Fuyez I'oisivetJ, p;u- 
 ce tju't/iV est la mere de tons les vices, avoid idleness, 
 because it is the mother of all vices. These are the 
 causal. 
 
 11°. To draw a conclusion, and it makes use of 
 or, done, par consequent, c^ est pour quo:. II faut aimer 
 ce qui est aimable ; ov la vertu. est aimable, done il 
 faut aimer la vertu. We ought to love what is ami- 
 able ; now, virtue is amiable, therefore, we ought to 
 love virtue. 
 
 12°. To express some circumstance of order or 
 time, and it makes use of quand, lorsque, pendant quCy 
 &c. tant que, depuls que, avant que, d}s que, aussi' 
 tot que, a peine, apres, enfin. Sec. A peine nous finis- 
 sions, qujl cntra, we had hardly done, when he came 
 in. These arc the conjunctions oi order and ti77ie. 
 
 13°. To express the passage from one circum- 
 stance to another, and it makes use ef or, en effet, ait 
 reste, a propos, aprds tout, A propos, je vous diraiy 
 now I think of it, I will tell you : au reste, on yiy 
 pense plus, however, they thinl no more of it. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 The most beautiful flowers last but a moment: thus, 
 
 ne avoir qui instant de duree 
 human life passes away. Mad. de Sevigne's letters are 
 
 2 1 * de 
 
 models of elegance, simplicity and taste ; besides, th?y arc 
 replete with interesting anecdotes. I shall always advise you 
 fUin de 2 1 
 
 to take the ancients as your guides j at least, do not quit, 
 
 pour *• s" (carter ds
 
 ( 190 } 
 
 But seldom the way they have traced for you. S^nce affec- 
 '»^ qne tracer '"■ 
 
 tatio.i is a fault, avoid every thing that may have the ap- 
 
 defaut powvoir 
 
 pearance of it. We ought to pradtise what the gospel 
 
 en dc-voir ind-I * 
 
 commands us : new, it commands us, not only to for- 
 
 seiilemeni de par- 
 give our enemies, but also to love them. After we had 
 donner a encore " ind-5- 
 
 examined that singular effeft^, we enquired into its 
 
 rec here her ind-3 en 
 causes. None but an Englishman can be a 
 
 art. y avoir ne (ju( qrd pouvoir %\\V]-\ 
 
 judge of Shakespear : for, what foreigner is sufficiently 
 juger •■'■ 
 vtrsed in theEnglish language to discover the tublime beau — 
 
 2 1 pour 
 
 ties of that author ? 
 
 T he above conjund^ions are not attended with any 
 kind of difficulty ; tl:iey need only to be known. 
 But it is not hO witli the conjundlion que, which we 
 may call conducive, as it serves to condudl the sense 
 to its complement. It is always placed t^otwcen two 
 ideas, the first of which must always be followed by 
 another, in order to complete the sense, as ; il est im- 
 portant c^uc tout le monde sMt instruit^ it is ot great 
 importance that every body should be wxU instru6ted. 
 It differs from the relative pronoun que. in as much as 
 itcan never be turned into leqii^l, laquclle. The con- 
 jundlion que. must be repeated before every membsr of 
 a period: this rule is almost without exception. 
 
 The conjundlion que aUo serves, i°. to complete a. 
 comparison. D Jsie est plus ^ratide que FEuropr^ 
 Asia is larger rhan Europe. 2.°. To express a re- 
 stridlion in negative sentences. On ne parle que de la. 
 nouvclle viSfoire, they talk of nothing but the new* 
 viflorv.- When thus vised, we first present a nega- 
 tion, from which we draw the thing, in order to pre- 
 sent It, in an affirmative sense, exclusively to any, 
 other. 
 
 7'he conjunction que also serves to give more force, 
 and grace, more vivacity and precision to sentences, 
 
 lo, la ellijnical turns: quil vive ■ may he live!
 
 ( 191 ) 
 
 ^'/7 soli heureux ! may he be happy ! that is : je soU' 
 haitc qn il Vive, I wish he may live, t>cc. 
 
 2°. Vv^hen it is put for a moms que, avant que, sans 
 que, as : ccla ne fiaira pas qu d ne vicnne, there will be 
 no end lo K unless he come. 
 
 3°. When it is used instead of des que, aussitCt que, 
 si, as : qu'ilfasse le moindre execs, it est malade, it" he 
 but indulge m a little excess, he is ill. 
 
 4"^. When it is put iox jusqua ce que, as : attendee 
 qu'il -vienne, wait till he come. 
 
 5°. When iox pour juQi, as: qxic nc se corrigc-t-il? 
 Why does he not reform ? 
 
 6°. When put for et si, as: que si vous me dites^ 
 and if you should tell tne. 
 
 7°. When instead of comms and parce que, as ; 
 rempli quUl ctoit de ses prejuges, il ne voulut convenir 
 de rien, full as he was of his prejudices, he would 
 not agree to any thing. 
 
 8°. When it is put for combien, and then it denotes 
 admiration and the sudden emotions of the soul, as : 
 que Dieuest grand ! how great is the Almighty ! qut 
 je le hats ! how I hate him ! &c. 
 
 We shall speak of some other uses in Chap. X. 
 
 Another very frequent use of this conjunction is to 
 put it for commc, parce que, puisque, quand, quotque, 
 si, &CC. when to prepositions beginning with these 
 words, others are added under the same regimen, by 
 means ot the conjunction et, as : si I'on aimoit son 
 pays, et qu on dcsirut sincerement sa gloire, on se con- 
 duiroit dc maniere. See if we loved our country, and 
 sincerely wished its glory, we should act so as, occ. 
 Lorsquon a des dispositions et qiCan s'appl'.que, on 
 i ait des pr ogres, with good dispositions and applica- 
 cion, one makes some progress. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 Alay they understand at last that without mternal ' 
 
 a-jfc soi-mime 2' 
 
 peace there is no happiness. Never write before you have 
 
 1 subj-7 
 
 examined thoroughly the subje<5t which you propoic 
 
 ioui toutii ics faces s^projjoscr
 
 ( 19^ ) 
 
 totrcat. Let him but hear the least noise, his tcrrirird inia- 
 <le ^- cffrayc 
 
 gination presents to him nothing but monsters. Da 
 
 ne que (de) 
 I50t sift that question, before 1 c;in work 
 
 al'profoKJir (Tff) /o^oovr siibj-1. 
 
 with you. U'/ij decs he not taki' advantage of his youth 
 
 pyqfittr 
 in order to study ? Full of self-love as he is, expef^ 
 
 pour ne 
 
 nothing good from him. lloiv beautiful is that 
 
 run {_de) en elle 'J, I. 
 
 cultivated nature ! ho-u; brilliant and pompously 
 
 (f/Zi? pomp£usemr>it 
 
 adorned by the care of man f Had deep philoso- 
 
 fari 2. 1. si (t/c) 
 
 jjhers presided at the formation of languages, and had 
 
 prciider ind-6. a 
 tTicy carefully examined the elements of speech, not only 
 
 avrc soin dhcours 
 
 hi their relations to one another, but also in themselves, it is 
 
 rapports entr'cux 
 r.ot to be doubted that languages would offer principles 
 
 are douteux subj-:J. 
 
 more simple, and at the same time, more luminoui. 
 
 GOVERNMENT OF CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 The conjunftions which unite sentences to one: 
 another are followed, either by the infinitive, the in- 
 dicative, or the subjunflive. 
 
 Those that are followed by an infinitive, are : 
 1°. those which arc distindt from prepositions only, 
 because tliev are followed by a 'verb, as : il font se 
 xtposcr aprcs uvoir travailld, one ought to rest after 
 having laboured. 2". Those which have the prepo- 
 sition de after them, as : Je travaille afin de vohs sur- 
 jmsseff I work that I may surpass you. 
 
 Rule. In general, we are to use conjunilions 
 with an infinitive, only when that infinitive relates to 
 the subjcCl of the principal verb- 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Nofts ne pouvons traklr la veritJ sans nous rendre coupabL's, 
 \Vc cannot betray truth without rendering ourselves guilty. 
 I'.viicz hjeu, de peur d'cn prendre It gout, 
 Abstain from gaming, lest you should take a liking to it.
 
 C 193 ) 
 
 We have said in general, because we t^ink that it 
 may relate to the regimen, whc-n tlierc is no equivo- 
 cation.- This sentence : je vom conaeille de ne vous 
 appllquer a V etude ^w'apres avoir renipli Ics, devoirs 
 dc voire place, is very correct, ahhouoh the infinitive 
 avoir templl relates to the regimen vous. 
 
 EXERCISr;; 
 
 They were going to spend a few days in town, only that 
 ne que 
 
 they might find themselves again with more pleasure in theit 
 
 i€ rclroKrver 
 ciianning solitude. Many persons work, only in order ta 
 
 afm de 
 acquire consideration and riclres : but the honest 
 
 {de-) id,) ?. 
 
 sensible man spends so much time in study, only 
 
 3 1 ne employer taut de ■ a <jus 
 
 to be useful to his fellow-creatures. I shall make 
 
 semblablcs. 
 known to you the plot which your enemies have laid in 
 devoiler trame f. ourdir 
 
 darkness, in order to warn you against their artifices, 
 ienibrts premunir 
 
 Those that govern the indicative are : blen entendu 
 que, d condition que, a la charge que, de mime que^ 
 ainsi que, aussl blen que, autuiit que, non plus que., 
 outre que, parce que, aitcndu que, vu que, puhque, c'est 
 pour cela que, lorsque, dans le temps que, pendayit que, 
 tandis que, duranl que, tant que, pcut-etre que, to 
 which may be added comme, commc si, quand, pour- 
 quoi, &c. Tliese conjunctions are followed by the 
 indicative, because the principal sentence which tliey 
 are uniting with the incidental one, expresses the af- 
 firmation m a direct, positive and independent manner. 
 
 Observation. There are six conjunctions, the 
 use of which varies according to the meaning ex- 
 pressed by the principal sentence, viz : si non que, si 
 ce n^est que, de sorte que, en sorte que, tellement que, de 
 manierc que. We say : jc ne iui ai repondic autre 
 chose, si non que j\rjois execute ses ordres, 1 made 
 him no other answer excejit diat 1 had executed !j's 
 orders ; because the first verb expresses a positive aiar- 
 
 S
 
 ( 194 ) 
 
 niation.' But we ought to say : jc nc veux autre chose ^ 
 h\ non (^uc vous travailiiez avcc plus d''ardcur, I desire 
 nothing else, but that you should woik with greater 
 ardour. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 When you have a more extended knowledge of geometry 
 
 and algebra, I shall give you a few lessons on astronomy 
 
 qiielque dc 
 
 and optics. Form your mind, heart and taste ivhile you 
 
 opti'iue 
 are still young. Do not keep truth captive, though you 
 
 should draw upon you a cloud of enemies. I will give 
 
 s^attirer '•■ 71 ne'e f. 
 you this fine pifture, upon condition that you will keep it as 
 a testimony of my friendship. 
 
 The conjunctions which govern the subjunctive 
 are : soh que, sans que, si ce ti" est que, quoique^Jusqu'sc 
 ce que, encore que, a mains que, pourvit que, suppose 
 que, au cas que, avant que, non pas que, afin que, de 
 ■pcur que, de crainte que, and a tew others. 'I'liey are 
 followed by the subjunctive, because they always fol- 
 low a principal sentence implying doubt, wish, 
 ignorance. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 You know too well the value of time, to makejtneces- 
 
 pour que ctre 
 sary to tell you to make a good use of it. Study only 
 
 de de en 
 
 great models, lest those which are but middling should 
 
 • nic'diocye 
 spoil your taste, before it be entirely formed. 
 
 ^«/i'r subj-1. subj-1. 
 
 I make not the least doubt that your method will 
 
 ne douttr yiulltnnut ne subj-1. 
 
 succeed, provided it be well known. Several phcno- 
 
 subj-1. 
 mona of nature are easy to be explained, supposing the prin- 
 ciple of universal gravitation to be _ true. 
 * subj-I.
 
 195 ) 
 
 CHAP. IX. 
 
 OF INTERJECTIONS. 
 
 Liter] Colons are small words which serve to ex- 
 press the various sentiments and sudden emotions of 
 the soul. They have no tixed place in speech, but 
 fchow themselves accordinglv as the sentiment that 
 produces them comes to manifest itself exrernilly. 
 Tlie only thing to be attended to, is not to place them 
 between words which custom has made inseparable. 
 There are interjections for every sentiment, viz : 
 
 For pain and grief : aye! ah! Julas ! ouj ' mC'V. 
 Bleu / &c. 
 ha! hi! 
 ah ! l)on ! 6 ! 
 f: ! fi done ! oh oh ! 
 oh ! eh ! zest ! 
 certes ; soit ; volontiers, 
 oh ! 
 
 oh ! bon Dieu ! nustr'u ndt ' 
 oh ! allom ! courage ! 
 gcire ! alerte ! hola ! tout beau ! 
 
 chut! hem! hola ! he ! 
 holu! he! 
 chut ! pa'ix ! St. ' • 
 
 For fear : 
 
 For joy and desire : 
 For aversion : 
 For derision : 
 For consent : 
 For admiration : 
 For astonishment : 
 For encouragement : 
 For warning : 
 
 For callino" : 
 r or silence : 
 
 C H A P. X. 
 
 GENERAL AND PARTICULAR RULES OF SYNTAX 
 UPON EACH SORT OF WORDS. 
 
 Ti^us far, weliave 2,ivcn no other rules relative to 
 svntax, than those which were necessary to the suc- 
 cessive unfolding of ideas. In this, we have followed 
 tiie march of the human mind -, b\it now, that the 
 pupil lias run over the nine sorts of words, that he 
 knows their nature, accidents, and some of their essen- 
 tial functions, "in a word, that he is initiated into the 
 mechanism of language, it is time to unfold to his 
 view it? grand principles, its most important diiiicul- 
 
 S 2
 
 f 196 ) 
 
 ties, and every thing that can make him thoroBj^hly 
 acquainted with its genius. This is what we intend 
 to do in this and tlie two tollowing chapters. 
 
 PR E 1. 1 ^' 1 N A K Y OBSERVATIONS 
 Oti the Exercises of this Chapter. 
 
 lo. One is sometimes at a loss how to express, m 
 French, the prepo.^ition to bffore an inimitive : fur if 
 is, according to circumstances, rendered either by /jowr^ 
 by J, or hy de ; somet.nies even, it is not expressed 
 at all. Before we pr<.ceed any further, we will en- 
 deavour to rem.ove the d.fEculty. 
 
 When to means in order to, it is expressed, iri 
 French, by pour, as : he came to speak to me, il vint 
 pour me parler. 
 
 As for the other two cases, there is hardly any 
 fixed rule by which we can distinguish whether wc 
 are to use a or de : the regimen, which the preceding 
 French verb requires after it, must be our only guide. 
 ThiTS : he likes to play, will be expressed by, /'/ aime 
 Vijcuer ; he told me to go, by, il 7ne dit Waller, and he 
 preferred to die, by, il aima mieux tnourir. 'Yet, we 
 have an instance wherein we may know whether we 
 ouoht to make use of de : it is when the Enjrlish infi- 
 nitive may be odicrwise expressed by the participle 
 present, preceded by the preposition oj", as : he is afraid 
 to see you, ilcraint de vous voir, because we may say: 
 oi sceingyou. Nevertheless, from the rules which we 
 have laid down in the preceding chapters, and the 
 exercises which are meant to exemplify them, and in 
 which the learner must, by diis time, be pretty well 
 pra6lised, wc should hope that this difficulty will be 
 easily got over. To say any more upon the subjcdl 
 \\Q\c, would he to encroach upon the rules which we 
 intend fuuhcr to particularize in this chapter, and by 
 the time we have got to the end of it, the learner will 
 know, to a certainty, the right use of a and de. 
 
 2". We have seen (i;age 96) that every verb, in 
 French, except fVr^?, used to express affirmation, con- 
 tains the attribute. J' aime is for ;V suis nnnant, a con- 
 5trui5tion which obtains not in I 'rcncli , but which is
 
 c 197 ) 
 
 of very great use in Engllsli ; and whenever we meet 
 witli it, we ought to translate it, in French, by ilie 
 verb in the present. 
 
 'i'his participle is also used in English insteid of a 
 substantive, and instead of the present of the intinitive. 
 Hmiting, la chasse. He is gone a zvalking, il est ail6' 
 se promener. Prei>ent him from doing mischief, em- 
 pcchez-le de faire du mal. There is a pleasure in 
 silencing great talkers, il y a plaisir a fermer la bouche 
 aux grands parleurs. 
 
 It is the same with several other preposition?. In 
 the first instance, it is translated by the substantive, 
 and in the second, bv the present of the infinitive. 
 But, sometimes, it must be expressed bv the relative 
 qui, with the verb in the indicative, especially when 
 there might be an amphibology in the expression, as : 
 / met t/icm riding post, je les ai rencontres qui cou- 
 roient la poste. ' 
 
 At otlier times, it ought to be expressed by the con- 
 jun6tion que, with the verb in the indicative, or in the 
 s..bjunclive, as circumstances may require : it is when 
 the participle lircsent is preceded by a possessive pro- 
 noun. The fear of his coming vexed us, la crainte 
 qu'il ne vint nous tourmentoit. / doul/t his being 
 faithful, \e doutc qu'il soit fidele, &c. 
 
 3«. When are do, did, "juill, uonld, should, can^ 
 could, may and miglit, to be considered as mere signs 
 of tenses, and when are they real verbs ? This que- 
 stion is the inore difiicult to answer as it depends, in a 
 great measure, on die views ot the mind. Never- 
 theless, the following remarks will scxsq, in some 
 degree, to illustrate this matter. 
 
 1st, There can be no difficulty about do and did : 
 they are mere expletives," denoting interrogation, ne- 
 gation, or merely emphasis, when they are joined to 
 a veib. I do love, j'aime ; / did love, j'aimois, or 
 j'aiinai. Do I love P aim6-je ? Did I love? ai- 
 inois-je - or aimai-je ? J do not love, je n'aimc pas. 
 I did not love, je n'aimois pas, or je n'aimai pns. In 
 all tliese cases, thev are not expicsscd in ii'iench. Rut, 
 
 S :i
 
 ( 198 ) 
 
 whcr ihey are followed by a noun or a pionoun, then 
 tlv y are real verbs and medin fair c. Do me that fa- 
 1")!'}', taites-rnoi ce plaisir. He did it, il le fit, or in 
 she rt, by any thing else besides the verb with which 
 it is necessarily connected, as : he did more than could 
 have been expelled, il fit plus qu'on n'eut pu esperer. 
 
 2dly, M'^tU, in tb.e first person singular, is oftener 
 a verb of itself, than an auxiliary, as: I will go out, 
 in spite of you ; and then it is rendered by the verb 
 vouloir, je veux sortir, malgre vous : unless it can be 
 contracted into /'//, as: if you have a mind, Til do 
 it, si vous le desirez, je le ferai. This contraction, 
 however, is a vulgarism ; and oug^ht never to be use^ 
 for shall, but is always equivalent to will, in some 
 shape or oiher. It is the word in spite that makes ir 
 more emphatic than usual in the first example, and it 
 might be rendered into Ficnch bv the simple future 
 sortirai, or at least, by sortrrai lien. In the other 
 persons, and when simply joined to the verbs with 
 ■which they form an indivisible idea, will is generally 
 a mere sign of the fatiire, as : Jf'e will go to the play 
 to night, nous irons ce soir a la comedie. IP hen they 
 are dressed, they %vill go to church, lorsqu'ils seront 
 habilles, ils iront a I'egbse. We have said gcncra'uyy 
 because there aie instances in which, even then, it 
 ought to be rendered bv vouloir, as: JVill you go or 
 ftot ? voulez-vous partir ou non t They will do what 
 they please, ils vculent faire ce qui leur plait. Like- 
 wise, Avhen will precedes the word have, followed by 
 a noun or a pronoun, it is to be expressed by vouloir^ 
 as : I w'ill have you to go into the country, je veux que 
 vous ailiez a la campagnc. Here, have h not. ex- 
 pressed, but we put (jue after je veux, because that 
 conjunction is necessary to complete the sense. We 
 also omit it in this sentence : zvill you have this book ? 
 voulez-vous ce livre ? the omission being m.ore ele- 
 gant. 
 
 In general, whenever w'll czii\ be contracrcd into 
 '//, it is a mere expletive, and not expressed in French ; 
 but, when the emphasis is laid upon it, it is a verb 
 and muit be expressed by vouloir.
 
 ( 199 ) 
 
 qdlv, The last observation which we have macli? 
 upon 'iviii m^y verv justly be iij:)plied to would, which 
 is often, though very iniproperiy, contractetl into Vat 
 the end of a personal pronoun, and is then a mere aux- 
 iliary, denoting the conditional. You zuould do me a 
 Treat service, or youd do, &CC. vous me rendriez un 
 grand service. I'd rather (for / would rather) set off 
 to-night than to-morrow evening, j'aimerois mieux 
 partir ce soir que demain matin. But, when it is 
 expressive of a person's will, and a kind of emphasis 
 laid upon it, then it is a verb, and is expressed by vou- 
 loir. Surely, you would not condemn him unheard, 
 sureincnt, vous ne voudriez point le condamno" sans 
 I'entcndre. V/ith regard to its being followed by 
 have, much depends upon circumstances, and many 
 of the niceties of the language must be left to practice 
 and experience. For instance, this sentence : I would 
 have you to go to that mcin, perhaps he may do you some 
 service, will be rendered by : je vous conseillerois 
 d'aller trouver cet homme, peut-etre, &c. 
 
 4thlv,- Should is only a sign of the conditional, 
 when it expresses a thing which may happen upon 
 some condition. I should like a country-life, if my 
 affairs would permit me to indulge my inclination, j'ai- 
 merois la vie de ia campagne, si mes affaires me pcr-- 
 mettoient de suivre mon gout. But, when it implies 
 duty, obligation, or suitableness to do a thing, it is a 
 verb, and ought to be expressed by devoir. JVe 
 should never swerve from the path of virtue, nous ne 
 devrions jamais nous ecarter du sentier de la vertu. 
 
 5thiy, Can, could, may and might, are not so diffi- 
 cult as they appear at hrst sight, because it seidom 
 happens thai they are signs of tenses, and that, in al- 
 most every iixstance, there is no impropriety in render- 
 ing them by pouvoir. In general, the tirst two imply 
 a power, a possibility, a capability, &:c. and the 
 others, liberty, a desire of doing, &c. The only in- 
 stance in which could is a sign of tlie conditional, is 
 when it is followed by the verb wish, I could wish, 
 je desirerois. 
 
 The above observations arc made to the English
 
 ( 200 ) 
 
 Jearner, to whom we aie not to teach the nature and 
 use of the auxiharies in his own language, but the 
 manner of expressing them in French. Of course, 
 we think we have said enough upon the subject, as 
 much depends upon the operations of his mind, in order 
 to make the distinction between expletives and verbs, 
 which is by far easier for him to find out, than for 
 a foreigner to know the right use of the English auxi- 
 liaries. 
 
 N. B. Do, did, shally will, tcc. are sometimes 
 used elliptically in the answers to interrogative sen- 
 tences. This construction obtains not in French. 
 We must repeat the verb, accompanied with a pro- 
 noun expressive of the idea of the interrogative sen- 
 tence. Sliall yon do your exercise to-day P Ycs,_ I 
 shall, ferez vous votre theme aujourd'iiui ? oui, je le 
 ferai. 
 
 §. I. 
 
 OF THE SUBSTANTIVE. 
 
 The substantive has three functions in the discourse: 
 it is subje£i, apostrophe, or regimen. 
 
 The substantive is subjeti, whenever it is that of 
 which something is affirmed. When we say : Voi- 
 scau vole, the bird flies ; le lion ne vole pas, the lion 
 d,(>es not • fly ; the substantives oiseau and lion are 
 subje6ls, because it is affunied of tlie hrst that it flies, 
 and of the second that it does not fly. 
 
 It is to the subscantive subject that every thing re- 
 lates in the sentence. In tliis : un homme juste Iff 
 jtrrne ticst ebi anlc m par les clamcnrs d' tine populace 
 injuste, 7ii par les menaces cVunficr tyran : quand mJme 
 le monde brise s ecrouleroit, il en seraitfrappc, mais non 
 pas emu, the adjetStives, juste and fernie, mcxlify 
 the substantive subject, homme, and all the rest modify 
 uti homme juste isS J'crme. 
 
 The substantive is in the farm of apostrophe, wlien- 
 evcr it is the person or thing addressed to, as : rois, 
 peuples, terrc, mer, Isf vous cieux, ecQtitez-moi / In 
 this sentence, the substantives rois, peuples, terre, mcr, 
 and cicux, arc apostrophe.
 
 ( 201 ) 
 
 Observation-. It is only in a strongly marked 
 oratorical impulse tlrat the speech is directed to ina- 
 nimate beings. 
 
 EXAMPLE OF A BEAUTIFUL APOSTROPHE. 
 O Hippias ! Hippias ! I shall nc- nether ne plus 
 
 vcf'see thee again ! O my- dear Hip- 
 pias ! it is I, cruel and relentless, that 
 taught thee to despise death. Cruel 
 Gods ! you prolonged my life, only 
 that I might see the death of Hip- 
 pias ! O my dear child, whom I 
 had brought up with so much care, I 
 shall see thee no more. O dear shade ! 
 call me to the banks of the Styx, the 
 light grows hateful to me ; it is thee 
 only, my dear Hippias, that I wish 
 to see again. Hippias ! Hippias ! O 
 my dear Hippias ! all I now live for, 
 is to pay my last duty to thy ashes. 
 
 again ■" 
 
 and "^ relentless moi 
 
 impitoyable 
 
 taught apprendre 
 
 ind-4. 
 
 prolonged prolonger 
 
 ind-1. 
 
 only that /, &c. pour 
 
 me faire 
 
 brought up nourrir 
 
 ind--l. 
 
 nvith so, Sec. et qui ma 
 
 coijter ind-4. 
 
 shade ombre 
 
 banks rive 
 
 grows hateful etre 
 
 -x,^ 
 
 all I. 
 
 pay 
 ashes 
 
 , IS to ne vivre 
 que pwur 
 rendre 
 cendre 
 
 The substantive is regimen^ when it is governed by 
 another woid : now, a substantive may be governed, 
 either by another substantive, by an a(lje6tive, 
 by a verb, or by a preposition, as : la lot de DieUy 
 tlie law of God ; utile a rhommi, useful to man ; 
 aimer son prochain, to love one's neighbour ; chez son 
 fere, at his father's. 
 
 We sliall speak in its proper place, of the regimea 
 of adjectives, verbs and prepositions, and confine our- 
 selves here to what relates to the substantive. 
 
 In French, a substantive cannot be governed by 
 another substantive, but by the help of a preposition, 
 this preposition is generally de, as : la difficult e de 
 Ventreprise, the difficulty of the undertaking : but 
 sometimes also, a and pour are made use of, as: 
 P abandon a scs passions, the giving way to one's pas- 
 sions ; le gout pour le p/a/sir, propensity for pleasure. 
 
 General rule. Of two substantives, of which
 
 ( 202 ; 
 
 /the one is governing and the other governed, it is the 
 governing one that generally goes before the other. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 La beaute des sentimer.s^ la 
 violence des passions, la 
 grandeur des eijeneme/ts, 
 ei les succes miraculeux des 
 gran des cpits des he'ros, 
 tout cela rn entraine comrne 
 utie petite Jille. — Sevigne. 
 
 The beauty of sentiments, the 
 violence of passions, the 
 grandeur of events, and 
 the prodigious successes of 
 the gnat swords of heroes, 
 all this transports me like a 
 little girl. 
 
 Observation. We shall, in the next chap- 
 ter, mention those cases in which this order is invert- 
 ed : we shall only observe here that this same order is 
 not followed in English in two instances ; 1°. when 
 two substantives are joined by an j and an apostrophe, 
 placed after the first, thus 'j , as : the king's palace. 
 2?. when the two substantives form a compound 
 word, as: silk-stockings. In these two cases, the sub- 
 stantive governed is put before the governing one. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 The plants of the gardens, the ani- 
 mals of the wood, the minerals of the 
 earth, the meteors of the sky, must 
 all concur to store the mind with in- 
 exhaustible 3 variety ! 
 
 Nothing was heard but the luar- 
 bling of birds, or the soft breath of 
 the zephirs, sporting in thf branches 
 of the trees, or the T?iur;!iur of a lucid 2 
 rill 1, falling from the rocks, or the 
 son(rs of the young swain:;, who at- 
 tended Apollo. 
 
 A smiling boy wis at the same 
 time caressing a lap-dug, which is his 
 mother' s favourite ; besides, it pleases 
 the child. 
 
 There are several ji-olJ and sil-jer 
 tnifies in this beautiful country ; but 
 
 must devoir 
 
 concur concourir a 
 store tvith enrichir par 
 inexhaustible ine- 
 
 puisable 
 nothing . . . but on nc 
 plus que 
 ■breath halcine 
 
 sporting (which sport- 
 ed) sc jouer iiid-2. 
 bra'iches rameaux 
 
 lucid rill can claire 
 falling (which fell) 
 suains berger 
 
 ailendcd sruivrc ind-'2 
 
 by enfant 
 
 sniiling d'iin air riant 
 1UU5 can,' sing caresser 
 ind 2 
 lai'-dng bichon 
 
 pleases anuiser or 
 
 plairc A 
 there are y avoir 
 
 /il'^iti siiijpk
 
 ( 203 ) 
 
 the inhabitants plain, and happy in plaiftK^ss simplicite 
 
 their plainness, do not even deign to '^".S"'' daigner 
 
 reckon gold and silver among their reckon compter 
 
 riches. among parmi 
 
 §. II. 
 OF THE ARTICLE. 
 
 AVe have already established as a general rule, that 
 the article always agrees in gender and number with 
 the substantive which it precedes. We shall here 
 give two more. See Rule I, page 60. 
 
 Second general rule. When the article is 
 used, it ought to be repeated before every one of the 
 substantives, whether subje£t or regimen. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 L'esprit, les graces et la Wit, graces and beauty cap- 
 
 beaute noui capti'ven', tivate us. 
 
 V ignorance at la mere de Ignorance is the mother of 
 
 i'errcur, de I'admiration & error, admiration and pre^ 
 
 des preventions de toute judices of all kinds. 
 
 espice^ 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 Innocence of manners, sincerity, manners moeurs 
 
 obedience and a horror of vice, inhabit "' . ^^ ' 
 
 .... region pays 
 
 this li^ppy region. i 
 
 The silence of the night, the calm- 
 
 ness of the sea, the trembling light of trembling tremblant 
 
 the moon shed on the surface of the ^hed on rcpandu sur 
 
 water, and the dusky az.ure of the dusky sombre 
 
 sky, besprinkled with elitterintr stars, , ■ <■ , ■ , 
 
 . , besprinkled ivith par- 
 
 served to heighten the beauty of the seme de 
 
 scene. heighten rehaasser 
 
 scene speftade 
 
 Third general rule.' The place of the 
 article, every time it is used, is ah.vavs before the sub - 
 stanrives ; so that, if they be preceded by an adie6live, 
 even modified by an adverb, it ought to be placed at 
 the head, but nevertheless, after the prejjositions, if 
 there be any.
 
 ( 204 ) 
 
 EXAMPLES, 
 
 X.a plus riche herit'ere ne fait 
 pas toKJov.n la plus aimable 
 femme, 
 
 Dans les beaux jours de la lit- 
 terature Franqoise, on rcs- 
 feiloit Sgalement la religion 
 & Ic roi, 
 
 Exception 
 
 The richest heiress does not 
 always makethe most amia- 
 ble wife. 
 
 In the bright days of the 
 French literature, religion 
 and the king were equally 
 respefted. 
 
 The adje(5live tout^ and these qua- 
 
 lities : monsieur, madame, monscigneur, displace the 
 article, whi. h, in this case, takes its station between 
 these words and the substantives. We ought to say : 
 
 ioui le monde, monsieur Ic due, madamc la comtesse, 
 monscigneur Varchevcq^ue de, &c. 
 
 EXERCISE, 
 A true poet estimates the happi- 
 ness and misery of coery condition, 
 observes the power of all the pas- 
 sions in all their comlinntions, and 
 traces the changes of the human mind> 
 as they are modified by various insti- 
 tutions and accidental influences of 
 climate and custom, from the spright- 
 liness of infancy to the despondence 
 of decrepitude. 
 
 Almost all the passions which ope- 
 rate Avith great violence on the mind, 
 and drive it to the most dangerous ex- 
 tremes, concurred in raising and fo- 
 menting this unhappy ouarrel. 
 
 General principle. We ought to use the 
 article before all substantives common, taken in a 
 determinate sense, unless there be another word per- 
 forming tlie same office ; but it is not to be used before 
 those that are taken in an indeterminate sense. 
 
 This being premised, we shall now point out the 
 cases in which we ouglit to make use of the article. 
 
 Rule I. The article essentially accompanies all 
 
 sub- 
 
 estimat<i apprecicf 
 
 as they c>cc, a mesurc 
 que il (sing.) 
 •various art. divers 
 custom coutume pi. 
 from depuis 
 
 sprighlliness vivacite 
 despondence abattc- 
 ment 
 agir 
 beaucoup dc 
 porter 
 
 operate 
 
 great 
 
 drive 
 
 raising faire naitrc 
 fomenting fomenter
 
 ( 2C5 ; 
 
 substantives common, which Jenote a whole kind of 
 thifigs, or determinate things. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Lhomme se repnl: tiop sou- Man too often fe«ds himself 
 •vcyit cle chiniires, with chimeras. 
 
 Lcs hommes a imagination Men of a fanciful disposition 
 so?it toujoiirs TTjal/igurditx, arc always unhappy. 
 
 L'homme dont 'vous paric% est The man you speak of 13 very 
 ires-instrni:, learned. 
 
 In the first example, the word homme is taken in a 
 ;general sense ; it denotes a collective universalitv. In 
 rne second, les hommes a imagination, denote a parti- 
 cular class only. In tile third, Fhommc, denotes but 
 one individual, it being restridled by the incidental pro- 
 j)o sition dont vous parlez. 
 
 Observation:. In English, the article Is not 
 Used before substantives taken in a general sense, as : 
 manvjas born for society; nor before those denoting- 
 a less general class, as : men of genius, zvomen of 
 sound understanding ; nor again before some substan- 
 tives which are taken rather in a determinate, than in 
 ^ general sense, as : I shall go to court this cvenino-. 
 
 Exercise. 
 
 Elegattci, the most visible image of Jine de'licar 
 
 fine taste, the moment it appears, is the moment (dc) 
 
 ,, , . , ,. a/tptars se montrer 
 
 universally admirea : mi,n disagree disagree about mtrtv 
 
 about the other constituent parts of sar 
 
 beautv, but thev all unite without ^'''^^tiU'ent (which 
 
 , . '. , ' , , , constitute the) 
 
 hesitation to acknowledge the power «;^//^ s'accorder 
 
 of elegance. hentation (by the verb) 
 
 Hassan, sp.id he, thou art greater 
 
 ■• ° «/<?'/ir<f en raeme temps 
 
 than I, and from thee 1 have at once tnock se moqucr 
 
 derived //:^;w/7/.')' and w/'ji/oOT : I an- servant serviteur 
 
 swered, mock not thy servant, who ^'" "^ '^ "* "^ ^^'* 
 
 luorm vec 
 
 is but a worm before thee : life and are the daughters de- 
 denth are in thy hand, and happiness pendre 
 
 and misery are the daughters of thy 
 will. 
 
 T
 
 luh'tle 
 
 
 tandis que 1 
 
 Strug gli 
 
 ''S 
 
 se tour- 
 menter 
 
 obvious 
 
 
 qui s'ofFrir 
 
 
 d' 
 
 elles-memes 
 
 glance 
 
 
 ils pent-trer 
 
 d 
 
 'un coupd'oeil 
 
 lighlnin 
 
 S 
 
 foiidre 
 
 path 
 
 
 espace 
 
 traced 
 
 
 on mesurer 
 
 under 
 
 
 dans 
 
 sense 
 
 
 conviftioii 
 
 keep up 
 
 
 conserver 
 
 { 206 ) 
 
 Men 2. of superior genius, while 1. 
 they* see 3. the rest of mankind pain- 
 fully struggling to comprehend ob- 
 vious truths, glance themselves 
 through * the most remote 2. con- 
 sequences 1, like lightning through *■ 
 a path that cannot be traced. 
 
 The man luho lives under an habi- 
 tual, sense of the divine presence, 
 keeps up a perpetual cheerfulness of keep up 
 temper, and enjoys, every moment, cheerfulness ga!t6 
 
 , ■ c cv L-ii- L- \c temper caradlere 
 
 the satisfaction of thinking himself ^^^y^,,^. jo^jj. j^ 
 
 in company with his dearest and best of thinking sccroire 
 of friends. ^^''^^' Je 
 
 Rule 11. The article is put before substantives 
 taken in a sense of extra6t, or denoting only a part of 
 a kind ; but it is omitted, if they be preceded by aa 
 adjedtive, or a word of quantity. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Du pain ?/ de I'eau ;;;^/irro/f «/ Some bread and water would 
 
 plaisir, please mc. 
 
 "Je I'is hier des savans, qui ne I yesterday saw some learned 
 
 pement pas comme vous, 
 
 "J'ackctai hier beaucoup de 
 
 livres. 
 Que de \\vxc% j'aehetai hier > 
 
 men, who do not think as 
 
 you do. 
 I bought yesterday many 
 
 books. 
 How many books did I buy 
 
 yesterday ! 
 
 Observation. Among the words of quantity 
 must be reckoned /)///i, pus, and point, tnoius, jamais : 
 II ny cut Jamais plus dc lumicres, there never were 
 more lights ; ii v a moms crhabitaus a Purls qua 
 Londres, there are fewer inhabitants in Paris than in 
 London ; je no manque pas d'' atn'is, I do not want 
 friends. 
 
 Exception. B'ten is the only word of quantity 
 that ought to be followed bv the ai tick-. We say : 
 11 a b'ten dc F esprit, he has a great deal of wit ; cllc a 
 h'.en dc la grace, she has a great deal of gracefulness 
 about her.
 
 ( 207 ) 
 
 Observation. Tlie sense of extract is marked 
 m English by the word some, or any, eidier expressed 
 or understood, whicli answers to quclques, a partitive 
 adje6live, and conscqucntlv to du, cUs, which are ele- 
 gantly used instead of quclqucs. 
 
 These expressions : dcs pctlts-maitrcs, dcs sagcs- 
 femmci, dcs petlts pcitcs, &c. are not exceptions, be- 
 cause, in such cases, the articles are so tar united with 
 the a(lje6lives, as to form but one and the same word, 
 We ought likewise to say : le propre des belles aftions., 
 Its sentimens des ancieyis philosophes, &c. because, in 
 these sorts of expressions, the substantives are taken in 
 
 a geneial sense. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 ■We could not cast our eyes on cou'd pouvoir ind-2 
 
 either shore, without seeini^ opulent ^"'^'[^ rivage 
 
 seenig appercevoir 
 cities, country-homei agreeably situ- _^,^.«,./^ tous les-ans 
 
 ated, lands yearly covered with a gol- covered luitli qui cb 
 
 den 2 harvest 1^ meadotvs full of „ , couvrir de 
 
 firjcks and herds troii- 
 fiucks and herd?, husbandmen bene- pcau 
 
 ing under the weight of the fruits, hushandmen labourcur 
 
 . , . r / 1 1. I II .u bendinz oui etre ac- 
 
 and sh^bnerds who made 1 all the "^ ^ ,,. 
 
 ^ cable 
 
 echoes 5 round them 6 repeat 2 the ivci'rht poids 
 
 sweet sountU 3 of their pipes and shel>herds , bergers 
 
 f, . . pipes chalunieau 
 
 nutes 4, ^ w j. i 
 
 round tlicm d alentour 
 Provence and Languedoc produce 
 
 oranges, lemons, figs, olives, almonds, 
 ckcsnuis. penches, apricots and grapes 
 of an uncoaimon sv.'eetncss. 
 
 The man who has never seen this ivho is born blind 
 
 ,. , . ; u r J I " aveugle-ne 
 
 pure li^ht, IS as • blind as one who , . •"' r ,-i 
 
 I *" ' having ne avoir mr-'2 
 
 is born blind : he dies with -ut hav- ivithout ne jamais 
 
 ing seen any thing : at most, he per- anything rien 
 
 . , ,. ^ ^ , at most tout au plus 
 
 ceives but 'riir;ii:if.rinz and false , .„ • • 
 
 vv.ivv,c 3 ^ J perceives appercevoir 
 
 lights, vain shadoius and phantoms glimmering sombre 
 
 that have nothing of reality. lights lueur 
 
 Y'^ality reel 
 
 Among the Romans, those who ' -^ 
 
 wrre con.mced of having used illicit used employer pour 
 T 2
 
 ( 2o8 ) 
 
 or untuorth means to cbtain the com- 
 mandment, were excluded from it 
 for ever. 
 
 Those who govern are like the 
 celestial 2 bodies 1, which have a 
 great splendoiir^n^ «v rest. 
 
 IVfiat beauty, siveetnes^, mcdesty, 
 and ar the same time, ivliat noblt- 
 ness and greatness of soul ! 
 
 Themistocles, in order to niin 
 Aristides, made use of many nia- 
 ticeu-vres, v.'hlch would have covered 
 him with infamy in the eyes of poste- 
 rity, had not 3 the emineut'services 1 
 which he rendered his country 2 
 blotted out 4 thatsta-in. 
 
 means. ( moyens I with 
 • ) illicit 2 voies 2 
 
 j with unwor- 
 
 (thy 1 
 nvere ind-2 
 
 from it en 
 
 a great beaucoup de 
 s ['I en dour tclat 
 
 no rest (that have no 
 rest J repos 
 ichat que de 
 
 rvin 
 
 perdre 
 
 made use i 
 
 of many em- 
 
 
 ployer bien 
 
 covered wit/t ccnd-.T de 
 
 in fan. y 
 
 opprobre 
 
 in 
 
 a 
 
 had not 
 
 si 
 
 rendered 
 
 ind-3 a 
 
 blotted out 
 
 etTaccr 
 
 
 cond-5 
 
 stain 
 
 taehe 
 
 The consequences of ^reat passi()ni 
 ^re oiindness of mind and deprava- 
 tion of the heart. 
 
 //o^/f;7/^';z should never forget that ^^^uld devoir ind-l 
 their high birth imposes great duties 
 on * them. 
 
 Rule III. The article is put before proper naines 
 of countries, regions, rivers, winds and mountains. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 La France a les Pyrcnnees rt France is bounded on the 
 la Mfditerranec au sud, la south by the Pyrenees and 
 
 the JMediterrauean, on the 
 east by Switzerland and Sa- 
 voy, on the north by the 
 Netherlands, and on the 
 vcit by the ocean. 
 The Thames, the Rhone, tht 
 north wind, the Alps, the 
 C a Utah 
 Observation. Wc say, by ap]>osition : le m'/nt 
 
 VarnasH, Ic mont p^oUrun., &cc. le Jieuve Don, ^c. 
 
 But wc say: la 7nonta^>'c de Tararc^ ^c. In nvtr- 
 
 Suisse et U Savoie it Test, 
 les Pays-Bas au uorJ, ft 
 ['ocean a I'ouest. 
 
 La Tamisc, le Rhone, I'aqui- 
 ion, les Alpes, le Canta!.
 
 ( 209 ) 
 dc S,wc, Sec. We ought not to say: U fieuve du 
 Rhyne, but simi^ly : U Rhone. 
 
 EXKRCISE. 
 
 Europe is bounded on the north by bounded borne 
 
 on a 
 
 the Frozen Ocean ; south, by the north nord 
 
 frozen ocean mcr 
 
 Mediterranean sea, which separates glaciale 
 
 . ^ ,r- t- u .• . south sudormidi 
 
 K from Africa : east, by the contuient ^,,,^,,,,,^„,,,„ ,,^Me- 
 
 ^lAsia; west, by the Atlantic Ocean. diterranee 
 
 eait est or orient 
 
 It contains the following 2 states 1 : loeit ouestor occidert 
 
 l^orivay Norvege 
 
 on the north, Nor-zvaj, Szueden, Den- Siveden Suede 
 
 Den/nark Danemarc 
 
 mark and Russia : in the middle, p.jland Pologne 
 
 - , , ^ • ^ .iTT\.j Prussia Prusse 
 
 Poland, Prussia, Germany, the Umted q^,.^^„^ Allemagne 
 
 Pro'-Jinces, the Netherlands, France, AV///^./«W. Pays-Bas 
 
 Sivttxerla/id buisse 
 
 Switzerlaid, Bohemia, Hungary, the Bohemia Eoherae 
 
 Hungary la Hongrie 
 
 British Isles t on. the south, Shaiv, British isles iles Bri- 
 
 tanniques 
 
 Portugal, Italy, Turkey in Etfrofe. Turkey i-i Turquie en 
 
 The principal rivers in Europe 
 arc : the IVolga, the Don, or Tanals, 
 and tlie Boristhenes, or Nieper in 
 Muscovy; the Danube, the Rhine 
 and the Elbe, in Germany ; the Fis- 
 tida, or Wczel, in Poland ; the Loire, 
 the Seine, the Rhone and the Garonne, 
 
 in France ; the Lbre, the Tagus and '^''S"^ Tage 
 
 the Douro, in Spain ; the Po, in Italy; 
 
 the 77/a/wf5 and the Severn, in En- Thar.es T;mise 
 
 gland; and the Shannon in Ireland- 
 
 The principal mountains in Eu- 
 rope are the Daarne -fields between 
 Norway and Sweden ; Mont Kr.ipel 
 between Polr.nd and Hungary; the 
 Pyxcnnean 7nouiitaiKS between France 
 
 T 3
 
 bleak rigourcuK 
 
 north wind- aquilon 
 heat aidcur 
 
 cooling rafralchibsanf 
 to refreih adoucir 
 
 ( 210 ) 
 
 a ' ^pain ; the Alps which divide 
 France and Germany from Italy. 
 I The bleak north wind v^t\ev blows 
 here, and the heat of summer is tern, 
 pered by the cooling zephrs which 
 come to refresh the air towards the 
 middle of the day. 
 
 Exceptions. We do not use the article before 
 the names of countries, 
 
 1°. When those countries have the names of tlicir 
 capitals, as: Naples at un pays dclicieux, Naples is 
 a delightful country. 
 
 2°. When tliose names are governed by the prepo- 
 sition en, as : // est en France, he is in France ; il est 
 «n Espagne, he is in Spain. 
 
 30. When those names are goveined by some pre- 
 ceding noun, as vins de France, French wines ; we- 
 hlcsse d' Anglcterre, the English nobility. 
 
 4^^. Lastly, when we speak of those countries as of 
 places we come, or arc set off fronv, as : je viens de 
 France, I come from P'rance; j'a>rive d'liaUe, I am 
 just arrived from Italy. But, in this case, when we 
 speak of the four parts of the world, the present 
 prad^ice is for making use of the art.cle, as : je viens 
 de C Amerique., y arrive de P Asle, 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 NaJ)lss may be called a paradise, 
 from its beauty and fertility. From 
 this track 2 some suppose 1 Virgil 
 took the model of his Elysian 2 
 Fields 1. 
 
 I have been prisoner in Egypt, as 
 a "'■■ Phoenician : under that name 
 I have long suffered, and under that 
 name 1 have been set at liberty. 
 
 He has received ivines from France 
 and Spain, silks from Iialj, oil from 
 Provence, -wool from England, 
 
 from a cause de 
 
 fiuni this trait que 
 
 c'est la oil 
 
 some suppose quelques 
 
 pcrsonncs penser 
 
 iinder (it is under) 
 
 and under (and it is 
 
 under)
 
 ( 211 ) 
 
 We set sail /row Hs/A-Jw^A to go to set sail partis 
 
 the Cape of Good Hope. ''^'^ '^ ^^«dre 
 
 I was but just Arrived from Russia, j ^^^.^^ but just nc fair^ 
 when I had the misfortuae to lose que 
 
 my father. 
 
 I had set oS from Atnerica, when ,^/ ^ partir 
 
 my brother arrived there. ili^re y 
 
 The article is also used before the names of coun- 
 tries, either distant or little known : /a Chine, China; 
 Ic Japon, Japan ; Ic Mcxlque, Mexico : and before 
 those which have been formed from common nouns ; 
 ic Havre, Ic Pcrche, la Fleche, &:c\ 
 
 Observation. In English, the article is gene- 
 rally omitted before names ot countries. 
 
 Such are the cases in which the article is used be» 
 fore the nouns : we shall now mention those in which 
 it is yiol used. 
 
 Rule I. The article is omitted before nouns 
 common, when, in using them, we do nc»t say any 
 thing on the extent of their signihcation. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 L-" j(3!^f?;'fl >?/ amour «/ h.iine, The wise man has neither 
 
 lave nor hatred, 
 lis ont renversd religion, mo- They have overturned reli- 
 rale, gouvernement, sci- gioa, morality, government, 
 
 ences, beaux-arts, en un sciences, fine arts, in a 
 mot, tout ce qui fait la gloire word, every thing which, 
 et la force d'un etat, makes the glory and 
 
 strength of a country. 
 
 Hence, we do not put die article before nouns, 
 
 I®. When they are in the form of a title or an ad- 
 dress, as : preface, prefice ; I'lvre premier, book die 
 first ; chapttre d'lx, chapter the tenth ; // demeure rue 
 Piccadilly, he lives in Piccadilly : qiiartier'St. James, 
 St. James's. 
 
 2^. When they are governed by the preposition en, 
 as regarder en p'ltie, to look with pity ; v'lvre en roiy 
 to Uve like, or, as a king. 
 
 30. When they are joined to the verbs avoir or 
 faire, as avoir penr, to be afraid ; /aire pitie^ to look 
 i)itiful. See the table at the end of this §.
 
 ( 212 ) 
 
 4". Whentliey are used as apostrophe or interjec- 
 tion, as : courage, soldats, tcncz fcfnie, courage, sol- 
 diers, stand firm. "■ 
 
 CO. When they serve to qualify a noun that pre- 
 cedes them, as, il est q^nclqiufoh plus quiiomme, he is 
 sometimes more than man ; Alonseigncur le Due 
 d' York, Prbicc du sang royal d' Anglcterre, His royal 
 hio-hness the Duke of York, Prince of tlie blood royal 
 of England. 
 
 6°. The article is not put before the substan- 
 tive bc""inning an incidental senlencc, which is a 
 reflection upon what has been said, as : tons Ics 
 tenths de la tcrre ont une idee plus ou molm deve- 
 loppce d'un Etre Supreme; preuvc cv'idcnte que le 
 peche orlg'inel rCapas tout a fait ohsciirci V entendemcnt^ 
 all the nations of the earth have an idea more or less 
 developed of a Supreme Being ; an evident proof that 
 original sin has not totally obscured the understand- 
 ing. 
 
 70. When thev are under the gcn-crnment of the 
 words genre, espece, sortc, and such like, as : sortc de 
 fruit, a sort of fruit ; genre d'ouvrage, a kurd of 
 vork. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 The highways are bordered with highways chemia 
 
 laurels^ pomrvrnnatei, ies'am'ynes, ■•'-'^' ' . ^ 
 
 i.ui.ii.-, i ^ ... ... laurels l.-iuners- 
 
 and other trees v/bich ■'■ are ■•■ al- pomegranatci grena- 
 
 ways green, and always in bloom dier» 
 
 The mouniams are covered with "' 'i^"' /^^"^ 
 
 vuid rournir 
 
 /(/^X^jwhich yield a line wool waich •'■ '.^,fjrji ]aine p!. 
 
 is * soue;ht after by all the known sought after recherche 
 
 '■2 nations 1 of the world. 
 
 The fleets of Solomon made, un- fifpt^ flotte 
 
 der the conduft of the Phoenicians, made ijid-2 
 
 frequent voyages to the land of Ophir 
 
 andTharsis (of the kingdom of So- ^(.-hcnce d'ou 
 
 phala, in Ethiopia) whence they re- returned revenir 
 
 turned at the qnd of three years, la- f " . 
 
 den with ^(1/4/, ;il'j(r,rjiyy.pruiOusi 
 
 end bout 
 
 char:/J
 
 costly 
 
 precieuK 
 
 ntt'ire 
 
 ornement 
 
 feasts 
 
 repas 
 
 e.rtensi've 
 
 vasTC 
 
 fie'.ds 
 
 campagne 
 
 yillo-iu 
 
 jaune 
 
 eurs 
 
 epi 
 
 the g-reatdst part la 
 plupart 
 alleged rapportcr 
 
 disposition naturel 
 
 siecle 
 
 ( 2^3 ) 
 
 rf'inrs 1 and other kiaJs of mcrchaii- stones plcrre 
 
 Costly furniture 2 is not allowed is not alh-vccd there 
 
 onti'y soufFrc ni 
 there 1, nor viagnificent attire, nor furniture meuble 
 
 sumptuous feasts ^ nor gilded palaces. 
 
 We considered with pleasure the 
 extensive fields covered with yellow 
 cars of corn, richgifts of the fruitful 
 Ceres. 
 
 The greatest pare of historians 
 have alledged that HenrylV. was as- 
 sassinated by the Duke of Gloucester, 
 a prince of a most brutal disposition. 
 
 He was in a kind of ecstacy, when in a kind of zoxwm&tn 
 he perceived us. 
 
 In the most corrupt age, he lived 
 and died ^' ^ "wise man "•■. 
 
 Aie you surprised that the worthi- 
 est 2 men 1 are but men, and be- 
 tray some remains of the weakness of 
 humanity, among the innumerable 
 snares and difficulties which are inse- 
 parable from royalty. 
 
 He looked pitiful, u hen we saw 
 him after his disgrace. 
 
 Hear then, O nations full of va- 
 lour \ and you, O chief s,%o wise and so 
 united ! hear what I have * to * offer 
 you. 
 
 Out of this cavern issued, from 
 time to time, a black 2 thick 3 smoke, 
 which made a sort of night at mid- 
 day. 
 
 Rule IT. ^ Tiie article is not used, either before 
 nouns preceded by the pronominal adjectives mon^ ton^ 
 
 betray 
 remains 
 snares 
 difficulties 
 
 montrer 
 
 reste 
 
 piege 
 
 embarras 
 
 he looked pitiful il nous 
 faire pitie 
 
 out of de 
 
 issued sortir 
 
 black and thick et epais 
 smoke fum6e 
 
 mid- day milieu du 
 jour
 
 ( 214 ) 
 
 son, uotre, votre, Icur, ce, nul, aucun, choqiie, toni 
 (used for chaq.uc), certain, plusicurs, tel, or before 
 those which are preceded by a cardinal number, with- 
 out any relation whatever. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Nos moeurs mettent le pnx a Our manners set a value to 
 
 710S richesses, our riches. 
 
 Toute nation a ses loix, Each nation has its laws. 
 
 Cent ignorans doinjent-ih Are a hundred blockheads to 
 
 remptjytersurimhommeini- get the advantage of one 
 
 ^'■^'^ ^ learned man ? 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 That good father was happy in his 
 children, and his children were hap- 
 py in him. 
 
 Thae imitati<ve2 sounds i &xt x\\t are the integral parts 
 integral parts of all languages, and ^J ^"^ ^Ta^s 
 
 as their* fundamental basis. and as et ils en sent 
 
 ccinme 
 En)ery man has his foibles, his mo- 
 
 ments of humour, even his irregula- 
 rities. 
 
 Each plant has virtues v/hich are p.^culiar propro 
 
 peculiar to it, and the knowkdire 2 of ^° 'f , ,, 
 
 ^ . _ '■' co:dd con (I- 1 
 
 which 1 could not but be infinitely ■„()[ ^;^/ ig j-^^, ^^^^ 
 
 useful. 
 
 In all his instri'.ctions, he is care- ''^ '' (^^rrfid to remem- 
 . , , , , . bcr ne pomt pcrdic 
 
 rul to remember that grammar, logic ^g ^^^ 
 
 and rhetoric are three sisters that ought on devoir ind 2 
 ought never to be disjoined. ^''''^' 'i^'P^''<^^ separer 
 
 Rule IIT. Proj)er names of deities, men, animals, 
 towns and particular places, are without article, but 
 they take it wlien they are used in a limited sense. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 T>\c\i a crec le del ct la tcrrc, God has made heaven »nd 
 
 earth. 
 Jupiter etoit Ic premier dcs Jupiter was the first of the 
 
 Dicux, gods. 
 
 Bucephale etoif le cheval Bucephalus was Alexander's 
 
 </ Alexandre, horse . 
 
 Rome est une lulle d'unc Rome is a city of great bcau- 
 grande be ante, ty
 
 deposed chasser 
 
 divided en panager 
 inker itancs heritage 
 
 ( 215 ) 
 
 But wc ought to say ; Ic Dicu des Chretien!;, the 
 God ot Christians ; le Dieti de paix, the God ot" j)eace; 
 Ic yupiter d' Homerc, Homer's Jupiter ; le Bucephalc 
 d Alexandre, Alexander's Bucephalus ; ranciemie 
 Kor^e, ancient Rome ; la Rome moderne, modern 
 Rome. 
 
 It, in imitation of the Italians, we use the article 
 before the names of painters and poets of that nation, 
 except Michel-Ange and Raphael, it is because the 
 expression is elliptical, the words peintre, pcite, or 
 seigneur, being understood. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 Jupiter, son of Saturn and Cibele 
 or Ops, after having deposed his fa- 
 ther from the throne, divided the 
 paternal * inheritance with his two 
 brothers, Neptu'!ea.nd Plutn. 
 
 On a dispute, at a feast of the gods, g„ dans 
 
 between Juno, Palla; and Venus, for at a feast qu'il y eut 
 
 the preenninence of beauty, Jupiter , . , , "^ "" festm 
 
 . . , , , . , b':ing able pouvoir 
 
 not being able to bring them to an to briyig to an agree- 
 
 agreement, referred the decision to ment accorder 
 
 Pans, a shepherd of mount Ida, 'f'^'-f.^ renvoyer 
 . » ' dn-eettons ordre 
 
 with direaions that a golden apple that a golden apple, ?£c. 
 should be given to the fairest. Paris 'O gi've a golden apple 
 assigned to p'enus the golden * re- 
 ward '■*. 
 
 God said : let there * be light, and 
 there '■ was light. 
 
 The Apollo di Bel'videre and the 
 Venus di Medicis, are precious re- 
 mains of antiquity. 
 
 May and September are the two 
 finest months of the year in the south 
 of France. 
 
 The god of Abraham, Isaac and 
 Jacob, was the only true God. uuly stul 
 
 to 
 
 assigned 
 reivard 
 
 adjuger la 
 prix 
 
 {light be and light ivas)
 
 ( 2l6 ) 
 
 OssER-VATroN. The English arc sonietimes at 
 a loss how to translate into French the a or an which 
 precedes the substantive following tlie verb ctre : but 
 there will be no difficulty, if they examine whether 
 that substantive ought to be rendered in French bv an 
 adjective, or whether the substantive be taken adjec- 
 tively. Thus, I am a Frenchman, I am a prince, 
 are to be translated by jc su'is Francois, jc suis prince. 
 But should the English substantive preserve its nature, 
 then the a or an ought to be expressed by the adjec- 
 tive un placed before the substantive. / am a French- 
 man of an illustrious family, I am a very unfortunate 
 prince, aie translated thus : je suis un Frangois (TUlus- 
 irc maison, je suis un prince bien tnalheureux ; for, in 
 this instance, Francois and prince are determinate, and 
 'consequently, ought to be preceded by a word expres- 
 sive of that determination, and performing the office 
 of article. For this reason we put un before the noua 
 V/hich follows the verb etrc, preceded by the demon- 
 strative pronoun ce. 
 
 Observation. We have said, that, in French, 
 \ye do not use the article before substantives which 
 serve to qualify a preceding noun ; but, in English, 
 the article the is sometimes used, and oftener a or an, 
 which corresponds to our adje6live ?/«, as : Tclemachus, 
 the son of Ulysses, king of Ithaca. The Duke of 
 York, a prince of the royal family. 
 
 As the use of the article is one of the most difficult 
 things in our language, we here subjoin a comparative 
 table, in which the same words are used, according to 
 circumstances, eidier with or without the article. 
 
 TABLE. 
 
 With the article. Without the article. 
 
 The writings of Cicero are The writings of Cicero arc 
 
 full of the soundest '2 idcasK. full of sound'2 ideas 1. 
 
 T^\^ yo\.\xic\i of the prejiidiics Have you no prejudice with 
 
 se defaire ' 
 
 of chiUhood. regard to this question ? 
 
 snr 
 
 The different kinds of ant- There are different kinds of 
 ■iimls that arc upon the animals upon the earth. 
 
 earth. 
 
 He
 
 With the article, 
 lie enters into the detail? of the 
 
 rult s of a good grammar. 
 
 He seeks/o?- circuinlocutiom. 
 
 chercker de detour 
 
 He charges his memory with 
 
 the -versei of Virgil and the 
 
 phra.'es of Cicero. 
 Esiays supported by j/r5«^ 2 
 discoio's soutenu 
 
 expressions 1. 
 He has compiled precepts of 
 recuttllir pour 
 
 language and of morality. 
 Make use of the tokens we 
 ic ser'vir si^ne{doni~) 
 
 agreed upon *. 
 
 tire corfvenu 
 
 The choice of studies, proper, 
 
 Knowledge has always been 
 connoissance'^X. 
 
 the objc6l of the esteem, the 
 
 praise and admiration of 
 
 men. 
 The riches of the mind can 
 
 only * be acquirecTby study, 
 ne que 
 
 The gifts of fortune are un- 
 certain. 
 fragilts 
 The connexion of proofs 
 f.nchainemcnt prcuve 
 makes them please and per- 
 
 qu'elles 
 suade. 
 It is by meditation upon what 
 ce 
 
 we read that we acquire 
 fresh 2 knotvledge 1. 
 
 connoissance pi. 
 The advantages of memory. 
 
 ( 217 ) 
 
 Without the article. 
 He enters into a long detail of 
 
 fri'volous 2 rules 1 . 
 He seeks for wide I circum° 
 Ions 
 
 locutions 2 in order to CK' 
 
 plain the simplest J thin^sl. 
 He loads his memory "zvitk 
 
 insipid 3. -verses 1. and 
 
 phrases. 2. 
 Essays supported hj lively I 
 
 expressions 2. 
 
 A colleftion of precepts iu lan- 
 guage and morals. 
 
 We arc obliged to use scnic 
 de 
 
 exterior 2 signs 1, in order 
 
 to make ourselves undcr- 
 nous en" 
 
 stood. 
 
 tendre 
 Hehas madea choice of boolkr^ 
 
 which arc, &c. 
 It is an objcdt of esteem, of 
 ce 
 
 praise and admiration. 
 
 There 
 
 prodigl" 
 
 in Peru 3 
 le Perou 
 OU5 abundance 1 cf uselesiZ 
 riches! 
 Gifts of fortune, 
 lien 
 
 There is in this book aji ad- 
 mirable connection of solid J 
 proofs 1. 
 
 It is by meditation that we 
 acquire fresh I knowledge 2' 
 nowvcati 
 
 There are different kir.ds cf 
 memory, 
 
 u
 
 ( 2l8 ) 
 
 With the article. Without the article. 
 
 The memory of facts is the H thas only a memory of 
 most showy. facts, 
 
 brillant. 
 The aim of good masters The memory of mind and 
 but reason is more useful han 
 
 ■ should be to cultivate the the other kinds of memory, 
 devoir ind- 1 de 
 
 viind and reason of their / 
 
 pupils. 
 We should propose (//^rz////V5, He has made a cr>Ilc(ftion of 
 on ne det'oir ind- \ dijficidt'us, of whieh he 
 
 only * to make truth2 tri- seeks the solution. 
 que pour tri- 
 
 - •umphl. 
 ompher 
 The taste of mankind is liable Society o^ chosen 2 men 1. 
 hotirme 
 to great changes. 
 He has no need of the lesson He has no need of U.ssons. 
 avoir besoin 
 you wish to give him. 
 France, Spain, England, &c. 
 
 K ingdom of France, of Spain, 
 
 of England, &c. 
 Island ofCand/a. 
 He covnQ% from Poland, 
 He arrives yVoOT Italy. 
 He is gone to Persia, 
 en 
 He is returned fro7n the East He is returned frorjk Spain, 
 
 Indies, from Asia, &c. frcm Persia, &c. 
 
 He lives in Peru, in Japan, He lives /// Italy, in France, 
 
 The island of Japan. 
 He comes from China. 
 He arrives/roiv; America. 
 The extent of Persia. 
 
 in the Indies, in Jamaica, 
 
 The politeness of Fraiwe. 
 The circumference of En- 
 gland. 
 The interest of Spain. 
 
 in London, in Avignon, &c. 
 
 The fashions of France. 
 The horses of England. _ 
 
 The wines cf Spain. 
 
 The invention of printing Is The empire of Germa'iy is 
 attributed to Germany. divided int(j a great num- 
 
 ber of stales. 
 He comes from French Flan- He comes from Flanders, 
 dcrs. 
 
 Observations. I". The English nuikc use of 
 fi or an, bct'oie the nouns of measure, weight, aud 
 things bought, as: ivhcut is .told for a croivn a hushely 
 butter sells for sixpence a pound, wine sold yesterday for
 
 ( 219 ) 
 
 forty crowns a hogshead, 'tis more than a groat a hotth. 
 But, in French, wo ought to make use of the article 
 and not of th- adjcdive un, as : le bled se vend un ecu 
 le hoisseau, le heurre se vend six sous la livre, le v'ln se 
 vcndit hler qnarante ecus le mu'id, c' est plus de quatre 
 sous la boutt'llle. 
 
 When speaking of time, a or an is expressed, in 
 F'rench, by the preposition par, as : io much a iveck, 
 iant par semaine. 
 
 2^. In English, a is sometimes put between the 
 pronoun which serves for the admiration and the sub- 
 stantive that accompanies it, as : what a beauty I but, 
 in French, the adjective un is never expressed, and we 
 say : quelle beaute / 
 
 3^. in English, when the adverbs more and less 
 are repeated to express a comparison, they must be 
 preceded by the article, as : the more difficult a thmg 
 is, the more honourable. But, in French, the ariicle 
 is omitted, and we say : plus une chase est difficile^ 
 plus elle est honorable. 
 
 That nothing may be omitted on this subject/ we 
 here subjoin a 
 
 TABLE 
 
 OF NOUNS CONSTRUF.D WITHOUT E1TK?:R PRONOUN 
 OR PREPOSITION. PRECEDED BY A VhRB OF WHICH 
 THEY ARE THE COMPLEMENT. 
 
 Ai.'oir. 
 Avoir f aim To be hungry Avoir froid To be cold 
 Avon- soif To be thirst)- Avoir chuud To be warm 
 Avoir dcisein To intend Avjir mal To ach 
 
 Avjir hontt To be abham- Avoir besoin To want 
 
 ed Avoir pan au To share in 
 
 Avoir crjulume To use to gateau the booty 
 
 Avoir jjitiS Tu pity Avoir envic To _ have a 
 
 Avoir commas- To liave mer- mind 
 
 non cy Ave ir droit To have a 
 
 right, &c. 
 
 Chercher. 
 
 Chsrcher for- To seek for- Clicrchcr mat- To hunt for 
 
 tune ' tune lieur luisfoftuKe 
 
 U 2
 
 
 { 2'. 
 
 10 ) - 
 
 
 
 Courir. 
 
 
 Courir fortu/ie 
 
 To stand a 
 chance 
 
 Courir risque 
 
 To run the 
 ribk 
 
 
 Demander. 
 
 
 Demander 
 
 raison 
 Demander 
 
 To ask satis- 
 
 fadtioa 
 To aik for 
 
 Demander 
 
 justice 
 Demander 
 
 To ask justice 
 To pray for 
 
 I'cnjeance 
 Demander 
 S >'-i<-e 
 
 vengeance 
 To ask par- 
 don 
 
 quartier 
 Demander 
 avis_ 
 
 quarter 
 Toask advice, 
 &c. 
 
 
 D 
 
 ire. 
 
 
 Dire vrai 
 Dire Juii.i 
 
 Tospeak truth 
 To speak false 
 
 Dire matines 
 Dire vi'pres 
 
 To say matina 
 
 To say YCi- 
 
 ptrs, &c. 
 
 
 Donner, 
 
 
 Donner prise 
 
 To give ahold 
 
 Donner cau- 
 
 To give baii 
 
 Do!i/ierjiiur 
 
 Donner paroic 
 D'jnnet wjis 
 
 To appoint a 
 
 day 
 To give word 
 To give ad- 
 
 tion 
 
 Donner quit- 
 tance 
 
 Donner at- 
 
 To give a re» 
 
 ceipt 
 To strike at 
 
 
 tice 
 
 teinte 
 Donner beau To give faitf 
 jeu play. Sec. 
 
 11 Va 
 
 "Entendre rai- 
 son 
 
 Entendre rail- 
 ierie 
 
 Tafre "vie qui 
 
 dure 
 taire bonne 
 
 cliere 
 Yaire envie 
 Faire peur 
 Faire eas dc 
 
 quelquun 
 Fairc marche 
 
 Fair pvoiH- 
 *i9n 
 
 Echapper, 
 ichappe belle He had a narrow escape 
 Entendre. 
 
 To under- Entendre ma- To mean harm 
 
 stand reason lice 
 
 To take a Entendre fi- Tobesly,cuti- 
 joke 7iesie ning, &c. 
 
 Fa'ire, 
 
 To live with- Faire reflexion To reflc<5t 
 
 i;\ compass Faire Iwnte To make one 
 
 To live well ashamed 
 
 Faire honnenr To do honour 
 
 To raise envy Faire plai sir To please 
 
 To frighten Faire alliance To make an 
 
 To value one alliance 
 
 Faire argent To make mo- 
 
 To make a dc tout ncy of every 
 
 bargain thing 
 
 To provide Faire sem- To pretend
 
 ( 221 ) 
 
 Fairc route 
 t'un efacs 
 
 Gainer pay i 
 
 Mettre ordre 
 
 Purler 'vrai 
 Parler bon 
 sens 
 
 To sail 
 To face 
 
 Fairef-cKf 
 Fairc diff.cul- 
 te 
 
 Gagner. 
 To scamper Gagner groi 
 
 Mettre. 
 To order Mettre fin 
 
 Parler. 
 To speak truth Parler rahon 
 
 To speak, good 
 sense 
 
 Parler Latin, 
 Francois, 
 &c. 
 
 Porter envie 
 Porter coup 
 Porter mal- 
 heur 
 
 Pre>tJ)£ga^de 
 Prendre se- 
 ance 
 Prendre eonge 
 Prendre Ian- 
 gue 
 
 Porter. 
 To bear en%-y Porter tcmoi- 
 
 To prejudice 
 To bring ill 
 luck 
 
 gnage 
 Porter bonheia' 
 
 To take care 
 To take one's 
 
 seat 
 To take leave 
 To get intel- 
 ligence 
 
 pa. 
 
 Porter com- 
 passion 
 
 Prendre. 
 
 Prendre 
 
 tience 
 Prendre me- 
 
 decine 
 Prendre con- 
 
 seil 
 Prendre gout 
 
 Rendre. 
 
 Pendre seriics To do service Rendre amour 
 Rendre iiisite To pay a visit pour arnmr 
 
 Rendre gorge 
 Te7iir. 
 
 Tenir parole To keep one's Tenir prison 
 
 word 
 7V.v;V bon To hold oat Tenir fer/r.e 
 
 About some other particulars, see 
 iur rarticls^ 
 
 ^^3 
 
 To face 
 To niskc dif- 
 ficulty, 6lc. 
 
 To ^et much* 
 &c. 
 
 To put an end 
 
 To speak rea- 
 son 
 
 To speak La- 
 tin, French, 
 &c. 
 
 To bear wit- 
 ness 
 
 To bring good 
 luck 
 
 To feel com- 
 passion, &c. 
 
 To have pa- 
 tience 
 
 To take phy- 
 sic 
 
 To take coun- 
 sel 
 
 To take a li- 
 king, &c. 
 
 To return love 
 
 for love 
 To refund 
 
 To kejp pri- 
 son 
 
 To stnrd it, 
 &c.
 
 ( 322 ) 
 
 §• ni. 
 
 OF THE ADJECTIFE. 
 I. 
 
 • F THE ADJECTIVE WITH THE ARTICLE. 
 
 Rule. Adjc6lives taken substantively, are, as 
 substantives coiiimon, accompanied by the article, if 
 the use made of them require it. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 t,es fous innjeyitent les modes. Fools invent the fashions and 
 <?/ les sages i J/ confonnent, the wise conform to them. 
 
 Rule IL When a noun is accompanied by two 
 adjectives expressing opposite qualities, the article 
 ought to be repeated before every adje6live. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 Le<; vieux ^/lesnouveaux sol- The old and the new soldiers 
 dats sont remplis d'ardeur, are replete with ardour. 
 
 1! fant frtque titer la bonne Wc ought to frequent good, 
 compagniCy et j'nlr la mau- and shun bad, company, 
 vaisc, 
 
 Observation. This rule ought to be stri6VIy 
 attended to, when the qualities expressed by the adjec- 
 tives are opposite : but those qualities may be eidier 
 nearly synonimous, or merely different, widiout being 
 opposite. In the first instance, the article is not re- 
 peated, as : le sage tsf plaix Ftnelon, the wise and 
 pious Fenclon : in the second, it is perhaj)S better to 
 lepeac it, as : le sensible i^ ringailcu.x FUnclon, the 
 sensible and ingenious Fenelon. 
 
 Rule HI. The article is used before the adjec- 
 tive which is joined to a projier name, cither to express 
 its quality, or to distinguishthe person spoken of from 
 those who might bear the same name. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 te sublimt Bos!uet, le 'veriueux Faielon, le tendre Rad»e, 
 The sublime Bussaet. the virtuous Ftnelon. the tender Racine. 
 Louis le gros, Louis I.'Jusc-y Hoiri Ir grcuul^ 
 
 Xxjuis the fat. Louis the just. Henry the great. 
 
 Observation. The adjeilivc which is joined 
 to a proper name, either precedes, or follows that name. 
 If it precede it, it expresses a quality which may be 
 tOKiinon to inauy i if it follow it, it expresses a dis-.
 
 ( 223 ) 
 
 tinfllve quality. These two expressions r Le savoHi 
 Farron, and Varron le savant, do not convey the same 
 meaning: in the tirst, we merely give to Farron the 
 quality of savant ; in the second we give to understand 
 that there are several persons of the name of Varron, 
 and that the one we mean is distuiguished for his 
 learning. 
 
 Rule IV. When of an adjective in the compa- 
 rative degree, we mean to make a superlative relative, 
 we place the article before diat comparative, and then, 
 if the adjedtive be placed before the substantive, the 
 article serves for both ; if after, the article is to be 
 repeated before each» 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Les plus habilcs gens font que Iquefoisles plus grossieres fautes, 
 
 or, 
 Lcs gens les plus habiles font qnelqu-efois les fautes les plus 
 
 grossieres. 
 The cleverest men commit sometimes the grossest blunders* 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 The learned of antiquity, were 
 they to come to life again, would be 
 much astonished at the extent of our 
 knowledge. 
 
 The ignorant have, in a * strong 
 dose of presumption, what they want 
 in real science, and that is the reason 
 they arc admired by fools. 
 
 The ivise man * preserves the same 
 tranquillity of mind in good or bad 
 fortune. 
 
 The man who is Jealous of his re- 
 putation frequents good and shuns 
 bad company. 
 
 Grand and strong thoughts always 
 T^'ere the fruit of genius. 
 
 The great Corneille astonishes by 
 beauties- of the first order, and by 
 faults. of.the worst ta*te, li the tuidcr 
 
 iverc they to come aga'nt 
 
 sirevenir 
 
 life monde 
 
 luouhl be astonished at 
 
 etonner de 
 
 they ivant il manquer a 
 and that ce 
 
 the reason ce qui fait 
 que 
 they are, &c. say, the 
 fools admire them. 
 
 In French the substan- 
 tive must be joined, 
 to the itrst adjeftiv^, 
 
 shuns fiU"
 
 rise s'clever 
 
 bears himself ivell se- 
 
 soutcnir 
 
 possesses avoir 
 
 It 
 
 on 
 
 present don 
 
 jnan pi. 
 
 could si pouvoir ind-5? 
 be produced by naitre de 
 ivould naitre, rcpea'-ed 
 cond-1 
 the more plus 
 
 ive on 
 
 artless na'if 
 
 loe are coniiinced on sc 
 convaincre 
 
 // is only 
 
 que 
 
 s/ioiv itself se montrer 
 
 ( 224 ) 
 
 J^acinedces not always rise so higlv 
 at ieast, he bears himself well, and 
 possesses the art of always interesting 
 the heart. 
 
 It has been said of the Telemachus 
 of the mirtiious F^nelon, thai it is the 
 most useful 2. present 1. the muses 
 iiave made to man ; for, could the 
 happiness of mankind be produced 
 by a poem, it would be by that. 
 
 The more we read the fables of 
 "CwQ good 2lw^ artless la Fontaine, the 
 more we are convinced that they are 
 the book, of all ages and the manual 
 of the man of taste. 
 
 It is only under the reign of Louis 
 the just (XIII) that good taste began 
 to show itself in France ; but it is 
 under that of Lpuis the great that It 
 •was carried to perfeflion 
 
 The most still 2. water 1. often 
 conceals the most dangcrousC. abyss. 1 . 
 II. 
 
 The pronominal adjcdtivcs mon, ton, son, noirCy. 
 'votre, lcuy\ placed before the comparative adverbs, 
 perform the fundlion of the article, and coivequ€;.rly 
 raise the comparative to the degree of superlative re- 
 lative, as: c' est monmcUlcur ami, he is my best trimd ; 
 thai is, c' cs,t le mcilkur dc mcs amis, he is the bcbt of 
 my friends. 
 
 III. 
 
 Rule. Adje61:ivcs in the comparative, or super- 
 lative, are ref;ylated by the s»mc laws as adjectives in 
 the positive. Hence, we ought to say : c^est la coutume 
 des peuples les plus harbares, et celle des phis civilises, 
 &c. It is the custom of the most barbarous, and that of 
 the most civilized people, Sec. Cest une des plus helks 
 fcmnes dc Loudrcs, she is ojic of the finest vvomen ia 
 
 carried 
 
 slill 
 
 abyss 
 
 porrer a. 
 
 trancjuillc 
 gourfrc
 
 ( 225 } 
 
 London ; since we should say in the positive : c^est la 
 contnmc des peuples harbarcs, ct ccHe des civi/ish, Sec. 
 itisthecustom of barbarous and tha*" of civilized people, 
 ccc. : c\'st loic des bdUsftmmcs dc Londrcs, she is one 
 of the tine women in London. Girard and Condiilac 
 would have us say : c^est unc des fcmmes des phis 
 belles de Londrts, but they are wrong, since we cannot 
 say, in the positive : e'est wie des fcmmes des belles 
 de hondres. 
 
 Obse'rvatiok. The superlative relative some- 
 times relates to a substantive not expressed, but under- 
 stood, as : rhiver est la plus triste des seasons, winter 
 is the dullest of the seasons ; a happy turn which 
 unites elegance, with precision. 
 
 IV. 
 
 Observation L When an adjective serves to 
 qualify several substantives of things, these substan- 
 tives are either as subject, or as regimen. 
 
 If as subject, the adjective is always in the plural, as: 
 Je travail, la patieneey la fermete ct Ic courage joints 
 tnsemble, le firent triompher de ses ennemls, labour, 
 patience, firmness and courage joined together, made 
 him triumph over his enemies. 
 
 If as regimen, the adjective agrees with the last 
 only, as : // avoit la bouche ct les yeiix ouverts ; il 
 Gvoh les yeux ct la bouche ouverte ; he had his eyes and 
 mouth open. 
 
 Observatio^n II. There is a difficulty in the 
 French language upon winch grammarians do not 
 agree ; it is Avith respect to the noun followed by several 
 adjectives expressing sorts of the same kind. Some will 
 have the substantive to be put in the plural, while each 
 adjective remains in the singular. I have long held 
 the same opinion ; but, after a serious attention on this 
 subject, I have adopted the opinion of those who reject 
 this construction, as contrary to the rules of syntax. 
 For, although adjectives are by their nature subordi- 
 nate to the substantives, of which they ought to take 
 the accidents and forms, yet the noun is far from ac- 
 knowledging that servility : the adjectives which fol- 
 ■iovv it have no right to enforce upon it the law of
 
 tell of 
 
 ( 226 ) 
 
 agreement In number, its inclepen<lency rejecting it 
 altogether. Thus this sentence : les langues FraU' 
 foitc tS!* ylngloise sont fort cultivas, is not French ; 
 we ought to say .' la Utngue Fran^ohe^ i^ r Angloise 
 sent fort cultlvies, 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 The speilacle of nature in its in- 
 finite variety made ouf purest delight 
 and our stvcetest occupation. 
 
 Thiir most agreeable pastime was pastime passe-temps 
 the .reading of useful 2 books. 1 
 
 Your longest days will always be , 
 tho:-e which you lose in idleness and idleness 
 luxury. luxury 
 
 Our most cruel enemies are the men 
 that flatter us, and our best friends 
 those who tell us of our faults. 
 
 Politeness and gentleness disarm politeness 
 the mist insensible and soften the gentleness 
 most ferocious heart. 
 
 It is to ihe tenderest and most vir- 
 tuous mother that I dedicate this 
 book. 
 
 It is the wox'k oi the most absurd 
 pedant that exists. 
 
 Athalia is the most perfect of Ra- 
 cine's tragedies, and Tartutfc the 
 finest of Moliere's comedies. 
 
 His impetuosity and courage, long 
 chained^ soon surmounted all ob- 
 stacles. 
 
 The imagination and genius of 
 
 Ariosto, although irregular in their 
 
 march, yet attach, carry and captivate 
 
 the reader, who can never be tired 
 
 of admiring them. 
 
 There arc in Gessncr's idyls, scnti- 
 
 perdre 
 oisivctd 
 moliesse 
 
 ^clairer sur 
 
 honnetete 
 
 douceur 
 
 soften adoucir 
 
 heart must be placed 
 
 after the 1st. verb 
 
 chained enchainer 
 
 be tired 
 
 se laSser
 
 C 227 ) 
 
 TOcnB and a gracefulness altogether 
 
 affecting. " ^ 
 
 The good taste of the Esryptians, . , . ,^ 
 
 ^ &/r fyom that tints des- 
 
 from that time, made them love so- jprj 
 
 lidity and ««i^f^ 2. regularity. 1. naked tout na 
 
 Observation. The same rule ought to be ob- 
 served with the relative pronoun which serves to unite 
 the incidental phrase; for this reason Fenelon has 
 said : il y a dans la veritable vertii loie candeur iff une 
 tngcnulte a laquelle on ne se meprend pointy ponrvit 
 quony so'it attentlf, there is in real virtue a candour and 
 ingenuousness, which we cannot mistake it we will 
 but attend to it. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 In these climates, the dry and the monsoon mousson 
 
 rainv monsoons divide the year be- '^^'^^'^'^ hctivecn then 
 
 se partager 
 %veen them. r 
 
 Custom has introduced a variety of relations in the 
 use of the adje6live bon, which well deserves to be no- 
 ticed. We say of a woman : elle a ra'tr hon, meaning, 
 she has an air of goodness ; because the adjective bon 
 qualifies the substantive air. Byt it is not so, when 
 tlie subje6i: is a thing. We must say : cette poire a 
 Pair bonne, and perhaps better, V/'cV/y ^c«;2f, because 
 here, the adjective bonne qualities poire, and not air. 
 
 V. 
 
 THE PLACE OF THE ADJECTIVES. 
 
 Rule I. Before substantives we place the prono- 
 minal adjectives, adjectives of number, and in general 
 tl^e following sixteen, viz : beau, bon, brave, cher, che~ 
 tif, grand, gros, jeune, mauvais, mechant, meilieur^ 
 inoindrc, petity saint, vieux and vrai. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 Mon pcre, quel homme, plusieurs offiiiers, grand homme, 
 My father. what man. several officers, great man. 
 Fieille femme, dix guinces, six arbres, Sec. 
 Old woman. ten guineas. six trees, &:c. 
 
 Exceptions i°. We ought to except the pro= 
 noun quelconqiic, as : raison quclconqiie, reason Vv'hat- 
 ever. 
 
 a". The adjectives- of number, joined to proper
 
 ( 22S ) 
 
 paines, pronouns, and substantives In quotation and 
 without article, as : George trois, George the third ; 
 lui dixii'me, he the tenth ; chapitre dix^ chapter the 
 tenth ; page treyitc, page thirty. 
 
 3*^. 'I'he sixteen adjectives before mentioned, when 
 they arejoined by a conjuniStion to another adjc6live, 
 nvhich is to be placed after the substantive, as : c'«/ 
 vne femme grande l^ hien fahcy she is a woman tall 
 and well made. 
 
 Observation. In English, two, or even several, 
 adje6lives may qualify a substantive, without being 
 joined by a conjunction : but in French, they must be 
 united by a conjunction, as : c^est un homtnc aimable 
 is" polit he is an amiable well behaved man ; except 
 w^hen custom allows the substantive between two 
 adjectives, as : c'est tin grand homme sec isf robuste, 
 he is a tall raw-boned robust man. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 Ages have been when a great. 7nan 
 was a sort of prodigy produced by an 
 error of nature. 
 
 In almost all nations, the great 
 ^eniuies that have adorned them 
 were contemporaries. 
 
 Young people, says Horace, are 
 supple to the impressions of vice, 
 lavish, presumptuons and equally 
 fiery and light in their passions : old J^^^^ 
 people^ on tlie -contrary, are covetuous, 
 dilatory, timid, ever alarmed about 
 the future, always complaining, hard 
 to please, panegyrists of times past? 
 censors of the present, and great 
 givers of advice. 
 
 What Tium was ever satisfied with 
 his fortune, and dissatisfied vi'ith his 
 
 \NJt ? 
 
 Thirty chambcn which have acom- 
 aiunication one with another, and 
 
 have been. 
 
 il y avoir 
 
 •when 
 
 ou 
 
 produced 
 
 enfanter 
 
 in 
 
 chez 
 
 nations 
 
 peuple 
 
 adorned illustrefind-* 
 
 people 
 
 gens 
 
 supple 
 
 sou pic 
 
 lavish 
 
 prodigue 
 
 fery 
 
 vif 
 
 covetuous 
 
 avare 
 
 dilatory tcmporiseur 
 
 about 
 
 sur 
 
 complaining 
 
 pla'ntif 
 
 hard 
 
 'difficile 
 
 please 
 
 contenter 
 
 givers 
 
 donneur 
 
 dissatisfied mecontcnt 
 
 have 
 
 a coinmunication 
 
 communiquer 
 
 each
 
 ( 229 ) 
 
 each cvf them tn iron door, with six tac/i of them dontcha- 
 
 cun avo^r 
 huge bolts, are the place where he huge gros 
 
 bolts ytrroM 
 
 ihuts himself up. shuts himself se ren- 
 
 fermer 
 
 Rule IL In general, we place after die substan- 
 tives those adjectives which are formed of the participle 
 present of verbs. Oiivrage dlveftissant, entertaining 
 work ; and always those formed of the participle past, 
 figure arrondic, round figure ; those denoting the 
 tigure, table ovale, oval table ; tlie colour, maison 
 blanche, white house ; the savour, hirbe amerc, bitter 
 herb ; the sound, orgue karmonicux, harmonious organ; 
 an idea of action, procureur ail'if, active attorney ; or, 
 an effect produced, coutume abusive, abusive custom ; 
 a quality relative to the nature of a thing, ordre gram- 
 matical, grammatical order ; or, to the species of a 
 thing, qualite occtilte, occult quality ; those of nation, 
 gcnerosite Angloise, English generosity ; those in esque^ 
 style burlesque, burlesque style ; those in il, jargon 
 pncril, childish jargon ; those in w/f , fcmme credule^ 
 credulous woman ; those in ic, bien public^ public 
 ■welfare j those in ique, ris sardonique, sardonic 
 laughter, and perhaps a few others ; but in this, cus- 
 tom is to be consulted as our only guide. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 An affeHid simplicity is a nice 
 cheat. 
 
 The lively piflurcs of Theocritus, 
 Virgil and Gessner carry into the 
 soul a soft sensibility. 
 
 In that antique palace are to be seen 
 neither ivreaihed columns, nor gild- 
 fi/ wainscots, nor precious basso-re - 
 lievos, norcielings curiously />^/«/<'^, 
 xvQX grotesque ^\o\xxt% of animals which 
 iiever had existence but in the ima- 
 gination of a child or a madman. 
 
 X 
 
 nice 
 
 delicat 
 
 cheat ! 
 
 mposture 
 
 li'vely 
 fictitrcs 
 
 riant 
 tableau 
 
 cany 
 soft- 
 
 porter 
 doux 
 
 are to he setn 
 
 ou ne ju 
 
 •wreathed 
 
 2. basso-relie' 
 
 torse 
 I'Oi has- 
 
 relief 
 {.train scots lambris 
 cielings plafond 
 curiously artistement 
 
 }ieijer 
 
 had existence 
 
 ne jamais 
 exister
 
 mani 
 troubles 
 
 so 
 
 by halves 
 
 Spanish 
 
 manners 
 
 become 
 among 
 
 bicn dc 
 peine 
 
 le 
 
 a demi 
 Espagnol 
 
 passer en 
 chez 
 
 ( 230 ) 
 
 If human life is exposed to many 
 troubles, it is also susceptible of many- 
 pleasures, 
 
 A ridiculous man is seldom so by 
 "halves. 
 
 Spanish manners have, at first sight, 
 something harsh and savage. 
 
 French urbanity was become a pro- 
 verb among foreign nations. 
 
 Rule III. Although it should seem that we may- 
 place indifferently before or after the substantives those 
 adjectives that express moral qualities, either good or 
 bad, nevertheless it is taste alone, and an ear exercised 
 by that nice taste, that can assign the proper place 
 they are to hold. 
 
 In conversation, or in broken, loose style, it may be 
 indifferent to s^j femme aimablc, or aimahle fcmme \ 
 talens sublimes, or sublimes talcns, Sec. ; but in full 
 style, the place of the adjectives may, in a great variety 
 of ways, affect the beauty of a sentence. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 An amiable woman gives to every 
 thing she says an inexpressible grzce- 
 fulness : the more we hear, the more 
 ■vve wish to hear her. 
 
 gives to rt'pandrc sur 
 
 inexpressible inexpri- 
 
 mable 
 
 The 7,7rtyVi//V eloquence of Bossuet 
 is like a river, which carries away 
 every thing in the rapidity of its 
 course. 
 
 The sublime compositions of Ru- 
 bens have made an English traveller 
 say that \^\% famous painter was born 
 in Flanders, through a mistake of 
 nature. 
 
 The sight of an agreeable land- 
 scape is a varied and a rapid source 
 «f Ueligbtf'al sensations. 
 
 ive on 
 
 her la must be re- 
 peated before each 
 verb 
 majestic majestueux 
 river fleuvc 
 
 carries aivay entrainer 
 
 say 
 
 dire 1 
 
 famous 
 
 celebrc 
 
 through 
 
 par
 
 C 231 } 
 VI. 
 
 RrC-IMEN OF THE ADJECTIVES, 
 
 Rule. A noun may be under the regimen of two 
 adjectives, provided those adjectives do not require 
 ditt'erent regimens. Thus, we say : cet homme est 
 utile et cher a sa famille, that man is useful and dear 
 to his family. But we cannot say : cet homme est utile 
 ft cheri de sa famille, that man is useful and beloved 
 by his family, because tlie adjective utile does not go- 
 vern the preposition dc. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 A yciing man \vhose aftions are (honour regulates all, 
 
 al! regulated by honour, and whose .'*''^,'^ 
 
 . r c-.- • . • ( ^^"o "-s no other 
 
 only aun is perrcction in every tning, aim') 
 
 ib bclcvc'd and ioii^lil afttr by every * 
 
 body. 
 
 Cardinal Richelieu wis all his life- 
 time feared and hated by the great f)' dc 
 whom he humbled. humbled humilicr 
 
 A young hdy, gentle, civil and de- yr^ng lady dcmo'.selle 
 
 cent, who sees in the advantages of 
 
 birth, riches, w';t and beauty nothing ,,- , , 
 
 ' ' ■' . to nothing but ne que 
 
 but incitements to virtue, is very cer- incitemtnti encoarage- 
 tain of being beloved and esteemed menc 
 
 by every body. "'''''''' ^''^'^ 
 
 VII. 
 
 i'^. In the use of die ^uh-tantives of measure anc! 
 diincnsioiij there is a difFerv,ncc of construction in the 
 two Uinguages, which it is important to remark, la 
 I'.ii-lish the s'jbstanrive of measure is placed liefore the 
 substantive or adjective expressing; the dimetislon, as : 
 a tovjcr tvjo hundred feet high, ov in. height . In French, 
 tiic word which expres'^es the dlincnsion is placed first, 
 it it be an adjective, and the preposition de is added to 
 it as icgimen, as : une tnir haute de deux cents ficds. 
 But it is placed after, if it be a substantive, or if tlie 
 ujicctive be used substantively; adding tlie prepositioi' 
 
 X 2
 
 (■ ^32 ) 
 
 de, either before the noun of measure, or bcfcre the 
 noun of dimension, as : urn- tour de deux coits -pieds dc 
 haut^ or dc hauteur. This last expression is the most 
 elegant. 
 
 When wespeak of twodimen^^ions only, in the thing 
 measured, the English make use of tlie construction 
 we have been mentioning, with the verb etre., as: the 
 •ualls of Jligicrs are tzvelve feet thick and thiriv feet 
 high. But, in French, we generally make use of the 
 verb avoir, as the English adjective is commonly ex- 
 pressed by the French substantive corresponding to 
 it, and then we have two constructions ; 1°. les f/ims 
 d'' Alger out douze pieds d\jiais-sa^r, Uf trcnte dc haut- 
 eur. 2°. les murs cV Alger out douze pieds d\'pais- 
 seury sur trente de haut-eur. This last manner is the 
 best and most generally adopted. 
 
 2°. In comparative sentences, where we want to 
 express the difference of a thing compared with another, 
 the sentence is often construed in English thus : she 
 is taller than her sister by the whole head. But we 
 ought to say in French : clle est plus grande que sa 
 sceur d^ toute la tcte. 
 
 VIII. 
 
 ADJECTIVES OF NUMBER. 
 
 Unilme Is used only after vingt, trente, quarantCt . 
 tinquante, soixante, quairc-vingt, cent and mille. Cest 
 la vingt-unicme fois, it is the twenty-first time. 
 
 We now say ; vingt-un, or vingt ct un \ trentc-un, 
 or trente et un, and so on to quatre-vingt : but we 
 always say : trente-deux, quarafite-trois, cinquantc-qua~ 
 tre. Sec. 1 he scries from soixantc to quatre-vingt 
 took formerly the couj unction ct between the two 
 numbers, but it is now become obsolete, and it would 
 be a fault to use that conjunction from quatre-vingt 
 to cent. In geometry, we say nonantc instead of quatre- 
 vingt- dix. 
 
 Cent, in the plural, takes the s, except when follow- 
 ed by another noun of niMuber, as ; lis ctoicnt deux 
 cents, they were iv/o hundied : but we say : lis t'toieni
 
 ( 235 ) 
 
 deux ccnt-dix, tliey weie two luindred and ten ,-■ trois^. 
 cents homines, three hund'rcd men. Vingt, in quatre • 
 1-hrgt and six-vingt, also takes the s, when toliowed by'," 
 a substantive, as : quatre-vingts /lommes, ^el'^h^y men ; 
 sfic-vingts abricots, six s-.ore apricots. Nevertheless, 
 we say : quatrc-viftgt-dix Jiornmes. The ordinal 
 numbevs, collective and distributive, always take the 
 mark of the plural : les prcmu-rcs douzalncs, tiie first 
 dozfus ; Its quatrc clnquic'ines, the tour fifths. 
 
 Ill the m trking of dates, wc write mil, as : milr 
 si'pt-ccnt qitaiyc-vrngt-dix-nciif, one tliousand seven, 
 hundred and ninety nine. Every where else, we 
 write millc, which never takes the mark of the plural, 
 as : dl>: mllle kommcs, ten thousar.d men ; quatrc m'llla 
 chcvaux, four thousand horses. 
 
 Observation. Cent and miili: ave used indefi-r 
 nitely, as : il ltd Jit cent carcssas, hq made him a hun- 
 dred (nianv) caresses ; fcnta-lu'i mllle amities, show 
 him a th<Aisand (a great aianvj civilities. 
 
 We say : /•; 07ize, du on-:^e, an .on%e, sur les cnze 
 heures, snr les K/7f /^o,//;y, ;r! enouncing the words ew::? 
 and une a.-; it they were wriueii with an h aspirated. 
 NeuJ\ nine, is pronounced «c?<z;, as: il a neiiv ans, 
 he is nine vears old. The Academy have given it as 
 their decision tliat we ought to sav : 'vingt isS un an 
 aciomplis, trcnte l^ un]o\xv passes, quarurite iff un ecu 
 [)ic}i ^cj^o/t'j, al^h.oujji wc ought to say : virigi ij), un 
 clitvaux hicn euharn-ichts. This decision,' already 
 old, is n ; longer followed. 'Wc' noiv write :' '^vingt iff 
 un ans accomphs ; such is the ac^iial usage'. ■• 
 
 We make use of the cardinal uumbtr.s instead of 
 the ordir.al : 
 
 1°. In spciiking of the hours andcurrent years, as : 
 11 est trois heures, it is dirce o'clock ; V ayimil scpt-ce<:t- 
 dix, the year one thousand seven hundred and ten. 
 
 2'^. In speaking of ail the days of the nionih, ex- 
 cept the first. We say : le vingt de AIuiSyAx^i: tvveii- 
 tieth of March ; but we f^ugiic to say : le ' premltr dr 
 Mars, the first of March. ' ' 
 
 3". In speaking of sovereigns atul prin —, , • ' 
 X s>
 
 ( 234 ) 
 
 Louis seize, Gcarge trols : we are to except the first 
 two of the series, as : Hirtr'i premier^ George second. 
 We also say : Charles-quint, Sixte'quint, instead of 
 Charles citiq Empereur, and Sixte cinq Pape. 
 
 §. .IV. 
 
 OF THE PRONOL'N. 
 
 I. 
 
 PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 
 
 Personal pronouns have the three funflions whici* 
 "we have remarked in substantives, but witli this dif- 
 ference : that some are always subject, two only, used 
 in apostrophe, some others always regimen, and la'sdy, 
 others, sometimes subje£l and sometimes regimen. 
 
 Those which are always suhjc6l a.veje, tu, il, ils, as: 
 je parle, tu joue>, il alme, ils s^amuscnt. 
 
 The two which are used in apo5troj)he are toi and 
 vous, either by thea\s(lves, or preceded by the in- 
 terjection O ! as : O .' toi, dont rinnoccnce rcleve la 
 beciuti\ loi qui dans i.n age encore si tciulre, &c. ; 
 O thou, whose innocence heightens the beauty, thou, 
 who at an a^e still .so tender, 6cc. ; illustres compagnons 
 de mes malheurs, 6 vous, &.c. illustrious compauioui 
 i)f my misfortunes, O ye, &:c. 
 
 Those which are always regimen are me, te, se, 
 tear, le, la, les, y and en, as : je me trompe, I am niis- 
 taken ; il se fromenc, he is walking ; nous leur parlonsy 
 we are speaking to them ; Jc tn'y rendrai, 1 shall re- 
 pair thither, ckc. 
 
 Observation. A verb may have two regimens, 
 the one direO, and the other indircdt, as we have 
 already seen. Tlic regimen is dired, when the word 
 govei ped is the objecl of the action expressed by the 
 verb. It is indirect when the word governed is the 
 €nd of that action. In this sentence : fenvoie ce livre 
 a nionfrere, ce livre is the objecft, and tJ mon frerc the 
 end. The first is always w ithout any preposition, 
 either expressed or understc^od ; but the second is pre- 
 ceded by one of there prepositions a or de, always ex- 
 pressed, if it be a noun, and eiUier expressed or under-
 
 ( 235 ) 
 
 stood, if It be a pronoun ; by a, if we mean the end 
 aimed at by the action, and by de, if we want to ex- 
 press where that action comes from, or begins at. 
 These being premised, 
 
 Lcur is always the end, because, being used instead 
 of a eux, it includes the preposition ii, as : Je leiir 
 farle is instead o(Je paric d euxy or a dies, I speak to 
 them. 
 
 Ale, te, se, are sometimes the object, as : // m^ahorde, 
 that is, il aborde mci, he accosts me, and sometimes 
 ;he end, as : // tne tend la main, which is for // tend la 
 main d moi, he presents me his hand. 
 
 Le, la, /t'f, are always the object, and y the end. 
 
 We say, speaking of a house : je la vois ; il paro'lt 
 
 .-qu'on y a fait de grandss depcnses, I see it ; it seems 
 
 they have gone to a gteat expence about it. La is 
 
 for la maison, andj (ova la maison. 
 
 En is generally the end, but it is sometimes the 
 object. It is the end, when it only supplies the place 
 of a noun and the preposition de, as : vous etes-vcus 
 occupc de mon affaire \ oui,je m\'n ims occupc, that is^ 
 je me suis occupe de voire affaire. This ought to be 
 very carefully attended to, as the English know of no 
 such construction, it being a peculiarity of their lan- 
 guage to shorten their expressions as much as possible. 
 Tbe above sentence translated into English is : have 
 you done something in my Innintss y yes, I have, by 
 which turn, the former part of the sentence, tliouga 
 lioc repeated, yet is perfectly understood, which would 
 not be the case in French: tor, were we to say : ouiy 
 je suis, the sentence would be incomplete and totally 
 uninreiiigible. 
 
 En is the object, when it supplies the place of a 
 member of an elliptic sentence, as : avez-vous rcfu de 
 P argent? oui,j'en ai rept, that is, j'ai regu de Targenii 
 This happens when die nouns are taken in a parti- 
 tive sense, and in this case, there is always a nouii 
 understood, which, with the complement joined to it 
 bv the preposition de, forms an indivisible idea in the 
 mind. 
 
 Observation. Some prammarians consider en
 
 ( 236 ) 
 
 as being always the end, even in this case, because 
 they separate the word governed from the word 
 governing. But is it not more simple to consider 
 these two wordj- as an indivisible idea,^ as has been 
 done by Restaut, du Marsais, Girard, Condillac, 8cc- ? 
 
 Those which are sometimes subjedt and sometimes 
 regimen, are nous, voiis, mo'i^ to'i, soi, lu'i, ellc, eux^ 
 ellcs. - 
 
 Nous and vous may be subject, object or end, as : 
 riO\^^ pensons (s.ibjecf) ; «z/?2^z-nous (object) ; dcnnez- 
 nous ^cnd) j vous cumc% (subject),. &,c. 
 
 In general, mol, toi, soi. lui^ eux. are only subject, 
 either as expletives, when we wish to give more force 
 to the discourse, as : moi, jc voulo'is partir aux depcns 
 de scs jours, as for me, 1 wanted to set off at the risk 
 of his life; U T a d'lt lul-mcmc, he has said so himself, 
 tec. or ;n those disnibutivr st^ntences where we want 
 to assign the part wiiicli d;fl'ereat persons Jiave in an 
 action, as ; ' w^'j frhrcs ct nion cousin ni' out sccowu; 
 eux rrCoNt rcU'Vc\.et lui niapatisc., mv brothers and 
 cousin have assi.ted me . they have taken me up, and 
 he has bound up n:y wounds : or, in sentences like 
 this: Penelope, sa [cnunc, et vaoi qui siiis- son fils, S>cc. 
 Penelope, hiswiie, and I who am his son. ike. 
 
 Mo], tot, soi, can he the c.hjeiSt, in ex(-ositive sentences, 
 but after the verb ctrc, as: c\st moi qui Jc dis, it is I 
 that sav it; c'cst t.oi qui fas fait, it is tlrou v.iio hast done 
 it ; 071 n est jamais plus s/irdu travail, que quand ccst 
 spi qui le conduit, oue is never so suie of the work, 
 as when oi c docs it one's self. 'I'o be the end, they 
 n^ust be preceded by a preposition, as : on park de 
 moi, on rit de toi, ons''oc(:upe trap de so/. B'jtmci and 
 toi may be either objeif or end, in imperative sentences, 
 as : aimcz-jyioi (objedl; ; parlcz-moi (end) ; occupc-loi 
 (obieil) ; donn.e-toi la peine (end). 
 
 Lul, is objedl: only as an expletive, as : je le vcrrai 
 Ini-memc : its Piatur^l function is to be tiie end, as : 
 Je lui donne, pcnlez-Iui. 
 
 Eux, ejle, e/'lcs, are objects as expletives, as : Je 
 la vcrrai elle-memc. Jc Us vcnai eux -mantis ; to be the
 
 ( 237 ) 
 
 cncf, il"tey niusr be preceded by a preposition, as : js 
 Vars a euxy celu depend d'elle. 
 
 Observation. These sentences: donnez-tnoi,. 
 donnez a mo':, do not pres'ent tlie same idea. The 
 former is used when we merely ask a thing, and the 
 latter, wlwn we ask it of a person who does not know 
 to whom to give it, and who is on the point of giving 
 it tu another. 
 
 rXERCISE. 
 
 We shall not give exercises 
 we have been mentioning ; wc 
 
 stoop 
 
 to 
 
 iribrued 
 
 oiun 
 
 s'abaisser subj-I 
 devant 
 
 souiller 
 
 comes up 
 
 •with 
 
 Ok?ervation. 
 ujron all the cases 
 
 should never have done, and besiiles, it would prove 
 much too tedious to the learner : pronouns are to be 
 learnr chiefly by practice. 
 
 // that I should stoop to the man 
 who has imbrued his hands in the 
 blood of his king ! 
 
 He said so to my own self. 
 He comes up to me with a smiling 
 air, and pressing my hand, says : my 
 friend, I expeft you to-morrow at 
 my house. 
 
 Thou! then wouldst take that un- 
 dertaking upon thyself. Canst thou 
 think of it ? 
 
 He is displeasing to himself. 
 She is never satisfied with herself. 
 He has been speaking to them with 
 5Dch force as has astonished them. 
 
 You would suffer yourself to be 
 overwhelmed l>y adversity. 
 
 In the education of youth, nve 
 shouid propose to ourselves to culti- 
 vate, to polish their understanding, 
 and thus enable them to fulfil v/ith 
 <lignity, the different stations assigned 
 them; but, above all, we ought to 
 instruft them in that religious wor- 
 
 aborder 
 de 
 
 (pressing the hand to 
 me) 
 at my house chez moi 
 take upon thyself se 
 charger 
 canst * 
 
 se de- 
 plaire 
 
 is displeasing 
 
 such force as une force 
 qui 
 sufferyourselfiz laisser 
 to be overwhelmed 
 
 abattre 
 youth jeunes gens 
 
 their (to them) the 
 understanding esprit 
 enable disposer 
 
 stations place 
 
 (which are assigned to 
 them)
 
 ( 238 ) 
 
 ship which' God requires {.///[,■.■///. requires exir^er 
 
 The indibcrcet ofun betiay them- 
 iel-ves. ^^"^-y se trahir 
 
 Women ought to be very attentive; ought devoir ind- 1 
 
 for, a mere appearance is sometimes . 
 
 ..... , , , IS ?nore prnudtctal 
 
 more prejudicial to them than a real faire plus de tort 
 
 ftiult. 
 
 Saumaise, speaking of the English 
 authors, used to say ; that he had 
 learnt moxt from them than from any- 
 other. 
 
 Fortune, like a traveller, shifts ^^''f^^fiomto changer 
 from inn to inn : if she lodge to-day 
 
 ivith 7ne, to-morrow, perhaps, she t^ith chez 
 
 will lodge iciththee. ^'^^ -will lodge ce etre 
 
 To love a person, is to render him^ 
 on every occasion, all the services in ^"^ our power 'dont on- 
 
 our power, and to afford him, in so- ^ . ^^'"'^ capable 
 
 . afford procurer 
 
 ciety, every comfort that depends comfort agremcnt 
 
 upon us. depends upon dtpendre 
 
 Your two brothers and mine take , , , ^ 
 
 take charge se charger 
 charge of the enterprize ; they find Jir.d fournir 
 
 the money, and/;^ will manage the money fonds 
 
 ^yQj.j, 7nanage conduirc- 
 
 Descartes deserves immortal praise, 
 
 because it is /',;■ has made reason tri- ^^ (who) 
 
 _ , , . .... , iriuniph onjer tri ' 
 
 umph over authority, in philosophy. ^ ompher de 
 
 Enjoy the pleasures of the world, 
 T ■ • , • iT'"^' votiYself uh se 
 
 I consent /9 // ; but never give your- * -^ ■' ' jj^.j.j.j. 
 
 self up to them. 
 
 I shall never consent to that foolish ^chem'. entrcprisc 
 
 , ■ , . . m.cKtion parlcr 
 
 scheme ; do not mention // any more- 
 Have you received some copies of copies cxempliiie 
 
 the new wt-rk ? Yes, I have received 
 
 so'-r.!.
 
 ( 239 ) 
 
 CASES WHERE THE PRONOUN'S clle, cllcs, £UX, lulj 
 lew, MAY APPLY TO THINGS. 
 
 Gramraarians are not agreed upon those cases : 
 -Ave shall not follow them througi\ all the difficulties 
 which they have taken a pleasure to heap upon one 
 another, but merely say what the present usage is, 
 and, from that, establish the rules to be observed. 
 
 The personal pronouns elle and elles, when regi- 
 men, generally apply to persons only. We say, 
 speaking of a woman : je tri approcha'i (Telle, je ni'as- 
 sis pres d' elk ; but we say, speaking of a table : }e 
 rrC en approcha'i, je tnassis aupres. 
 
 But when those pronouns are preceded by the pre- 
 positions avec or apres, they may very well be applied 
 to things, as : cettc riviere est si rapide, quand elle 
 -deborde, quelle entraine avec elle tout ce qu'elle ren- 
 contre ; elle ne laisse apres elle que du sable et des caiU 
 loux, that river is so rapid, when it overflows, that it 
 carries with it every thing it meets in its course ; it 
 leaves nothing behind it but sand and pebbles. 
 
 They may also, in many cases, be applied to 
 tilings, 
 
 With the preposition a. In speaking of an ene- 
 my's army, we say : no^^s marchamcs a elle, we 
 marched up to il : we cannot even express ourselves 
 any other way. 
 
 With de, as : ces choses sont bonnes d''c!les-mcrncSy 
 these thinss are good in themselves. 
 
 \W\x\\ pour, a.'i'.faime la verite, au point que je 
 sacrificrois tout pour elle, I love truth to that degree, 
 that 1 would sacrlhce every thing to it. 
 
 With en, as : ces raisons sont solidts en elles-me^nts^ 
 those reasons are solid in themselves — and perhaps 
 \\\ih. a few more prepositions. 
 
 After the verb etre, they ought to be applied only 
 to persons, as : c^est a elle, c^st d'ellcs que je parle, 
 c'cst elle-meme qui vient. Nevertheless, some gram- 
 marians are of oj)inion, that in the answers to inter- 
 rogative phrases, they may apply to things, as : est-ee
 
 C 240 ) 
 
 , ia voire tabatlere f oui, c^est elle ; but wc think it 
 more exact to say : oid, ce Pest. 
 
 The same may be said of the pronouns eux, hit and 
 leur. Although they are generally applied to persons 
 only, yet custom allows a woman to say : ce chien et 
 res olseaux font tout mon plaisir ; je ti'aimc queuxy eux 
 seuh sont mon amusemerit, Je ne songc qu'a eux, this 
 dog and these birds are all my pleasure ; I love nothing 
 iut them, they alone are my diversion, I diink ot no- 
 thing else. Usa^ also authorizes the following ex- 
 pressions : j^al fail rtparer ma maison, et je lui at 
 donne un air neuf \ ces arbrcs sont trop charges, Stez- 
 leur une partie de leur fruit. We see by these ex- 
 amples, and those we have given before, that in order 
 to apply those pronouns to things, there is no need of 
 personifying them. 
 
 These being premised, we shall give the following 
 Rule. We ought never to apply to things the 
 5>ronouns elle, elles^ eux, lui and leur, but when 
 usage does not allow us to replace them widi the pro- 
 nouns j* and en. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 Virtue is the first of blessings : it 
 is from it alone we are to expe<S: hap- 
 piness. 
 
 The labyrinth had been built upon 
 the lake of Maris, and they had 
 given // a prospeft proportioned to 
 its grandeur. 
 
 Mountains arc frequented on ac- 
 count of the air one breathes on them: 
 how many people are indebted to 
 them for the recovery of their health ? 
 
 This book costs me dear, but 1 am 
 indebted to it for my instruction. 
 
 Self-love is captious : we, how- 
 ever, take it for our guide ; to it are 
 all our aftions diredlcd, and from it 
 wfi take c'jUJitel. 
 
 hleain^s 
 are 
 
 bicn 
 devoir 
 
 had been built on ba- 
 
 tir ind^G 
 
 prosper Tac 
 
 on account a cause 
 on them y 
 
 people pcrsonne 
 
 ure indebted for devoir 
 r<£0'very retablissemcnt 
 
 (it is ive that) 
 (it is to it that we di- 
 reft) 
 direSl rapporter 
 
 and (it is) 
 
 These
 
 ( 241 1 
 
 The:£ arguments, although very 
 ■solid !>i themselves, yet made no im- 
 
 |)rc3sion u^n him, so strong a chain (so much liabit is, Scc.^ 
 is habit. 
 
 These rea'^ons convinced me, and ^^^CJtisS 
 from them I took, my determination. tooJi my determination, 
 I leave you the care of that bird ; se decider 
 
 do not forget to give // water. 
 
 Vous, used instead of tu, requires the verb to be in 
 the plural, but the adjective that follows remains ia 
 the singular, as ; vous sersz estime, si vous etes sage, 
 you will be esteemed, if you be Avise. 
 
 The pronoun sol is used, only when it relates to a 
 subject vague and indeterminate, if speaking of per- 
 sons, as : on pcnse trap a. soi ; chacun songc a soi ; 
 n^ aimer que soi, rVi/ iielrc bon a ricn. But, when we 
 speak of things, it is used bodi definitely and indefi- 
 nitely, as : la vertii est aimable de soi ; c^st bon de 
 soi. It is never used in the plural, when speaking of 
 persons : but, in speaking of things, the Academy 
 liad decided that it might be used, if placed at the 
 head of the sentence, as : de soi, ccs choscs so?tt bonnes. 
 But diis decision is annulled, and they now express 
 themselves as follows : 
 
 " Soi is a pronoun substantive of both genders, and 
 pf the singular number only. When it is used in an' 
 absolute sense, it is always with a preposition, and in 
 phrases where tliere is a pronoun indefinite, eitlier 
 expressed or understood." 
 
 The Academy also observe, that, when de soi and 
 fn soi are used in a definite sense, with nouns of diings, 
 they mean de sa nature and dans sa nature. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 Observatiok. In the greatest writers of the age 
 of Louis XIV. v.e often meet with faults concerninT 
 the use of die pronoun soi, apphed to persons. We 
 4Tiention this, that their authority should not lead iutu 
 ^rror. 
 
 Y
 
 ( 242 ) 
 
 To excuse in onei self the follies follies sott^es 
 
 ■which one cannot excuse in others, is °^"^^^ . nutriu 
 
 prefer ainner mieux 
 to prefer being a fool one s self to fool sot 
 
 seeing others so. to seeing que de 
 
 so tel 
 
 We ought to despise nobody : how ^^g ought falloir 
 
 often have we not been in need of "f . , ■ . ""^ 
 
 OS in neea avoir besom 
 
 one more insignificant than ourselves, insignificant petit 
 
 If we did not attend so mucii to 
 
 "^ue on 
 
 ourselves, there would be less ego. attend to s'occuper 
 tism in the world. egotism dgoisme 
 
 Vice is odious in itself. 
 
 The loadstone attracts iron. (to itself) 
 
 A DIFFICULTY ABOUT THE PRONOUN Ic CLEAR- 
 ED UP. 
 
 Ley la, lesy are sometimes pronouns, ami some- 
 times articles. The article is always followed by a 
 noun, le roi, la reine, les homines ; whereas the pro- 
 noun is always joined to a verb, je le coniiois, je la 
 respetlsy je Ics estime. 
 
 'X he pronoun Ic may supply the place of a substan- 
 tive, of an adjective, or even of a member of a sen- 
 tence. 
 
 There is no difficulty, when it relates to a \vhole 
 member of a sentence ; it is always then in the mas- 
 culine singular, because a whole member of a sen- 
 tence has neither gender nor number, as : on doit 
 3'accommoder a rimmeur dcs auires, dutant quon le pent, 
 we ought to accommodate ourselves to the humour of 
 others, as much as we can (do it.) 
 
 Neither is there any difficulty, when Ic supplies the 
 place of a substantive; it being evident that it then 
 takes the gender and number of that si;bstantive, as : 
 ynadame, ctcs-vcus la mere de cct enfant ? oni, je la 
 suisy madam, are you the mother of diat child ? yes, 
 J am (she). MesdamcSy ctes-vous les parentes dont 
 monsieur m'a parte f oni, nous les sommes. 
 
 It only re.naias, therefore, to establish the foUoW'. 
 jng
 
 - C 243 ) 
 
 Rule. The pronoun le takes neither gender nor 
 number, when holding the place of an adjective. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Madame, ctes-'vous cnrhumee ? oiii, je le suis ? 
 
 Mf.sdames, ctes-'vous contentes de ce discours F oui, nous Ic 
 
 sommes. 
 Fut-il jamais itne femme plus malheureuse que je le suis. 
 
 In all the above sentences, le remuins in the mascu- 
 line singular, because adjedlives have ot themselves 
 neither gender nor number ; they do not regulate the 
 agreement, they receive it. 
 
 This rule is observed, when the substantives are 
 used adjedlively, as : madamc, etes-vous mere ? ou'ij 
 je le suis : mcsdumes, etes-vous parentcs ? oui, nous le 
 sommes : elk est fille, et le sera toiite la vie. But nor, 
 if the adje6tives be used substantively, as ; madame, 
 etcs-vcnis la maladc ? oitl, >' la siih. Therctore, thi^ 
 question : Stcs-vous fiile de Afr. le Due ? is to be 
 answered: ou'i, je le suis, and this : ctes-uous la iuie 
 de Air. le Due .? oui, je la suis. 
 
 We likewise observe the same rule with the article 
 placed before plus and an adjective. It takes geader 
 and number, when there is comparison, as : de toutes 
 hi plauetes, la lune est la plus hr'illante pour nous, of 
 al! the planets, the moon is the most brilliant for us.' 
 But, vvhen there is no comparison, then le takes neither 
 gender nor number, as : la lune ne nous eclaire pai 
 aiitant que Ic iolcll, meme qiiand elle est \eplus brillanic^ 
 tlie moon does not light us so much as .the sun, even 
 when it shines most. As this dlstindlion is extremely, 
 nice, we strongly recommend it to the attention of the 
 studious learner, 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 The laws of nature and decency decency bicnseance 
 
 oblige us equally to defend the hj- 
 
 nour and interest of our parents, 
 
 when we can do it without injustice. 
 
 We ought not to condemn, after 
 , : , , , , . , we ought failoir 
 
 their death, those that have not been co-idemned le 
 
 condemned during their life-time. time * 
 
 Y 2
 
 f 244 ) 
 
 Was that yoitr idea .- Can you 
 doubt that ;'/ was ? 
 
 Are you Mrs. such an one ? Yes, 
 i — am. 
 
 Are those your servants ? Yes, 
 they — are. 
 
 Ladies, are you glad to have seen 
 the new piece ? Yes, we — are. 
 
 I, his slave ! I, born to command! 
 alas ! it is but too true thut I am so. 
 
 She was jealous of her authority 
 and she ought to be so. 
 
 Was there ever a girl more unhap- 
 py and treated with more ridicule 
 than I — am ? 
 
 You have found me amiable : why 
 have I ceased to appear so to you ? 
 
 Have we ever been so quiet as we 
 — are ? 
 
 Madam, are you married ? Yes, I 
 
 is^^a pensce 
 
 fAat it "was zt etie 
 subj-2 la 
 Though the word 
 relating to the interro- 
 gative sentence is not 
 expressed in English, 
 yet it must always be in 
 French : this word is 
 le, which takes either 
 gender or number, ac- 
 cording to its relation. 
 
 (a woman speaks) 
 
 ivith ridicule ridicule- 
 nient< 
 
 Madam, are you the bride I Yes, ^Yide marice 
 
 I — am. 
 
 REPETITION OF THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 
 
 Rule I. The pronouns of the first and second^ 
 persons, when subje6l, ought to be repeated before 
 all the verbs, when those verbs are in different tenses ;. 
 and it is always better to repeat them, even when the 
 verbs are in the same tense. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Jc soullens, et je soutiendrai toujours, I maintain, and(T) will 
 
 always maintain. 
 Vous dites, et vous ave-z iovjonrs dit, you say, and (you) have 
 
 always said. 
 Accable de doulcur, je 7>iecriai, if/ je dis, overwhelmed with 
 
 sorrow, I exclaimed, and (I) said. 
 Nous nous promtnions sur it: /laut du richer, et nou5 i;oyions
 
 ( 245 ) 
 
 [ sous no! pieds, &c. we were walking upon the sumrak of 
 the rock, and (we were) seeing under our feet, &:c, 
 
 Observatiok. We ought, in al! cases, to re- 
 peat these pronouns, though tiie tenses of the verbs 
 do not change, when the hrst is followed by a re- 
 gimen, as : vous aimerez le Seigneur votre Dleu, et 
 vous ohservcrcz sa lor, you shall love the Lord your 
 God, and (vou shall) observe his law. Neverdieless, 
 there are examples of the contrary in our best authors. 
 This rule is not followed in Enghsh-. 
 
 Rule II. The pronouns of the third person, 
 when subjtdl, are hardly ever to be repeated before 
 tlie verbs,, when riiose verbs are in the same tense, 
 and they may be repeated or not, when the verbs are 
 in different tenses. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 La bonne grace ne gate rien : elle ajoute a la beaute, rcltve 
 la viodeuie, et y dcnne du lustre^ good grace spoils nothing : 
 it adds to beauty, heightens modesty and gives it lustre. 
 
 11 n a jamais- rien 'valu, et ne njaudra jamais rien, he never 
 was good for any thing, and never will be. 
 
 II est arri've ce matin, et il n'partira ce soir, he is arrived 
 thk morning, and (he) will set off again this evening. 
 
 Observation. We have said hardly ever, be- 
 cause clearness requires the repetition of the pronoun, 
 v.'hen the second verb, beside the conjun6lion ct, is 
 preceded by a preposition, which, wiih its regimen, 
 forms a Ion; incidental phrase, as: il foyid nir son 
 enncml, et aprcs I'avoir saisi d'une main victorieuse, 
 il le rcnverse comme le cruel aquilon abat Ics tendre^ 
 rnolssons qui dorent la campagne. 
 
 Rule III. The personal pronouns, when sub- 
 ject, of whatever person they may be, must always 
 be repeated b^^fore the verbs, either when we pass to 
 affirmation, to negation, and z'ice versa, or when the 
 verbs are joined by conjun6tions, except et and ni. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 II -veut etWne i^eut pas, he wilb and he wiih not. 
 W donne d excellens priKcip''s, parce qu'il sait ipce les prigrts 
 uiieneurs en dipcnUent., he !-.Vb djwn exteilcut prui^inki, 
 
 Y'3
 
 (, 246 ) 
 
 hecause he knows that upon them depends every ulterior 
 progress. 
 
 But we say : // cionne et revolt., he gives and re- 
 ceives : U ne donne ni ne revolt, he neither gives nor 
 receives. 
 
 Rule IV. Pronouns, when regimen, are re- 
 peated before all the verbs. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 L'idee de ses malkeurs le poursuit, le tourmente et V nccahle,. 
 
 the idea of his misfortunes pursues (him), torments (him) 
 
 and overwhehns him. 
 Jl noas ennuie et nous obscde sans ccsse, he wearies (us) and 
 
 besets us incessantly. 
 
 Observation. The pronoun regimen is not 
 repeated, before the verbs, which, being compounds 
 of the first, express the repetition of the same aiSlion, 
 as : je vous dh ct redis \ il le fait, dtfait ct refait 
 sans cesse.^ This, however, is the case, when the 
 verbs are in the same tense. But we ought to repeat 
 the pronoun before the verbs, which, diough com- 
 pounds of the lust, yet express a different action, as: 
 ^« matin au soir^ ellc ne fait qiic s'hahilier et se dcsha- 
 tiller. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 I was young and I aimed at the aimed c 
 glory of surpassing my comrades. 
 
 Gcd has said : you. shall love your 
 enemies, bless tiiote that curse you, curse 
 do gt.'od to those that persecute you, 
 and pray for tliose who slander you : blander 
 wiiat a difference between this moral, 
 and tiiat of philosophers. ! 
 
 He (Alexander) took the strongest 
 cities, conquered the most consider- 
 able provinces and overturned the 
 most powerful empires. 
 
 He takes a hatcher, cuts off the 
 fcast which was already broken. 
 
 aspirer a. 
 
 maud ire 
 
 calumniec 
 
 cverturned renverser 
 
 hatchet 
 cuts off 
 hrokiii 
 
 hache 
 coupcr 
 rompre
 
 ( 247 ) 
 
 throws it into the sea, calls me by my tliroivs 
 name, and -encourages me to follow 
 him. 
 
 The soldier was not repressed by 
 authority, but — stopped through through 
 satiety and shame. 
 
 It is inconceivable how whimsical 
 she is ; from one moment to the other, 
 yhe will and she will not. 
 
 The Jews are forbidden to work 
 on the Sabbath ; they light no fire, 
 and carry no water. 
 
 Since eight days nearly, she nei- 
 ther £ats nor drinks. 
 
 It is taste that sele6ts the expres- 
 sions, that combines, arranges and 
 varies them so as to produce the 
 greatest efFecft. 
 
 Horace answered to his stupid cri- 
 tics, not so much to instruft them, as 
 to show their ignorance, and let them 
 sec that they did not even kuow .what 
 poetry was. 
 
 jetter 
 
 par 
 
 ('she is of a whimsical 
 cast inconceivable) 
 
 bizarrerie 
 
 (it Is forbidden to) 
 Sabbath)Q\xx duSabbath 
 light allumer 
 
 nearly 
 
 pres de 
 
 (repeat qui before eve 
 ry verb) 
 so as to de maniere a 
 ce que 
 they produce 
 stupid sot 
 
 not so muck moins 
 
 let see faire entefldre 
 luas c'etoit que 
 
 RELATION OF THE PRONOUNS OF THE THIRD 
 PERSON TO A NOUN EXPRESSED BEFORE. 
 
 Rui E. The pronouns of the third person,. //, ilsy 
 die, ellcs, Ic, la, Ics, must always relate to a noun, 
 subject or regimen, taken in a detinite sense : but they 
 must not be made to relate, either to a subject and 
 rcgiinen at the same rinje, or to a noun taken in an 
 indetinite sense, or to a noun that has not before been 
 e.\'j)ressed in the same sense. 
 
 EXAMPLES, 
 
 La rose est la reine dcs Jleurs, aussi est-ellc VembUme de la 
 beaute, the rose is the queen of flowers ; tlierefore, it is 
 the emblem of beauty. 
 
 J'i^i/'wd' I'ananas J il est cxjuis, I like the pine-apple j it is 
 txquiiite.
 
 f 248 ) 
 
 But we cannot say : Rac'nie a imlte Euripide, en 
 tout ce qiiW a dc plus beau dans sa Phidic, R.acine has- 
 iinitateci Euripides in all that he has (is) most beautiful 
 in hid Phcdra ; because, as the pronoun U may relate, 
 either to Racine or to Euripides, the sentence is equi- 
 vocal. Neither can we say: le legat pullia. une sen- 
 tence d^inierdlt ; il dwa trois mois, the legate published 
 a sentence of interdiction ; it lasted three months ; 
 because il cannot, from the construction of the sen- 
 tence, relate to interdit. Again, it is not altogether 
 correct to say ; Nuue paix j)e«r /'im/)/V; il\-d. chcrchc, 
 tWeyuit, no peace 'or the wicked ; he seeks it, it Hies ; 
 because, from the construction, the pronouns la and 
 ej/e seem to be used for nulle paixj whereas, according 
 to the meaning, they su))ply the place of the substantive 
 paix, which is the oppo^)tc state. 
 
 This rule is one ui the most difficult to be observed 
 in the whole language. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 Poetry embraces at! sorts of sub- 
 jeftst /'/ takes in every thing that is 
 most brilliant in histcjry; // enters the 
 fields of philosophy ; // soars to the 
 skies; it plunges into the abyss ; // 
 penetrates even to the dead ; // makes 
 the universe its domain ; and if this 
 world be not suffix ient, /'/ creates new 
 ones, which it embellishes with en- 
 chanting abodes, v.hich // peoples 
 with a thousand various inhabitants. 
 
 Egvpt aimed at grandeur, and 
 wanted to strike the eyes at a dis- 
 tance, but always pleasing them by 
 the justness of proportions. 
 
 As for that generous music, whose 
 noble harmony raises the soul and 
 heart, the Egyptians were far from 
 despising //, since, accordini^ to Dio- 
 
 suhjcfls 
 
 matiere 
 
 takes in se 
 
 charger de 
 
 that is 
 
 y avoir de 
 
 the fields (ir 
 
 
 
 soars s'e 
 
 lancer d ins 
 
 p'.u ,ges 
 
 s't-nfi-'ncer 
 
 to 
 
 chez. 
 
 (its domain 
 
 of the uni- 
 
 
 verse) 
 
 be SHjj^cieni 
 
 suffire 
 
 OH'S * nion( 
 
 de rc])cated 
 
 enchanting 
 
 tnchante 
 
 abodes 
 
 demcure 
 
 'Various 
 
 divers 
 
 grandeur 
 
 grand 
 
 iu anted 
 
 vouloir 
 
 to 
 
 * 
 
 pleasing {in 
 
 )contentcr 
 
 harmony 
 
 accord 
 
 lucre far ; 
 
 avoir garde
 
 had been the tMventdif 
 of inventer 
 
 ivas in abundance 
 
 abondei? 
 thought songer 
 
 by (in) 
 
 ( 249 ) 
 
 doru-s himself, their Mercury had 
 bcSn the inventor of //. 
 
 Egypt, satisfied with its own coun- 
 try, where every thing was in abund- 
 ance, thought not of conquests : it 
 extended itself in another manner, by 
 
 sending colonies to every part of the pan oj the globe terre 
 globe, and with tlum^ politeness and 
 laws. 
 
 The Messiah is expefted by the 
 Hebrews ; he comes and calls the 
 Gentiles, as had been announced by 
 the prophecies ; the people that ac- 
 knowledges him as come, is incorpo- 
 rated with the people that expedted 
 him, without a single moment of in- 
 terruption between the two. 
 
 gerJiies gentil 
 
 (the prophecieb had an- 
 nounced it) 
 acknowledges recon- 
 noitre 
 ivith a 
 
 •without sans que y a- 
 voir subj-1 
 single seul 
 
 THE PLACE OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 
 
 There is no difficulty about the place of personal 
 pronouns, when they are subje6l ; it is sufficient to 
 know the custom. In French, the person who speaks, 
 always names himself last, and the person to whom 
 one speaks is generally named first, as : Vous et moi, 
 nous irons a. la campagne ; nous irons ce soir a. la pro^ 
 mcnade, vous, votre frere et moi. Neverthelesss, we 
 find in Racine : 
 
 Entre le peuple et vous, 'vou; prendre^ Dieu pour juge. 
 
 But, we have said (p. 158) that there are cases in 
 which tills rule is not observed. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 My sister and T we were walking 
 by the last rays of the setting sun, 
 and we were saying : what a sweet 
 splendour does it still spread over all 
 nature ! 
 
 In the long winter-evenings, my 
 father, my brothers and /, we used 
 
 h' 
 
 k- 
 
 rays 
 
 rayon 
 
 setting 
 
 couchant 
 
 siveet 
 
 doux 
 
 spread 
 
 repandre 
 
 evenings 
 
 soiree 
 
 tue used to s 
 
 /'end passer
 
 riant 
 trale 
 
 musee 
 
 ( 250 } 
 
 to spend two hours in the librury> library bibHotheque 
 and to read there, in order to divert '^'■"^^'■' o^rulves se de- 
 ourselves rrom the serious studies ot 
 the day, those amiable poets who in- 
 terest most the heart, by the charms 
 of a lively imagination, and make us U^uely 
 love virtue,. by disguising it under the by (in) 
 mask of an ingenious fiftion. 
 
 You and your friend shall accom- 
 pany me to, the Museum, and there muieutrt 
 we shall study nature in her three 
 reigns. 
 
 With regard to pronouns, when regimen, usage 
 has established the following rules. 
 
 Rule I. The pronouns me^ te^ se, lui, leur, hy 
 la, Ics, y and en, are generally placed before the 
 verbs ; also, nous, vans, lui, without a preposition, 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 // me dlt, je le njoh, je les ecoute, je lui parle, /'y songerai^ 
 f 'en suis ravi. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 As soon as he had explained to us explained expliquer 
 
 the maxim of Socrates, he said : you ''^ " ^""^'^^ ^P°'" i'''^\ 
 
 ^ looks at him) 
 
 see that it is not without reason he is 
 
 looked upon as truly wist:. 
 
 He was continually saying xo me. : conlimially sans cesse 
 
 yet a little patience, and thou wilt 
 disarm even envy itself. 
 
 You have, no doubt, simc founda- 
 tion for reproaching him with his 
 faults, but is there any man on earth 
 that is exempt from any r 
 
 To please lti?n, you must never 
 fl itter him. 
 
 To abandon oyte' s selfx.0 metaphy- 
 sical abstraftions, is to throw one's self 
 into an unfathomable abyss. 
 
 little peu de 
 
 itself * 
 
 have foundnlio n for 
 
 etie fondt a 
 his * 
 
 a>:y 
 
 is 
 
 from any 
 
 must 
 
 subj-1 
 en 
 
 falloii* 
 
 ur. fathomable sans fond
 
 ( 251 ) 
 
 Rule II. The pronouns moi, tot, sol, nous, vous^ 
 Iw, eux, elle and elles, arc placed after the verbs, 
 when they are preceded by a preposition. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Cela depend de moi ; je pensc a toi ; on s'occupe trap dc soij 
 que dites-vous d'eux ? 
 
 Observation. The two preceding rules are to 
 be understood of expositive s:entences ; whereupon 
 we shall observe, that nous., z'ous, lui, are more pro- 
 perly placed before the verb, when they are the ob- 
 je6t of a relation which might be expressed by the 
 preposition a, as : Je lui ai enseigne mes principes, I 
 have taught him (to him) my principles. But they 
 can only be placed after the verb, when they are the 
 objedl of a relation expressed by the preposition de., 
 as : cela depend de nous, de vous, de lui, (that de- 
 pends upon us, jou, him.) 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 My father loved me so tenderly, 
 that he thought of none but me, saw 
 none but me in the universe, and was 
 only taken up with me. 
 ■ If you wibh to obtain that favour, 
 you must speak to himself. 
 
 It depended on you to excel your 
 rivals, but you would not. 
 
 Philip, father of Alexander, being 
 advised to expel from his dominions 
 a man who had been speaking ill of 
 him, ' I shall take care not to do 
 that,' said he, ' he w.ould go and 
 slander me every where.* 
 
 Rule III. In imperative phrases, with affirma- 
 tion, moi, toi, SC7, nous, vous, lui, leur, eux^ elle, 
 elles^ le, la, les, y and en, are placed after the verbs : 
 but, if with negation, me, te, se, nous, vous, lui, 
 leur, ki /<?, ks, y and <*«, are placed before theveibs. 
 
 none but 
 
 ne que 
 
 ivas only 
 
 taken s'occu- 
 
 
 per 
 
 7L<ish 
 
 vouloir 
 
 faxour 
 
 grace 
 
 excel em porter sur 
 luoul.l vouloir ind-4 le 
 
 being advised comme 
 on conseilloit 
 dominions ctat 
 
 I shall take care not 
 
 se garder bien 
 slander medirc de
 
 ( 252 ) 
 
 EXAMPLES. ' 
 
 ^lies-mo\ cf qui en est; do>n:cz-en; soK^ez-y : but we sav< 
 ne me diies pas ce qui en est ; ne m'eQ donnez point ; n'y 
 songez pas. 
 
 Observations, i". When the pronouns tne.y 
 te, mot, tot, are placed betwixt an imperative and an 
 infinitive, we make use of no:, te, when the impera- 
 tive is ^-.'itliouta regimen diredt, as : venez me parley, 
 come and speak to me ; va te fairc coiffer, go and p^et 
 thyself dressed. But we make use of »zo/, tot, if the 
 imperative have a regimen dh-e6l, as : latsse%-moi faire-, 
 let me do it ; fals-to't coiffer, get thyself dressed. 
 
 2°. \imoi, tot, be placed after the imperative, and 
 followed by the pronoun en, they change into mc, te, 
 as : donnez-m''cn, give me some ; retourne-t'' en, go 
 back. *.< 
 
 3°. V/hen there are two imperatives, joined toge- 
 ther by the conjun6lions et, on, it is more elegant to 
 place the second pronoun before the verb, as : polls- 
 sez-\c sans cesse et le repolisscz, polish and repolish it 
 continually; recon7ioissez-\t pour votre maitre, et\m 
 obcisscz, acknowledge him as your master, and obey 
 him (accordingly; ; gardezAft^ ou les rcnvoyez, keep 
 ihem or send them back. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 X.isten to me : do not condemn me 
 \vithout a hearing. 
 
 Complain ; thou hast just cause of 
 complaining; but, nevertheless, do 
 not complain too bitterly of the in- 
 justice of mankind. 
 
 Give sojue. 
 
 Do not give any. 
 
 Think o///. 
 
 Do not think of it. 
 
 Repeat to them continually, that, 
 without honesty, one can never suc- 
 ceed in the world. 
 
 Do not r peat to them continually 
 the same things. 
 
 listen ecouter 
 
 a /jif«r/w^'(hearingme) 
 eomplain se plaindre 
 cause («) sujet 
 
 complaining plaintc 
 bitterly amcremcnt 
 
 mankind 
 
 hommes 
 
 succeed 
 
 Rule
 
 ( 253 ) 
 
 Rule IV. Wlien several pronouns accompany 
 a verb, me, te, sc, tious, vous, must be placed first, 
 le, la, les, before /«/, lew; and y, en, arc always 
 last. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Prctez-niot ce li'vre', je vous le revdrai dcmain ; si ijous me le 
 refusez, je saurai m'en passer. Aurez-'vous la force de le 
 leur dire ? II n a pas 'voulu vous y ?nener. 
 
 Exception. In an imperative sentence, witli 
 affirmation, le, la, Ics, are always placed first, as : 
 donnez-le-moi, give it me : offre%-la-lu'i, offer it to 
 him ; conduise'z.-les-y, conduct them thidier: and moi 
 is placed after _>», as: mcncz-y-moi, carry me thither : 
 but we ought to say : mcnez-nous-y, carry us thither. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 You wish to make a present to 
 
 vouloir 
 
 evenrail 
 
 devoir 
 
 offrir 
 
 gens 
 
 be mere nothings ne 
 
 tenir a riea 
 
 did not introduce si iii- 
 
 troduire 
 
 into it y 
 
 ivish 
 
 fan 
 j'our sister: there is a beautiful fanj you should 
 
 'with 
 you should present her with it. present 
 
 How many people without «mcrit people 
 
 and without occupation, who would 
 
 be mere nothings in society, did not 
 
 gaming introduce them into // / 
 
 I shall speak to them about it, and 
 give you a faithful account of it. 
 
 It is certain that" old Geronte has 
 refused his daughter to Valere; but, 
 because he does not give her to him, it 
 does not follow that he will give her 
 to you. 
 
 There are yet more particulars about these pro- 
 nouns; but " Grammar," says the Abbe de Con- 
 dillac, " would be very lon^ and very tedious, were 
 none of them neglected. The minutia; of a language 
 are to be learnt only by practice." 
 
 does nrAfol'.'m, s'ensi^i- 
 vre
 
 ( 254 ) 
 JI. 
 
 POSSESSIFE PRONOUNS. 
 
 DIFFICULTIES UPON THE USE OF THE POSSES- 
 SIVE PRONOUNS CLEARED UP. 
 
 First difficulty. The possessive pronouns 
 of the third person, son, sa, ses, leur, leurs, relate either 
 to persons, or to things personified, or simply to things. 
 If they relate to persons, or personified things, we al- 
 Avays fhake use of those possessive pronouns. But, if 
 they relate to things, usage is various. This, one may 
 see, presents the same difficulty as what we have men- 
 tioned with regard to the personal pronouns. — We 
 shall clear it up according to the same principles. 
 
 When we speak of a statue, a city, a river, the 
 English Parliament, we do not say : sa tete est belle., 
 ses rues sont larges^ son lit est profond, ses membrcs 
 sont eclairh, although we say : cctte statue est pre- 
 cieusc par la bcaute de sa icte, cette ville Honnc par 
 la largciir de ses rues, cette riviere est sortie de son 
 ///, le parlcmcnt d''Anglcterre est famciix par Ics lumieres 
 dc ses membrcs. We ought to say ; la tete en est belle, 
 les rues en sont largcs, le lit en est prof ond, les membres 
 en sont cclaircs. 
 
 The English language has no such difficulty, as in 
 
 the above sentences, we may very well put its or 
 
 merely tJie : its head, or the head is beautiful, &c. 
 
 These being premised, we shall give the foltowing 
 
 Rule. When we speak of things, we ought to 
 
 make use of en, instead of the possessive pronouns .so;/, 
 
 sa, ses, leur, leiirs, whenever we can make use of it, 
 
 and we ought never to use the possessive pronouns, 
 
 but when it is impossible to substitute the pronoun en. 
 
 Thus, wc shall say : I'cglise a ses privileges, the 
 
 church has its privileges: si la ville a ses agrcmens, la 
 
 campagnc a les siens, if the town has its charms, the 
 
 country has its own because, in these expressions, we 
 
 cannot possibly make use of en. But we shall say, 
 
 speaking of the cliurch; les privileges tn sont grands, the
 
 phenomenon prodige 
 for lu/iick reason all^!^i 
 'preserved subj- 3 
 
 ( 255 ) 
 
 privileges of it are great ; and speaking of a town : les 
 agremens en sont preferablcs a ceux de la campagnc, the 
 charms of it are preferable to those of the country ; 
 because these phrases may very well be construed 
 with the pronoun en. 
 
 Nevertheless, usage authorizes us to use tlie posses- 
 sive pronouns in matters of science. Thus, we may 
 with propriety say of a triangle : ses angles, ses cot is -j 
 of a word : sa signification ; of a discourse : sa divi- 
 sion ; ot grammar ; ses regies, &c. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 A new custom was a phenomenon 
 in Egypt ; for which reason, there 
 never was a people that preserved so 
 long ils customs, its laws, and even 
 its ceremonies. 
 
 Solomon abandons himself to the 
 love of women ; his understanding 
 declines, his heart weakens, and his 
 piety degenerates into idolatry. 
 
 That superb temple was upon the 
 summit of a hill : its column:; were 
 of Parian marble, and its gates of Parian 
 gold. 
 
 The Laocoon is one of the finest 
 statues in France : not only the whole, 
 but all its features, even the least, are 
 admirable. 
 
 The Thames is a magnificent river: 
 its channel is so wide and so deep 
 below London -bridge, that several 
 thousands of vessels lie at their ease in 
 it. 
 
 This fine country is justly admired justly 
 by foreigners: //^climate is delightful, 
 its soil fruitful, its laws wise, and its ^° 
 government just and moderate. 
 
 Z 2 
 
 declines 
 
 baisser 
 
 iveakens 
 
 s'affoiblir 
 
 summit 
 
 hant 
 
 hill 
 
 coUiiie 
 
 Parian 
 
 de Pares 
 
 the ivhole 
 
 I'ensemble 
 
 CO en 
 
 jusqu'a 
 
 channel 
 Lti'jvj 
 lie at 
 
 lit 
 
 au dessous de 
 
 etre a 
 
 avec raison 
 
 sol
 
 ( 256 ) 
 
 The trees of that orchard are well 
 exposed, yet :tis fruits arc bad enough. 
 
 The Seine has its source in Bur- 
 gundy and J/s mouth at Havre-de- 
 Gr.kc. 
 
 The pyramids of Egypt astoniih, 
 both by the enormity of iieir mass 
 and the justness of i/ieir proportions. 
 
 Egypt alone cculdereft monuments 
 for pr^sterity : its obclibks are still to 
 this day, as much for their beauty, as 
 for their height, the principal orna- 
 ment of Rome. 
 
 orchard 
 yet 
 
 vimith 
 Hwure 
 
 verger 
 ccpendant 
 
 embouchure 
 le Havre 
 
 bcik t'galement 
 
 (dV elegantly repeated) 
 
 coi<ld il appartcnir a 
 ind-2 
 alone ne que 
 
 eref? dresser 
 
 to this day aujourd'hui 
 as much for autant par 
 height hauteur 
 
 are a mutual light 
 
 s'eclairer I'un psx 
 I'autre 
 
 of them (their) 
 
 History and geograr>hy are a mutual 
 light to each other : a perfect know- 
 ledge of them ought to enter into the 
 plan of a good education. 
 
 Second difficulty. One is sometimes puz- 
 zled to know whether a possessive pronoun ought to 
 be used or not before a noun that is regimen. This 
 is the 
 
 Rule. We ought to put tlie article, and not the 
 possessive pronoun, before a noun regimen, when a 
 pronoun subje61: or regimen sufficiently makes up for 
 the non-expression of that possessive, or when thex 
 is no sort of equivocation. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 yai mal a la te.te ; il faudcoit \\i\ couperXz ja7nbc \ c& che- 
 val a pris ie mords aux dents. 
 
 N. B. The constru6tion of the above examples 
 being peculiar to tiic French language, foreigners are 
 very apt to make a mistake and to use tlie j)ossessive- 
 pronoun insteail of the article. We therefore, recom- 
 mend this rule to the attention of the leainer. 
 
 But should, either the personal pronoun, or circum- 
 stances, not remove all equivocation, then the posses- 
 sive pronoun ought to be joined to the noun. Wc
 
 ( 257 ) 
 
 ought to say : Je vsis que ma. Jaml^c s'cnjlc., I see that 
 my leg is swelling, because I may see the leg of ano- 
 ther person swelling. For the same reason, we ought 
 to say : il lii'i donna sa main a haher, he gave him his 
 hand to kiss ; ellc a donnc hard'iment son bras an chi- 
 rurgicn, she boldly gave her aim to the surgeon. 
 
 Observations, i". Although verbs which are 
 conjugated with two pronouns of the same person re* 
 move every kind of amphibology, at least in general, 
 yet custom authorizes some proverbial expressions, in 
 which the possessive pronoun seems to be useless, as : 
 il se ticnt ferme sur ses puds, he stands firm upon his 
 feet (legs) ; quelque chose qu'il fasse, il se retrouve 
 toujours sur ses jatnbfs, whatever he inay do, he al- 
 ways hnds himself on his legs. 
 
 2°. Custom likewise authorizes certain pleonasms, 
 which seem to make exceptions to this rule, as: je 
 Vai vu de mes propres yeux, I have seen it with my 
 oivn eyes; je /'«i f«/f;/(a!'« de mes propres oreilles, / 
 /lave heard it uuith my own ears. 
 
 3^. When we speak of an habitual complaint, we 
 ought to use the possessive pronoun, as : sa migraine 
 la rcpris, his head ach is come upon him again. 
 
 4". We never make use of the possessive pronouns 
 before a noun which is to be followed by qui or que 
 and a pronoun of the same person as those possessives. 
 Thus, we ought to say : J'ai regu la lettre que vous 
 m^ave% ecrite, I have received the letter which you 
 have written to me. It would be wrong to say : 
 votre lettre que vous, tec. Foreigners are apt to offend 
 against this rule. 
 
 The possessive pronouns perform the office of the ar- 
 ticle and are regulated by tiie same laws : thev ought, 
 therefore, to be repeated before all the substantives sub- 
 je6f or regimen, and before the adjectives which express 
 dilferent qualities, as : son pere, sa mere et ses freres 
 sent de reiour, his father, mother and brothers are 
 come back ; Je lui at montrc mes plus beaux et mts 
 flus vilains habits, I have shown him my finest and 
 mv ugliest dresses. This rule, which is' not alwa, s 
 2:3.
 
 hurt 
 
 se faire mal a 
 
 get! off s'echappcr 
 luith the iitmoit sivift- 
 ncss a pente d'ha- 
 Icine 
 h become unruly pren- 
 dre le mors aux dents 
 
 ( 258 ) 
 
 observed in English, is common, in French, to all ad- 
 je<5tivc pronouns. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 For the whole winter, he has had has had sore 3.V oh mzl.k 
 sore eyes. 
 
 I had a fall yesterday and I hurt 
 3ny leg. 
 
 Furious, he gets off from the midst 
 of us, and runs with the utmost swift- 
 ness, like a horse that is become un- 
 ruly' 
 
 My gout does not allow mc a mo- 
 ment's repose. 
 
 If you wish to be beloved, fail not /a//«<J/ncpasmanque3r 
 to perform the promises j'ok have just 
 made. 
 
 My study and - garden are my 
 greatest delight. 
 
 Show me your great and - small 
 instruments. 
 
 O B SER FA TI O N S 
 
 ON THE POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS WHICH ARE 
 NEVER JOINED TO NOUNS. 
 
 I" We make use of the personal pronouns instead 
 of those possessives, when names of things are put for 
 names of persons, as : il rCy a point de mettlewe plume 
 que lui ; // n^y a pas de meilleure epee que vous. in the 
 tirst example, plume is for ecrrjain^ and in the second, 
 epee is for tirciir d'armes : the possessive pronouns /a 
 sienne and la voire would give a quite diilcrent mean- 
 ing to the sentences. 
 
 2^. Those possessives cannot relate to a noun taken 
 in an indefinite sense. Il would be wrong to say : il 
 71" est pas d'humeur a falrc plaishy et la mienne est 
 d'etre bienfaisant, he is not of a disp(Asition to do ser- 
 vice, and mine is to be benevolent. We must take a 
 diif-^rent turn and say : il ri'tst pas d"" humeur a fahe 
 plo'iiir, tsf moije suls iC une humenr bienfalsante. We 
 jii..y oay with propriety : c'est son humcur, mah la
 
 ( 259 ) 
 
 mienne yi^est pas la mnnc. It is his disposition, bi< 
 mine is not the same ; c'est le sentiment de monfrcre tt 
 lemien, it is my brother's sentiment and mine; because 
 in these phrases, hwneur and sentiment are determined- 
 HI. 
 
 RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 Qu'iy subjedl, may very properly relate to persons 
 and to tilings, as : Vhcimme qui joue perd son temps, 
 the man who plays loses his time \ le livre qui plait k 
 plus iiest pas ton} ours le phis utile y the book which 
 pleases most is not always the most useful. But, 
 when it is the object of a relation, it can only be said 
 of persons or of things personihed, whether the regi- 
 men be dire<Sl, or indirect, as : qucaid an est delicat iff 
 sage dans ses gouts, on ne s^ attache pas, sans savoir 
 qui ron a'lme, he who is wise and discriminate in his 
 feelings, does not form an attachment, without know- 
 ing whom he loves : I'homme a qui appai tient ce bccu 
 jardin est tres-riche, the man to whom this fine garden 
 belongs is very rich : la femme de qui vans parle%y 
 the woman of wliom you are speaking. 
 
 Observation. When the objett of the relation 
 is expressed by the preposition de, we ought to prefer 
 dont to de qui. It is better to say : la femme dont vous 
 parle'z ; but it is only when the relative is to be fol- 
 lowed by a personal pronoun. 
 
 Rule 1. Qjni must not be separated from its an- 
 tecedent, when that antecedent is a noun. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 Un jeune homme qui eii docile a:ix conseils tjn^on lui donne, 
 
 e.t qui aime a en rece-~Joii\ aurci ir.failiihlcment ilu ntd'ritc, 
 A young man who is docile to the counsels which are given 
 him, and who loves to receive them, will infallibly have 
 merit. 
 
 Observation. In some phrases, qui may be se- 
 parated from the substantive by a certain number of 
 words : it is when the sense forces it to be referred to 
 that substantive, as : // afallu avant toute chose, vous 
 fairO' lire dans P ecr'iture sa'intc I'histoire du peuple de 
 JDieu, c\v.\fait k fundcment de la religion. U'his sen- 
 itncc of Bujisuet is very corredl, because, as du peuple
 
 ( 26o ) 
 
 determines the kind of history, and de Dleu the kind of 
 people, the mind necessarily goes back to the substan- 
 tive histoire, to which it refers the incidental phrase. 
 But as tor this kind of gallicism : je lu'i ecrh des let- 
 tres que je crols qui sont admirables, it is a real irregu- 
 larity, which it is not easy to account for. 
 
 Qui, however, may be separated from its antecedent, 
 ■when this antecedent is a pronoun regimen direct, as : 
 il la trouva qui pleuroit a chaudes larmcs, he found her 
 crying bitterly ; je le vols quiyoM^, I see him playing ; 
 because in this case, the place of the pronoun is before 
 the verb, and it is the same as saying : il trouva elle qui 
 pleuroit, &cc. ; je vois lui qui joue. Also in these kind 
 of sentences, whicn are real gallicisms : ceux-la ne 
 sont pas L's plus malheurcux qui se plaigncnt le plus, 
 those are not the most unhappy who complain the 
 most. 
 
 From this rule it follows i°. That we cannot place 
 a preposition with its regimen between qui and its ante- 
 cedent. Et d''iin bras, a ces mots, qui psut tout 
 ebranler is an erroneous constiinflion in Despreaux. 
 2^. That we cannot make the relative qui relate to a 
 substantive followed by the phrase which it governs, 
 as: la cinquieme ^poque est cellc de la fandation de 
 Rome, qui ne hnit, &;c. These errors have been com- 
 mitted by very good writers. 
 
 Observation. Some grammarians maintain 
 that qui ought to be rcj^eated before every verb : but 
 this rule is too gencru! ; we think that it is often 
 necessary, but certainly not always. Our best au- 
 thors have a great many examples of the contrary. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 A younsj man luho loves the 
 vanity cf dress, like a woman, is un- the vanity of dress st 
 
 , r ■ J J 1 I parer vaineinent 
 
 worthy or wisdom and glory ; glory ^ 
 
 is only due to a heart i/ia^ knows how 
 
 to suffer pain and trample upon plea- iramplc rpon ^ ^'^^}^^^ 
 
 sure. 
 
 Thyself, O my son, my dear son I 
 thoa thy sci: //;..«/ now enjoycbt a youth 
 
 aux pieds
 
 ( 26l ) 
 
 so lively and so fruitful in pleasvires, 
 remember that this fine age is but a 
 flower 'jjhich will be dried up as soon 
 as open. 
 
 Men pass away like flowers, ivkick 
 open in the morning and at night are 
 withered and trampled under foot. 
 
 You must have a man that loves 
 'nothing but -truth and you, that wii] 
 speak the truth in spite of you, that 
 will force all your entrenchments \ 
 and that necessary man is the very 
 same whom you have sent into exile. 
 
 We perceived him waiting for us, 
 quietly seated under the shade of a 
 tr«e. 
 
 remember 
 
 so souvenir 
 stcher 
 eclore 
 
 cpen s epauouir 
 
 «'/(^/ (which) 
 ■withered ftetrir 
 
 you must hwve il falloir 
 nothing but nc que 
 7t77/(change the future 
 into the present of 
 the subjunrtive.) 
 entienchmcnti retran- 
 chemeBt 
 sent into exile exiler 
 •waiting for(^who wait- 
 ed) attendre 
 under a 
 
 Observation. In English, there is no need of 
 attending to this rule. 
 
 Rule II. The relative 7.7/ must always relate to 
 a noun taken in a determinate sense. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 V homme e<t un animal raisonable, qui, Sec, // me reguf ave 
 une politesse, qui, &c. 
 
 But we cannot say : I'homme est animal raison- 
 nable, qui, &c. // mc rc^ut avec politesse, qui, bcc. 
 
 Hence, qui cannot relate to a verb, or to any other 
 member of a sentence. Thus : Ics GauLois s-e discnt 
 descendus de Pluton, qui est une tradition des dru'ides, 
 is an incorre6l SL.-.cence, and akhough the translation 
 of it inio English by, the Gauls pretend to be descend^ 
 . ed from Pluto, which is a tradition of the druids^ 
 may not strike at first sight, as being erroneous, yet, 
 with a little attention, it will be found, that as qui is 
 immediately following Pluton, the reader is led to ex- 
 pect that Pluton is the antecedent, and that what is 
 going to follow will relate to that antecedent. Instead 
 oi quij there should be ce qui. This fault is to be found
 
 ( 262 ) 
 
 m many excellent writers of the last century, and 
 among others, in Mad, de Sevigne. 
 
 Observation. M.M. de Port Royal very just- 
 ly remark, that although m many phrases the deter- 
 mination of the nouns is not expressed, yet it Is so, 
 in h£t. Thus, all these phrases are correct : // «V 
 prj/nt de livre qui ne soit de ion choix, he has not a book 
 which is not of his own selecting. Y a-t-'il ville dans 
 le royaume qui so'it plus favorhce? is there a city in the 
 kingdom that is more favoured ? il rCy a pas homme 
 qui so'it assure cfune heure de vie, there is no man 
 {not a man) that is sure of an hour's life ; il se con- 
 duit en homme qui connoit le monde, he behaves him- 
 self like a man who knows the world \. il est accable 
 de maux qui ne lui laissent pas tin instant de repos,, 
 he is overwhelmed with evils that do not allow him a 
 moment's rest ; c''€st une sorte de fruit qui ne murit paS' 
 en Europe, it is a sort o^ fruit (a fruitj that does not 
 ripen in Europe. From the translation of all the 
 above examples, it is evident that livre, ville, homme, 
 maux, are really determined, the meaning being : il 
 Jz^apas un livre qui, &e. , ^ <2-?-i/ une ville qui, &cc., 
 and as to the word sorte, we have seen that it also deter- 
 mines the word fruit. 
 
 EXERCISE.. 
 
 He received us with such goodness, 
 civility and grace as charmed us, and 
 made us forget all we had suffered. 
 
 There is no city in the world 
 where there are more riches and a. 
 greater population. 
 
 Is there a man can say ; I shall 
 live to-morrow .- 
 
 He has no friend but would make 
 for him every kind of sacrifice. 
 
 He is surrounded by enemies, who 
 are continually observing him, and 
 would very much wish to find him in 
 fault. 
 
 such a:s 
 
 there b£ 
 
 un qui 
 
 subj. 
 
 % 
 
 man 
 can 
 
 (who) 
 
 subj. 
 would make subj -3. 
 
 to
 
 ( 263 ) 
 
 as a 
 ?nistruiis 
 
 €0 
 
 se defier 
 
 hot'hous£s%cxxQ chaude 
 
 heaped 
 
 entasser 
 
 In his retreat, he lives as a sage, 
 ivko knows mankind and mistrusts 
 them. 
 
 The pine-apple is a sort of fruit 
 that ripens in Europe only in hot- 
 houses. 
 
 That man is a sort of pedant, who 
 takes words for ideas, and fafts con- 
 fusedly heaped up, for knowledge. 
 
 Que relates to persons and things, in all cases. It 
 is always object in a preposition, and cannot he with- 
 out an antecedent expressed, which it generally fol- 
 lows. L'homme queyV vois, la pcche queyV mange. 
 We say generally, because in some instances, it may 
 be separated from the antecedent by a certain number 
 of words : it is when the mind necessarily goes back 
 to that antecedent, as in this sentence of Flechier's, 
 ^ti'est-ce quiine armce ? c* est un corps anime d'une in- 
 Jinite de passions differentes, qu'?^« homme habile fait 
 mouvoir pour la defense de la patrie. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 The God luhom the Hebrews and 
 Christians have always served, has 
 nothing in common with the deities 
 full of imperfe6lion and even of emp- 
 tiness, worshipped by the rest of 
 the world. 
 
 Notwithstanding the danger of 
 their position, the senate remained 
 firm in their maxims, and the decree 
 ivhlch they issued, not to grant any 
 thing by force, passed as a fundamen- 
 tal law of Roman policy, from which 
 t/iere is not one single example of 
 the Romans having departed during 
 the whole time of the republic. 
 Epopaea is not the panegyric of a 
 
 emptiness vide 
 
 (that the rest of tiie 
 
 world worshipped) 
 
 issued 
 
 donner 
 
 (that the Romans have 
 departed^ 
 
 hero ivliich is proposed as a pattern, pattern 
 
 IS proposed on propose 
 
 modcle
 
 ex hi hi ted 
 imitation 
 
 donner 
 exemple 
 
 Jiies aiuay s'envoler 
 a man' s aivaking 
 
 re veil 
 causes faire 
 
 lue * 
 
 hold fast tenlrlemieux 
 /« our hands -'■ 
 
 slip away echapper a 
 
 to make the ivor Id for- 
 get se faire oublier 
 that ive may produce 
 
 pour ne produire que 
 lue on 
 
 ■wish vouloir 
 
 impress persuader 
 
 ( 264 ) 
 
 but the recital of a great and illus- 
 trious aftion, vvhicii is exhibited for 
 imitation. 
 
 The good luhich we hope for shows 
 itself to us, and flics away like an 
 empty dream, luhich a man's awak- 
 ing causes to vanish, to teach us that 
 the very things luhicli we think we 
 hold fast in our hands, may slip away 
 in an instant. 
 
 Plato says, that, in writing, we 
 ought to hide ourselves, to disappear, 
 to make the world forget us, that we 
 may produce nothing but the truths 
 we wish to impress, and the passions 
 we wish to purify. 
 
 Que may be exclamative, conjunflion, or pronoun- 
 In this sentence : que Vhomme est a plaindre, quand il 
 euhlie que c^est la ra'ison que son coeur doit cofisulter ! 
 how is man to be pitied, when he forgets that it is 
 reason (that) he ought to consult ! the hrst que is ex- 
 clamative, the second a conjunction, and the third a 
 pronoun. It is exclamative when, at the head of a 
 sentence, it disposes the mind to lively and unexpected 
 sensations : it is a conjunction, when, in the body of 
 a sentence, it is without an antecedent ; and it is a 
 pronoun, when it has an antecedent, and in this case, 
 it may otherwise be expressed by Icquel and the sub- 
 stantive, as : Vhomme que je vois, that is : fhommff 
 lequel hommcy^ vols. 
 
 Observation. There arc instances where que 
 appears to be the object of a relation, as it seems to be 
 used instead ot a qui, or dont, as : c'est d vous queyV 
 park ; c'cst de lui que jc park \ de la fagon que j^ai 
 dit la chose. All grammarians agree that we cannot 
 express ourselves any other way;- but they do not 
 agree about tlie nature of that que. Some will have it 
 to be a relative, and others say it is a conjunction. 
 Without entering into a discussion, which is useless 
 
 in
 
 ( ^6s ) 
 
 iu a book of elements, we are of opinion that it is 
 better to consider it, in this case, as a conjunction. 
 
 Lequcl and dont relate both to persons and things. 
 It is a general rule, that we ought never to use lequel^ 
 cither as subjeil or obje<St, but when it is to avoid am- 
 phibology ; for, whenever the sense is sufficient to 
 remove it, we must make use of aid or ({uc : this i$ 
 conformable to the present pra6lice. 
 
 Lcquel, with the preposition dc, is either followed 
 or preceded by a noun, which it unites to tlie princi=» 
 pal sentence. If it be followed by the noun, we 
 ought to prefer doyit to duquel, both for persons and 
 things. Thus, wc say : la Tamlse dont le lit, and 
 not de laquelle : le prince dont la prote^ion^ and not 
 duqucl. But, in speaking of persons, de qui is still 
 better than dont, and in this last example, we shoul(J 
 prefer le prince de qui la,protc6lion. This, however, 
 is not corre6l, unless the woid which follows the pro- 
 noun be a substantive ; for, we have said betore, that 
 dont is preferable to de qui, when the following word is 
 a personal pronoun. If leqiiel be preceded by the 
 noun, we can only make use of duqucl, when speak- 
 ing, of things, as : la Tamise, dans le lit de laquelle ; 
 and it is always better to use it, when speaking of 
 persons, as : le^ prince a la protetlion duquel : de qui 
 would not be so well. 
 
 With tl\e prejiosiiion a, we can only make use of 
 auquel, when speaking of things, as : les places aux- 
 quelles il aspire ; but we ought to prefer a qui, when 
 speaking of persons, as: les rois a qui ondoitobcir: 
 anxquels would not do so well. 
 
 It is easy to see that the relative qui, preceded by a 
 preposition, never relates to things, but to persons 
 onlv. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 The grand priiiciple on which the turns roulef 
 
 whole turns, is, that all the world is ^^ 
 but one republic, of ivhich God is 
 the common father, and every nation, 
 as it were, one great famUy. ^^ '* "^^^^ comme 
 
 A a
 
 ( 266 ) 
 
 That good king, iv/iose goodness 
 was inexhaustible, considered as lost, 
 all the days that had not afforded him 
 an opportunity of doing good. 
 
 Homer, whose genius is grand and 
 sublime like nature, is the best poet, 
 and perhaps the most profound mo- 
 salist of antiquity. 
 
 What pity that la Bruyere, whose 
 " Charafters" you so justly admire, 
 has not always a style correft and 
 pure ! 
 
 The celebrated Zenobia, whose 
 noble firmness you have admired, 
 preferred to die with the title of 
 queen, rather than to accept the ad- 
 vantageous offers, which Aurelian 
 made her. 
 
 The Alps, on the summit of which 
 the astonished eye discovers perpetual 
 snow and ice, present, at sun-set, the 
 most imposing and most magnificciit 
 speftacle. 
 
 A king, to whose solicitude we owe 
 a good law, has laboured more to- 
 wards his own glory, than if he had 
 conquered the universe. 
 
 The ambitious man sees nothing 
 but pleasures in the possession of the 
 places to which he aspire* with so 
 much ardour, instead of seeing tiie 
 troubles that are inseparable from 
 them. 
 
 TL'mgZywhom religion imposes upon 
 us as a duty to obey, are, upon earth, 
 the true image of the providence of 
 God. 
 
 afforded 
 opportunity 
 
 fouimir 
 occasion 
 
 pity 
 
 has not 
 
 doramagc 
 subj. 
 
 preferred rather aimer 
 micux 
 
 sun-set solei! couchant 
 
 towards 
 
 poiu: 
 
 instead of au lieu dc 
 are (which are) 
 
 %vhom (to) 
 
 imposes -upon as a duty 
 faire un devoir
 
 f . 267 ) 
 
 (luol can never relate but to things. It follows, 
 T*ut always preceded by a preposition, the word to 
 which ic relates, and is generally followed by the sub- 
 je(5l of the phrase which it unites. Formerly, it was 
 of much greiiter use than now : they said : la chose 
 a quoi on pcnse \ Z'oila les cond'itions sans quoi la chose 
 Hc pcut se fan c \ this turn is still to be met with in 
 some writers and not disapproved of by the Academy; 
 but duqiiclaniS. aiiqnel are much better ; for, quoi has a 
 vague signification, f(>r which reason it is never used 
 with any degree of propriety, but when it relates to a 
 vague and indefinite subject, such as ce or r'len, as : 
 cVj/ de quoi ;V ni occupe sam cesse ; il n^y a rien a 
 quoi;/^ sots plus dispose. 
 
 Ou, cl'oii, par ou, never relate but to tilings. We 
 never use them, but when the nouns to which they 
 relate express some kind of motion or of rest, at least 
 metaphorically, as : voil^ Ic but ou il tend, that is 
 the end he aims at ; c''cst unc chose d'ou depend le hon- 
 heur public^ it is a thing upon which the public hap- 
 piness depends : les I'leux par ou il a passe, the places 
 through which he has passed. 
 
 Observation. Maison has two meanings; 
 when it signifies race, we ought to say : la maison 
 dont // est sorti, the family from which he is sprung : 
 but when it is taken in its proper sense, we say : la 
 maison d'ou il est sorti, the house whence he is come 
 out. This distindion, which had been glanced at by 
 Vaugelas, has been fixed by T. Corneille. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 W/iat a young man who begins the to ".vhat ce a 
 
 world ought principally to attend to, be^nis entrer dans 
 
 1-, •■• ri- t'-> attend s'attacher 
 IS not to give it a high opinion of his -^ ai.Lai.uci. 
 
 understanding, but to get himself opinion idee 
 
 many friends by the qualities of his ^■''■derstanding esprit 
 j,^^^^,. ' '<> get himself se faire 
 
 A youth lost in uselessness, softness softness mollesse 
 
 and voluptuousnes"?, prepares for us 
 nothing but sorrows and disgusts in 
 A a 2
 
 on 
 
 ( 268 ) 
 
 old age : this, nevertheless, is ".v/iat 
 
 we little think of. «/ w/ir/^ (to) 
 
 There is nothing iy ivhlch we show [., 
 
 ourselves more affeded than the loss nve 
 
 ©f fortune, althongh, being frail and aflacted sensible 
 
 ^ • 1 1 , "" 1 • frail frtle 
 
 perishable by its nature, it cannot V,,,;;,-^/ subj. 
 
 contribute to our happiness. 
 
 A grove /'« -whicfi I brave the a-r- 
 dour of the canicula, a retired val- canicula canicule 
 
 ley luhere I can meditate in peace, a 
 high hill iuher.ce my eye can extend 
 over immense plains, are the places 
 
 luhere I spend the happiest moments spend passer 
 
 of my life. 
 
 IV. 
 
 ABSOLUTE PRONOUNS. 
 
 Qiii relates to persons only : but, as it presents to 
 ^he mind nothing but a vague umletermined idea, it 
 would, perhaps, be better not to use it but in the sin- 
 gular number, as : qui sera asse-z hard'i pour Patta- 
 >quer ? who will be bold enough to attack him ? 
 Custom, however, authorizes the use of it, in the 
 feminine and in the plural, as : qui est cette pei'sonne ? 
 who is that person? qui sont ces femmes f* who are 
 those women ? 
 
 In a book of geography, printed in a foreign coim- 
 try, we read : qui sont les ttats de ryJmenquc ? It 
 ought to have been : quels sont Ics i'tats, 6cc. 
 
 Que and quoi rt late to things only, as : que pouvoit 
 la valeur en ce combat funeste ? what could valour do 
 in that fatal combat ? a quoi pcmcz-vous P what are 
 you thinking ot ? Que is sometimes used for ci quoi, 
 de quoi., as : que sert la science sans la vertu P what 
 avails learning without virtue ? que s^crt a feware 
 d^ avoir des trcsorsP what use is it to the nii^er to 
 possess treasures ? that is : il quoi sert, tkc. de quoi 
 sert, dec. 
 
 Observation. Quoi sometimes relates to a 
 whole sentence,, and in tin's case, it is the oiily ex-
 
 ( - 269 J 
 
 pression aiuliori/.cd by custom, as : la vie passe comme 
 un songe : c'cst cependant a quo! on ne pensc gueres. 
 
 Que/ relates both to persons and things, as ; que/ 
 homme pent se pvomettre un bon/ieur constant ? quei/e 
 grace / que/le beaut c ! mois quc//e modest le / 
 
 Oii, d'oii, par oii, never relate but to things. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 JF/io could ever persuade himself, 
 did not daily experience convince us 
 of it, that, out of a hundred persons, 
 there are ninety who sacrifice, to the 
 enjoyment of the present, all the best 
 founded hopes of the life to come ? 
 
 Wfw would not love virtue for its 
 own sake, could we but see it in all 
 its beauty " 
 
 IV/iat \\o\x\6i you have him do, alone 
 against so many enemies r 
 
 out of sue 
 
 life to come a venir 
 
 its ozcn sake cllc-meme 
 
 could "die on pouvoir 
 
 ind-ii 
 
 luoidd have 
 
 What is an army r a body animat- 
 ed with an infinite number of difFer- 
 
 vouloir 
 \ ind-2 
 
 him do (prel. observa- 
 tions) 
 
 ivith do 
 
 ... ,.,. , infinite number mfimti 
 
 ent passions, which a skilkil man puts p^^ts into motion falre 
 
 mouvoir 
 ■ patrie 
 
 country 
 
 lioiu 
 
 ivhat (to) 
 to do 
 mature 
 
 into motion for the defence of the 
 country. 
 
 He who did not know how to ap- 
 ply himself in his youth, does not 
 
 knowit7/a/ to do in mature age. 
 
 He is a wise legislator, who, hav- 
 ing given to his nation, laws calculat- nation 
 ed to make them good and happy calculated 
 made them swear not to violate any 
 of those laws during his absence : 
 after luhich, ^ he went away, exiled 
 himself from his country, and died 
 poor in a foreign land. 
 
 What people of antiquity ever. had 
 
 better laws than the Egyptians? 
 
 A a 'A 
 
 s occuper 
 viril 
 
 concitoyea 
 propre 
 
 not to violate (that 
 
 they would not) 
 
 luent atvay partir
 
 calculated lo fait pour 
 boi/i ei'alement 
 
 vhcn 
 
 aprcs que- 
 
 troirblc'.r^vie incommode 
 cannot nes-uiruic 
 
 go pastor 
 
 m:tst vouloir 
 
 aller 
 
 f '^10 ) 
 
 What other nation ever undertook to 
 ere6l monuments calculated to tri- 
 umph both of time and of barbari- 
 ans ? 
 
 When Merwge had published his 
 book of the Crigirv of the French 
 Language, Christina, queen of Swe- 
 den, said : " Menage is the mcst 
 troublesome man in the world ; he 
 cannot let one word go without its 
 jvasspori: he must know ivhcnce it 
 comes, ivhere it has passed tlvoughy 
 and 'whit/ur it is going." 
 
 Observation. Que c^nA qnoi govern the prepo- 
 sition c/e before the adjedlive that follows tliem, as : 
 que dlt-on cle ri'juvmu? quoi de plus agreable I Q^uc 
 governs it likewise before the substantives. 
 
 What more Instructive and entir- 
 tain'nig than to read celebrated au- 
 thors in their own language ! U'hat ^^(.f,icf, cannot 
 beauty, what delicacy and grace, dehcacy 
 
 •\vhich cannot be conveyed into a ^ con-vsyed 
 
 . . ,. , . passt-r 
 
 translation, are not discovered in ^^,.^ ^^^^ (adive voice) 
 
 tiiem ? on 
 
 V. 
 
 DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 We have scai that ce, joined to a noun, takes its 
 gender and number, and that, as it does the office of 
 article, it ought to follow the same laws of repetition. 
 It is also joined to tlie verb ct> e, and to a relative 
 pronoun. 
 
 Cfy joined to the verb ctre:, is always masculine 
 siiiguiui, except when it is followed by the third per- 
 son plural. We say : c^est mot, c''cst toi, c^est lui, 
 c'est nous, c'est vous ; but we ought to say : ce sont 
 eux, ce sont cllesy ce fnrent vos ancctrcs qui, &c. The 
 example of Bossuet and some other writers proves 
 jiotlung. " Ihis custom, which is purely French," 
 says Vaugelas, " has a wonderful grace, though it 
 may seem to militate against the rules of grammar." 
 
 que on 
 
 iincsse 
 
 faire
 
 f 271 } 
 
 Cc is often used for a person or thing before men- 
 tioned, and, in this case, it is for il or elle. We must 
 always make use of ce,, when the verb etre is followed 
 by a substantive, taken in a determinate sense, that is, 
 accompanied by the article, or the adjective un, as : 
 Lhc% Homerc et Firg'ile . ce sont Ics p/us grands poetes 
 i/e rantiquhc, i end Homer and Virgil : they are the 
 best poets of antiquity. La douceur, Vaffabilite et une 
 certalnc urbamtc distingucnt Viiomme qui vit dans le 
 grand monde : i e sont ia ies m.arques auxquelles an le 
 rcconnoity gentleness, aff.ibiliiy and a certam urbanity, 
 disttn.'uish the man. that lives in the great world : those 
 arc i!ic marks bv which he may be known ^ Avet- 
 Z'ous lu Platon }' c'est un des plus beaux gi-'mes de Pan- 
 tiquite, have vou read Fiato r he is one ot the greatest 
 geniuses of antiquity. Some grammari.ms are of opi- 
 nion, tb.at there would be no impropriety in making 
 use of il or elle ; but the turn would not be so ele- 
 gant, nor so well adapted to the genius of the French 
 language. But, when the verb etre is followed by 
 an adjective, or by a substantive taken adjectively, we 
 ought to make use of il, elle, as :. lisez Dcmosthene 
 et Ciceron; ils sont tres-eloquens : _;' '<7i vu Ihopital 
 de Greenwich ; il est magnifique et digne d'une grande 
 nation. Cornptcrle'Z-vous s-ur (■^alere P ignorez-Z'cus 
 qu'\\ (St homme a ne jamais re'uenir de ses premieres 
 zdces P would you rely upon Valere ? do you not 
 know chat he is that kind of man that will never give 
 up his hrst ideas \ As no such distindlion is made in£n- 
 glish,the learner ought particularly to attend to this rule. 
 Observation. Ce^ joined to the verb etre, is a 
 turn which gives a peculiar energy to the expression ; 
 ce farent Ics PJunicicns qui Ies premiers, Sec, expres- 
 ses something more than Ies Pheniciens furent Ies pre- 
 miers qui, 6cc. The former phrase points out the 
 Phoenicians; the latter merely names tliem. 
 
 Ce, joined to a lelative pronoun, relates to things 
 only. It is always masculine singular, because it only 
 denotes a vague obje6l, which is not sufficiently spe- 
 cihed to know its gender and number^ as : ce qui 
 fiatte est plus danger cux que ce qui offense, what flat» 
 ngerous than >Yhat oftends.
 
 ( 272 ) 
 
 Observation, (e, joined to the relative pro- 
 nouns qui, qiiCy dont and.^zioi, has, in some instances, 
 a constru6t'ion which is peculiar to it, and which Vau- 
 gelas was the first to remark. Cc and the relative 
 pronoun that follows it, form with the verb which they 
 precede, the subjc6l ot another phrase, of which the 
 verb is always etre. Now, etrc may be followed by 
 another verb, an adjedtive, or a noun. When it is fol- 
 lowed by anothei' verb, the demonstrative ce is to be 
 repeated, as : ce que fa':me Ic plus, c'est d'etre seul, 
 ■what 1 like most is to be aloric. Ce a quoi V avare 
 feme Ic moms, c'est dc jouir dc ses richesscs, what 
 the miser thinks least of is to enjoy his riches. When 
 it is followed by an adje61:ive,~ the demonstrative is 
 not repeated, as: ce clotit voks vencz de me parley est 
 horrible, what you have been mentioning to me is 
 horrid. But, if it be followed by a substantive, the 
 demonstrative may either be repeated or not, at plea- 
 sure, except in the case of a plural, or a personal pro- 
 noun. Thus, we may say : ce que je d'ls est, or, 
 c'est la verite, what T say is truth, though the former 
 is better. But we ought to say ; ce qui m''indigne, 
 ce sont Ics injustices qu on ne ccsse dc faire, what pro- 
 vokes me, are the injuries which are continually com- 
 mitted 5 ce qui m\irrache au seritnnent qui m'accablcy 
 c'est vous, Wiiat alleviates the grief that oppresses me, 
 is you. Most of these rules essentially contribute to 
 the elegance of language. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 // IS ive, have drawn that misfor- have (that) 
 
 tune upon us, through our thought- ^'^.^^ , , ,, , 
 
 . , tiiouglttleaneis lege- 
 
 lessness and imprudence. j.^^^^ 
 
 // loas the Egyptians that iirst ob- 
 served the course of the stars, regula- 
 ted the year and invented arithmetic. 
 
 Peruse attentivelyPlato and Cicero: 
 they are the two philosophers of anti- 
 quity that have given us the most 
 
 sound and luminous ideas upon mora- •'ouna sain 
 
 iity.
 
 ( 273 ) 
 
 If you be intended for the pulpit, 
 
 are Intended for se 
 destiner a 
 
 read over and O'ver 
 
 again lire & relire 
 
 tans cesse 
 
 aim but 
 
 is astonishing ttonneir 
 
 IS pleasing 
 
 constitutes 
 exud 
 
 ■ plairc 
 
 faire 
 fixe 
 
 impart 
 
 read over and over again Bourdaloue 
 and Massillon : i/>ty are both very 
 eloquent j but the aim of the former 
 is to convince, and that of the latter 
 to persuade. 
 
 What is astonishing is not always 
 tL'hat is pka'sing. 
 
 W/iat constitutes poetry is not the 
 exatt number and regulated cadence, 
 of syllables ; but it is the sentiment 
 which animates every thing, lively 
 fiftion, bold figures, the beauty and 
 variety of imagery : /'/ is enthusiasm, 
 
 fire, impetuosity, forte, a something a something un je ne 
 in the words and thoughts which na- 
 ture alone can impart. 
 
 IVhM pleases us in the writings of 
 the ancients is, to see that they have 
 taken nature as a model, and that they 
 have painted herwitha noble simplicity. 
 
 What that good king has done for 
 the happiness of his people deserves 
 to be handed down to the latest pos- 
 terity. 
 
 What we justly admire in Shakes- 
 pear are those charaflers always in 
 nature and always supported. 
 
 What keeps me attached to life, is 
 you, rny son, whose tender age has 
 Btill need of my car«s and counsels. 
 
 There arc two ways of employing cclui. In the first, 
 it is tollowed by a noun preceded by the preposition 
 de, and then it applies Ixjth te persons and diings, as : 
 celui de vous qui, 6cc. , whichever of you that, &c.; 
 or, in speaking of a grotesque figure, cl/e. resscmble a 
 ccllci dc Calot, it is like those of Calot. In the second 
 
 sai quoi 
 donner 
 
 pour 
 
 deseri'es etrc digne 
 
 to be handed doivn 
 
 etre transmis a 
 
 zue 
 
 on 
 
 those 
 
 % 
 
 supported 
 
 soutenu 
 
 keeps attached attacher
 
 ( 274 ) 
 
 instance, It is folloAved by qui, que or dont, and thcr; 
 applies more generally to persons, as : celui tjui nt 
 pense qu' a lul seal dispense It's autrcs d^y pense>\ he 
 who thinks of nobody but himself exempts others from 
 thinking of him. 
 
 Observation. In this last instance, we some- 
 times omit cchii, and this turn gives strength and 
 elegance to the expression, as : qui veut trop se fair$ 
 craindre se fait rare7ncnt aimer. 
 
 Ccci and cela apply only to things.. 
 
 Observation. In familiar style, custom authc- 
 rizes us to say, in speaking of a child, or of country 
 people amusing themselves : ccla est heureux ! 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 Whichever of you shall be found to 
 excel the others both in mind and 
 body, shall be acknowledged king of 
 the ibland. 
 
 There are admirable piftures : these 
 are after the manner of Rubens', and 
 those after the manner of Van-Hui- 
 sum's. ^ 
 
 Why are the statues of our most 
 celebrated sculptors, notwithstanding 
 the perfection to which the arts have 
 been carried, so much inferior /o those 
 of the ancients r 
 
 He whose soul blazing^, as it were, 
 with fire divine, shall represent to 
 himself the whole of nature, and shall 
 breathe into the objefls that spirit of 
 life, which animate? them, thwe af- 
 fefting traits wliich seduce and ravish 
 us, shall be a man of real genius. 
 
 He ///a/ judges of others from him- 
 self is liable to many errors. 
 
 He thai is easily offendcd,.discovcrs 
 
 be found to excel on 
 trouver vainqueur 
 
 both in 
 
 there are 
 are after 
 manyict 
 
 et pour 
 
 voila 
 
 etre dans 
 
 genre 
 
 have been carried (on 
 
 aftive voice) 
 inferior au dessous 
 
 bla^in^ "xith enflam- 
 mer de 
 
 the whole of tout 
 
 shall breathe into rc- 
 "pandre sur 
 ciffeWfi^' '' touchant 
 real v rai 
 
 frori 
 liable 
 
 d'apres 
 expose 
 
 is '^ff'cndcd s'offcnser
 
 ( 27i ) 
 rhisivcak side, and affords his enemies iv('/2i side foible 
 
 an opportunity of taking advantage "^"'^ J^"'"';^'" * 
 
 1 1^ •' ^ ^J taking ad'vantag: 
 
 of it. profiler 
 
 He ir/w lo\'es none but liimself 
 does not deserve to be loved by 
 others. 
 
 vr. 
 
 INDEFINITE PRONOU:*?^. 
 
 On, always subje6t, denotes a sort of a third person 
 vague and indeterminate. It is by its nature mascu- 
 line singular, and can only apply to persons. Some 
 grammarians contend that it may apply to a feminine 
 and to a plural, as when a woman says : on rCest pas 
 ioujcurs maitresse de son temps., one is not alv/avs mis- 
 tress of her time, or in this expression : on se battit en 
 ■d^sesperes, they fought desperately. But though cus- 
 tom authorizes this turn, yet we do not think it elegant, 
 nor conformable to the genius of the language : never- 
 theless, we must own that the Academy admits of these 
 expressions. 
 
 This pronoun is repeated before ail the verbs ot a 
 sentence : but care ought to be taken to make it refer 
 to one and the same subject. Thus, this sentence : on 
 croit etre aime Iff ron ne nous ainu pas, is incorrect; 
 -\ve ought to say : on croit etre aime l^ on ne V est pas. 
 
 SojTie granimarians affirm that quiconque ought to 
 be followed by an adje6tive In the feminine gender, 
 when it unequivocallv relates lo women, as: quiconque 
 de vous sera asscz forte pour, &cc. But this is only 
 delighting in the creation ot difEcultics : we ought to 
 use the proper expression iuid sav : ic//e de vous qui 
 sera asse-z forte pour, &,c. Nevertheless, modern 
 grammarians, and the Academy itself, admit of diis 
 practice. 
 
 Chacun, tliough always singular, may be followed, 
 sometimes by son, sa, ses, and sometimes by leur, Icurs-^ 
 which in many instances is very puz-zling. 
 
 There is no difficulty in those phrases where chacun 
 does not belong to a plural number ; we then make 
 use of son, sa, ses, as : donncz a chacun sa part, give
 
 ( 276 ) 
 
 to each his share : que chacun songc a ses of aires, let 
 every one mind his own business. 
 
 But it is not so in phrases whdre chacun belongs .to 
 a plural number. 
 
 Rule. In phrases where chacun is contrasted 
 with a plural number to which it belongs, we ought 
 to make use of son, sa, scs, when the relation of pos- 
 session answers in a more diredl manner to the distri- 
 butive singular : but we ought to make use oiJcur, 
 lews, when that relation answers more uire6tly to the 
 plural. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 Remettex ces medailles, chacune en sa place, return those 
 medals, each into its proper place. Les hommes dcvroient 
 $^ aimer, chacun pour son propre interet, men ought to love 
 one another, each for his own interest. 
 
 But we ought to say : les hommes devro'icnt avoir , 
 chacun four leur propre interet, de I'amour les un.s 
 pour les autres. 
 
 The latter part of the above rule does not obtain in 
 English, and they would sav, in the last example, 
 each for his own interest, each being always deemed 
 singular. 
 
 Observation. The relation of possession an- 
 swers in a more diredl manner to the distributive sin- 
 gular, when chacun is placed after the regimen : then 
 the collcdtlve sense expressed by the plural is at an end, 
 ;uid the distributive chacun must do the office which is 
 peculiar to it, by considering the whole kind separated 
 into individuals : this is the case in the tirst two exam- 
 ples. But the relation of possession answers in a 
 more direct manner to the plural, when chacun is pla- 
 ced before the regimen ; for then, the colie6live sense 
 is not completed, and consequently it ought to be car- 
 ried on to the end, wliich is the case in the third 
 example. Ibis is the opinion of the Academy. 
 
 In phrases in which the verb has no regimen, we 
 are to consider what are the operations of the mind. 
 if it be the coUedlive sense we have in view, and we 
 
 mean
 
 { 277 ) 
 
 inean to fix the attention upon tliat, we must make 
 use oi leur, leurs: if, on the contrary we mean to tix 
 the attention upon the distributive sense, then wc must 
 make use of ^5«, sa^ ses : but this distin6lion is so nice, 
 that we think, in this case, it is surer to use the 
 singular. 
 
 We put in the phiral the pronoun which is to be 
 after chacun, as : la reine dit elle-meme aux deputes 
 qu'il etoit temps quails rctountasscnt chacun chez eux. 
 
 Such, till now, has been the general opinion. But 
 the author of the *' New Treatise upon the French 
 jSyntax" finds a shocking contradiclion in the great- 
 est part of these rules, in which the colle6live and dis- 
 tributive senses are confounded together. For which 
 reason, he reproves this constru»5lion and wishes it 
 may be avoided on all occasions. According to his 
 opinion, 
 
 instead of ive ought to say : 
 
 Ces deux voitures ont Chacune de ces vol- 
 perdu, chacune, leurs tures a perdu son tlmon. 
 timons, 
 
 Ces femmes sont tres- Ckacune de ces femmes 
 attachees, chacune, a leurs est tres-attachee a son 
 maris, man. 
 
 Prenons, chacun, notre Que chacun de nous 
 chapeau, prenne son chapeau. 
 
 AUons-nous-en, cha- Que chacun de nous 
 cun, chez nous, ail^e chez soi. 
 
 lis s'en allerent, cha- Chacun s'en alia chez 
 cun, chez eux, soi. 
 
 We cannot but confess that the author of the Syn-. 
 tax is perfedlly right in this respc6t ; but we think, 
 with the grammarians who have written since, that he 
 is too severe, when he also rejedls these two sentences : 
 ils ont apporte des offrandes, chacun scion ses moyens, or 
 ils ont apporte leur offrande, chacun selon ses moyens, 
 because the colle6live sense ending with the word 
 cffrandCf the distributive chacun then performs its 
 office. 
 
 B b
 
 ( 278 ) 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 Go Into my library and see whether 
 the books which have been :ent back 
 
 renvoyer 
 
 mutineers 
 
 ofFrande 
 
 aller porter 
 mutin 
 
 (they have brought 
 each their, &c.) 
 
 fulfilled 
 
 of 
 
 a iufficient 
 
 to me have been put each into its 
 place. 
 
 They have all brought offerings to of'-'r'"S^ 
 the temple, every one according to 
 his means and devotion. 
 
 Thierry charged Uncelenus " to 
 carry his orders to the mutineers and fg ^^^^ 
 to make them retire each under his 
 colours. 
 
 Each of them has brought his of- 
 fering and fulfilled /us duty of reli- 
 gion. 
 
 Have Ronsard and Balzac had, 
 
 each in his manner of writing, a suf- manner 
 
 ficient degree of good, to form after 
 
 them any very great men in verse 
 
 and in prose ? 
 
 After a day so usefully spent, we <^^y , , journee 
 
 iventback retourner 
 ' went back, each to his own nonie. ^^ ^.j^^^ with pron. 
 
 personal 
 Minds that possess any justness, pol^g^s avoir de 
 
 examine things with attention, in give a fair judgment 
 
 order to give a fair judgment of j^'gcr avec connois- 
 
 them i and they place them each in .^^^^ mettre 
 
 the rank // ought to occupy. to occupy avoir 
 
 We cannot always apply to autrin the possessive 
 pronouns son, sa, scs, /cur, Icios, and their right appli- 
 cation is often attended with difficulties. 
 
 Rule. The possessive pronouns son, sa, scs, leur^ 
 leurs, are properly applied to auirui, when the sub- 
 stantives to which tliose pronouns arc joined, are pre- 
 ceded by a preposition ; but we ought to make use of 
 tn and the article, when the substantives to which they 
 were to have been joined., are without a preposition. 
 
 remplir 
 
 •writing 
 
 genre 
 
 degree 
 
 assez
 
 ( ^79 ) 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 Foui powvfx. tpouserlrsintt'rcts d'autrui sans eire lepanegyrhte 
 de toiitesVcwTS actions, -^on rr.ay espouse the interests of 
 others, without being a panegyrist of all their adlions. 
 But we ought to say : 
 Epousez les intirits d'autrui j mais gardtz-'vous tien d'eQ 
 epouser les qiiertlles. 
 
 N. B. The latter part of this rule cannot be observ- 
 ed in English. See the rule on possessive pronouns. 
 
 Pcrsonne used as a pronoun, is always masculine , of 
 course the adjedlive relating to it must be of that 
 gender, as : personne n'est aussi severe, aus'sl vertueux 
 en public, que ccrtaines femmcs qui sont le moinsretenues 
 en particuUer, no body is so severe, so virtuous in pub- 
 lic, as some women who have the least restraint ia 
 private. Personne Jt'est aussi heureuxqu'elle, nobody 
 is so happy as she. The Academy admits only of this 
 praftice. Thus, we are not to say, with some gram- 
 marians : niesdames, il yi'y a personne de vous d.ssez 
 osit pour, &c. ; but we ought to say, in making use 
 of the proper expression : il n^y a aucune dc vous, &zc. 
 
 We liave observed, that two singulars require 
 the verb in the plural ; but the Academy in their 
 *• Observations upon Vaugelas", think, that with 
 run ct r autre, as v/ell as with ni Pun ?ii Vautrc, we 
 may indifferently use the singular or the plural, and 
 it is still its opinion ; nevertheless, the present practice 
 seems to us to be for using the plural only. It is the same 
 with nl repeated, with two nouns. But as for the dis- 
 jundlive ou, there can be no difficult)'-, and we say ; 
 Pun ou P autre \\QX\^r^. avec moi, either of them is to 
 come wiih me. 
 
 With the nouns, there is a distinction to be made. 
 If they beof diffeicnt numbers, the verb ought toagree 
 with the subject nearest to it. Thus, wc shall say : 
 le credit que cettc place donnc, ou les richesses qui y sont 
 attachces la lui font rechercher, and on the contrary : 
 Us richesses attachces a cctte place, ou le credit qii die 
 donnc, la lui fait rechercher. This is conformable to 
 tlie English construction, as has already been observ- 
 ed. — With two singulars, the verb evidently remains 
 in the singular. 
 
 Bb2
 
 ( 28o ) 
 
 When both subjects are personal pronouns, we are 
 to make another distinction. If both pronouns be of 
 the third person, the verb is put in the singular, as : elle 
 cu lui est coupable, either she or lie is guilty ; but it is 
 put in the plural, it they be of different persons, as: 
 'uous ou tno'i ravonsfait, either you or I have done it ; 
 vons ou die Vavcz fait, either you' or she has done it. 
 
 Such is the sentiment of the French Academy ; but 
 the English construction is altogether different, as may 
 be seen in the last example. Either you or she has done 
 it : either ^she or you have done it : either you or 1 am 
 mistaken. 
 
 Afeme is joined to nouns and pronouns, to give 
 more energy to the expression, as : c''est la vertu 
 mime, it is virtue itself; ee sont les graces memeSy 
 it is gracefulness itself ; est-ce vous-meme? is it you 
 yourself? In this case, it takes the mark of the plural, 
 and those grammarians who think otherwise are mis- 
 taken. 
 
 Tout, when regimen direct, is placed after the verb, 
 in simple tenses, and between the auxiliary and the 
 participle, in compound tenses, as : it avoue tout : il 
 a tout avoue. But when it is regimen indirect, it is 
 always placed after the verb, either in simple or com- 
 pound tenses, as : il rit de tout j il a pense a tout. 
 Rien follows the same order of construction. 
 
 Tout is sometimes used as an adverb, and merely as 
 an expletive, as : // lui dit toutfroidcment, he told him 
 (quite) cooly. Sometimes also, irmtd.(\.o{ quoiquCy 
 tres, entieremcnt, que/que, and in such case, it is sub- 
 ject to the following 
 
 Rule I. Tout, used instead of one of the above 
 three words, does not alter its number, before an adjec- 
 tive masculine, as : les cnfans, tout atmables qiiih 
 sont, children, although very amiable : ils sont tout 
 iiiterdits, they are quite disconcerted. 
 
 Rule II. Tout, used for one of the above three 
 words, takes neither gender nor number, licfore an 
 a<ljc6t:ivc feminine, beginning with a vowel or h mute: 
 but it takes both gender and number, before an adjec- 
 tive feminine, beginning with a consonant. We say : 
 ia z'ertu tout austl-rc quelle paroU ; ces images tout
 
 ( 28l } 
 
 amusantcs quellcs sont : but we ought to say : c^st 
 une tete toute vide ; ces damcs^ toutes belles, toutes 
 spiritucllcs qu elks sont. 
 
 Exception. Tout takes neither gender nor num- 
 ber, before an adjedtive feminine, beginning with a 
 consonant, when it is immediately followed by an ad- 
 verb. Thus, we say : cos Jicurs sont tout aussi 
 fratches que cclles que vous avez. ; ces dames sont, tout 
 ainsi, tout comme vous, belles, jeuncs &c spirituelks. 
 In this sense, tout is but a mere expletive. 
 
 EXERCISE, 
 
 Children, amiable as they are, 
 have, nevertheless, many faults which 
 it is of importance to corrcft. 
 
 The philosophers of antiquity, al- 
 thougli very much enligkiencd, have 
 given us but very confused ideas of 
 the deity, and very vague notions 
 about the principal duties of the law 
 of nature. 
 
 These flowers, inodorous as tiiey 
 are, are not the less sought aftur. 
 
 Virtue, austere as it is, makes us 
 enjoy real pleasures. 
 
 Fables, although very entertaining, 
 yet do not truly interest us, but when 
 they convey to us some useful instruc- 
 tion, under the veil of an ingenious 
 allegory. 
 
 Although that absurd pedant is 
 eontinually scribbling, yet his head is 
 altogether ejnpty. 
 
 Far be from us those maxims of 
 lattery, that kings are born skilful 
 
 B b3 
 
 have nevertheless ne 
 
 laisser pas d'avoir 
 
 of importaTice essentiel 
 
 of nature 
 inodorous 
 
 enjoy 
 
 lury. 
 
 convey 
 
 natural 
 inodore 
 
 goijter de 
 
 donner 
 
 is s 
 
 cribbling 
 
 etre un 
 
 
 ecrivailleur 
 
 (he 
 
 hjs not 
 
 cbs in hia 
 
 alto 
 
 gether 
 
 head> 
 tout 
 
 far 
 
 be 
 
 loin 
 
 are 
 
 born 
 
 na'urc
 
 (282 } 
 
 and that their privileged souls come 
 out of God's hands all ivtse and all 
 learned. 
 
 Those fountains glide qixite gently 
 upon agrass enamelled with flowers. 
 
 These peaches are quite as good as 
 those of the south of France. 
 
 come out 
 
 sortir 
 
 learned 
 
 savant 
 
 glide 
 
 gently 
 
 grass 
 
 Gouler 
 
 doucement 
 
 gazon 
 
 SQlitk 
 
 midi 
 
 Quel^ue que., joined to a substantive, either by itself, 
 or accompanied by an adjective which is joined to it, 
 takes the mark of the plural, as : quelques richesses 
 que vous ayez, whatever riches you may have ; quel- 
 ques bonnes aeuvrcs que vous foss'iez, whatever good 
 adtions you may do ; quelques pclnes affreuses que 
 vous eprouviez, however horrid the pains you suffer. 
 But, when joined to an adjedtive, separated from its 
 substantive, it does not tdke the mark of the plural, 
 as : tous Its hommes, quelque opposes qii'Us so'ient, all 
 men, however opposite they may be ; ces anions, quel- 
 que belles qu'on les trouve, those adlions, however fine 
 they may hnd them. 
 
 We have seen that quelque que and quel que, join- 
 ed to a substantive, have tlie same meaning, although 
 they are not used indifferently one for the other. If 
 we place the pronoun before the substantive, we make 
 use of quelque que, as : quelques richesses que vous aye% ; 
 but, if the substantive be after the que and tlie verb,, 
 then we make use of quel que in two separate words, 
 as : quel les que soient les richesses que vous ayez. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 IVhate'ver talents you mav possess, possess ■ avoir 
 
 w/iateier advantages you may have 
 received from nature and cducation» 
 with ivhatever perfeffjons yru may '^vith 
 
 , , , , n. .i.„ be endowed prsseder 
 
 be endowed, do not cxpeft the , t" ' ^\ 
 
 ^ ' expect s aitendre a I 
 suffrages but of a smaa number of 
 
 IVliatever great services ycu may 
 have rendered mankird, rather de- 
 
 rather depend coniptcr 
 plutot
 
 ( 283 ) 
 
 pend upon their ingratitude than 
 their acknowledgment. 
 
 Hoiuever useful, hoive'ver well- 
 composed the works which you have 
 pubhshed, yet think not that you 
 will immediately gather the fruit of 
 your labours : it is but by slow degrees 
 that light introduces itself among 
 men. The course of time is swift j 
 but It seems to drag on, when it 
 brings reason and truth along with 
 it. 
 
 Whatever may be the obstacles 
 
 which ignorance, prejudice and envy 
 oppose to the true principles of an 
 art, yet we ought never to be deter- 
 red from propagating them : the sun 
 does not cease to shine, because its 
 light hurts the eyes of night-birds. 
 
 Whatever be your birth, ivhattver 
 be your riches and dignities, remem- 
 ber that you are frustrating the views 
 of Providence, if you do not make 
 use of thera for the good of mankind. 
 
 §. V. 
 
 acknoivledgment re- 
 connoissanc? 
 
 immediately 
 
 de suite 
 
 gather 
 
 recueillir 
 
 by slow degrees avec 
 
 
 lenteur 
 
 among 
 
 chez 
 
 siuift 
 
 rapide 
 
 to drag on 
 
 (that it 
 
 drags on) 
 
 se trainer 
 
 along -with it a sa suite 
 
 ive 
 
 on 
 
 to be deterred se rebu- 
 
 
 ter 
 
 propagating 
 
 re'pandre 
 
 shine 
 
 eclaircr 
 
 its -* 
 
 the article 
 
 hurts 
 
 blesser 
 
 night- birds 
 
 oiseau de 
 
 
 nuit 
 
 are frustrating frustrer 
 
 (to do good to man- 
 kind) 
 
 OF THE VERB. 
 
 On the Use of the tivo Auxiliaries. 
 We have mentioned (Chap. V.) what sort^ of 
 verbs are conjugated, in the compound tenses, with 
 the auxiliary verb av$ir, and what others arc conju- 
 gated with etre. It now only remains for us to speak 
 of some verbs, which take, sometimes avoir^ and 
 sometimes etre, because some of them, either arc 
 attended with diificukies, or express some shades of
 
 We shall 
 
 // est iorti ce matin, 
 when we mean he is not 
 come in again. 
 
 ( 284 ) 
 
 ideas, which it Is of importance to know. 
 pnly mention the last. 
 
 // a sorti ce matin^ when 
 we mean that the person 
 went out and is come in 
 again. That expression 
 is equivalent to this : // 
 avoit sorti, il est rentre. 
 
 N. B. Sort'ir also takes avoir, when it is followed 
 by a regimen, as r avez-vous sorti men cheval ? on 
 vous a sorti d' une facheusc affaire. 
 
 Some persons conjugate tombcr with avoir, in some 
 instances ; but it is a gross mistake. 
 
 Accoiirir, disparoitre, croitre, dccroitrc, contrevenir, 
 are conjugated indifferently with either of the auxilia- 
 ries. 
 
 Cette fcmme est accou- 
 chee heureuscment, that 
 woman has been safely 
 delivered of a chill. 
 
 Cctte etoffe rrC-a. conve- 
 mi, this cloth has suited 
 ine. 
 
 // a demcure a Rome, 
 he has lived at Rome, 
 meaning that the person 
 is no longer there. 
 
 // est alle a Rome, he 
 is gone to Rome, mean- 
 ing that the person is not 
 yet come back from diere. 
 
 N. -5. The verb aUer 
 any propriety, with the 
 third person. 
 
 // a montc la rampe, he 
 has ascended the stairs. 
 
 // a dcsccndu les dcgrcs, 
 he has descended the stairs. 
 
 Une sage-femme I'a ac~ 
 coKcha, a midwife has 
 delivered her^ 
 
 Je suis convenu du prix 
 de cettc etoffe, I have a- 
 greed about the price of 
 this cloth. 
 
 11 est demcure a Rome, 
 he is remained at Rome, 
 meaning that the person ia 
 still there. 
 
 // a etc a Rome, he has 
 been at Rome, meaning 
 that the person was once 
 there, and is now come 
 back. 
 
 is never conjugated, with 
 verb avoir, except in the 
 
 // est monte, he is gone 
 up. 
 
 // est descendU) he is 
 couic down.
 
 II z. passe la rlvihe, he 
 has crossed the river. 
 
 Ceiui que vous c/icrchez 
 a passe par ici, the person 
 whom you seek has pass- 
 ed through here. 
 
 Jn these phrases^ there is 
 a regimen after the verb. 
 Ces braves gens ont pe- 
 ri maihenreuscmeni, those 
 brave people have perished 
 in a miserable manner. 
 
 ( 275 } 
 
 Uorage est passe, die 
 storm is over. 
 
 In these phrases, the verb /-> 
 zvithout a regimen. 
 
 Ces braves gens sont 
 peris dans leur traversce 
 en Amerique, these brave 
 people have perished on 
 their passage to America. 
 
 But better with etre^ 
 when it is attended with, 
 particular circumstances. 
 
 Perlr is better conju- 
 gated with avoir, when 
 the meaning of the verb is 
 general and undetermined. 
 
 AGREEMENT OF THE VERB WITH ITS SUBJECT. 
 
 We have seen that we are to put in the plural the 
 verb which has for its ohje6t two subje6ls singular t 
 but to this rule we must make the following 
 
 Exceptions. 1°. Though a verb may relate to 
 two subjects singular, yet we put that verb in the 
 singular, when the two subje6ls are joined together by 
 the conjundlion ou, and it is the first that determines 
 the agreement, when they are united by eomme, aussz 
 bien que, autant que, &c. (See what we have said 
 about I'lm et r autre). 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Either seduftion or terror, has 
 drawn him into the party 
 of the rebels. 
 
 The king, as well as his mi- 
 nistry, ifishes for the pub- 
 lic goud. 
 
 His honesty, as much as his 
 wit, fnakes him courted. 
 
 Envy, like ambition, is a 
 blind passion. 
 
 La se' duct inn, ou la terreur, 
 /'a entraine dans le parti 
 des rebelles. 
 
 Le rei, aussi bien que son mi- 
 fiistere, veut le bien public. 
 
 Son honneiete, autant que son 
 " esprit, le fait rechercber. 
 Uen'vie, comme r ambition, 
 est une passion a'ueugle. 
 
 This is conformable to the English construcStion* 
 antl therefore easily understood.
 
 ( 286 ) 
 
 2o, The verb is likewise put in the singular, not- 
 withstanding the plurals that precede it, either when 
 there is an cx])]ession which colleds all the substan- 
 tives into one, such as, tout, ce, rien, &cc. or the 
 conjundlion adversative rnais is placed before the last 
 substantive. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Biensy^ dignites, ' honneiirs, 
 tout disparoit a la mort, 
 
 yeux, convenations, specta- 
 clei, rien fie la distrait, 
 
 Perfidies, noirceurs, incendies, 
 massacres, ce n' t%i la qn' u>ie 
 foible image, &c. 
 
 l^on senlement toutes ses ri- 
 chesses et ions ses honneursy 
 mais toute sa vertu s'eva- 
 nouit. 
 
 Riches, dignities, honours, 
 every thing •vanishes before 
 death. 
 
 Gaines, conversations, spefta- 
 c!es, nothing diverts her. 
 
 Perfidies, enormities, confla- 
 grations, massacres, that is 
 but a feeble representation, 
 &c. 
 
 Not only all his riches and all 
 his honours, but all his vir- 
 tue 'vanishes. 
 
 This also we find to agree with the genius of the 
 English language, and, therefore, to be attended with 
 no kind of difficulty. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 Either fear or impotency prevented impotency imp'uissance 
 them from moving. 
 
 The fear of death, or rather the 
 love of life began to revive in his bo- 
 som. 
 
 Alcibiades, as ivell as Plato, was 
 xmong the disciples of Socrates. 
 
 Lycurgus, like Solon, was a wise 
 Icgiblator. 
 
 Euripides, as much as Sophocles, 
 contributed to the glory of the Athe- 
 nians. 
 
 Riches, dignit'cs, honours, glory, 
 pleasure, every thing loses its cluirms 
 from the moment we possess it, be- 
 cause none of those things can fill the 
 heart of man. 
 
 began to rev I've se re- 
 veille r 
 
 among au nombre de 
 
 '•iue 
 
 on 
 
 none 
 
 rien 
 
 lii'jse things 
 
 tout cc la
 
 ( 287 ) 
 
 The gentle zephyrs which pre- 
 served, in that place, notwithstand- 
 ing the scorching heat of the sun, a 
 delightful coolness ; springs gliding, 
 with a sweet murmur, through mea- 
 dows strewed with amaranths and 
 
 violets; a thousand springing flowers ^P>''"g'f^2 
 
 carpets 
 
 preserved entrctenir 
 scorching heat ardeut 
 
 strewed with semer de 
 
 naissant 
 
 tapis 
 
 tufted toufFu 
 
 golden (of gold) 
 renewed (which re- 
 news) se renouveller 
 every season (in) 
 
 yield, 
 prospect 
 
 allay 
 his ' 
 
 rcpandre 
 speftacle 
 
 arracher 4 
 the article 
 
 which enamelled evergreen carpets ; 
 a wood of those tufted trees that bear 
 golden apples, and the blossom of 
 which, renev/ed every season, yields 
 the sweetest of all perfumes ; the 
 M-arbling of birds, the continual pro- 
 speft of a fruitful country ; in a word, 
 nothing of what till then had made 
 him happy, could allay the senti- 
 ment of his grief. 
 
 We have said (page 53), that grammarians had 
 distinguished, among the substantives common, those 
 which they have called collcdive, on account of some 
 particular laws which some of these substantives follow 
 in the language, and in imitation of them, we have 
 foimed the two classes, viz. the colle^ives general^ 
 and the colledives partitive. 
 
 The collc6lives general have nothing to distin- 
 guish them from substantives common, w'ith regard 
 to the laws of agreement ; but the colle6lives partitive 
 apparendy break dirough those laws, in some in- 
 stances. Therefore, we shall give the following 
 
 Rule. The verb, which relates to a coUeilive 
 partitive, is put in the plur^il, when that partitive is 
 followed by the preposition cle and a plural ; but it is 
 put in the singular, either when die partitive is fol- 
 lowed by a regimen singular, or when it expresses a 
 determinate quantity, or, lastly, when it presents an 
 idea independent on the plural which follows it. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 La plupart des hommcs sont The greatest part of men are
 
 Hen provipts 
 jugemens, 
 
 dans 
 
 ( 288 
 
 hurt 
 
 ) 
 
 very hasty in their judg- 
 ments. 
 Many philosophers have beea 
 mistaken. 
 
 jBien des philosophes se stont 
 
 But we ought to say : 
 Une infinite de peupie est An immense number of peo 
 
 pie is come up, (flocked to- 
 gether). 
 
 One half of the soldiers has 
 perished. 
 
 The greatest number of the 
 troops has perished. 
 
 accourue, (regimen singu- 
 
 X.a moitie des soldats ^ petty 
 (determinate quantity), 
 
 Le plus grand nombre des 
 troupes a peri, (idea inde- 
 pendent on the plural), 
 
 Thus, then, we see that the substantives partitive, 
 la pliiparty une Infinite y unefouky un nombre, la plus 
 vrandepart'iey une sorte, Sec. and the words signifying , 
 quantity, such as pcu, beaucoup, assez, moins, plus, 
 trap, tanty combieny and que used for combieny followed 
 by a noun joined to them by the preposition de, have 
 not the least influence over the verb, and that, conse- 
 quently, it is not with them tliat the verb agrees, but 
 with the noun which follows them. 
 
 Observation. The words infinite an^ la plupart,. \ 
 iised by themselves, require the verb in the plural, as : 
 une infinite pensent, la plupart sont d'avis. Some 
 would extend this custom to peu and bcaucoup ; but it 
 is wrong : tliese partitives cannot, with any degree of 
 propriety, be used by themselves, unless the words by 
 which they would be followed, were it not for the 
 ellipsis, have been expressed before. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 Many persons experience that hu- 
 man'life is, every where, a state in 
 which much is to be endured, and 
 little to be enjoyed. 
 
 Many poets think that poetry is 
 the art of uniting pleasure with truth, 
 
 by calling imagination to the help of ^y °^ 
 
 reason. 
 
 Few persons are reflefting that 
 
 time 
 
 murk is (one has a 
 great deal of pains, 
 and little of real en- 
 joyments).
 
 ( a89 ) 
 
 time, like money, may be lost by un- 
 seasonable avarice. 
 
 So many years of familiarity were 
 chains of iron which linked me to 
 those men, who beset me every hour. 
 
 Hozv many 'Uiisen\tx\. have thought 
 that, to seclude one's self from the 
 world, was to pull out the teeth of 
 devouring animals, and to take away 
 from the wicked the use of his po- 
 niard, from calumny its poisons, and 
 from envy its serpents ! 
 
 A company of young Phoenicians of 
 an uncommon beauty, clad in fine linen 
 whiter than snow, danced a long 
 while the dances of their own coun- 
 try, then those of Egypt, and lastly, 
 those of Greece. 
 
 A troop of nymphs, crowned witii 
 
 flowers, whose lovely tresses flowed 
 over their shoulders and waved v.-ith 
 
 the wind, swam in shoals behind it. 
 
 At the time of the invasion of 
 Spain, by the Moors, an innumerable 
 multitude of people retired into the 
 Asturias, and there prociaimed Pela- 
 gius king. 
 
 A third part of the enemy remained 
 on the held c.f battle ; the rest sur- 
 rendered at discretion. 
 
 The innumerable crozud of carriages 
 which are to be seen in London dur- 
 ing winter, astonivhes foreigners. 
 
 The issue of the business which I 
 have mentioned cannot but interest 
 you. 
 
 C c 
 
 unseasonable hors de 
 piopos 
 
 familiarity habitude 
 linked lier 
 
 beset obseder 
 
 to seclude one's self se 
 
 retirer 
 
 pull out arracher a 
 
 to take aioay frombitr 
 
 company 
 clgd in 
 
 troupe 
 et vttu de 
 
 tresses 
 Jlozved 
 I'javed 
 
 cheveu 
 
 pendre 
 
 flotter 
 
 luith 
 
 s"Mam 
 
 shoa's 
 
 it (her car) 
 
 au gre de 
 
 nager 
 
 foule 
 
 Moors Maure 
 
 retired se retirer 
 
 Asturias Asturies 
 
 Pclagius Pelage 
 
 a third part un tiers 
 enemy pi. 
 
 surrendered se rendre 
 
 crowd quantitc 
 
 ".L'hich are (aftive voice 
 
 on) 
 
 issue 
 business 
 
 suite 
 plura!
 
 ( 290 ) 
 
 Observation. Some of the modern gramma- 
 marians will not admit of the two hst exceptions to 
 this rule, because in both these instances they will 
 have us rather attend to logical, than to gram- 
 matical agreement. •' Suppose," bay they, " a per- 
 son coming to tell us, that une vingtame dc soldats s'est 
 noyee eti passant une riviere, the grammatical agree- 
 ment is certainly perfe6l ; but is the logical agreement 
 equally so ? they, no doubt, mean to mtorni us, that 
 tvjcnty soldiers have been drowned, but is it to une 
 'vlngtalne that our mind recurs ? or is it not rather to 
 dcs soldats, to the number of vlngt ? It must be 
 confessed, that the principal idea is soldats, and seve- 
 ral soldats : jt is therefore the })lural : then, if they 
 sliould ask, what is the precise number of soldats, the 
 answer is, vlngt soldats. Now, whether it be vlngt, 
 or une vingtame, it is always to several tliat our mind 
 recurs ; it is this idea, therefore, that commands 
 the verb to assume the form of the plural. The 
 \vord vlngtalne, and even vlngt, are only accessory, 
 and it is les soldats and plusleurs soldats that we hold 
 as the principal objedl. 1'he agreement here is not 
 in the words, but in the ideas." Theretore, they 
 will have us say, la moitle dc ses forces litl restent en- 
 core; toute sorte de fruits ne sont pas egalemeyU bon^ 
 a manger; la plus grande partle des abricots sont sains 
 cette annce ; tnals II faut les cholsir ; car loie partle de 
 ee fruit est dangcrcux. The^e arguments have great 
 force ; but usage seems tu authorize the two excep- 
 tions. 
 
 As for general coUcftivcs, they never govern a 
 plural, unless thcv themselves have the iorm ot the 
 plural; very different from the English general col- 
 ledlives, which, although in the singular Tuimber, yet, 
 sometimes, require the verb to be in the plural: iJie 
 people rejoice In that zvJilch should give them sorrozv : 
 in the days of youth, the multitude eagerly pursue plea- 
 sure as their chief good. \V''e say sometimes, because 
 regard must be hud to the idea suggested m the mind 
 by the general colle6livc, as the same word may, at 
 one time, rcc^uirc the singular, and at another, the
 
 ( 291 ; 
 
 plnral. The committee were divided hi their senti" 
 merits : the coiftmittee was very full, and \\.s judgment 
 became a lazv. This " distiniSlion is never maJe in 
 French, 
 
 PLACE OF THE SUBJECT WITH REGARD TO 
 THE VERB. 
 
 We have scert that the subjeft of a verb is either 
 a noun or a pronoun, and that this subje6t ought al- 
 ways to be expressed in French. It now only re- 
 mains to know its place relatively to the verb. 
 
 Rule. The sul'je6l, whether noun or pronoun, 
 is generally placed before the verb. 
 
 EM AMPLES, 
 L'aiTibirion effre'nee <^e r^ufJ- The inordinate ambition of a 
 
 few men has, in all ages^ 
 been the true cause of the 
 revolutions of empires. 
 When we swim in abund- 
 ance, we seldom think cf 
 the miseries of others. 
 
 ijues hommes a, dayis tons les 
 temps, ete la 'urdie cause 
 des revolutioris des etats, 
 Quand nous nageons dans I'a- 
 bondance, il est bien rare 
 que nous nous occupion^ dei 
 mdiix d'autrui, 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 Youth is full of presumption ; it fullof pre sumption ^ri 
 
 hopes every thing from its own self : 
 although frail, it thinks itself all-suf- 
 ficient, and that ii has nothing to 
 fear. 
 
 Commerce is like certain springs; springs 
 if j^^a attempt to divert their course, ^'^^"^P^ 
 
 somptueux 
 hopes se promettre 
 itself all-sufficient 
 
 pouvoir tout 
 
 that it has 
 
 inf-1 
 
 source 
 vouioir 
 
 faire tarir 
 
 suffirtf 
 
 itttiiibrtge 
 
 ea 
 
 ycu dry them up^ dry up 
 
 It is enough that falsehood is false- '' " enoiigh 
 
 hood, to be unworthy of a man who • ^ 
 
 ■' -in 
 
 speaks m the presence of God, and 
 
 who owes every thing to truth. 
 
 The ambition and avarice of man 
 are the stjurces of his unhappiness. 
 
 They punished, in Crete, tiiree pUnished ind'-C 
 
 vices which have remained unpunish- ■^'^'^^ rerrtcxfrtcS ctte 
 ed in all other nations : ingratitude, "^ *" 
 
 disbimulation and avarice. 
 
 C C 2
 
 ( 292 ) 
 
 Like a lion of Numidia, stung by lilc scinblable ^ 
 
 itung //,&:c.(that cruel 
 cruel hunger, and rushing upon a flock hunger stings) de- 
 
 vorer 
 of feeble sheep ; he tearb, ht tlaysj ru.'/iing (which rushes 
 
 upon) entrer dans 
 Af STvims in blood. tca^s dechiier 
 
 slays e'gorger 
 
 Exceptions, i"^. In interrogative sentences, 
 the prononn subjecS^ is always placet! after the verb, 
 and the noun subjed: is placed after the verb, only 
 when it is by itself ; but it keeps its place before the 
 'veib, wiien a corresponding pronoun is to serve to 
 mark the interrogation. 
 
 EX.AMPLES. 
 
 Que dit-on ' irai-je a la canipagnc? viendrez-vous ? que 
 pense ce profond physicien ? But we ought to say : les 
 hommcs se rendent-ils toujour s a la force dt la raison? 
 
 This construdlion being so different from the En- 
 glish, especially in the last example, Do men always 
 yield to the force of reason P great attention ought to be 
 paid to it by the learner. 
 
 Observation. In Interrogative sentences, when 
 the verb which precedes il, elle, on, ends with a 
 vowel, we put the letter t between that verb and the 
 pronoun, as : arrive-t-il P vlendra-t-elle ? aime-t~ 
 on les vauriens P When Je is after the verb, ending 
 ■with e mute, we change that e mute into e acute, as : 
 aime-je ? puisse-jc P But, as usage does not always 
 admit 7V after the verb, we must take another turn, 
 iind say, in interrogating : esi-ce que je cours P est-ce 
 que je dors ? 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 Have you forgotten all that Provi- 
 dence has done for you r how /lave 
 
 ^OK escaped the shafts of your ene- escaped e'chapperi 
 mies ? how have you been preserved shafts trait 
 
 from the dangers which surrounded P^^^^rved garant.r 
 „ ., ,, , ,,- , on all ■sides de routes 
 
 you on all sides ? couldyou oeso blind pans 
 
 as not to acknowledge and adore the so as assez pour
 
 saved 
 
 conserve t 
 
 de-joting consacrer 
 
 deceive 
 
 experience 
 tiir'tftb 
 
 ^garer 
 
 eprouver 
 tourner en 
 
 because (it is) 
 
 ( 293 ) 
 
 all-powerful hand that has miracu- 
 lously saved you ? 
 
 What luill posterity say of you, 
 if, instead of devoting to the happi- 
 ifes's" of mankind, the great talents 
 which you have received from nature, 
 yotnmake use of them only to deceive 
 atf'd" corrupt them ? 
 
 Donot the misfortunes which we 
 
 experience often /ar« to prosperities? 
 Why are the "work's of nature so- 
 
 perfeft ? Because each work is a 
 
 whole, and that she labours ufwn aa- 
 
 eternal plan, fromwhkhit never de- 
 viates. Why, on the contrary, are 
 
 the produBions of man so imperfcft ? 
 
 It is because the human mind being being unable ne pou- 
 
 unable to create any thing, and inca- . , , ^'''^ 
 
 , , , , . , . incapable (being not 
 
 pable or embracmg the universe at a ' ^ abUV 
 
 single glance, can produce, only afttr at de 
 
 having been fecundated by experi- g^'^^ce vue 
 
 , ,■ ■ can * 
 
 ence and.mtditatiun. fecundated feconde 
 
 2?. In the incidental sentence which expresses that 
 we are quoting somebody 's^ words, as : je meurs inno- 
 cent, a dit Louis XVI. Ldie innocent, sai<l Louis XVI. 
 Je le vcux bteHy dit-iU I am. very willing, said he. 
 
 3". With an impersonal verb, and these words, 
 tel^ a'lnsi. II at arrive un grand malheur, (there has 
 happened) a great misfortune h:is happened. Tel 
 etoit V acharnement du soldtit\ qite, &c. such was rhe 
 eager fury of the solcier, that, ckc. Ainsi finit cttte 
 sanglatite tragtdis, thus ended that bloodv tragedy. 
 
 4=^. When the subje£t is used to express a wi.-h, or 
 for quand meme and a condition d, as: puissent tous 
 les peuples se convaincre de cette ver'ite! maV all na- 
 trons be convinced of diis truth ! dusse-je y petir,j''irai^ 
 •were.l to perish there, I wdl go. 
 C c 3
 
 { 294 ) 
 
 EXERCISE, 
 
 True glory, said Its, is not out of 
 
 humanity : whoever prefers his own 
 
 glory to the feelings of humanity, is 
 
 a monster of pride, and not a man. 
 
 There have happened,' for these 
 
 ten years, sa many events, out of all 
 
 pfobability, that posterity will find it 
 
 very difficult to credit them. 
 
 Suchw&s the incorritptible Phocion, 
 who answered to the deputies of 
 Alexander, who were telling him 
 that this powerful monarch loved him 
 as the only honest man ; well, then, 
 let him allow me to be and appear so- 
 Thus ended, by the humiliation of 
 Athens, that dreadful ivur of rwenty- 
 seven years, to which ambition gue 
 rise, which hatred made attrocious, 
 and which was as fatal to the Greeks, 
 as their ancient corfederaiion had 
 proved advantageous to them. 
 
 Grant the gods that you may never 
 experence such misfortunes ! 
 
 M^y you, O wise old man ! in a 
 rcp:>se interrupted by sweet occupa- 
 tions, enjoy the past, lay hild of tli€ 
 present, and charm your latter days 
 with the hope of eternal felicity ! 
 
 What is not thf power of the gods ! 
 tuere you ai the bottom of the abyss? 
 the power of Jupiter could draw you 
 from it j -were^ou ia Olympus, seciug 
 
 sc trouvcr 
 
 feelings seatiment 
 
 there have happened 
 il se passer- 
 for depuip, 
 
 these * 
 
 probability vraisem- 
 blance 
 •will find -very difficult 
 avoir hien de la peine 
 to credit ajouter foi 
 the ce 
 
 loved chtitir 
 
 honest man homme de 
 bien 
 ".oell ho ! 
 
 then (done to be placed 
 after allow) 
 to be so ftre tel 
 
 and to appear joparoi- 
 tre le 
 ended (was terminat- 
 ed) 
 to '■'■■ 
 
 gave rise faire n alt re 
 made rcndrc 
 
 had proved ttre 
 
 grant faire 
 
 experience eprouvor de 
 
 subj-1 
 
 lay hold'oji 
 
 "With 
 
 pozoer 
 ivere ysu 
 could 
 
 saisir 
 At 
 
 puissance 
 pouvoir
 
 C 295 ) 
 
 the stars under your feet, Jupiter stars astres 
 
 couUl plunge you to the bottom of the 
 
 abyss, or preci-pitate you into the 
 
 flames of bUck Tartarus.. 
 
 50. When the subject is followed by several words- 
 which are dependent upon it. This exception is 
 strictly to be attended to, when the words which de« 
 pend on the subject form an incidental proposition, 
 which, by its length, might make us lose sight of the 
 relation of the verb to the subject, as : Aj, au milieu 
 des prairies emaillees de Jlcurs, scrpentent mille divers 
 ruisieau.x^ qui diitribuent par -tout une saupure et limpide^ 
 there, through meadows enamelled wirh flowers, 
 glide a thousand various rivulets^ distributing evei-y- 
 where a pure limpid water. Clearness here requires 
 that the subject should be so displaced. 
 
 Sometimes, however, this displacing of" the subject 
 is only the effect of taste. This happens, when we 
 wish to avoid an unharmorrious fall, as : sacrifice oil 
 coula le sang de milk viclimes ; or, when in the mid- 
 dle of a speech, an orator wishes to rouse the atten- 
 tion of his hearers by a bold and unexpected turn, as : 
 deja pour rhonneur de la France^ etoit entre dans Pad^ 
 ministration dcs affaires, un homme plus grand par son 
 esprit et par ses vcrtus que par ses dignitJs, already, 
 for the honour of Prance, had come into a<lministra- 
 tion, a man greater by his understanding and virtues,, 
 than by liis dignities. 
 
 GOVERNMENT OF VERBS. 
 
 We have already observed, that the regimen of a 
 verb, when it is a noun, is generally placed after the 
 verb : hut to thii rule we have one exception, beside 
 those which we shall mention in the next chapter. 
 
 Exception. In an interrogative sentence, the 
 regimen is placed before the verb, when it is joined to 
 an absolute pronoun, as : quel objet voycz-vous? what 
 object do you see ? a quelle science voiis appliqucz.^ 
 vous f to what science do you apply yourself ? de quelle 
 affaire vous occupez-vous ? about what business are 
 you employed ?
 
 ( 2^6 y 
 
 Observation.. In. Fi^ench, a* verb? can' neveif ; 
 have two meanings direct ; therefore,, when a verb- 
 has two regimens, one of them must necessarily be- 
 preceded by the words a or de. Donfiez ce livre a 
 VQtrefrere, give that book to your brother. On a 
 accuse Ciccron d^ imprudence et de foiblesse, they have 
 accused Cicero of imprudence and. weakness. Thus,, 
 this line of Racine is incorrect : 
 
 Ne v<3us informez pas ce que je deviendrai.. 
 
 It ought to be de ce que. 
 
 According to the natural chain of ideas,- it should 
 seem, that tlie object ought to be placed before the end; 
 nevertheless, as the clearness of the sentence does not! 
 allow it in all cases,, we are to observe this 
 
 R.Ui.E.. When a verb has two regimens, the 
 shorter is generally placed first; but, ir they be o£ 
 equal length, the regimen direct ought to be placed, 
 before the indirect. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Les hypocrites s''eiudieni a Hypocrites make it their stu- 
 parar le vice des dthors de dy to ■ adorn vice with the 
 
 Iwdertu^ outside of virtue. 
 
 Les hypocrites s'etudient. a, Hypocrites make it their stu-- 
 purer des dehors de la vet- dy to adorn, with the out- 
 
 tu les "vices les plies konleux side of virtue, the most 
 
 et lespltis decries-^ shameful and most odious 
 
 vices. 
 
 U ambition, sactifie le present Ambdtion sacrifices the pre-- 
 a I' anienir ; mais la ijolupte sent to the future, but vo- 
 iacrifie Vz-senw an present,. luptuousness sacrifices the 
 
 future to rke present. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 Famous examples teach us, that G<d teach apprendre 
 
 has hurled, down from their thrones, hurled down renverser 
 princes who have contemned his laws.: 
 he reduced to the condition of beast Sf 
 
 the haughty Nebuchadnezzar,, ivho fmught'^ superbe 
 
 ivanted to usurp di'vine honours. wanted vouloir 
 
 Miserable ■ he man who feeds his feeds repaitre 
 
 mind with chimeras ! ^^^^^^^ ^^^^j^ j^^^, 
 
 Our interest should prompt us to prompt p9*ter
 
 ( 297 ) 
 
 prefer virtue to "j'lce, ivisdom to "vo- 
 lupiuousnt'ss, and modeity to "vaniij. 
 
 We have alrer.dy seen '(page 251) that a noun may 
 be under the government oi two adjectives, provided 
 those adjectives do not require different regimens. 
 This rule, which is of great importance in the French 
 language, extends to verbs and prepositions. Tliat 
 foreigners, who are accustomed to a different con- 
 struction, should fail in it, is not to be wondered at, 
 since some French authors of great estimation have 
 fallen into that error. 
 
 Rule. A noun maybe governed at once by two 
 verbs, provided those verbs do not require different re- 
 gimens. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 On doit aimer &" respecter les We ought to love and respe£l 
 
 rois, kings. 
 
 Ce general attaqua fef prit la That general attacked and 
 
 viile, took the city. 
 
 But we must not say : cet officier attaqua (sf se yen- 
 dit tnaitre de la v'llle, that officer attacked and made 
 himself master of the city. We ought to give a dif- 
 ferent turn to the sentence, by placing the noun after 
 the first verb, and en before the second, as : cet officier 
 attaqua la ville is" i'en rendh maitre, that officer at- 
 tacked the city and made himself master of it. 
 
 This, in fadl, is stridtly conformable to the genius 
 of the English language. For, although writers of 
 great repute will make one noun be governed by two 
 verbs of different regimens, yet their practice, in this 
 instance, is contrary to taste and elegance. To say ; 
 he laughs at, and cares not for, the criticisms of the ig^ 
 noranty is a turn very common, but very inelegant* 
 
 EXERCISE.. 
 Luxury is like a torrent, which 
 carries away and overiurm tvery carries atvay inXTzXntt 
 . ' overturns rcnverser 
 
 thing jt meets. ^.^.y, ^^;„^ tout ce que 
 
 Nothing can resist the aflion of can * 
 
 time : in the long run, it undermines, '" ^^' ^°"S run a la 
 
 ° "■ ' longue 
 
 altfn or destroys every thing.. undermines miner
 
 ( 298 ) . 
 
 At Sparta, pulilic education had 
 Two objef^s : the first, to harden the hardeti endurcir 
 
 bodies by fatigue ; the second, to --' 
 excite and noiiriih in the minds the 
 love of the country, and the enthu- 
 siasm of great things. ' 
 
 About the place of the personal pronoun, when; 
 regimen, see what has been said (page 249]. 
 
 OF THE USE, PROPER, OR ACCIDENTAL, OF' 
 MOODS AND TENSES. 
 
 Indicative. 
 
 The present is used to express an a61:ual state, as r 
 Je suis ici, 1 am here : an invariable state, as : Dieu 
 est de route eternite, God is of all eternity : a future 
 near at hand, as : ii est demain fetc^ to-morrow is a 
 holiday: or even a preterit, when we mean to make 
 a sort of a representative pifture of what would have 
 been a mere narration. Thus, we find in Racme : 
 yai vu votre malheureux fils traine par ses chevauxy. 
 I have seen your unhappy son drawn by his horses ; 
 but, suddenly, passing from the preterit to the present,^, 
 he adds : it veut les rappeller, (^ sa voix les effraiey. 
 he wishes to recall them, and liis voice frightens 
 them. 
 
 EXERCISE.. 
 
 He is in his chamber, where he is 
 felaxing his mind from the fatigue of " relaxing 
 business, by some instruftive and 
 agreeable reading. reading le6hi're 
 
 Truth, etCi'nal. by its nature, is im- , , 
 
 imitable as God himself. immutable immuable 
 
 I never let a day pan without de- ^et * 
 
 . . , ,. , devoting consacrec 
 
 Votmg .in hour or two m reading the - * • 
 
 ancients. 
 
 Is it this week that the new piece 
 
 "'""°"'^'' comes cuf on donned 
 
 dela
 
 ( 299 ) 
 
 The armies were Insight : nothing sight presence ind-2 
 
 nothing was, &:c. oa 
 \vas heard on all sides but dreadful ne que ind-'J 
 
 iAe engagement began 
 cries : the engagement began. Im- on en venir aux 
 
 mains ind-3 
 mediately a cloud of arrows darkens cloud nuee 
 
 arroivs trait 
 
 the air and coiiers the combatants ; darkens obscurcir 
 
 nothing is, &:c. on ne 
 nothing is heard but the doleful cries plus que 
 
 doleful plaintif 
 
 of the dying, or the clattering of the clattering bruit 
 
 conflict 
 arms of those who fell in the con- groans 
 
 beneath 
 flift; the earth pTOflwj bcEcatha heap heap 
 
 ri'vers 
 of dead bodies, and rivers of blood stream 
 
 there is nothing in, &c. 
 stream every where ; the) e is nothing ce etre dans 
 
 amas 
 acharne 
 
 melee 
 
 gemif 
 
 sous 
 
 monceau 
 
 ruisseau 
 
 coulcr 
 
 throng 
 in this confused throng of men enra- enraged 
 
 ged against one another, butslaughtfir, slaughter massacre 
 despair, revenge and brutal fury. 
 
 The imperfeil is usetl, i°. To denote an adlion 
 ofren repeaced at a time v.'hich is past, as : qiiand}'' cto'is 
 a Paris, y allots souvent aux Champs E/isees, when 1 was 
 at Paris, 1 often went to tlie Elysian Fields. 2°. For 
 a past which has no relation to the present, especially 
 in narrations, as : Rome etoit. d" abord gouvernie par 
 cics rots, Rome was at tirst governed by kings. 
 
 When I Tuas at- Paris, I ivent 
 •every morning to take a walk, in the take a walk s.e pro- 
 Champi Eitsets, or the Bois de Bou- 
 
 logne ; afterwards 1 cavte home, came home xtv[X.xzx z\\t7. 
 where I loas ^.vjj»till dinner, either soi 
 
 J. '. . J • ,1 zvas lu'.y s'occuper 
 
 m rea-nmo; or wntms;; and, in the . ,, , f^, , 
 
 ° &' ' re-adtng (by the verb) 
 
 evening, I generally loent to divert ^it^ert himsuf se de- 
 
 mvb.t:lf at the French Theatre or the lasser 
 
 " French Th, aire Qoxni- 
 
 ^P'-''^- d:c Fran<,oue
 
 bHttnfiy 
 
 papiilou 
 
 fiutLt-rtd 
 
 vokr 
 
 being able 
 
 pouvoir 
 
 eager after 
 
 avuie de 
 
 its image 
 
 en art. 
 
 
 image 
 
 hoiu 
 
 que 
 
 loitk so much bitterness 
 
 (^0 bitterly) 
 
 
 ( 300 ) 
 
 . When / tuas ia the flower of age, 
 like the light butterfly, I fluttered 
 from objeft to objeft, without being 
 able to fix myself to any thing : eager 
 after pleasure, I seiz.ed every thing 
 that presented its image ; alas ! how 
 far toas I then to foresee that I should 
 one day deplore with so much bitter- 
 ness the loss of those fine days ! 
 
 Shortly after Abraham, the know- 
 ledge of the true God, appeared yet 
 in Palestine and Egypt. Melchise- 
 dec, king of Salem, luas the pontif of 
 the most high 2 God ! Abimelcchi 
 king of Gerar, and his successor of 
 the same name, feared God, tiuore in 
 his name, and admired his power. 
 But in Moses' time, they adored 
 even the beasts and reptiles. All was 
 God, but God himself. 
 
 In French, the preterit definite liwi^ the preterit inde- 
 finite are not used indifferently one for the other. We 
 make use of the preterit definite, when speaking of a 
 time which is entirely past, and of which nothing is 
 left, as : je fis iin voyage a Bath le mois derfiier, I took 
 a journey to Bath last month ; j'ecrrjis hicr a Rome, 
 I wrote yesterday to Rome. That nothing of that 
 time may remain, there must he the interval of, at 
 least, one day. This is most in use in historical 
 style. 
 
 The preterit indefinite is used either for a past inde- 
 terminate, or for a past of which som(;thing still 
 remains, as : j\ii voyage en Italie, J have travelled 
 in Italy ; j^ni dejeunc ce matin a Londrcs isf dine a 
 Richmond, I (ha\e; breakfasted this morning in Lon- 
 don, and dined at Kiciimond. 
 
 The 
 
 they 
 
 ei>en 
 but 
 
 jurer 
 
 on 
 
 jusqu'S 
 cxcepte
 
 { 301 ) 
 
 The latter part of this rule is not observed in Eng- 
 lish. 
 
 Some writers, and persons that speak well, make use, 
 in many instances, of either the preterit definite or the 
 preterit indefinite, to express a time entirely past. 
 They say : j'ai ecrit, OY/^crivis h'ler ; ^ai he, or »V 
 J'us malade la icmahic dcrnlere. But, however general 
 this practice may be, it is better to give to these prete- 
 rits their true destination. 
 
 The preterit detimte is sometimes used instead of a 
 future near at hand, as : avez-vous bleniot jin'i F have 
 you soon done ? oui, j'ai fini dans le moment^ yes, I 
 have done'ln a moment. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 Amenophis concei'ved th€ des>ign 
 of making his son a conqueror. He 
 set about it after the manner of the 
 Egyptians, that is, with great ideas. 
 All the children, who were born on 
 the same day as Sesostris, ivere 
 ■lro2!ghi to court by order of the king: 
 he had them educated as his own 
 children, and with the same care as 
 Sesostris. When he luai grown up, 
 he got him to make his apprentice- 
 ship in a war against the Arabs : this 
 young prince learned there to bear 
 hunger and thirst, and subdued that 
 nation till then invincible. He after- 
 wards attacked Lybia and conquered 
 it. After these successes, he /s^rz-^ir./ 
 the projeft to subdue the whole world. 
 In consequence of this, he entered 
 Etiiiopia, which he made tributary. 
 He continued his viftories in Asia. 
 Jerusalem wai the first to feel the 
 
 Dd 
 
 making 
 set about it 
 
 after 
 ideas 
 on 
 
 faire de 
 s'y pren- 
 dre 
 
 pensee 
 
 brought amener 
 
 had educated faire 
 
 grovjn up grand 
 
 got to make faire faire 
 
 aprerdieeskip appren- 
 
 tiisagc 
 
 of this 
 
 entered 
 
 made 
 
 entrer dans 
 rendre
 
 since 
 as far as 
 
 depins 
 jusqu'a 
 
 Cappadocia Cappadoce 
 
 an '^- opportunity occa- 
 sion 
 master-pieces 
 
 scarce 
 
 chef- 
 d'cEuvre 
 rare 
 
 ( 302 ) 
 
 force of his arms ; the rash Rekoboam 
 could not resist him, and Sesostris 
 carried away the riches of Solomon. 
 He penetrattdiwio the Indies, farther 
 than Hercules and Bacchus, and far- 
 ther than Alexander has done since. 
 The Scythians obeyed him as far as 
 the Tanais ; Armenia and Cappado- 
 cia luere subjeft to him. In a word, 
 he extended his empire from the 
 Ganges to the Danube. 
 
 I have travelled this year in Italy, 
 xvhere I have had an opportunity of 
 seeing several master-pieces of anti- 
 quity, and where I have made a va- 
 luable colle£\ion of scarce medals. I 
 have there admired the. perfeftion to 
 which they have brought architefture, 
 painting and music ; but what has 
 pleased me most there, is the beauty 
 of the climate of Naples. 
 
 The two preterits anterior are made use of in the 
 same manner as the tv/o preceding preterits, but they 
 are always accompanied by a conjunction or an ad- 
 verb of time, as : je suis sorti des que j'ai eu dirie, I 
 went out as soon as I had dined ; feus fin't h'ler a 
 tn'idi, I had done yesterday at noon. 
 
 T\vtpluperfcn: denotes that a thing was done before 
 another, which was itself done at a time which is past, 
 as : j'avois soupe, quand 11 entrap I had supped, when 
 he came in. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 As soon as Qesar had crossed the 
 Rubicon, he had no longer to delibe- 
 rate; he was obliged to conquer or 
 to die. 
 
 As soon as the greit Sesostris had 
 had his ambition 2 satisfied, 1 by the 
 
 has pleased mc most 
 
 faire le plus de plai- 
 
 sir 
 
 crossed 
 
 passer 
 
 lo)?ger 
 
 ivas obliged 
 
 plus 
 devoir 
 
 to 
 
 •#
 
 jour entier 
 
 administer rendre 
 
 rffrahecl dtbsser 
 
 Ifj holding conferences 
 
 a s'eatretenir 
 
 gens 
 
 people 
 
 ( 303 ) 
 
 conquest of so many empires, he re- 
 turned into Egypt, where he devoted 
 
 the whole of the day to administer ^^^ zvhole of the da)f 
 an exaft justice to his people, and, in 
 the evening, he refreshed himself by 
 holding conferences with the learned, 
 cr by conversing with honest people. 
 
 Those who had contributed most to 
 his elevation on the throne of his an- 
 cestors, were those who laboured 
 with the most eagerness to precipi- 
 tate him from it. 
 
 I had only received, like most of 
 the grandees, an education, in which 
 I had imbibed nothing but sentiments 
 of pride and insensibility ; that is, 
 they had done every thing in their 
 power, to stiHe in me the happy and 
 beneficent dispositions which I had 
 received from nature. 
 
 eagerness 
 
 grandee 
 imbibed 
 
 acharne- 
 ment 
 
 grand 
 puiscr 
 
 they on 
 
 in their poiuer (that 
 was in their pow^) 
 poavclr 
 stifle etcuffcr 
 
 beneficent bienfi-isant 
 
 Foreigners find the use of these different preterits 
 attcmled with great difBculty, but this is owing to tlieir 
 n(jt being sufficiently acquainted with the nature of the 
 relation wliich they express. 
 
 'I'he impcrfcd denotes a time which is past, though 
 present with regard to another, as : jc soupo'n quand 
 il entra, I was supping when he came in. 
 
 The preterit definite denotes a tune in which an ac- 
 tion was passing, but a time of which nothing is left, 
 as : je dhiai liter a Uv'is heurcs, I dined yesterday at 
 tllree o'clock. 
 
 'The preterit indcHnite denotes a time in which an 
 action was passing, but a time which still continues, 
 as : yci dine aujourd'hui a trois hewes, I have dined 
 to-day at three o'clock. 
 
 The preterit anterior definite denotes a time in 
 which a thing was done, but a time of which nothing 
 Dd2
 
 ( 304 ) 
 
 is left, as : feus dine hur a quaire heuyes, I had ciined 
 yesterday at four o'clock. 
 
 The preterit anterior indefinite denotes a time in 
 which a tiling was done, but a lime of which some- 
 thing is still left^ as : fai eu dine aujourd'hui a quatre 
 heiircs, I (have) had dined to-day at tour o'clock. 
 
 The ^/;i!j!>fr/'<'^'? denotes a time anterior to another 
 time, which is itself anterior to the present, as \ favois 
 dine, quandil cntra, I iiad dined when he came in. 
 
 We read in Marmontel : 
 
 Celicour, a Pogc de Celicour, at the age of 
 quin'ze ans, avoit ete dans fifteen, had been in the 
 ie monde ce qu'on appetle world what is called a lit- 
 un petit prodigc. tie prodigy. 
 
 The author employs the form of tlie pltiperfecf, 
 because he speaks of a period of time anterior to all 
 those which he is going to mention, and which are 
 themselves anterior to the time in which he is relating 
 the stoiy. 
 
 II faisolt des vers les He composed the most 
 ^lus galans du monde; U agreeable love-verses inia- 
 rt^y avoit pas dans le voi' ginable ; there vjas not a 
 sinage une joUe femme pretty woman in the 
 qti'il n''eut celebree : c^ito'it neighbourhood that he 
 dammage de laisser tant de had not celebrated : it was 
 talens enfouis dans une pe- pity to let so many talent§ 
 tite ville\ Paris dcvoit en be buried in a little town ; 
 rire le theatre. Paris was die tlieatre that 
 
 ought to exhibit them. 
 
 Here the author makes use of the imperfect, because 
 he speaks of a period of time which was present with 
 regard to that which he has already mentioned: he 
 expresses the actual state ot Celicour at that period. 
 
 Et I'an fit si kien, que And tiiey contrived 
 son pt-rs s£ resolut de /'y matters so, that his father 
 (nvover. determined to send him 
 
 thither. 
 
 Now, the author passes to the preterit definite, be - 
 cause he is uo lotiger speaking of what Celicoui" was
 
 ( 305 ) 
 
 med to do, but of what he did at a time past, and ot 
 which nothing is left. 
 
 Ce pi-re etoit tin honncte This father ivas a good 
 /lomme, qui -dnnok l^cspr/t sort ot a man, who was 
 sans en avoir, Iff qui ad- fondof wit, without having 
 miroit, sans savoir pQur- any, and admired, with- 
 quoi, tout ce qui venoit de out knowing why, every 
 la capitale. //avoit me me thing that came from the 
 dcs relations littcraires, i^ metropoHs. Nay, heaven 
 du nombre de ses corres • had some literary con- 
 pondans etoit un connois- nexions, and among his 
 icur nomme Air. de Fintac. correspondents was a con- 
 noisseur of die name of 
 Fintac. 
 
 Here again, the author resumes the form of the im- 
 perfect, because he is now speaking of the habitual 
 state of Celicour's father in his litde town, and because 
 the author in this passage, merely relates what that 
 father was doing at a time past, which has no kind of 
 relation to the present. 
 
 Ce fut principalement a- It vjas particularly to- 
 lui que Cclicour fut recom- him that Celicour w^as 
 mandL rcciommcnded. 
 
 The form of the preterit definite is now resumed, 
 because this is an action passed at a time of which 
 nottring is left, &c. Would foreigners take the trou- 
 ble thus to decompound the plirases, we make no doubt 
 that tliey would soon get into the habit of using our 
 preterits according to their true meaning. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 God, who had created his angels in have their kappitiess 
 
 holiness, ivoidd have their happiness f dcpetid (that their 
 
 J , , , . , happiness) depen- 
 
 to depend upon them: they might ^ " dre sabi-2> 
 
 insure their felicity by giving them- might pouvoic 
 selves willingly to their creator ; but 
 
 Ihey delighted in themselves, and not delighted in sc i:Iaire 
 
 in God : immediately those spirits of en 
 
 light /^^-ra;??^ spirits of darkness. oT light 1 ;mineu:< 
 
 There is a letter whicn Philocles then 's •■■■'■ 
 
 Dd3 ' ' '
 
 about 
 
 Carpaihiis 
 
 Carpathie 
 
 to be 
 
 *de 
 
 they 
 
 on 
 
 ( 30^ > 
 
 has •wi'itten to a friend of his, about 
 iys projeft of making himself king 
 ofCarpathus. 1 perused thdX. letter, 
 and it seemed to me to be the hand of 
 Philocles. They had perfeftly imi- 
 tated his writing. This letter threzu 
 jne into a strange surprise : I ii'as 
 reading it again and again, and could 
 B.ot persuade myself that itwas writ- 
 ten by Philocles, as I recalled to my 
 mind the affecting nrarks which he 
 fiad given me of his disinterestedncbs 
 and integrity. 
 
 Those who hadj>rofessedt\iC great- 
 est zeal for the state and my person 
 did not think themselves obliged to, 
 undeceive rac^ after so terrible an 
 example. I myself was afraid lest 
 iruth should breakthrough the cloud, 
 j«id reach me in spite of all my flat- 
 terers. 1 felt within myself that it 
 \¥ould have raised in me a bitter re- 
 morse. My effeminacy, and the do- 
 minion which a treacherous minister 
 had gained over me, threiu me into 
 a kind of despair of ever recovering 
 my liberty. 
 
 Grammarians have also distinguished two preterits, 
 tvhich they have called siipercompound : those arc : 
 j'eus en dine, J'avois eu dine. But these tenjies are 
 very seldom used, since it sometimes happens that the 
 first presents the saine meaning as the preterit anterior 
 definite, and the second the same as the pluperfect. 
 
 The difference between the two future tenses is, that 
 tine period of time expressed by the future absolute, 
 may or may not be determined, as : firai, or J'irai 
 denwin a la campagnc, •\vhile, in tlic future anterior, 
 
 again and again san* 
 
 cesse 
 
 •written by dc. 
 
 as I reca'lled(yec2i\Vin^) 
 
 integrity bonne foi 
 had preftssed montrer 
 
 tliink not themse Ives 
 
 obliged to se cniirc 
 
 dispense de 
 
 nvas afraid lest crain- 
 
 dre que 
 
 breakthrough percer 
 
 subj-2 
 
 reach parvenir jusqu'a, 
 
 in spite of malgre 
 
 raised in causer a 
 
 effeminacy mollesse 
 
 dominion 
 
 treacherous 
 
 gained 
 
 threw 
 
 rcco'vering 
 
 ascendant 
 pertide 
 prendre 
 plunger 
 
 rentrer en
 
 ( SOT ) 
 
 the time is necessarily determined',. 2i&'. f aural fim't 
 quand voiis arrive rez.. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 1 s kail s/wrt!y g-o into the country, I shall shortly go ne 
 
 pas tarder a aller 
 where I intend simpling,. in order to 
 
 simpling herboriser 
 
 make myself perfect 
 
 St perfcftionner 
 
 botany botanique 
 
 eclorre 
 
 insensi- 
 
 blement 
 
 riant 
 
 make myself perfeft in the know- 
 
 Isdge of botany.. 
 
 Remember that youth is but a flow- 
 er which ivill ke dried up almost as 
 soon as open. Thou iviltsee thyself op^t 
 gradually changed. The lively gra- * -^ 
 
 ces, the sweet pleasures, strength, lively 
 health and joy, luill -janish like a fine 
 dream ; nothing but the sad remem- 
 brance of them «'/// be left t\ieQ. 
 
 I shall, next year, take a journey ^'^'^ 
 into Greece, and I am preparing my- 
 self to it by reading that of the young r^au/xg 
 Anacharsis. 
 
 When i ha-vs done reading the ;,^^^ ^^^,^ achever de 
 divine writings of Homer and Virgil, 
 and my mind has i7Kbi bed th^ilr beau- 
 ties, I shall read Statius, Lucan, 
 Milton, Ariosto, Tasso,. Camoens^and 
 Voltaire. 
 
 nolhing will be lefi 
 
 il en rester 
 
 faire. 
 
 lefture de 
 
 inbibed se penetrer dc 
 
 eONDITlONAL. 
 
 Tliere arc two different ways of expressing the con- 
 ditional past, and this difterence ought to be properly at- 
 tended to. The first denotes in a more precise manner 
 the period of time in which an a6lion would have been- 
 undertaken, and the second that in which it would 
 have been completed, y^auroisfait, means, I ivould 
 have set myself about doingy and femse faity means, 
 the thing would be done. 
 
 We make use of the conditional : 
 
 i?. To express a wish, a^; je seroJs, or, faurots
 
 ( 3o8 ) 
 
 ete conteytt de reussir da?is cette affaire, I should like, 
 or, I should have liked to have succeeded in that 
 business. 
 
 2°. With si, if, whether, which expresses a doubt, 
 as : dcmandc'z.-hii s'il seroit vcnu avec nous, suppose 
 qu'il n'eut pas eu affaire, ask him Vs'hether he would 
 have come widi us, had he not been busy^ 
 
 3". Before, or after the imperfedl, or pluperfedl of 
 the indicative, as : nous nous epargnerions bien des 
 peines, si nous savions moderer nos desirs, we would 
 save ourselves a deal of trouble, did we know how to- 
 moderate our desires. Fous auriez cte plus heurcux, si 
 vous avie% suivi mes conseils, you would have been 
 more happy, if you had followed my advice. 
 
 40. With quand, used instead of si, or quoique ; but 
 then, the verbs must be in the same conditional, as : 
 quand V avare possederoit tout V or du monde, il ne 
 seroit pas encore content, were the miser to possess 
 all the gold in the word, still he would not be 
 satisfied. 
 
 5*. Lastly, f()r various tenses of the indicative, as: 
 croiriez-vous votre fils ingrat P could you think your 
 son ungrateful ? which means : croyez-vaus, &c. 
 rauriez-vous soup^onne dhin tel vice ? could you have 
 suspe6led him of such a vice ? whicli means : Favez- 
 1/ous, &CC. pourquoi violeroit-il un des devoirs les plus. 
 saints P whv should he violate one of the most sacred 
 duties? which means: pourquoiviolera-t-il, Sec 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 A dupe to my imagination, I should a * 
 
 have been lost, but for you, in my ^^ , , 
 
 lost s egarer 
 
 search after truth. 
 
 But for your counsels, I should have but for sans 
 
 faded in this undertaking. f'"''"^ "^'^"^"^ 
 
 I should be glad to see you united, 
 
 happy and comfortable. comfortable tranquille 
 
 Enquire whether he would ha-ve '"1'"''^ s'informer 
 ^ . . "whether si 
 
 f0«5f«/<f^ to those conditions, m case thought himself se 
 
 he should huve thought hi.T.3elf able croirc
 
 ^ 309 > 
 
 to f'ulntthem. 
 
 What wcvr }!oi the felicity of 
 man, if he always sought his happi- 
 ness in himself. 
 
 If we gave to infancy none but just 
 and clear notions, i/itre iL-oidd be a 
 much less considerable number o£ 
 fahe wits in the world. 
 
 Had Alexander conquered the 
 v.holc world, ambition icould ii'J 
 have been satisfied : he -would still 
 have found\i\rXK%f:M confined in it. 
 
 Coiddyou belie-ve hira vain enough 
 to aspire to that high degree of 
 honour r 
 
 Cotdd you ever lia-ve thought' hitn 
 capable of deserting the good cause, 
 to go and side with the rebels ? 
 
 Would you renounce being useful 
 to the present generation, because 
 envy fastens on you ? 
 
 (when Alexander 
 would have con=^ 
 fjuered) 
 
 confirud trop a I'etroir 
 
 deserting sbandbnncr 
 to go and side se ran- 
 ger sousles drapeauxde 
 renounce renoncer a 
 fastens s'attacher 
 
 on you a vos pas 
 
 OBSERVATION ON THE USE OF THE CONDI- 
 TIONAL AND FUTURE.. 
 
 Foreigners are very apt to use the future or the con- 
 ditional after ji, when meaning j;<'^/)wl que. They say; 
 y ira'i demain a la campagney s'iL tera. beau, I shall go 
 to -morrow into the country, if it be fine weather; vous 
 aitrlez vu le roi, si vous seriez vcnu, you would have 
 seen the king if you had come. The impropriety of 
 this construction will be obviated by the following 
 
 Rule. When a verb is preceded by si, meaning 
 suppose que, we use the present, inscead of tlie future 
 absolute ; the preterit indefinite, instead of the future 
 anterior ; the imperfect instead of the conditional pre- 
 sent, and the pluperfect instead of the conditional, 
 past.
 
 ( 3^^ ) 
 
 y^irai demain a la eampagne 
 s'il fait beau, 
 
 II aura eu V a'vantage, s'il a 
 suivi nos conseils, 
 
 ye serois content, si je 'Vot<s 
 
 voyois applique, 
 y'aurois etc content, si je 'vous 
 
 avois vu applique. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 I shall go to-morrow into the 
 country, if it be fine wea- 
 ther. 
 
 He will have had the advan- 
 tage, if he have followed 
 your advice, 
 
 I should be pleased, if I saw 
 you applying to study. 
 
 I should have been pleased, if 
 I had seen you intent oa 
 your studies. 
 
 Observation. This rule obtains not, either 
 when s'l implies doubt, uncertainty, as : je ne sais s'il 
 •uicndra, or with the second conditional past, as : 
 vous ni'eussiez trouve si vousfussiiz venu ce matin. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 A young man who is just entering is just entering debu- 
 
 the career of letters, will conciliate . .^"^ 
 
 career carnere 
 
 //4^ benevolence of the public, if he luill conciliate ■s.'-ixnxtv 
 consider his first successes only as an consider regarder 
 
 encouragement to do better. 
 
 That absurd criticism ivill fiave 
 
 cw:^5^(^ only fools or evil-minded pco- fools sol 
 
 evil-minded people- 
 pie, if one have observed the spirit 
 
 that pervades the whole, and the 
 manner in which it is written. 
 
 Life ivould he attended with many 
 more sweets and charms, if men, in- 
 stead of tearing one another to pieces, 
 did but form a society of brethren. 
 
 The Athenians ivculd have found 
 in the young Alcibiades the only man 
 capable of insuring their superiority 
 in Greece, had not that vain thought- 
 less people ybrr(?^him through an un- 
 just, or at least, imprudent condem- 
 
 mechant 
 observed fairc atten- 
 tion 
 pervades the ivhoie. 
 regner d'un bout a 
 I'autre 
 attended with avoir 
 
 tearing one another /«- 
 
 pieces s'entre-dc'ehi- 
 
 rer 
 
 superiority preponde- 
 rance 
 thoughtkii Icgcr
 
 ( 3^1 ) 
 
 nation to banish himself from his 
 country. 
 
 I know not luhether reason ivill """'" ^^ 
 
 soon triumph over prejudice and ig- 
 norance, but I am certain it will be 
 so, sooner or later. 
 
 Rome had never attained that high attained parvcnir a 
 degree of splendour and glory that 
 astonishes us, had it not extended its 
 
 ■conquests, as much by its policy as policy politiqut 
 
 by its arms. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 We have said that there are conjunctions which 
 govern rhe indicative, and others which govern the 
 subjmctive. We cxiW principal proposition the phrase 
 after which the conjunction is placed, and Incidental, or 
 subordinate proposition, that which is placed after the 
 conjunction. In this sentence : Je crols que vous almetz 
 a Jou€r,Je crols is the principal proposition, and vous 
 /ilmez a jouer is the subordinate proposition : que is 
 the conjunction that unites the two phrases. 
 
 General rule. The verb of the subordinate 
 proposition must be put in the indicative, when the verb 
 of the princir-al proposition expresses affirmation, in a 
 direct, positive and independent manner : but it is put 
 in the subjunctive, when that of the principal proposi- 
 tion expresses doubt, wish or uncertainty. 
 
 We say : je sals quit est surprls, I know he is sur- 
 prised ; Je crols qu^il vlendra, 1 believe he will come. 
 But we ought to say : je doute qu'll solt surprls, I 
 doubt his being surprised. Je doute qu'll vlenne, 1 
 doubt his coming. J^e sou/taite qu'il reussisse, I wish 
 he may succeed. 'Je tre7nble qu'll ne succornbc^ I 
 tremble lest he should fail. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 The glory which has been ascribed 'zvhich has, Src. on 
 to them (Egyptians) of being the a^^'^ibed -donner 
 
 ^- ,' ^ ,, , , grateful rsconnoisbant 
 
 most gratctyl of all men shoi'Ji that
 
 < 3^2 ) 
 
 iliey ^i^i?/*^ ■likewise the most sociable. 
 
 In Egypt, if they provt-d that the 
 condu<£t of a dead man had been bad, 
 they condernned his memory, and he 
 was denied burial. 
 
 I am sure that, with moderation, 
 gentleness and civility, you w/// dis- 
 arm even envy itself. 
 
 The new philosophers say that co- 
 lour is a sensation of the soul. 
 
 I bclie'veyou are as honest and dis- 
 interested as you seem to be^ 
 
 I doubt whether the Romans ivotdd 
 •ever have triumphed over the Gauls, 
 if the different chiefs of this warlike 
 people had not been disunited. 
 
 I could luish that the love which 
 -we ought to have one for another 
 luere the principle of all our aftions, 
 as it is the basis of all virtues. 
 
 Fear lest it shoidd be said that you 
 feed upon chimeras, and thatyoutake 
 the shadow for the reality. 
 
 The new philosophers ivill hanje 
 light to be an accident of the soul. 
 
 I will have you to be as honest and 
 disinterested as you seem to be. 
 
 they on 
 
 ma-n *■ 
 
 was denied priver de 
 
 burial sepulture 
 
 civility honnetete 
 
 sensation sentiment 
 seem ' paroitre le 
 
 // on ne 
 
 feed upon%Q repaitre de 
 
 light to be (that light 
 be) 
 
 RELATIONS WHICH THE TENSES OF THE 
 INDICAIVE HAVE ONE TO ANOTHER. 
 
 Rule. When the first verb is in the imperfect, 
 the preterit, or the pluperfect, and the second denotes 
 a transient action, this second verb is put in the im- 
 perfect, if we mean to express a present, as ; jc croyois 
 ^uevous aimiez /'elude, I thought you loved study: 
 in the pluperiect, if wc mean to express a past, as : il 
 rrCassura qiC'il n^avoit jamais tani ri, he assured me 
 
 that
 
 ( 3^3 ) 
 
 that he had never laughed so much : and ia the pre- 
 sent of the conditional, it we mean to express a future 
 absolute, as : Platon diso'it tjuc Ics peuplgs sercwni heu- 
 rtux, si la sagcssd c'toit le seul objet des minhtres, Plata 
 was saying that nations would be more happy, if wis- 
 dom weie the sole object of ministers. 
 
 But, although the tirst verb mav be in some of these 
 tenses, yet the second is always put in the present, 
 vhen this second verb expresses a thing which is true 
 at all times, as: je vous disois,je vous at dit,jc vous 
 fivoh dit, que la santc fait la fcUcite du corps, l^ ie 
 ^iuvoir celle dc Fatnc, I was telling you, I have told you, 
 1 had told you, that health constitutes the happiness 
 of the bodv, and knowledge diat ot the soul. 
 
 Observation. In phrases where the imperfect 
 is preceded by que, it denotes, sometimes a past, 
 sometimes a present. It denotes a past, when the verb 
 which is joined to it by the conjunction que, is in tlic 
 present or the future, as : vous savez, or vous saurca 
 que le penple- Romain etoit Qussi avide qiiambitiaix^ 
 you know, or you will know, or you must know, that 
 the Romans were a people as greedy as ambitious. 
 But it denotes a present, when the verb which precedes 
 jt is in the imperfedl, one of tlie preterits, or the plu- 
 perfect, as : on disoit, on a dit, on avoit dit que Pho" 
 cion etoit le plus grand t^ le plus honnete homme de son 
 temps, it was said, it has been said, it had been said, 
 that Phocion was the greatest and most honest man of 
 his age ; dis qif^on eut appris a Athhies qiC Alcihiade 
 £toit d Lacedemone, on se reprntit de la precipitatiofi 
 avec laquelle on r avoit condamne, as soon asthev had 
 heard at Athens that Aicibiudes was at Lacedemon, 
 they repented the blmd haste with which they had con- 
 demned him. 
 
 Neverdicless, the imperfecSl denotes a past, in this 
 last instance, when it denotes an a6lion w^hich was 
 past before that which is expressed by the first verb, 
 as : si vous avie-z, lu V hi stair e des temps heroiques, 
 vous saurirz que ces hommes doni on a fait des demi' 
 dieux, etoient des ckefsferoces isf bar bares, di^nss a 
 
 E c
 
 ivere ignorant ignorer 
 teach instruire de 
 
 needs avoir bcsoin 
 
 J had, &c. (by the ac- 
 tive voice) on 
 
 being 
 muddy 
 
 bourbeux 
 
 ( 3^A ) 
 
 peine dti nom d''homme, had you read the history of 
 heroic times, you would know that those men who 
 have been made demi-gods of, were ferocious and 
 barbarous chiefs, scarcely deserving the name of man. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 I thought you ivere not ignorant 
 that, to teach others an art or a sci- 
 ence, one needs to have experience 
 and skill. 
 
 ' / had been told that your sweetest 
 occupation luas to form your taste, 
 your heart and your understanding. 
 
 Darius, in his rout, being reduced 
 to the necessity of drinking water 
 muddy and infefted by dead bodies, 
 eijffirmedth^x. he never had drunk with 
 so much pleasure. 
 
 Care has been taken to inculcate to 
 me, from infancy, that / should suc- 
 ceed in the world, only in proportion 
 as I should join to the desire of 
 pleasing, a great deal of gentleness 
 and civility. 
 
 Ovid has said, that study softens 
 the manners and rubs o#" every thing 
 that is found in us rude and barba- 
 rous. 
 
 You knoio that those pretended 
 heroes, v/hom Pagan antiquity has 
 made gods of, "were only barbarous 
 and ferocious kings, who overran the 
 earth, not so much to conquer, as ^ "ot so much 
 to ravage it, and who left every 
 \vherc traces of their fury and of 
 their vices. 
 
 It hai been said of Ferities, that {t 
 
 care has, &c. (a(fl:iv,e 
 voice) on avoir 
 
 in proportion autant 
 
 rubs off efFacer 
 
 is found se trouvcr de 
 
 overran 
 
 parcounr 
 moins 
 
 -0!i
 
 ( 315 ) 
 
 his eloquence ivas like a iliundcrbolt, thunderbolt foudre m. 
 ■which nothing could resist. 
 
 As scon as Aristides had said, x\\.2.x. 
 the proposition of Thcmisiocles ivas 
 
 unjust, the whole people exclaimed, exclaimed s'e'crier 
 that they must not think of it any they must fallair 
 
 longer. 
 
 Had you read the history of the 
 early ages,^(?.vwc»-'</,//«owthatEgypt ages temps 
 
 luas the most enlightened country in 
 
 the universe, and whence knowledge ichence ceiul d'oii 
 
 spread into Greece and the circumja- circumjacent circonvoi 
 
 sin 
 countries 1 tu 
 
 sin 
 cent countries. 
 
 RELATION'S WHICH THE TETsSES OF THE S U K - 
 JUN'CTIVE HAVE TO THOSE OF'^THE INDICA- 
 TIVE. 
 
 Rule I. When the vcrh ef the principal pro- 
 posicioii is in the prescn: or die future, we put in tlic 
 present of the subjunctive, that of the subordinate pro- 
 position, if we mean to express a present or a 'ivx\:i\^i \ 
 but we put it in the pietcrit, if we mean to express a 
 past. 
 
 We sav : ii fant que celnl qui park se mettc iX per tee 
 de cchii qui I'ccoutc, lie that speaks should proporcioii 
 his v^'oids to the underr.tanding oi him tliat listens. 
 // voudra que votte frcre soit de la part'ie, he will 
 want your bi other to be of tne party. But we ought 
 to say : pour i\'tre ilcve a cc fomi de grandeur, U jaiit 
 que Rome ait eu une suite non interrovpue de grandi 
 homines, to have risen to that degree of grandeur, 
 Rome must have had an unintcrrupied succession of 
 gjcat men. 
 
 Exception. Though the first verb be in the 
 present, yet we may put die second in the impertecV, 
 or pluperfect of tlie subjun^^tive, wlien some condi- 
 tion u expression is to come into the sentence, -a? : 
 ;7 ri est point cChornme, quelquc raerite qWil ah, qui ne 
 flit tres-mortificy s'il suvoit tout ce quon peme de h-., 
 E e 2
 
 ( 3^6 ) 
 
 there is no ftian, whatever merit he may have, t!ui*: 
 would not feel very much morti&ed, were lie to know 
 what they think of hira. "Je doute que 'votre frere 
 cut reussi sans vatre assistattce, 1 draibt whether your 
 brother wonU have succeeded, had it not been for 
 your assistance. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 He who wishes to teach an art, 
 must inow it thoroughly ; he must 
 give none but clear, precise and -well- 
 digested notions of it ; he must instil 
 them, one by one, into the minds of 
 liis pupils, and, above all, he niuit 
 not ouerburt/uH their memory with 
 useless or insignificant rules. 
 
 They must yield to the force of 
 Ir.ith, when they shall hwue sphered 
 it to appear in its real light. 
 
 (/'/ Tfiust that he who 
 
 '^■i.z. Jknow it) 
 
 he must (nor repeated) 
 
 que 
 
 instil faire eutrcr 
 
 t'T.'t'!'i<v)V.^^;;surchar': jf 
 
 (it must that they) fu- 
 ture 
 suffered permeitre 
 /'/ to appear (that it ap- 
 pear) 
 real tout 
 
 viust devoir 
 
 between dc 
 
 hieroglyphic hie'rogly- 
 
 fique 
 
 after a 
 
 I must not forget to observe to you 
 that Sesostris took care to mark on 
 his monuments, the difference be- 
 tween the nations which he had con- 
 quered, in hieroglyphic figures, after 
 the manner of the Egyptians. 
 
 Rule II. When the first verb is in the impcrfedl, 
 either of the preterits, the plupeifeft, or either of the 
 conditionals, we put the second in the imperfc6l of the 
 subjundtJve, if we mean to express a present or a fu- 
 ture ; but we put it in the pluperfect, it we mean to 
 express a past. 
 
 We say : je vaidois, fal voulu, feus vaulu, je vou- 
 dvo'is^ ov J'eusse voulu que vous finissiez cette affaire : 
 but we ought to say : J'V ne savois pas, je naipas s^i, 
 i)C< . que vous eussiez etudie les mathimatiqucs. 
 
 iV. B. Great attention ought to be paid to this 
 constvuition, which is so totally ditlerent from the En- 
 glish, tluit, in order to trauNlatc the above examples.
 
 we must make use of several different turns ; I 
 -ji'antcd, I have or had wanted you to Jimsh this Inisi- 
 tiess — / ivish you -would finish this business — / ecu Id 
 have ivhhcd you to finish this business, &c. 
 
 Observation. With the preterit indefinite, v/c 
 may put the secowl verb in the present, if It express 
 an adiion which is, or may be done at all times, as: 
 Dieu a entoure les yev^x de tuniqucs fort minces, trans- 
 parcntes au dehors, a fin qti'o?i puiise voir a travers^ 
 God has surrounded the eyes with very thin tunics, 
 transpaient on the outside, that we may see through; 
 and in the preterit, if we mean to express a past, as : 
 il afallu qti\\ alt sollicite scs jugcs, he was obliged to 
 solicit his judges, 
 
 EXERCISE, 
 
 Mr. lie Turenne never luouUl buy ivould voiiloir 
 
 any thing on credit, of trad..smen, ^•i>' °'' ^''^^'^ prendre a 
 ^ . . , , crcidk 
 
 for rear, s?.id he, they should lose a ,r chc?: 
 
 great part of it, if he happened to l>e nafpencd venir 
 
 killed. All the workmen who wire 
 employed for his house, had orders to 
 bring in their bills, before he set'out 
 for the campaiijn, and they were re- 
 gularly paid. 
 
 It zuould be betttr for a mnn who 
 truly loves himself to lost his X.xm, 
 than to forfeit his honour by s rae 
 ba;e and shameful aftion. 
 
 Lycurgus, in one of his hws, had 
 forhlddcn to light those who came 
 Oiit of a feast in the evening, that the 
 fear of not being able to r^-ach their 
 homes should prcverit them from get- 
 ting drunk. 
 
 People litcd the bark of trees, or 
 skins, to write upotk, before paper 
 Ttoi known. 
 
 ivere 
 
 employed 
 
 travail - 
 icr 
 
 bills 
 
 mcmoire 
 
 he 
 
 
 on 
 
 to lose 
 
 (tl:at he "Moulu 
 
 
 lose) 
 
 foyf-nt 
 
 tcrnir 
 
 If! 
 
 par 
 
 to light 
 
 cclairer 
 
 that 
 
 a.'in que 
 
 reach ll. 
 
 ':e:r houses - se 
 
 
 rend re che7. 
 
 gelling 
 
 a^.v/?X's'(.n'vyer 
 
 people 
 
 on 
 
 used 
 
 S€ jervir 
 
 bark 
 
 ecorce 
 
 skins- 
 
 pt-Uli 
 
 kr.oicn 
 
 en '.i. f^tr
 
 ( 3^8 ) 
 
 Go and ask that old man : for t 
 
 ^vhom are you planting ? he will an- 
 swer you : for the immortal gods, 
 who ha-ve ordered, both that I should I'^ve ordered vouloir 
 
 profit by the labour of thost that have t''^^ ^'^^ ^' repeated) 
 
 by A% 
 
 preceded me, and that those who 
 
 should come after me, should profit by 
 
 mine. 
 
 In general, we put the second verb in the subjunc- 
 tive, in interrogative and negative sentences, as : quel 
 est Pinsensc qui tienne pour sur qu^il vivra demain ? 
 l/ous ne vous persuadiez pas que les choses pussent tour- 
 ?ier si mal. 
 
 We also put in the sul)jun6live the verb which fol- 
 lows a superlative relative, as: le me'dleur cortege 
 qiiun prince puisse avo'n\ c^est Ic coeur dc ses sujets. 
 
 The use of the subjun6tive is very elegant in ellip- 
 tical turns, in which we omit the principal proposi- 
 tion, as : qu''il vlve ! (jc souhaite quil) may he live ! 
 quil se soit oublic jusqu''a ce point! (je suis surpris 
 qtCil) that he should so far forget himself ! qui rn'oime 
 me stiive ! (je veux que celui qui) whoever loves me, 
 let him follow me ; hcureux r homme qui pent, nef ni- 
 ce que dans sa victllessc, joiar de toute la force de sa rai- 
 son ! (quand ce ne seroit que) happy the man that can, 
 were it but in his old age, enjoy the whole strengh of 
 his reason ! 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 ii there anv body v.-ho does not feci is degradi?!? in de- 
 
 that nothine; is more degrading in a grader 
 
 ° ° in de 
 
 writer, than the pains he takes to ex- 
 press ordinary or common things in a 
 singular and pompous style. 
 
 Do you think that, in forming the i,ecs abeille 
 
 republic of bees, God has not had in had in vieiu vouioir 
 view to teach kings to command with 
 gentleness, and subjects to obey with 
 love ?
 
 avoir la 
 paix 
 
 impulse mouvemtnt 
 
 may 
 
 pouvoit 
 
 ( 319 ) 
 
 You noill mver be at peace, either Le at peace 
 with yourself or \vith others, unless 
 you seriously apply yourself to refrain 
 your natural impetuosity. 
 
 Observation. The relative pronouns qui, qiiBy 
 quel, dont and oii, govern the subjunctive in the like 
 circumstances. 
 
 l^'ho is the ivriter that does not 
 sometimes experience moments of 
 sterility and languor. 
 
 There is not in the heart of man, 
 a good impulse that God does not 
 produce. 
 
 Choose a retreat where you may he 
 quiet, a post whence you may defend 
 yourself. 
 
 The reward the most flattering 
 that a man can gather from his la- 
 bours, is, the esteem of an enlighten- 
 €vi public. 
 
 May he live, reign, and long make 
 the happiness of a nation which loves 
 and adores him ! 
 
 That he should thus degrade him- 
 self, is v/hat posterity will tind very fnd difficult ■i.yoix Sit la 
 difficult to believe. 
 
 A man just and firm is not shaken, 
 either by the clamours of an incon- 
 siderate mob, nor by the threats of 
 an imperious tyrant: though the 
 whole world ivere to tumble into 
 ruins, he would be struck by it, but 
 not moved. 
 
 {may he repeated be- 
 fore every verb) 
 
 peme 
 lelieue se persuader 
 is shaken ebranler 
 
 inconsiderate insens^ 
 mob populace 
 
 imperious fier 
 
 though * 
 
 were devoit 
 
 to tumble into ruins 
 
 s'ecrouler 
 
 We cannot close this account of the conditional 
 and sub)un6live, without making some further obser- 
 vations upon those two moods, as much on account 
 of some few examples which we have left untrans-
 
 C 3"^ ) 
 
 lateJ, as of those whose translation does not perfe6lly 
 agree with the models which we have given of the 
 conjugations. 
 
 We have said (page 105) that the English auxiliaries 
 should, would, could, may and might, were not to be 
 considered as essentially and necessarily appertaining 
 to the conditional and subjunctive. Indeed, it seldom 
 happens diat the French tenses answer to the English 
 tenses, as marked in the conjugations, at least in 
 subordinate propositions, though they may in the 
 principal ones. For which reason, we earnestly 
 recommend to the learner, a strict adherence to the 
 rules we have already given in the different sections 
 and paragraphs in this chapter. Much depends upon 
 that, and likewise on a clear insight into the operations 
 of the mind. For instance: I 'Vjish you would come 
 to-night, cannot be translated by, je souhaite que vous 
 viendriez ce soir, because, " when the verb of the 
 *' principal proposition is in the present, the verb of 
 " the subordinaie proposition is put in the present of 
 *' the subjunctive, if we mean to express a future." 
 Therefore, we must say : je souhaite que vous venicz. 
 (See Rule L) Or, " if we put the hrst verb in 
 " either of the conditionals, the second is j)ut in the 
 *' imperfect of the subjunctive."' Tlierefore, we 
 may also say : je voudrois que vous vinssiez. (See 
 Rule II.) Now, in the hrst translation, que vous 
 ■•vemczi is naarked in the mode! oi conjugation by, that 
 you may come, and in the second, que vous vinssiez, 
 by, that you might come, neither of which is in the 
 example quoted. 
 
 Again ; // 7i'y a personne qui le croic, cannot be 
 translated by, there is nobody who may believe it, al- 
 though may is the mark of tiie subjunctive in die mo- 
 del ; but we mean : there is nobody that believes it, or 
 simply j nobody believes it. 
 
 Tlie rules, which we have laid down, are so pre- 
 cise, and the exercit.es upon them so numerous, that 
 •we think it needless to enlarge upon this subject ; 
 especially, as a further compaiison of the genius of
 
 ( 321 ) 
 
 the French languTigc with that of the English, woulfi 
 not suit an elementary book like the present. 
 
 'INFINITIVE. 
 
 Foreigners are apt to make a mistake In the use 
 of the participle present, because they do not consi- 
 der, that, as it expresses an incidental proposition, 
 it must evidently relate to the word which it restrains 
 and modifies. 
 
 Rule. The participle present always forming a 
 phrase incidental and subordinate m another, must 
 necessarily relate to the subject of the principal phrase, 
 ^vhen it is not preceded by another noun. 
 
 In this sentence : ;V nc puis vous accompagner a la 
 cnmpagne, tiyctnt des affaires qui exigent zci ma presence^ 
 I cannot accompany you into the country, having 
 some business that requires my presence here ; the 
 participle present, ayant, relates to the subject, _;>, 
 since the subordinate proposition, formed by ayant^ 
 could have no kind of relation to the principal propo- 
 sition, if ir could not be resolved into this, parce que 
 J'ai des affaires qui, &cc. But, in this sentence ; 
 combien voyons-nous dc gens, qui, connoissant le prix 
 du temps, le perdent mal-a-propos ! how many people 
 do we see, who, knowing the value of time, waste it 
 improperly ! connoissant relates to the substantive genSy 
 because it is the word which it restrains and modifies, 
 and because the relative qui, placed between that sub- 
 iiantive regimen, and the participle present, obviates 
 every kind of equivocation. 
 
 Observations. 1°. We ought never to use two 
 participles together, without joining them w'ith a con- 
 jundlion, as ; c''cst un homme aitnant et craignant Dieu, 
 he is a man loving and fearing God. 
 
 2^. We ought never to put the relative en, either 
 before a participle present, oj before a gerund. We 
 cannot say : Je vous ai remis monfils entre Ics mains, 
 en voulant faire quclque chose de bon, because there 
 would be an equivocation ; for, the meaning is not : 
 as 1 wish to do something good, or, as I wish to do welly 
 J have put my son into your hands y but; I have put my
 
 ( 3^21 ) 
 
 son mto your hands^ us I vJish to make something of 
 him. "VVe should say : voulant en /aire, tec. 
 
 Likewise, this senteiKC woulJ be improper : le 
 prince tcmpere la rigiuur an pouvoir. en en partageant 
 les fondions, on account of the repetition oi the 
 word en, taken under two ditFerent acceptations, viz, 
 en preposition and en relative. We must, therefore, 
 adopt another turn, such as, c''est en partageant les 
 fondions du pouvoir, qu^un prrnce en temper e la 
 rigueur. 
 
 Observation. Some grammarians have main- 
 tained, that the participles pu, du and vo\lu, take 
 neither gender nor number. Yet we say, and with 
 great propriety : il nia toujours excitement paye touta 
 les somnies qu'il tna dues ; il vcut forternent les choses 
 quil a unefois vouliies. Custom, however, does not 
 authorize us to say : toiites les choses qu'il apues : this 
 last participle is indechnable. 
 
 It is ahnost needless to • observe, that we should 
 avoid making use of participles that might cause an 
 equivocation in the sentence. For instance, this ex- 
 pression : j'e les ai ranges en ordrcy speaking of some 
 papers, presents two meanings, viz. / Iiave set t/iem 
 in order, and / have them., set in order j of course, it 
 is incorre6l. 
 
 §. VI. 
 
 OF PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 The fun6lion of prepositions is to put into a state 
 of relation, the two terms between which tliey are 
 placed. In general, the different prepositions which 
 we have distinguished, express that relation by their 
 'own signification, as : avcc, sur, pendant, dans. Sec, 
 But a, de and en, express it, either by their primitive 
 and proper meaning, or bv a sense of figure and ex- 
 tent ; so that, in this last case, thev are merely prepo- 
 sitions serving to unite the two terms ; whence it 
 happens that they often express, cither the same rela- 
 tions that others do, or opposite relations. For in- 
 stance, in these two sentences : opprociie^-vons du
 
 A T A B L ' g« 
 
 vccn 
 , the 
 
 Vreltmjnary Observation's'.— The the 
 i^reiicli language. For, we no longer spe-j^ ^ 
 as that violation ; and what still increase^j^^^g 
 the inconvenience of not' presenting ideas Cq.,^ 
 must be names to real tilings. We agree 
 all the inconveniences which attend the ol , . 
 rnarian, the better to express the nature o 
 for a single tense. The Abbe de Condill^^'^ 
 foijvc in its stead, as : the form jefais, i-^"~ 
 wants to have rallying words, and that th'^^.te 
 - have, until they can be replaced by others ; 
 \vhich the genius of the language admits ? lat- 
 
 :hus, 
 
 ;rbs: 
 
 ither 
 The Imperrc(5l corresponds to three tsame 
 
 verb. 
 The Preterit anterior corresponds to f, be- 
 
 z pas 
 
 TIjc Pluperfect corresponds to four tc i 
 
 ur dti 
 The Future anterior corresponds to th but 
 
 '/ les 
 Obsekvatiox. — ^The super-compound t^j.Qj,g 
 
 The Preterit indefinite super-compoui" 
 
 The Preterit anterior super-compounr the 
 
 The Future anterior super-cornpouncl?z'«7if 
 
 With si for suppose que, the Future ; that 
 
 \'\ ith the same .«/, the Future anterio, as : 
 
 u set 
 
 . sion ; 
 
 The Pluperfect super-compound cor^^{|^ j^, 
 
 "^'iC Conditional past super-compoun . ^^.g 
 
 The Conditional present corresponds 'vfrtir. 
 
 The tirst Conditional past correspon' 
 
 Conditional past » . . . . ^sion, 
 
 •"^ n by 
 
 j Observation. — When two verbs are \ 
 
 j sire, imperative will, dnuht- fia*'^' - — '-■'
 
 (To f.tee page 321.) 
 A TABLE of Correspondence of the Moods and Tenses. 
 
 Obsebvation-s". — ^Thc correspohdencp of tlic lci«« is one of tlic greaU-st diftcultirs which fbrcigiim cxiicrlMire i 
 
 y Uifesiudrof^ 
 
 i'i5 'i.H >;.i shocking ' 
 
 ic^fdhois. &x. But how wns it possilile ftii 
 rme is of too vbguc a iinturc to bC bikcii sa m 
 id hctlcr. 11)c most essciu'iol poiiit is lo kim 
 
 - that tbe tnind 
 s keep tho«c we 
 
 The Future 
 OusrRVATio: 
 The Pmcrii 
 'I'he Preterit 
 The Future 
 Willi si for : 
 With tlie sai 
 
 K. B. We ahali sprak of Uic present hi another jjlace. 
 
 . . Jo lisois . . . < qtiandvoit avez etric 
 
 definite quaml j'cns III, vous ciitrfttc: 
 
 {qiimidvous t^c^ cntr^: 
 
 ntcrior'corrcs|ionds lo ihc Future alisulute yuand jaurai lu, vous ciitrt 
 
 ,— T!ic super-compound tchscs arc seldom used ; but tlic pmisioti and pcr-ipicuitj of tlic uxprcssion 'm 
 lulcfinite super-compound cprrcsponds to the Preterit indctiuitc . qiiand j'ai eu dine, vous ctt; 
 interior super-compound corresponds to the Preterit definite . . quand j^KS cu dine, vous ( 
 superrcompound corresponds to the Future absoluct: . . jjuand'j'iuraieu^dine, vous 
 " ' ' .ponds to the Pre 
 
 The ImpertciV corresponds to thiTCC tenses 
 Tlic Prcicvil anterior corresponds to the Pn 
 TIic Pluper/cct cotrcsponds to four tenses , 
 
 , the Future absolute 
 
 r corresponds to the Preterit tudefiniti 
 
 
 *rhe Pluperfect t;itper-compouiid corTesponJb to tlie Conditional past . . 
 T'.c Ctjiidiiioiial paat super-compound, corresponds to the Plupeife»5l . . 
 
 The Conditional present corresponds to the Imperfect 
 
 The first Conilitionai past corresponds to the Pluperfect, or to the second 1 
 Conditional past . . . ■ . . . / 
 
 si j'avoiSeu plutot.lu, jc serol 
 vous partBicZt si je le voulois 
 
 OssBftVATioN. — ^SVlicn two verbs are joined by the conjunction jue, we put the second iu iJie aib^uncuvc, wlien tlie first ptesenU th 
 Ire, imperative u-ill, doubt, fenr, or admiration ; but there is no longer any occasion Ibr the subjutctive, if the first verb express no em 
 oul. or when it is a simple operation of tlie mind, unless the verb which expresses tbatoperaiioii b< preceded by a negative, for in this ci 
 
 lus parltzaujourd'hui pour Rome 
 
 :)Us panlriz dcmnin 
 
 JUS panieihier, iiuanJ je 
 
 csponds to the following On dit que 
 
 s fussie: parti pjut'it, 
 s paitirez aujourd'Ini 
 parti hicr, 
 
 s>:nv.\TiDN. — The same correspondence takes place, wheh the spnlence is negative, rxcept for the present absolute of the indit 
 ed by the present of tlie sobjunclive. On ne dil pus tjtie vous partem aujourd'hii would bea granuiiatical ditagrccracut ; the 
 h language requires that we should say : On ne dil pas que vous partiez uiijuurdhul. 
 
 ativc, which is 
 genius of tin 
 
 Thc.-ic five tenses correspond to the Conditional past < je cius (tiu^ vous scriez parti 
 
 fil VfUl 1 
 
 Tliese ihrcc tenses correspond to llie present of tlic Subjunctive .... J il voudn-i ^ijue vobs partiea 
 
 lil aurti voulu J 
 rjc voulois 1 
 I je voulus I 
 
 These five tenses correspond to the Imperfect of the Subjunctive . . . S j'ai voulu f *fue vous partltsiez 
 
 Lj:eTse:o"a 
 
 The Conditional present corresponds to ttt'o J ic voudrois^"'' ''°"*?''"'""'^ ,. 
 
 *^ '^ I J*- ^"^'J que vous fussiez parti 
 
 These two tenses correspond to the Pluperfect of the Subjunctive . . . /■I.^"'^°'* *° | |que vous fussjcz parti. 
 
 C.J
 
 ( 3^3 ) 
 
 fm, come near the fire; ih:gnez-vous dii feu, go 
 from the fire, de merely establishes a relation between 
 the two terms, without expressing, in the first, the 
 relation of approximation, and in die second, the 
 relation of distance. In order, therefore, to form a 
 just idea of these three prepositions, it is of importance 
 to consider, only their primitive and proper significa- 
 tion. 
 
 £« and dans have nearly the same meaning ; but 
 these prepositions differ in this, that the former always 
 carries with it an indeterminate idea, as : etre en An- 
 glctcrrt \ and the latter always presents a determinate 
 one, as : etre dans la province dc Middlesex. 
 
 We no longer say : en V age, en rhonneur : the lat- 
 ter expression is still to be met with in Telemachus, 
 but it is contrary to the present practice. 
 
 We must not mistake prepositions for adverbs : 
 prepositions are always followed by a regimen, either 
 expressed or understood ; adverbs never. The same 
 word may be both a preposition and an adverb. 
 Avant is a preposition in this phrase : avant Icjour, be- 
 fore day -light ; but it is an adverb in this : n\ilu'Z pas 
 si avant, do not go so forward. 
 
 There is. the same difference between autrjur and 
 a Pentcur. We say : tous les grands ctoicvt autour du 
 irone, all the grandees stood round the throne : but 
 •we ought to say : le roi etoit sur son trone, et les 
 grands etoient a Vcntour, the king was upon his throne 
 and the grandees stood round. 
 
 Avant and auparavant are not used one for the 
 other. Avant is followed by a regimen, as : avant 
 Paques. before Easter ; avant ce temps, before that 
 time. Auparavant is followed by no regimen, as : 
 si vous partez, vene% me voir auparavant, it you set 
 off, come and see me before. This expression ; 
 avant que de, which is so often to be met with in 
 Molieie, Mad. de Sevigne, Sec. is now obsolete ; we 
 say ; avant de, as : vcnez nous voir avant de partir. 
 Avant que paitir, is a barbarism. 
 
 Pret a and prts dc, are not the same expression, 
 altliough frequently mistaken for such, even by
 
 Frenchmen. Pret is an adjedlive : je suisprh a /aire 
 ce que' vous voudrcz, I am ready to do what you 
 please. Pies is a preposition : mon ouvrage cU pres 
 d'etre Jini, my work is nearly finished. 
 
 j^u iraver& and a travers differ in this : the first is 
 followed by the preposition de, as: il se Jit jour au 
 travers des ennemis ; the second is not, as : il se fit 
 jour a travers les ennemis^ he fought his way through 
 the enemies. 
 
 Some good writers, even modern ones, use avant 
 and ^^■z/flKnndifferently: but they are wrong. Avant 
 denotes priority of time and order, as : il est arrive 
 avam moi, Particle se met avant le mm. With re- 
 gard to this last example, we are not to imitate da 
 Marsais, Condiliac and I'Homond. Dcvant is use4 
 for en presence, vis-a-vis, as, il a paru dcvant lejugc; 
 il loge devant I'eg/ise, 
 
 THE USE OF THE ARTICLE WITH PREPOSI- 
 TIONS. 
 
 Some prepositions require the article before the 
 word which serves as complement : others admit none 
 after them ; and others again, sometimes admit, 
 sometimes rejedl it. 
 
 Rule I. These twenty prepositions, viz. avant, 
 apresy chcz., dans, depuis, devant, derriere, diirant, 
 envers, excepte, hors, hormis, nonobstatit, parmi, pcn-r 
 dant, selon, suivant, touchant, vers, require the ar- 
 ticle before the word which serves them as a comple- 
 ment, provided it be not a pronoun. 
 
 We say : avant Paurore, apres la promenade, chez. 
 le prince, dans la ma/son, devant rcglise, l^c. 
 
 Rule II. A noun goveined by the preposition f». 
 Is not, in general, preceded by the article. 
 
 We say : en villc, en campagne, en cxtase, &c. 
 
 Observation. Vurmee est entree en campagne., 
 means, the army has entered the field ; but, Mr. N. 
 est alle a la compagncy means, Mr. N. is gone into 
 the country. 
 
 Rule 111. These eleven prepositions, viz. a, de^ 
 avccy centre, entre, malgre, outre, par, pour, sur, 
 
 sans
 
 ( 3^5 } . 
 
 s£tns, sometimes admit, sometimes reject, the article, 
 before the noun which serves them as complement. 
 
 If we say with the article : joner sur le velours ; 
 Si. Paul veut de la subordination entre la femme ct 
 ie mari ; sans les passions, on scroit le merite ? we say 
 without the article ; ctre sur pied ; v.n pcu defagons ne 
 gate rien entre mari ct femme , viz>re sans passions, 
 c^est vivrc sans plaisirs et sans peines. 
 
 REPETITION OF THE PB.EPOS ITIO>JS. 
 
 Rule I. We ought to repeat the preposition d,'^ 
 before all the nouns w^hich it governs. 
 
 This rule is without any exception, and we ought 
 to say : voyons qzii V emportera de vous, de /z«, ou de 
 moi ; elk a de rhonnetctc, de in douceur, des graces ct 
 de r esprit : but it obtains not in English. 
 
 Observation. We also generally repeat a and 
 ^«, as well as son\e other monosyllable prepositions, 
 as : la loi que Dieu a gravce au fonds de mon cosur 
 ni'instruit de tout ce que je dois a Vauteur de tnon etre, 
 au prochaln^ a n^oi-menie, the law which God has en- 
 graved at the bottom of my heart instructs m.e in every 
 thing I owe to the author of my being, to my neigh- 
 bour and to mvself. En yf j/>, en Europe, en Afrique 
 et jusqiCdXS. Amerique, on trouvc le memc prtjuge^ m 
 Asia, in Europe, in Africa, and even in America, we 
 iindthe same prejudice. 
 
 exercise. 
 
 Those who have found the 4ivine 
 art of tracing thmtgkt and )\2ind\\\g\t liand dcii'j>i hn'6 pmer 
 down to posterity, have been the be- 
 nefaftors of human-kind. 
 
 There exists upon the earth, and 
 jn the air, and Jn the water, an infi- 
 nite number of beings, which are a 
 V€ry striking proof of the infinite 
 variety of nature. 
 
 The lion's great muscular strength niuHidar muscaUUr 
 
 • F f
 
 leaps 
 
 saut 
 
 spri>igs 
 
 bond 
 
 brisk 
 
 brusque 
 
 tail 
 
 queue 
 
 ikin 
 
 peau 
 
 forehead 
 
 front 
 
 direSl 
 conduH: 
 
 se diriger 
 se conduire 
 
 especially 
 
 '( 326 ) 
 
 is marked outwardly by the prodi- 
 gious leaps and springs which he 
 makes with ease ; by the brisk motion 
 of his tail; hy the facility with which 
 he moves the skin of his face, and 
 particularly his forehead, which great- 
 ly adds to his physiognomy and to the 
 expression of his fury. 
 
 God has given reason to man to 
 dircft and conduit him. 
 
 RtJLE II. 'J he other prepositions 
 those that have two syllables, are generally repeated 
 before the nouns which have meanings totally differ- 
 ent ; but they are not, in general, repeated before 
 nouns that are nearly synoninious. 
 
 We say : Rien ti'sst tnoins selon Dicu et scion le 
 7nondc, nothing is less according to God and according 
 to the world : ccite atl'ion est contre Vhonncur i^ centre 
 toute especede pr'inc'ipes^ that action is contrary to honour 
 and to every kind of principle. But we ought to say : 11 
 perd sa jeimease dans la moUesse et la volupte, he wastes 
 his youth in effeminacy and voluptuousness : notrc lo'i 
 ne condamnc personne sans P avoir entendu et examine^ 
 our laws condemn nobody, without having heard and 
 examined him. 
 
 OF THE GOVERNMENT OF PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 Some prepositions govern the nouns without the 
 help of another preposition, as : devant la mahon, be- 
 fore the house ; hormh son fr ere, except her brother ; 
 sans son tpee, without his sword, &c. Others govern 
 the nouns, with the help of the preposition dc, as : 
 pres de la mahon, near the house ; a I'inspi de son 
 frcre, unknowing to her brother ; au dessus dii pont, 
 above the bridge, &c. These four, viz. jusque, par 
 rapport, quant and sauj^, govern them by means of 
 the preposition d, as : jusquaii mois prochahi, till the 
 next month ; quant a mot, as for me, Sec. Pradtice 
 alone can teach these different regimens. 
 
 iV. B. There is an ellipsis in those sentences m
 
 ( 5^7 ^ 
 
 Tvhirh two prepositions follow one another, because a 
 preposition never can govern another preposition. 
 
 Rule. A noun may be governed by two prepo- 
 sitions, provided they da not require different 
 regimens. 
 
 We may verv well say : rc'ui qui ccrit, selon Ics c'ir~' 
 Constances J pour ct contre un parti, est un hommc bien 
 mi'prisable, he who writes, according to circumstances, 
 both tor and against one party, is a very contemptible 
 man. But it were wrong to say ; cehii qui cent en fa- 
 veur c? contre un parti, 6ic^ because cnfaveur requires 
 ll:e preposition de. 
 
 There are prepositions which, with their cample^ 
 ment, express some circumstances ; these h-tvc no 
 fixed place in the sentence, bein.g sometimes in tlie 
 beginning, sometimes at the end, and somecimes ir> 
 the middle, as clearness may requiic. 
 
 Rule. Prepositions which, with their regimen,- 
 express a circumstance, are generally placed as near 
 as possible to the word to which that circumstance 
 relates. 
 
 We ought to say : on voit des personnes qui, avec 
 beaucoup d'esprit, commcttent de trei-grandss' f antes ^ 
 we see persons who, with a great deal of wit, com- 
 mit very r^reat faults. J'' ai cnz'oye a la poste les 
 httres que vous avez ecrites, I have sent to the post- 
 office the lettejs which you have written. Croyez- 
 vous pouvoir ramener par la douceur ces esprits egares .^ 
 do you think you can reclaim by gentleness, those 
 mistaken people ? If we try to alter the place of 
 those prepositions, we shall find that the sentences 
 will become equivocal. 
 
 §. VIL 
 
 OF THE ADVERB. 
 
 On the negative ne. 
 
 Negation is expressed in French by ne, either by 
 itself, or accompanied by pas or point : upon which 
 the Academy has examined four questions : 
 
 1*^. Where is the place of the negatives ^ 
 F f 2
 
 (■• 328 ) 
 
 2°. When are we -to make use o( pas in preference 
 to pehit, and vice versa ? 
 
 3°. When maj wc omit both ? 
 
 4^. When oug/it we to omit both ? 
 
 As this subjedt is of very material importance, we 
 shall treat it upon the plan of the Academy, and agree- 
 ably to their yiews": but, before we go any further^ 
 we think it necessary to do away a notion, which, 
 foreigners, and perhaps many Frenchijaen, have im- 
 bibed, viz. that two negatives,- in our language, make, 
 an affirmation. Vaugelas, who is the first that truly 
 knew the genius of the French language, has stiongly- 
 reprobated this false idea, in his " Remarks." 
 The French Academy have approved this decisioii, 
 andj. we read, in the edition of their Didtionary,. in 
 1798 : *' In French, two negatives have not, as in 
 Latin, the virtue of affirming, or two negatives do 
 not make an a:(firmation." 
 
 First Question. Where is the place of the 
 negatives ? 
 
 Ne is always placed before the verb : but the place 
 of pas and point is variable. When the verb is in die 
 infinitive, they are placed indifferently before or after 
 ix ; for we say : pour jie point voir, or pour ne voir pas. 
 In the other moods, except the imperative, the tenses 
 are either simple or compound. In the simple tenses, 
 pas or point is placed after the verb : // nc parle pas ; 
 ne parh-t-il pas ? In the compound tenses, it is 
 placed between the auxiliary and the participle : il n\i 
 ■pas parte; n^a-t-il pas parle ?' In the imperative, it is 
 placed after the verb : ne badimz pas. 
 
 Second Qjjestjon. When are we to make 
 use of pas in prefererice to poim, and vice versa P. 
 
 Point is a., stronger negative than pas : besides, it 
 denotes something permanent : il vc lit point, means, he 
 Ticvcr reads. Pui denotes something accidental : il nc 
 lit pas, means, he docs not read vr^zv, or he is not read- 
 ing. 'Point de denotes an unreserved negaticni. To 
 say ; il n'a point cl'csprit, is to say : he has no wit 
 at all. Pas de allows a liberty of making a reserve. 
 I'o say : /'/«'« pas d'esprit, is to say : he has nothing 
 of what can be called wit.
 
 ( 3^9 } 
 
 Hence, the Academy conclude that pas comes 
 better, l°. before plus, moins, si, autant, and other 
 comparative words, as: Milton n' est pas tno'ins sublime 
 qu Ho mere, Milton is not less sublime tlian Horner^ 
 1°. before nouns of number, as : // rCy a pas dix ans, 
 it is not ten years ago. 
 
 It is elegant to make use oi point, l°. at the end of 
 a sentence, as : on s'aniusoit a ses dcpcns, ct il nc s' en 
 appcrcevoit point, they were amusing themselves at 
 his expence, and he diil not perceive it. 2°. In ellip- 
 tical Sentences, as : jc croyois avoir affaire il un hon~ 
 7ietc homme ; mats point, I thought 1 had to deal with 
 an honest man ; but no. 3°. In the answers to inter- 
 rogative ienience.s, as : Irez-vous ce soir au pare ? 
 point, shall you go this evening to the park ? no. 
 
 The Academy also observe, that when pas or 
 point is introduced into iiiterrogative sentences, it is 
 with meanings somewhat diffe;eut. We make use of 
 point, when we have some di.>ubt in our minds, as : 
 ti'a'uez-vous point etc la ? have you not been there ? 
 But we n)ake use of pas, when we are persuaded. 
 Thus : n av€%-vous pas iti la ? answers to this En- 
 glish expression : but you have been there ; have you 
 ,not ? 
 
 Third Qliestion. When may we omit both 
 pas nnl point .^ 
 
 We may suppress them, 1°. Afrer the words cesser, 
 oser and pouvoir ; but this omission is onjy for the 
 sake of elegance, as : jc ne cesse de rnen cccuper, I am 
 incessantly about it. Je n^sc vcus en parlcr, 1 dare 
 not spjak to. you about it. Je ne puis y pcnser sani 
 frcmn, I cannot think of it without shuddering. We 
 likewise sav, but only in conversation : ne bougcz, do 
 not stir. 2°. In the.'-e kinds of expressions : y a-t~il 
 un hommc dont elk ne mcdise ? is there a man that she 
 does not slander ? jdvez-vous un ami qui nc soit des 
 miens P have you a friend that is not nunc ? 
 
 Fourth Qu e s t i o n . When o ught w\; to onr»t. 
 both pas and poirt F 
 We omit them, 
 
 I''. When the extent which we meiii:: to rivc :e 
 F 1 . • ^
 
 ( 33^ ) 
 
 file negative is sufficiently declared, either by the 
 words which restridl it, or by words which exclude 
 all restridlion, or, lastly, by words which denote the 
 srtialler parts of a whole, and which are without 
 article. 
 
 In the first instance, we say : Je ne sors guere, 1 gc^ 
 Out but seldom : _/V «f sortira'i de tro is jours., I shall 
 not go out for these three days. 
 
 In the second instance \ wci^ay : je n'y vats jamais^, 
 I never go thither : je n'y pense plus, I think no more 
 of it : mil ne sait s^H est digne d^ amour ok de hainey 
 nobody knows whether he be deserving of love on 
 hatred : riemploycz aucun de ces stratagemes, use none 
 at these stratagems ; i/ ne plah a personncy he pleases 
 nobody : rien n'est plus charmant, nothing is more 
 charming : je n'y pcnse nulUrnent, I do not think of it, 
 at all. 
 
 In the third instance, wc say: il n'y vo'it goutte. 
 he cannot see at all : je n'en at cueilli brin, I did not 
 gather a bit : U ne dit mot, he speaks not a word.. 
 But, if to mot we join an adje6live of number, we 
 must ciMpas, as: tine dit pas tin mot qui n'interesse^ 
 he speaks not a word but what is interesting : dans ce. 
 discours, Jl n'y a pas trois mats a rcprendre, in that 
 sj)eech, there are not three words that are reprehen- 
 sible. 
 
 Obsekvatjon. If, after the sentences we have 
 just mentioned, either the conjun6lion que, or a rela- 
 tive pronoun should introduce a negative sentence, 
 then we omit pas and point, as : je ne fais jamais 
 d'exces qm je n'en sois incomm.ode, I never make any 
 excess, without being ill after it : we likewise make 
 use of pas with the preposition de,. as : // ne Jait pas- 
 de demarche inutile, he does not take any useless step. 
 
 2°. When two negatives are joined by «/', as : je 
 ■ae Palme ni nc l\stime, I neither love nor esteem him; 
 and when the conjun6lion ni is repeated, either in the 
 subje6l, as : niPorni la grandeur ne nous rendent heii- 
 reux, neither gold nor greatness can make us happy j ' 
 or in the attribute, as : // n'est ni prudent ni sage, he 
 is neither prudent nor wise i or iii the regimen, as :
 
 ( 331 ) 
 \l:rCa n'l dettes ni process he has neldier debts norkw-- 
 suits. 
 
 Os-SERvATioN. We may preserve ^oj, when ni 
 is not repeated, and when it is separated from the - 
 first negative by a certain number ot words, as : Je 
 tCaimepas ce vain etalage (V erudition^ frodiguee sans 
 cJioi-i et sans gout, ni cs luxe ds mots qui ne dijent rien^ 
 I do not like that vain display of erudition, lavished 
 ■without choice. and without taste^.nor that pomp of 
 words which have no meaning. 
 
 3*. With ne que, used instead of seulement ; with 
 the verb which follows que, used instead of pourquoi ; 
 with a mains que, or j/, used instead of it : unejeunesse 
 qui se livre a ses passions, ne trans /net a la viellesse 
 qWun corps use, youth . which abandons itself to its 
 passions, transmits to old age nothing but a worn-out 
 body : que nctes vous aussi pose que votrefrere ? why 
 are you not as sedate as your brother ? je ne sortiraipas, 
 ci mains que vous ne venicz me prendre, I shall not go 
 out, unless you come to fetch me -.je n'irai pas chez luiy 
 s'il ne. m'y engage, I shall not go to his house, if he 
 do not invite me (to it) . 
 
 4'\ When, before the conjunflion que, the word 
 r/t/zis underbOiod,. as: line fait que rire, he does no- 
 thing but laugh : or when that conjundlioii may be 
 changed into si no?i, or si ce nest que, as : // ne tient 
 qua vous de reussir^ it only depends oa you to suc- 
 ceed ; that is, the success wholly depends upon you : 
 trop de maihes d hi fois tw servent qu' a emhrauiller 
 r esprit, so many masters at once only serve to per- 
 plex the mind. 
 
 5 J. With a verb in tb-c preterit, preceded by the 
 conjunction dcpuis que, or by the verb il y a, denoting 
 a certain duration of time, as : comment vous ctes-vous 
 parte depuis que je ne vous ai vii, how have you been 
 since I have seen you : il y a trois mois que je ne vous 
 ai vu, I have not seen you for these three months. 
 
 Observation, But we do not omit them, when 
 the verb is in the present, as : comment vii-il depuis 
 que nous fie le voyons point P how does he live since \vc
 
 f 332 ) 
 
 ^o not see liim r 2/ y a six nio'is que nous ne le voyon^ 
 foint, we have not seen him these six months. 
 
 6". In phrases where the conjunftion que is pre- 
 ceded by the comparative adverbs plus, mains, mieuxt 
 tec. or some other equivalent, as : on mcprise ccnx 
 qui parhnt antyement quils ne pcyisent, we despise 
 those who speak differently from what they think-: 
 il ecrit mieux quil ne parlc, he writes bettei" than he 
 speaks : c'' est pire qu' on ne le disoit, it is v/orse than 
 was said : c^est autre chose que je ne croynis, it is dif^^ 
 ferent from what I thought: peu s''cn faut quon ne 
 'ni'ait trompe, I have been very near being deceived. 
 
 7°. In sentences united by tlie conjun6lion que tO' 
 the verbs douter, dcsespcrer, nier and disconvcnir^. 
 forming a negative inember of a sentence, as : je ne 
 doute pas qu''il ne viome, I doubt not that he will, 
 come : ne desesp^re% pas que ce tnoyen ne vous rrussisse^ 
 do not despair of the success of these means-: Je ne nie 
 pas, or je ne disconviens pas que cela ne soit, I do not 
 deny, or 1 do not dispute that it is so. 
 
 Observation, The Academy say, that, after 
 the last two verbs, ne may be omitted, as : Je ne rue 
 PCS', ov Je ne disconviens pas que cela soit. 
 
 8°. With the verb united by the conjunction que to 
 the verbs empcchcr and prendre garde, mcanii^g tO' 
 have a care, as : fempechcrai bien que zwus ne soyi,%. 
 du nombrc>, I shall prevent your being of the number:: 
 pycne% garde qu' on ne vous seduisc, have a care that 
 they do not seduce you. 
 
 Observation. The Academy make tlie remark 
 that, in the above acceptation, prendre garde is foi- 
 loued by a subjundtive; but wlien it means to reflefi,. 
 wc make use of the indicative, and oi pas or point, as:: 
 prentz garde que vcus ne ni'cntendc'z pas, mind, re- 
 flect, consider that you do not understand what' I 
 mean. 
 
 9°, With the verb united with the conjunftion que 
 totheveib cralndre, and those of the same meaning, 
 "\yhen we do not wish tlie thing expressed by the se- 
 cond verb, as : il craiut que sou frlrc ne V abandonney 
 be is afraid tliat his brodjier should forsake him ; Je
 
 ( 333 J 
 
 croiris que mon ami nc mcure, I fear my friend will die. 
 
 But pas is not omitted, when we wish the thing ex- 
 pressed by the second verb, as : Jc aains que mon 
 pt-re n'orrive pas, I am afraid my father will not 
 come. 
 
 Observation. It seems that, with the verbs 
 enipcrher and ptrna'> e garde, as well as vf'\th craindre^ 
 we should not make use of ne, when we do not wish 
 the thing expressed by the second verb, since that 
 word is not necessary to make tiie meaning under- 
 stood. " But no", said formerly the Academy, " it 
 is certain that with these verbs we ought to make use 
 of the negative ne ; it is a form winch we are no longer 
 at liberty to alcer :" which made the Abbe d'Olivct 
 say : "• I confess diat this- negative particle seems 
 to be redundant in our lansuage ; but we have had it 
 irom time immemorial ; why shotiid we not respect 
 so ancient a custom ?" Du N'larsais also says : " that 
 the mind turned towards tiie negative, naturally intro- 
 duces it into the discourse". But the Academy have 
 since examined this question with a greater degree of 
 atteotion, and have now accounted for the introduc- 
 tion of «^ in these kinds of expressions. They say: 
 •' This word is not a negative ; but it is the Latin ne 
 or quln, which has passed into our language". Thus, 
 then, the Abbe d" Olivet was verv right when he judged- 
 this line of Racine to be incorre6t Sirough custom : 
 
 Craignez-vous que mes yeux versenttrop peu de larmes ? 
 
 In these cases ne is a mere expletive, but we arc not 
 at liberty to suppress it, 
 
 lo". With the verb which follows dh peur que, da. 
 crainte que, in the same case as with cralndre. Thus, 
 when we say : de crainte quilne psrde sen proces, we 
 wish tliat he may win it ; and de crainte qu'il ne soit 
 pas puru, we wish that he may be punislied. 
 
 1 10, After sa'-doir, whenever it has the meaning of 
 poiLVoir, as : je ne saurois en venir a bout, 1 cannot 
 bring it about. When it means etre incertain, it is best 
 to omit them, as : je nc sais ou le prendre, I do not 
 know where to find him ; /'/ nc sail ce qii'il dit^ he does.; 
 not know what he says..
 
 ( 334 ) 
 
 Observations. But we ought to make use of 
 pas or point, when saz>oir is taken in its true meaning, 
 as : je ne sals pas le Frangois, I do not know French. 
 
 12°. We also say: ne voiis diplalse, nc vous en de- 
 pla'ise, by your leave, umler favour: and sometimes iiv 
 tamiliar conversation, n' Holt, for si ce n^etolf, as : cet 
 oiivragc serolt fort hon, 7i' etolt pour la negligence die 
 style, that work would be very good, were it not for the 
 want of correctness in the style* 
 
 EXERCISE, 
 
 The heavens, the earth, man him- 
 self, every thing has had a beginning 
 and shall have an end : God alone^ 
 imiDutable by his nature, Xfi/i??- began, 
 mA-ncver will end. 
 
 The wicked Utile think that, while 
 they are forming their plots, they are 
 working their own destruction. 
 
 A heart which has once degrad^ed 
 itself, does not, for a long time, open 
 to the sweet impressions of virtue. 
 
 Nobody is ignorant tha: there can 
 be no morals iaa state without reli- 
 gion, because morality must have a 
 sufficient basis, and that basis can ht 
 MO other than religion- 
 There is no phenomenon whose 
 C'au?e is less known. 
 
 Do we owe -/lothing to ourselves I 
 What ! can then virtue be but an 
 empty name I 
 
 IV hy do you -not sometimes descend^ 
 into your own heart, in order to 
 <J!scovcr the secret motives of your 
 ai^ions ? 
 
 Wl ought not to examine certain 
 
 little guere 
 
 think— se dout^r 
 
 are forming our die 
 
 degraded 
 not- 
 
 it i elf se 
 
 degradtr 
 
 lie plus 
 
 other 
 
 can 
 be. 
 
 etrc cond-L
 
 the triumph fth&t 
 truth triumphed) 
 
 notions lumieres 
 
 and (that) of the soul 
 
 behaved se conduire 
 
 :>:>:> i 
 questions, unless we have a sure 
 ^uide. 
 
 Cabals, animosities and jealousies 
 
 ^0 Kot prevent the triumph of truth. 
 
 A great general takes care that 
 
 ihe enemy should not penetrate his 
 
 designs. 
 
 The famous Law, retired at Ve- 
 nice, always /(fid/W that his enemies 
 might pursue \(\m\\i\x!citx, or at least 
 succeed in poisoning him there. 
 
 I do not dispute that the ancient -dispute disconvenlr 
 philosophers, particularly Pythagoras, 
 Plato and Cicero, have had gv^zt no- 
 tions about the nature of God and of 
 the soul. 
 
 iHe has behaved himself on that oc« 
 <;a-s1on better than luas expcfted. 
 
 I know not what author has said 
 that the wisest of men was the least 
 fool among them. 
 
 Plus and davantage are not used one for the other. 
 Plus is followed by the preposition de, or the conjunc- 
 tion que^ as : il a plus de brillant que de sol'ide^ he has 
 more brilliancy than solidity : tl sc fie- plus a ses lu~ 
 tnil'res qua celles dcs autrcs, he relies more upon his 
 own knowledge than upon that of others. Davan- 
 tage is used alone and at the end of sentences, as : la 
 science est estimable, mats la vertu Pest davantage, 
 learning is estimable, but virtue is still more so. It is 
 incorredl to make use of davantage tor le plus : we 
 ought to say : de toutes Ics ficurs dhin parterre, la rose 
 est celle qui me plait le plus, of all the flowers of a par- 
 lerre, the rose is that which pleases me most. 
 
 Si, aussi, tant and autant, are always f jllowed by 
 the conjun(5lion que. Si and aussi are joined toadjec-' 
 lives and participles i iant and autan: to substantives 
 
 fool 
 
 fou
 
 '( 33^ ) 
 
 and verbs. L* Anglcterre n^est pas si grande que la 
 France, England is not so large as France : ilcst aussi 
 est'ime quaime, he is as much esteemed as he is loved ., 
 elle a autant de beaiite que de vertu, she lias as muck 
 beauty as she has virtue. 
 
 Observation. We may, nevertheless, substi- 
 tute autant for aussi, when preceded by one of the ad- 
 jedlives, and followed by que and the other adjective, 
 as : il est modeste autant que sage. This construction 
 is not altogether agreeable to the genius of the Eng- 
 lish language ; for : he is modest as much as wise, is 
 inelegant ; and to say : he is modest as muck as he is 
 ' .luise, carries with it an amphibology, as it may be un- 
 derstood thus : Jie (pointing to one man) is modest, as 
 much as he (pointing to another man) is wise. 
 
 jiussi and autant are used in affirmative sentences ; 
 si and tant in negative or interrogative ones. The last 
 two, are however, the only ones that can be used in 
 affirmative sentences, when they are put for tellement^ 
 as : il est devenu si gros, qu'il a de la peine ci marcher, 
 he is become so jolly that he can hardly walk ; // a tatit 
 £Ouru qu^il en est hors d'haleine, he has been running 
 so fast that he is out of breath. 
 
 We must not confound a la campagne and en cam- 
 pagne ; the latter never applies but to the movement of 
 the troops, as: Parmee est en campagne, the army has 
 taken the field ; but we ought to say : /«/ passe 
 Vete a la campagne, I have spent the summer in die 
 country. 
 
 Jamais takes sometimes the preposition a, as: 
 soycz. d jamais hcurcux, be for ever happy ; and^ /cw- 
 ^'oz<ri takes the preposition /)(2z/r, as : c^st pour toujour s^ 
 it is for ever. 
 
 THE PLACE OF THE ADVERBS, 
 
 Rule I. In the simple tenses, the adverb is ge- 
 nerally placed after the verb ; and, in the compound 
 tenses, between the auxiliary and tlic participle. 
 
 EXAM-
 
 ' - { 337 ) 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 JJ'hommt U plus eclaire est The man who is most learn- 
 
 ordinairement celui qui ed is generally he who 
 
 pense le plus modestement thinks most modestly of 
 
 de lui-meme, himself. 
 
 Ai'ez.-i'ous jaraai'; -vu un pe- Have you ever seen a pedant 
 
 dant plus absurde cf plus more absurd and more vain? 
 'vani f 
 
 We always place after the verb the compound ad- 
 verbs, and those to which custom has preserved the 
 regimen of the adje6tives from which they are deri- 
 ved, as : c'est a la m^dc, that ib fashionable ; il a agi 
 consequemment, he has acted consistently. 
 
 We likewise place after the verb those adverbs 
 which denote time in an indeterminate manner, as : 
 // ent fallu se lever phis matin, you should have got 
 Up earlier ; oyi a vu ccla aiitrcfois, that has been seen 
 formerly. 
 
 Exceptions, i*'. We place either before or 
 after the verb the adverbs of order and rank, and those 
 which denote time in a determinate manner. Thus, 
 we may say : nous dcvons ja'ire premiercment notrc 
 devoir^ secondement cherchcr Ics plalslrs perm'is, we 
 ought, first, to do our dutv, secondly enjoy lawful 
 pleasures: aujourd'hui, // fait beau, il plcuvra peut~ 
 t'tre demain, to day, it is fine, it will rain perhaps 
 to-morrow. 
 
 2". We always place before the verb the five ad- 
 verbs which serve for interrogation, as : comment voits 
 portez-vcus F hovv' do you do r ou. alkz-vous f whi- 
 ther are you going ? 
 
 Rule II. We must always place the adverb be- 
 fore the adjective which it modifies. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 ■^V.'/ tine femmf fort delle, tri^-setisible, Sf infiniment sage, 
 she is, a woman very beautiful, very sensible and infinitely 
 virtuous. 
 
 R ULE III. The adverbs of quantity and the three 
 adverbs of time, soiroent, toujouts and jamais are placed 
 before the other adverbs.
 
 ( 338 ) 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Si poliment, so politely ; trcs-ln:i(reuse?ncnt, very happily ; Ic 
 plus adroitenioitf the most skilfully ; ils ne seront jamais 
 £troitement unis, they never will be intimately united ; ils 
 sont toujoiirs ensetnble, they are always together ; c' est 
 soiment a V inipro'viste quil arrive, he often comes un- 
 expe6ledly. 
 
 The adverb soiivcnt may, however, be preceded by 
 an adverb of quantity, as, si souvcnt, assez souvent. 
 
 Observation. The adverbs of quantity often 
 meet together in the same sentence. This is the order 
 which custom has established. Si pcu, trap peu, bien 
 peu, ires -pcu, bcaucoup trop, bicn pluSy bicn davanlage, 
 hcaucoup moins, tant niieux, taut pis, &c. We also 
 say: bien assez, or assez bien, moins bicn, fort bien, 
 Sec. 
 
 CHAP. XL 
 
 OF GRAMMATICAL CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 Grammatical constru6lion, in the French lan- 
 guage, is the order which the genius of that language 
 has assigned, in discourse, to the nine sorts of words 
 which we have distinguished. Some persons mistake 
 it for syntax ; but there is this difference, viz. that syn- 
 tax consists in the rides which we are to observe, in 
 order to express the relations of words one to another, 
 whereas grammatical construcStion consists in the va- 
 rious arrangements which we may allow ourselves to 
 make, while observing the rules of syntax. Now, 
 this construclion is irrevocably tixed, not only as the 
 phrases may be interrogative, imperative or expositive, 
 but also as each of these kinds may be affirmative or 
 negative. 
 
 'In interrogative sentences with affirmation, the 
 subje6l is eidier a noun or a pronoun. 
 
 If the subjeifl be a noun, this is the order of die 
 words : the noun, the verb, the corresponding per- 
 sonal pronoun, the adverb, if any, and the regimen in 
 the simple tenses, or in the compound tenses, the pro- 
 noun and the adverb between the auxiliary and the 
 participle, as : les lumieres sont-dlcs nn bicn pour les 
 ^'ciipUs F Orii-ei/cs jamais contribuc a Icur bonheur F
 
 ( 339 ) 
 are sciences a benefit to nations r Have they c':er con- 
 tributetl to their happiness ? 
 
 If the subject be a pronoun, the verb begins the 
 series, and the other woids follow it in the same onler 
 which we have pointed out, as : vous plaircz-vous 
 toi'joitrs a mcd'ire F will you ahvays take a pleasure in', 
 slandering ? aiircz-vous Llcnt'jt fini ? shall you have 
 soon done ? 
 
 iV. B. When the verb is a reflected one, the pro- 
 noun regimen begins the series, as may be seen in ihe 
 first instance, because this pronoun always preserves 
 its place before the verb, except in imperative sen- 
 tences, with affirmation. 
 
 In interrogative sentences, widi negation, it is the 
 same order ; but we place ne before the veib, and //d 
 or point, after the verb, with the chara6ieristlc of the 
 interrogation in the simple tenses, and between the 
 auxiliary and the participle in the compound tenses, 
 as: votre frcre ne viendva-t-U fas dcmam ? will not 
 your brother come to-morrow ? yi'o.urcz "uous pas 
 blcntot fini P shall you not have done soon ? 
 
 Observation. There are in French several other 
 ways of making an interrogation. i°. With an ab- 
 solute pronoun, as : qui voui a dit ccla ? or,- qui cst-ce 
 qui "jQus a dit cela f who told you that ? 2". With 
 the demonstrative pronoun ce^ as : cst-cc vous P is it 
 you } est-ce quil pleut f does it rain ? 3°. With an 
 adveib of interrugatioa, as: powquoi ne vicnt-il pasP 
 Vv-hy does he not come r comment vous trcuvc%-vous ? 
 how do you lind yourself? Hence, we sec that the 
 absolute pronouns and tlie interrogative adverbs are 
 always at the head of the senteuceT but the demon- 
 strative pronoun always comes after the verb. 
 
 Sentences are imperative, when, in speaking, we 
 command, exhort, entreat or forbid. 
 
 In im.pcrative sentences, with affirmation, the verb 
 is always the first, in the first two persons ; but in the 
 third, it never comes but after the conjunclion que, and 
 the noun or pronoun, as : allons la, let us go tltidier , 
 vencz ici, come hither; quih y aiUent, let them go 
 thither ; que Pierre ailk a Londres^ let Peter go to 
 
 G g 2
 
 ( 340 } ■ 
 
 LoTiJon. In those with negation, ne and pas are pia-' 
 ced as in interrogative sentences. 
 
 As to the place of the pronouns, see page 251. 
 
 Sentences are expositive, when we speak without 
 either interrogating or commanding. This is the order 
 of the words jn those wliich are affirmative : the suh- 
 je(S, the verb, the adverb, the participle, the regimen, 
 as : un hon prince mer'iic V amour de svs sujcts tff res- 
 time de tons Ics peuples, a good prince deserves the love 
 of his subjects, and the esteem of all iiations ; Char 
 eui inuitlcment passe le Rubicon, s^il y cut en de son 
 temps des Fabius, Cesar would have crossed the Ru- 
 bicon to no purpose, had there been Fabius's in his 
 time. The negative sentences differ from this con- 
 stru(f\ion, ouiv as ne is always placed before the verb, 
 and pas or point, either after the verb, or between the 
 auxiliary and the participle, as : un homme riche nefait 
 pas tonjours le bien qiiil pourroit, a rich man does not 
 always do all the good he might ; Ciceron n'eut pas 
 . peut-etre ete un si grand orateur, si le desir de s'elever 
 aux premieres dignitcs n'eut enflamme son ame, Cicero 
 would not perhaps have been so great an orator, had 
 not the desire of raising himself to the first dignities in- 
 jflamed his soul. 
 
 For the place of the pronouns regimen, see page 250. 
 
 Sentences are, either simple or compound. Thiy 
 are simple, when they contain only one subje£l and 01 e 
 attribute, as : vo.us lisez, you read; vous ctes jeuncy 
 you are young. They are compound, when they 
 compare several subje(3:s to one attribute, or several 
 attributes to one subjecl, or several attributes to seve- 
 ral subje(3:s, or several subjects to several attributes. 
 This sentence : Pierre ct Paul sont hcurcux, is com- 
 pound by several- subje6ls ; this : ccttefemme est joUcy 
 spirituclle iff sensible, is compound by several attri- 
 butes ; and this other : Pierre isf Paul sont spiritiieh 
 is" savans, is compound at once liy several subje<5ts 
 and several attributes. The simple sentence contains 
 but one judgment ; the con-\pound sentence contains 
 several. 
 
 A sentence may be compound in various other 
 ways ; by the subjecl, by the verb, or by the attribute.
 
 ( 341 ) 
 
 By the subject, v/hen this subject Is restricted by ant 
 mciclenta! proposition, as : Dieu qui est bon. 
 
 By tlie verb, when this verb is modified by some 
 circumstance of rime, order, See. as : D'lcu qui est bon 
 n'abandomje jamais. 
 
 By the attribute, when this attribute is modified by 
 a regimen which is itself restricted, as : Bleu qui est 
 bon n abandonne jamais les hommes qui mettent sincere^ 
 tnent Icur conjiance en luL 
 
 These simple or compound sentences may be joined, 
 to others by a conjunction, as ; quand on alme r etude, 
 le temps passe, sans qu'on s'cn apper^olve, when one 
 loves study, time fiies without one perceiving ic. The 
 two partial phrases form but one. 
 
 Rule. When a proposition is composed of twa 
 partial phrases, joined by a preposition, harmony and 
 perspicuity generallv require the shortest to go first. 
 
 KXAMPLES. 
 
 Quand les passions >ious When passions leave us, \ve, 
 
 duittent, nous nmis failons in vain flatter ourselves that 
 
 en 'vain que c" est noux qui it is we that leave th-.-m. 
 les quittons. 
 
 On n est point a flaindre. Ho is not to be pitied^ who, 
 
 quand, au dijaut de b:':ns for want of real riches, 
 
 reels on Irou-ve le moyen de finds means to amuse him- 
 
 s'vccuper de ckimeres, self with chimeras. 
 
 Periods result from the union of several partial 
 
 phrases, the whole of which makes a complete sense. 
 
 Periods, to be clear, require the shortest phrases to be 
 
 placed first. The following example of this is taken 
 
 . from Flechier. 
 
 N^attende% pas, Afessieiirs, 
 
 1. Que j' ouvre une scene tragi que ; 
 
 2. Que je rcprhente ce grand homme etendu sur ses- 
 prapres trophees ; 
 
 3. Que je dtcoiivre ce corps pule isf sanglant, auprh 
 duquel fume encore lafoudre qui Fa frappe \ 
 
 4. Que je fasse crier son sang comme celul d^ Abel, ^ 
 que j'' expose d vos yeux les images de la religion & de, 
 la patric cploree, 
 
 G g 3
 
 ( 342 ) 
 
 - This superb period is composed ot four members^ 
 which go on gradually increasing. It is a rule not 
 to give more than four members to a period, and to 
 avoid multiplying incidental propositions. Obscurity 
 in the style is generally owing to those propositions, 
 which divert the attention from the principal proposi- 
 tions and make us lose sight of them. 
 
 The constru6tion which we have mentioned is cal- 
 led diredl or regular, because the words are placed in 
 those sentences according to the order which we have 
 pointed out. But this order may be altered in certain 
 cases, and then, we say that the constru6tion is indi- 
 redl or irregular. Now, it may be irregular, by in- 
 version, by ellipsis, by pleonasm, or by syllepsis, 
 these are what we call the four figures of words. 
 
 OF INVERSION. 
 
 Inversion is the transposition of a word into a place, 
 different from that which we have assigned it. We 
 ought never to make use of it but when it throws 
 more clearness, energy or harmony upon the lan- 
 guage ; for, it is bad constru6lion, whenever the rela- 
 tion of the correlatives is not easily perceived. 
 
 There are two kinds of inversion ; the one, which, 
 by its boldness, seems to be confined to poetry ; the 
 other, which is of ordinary use even in prose. We 
 speak here of the latter kind only. 
 
 The following are those which are authorized by 
 custom. 
 
 1°. We may very well place after the verb die 
 subjeft by which it is governed, as : Tout ce que lui 
 -promct Vamit'ii dcs Romains, all that the friendship of 
 the Romans promises him. 
 
 Observation. This inversion is a rule of the 
 art of speaking and writing, whenever the subje£l is 
 modified by an incidental proposition, long enough to 
 make us lose sight of the relation ot the verb governed 
 to the subjedl governing. 
 
 2°. We may also very properly place before the 
 governing, the noun governed by the prepositions de 
 iiiid a, as : cCune votx entrcconpee de san^/ots, ils
 
 ( 343 )• 
 
 s*ccrierent,\n^ voice interrupted by sobs,.tHey exclaim- 
 ed ;. a taut d' injures qu^a-t-cHe repondu ? to so much, 
 abuse, v.hat answer did slie give ? 
 
 Wc also very elegantly place before the verb the 
 prepositions aprh,. dans, par, sous, contre, &c. with 
 what is to follow them, as well as the conjundlions 
 sty quand, parce que, puis que, quoique, lorsque, Sec. as ; 
 par la lot du corps, je tiens a ce mondc qui passe, by the' 
 law of the body, I am linked with this transient 
 world ; puisquil le veut, qiCil le fasse, since he will 
 have it so, let him do it. 
 
 OF THE ELLIPSIS. 
 
 ElUpsis is the omission of a word, or even several 
 words which are necessary to make the construflion 
 full and complete. That the ellipsis may be good, 
 the mind must be able easily to supply the value of the 
 words which we have thought proper to omit, as : 
 paccepterols les offres de Darius, si J'etois Alexandre ; 
 \jf moi aussi, sij^eiois Parmcnion, I would accept the 
 orfers of Darius, if I were Alexander ; and so would 
 I, if I were Parm.enion. Here the mind easily sup- 
 plies the words je les accepterois, in the second 
 member. 
 
 The ellipsis is very common in the answers to in- 
 terrogative sentences, as : quand viendrez-vous ? 
 d^:main, when will you come ? to-morrow, that is : 
 je viendrai derhain. 
 
 In order to know whether an ellipsis is good, the 
 words that are understood must be supplied. It is ex- 
 a£l, whenever the construclion full and complete makes 
 up the sense denoted by the words that aie joined and 
 by the circumstances ; otherwise, it is not exact. 
 
 OF THE PLEONASM. 
 
 Pleonasm, in general, is a superabundance in the ex- 
 pression. To be good, it must be authorized bv cus- 
 tom, and we may, with truth, affirm, tliat custom 
 authorizes only those vAich either give a greater 
 degree of energy to discourse, or express in a clearer 
 manner the inward sentiment with which we are
 
 ( 344 ) 
 
 affected. Et que m*a fait a mol cette Trole ouje coursP 
 j^e nie meurs. S'il ne vcttt pas vans le dire, je vous It 
 dirai, moi. "Je Pat vu de mes propres yeux. Jc fai 
 entendu de mes propres oreilles. A moi, In the first 
 sentence ; me, in tlie second ^ moi, in die third; de 
 mes propres yeux, in the fourth, and de mes propres 
 oreilles, in the fifth, are there merely for the sake of 
 energy, or to manifest an inward sentiinent. But 
 these manners of speaking are sanctioned by custom. 
 
 N. B. The above sentences will not bear the 
 English translation with a pleonasm, except the last 
 two. 
 
 Observation. We must not mistake for pleo- 
 nasms those words wliich are merely expletive, as r 
 f^est une affaire oli il y va du salut de V Hat, it is an 
 affair in which the safety of the state is concerned ^. 
 which is better than c"" est une affaire on il i/a, &c. hf 
 omitting J which is useless on account oi oii : but those 
 are expressions from which we are no-t allowed, to 
 take away any thing. Academy. 
 
 OF THE SYLLEPSIS. 
 
 Tht\Syllepsis takes place, whenever we make a word 
 fio-Lire more with the idea we have of it, than with the 
 word to which it relates. 
 
 There is a syllepsis in these expressions : // est onzs 
 heurcs; Van mil sept-ccns quatre-vingt-dix-neuf. 
 When we make use of it, the mind merely intent upon 
 a precise moaning, pays no attention to cither the 
 :riutiiber or the p-ender ot heiire and an. 
 
 There is hkewise a syllepsis in these sentences : je 
 jcrains quil ne vicnne \. fempicherai qiCilne vous miise; 
 j'ai peur qiiil ne rn'otiblie, &.c. Full of a wish that tlie 
 event may not take place, we are willing to do all we 
 can, that nothing should put an obstacle to that wish» 
 This is the cause of the inttoduction of the negative ; 
 and, although it is useless to complete the sense, yet we 
 jrjiist preserve it, as wc have already niemioned. 
 
 Tia^ere is again a syllepsis, and a very elegant one, ia 
 ^{eutcnges like the follov/ing ones :
 
 ( 345 ) 
 Racine lias said : 
 
 Entre ie pcuple et vous, vous prendrcz Dieu pour Juge ; 
 Vous souvenant, mon his, que cache sous ce lin, 
 Comme eax vous futes pauvre, eicomme ejtx orphelin. 
 
 The poet forgets that he has been using the word 
 fcuple ; noihing remains in his mind but des pawvres 
 and dcs oyphclins, and it is with that idea of which he is 
 full that he makes the pronoun eux agree. For the 
 same reason, Bossuet and Mezengui have said, the 
 former : quand le peuple Hebreu entra dans la tene 
 promise, tout y cclebrolt leurs ancetres ; and the latter : 
 AToise cut recours au Seigneur, i^ lui dit : que ferai-je 
 a ce peuple ? bientot ils me lapideront. Lcurs and ils 
 are for Ics Hehrcux. 
 
 CHAP. xir. 
 
 OF GRAMMATICAL DISAGREEMENTS, AMPHI- 
 BOLOGIES, AND, OCCASIONALLY, OF GAL- 
 LICISMS. 
 
 We have chiefly to take notice of two vicious con- 
 structions, which are contrary to the principles which 
 we have established in the preceding chapters, viz. 
 grammatical disagreements and amphibologies. 
 
 I. 
 
 In general, there is disagreement in discourse, when 
 the words which compose the various members of a 
 sentence, or a period, do not agree one with another, 
 either because they are construed against analogy, or 
 because they bring together dissimilar ideas, between 
 which the mind perceives opposition, or can see no 
 manner of affinity. 
 
 The following examples will serve to illustrate this 
 matter. 
 
 This sentence: notre reputation ne depend pas des lou~ 
 anges qu* on nous donne, mats des anions louabies que nous 
 faisons, is not correcSl, becau?- the hrst member being 
 negative, and the second affirmative, cannot come under 
 the government of the same verb. We ought to say : 
 notre reputation depend^ non des louanges qiC ori nous
 
 ( 346 ) 
 
 dofinc, ma'is dcs a^f'ions, Sec. our reputation depends, 
 not upon ti:e praises which are bestowed on us, but 
 upon the praise-worthy adlions which we are doing. 
 
 This other : sa reponse est di^ee, ainsi que son si" 
 lence^ is also incorredl^, because the participle d'ltlce, 
 being used in the feminine in the first member, cannot 
 be understood in the masculine in the second. 
 
 But the most common disagreements are those which 
 arise from tiie wrong use of the tenses. 
 
 We iind one of this kind in this sentence : /"/ regarde 
 voire malheur comme une punition du peu de complai- 
 sance que vous avez eue pour lul, dans le temps qiill 
 vous pria. Sec. because the two preterits definite and 
 indefinite cannot well come in together : it should be ; 
 que vous eiiies pour lui da?is le temps qu^ll vous prla. 
 
 There is another in this sentence : on en ressentlt 
 autant de jole que d^une vl£loire complete dans un autre 
 temps, because the verb cannot be understood after the 
 que which serves for the comparison, when that verb 
 is to be in a different tense ; it should be : on en ressen- 
 tlt autant de jole qiC on en auroit ressenti, &c. 
 
 This line of Racine, 
 
 Le flot qui I'apporta recule cpouvantee, 
 is also incorre6l, because the form of the present can- 
 not come in with that of the preterit definite ; it should 
 have been : qui Va apportc. 
 
 11. 
 
 There is amphibology in discourse, when a sentence 
 is so construed as to l)e susceptible of two different 
 interpretations : it ought to be carefully avoided. As 
 we speiik, only to be understood, clearness is the fiist 
 and most essential tjuulity of langtiage ; we should 
 always recollect that what Is not clcai ly expressed is 
 not French. 
 
 Amphibologies are occasioned, i°. by the use of 
 the moods of tenses. 2". By the personal pronouns 
 il, le, la, &c. 3". By the possessive pronouns ?<?«, 
 sa, ses, &c. 4". By nouns not being in the places 
 they ought to occupy.
 
 ( 347 ) 
 
 EXAMPLE 
 
 Of an amphibology of the first kind. 
 
 Qu^'al-je fait, pour venir accabler en ces lieux 
 Un heros, sur qui seul j'ai po tourner les yeux ? 
 
 Pour venir makes amphibology, because we do not 
 know whether it relates to the person who speaks, or 
 to the pers m spoken to : it should have been : p5?w 
 que vous venlez. 
 
 EXAMPLE 
 
 Of an amphibology of the second kind. 
 
 Cesar "joulut premiirement surpasser Fompee ; la grayidet 
 riches ses de Crassus \\x\ ^rent croire qii'i\ poimoit part age f 
 Iti gloire de ces deux grands ho?nmes. 
 
 This sentence is vicious in its constiiidlion, because 
 the pronouns il and lui seem to relate to Cesar, al- 
 though the sense obliges us to refer thera to Crassus. 
 
 EXAMPLE 
 Of an amphibology of the third kind. 
 Valtre alia che% Leaiidre; ily trouva%oxi.fils. 
 The pronoun son is equivocal, because we do not 
 know to which it relates, to Valcre or to Leandre. 
 
 EXAMPLE 
 
 Of an amphibology of the fourth kind. 
 J'ai en'voje les lettres que j'ai ecrites a la p'jste. 
 Alaposte, thus placed, is equivocal, because we do 
 not know whether it is meant that the letters have 
 been written at the post-ofSce, or sent to the post- 
 office. 
 
 OF GALLICISMS. 
 
 We have distinguished in our " Grammaire Rai- 
 sonnee," four sores of gallicisms ; we shall only men- 
 tion here those of construcSiion. 
 
 The gallicisms of construdlion are, in general, ir- 
 reculariiies and deviations from the customary rules 
 ot syntax: there are some, however, which are mere 
 ellipses, and others which can only be attributed tQ 
 die liuaccountabic whims ot custom.
 
 ( 348 ) 
 
 General Principle. Every gallicism of con- 
 Stru£tion which obscures the meaning ot the sehtenct-, 
 ought to be proscribed. We are only to preserve 
 those which, by the irregularity of the construclion,- 
 do npt lessen its perspicuity, and which are, at the 
 same time, sandlioued by long pradlice. 
 
 According to this principle, we now rejefl this 
 'elliptic gallicism : ct quainsi ne soit, meaning ce que 
 je vous dis est si vrai que, because it obscured the sen- 
 tence, although it was sanctioned by custom. For 
 instance : fetois dans'cs jardin, et qu'ainsi ne soit, 
 voilu unefcur que j'y al cudllie, that is : et pour preuve 
 de cela^ vo'ila umjleur, occ. which it is not easy to 
 apprehend : for this reason, Molierc and La Fontaine 
 are, at least we think so, the last great writers tliat 
 have used this expression. 
 
 One of the most common gallicisms is, that in 
 which we introduce the impersonal verb il y a, used.. 
 ioxilesi, ilexiste. These expressions : il y avoit uns 
 fois un roiy il y a cent aparier centre un, are gallicisms. 
 There are two in the following one : il n'y a pas jus- 
 quaux enfans qui ne s'en me lent, even children 'will 
 meddle with it (will do it). 
 
 These sentences : il n'est rien moins qui genereux, 
 he is far from being generous : vous ave% beau dire, 
 you may say what you please, but, &c. : a ce quil 
 me sernble, by what I can see, as the matter appears 
 to me, &c. : nous voila a nous lamenter, we began to 
 lament, here we are lamenting, crying, &c : q^i'est 
 ce que de nous I what wretched beings we are ! &c. 
 &c. are also gallicisms. 
 
 The use which we make of the preposition en, in 
 many sentences, is still another source of gallicisms ; 
 some cf this kind will be found in the following ex- 
 pressions : a qui en av£z-vous ? whom are you angry 
 at? oil en vcut-il vcnir ? what does he aim at ? what 
 would he be at ? what does he mean ? il lui en vent, 
 he owes him a spite, a giudge, Scc. The preposi- 
 tion en changes also, sometimes, the signification of 
 v€ibs, and then gives rise to gallicisms. 
 
 l"he
 
 ( 349 ) 
 
 The conjunction que produces as great a qtiantlty 
 of gallicisms, as : c'est line terrible passion que k jciiy 
 gaming is a terrible passion : c'eU done en vain rjuc jc 
 travaUle, it is in vain then that I work : ce n'est pas 
 trap que cela, that is not too much, it is not too much, 
 so : il n''est qne d' avoir du courage^ there is nothing 
 like having some courage. 
 
 Many others will be found in the use which we 
 make of the prepositions^, d:^ dans, aprl-s, &:c. but 
 we have said enough on this subject. 
 
 Gallicisms are of very great u:.e in the simple style : 
 therefore, La Fontaine and Mad. de Sevigne abound 
 in them. The middling style has not so many, and 
 we find but few in the solemn oratorical style, and 
 ■these even of a peculiar nature. We shall here in- 
 sert, two examples of gallicisms in the sublime, both 
 taken from the tragedy of Iphigenia, by Racine : 
 
 Avez-vous pu penser qu'au sang d'Agamemnon 
 Achille preferat une fiile sans nom r 
 Q'a de tout son destin ce qu'elle a pu comprendre, 
 C'est Qu'elle sort d'un sang, ike. 
 
 And 
 
 ye?ie sais qui marrete ct retient men courroux. 
 Que par un prompt avis de tout ce qui se passe 
 Je 7ie coure des dieux divulguer la meuace. 
 
 In the first sentence, qui is subject, though without 
 a verb relating to it ; and in the second, je ne sais qui 
 viarrete que je ne cou)e, is contrary to the rules of 
 common contraction. "" But," says Vaugelas, 
 *' those extraordinary phrases, far from being vicious, 
 possess so much the more gracefulness, as they are 
 mure peculiar to each language." 
 
 €H A P. XIII. 
 
 A TREA TISE ON ORTHOGRAPHY. 
 
 Orthogb APHY is the manner of writing all the 
 words of a language, according to the custom received 
 and adopted by the best writers. The orthography of 
 the French language is not easv, because the same 
 
 II h '
 
 C 350 ) 
 
 sound is not always represented by the same combina- 
 tion of letters, and because it sometimes happens, that 
 the same coliibination presents different sounds. Seve- 
 ral famous modern writers, struck with this inconsist- 
 ency, have endeavoured to remedy it ; they have pro- 
 posed plans ot reform, which we shall mention, when- 
 ever the knowledge of them may prove useful to 
 foreigners, and guard them against innovations which 
 have not yet received the sanction of usage. No writer, 
 however celebrated, however enlightened he may be, 
 has a right to make any alterations in this respeci, 
 and nobody should adopt those which he has taken 
 upon himself to make, when the French Academy, the 
 ?ole competent judge of this matter, has constantly 
 and oi":stinately rejected them. 
 
 This little treatise, therefore, shall have for its 
 basis, the decisions ot the Academy, because, in an 
 elementary work, composed for the instruction of 
 foreigners, it would be absurd and ridiculous to give 
 the practice of one writer as the general practice. But, 
 before we enter the subject, we shall speak of the signs 
 of orthography, which are six, viz : the accents, the 
 apostrophe, the hyphen, called tlrct or trait d'union, 
 the diarsesis, called t) tma, die culdlc^ and the paren- 
 thesis. 
 
 OF ACCENTS. 
 
 We must not confound the accents of which we 
 are going to speak, with tliose mentioned in the first 
 part of this grammar (Cha[). Hi. Art. I.), they have 
 uotliing in common hut tlie name. These are merely 
 prir.ted accents, which are used to maik the different 
 sorts of f's and long vowels. 
 
 The acute accent ( ) is placed over the c acute, 
 which we Q-dW jcrmc^ as : hontc, bontis. 
 
 The grave accent {") is placed over the e open, as : 
 il mcnc, i/pc'se, nu-chs, dicis. 
 
 Observation. When the c is open short, some, 
 authors use no accent, and others use the acute : but 
 rhe Academy, the sole tribunal that we are to acknow- 
 ledge, write /r/'t-', /^nr, re vie, inodHc.
 
 ( 351 ) 
 
 This aocent is also placed over a preposition : rcn- 
 dcz a Dicu et a Cesar ; over la adverb: il est id ; 
 over /lola ; over f tz, adverb: ca et ici, and their com - 
 p;>u]iJs; over £-«, advert): oii cst-il P over ciis, prepo- 
 •sitiou : iics le point clu jour \ ov^v pres, aprl's^ aupri's, 
 prepositions: prh du feu.^ &c. over /r^j, adverl). 
 iiut not over les,, article, nor over the pronouns la, 
 clcs, mcs, tcs, scsy cfs, &:c. 
 
 'I'he circumflex accent (") is placed over the e very 
 open, in syllables wliere they omit the s, as : ttinpctc, 
 Jl'te, &;c. This sound, being very long;" sensibly ex- 
 presses the successive but rapid elevation and depression 
 ot' the tone of the voice. 
 
 Oi^sERVATioN. 'I'he above \vord^; wereformeily 
 spelt with an s ; b^ degrees, this s was omitted in the 
 pronunciation ; and, ni order to mark this omission, 
 they lengthened the syllable. This lengthening we 
 have marked with the circumflex accent, and such is 
 the origin of it. For this reason, we place it over 
 those syllables in whicli the omission of a letter has* 
 been supplied by the length of the sound, as in huilUr, 
 Ifote, gltc, flute, &c. which were formerly spelt bua'il~ 
 U'Ky liostc, K'-^'^i finste, 6cc. 
 
 N . B. 'I'he ciicumflex accent is also placed qvqx du, 
 participle ot the verb devoir, to disimguish it from du, 
 preposition-article. 
 
 OF THE APOSTROPHE. 
 
 « 
 
 The apostrophe is the omission of a letter at the 
 end of a Avord, tor the facilitv of pronunciation; 'I'he 
 sign of this omission is a comma, which is placed at 
 the top of the conson.int, and in the place which die 
 vowel would occupy, if there were no aj)ostrophe, as: 
 Vamc, jusquohy s'll. 
 
 In French, the c mute is always omitted in the pro- 
 nunciation before a vowel ; but in writing, the ellisioii 
 is not marked with the apostrophe, except in the mo- 
 nosyllables yV, me, te, se, que, de, ne, cc, and in 
 quelqne^ entre, jusquc, quciquc, as : J'aime, qu^a-t-il 
 dit f c'est la veritc : but quclquc drops the^-j only before 
 H h 2
 
 ( 352 ) 
 
 nn and autre, as : qticlqu'un, quelqiiantre : we write 
 without cUision, quelquc iclaire. Entre drops the e 
 before eux^ dies, autra, ;is : entr^eux, enir'e/fes, en- 
 tr'autra : a nd_/'f.v^/c^ drops it before a, au, aux, ici, 
 as : Jusqu'a Londrcs, jusqiCau c'leU jusquaux- nues^ 
 jusqii'ici : we alio wi'ite : quel qi/il scit, quolquil 
 jfassc, &c. 
 
 The a Ls omitted, only in la, article or pronoun, as: 
 Pame, je Ventmds, for la ame, jc la entends : we, in- 
 deed,, say la onzieme page, but it is because this noun 
 of number is often written in figures, la XL Icttre. 
 \V'e also say ; Ic oin ct le non. 
 
 The I is dropped, only in the conjun6fion s.i, before 
 the personal pronoun masculine, both in the singular 
 iuid in the plural : s'll viev.t, s'lh viennent. 
 
 According to du Marsais, the word apostrophe is 
 masculine, when it means the sign which denotes the 
 omission of the final vowel. " It is wrong," says 
 he, " to mark it feminine in ail didtionaries, even that 
 of the Academy." 
 
 OF THE HYPHEN. 
 
 The hyphen, called t'lret or trait d'umoyi, is a little 
 straiglrt horizontal dash» in this manner (-), which is 
 placed between words which we wish to unite. 
 
 The hyphen is placed between the radical words of 
 compounds, as : gcntil-komme, arc-en-ciel, garde-foUy 
 l^ut it should never be put between those which are 
 merely in composition, as : au dessus, au dessous, c^est 
 a dire, psu n peu, &c. but, in spite of all that has 
 been said by men of letters, printers have obstinately 
 preserved it in those vv'ords. 
 
 We also put it after the verb, when it is followed 
 by a pronoun j.ubje6t, whatever may be the reason of 
 that transposition, as : irai -jc ? puissicz-vous ! etolt-ce 
 lui ? 
 
 Observation. When these words //, elk, on^ 
 are thus transposed after a verb ending with a vowei, 
 we place between the two a t euphonical, which we 
 separate from the verb by a hyphen, and from the
 
 C 353 ) 
 pronoun by another, as : m' abnc-t-ll P vlcndra-t-c!le ? 
 ics appronve-t-on ? 
 
 We also put it after the first anJ second persons of 
 the imperative, when they are followed by the pro- 
 nouns mo\, toi, nous, '•jous, Ic, la, lui, les, lew, y and 
 en, as : donncz-moi, prctez-lni, allex-y, &c. When 
 they arefoilowetl by two, each pronoun is preceded by 
 adiaraisis, as: rcndcz-lc-lui, donucz-n'Ais-les. 
 
 It is likewise put between these words : ceux-ciy 
 ceux-la, cc livre-d, &c. ho-ca, em-da ; but we 
 write witJiout any hyphen : dc ca, dc la, venez cd, 
 il ira la. 
 
 We think it proper to mention, that the Academy 
 write the words which are compound of the prepo- 
 sitions entre and contre, sometimes with, sometimes 
 without, a hyphen : about all such words recourse 
 must be had to the dictionary. 
 
 OF THE DIAR.CSIS. 
 
 The diaraesis, called trhna, is a figure composed of 
 two dots dispo-.ed horizontally in this manner (") 
 wiiich is put over the vowels c, i, u, to show thaE 
 they aie to be pronounced separately from the vowel 
 contiguous to it. We write hair, dicux, ambiguey 
 ague, Sa'iil, occ. 
 
 We write wiriiout a diaraesis the vowel prece'ded or 
 followed by e fcrmc, as; dastc, rcusnr, envie, be- 
 cause the acute accent issufEcient to i^how that the <? 
 and /', and the c and u, are to be pronounced sepa- 
 rately. 
 
 We also write without a diarse^is statue, etendHt\ 
 Tuc, bcc. because the pronunciation is the same, with 
 or without it : but we must place it over the ?/, pre- 
 ceded by g, when that w is to be pronounced by itself j 
 otherwise, it could not be distinguished from the u which 
 forms one syllabie with the e mute. It is the diara^ois 
 alone that shows the distintSiion between dg/ie and 
 intrigtie. . ' 
 
 Observations, i". It were to be welshed that 
 Uie a' and b' liad been adopted; we would thus have 
 li h 3 .
 
 { 354 ) 
 
 obviated a difficulty, which greatly puzzles foreigners, 
 and even Frenchmen themselves. They would knew 
 that we ought to say : aorte, aouie, and aorise, aoute- 
 nor ; nous arguons, il argiici, and nom nargnons, il 
 nargua ; irremediable, and d'lable. 
 
 2**. We ought not to use '/, instead of/, when this 
 letter stands for two ii's. We must write : voyelUy 
 royaiime, pays, essuyer, employer, Sec because such a 
 substitution would oblige us to pronounce : vo-iellc, 
 To-laume, pa-is, Sec. We make this observation, be- 
 cause this spelling is to be found in many books 
 printed in foreign countries. 
 
 OF THE CEDILLE. 
 
 The cedille is a small figure like this f J^ placed 
 under the c, when, on account of the etymology, we 
 preserve that c before a, o, u, although wc do not 
 give it the hard pronunciation, which it has before 
 those vowels. Thus, from glace, glacer, we write 
 glagant, glagon ; from France, Frang.ois ; from rece- 
 voir, regu, &c. where we jee that the accidental sound 
 of the c is preserved by means of the cedille. 
 
 OF THE PARENTHESIS. 
 
 ^y parenthesis we understand two crochets or little 
 arches, opposed one to die other by their concavicy, 
 between which we place an accessary, but complete 
 sense, which interrupts the continuity of the principal 
 sense. It is no longer used by good writers ; therefore, 
 it is needless to give any examples of it. 
 
 Such arc the signs of orthography, of which we 
 are going to explain the principles, when we have 
 said a few words about capitals. 
 
 Capital letters, otherwise called majuscules, are de- 
 stined by custom, i*^. to compose the titles of books. 
 20. to begin all sentences and each line of poetry. 
 3<j. to be at the head of all proper names of men, places, 
 and festivals : David, Londres, Noel. 
 
 As for the names of arts, sciences and dignities, we 
 are to examine whether they are the principal subjedl 
 of discourse, or wheUier tliey are used in a generul or
 
 ( 35S ) 
 
 acljecflive sense. In the first instance, vre write : La 
 Ph'dosophie est utile dans la plupart des circonstanccs de 
 la vie. La connolssance des piincipes de la Grammairt 
 est essent'ielle pour b'len icrhe. Les devoirs des Rois ne 
 sont pas des choses bidifferentes. Bui:, in the second 
 instance, we say : P Epuureisr/ic est un genre de p/uloso- 
 phie tres-commode. Les Syncnimes de V Abbe Girard 
 renferment d'excellens prhicipes de grammalre. La 
 mort n'epargne nl les rois ni les emperiurs. II est em^ 
 percur et roi. 
 
 Usage also requires that, in epistles to the king, 
 we should write the personal pronoun regimen with a 
 capital, as : Grand Roi, pour Tc louer, . . . c'tst 
 pour Toi seul. 
 
 ART. I.' 
 THE ORTHOGRAPHY OF SUBSTANTIVES^ 
 
 See pag;e 56, the formation of the plural of suhstan- 
 tlves, as well as the exceptions. The following are 
 the most important observations. 
 
 1. Through a custom which lias obtained in most 
 printing-offices, we omit, in the plural, the final t of 
 words ending, in thesingubr, in 7:t ; but it is in poly- 
 syllables only ; for, it is ]>reserved in monosyllables. 
 \Ve write : parlement, parlemens ; gant, gants. The 
 word gens is the only one excepted, and it is never 
 spek with a /. There is no inconvenience jn this 
 chancre, with regard to substantives : nevertheless, 
 Mr. Didot, whose editions do so much honour to the 
 trench presses, has constantly rejecled it. The 
 Academy admits it. 
 
 II. 'Ihe final consonants of most words are not 
 pronounced. In order to know whether there is in a 
 word a final consonant which is not sounded, we 
 roust recur to its derivatives. Thus, we shall know 
 that vv'e are to write plotnby dard, soiircil, sanglot, &c. 
 since their derivatives are, plomber^ darder, sourciller., 
 sanglotcr, 8cc. We shall find that we must s^eWfard 
 and art, htc?ins,e farder is derived from the first, and 
 artifice from the second. 
 
 in. The substantives formed of verbs end in mentf
 
 ( 35^^ ) 
 
 and they are formed by changing the participle pre- 
 sent into ement. Thus, of nniant and agrcant, we 
 form rcniement and agicment. 'I'he Academy have 
 preserved the e mute in some of these words and 
 dropped it in others. They write chatiment and ctii- 
 cijiement, degravoiment and aboiement. Tiiis motly 
 kind of spelling is a burthen on our memory, and 
 present usage inchnes towards the total omission of 
 this useless e\ but, as it is not yet general, it is best 
 to conform to the orthography of the Academy's dic- 
 tionary, which often gives the two spellings. 
 
 IV. The nasal vowels am, an, can, cm, en, have 
 the same sound. Am and em are used before b, m, p 
 iiiidp/i : amblguitc, emmener, emporter, amphibie ; and 
 an or en, before any other consonant, and in com- 
 pound words derived from a noun and a verb : ancre, 
 encre, enrolement, 6cc. We except neanmoins. 
 
 But there is another difficulty which is not so easily 
 removed, which is, to know whether we are to write 
 the words witli am, an, or with em, en. Some lay it- 
 down as a rule, that we ought to follow the Latin 
 orthography ; but, beside that this rule is unknown ta 
 ninetcea out of twenty of those that speak FVench, it 
 is not always safe : for, if we write ambition, annce, 
 em.prelnte, cendre, on account of the Latin etymology, 
 we also write, notwithstanding that etymology : rampCy 
 damnation, langitc, convcnance. The safest way, 
 therefore, when there is any doubt, is to have re- 
 course to the didtionary. 
 
 V. The nasal vowels im, in, aim, ain, ein, have 
 also the same sound ; 1 ut it is easy to know which 
 we are to use. When this sound begins the word, 
 we ought to' make use of tm, in: impoli, incrjiL 
 We only except ainsi and the old woid ains. 
 
 Wiien this sound Is in the body of the word, we 
 must consider its derivatives. We \vx\te faim, fin^ 
 pain, serein, since the derivatives are J amine, finir,, 
 paneticr, set hut c. V/hen the words do not come 
 under this rule, we are forced to recur to the Latin 
 orthography and much better to the diifionary, 
 
 IV , 'I'iie liasul vowc)s om^ on and eon^ have the
 
 f 357 ) 
 
 same sound. On is oftonest to be found. Om Is only 
 in the words where that sound is toliowed bv h, m, p ; 
 except comte (earl) and its derivatives. We also 
 write automne, nom, pronom. 
 
 Eon is never used but in these words : bourgeon^ 
 dongcon, or donjon^ drugcon, esturgeon, pigeon, ployi- 
 geon^ sawjagcon and surgeon. 
 
 VII. The three nas?.l vowels h»x, uyi and eun have 
 tlie same sound. Um has but one word parfuin, and 
 eun has but this, a jeun. 
 
 VIII. Au and eaii have the same sound. Au is 
 final, only in boyau, ctau, gruau., hoyaii, joyau, noyau. 
 Fail (a town), preau, tuyau : in words which have a. 
 tinal consonant in the singular : dcfaut, la faux, &c. 
 and in tlie plural ot the words in at ; maux, &c. In, 
 the body of a word, we write «?/, when this sound is 
 not the last syllable : aumone, chauffage, &c. We tK- 
 cept pscaume, although we wvitc psauiier. 
 
 Eau is written in final syllables, and in the com- 
 pounds of beau and nouveau. We write hameau^ 
 ir cup eau, beaut c, nouveaute, &cc. 
 
 IX. Ei( and ceu. We write with o'K ; ncsud, vceiiy 
 ceuf, sarur, les ma:urs, bocrcf, moeuf, cceur, choeur. 
 All the other words are spelt with eu: heurcux, dc~ 
 meurer, lejeu. Eux is affccled to the adjedlives and 
 to the plural of nouns in cu. 
 
 X. Ace -Sind asse. The words in rt^^ are : audace, 
 hesace, bonace, contumace, cor'iace. Dace, dedicace, cf^ 
 
 ficacc, apace, face, glace, grace, grimace, litnace, 
 Pancrace, place, populace, Thrace, trace, vivace, vo- 
 race and villacc. 
 
 All the other words are in asse, as well as all the im- 
 perfects of the subjunctive in the hrst conjugation : be^ 
 casse, quej^aimasse, &c. 
 
 XI. Ece and esse. We write with cce : la Grece^ 
 espece, Lucrece, Lutece (the ancient name of Paris), 
 tiiece, piece, il dcpece. 
 
 All the odier words are written with esse : adresse, 
 tendrcssc, &c. 
 
 The termination in esce is only found in vesce 
 (vetch), and in /'/ acquiesce : but that in aiise is in all
 
 ( 358 ) 
 
 the terminations ot the verbs in aisscr : je laisse, il de~ 
 laisse. Sec and in ia graissc, la calsse and Vabah.se, 
 (the under-crust of a pye, Sec.) 
 
 Xil. Ice and isse. I'lie words in isse are : ahscisse; 
 C/artsse, coulisse, ecrevisse, esquisscy jaunisse, lisse, 
 (even) /a mcHsse, Pythonisse, rcglissc, saucisse, Suisse^ 
 Ulysse, and the imperte6l of the subjun^Stive in verbs 
 whose preterit definite of the indicative ends in is : que 
 Je Jinisse-y rendisse, 6i.c. 
 
 AW tlie rest are in ice,: lice, calicc, $cc. 
 
 XIII. Oce and osse. We write in oce : atrocCy 
 fctoce, ncgocc, noce, prccocc, sacerdoce. 
 
 The other words are in osse : la basse. V Ecosse, &:c. 
 
 XIV. Uce and usse. The words in uce are: le 
 pr£puce,^la puce, il suce (from sucer), aumuce, spcit by 
 some aumusse. 
 
 The termination in usse is found in un Russe, la 
 P r usse and m the im})erfe6l of verbs in the subjiin6live." 
 que je voulusse, vecussc, &c. 
 
 XV. Iffe and iphe. We write in i_ff'e : chiffe, la 
 griffc, il biff e, il attiffe, and \\\th. one f,pontifc. 
 
 The other words are in iphe : apocryphe, logo- 
 griphe. 
 
 XVI. Afe and aphe. The words in afe are : 
 agrafe, carafe, parafe, patarafe. 
 
 The rest are in aphe : gcographe. Sec. 
 
 XVII. O^'e and^op/ie. Offe, is to be found, only 
 in ciofe, ami its derivatives. 
 
 XV 111. Aine and cine. The latter is found only 
 in aveinc, haleinc, haleinc, peine, reinc, veine, vcrveincy 
 la Seine, and AJaydelcine, 
 
 All the rest are in aine : fontaine, plaine, &c. 
 
 XIX. Ance and ence. We write with a : abond^ 
 once, Constance, vigilance, tic. and with e : prudence, 
 conscience, absence, Sec. In this respedl, we follow 
 the Latin oithography ; but, as few persons can refer 
 to it, the dicbioiury ought to be comulted, when any 
 doubt arises. 
 
 XX. Ene and ennc. We write \n enne : anfcnne,, 
 eouemie, iirenne, garinne, renne. Also Kcnnes^ Varcrinc^ 
 Vienne, (names of tovsnsj.
 
 ( 359 ) 
 
 All the rest are in enc : thine. Sec. 
 
 Here, \vc must observe that most verbs arc spelt 
 %vith a single n : il egrine, il mine, &cc. But usage 
 requires that it should be doubled in the verbs ending 
 in cnir, £ndre : q^uil vicfinc, qiill prenne, &:c. 
 
 XXI. Enc and aire. W e write in erre : Angle- 
 terre, cimetene, equerre, erre, enes, fumcio re, guerre, 
 Uerre, parterre, Pierre, la serre, la terre, le tonncrre, 
 le verre, and their compounds : as also the verbs il 
 atterre, defer re, desserre, deterre, erre.fcrre, scrre. 
 
 All the rest are in aire: affaire, repaire, 5cc. 
 plaire, occ. 
 
 XXII. Aitre and etre. The words in attre are: 
 maitre, traitre, naitre, paitre, and their compounds. 
 
 All the rest are in etre : fenetre, le hetre, champe- 
 ire, &CC. t-tre and its compounds peid-rtref S>cc. 
 
 XXIII. Ale and aile. The words in a/Ie are : la 
 halle, la dalle, galle (galnut), Galles (Wales), la halle. 
 la malle, la sallc,la stullc and intervalle ; also the verbs 
 il emballe, instullc. 
 
 All the rest are in ale. 
 
 XXIV. Ule and ulle. The words in idle are: 
 itnllc (feminine of md), hullc. Tidies (a town), CutulU., 
 Kaimond-Liille and Tibulle. 
 
 All the rest are in uk. 
 
 XXV. Ate and attc. The words in alte are : 
 wic batte, unc chutte, laic daite, une matte, une patte, 
 as well as the verbs iljlalte, gratte, qiCilbatte^ 
 
 AH the rest are in ate. 
 
 XXVI. Ete and ette. Substantives and adjecllves 
 are generally in itte : aigrette, nette, tec. We ex- 
 cept : agofiot/u'te, anackorcte, athlete, axipcte, centri- 
 pete, eomete, dii'te, diab'ete, cpithete, planct£, pcete,pro- 
 phete, rttbite and the adje6tivcs complete, discrete, in- 
 quietc, replete, secrete. As tor verbs, those in eter or 
 eter, are in ite : fachete, je prete, il inqulite, &:c. 
 except yV eachitte : but those in ettre^ have always tt: 
 que je mettc, £cc. 
 
 XXVII. Jte and itte. This last termination is to 
 ic tound only in titutte and its compounds.
 
 ( 3^0 ) 
 
 XXVII I. The words in sioji, tlon, x'ton and ^'ioHj 
 are very puzzling for persons who do not know Latin ; 
 for they conform to its orthography. 
 
 We write in sion the words in which this ter- 
 minaiion is preceded by /, n or r, as : emulsion^ as- 
 semion, version, &c. 
 
 The words in tion are i"'. Tiie exceptions after n 
 and r which are, for n : attention, circonvention, con- 
 tention, convention, detention, intention, invention, ma~ 
 nutention, obventmi, pretention^ prevention, subvention; 
 and for r : assertion, desertion, insertion, portion and 
 ■proportion. 2". All the words in which the termination 
 tioK is preceded by any other letter than /, n, r, as : 
 nation, motion, question, mixtion, &cc. 
 
 7^ preserves its proper sound in the nouns in which 
 3t is preceded by s or x : question, mixtion ; it is pro- 
 nounced as in natif, motif. Otherwise, it takes the 
 accidental sound of s ; attention is pronounced ai- 
 tension. 
 
 We write with x : complexion, connexion, fiexion^ 
 Jiuxion, geniifiexion, inflexion, Ixion and reflexion. 
 
 All the rest are in ftion : a^ion, &c. 
 
 XXIX. The letters gii form a syllable of them- 
 selves, in the terminations of the verbs arguer ; in 
 the substantives eigne, ambigmte, contigiiite, and in the 
 adjedtlves, aigu'e, ambigue, contigu'e. 
 
 XXX. Ge, gi andyV, ji, having the same sound, 
 one is often at a loss to know what ouglit to be the 
 orthography of Vv'ords. 
 
 1°. We use the j and not the^, in almost all the 
 words in which we hear the sound oija,jo,ju : jalousie, 
 jolt, jujubier, &c. 
 
 Exception. We except geole and its compounds: 
 the tenses of the verbs in ger : il mangea, nous nageonsy 
 8cc. The words gageure, tnaii genre, &cc. vt'hich are 
 pronounced : jole, rnanja, gajure, ^L'c. , and this is 
 the reason of the e being put after g, in order to soften 
 the proper sound of this letter. Wiih regard to the 
 last words, we have to observe that ihey are pronoun- 
 ced with the sound of u, although wc pronounce as eu^ 
 7anw\ mangeur. 
 
 2^ I he
 
 ( 36t ) 
 
 2". The words, in the middle or at the <^nd of 
 which we hear the souud oijc, ji, are spelt with ge, 
 gi : agisstmt, rougtr, hcc. 
 
 Exception. We except ahjeff, adjeli'if, assuje~ 
 tir, coujcfiure, dejefiion, se dijctcr, dejeuner, injeder^ 
 interjedioii, intcrjeter, Je, jciligation, Jc^ices, Jchova^ 
 jejunum, 'Jercmlc, le jet, jctee, jeu, Jeudi, a jeun, 
 jeune, majeste, majcur, ohjeder, ohjet, rejct, stijct^ 
 trajct, 6cc. and their compounds: a few proper names: 
 Jean, Jehu, Jirusalem, &cc. 
 
 3°. We ouglit never to use _;* before /, except 
 through elision in the pronoun je, as : j^ignorey 
 j'instruis, &c. and every where else we write g, as : 
 gibier, giboulee, &c. 
 
 XXXI. There are two difficulties with respecl 
 to s. 
 
 1°. In the nouns compound of the prepositions de, 
 pre, re, and the simple ot which begins with s, some- 
 times it is not doubled, as in prcseance, resaisir ; and 
 sometimes it is doubled, as in pressentiment, ressouree^ 
 ^c. although, in both cases, it is the same pronun- 
 ciation. Sometimes even, the c which precedes the .i" 
 is pronounced as acute, ressusciter, and sometimes as 
 mute : dessus, dessous^ rcssembler, ressource. For this 
 orthography, we must have recourse to the dictionary, 
 hi case of any doubt. 
 
 2°. We have seen that s, between two vowels, has 
 the sound of % ; but there are words which ought to 
 be spelt with this last letter. These are : Azamo- 
 glan, Azebro, a%erole, a^imut, Azof, Azoth, azur, 
 azlme. Bazas, Beziers, bezoard, bizarre, la buze, 
 Bvzance, douze, la gaze, la huze, gazette, gazon, ga~ 
 zouil/er, onzc, quatorze, quinze, seize, treize, trapeze, 
 zizanie, and perhaps a few more ; also several names 
 of cities, as: Maizleres, Mouzon, &ic, 
 
 ART, II. 
 THE ORTHOGRAPHY OF ADJECTIVES. 
 
 See page 6i, the formation of the feminine of ad- 
 jeftives ; page 63, the formation of the plural ; and 
 page 70, the observations upon nouns of number. 
 I i
 
 C 362 ) 
 
 We have now to add : 
 
 1°. That there is a very great incoilvenience attend- 
 ing the omission of the t, in the plural of adje6lives, 
 ending in the singular in nt \ for, if we write, in the 
 masculine plural, paysans and bienfaisans, will not a 
 foreigner conclude that the feminine plural is the same 
 for those two words, and therefore, that they ought to 
 say, in the feminine, paysantcs, because we say bicnjal- 
 santcs P or that they are to say bie7ifaisannes, because 
 we say paysannes ? If they do not attend to the singu- 
 lar, analogy must lead them to either of these con- 
 clusions. The present pradfice of the Paris presses, 
 except Didot's, is therefore, extremely wrong. 
 IMevertheless, we must own that the Academy adopts 
 the practice. 
 
 The adjedlive tout always drops the / in t]:e plural 
 masculine — we write tous. 
 
 2°. That we ought to write ««, feu, demi, in the 
 cases specified, page 67 ; and that we ought also to 
 omit the e in the adjeilive grande, marking, neverthe- 
 less, that suppression by an apostrophe, in the follow- 
 ing words : grand'mere, grnnd'messe, grafid'c/mmbrCf 
 grand^salle, grand' chlrc, grand' chose, grand^meyc'i, a 
 gtand'peine, grand'peur, grand'pitie. 
 
 30, That Mr. Beauzee, in his dissertation, inserted 
 in the Encyclopedia, and the other neographers, who 
 will not have the consonant to be doubled in the femi- 
 nine of adje6tlves, when, that doubling is not necessarv 
 for the sound, ground their opinions on reasons which 
 are sometimes very plausible ; but that the doubling 
 of it is san6lioned by usage, and most probably will 
 always be so. The Academy preserves it. 
 
 ART. HI. 
 THE ORTHOGRAPHY OF PROXOl^NS. 
 
 See what we have said upon this sort of words, and 
 especially upon tout, quclquc que, quel que. 
 
 We have at present to add, 
 
 1°. That Icur never takes .v at the end, when it is 
 joined to a verb, as it then stands for Ji eux, a ellcs, 
 as : jc suls content de ces cnfans ; jc leur donncrai un 
 j)rix. But this pronoun takes j, when it is joined to
 
 ( 3^'3 ) 
 
 a substantive plural, as it-then stands for d^cux, cPcUcs, 
 as : un pere a'nne scs cnfans, mais U 71 a'lme pas leurs 
 d'fauts. 
 
 2°. That WR put no accent over the o in notrc^ 
 voire, when these pronouns are joined to a noun, as : 
 •voire per e, mtre ma'ison : but that we place the cir- 
 cumflex accent over the o in le noire, le voire, la notrey 
 la voire, as : mon livre est plus beau que le voire ; 
 voire maison est m'lcux siluec que la noire. 
 
 ART. IV. 
 THE ORTHOGRAPHY OF VERBS. 
 
 In the singular of the present of the indicative, 
 
 1°. If the first person end in e, we add s to the 
 second, and the third is like the 'a.K'il: j'aime, lu airnes^ 
 1 1 aime. 
 
 1°. When the first person ends in s or .v, the second 
 is like the first, and in the tjiird we chasige s or .v, 
 into I : je finis, in finis, il finit : jc veu:<, tu vei'.x, 
 il vcut. 
 
 3". As in the verbs ere, tre and dre, not ending n\ 
 hidre, the first and second persons are in cs, ts or ds^ 
 we merely omit the s in the third ; je convaincs, lu con- 
 vaincs, il convainc ; je combats, lu combats, il combat; 
 jc rends, tu rends, il rend. 
 
 The plural is always in ons, ez, cnt ; nous aiinons^ 
 vous aimcz, ils aiment. 
 
 Observations. i°. The second person singuls-r 
 in every tense always ends in s. The letter ,v, which 
 we sometimes find at the end of the second person, in 
 the piesent of the indicative, is not an exception, since 
 this X has only the sound of s ; for tliis reason, our 
 neographers would have us use tire s instead ot that x 
 which is useless. 
 
 2°. The second persons plural, in almost all the sim- 
 ple tenses, ought to be spelt with z and not with s, 
 because this is what distingui:>hes them from the par- 
 ticiple past in es : vous aimez, vous eles aimes. 1 he 
 great number of Dutch editions which are circulating 
 n Ensland has induced us t(> make this obsei-vatiou. 
 
 ^ Ii2
 
 ( 3^4 ) 
 
 As for any exceptions to what we are going to say 
 in this article, see the irregular verbs. 
 
 The imperfect is always, for the singular, in ais^ ois, 
 oiti and for the plural, in ions, iez, oient ; there is no 
 exception : J^aimois, tn aimols, d aimoit ; nous aimlons^ 
 vous aimiez, ils aimoient. 
 
 Observation. We have seen that 0/ lias various 
 sounds ; sometimes that of e grave open, and some- 
 times that of the diphthong in which we hear both 
 the and the i : these two sounds are found in je 
 voitiirois. 
 
 To remedy this imperfeflion, the Abbe Glrard pro- 
 posed that ci should be changed into ai : but, having 
 found that by avoiding an inconvenience, he was fall- 
 ing into another, he retraced, in. his Vrais Principe^ 
 de laLangue Frangohe, ou la Parole reduite eyiA^ethode^ 
 conformcmcnt aux Lo'ix de VUsage. Voltaire, however, 
 adopted this change, and his example was followed 
 by some few young literati ; but the Academy has 
 constantly opposed it, because al has also two sounds 
 (for, we do not speak here of that of e mute mfaisant) 
 viz : that of e acute, in j^aimai, and that of e grave. 
 In Jamais, sounds which may also be found mfaimals^ 
 which would' be as vicious as the two sounds of je 
 voiturois. Besides, it also happens that, in this system, 
 ai in the preterit definite and the future, has a sound 
 different from that of ai in the imperfe6l and the con- 
 ditional, all which increases the difficulty instead af 
 lessening it. 
 
 Duclos is the only one thftt has been consistent, by 
 proposing that oi should be changed into e grave open : 
 je voitiiri-s, je voitureres \ but tjiis change has not been 
 better relished than the other. See what is said of this 
 sound, p. 4. 
 
 The preterit definite has four terminations. 
 
 1^. In ai, as, a, ames, cites, erent : j^aimai, tu 
 aimas, il aima, nous airnihnes, vous aimates, ils ai~ 
 . merent. 
 
 2°. In Is, is, it, Imes, lies, in'?!t : je finis, tu finis, 
 zl finit, nous finimes, vousfin'ltcs, ilsfinirent. ^ 
 
 3". In ins, ins, int, inmes, inies, invent : jc vins, tu 
 vinsy il vint^ nous vinmcs, vous vintes. Us vinrcnt.
 
 ( 365 ) 
 
 4". In us, us, ut, Times, utcs, went : je regus, tu 
 rcftfs, il rcgut, nous resumes, -jous refutes. Us regurent. 
 
 The future of the indicative is always in rai, ra, raSf 
 rons, re%, ront : j'aimerai, tu aimeias, il a'lmera, nous 
 almerons, vous aimerez, Us aimeront. There is na 
 excepcion. 
 
 The present of the conditional is in ro'is, ro'is, m?, 
 rions, riez, roient : j'aimerois, tu aimcrois, il aimeroit, 
 nous ai>}:crions, vous aimeritz. Us aimcroient. This 
 also is without exception. 
 
 Observations. 1°. Our neographers change also,, 
 in the conditional, oi into ai, but with as little founda- 
 tion. Wc insist upon this important point, because there 
 are teachers, who make their pupils adopt this manner 
 of spelling, as the most conformable to usage, although 
 it has been constandy rejected by the best writers and 
 by the French Academy, the only tribunal that has a 
 right to decide upon orthography. 
 
 20. "We must never put e before rai, in the future, 
 and rois, in the conditional, except :n the iVYiX conju- 
 gation. ^Ve ought to write ; je rccevrai, je refidrai, 
 je courrois, notje recejcrai, jc renderai, je cournrois, 
 llie verb cueUiir, however, makes _/<? cueillcrai. 
 
 35. In poetry we sometimes omit this c, in some 
 verbs ol the tirst conjugailoo, when it is not pronoun- 
 ced : il agrera, il priia, fagrCrois , je piro:s. Our 
 neographers would hav.* that omiseion to take place 
 in jirose ; but ibey ought not to be imitated. 
 
 The present ct the f.ubjun£\ive is in c, es, e, ions, 
 iez, ent : cue j'' aime,.que tu aimes, qi^il aime, qi^e nous 
 aimions, que z>ous ait/uez, quiis aiment. 
 
 The imperfcvfl of the subjuniStive has four ter- 
 minations. 
 
 1°. In asse, asses, at, assions, assiez, assent: que 
 j'azmasse, que tu aimasses, qu'il aimat, que hous aimas- 
 sions, que vous aimassiez, quils aimassent. 
 
 2". In mi?, isses, it, rssions, issicz, is 'ent : que ja 
 jinisse, que tu jinisses, qu Ufi/ut,- cue nous Jinissions, que 
 vous Jinissiez, quils finissent. 
 
 3°. In insse, insses, znt, ins'sicns, inssiez, in>.'.c:>t: 
 qneje vinsse, que tu vinssrs, quUvvnt, que nous v.ui.-' 
 Sions, que vous vinssicz, quih 'jlnsscnt, 
 I i ^
 
 ( 366 ) 
 
 4*^^ In usse, usses, ut, uss'ions, ussiez, mscnt : que je 
 regussc, que tu regusses, qii'tl regut, que nous regussiorts, 
 quevous regussiez, qiiib regussent. 
 
 The present of the infinitive has four terminations, 
 viz : er, aimer : ir, Jinir : qir, recevoir : re, rendre. 
 
 The participle present always ends in ant : ai~ 
 matii, finisiant, reccvant, reftdant. 
 
 The participle past has various terminations, the 
 principal of which are : in e acute, aime : in i, fini : 
 in u, regu : some are in ert, ouvert : in is, pris : m 
 nit, reduit : in int, plaint, &c. 
 
 See the formation of the tenses, page 153. 
 Observation. We have remarked, page 3, that 
 ai has the sound of e mute in faisant, je faisois, nous 
 faisons, &c. as also in the derivatives : contre-faisant, 
 &c. and, page 23, that bienfaisant, bienfaisance, have 
 the same sound in conversation, because such is the 
 pronunciation of all those that speak well, and because 
 this praftice is general at Paris. Our neographers^ 
 have not failed to substitute the e mute in the place ot 
 ai : but this change has been rejedcd by our best 
 writers, except Voltaire and a few others, and parti- 
 cularly by the Academy, who have only maiked the 
 pronunciation of <3; in those words. This orthogra- 
 phy has indeed been adopted in some Printing-offices 
 of ^ the metropolis, but Mr. Didot, whose audiority 
 will certainly prevail before long, has constantly adhe- 
 red to the old spelling. 
 
 ART. v. 
 THE ORTHOGRAPHY OF ADVERBS. 
 
 The following adverbs require the acute accent 
 before ment, viz. aiscmcnt, aveuglemcnt, commodement, 
 communement, conformcmcnt, dclibercment, dcmesurc- 
 ment, dhesperement, desordomiement, dctcrminement, 
 cfronthncnt, cnormemcnt, expnssemcnt, figurcmcnt^ 
 tmportunement, irnpuncmcnt, incommodemcnt, inconsi- 
 deremerit, inditcrmincment, inespcremcnt^ inopimment., 
 tnalaisftnent, modercmetit, nommcrncnt, obscurcment^ 
 obstincment, opinaircmcnt, passionement, posementy 
 prkislrncnl, p) tmaturcmcnt, privtmcnt, profondcment^ 
 ■profusment-, proportiQmitmcntj unscmmti scpartrnent.
 
 ( 3^7 > 
 
 serremcnt, subordinement. The others ought to be with-» 
 out, although spelt in the same manner. 
 
 We write in one word : alors, aupres, aussltot, au- 
 trefois, auiour, b'lentot, etifin, ensuite, lorsque^ parce 
 que (in two words) plutct, pourquot, puisquc, quelquefois^ 
 toutefois, but we write in two words : des lors, pour lors, 
 de pres, de lorn, assez tot, assez tard, plus tard, au bout^ 
 an devant, unefois, par fois, d la fin, d la suite, par cs 
 que (in three v/ords) , pour qui, pour nwi. See. 
 
 In this little treatise, we have cleared up the princi- 
 pal difficulties of the French orthography, and given 
 an accurate explanation of the present pra6lice, agree- 
 ably to the decisions of the Academy. To complete 
 its utility, we have only to add a few reflections on the 
 doubling of consonants. 
 
 The numeious partisans of the old orthography 
 are for doubling the consonants, whenever it is con- 
 tormable to etymology, or when it denotes the quan- 
 tity. Our neographers, on the contrary, objedl to it, 
 on the ground that it is sometimes against both etymo- 
 logy and quantity. Without entering into a discus- 
 sion which is foreign to these elements, we shall 
 establish some principles which may prove useful in 
 this matter, and which besides, are agreeable to the 
 orthographv of the Academy ai:idof Mr. Dido-t, 
 
 It is generally agreed that the consonants //, /, k, q, 
 V, X and z are never doubled, and that it is conform- 
 able to the genius of our language to dispense with tlie 
 doubling of b and /> ; but that c, d, f, g, /, m, n, r, j, 
 and t, are more or less susceptible of being doubled. 
 
 Principle I. No consonant is doubled after a 
 vowel, either long, or marked with a circumflex accent, 
 nor after a nasal sound ; so that we generally find it 
 only after short vowels. We write : cote, and botte^ 
 bailment and battre, teie and nette, &c. 
 
 Principle II. We ought to double the conso- 
 nant in the formation of the tenses of verbs, when it is 
 double at the root, which is the infi'nitive. We write : 
 nous donnons, vous lutterez, vous me promettriez, be-, 
 cause the infinitives are : dormer, lutter, promettre. 
 
 In a work lately printed at Paris, we have found 
 jtta- and iljeite, and in the preterit and participle past,
 
 ( 3^8 ) 
 
 lljcta, die fut jctce. The spelling of the Academy 
 is : Jeter, je jctte, je jetois, j^ai jete, je jctterai, je 
 jettey(*h. 
 
 Principle III. When a vowel begins a com- 
 pound word, we generally double the following ( on- 
 sonant, when, after that consonant, there is a vowel. 
 Thus, we write : accourir, affcrmir, opposer, des- 
 serer, diffic'ile, l^c. 
 
 One may very well suppose tliar there are excep- 
 tions to the above principles ; but this proves how 
 cautious we should be, when we meet with any devia- 
 tion from them, especially in the formation of the 
 feminine of aujetStives. 
 
 Observations, io. We never double b and r 
 In words beginning witli a : ahrcger, agrcger, ahah- 
 scry r,grandh\ &cc. except in Abbeville (a town of 
 Picardy), abbe, and its derivatives ; aggra-jcr, and its 
 derivatives. 
 
 2". In words beginning with ad, the doubling- of 
 the consonant takes place, only in these four words : 
 addition, addhianncr, addiitleur and adduiilon. 
 
 CHAP. XIV. 
 
 OF PUNCTUATION. 
 
 Piincfluatlon is the art of denoting in writing, by 
 means of certain signs agreed upon, the proportion of 
 pauses Wiiich arc to be made in speaking. For, the 
 repose of the voice in discourse, and the signs of 
 punftuation in writing, ought always to correspond. 
 
 The signs of pun6lu<uion are, la virgulc, the com- 
 ma (,), le point avec la virgjile, the seiriicolon (;)^ 
 les deux points, the colon (:), andle point, the period 
 or full stop (.), to which we may add the exclamation 
 point (i), and the interrogative point (?). 
 
 OF THE COMMA. 
 
 The comma marks the shortest pause possible. It 
 is used, 
 
 1°. Before the similar parts of the same proposition, 
 provided there be more than two, and that none of 
 theivi be ,ubdividcd into subaltern ones.
 
 ( 369 ) 
 
 EXAMPLE 
 
 Of several suhjeH's. 
 
 ta rickeUe, le pla'nir, la sante^ dfviennent des maux pour 
 ceux qui ne iavent pas en user. 
 
 EXAMPLE 
 
 Of several attributes wider the same suhjeH. 
 
 Un prince d" line naissance incertaine, nourri par une femme 
 sans mceurs, elcve par des bergersf et depuis dcvenu ch"/ de 
 brigans, jetta les premiers fondemens dt la capitale du 
 T?:onde. 
 
 EXAMPLE 
 
 Of several verbs relating to the same subjeSf. 
 
 II alia dans cette caveme, troicva les instrumens, abattifles 
 pt'iipliers, et mit en un seuljourun vaisseau en elat dei'oguer. 
 
 2°. When theie are but two similar parts, they 
 are either separate, or joined by a conjun6tion. If 
 they be separate, we make use of the comma : des 
 anciennes mceurs^ tin certain usage de la pauvrete^ 
 rendoient a Rome les fortunes a peu pres egales. If 
 they be joined by a conjun61ion, we make use of tloe 
 comma, when they are of some lengSh: il formoit 
 CIS feudres dont le bruit a retenti dans tout le monde., 
 et ceux qui grondent encore sont sur le point d^ec later. 
 Otherwise we put no comma : P imagination et le 
 jugement ne sont pas ioujours d"" accord. 
 
 3'^. We place between two commas any Incidental 
 proposition which is merely explanatory : les passions, 
 qui sont les maladies de V ame^ ne viennent que de notre 
 revoke contre la raison. But we do no not divide by 
 commas an incidental proposition which is determina- 
 tive : la gloire des grands hommes se doit toujours 
 mesurer aux moyem dont ils se sont servis pour Vac- 
 querir. 
 
 4°. We put the comma after an adje£ll\-e or par- 
 ticiple followed by a complement, whether it begin 
 or end the sentence : avidcs de plaisirs, nous ?ious 
 flattons d' en recevoir de tous les objets inconnus qui sem~ 
 blent nous en promettre. Le fruit meurt en naissant, 
 dans son germe infeile. It is the same with a prepo-
 
 ( 370 ) 
 
 sitlon which, with its complement, expresses a cir- 
 cumstance. 
 
 5a, We place a comma after every addition which 
 cannot be considered as making part of the gramma- 
 tical construction of a sentence, when that addition is 
 at the beginning ; and we place it between two com- 
 mas, v/hen it is in the body of tlie sentence. We 
 also place between two commas what was formerly 
 placed between two ci otciiets. 
 
 OF THE SEMICOLON. 
 
 The semicolon denotes a pause a little longer. It 
 is used, 
 
 1°. To separate phrases which are under the same 
 regimen ; qu^un vieillardjoue Ic role d^un jeune homme^ 
 lorsquun jeune homme jouera le role d^un vleUlard \ 
 que les habilletnens ne repondent pas a la dignite des 
 personnages ; ioutcs ccs discordances nous blcssent. 
 
 2°. Before a piirase following another on which it 
 is depending : Pauteur, pour bien ecrire, doit etre igale- 
 ment aitentif aux choses quil dit, et aux termes dont il 
 se serf ; a/in quit y ait du vrai et du gout dans ses 
 owurages. 
 
 30. Between the different members of a period, 
 M'hen they are of some length, and diey are composed 
 of several parts already divided by commas: cette per-' 
 suasioji, sans V evidence qui V accompagne^ n'auyoit pas 
 ete si fermc et si durable ; elle nauroit pas acquis de 
 nouvelles forces en vieillissant ; clle n'aitroit pu resister 
 au torrent des amiees, ct passer de siecle en sieckjuS' 
 qu\i nous, &:c. 
 
 OF THE COLON. 
 
 The colon denotes a pause still longer. It is used, 
 i". After a sentence which is complete, but fol- 
 lowed bv another which either explains or extends it: 
 si les beautcs de V elocution oratoire ou pottique etoient 
 palpable si rien ne scroit plus cornmun que l' eloquence ; 
 un mediocre genie pcurroit y atteindre : et qitelquefoisy 
 faute dc les connoitre assez, un homme ne pour V elo- 
 quence rcste en chemin, ou s'egare en route.
 
 ( 371 ) 
 
 2°. After a proposition announcing an enumeration, 
 under a general relation : 11 y a dans la nature de 
 r homme deux princlpes opposes : ramour propre, qui 
 nous rappelle a nous \ et la bienveillance^ qui nous rc~ 
 pand. 
 
 3"*. After having announced a direct discourse 
 which we are going to relate : lorsque fentendis Ics 
 scenes du paysan, dans le Faux Genh-ux, je dis : voila 
 qui plaira a toute la terre et dans tous Ics temps, tec. 
 
 Observation. It is easy to see by the examples 
 which we have quoted, that all this principally refers 
 to the periodic style ; for, the familiar has fewer dif- 
 ficulties. 
 
 OF THE PERIOD. 
 
 The period denotes the longest pause of anv we 
 have mentioned. It is placed after a sense entirely 
 and completely finished in itself. Nevertheless, it 
 may also denote longer or shorter pauses, as we shall 
 have some day occasion to show. 
 
 The interrogative point is put at the end of a sen- 
 tence expressing an interrogation. 
 
 The exclamation, or admiration point is put at tlie 
 end of those expressing surprise, terror, pity, Sec. or 
 after an hiterjeiftion. 
 
 "EXAMPLES. 
 
 En efFet, des qa'elle parut ; " Ah ! mademoiselle, comment 
 se porte M. raon frere ?" Sa pensee n'osa aller plus loin. 
 *' Madame, il se porte bien de sa blessure." " Kt mon 
 filsr" On ne lui repondit rien. " Ah, mademoiselle!"' 
 " Mon fils .' mon chcr enfant ! rtpondez-moi, est-il mort 
 sur le champ ? N'a-t-il -pas eu un seul moment ? Ah ! 
 mon Dicu ! quel sacrifice !" 
 
 As a treatise on pun61:uation is common to all lan- 
 guages, we shall give in a future work some further 
 particulars, of which this compendium is not suscep- 
 tible ; and we shall, moreover, make the application 
 of the rules to a great piece of eloquence.
 
 < 372 ) 
 FREE EXERCISES. 
 I. 
 
 SENSIBILITY. 
 On a fine summer evening, my brother, sister and I, we 
 we were walking in a meadow not far distant from the castle 
 which we inhabit- We were contemplating, with rapture, 
 the majestic scenery which nature exhibits at the approach of 
 night ; when we perceived, at the foot of an antique oak, a 
 l>oy of the most interesting figure. His beauty, his air of in- 
 genuity and candour, his graces, struck us, and we approached 
 him. " What! quite alone here ?" did we ask. " I am 
 not alone," answered he, smiling, " I am not alone ; but I 
 ■was fatigued, and I have been sitting under the shade of this 
 tree, while my mother is busy gathering some simples, to give 
 some alleviation to the pains which her old father suffers. 
 Ah ! how many troubles my good mamma has ! how many 
 troubles ! Did you know them, your heart would be touched 
 with pity, and you could not refuse her a tribute of tears." 
 We said to him : " Lovely child, thy ingenuity, candour* 
 innocence, every thing interests us in thy misfortunes and 
 those of thy mother. Relate them to us." He immediately 
 related the history of his mother, with an expression, a 
 ndi'uetS, a grace altogether affefting. Our hearts felt the 
 liveliest emotions ; tears trickled down our cheeks, and we 
 gave him what little money we had about us. In the mean 
 time, the mother came : as soon as he saw her, he exclaimed : 
 *' Run, mamma, run : see what these good little folks have 
 given me : I have related to them thy misfortunes : they 
 have been affefted at them, and their sensibility has hot been 
 satisfied with shedding, tears. See, mamma, ah ! see what 
 they have been giving me." The mother felt softened ; she 
 thanked us, and said : " Generous, sensible souls, the good 
 aftion which you have just been doing shall not be lost : he 
 v/ho sees every thing and judges of every thing will not let it 
 go unrewardtd." 
 
 THE AUTHOR. 
 
 THE
 
 ( 373 ) 
 ir. 
 
 THE GOOD M I NIS T E R.' 
 
 AN EASTEP.N FABLE. 
 
 Tke great Aar)n Raschild b^j^an to suspe^l that his Vizir 
 Giafar was not deserving of the confidence which he had re- 
 posed in him. The women of Aaron, the inhabitants of 
 Bagdad, the courtiers, the dervises, were censuring the 
 Vizir with bitterness. The Calif loved Giafar ; he would 
 not condemn him upon the clamours of the city and the court: 
 he visited his empire; every-where he saw the land well 
 cultivated, the country smiling, the cottages opulent, the 
 useful arts honoured, and youth full of gaiety. He visited 
 his fortified cities and sea-ports ; he saw numerous ships 
 which threatened the coasts of Africa and of Asia ; he saw war- 
 riors disciplined and content; these warrioi-s, the seamen and 
 the country-people, exclaimed : " O God 1 pour thy blessings 
 upon the faithful, by giving them a Calif like Aaron, and a 
 Vizir like Giafar!" The Calif, affefted by these exclama-, 
 tious, enters a mosque, falls upon, his knees and cries out : 
 " Great God! I return thee thanks; thou hast given me 
 a Vizir of whom my courtiers »pcak ill, and my people speak 
 well!" 
 
 ST. lAMUERTo 
 
 iir. 
 
 A GENERAL r I E ir OE NATURE. 
 W^ith what magnihcence doe. nature shine upon earth ? A 
 pure light, extending from east to west, gilds succesbively the 
 two kemisphcre?- of this globe ; an element transparent and 
 light surrounds it ; a gentle fecundating heat animates, gives 
 being to the seeds of lire ; salubrious spring waters contribute 
 to their preservation and growth; rising grounds, distributed 
 in the lands, stop rhe vapours of the air, make these springs 
 inexhaustible and always neW ; immense cavities made to re- 
 ceive them divide the continents. The extent'of the sea is as 
 great a* that uf the earth : if is not a cold bsrren element ; it 
 K k
 
 ( 374 ) 
 
 is a new empire as rich, as populous as the first. The finger 
 of God has marked their boundaries. 
 
 The earth,^ rising above the level of the sea, is secure from 
 its irruptions : its surface enamelled with flowers, adorned with 
 a verdure constantly renewed, peopled with thousands and 
 thousands of species of different animals, is a place of rest, a 
 delightful abode, where man placed, in order to second nature, 
 presides over all beings, llie only one among all, capable of 
 knowing and worthy of admiring, God has made him speiSlator 
 of the universe, and a witness of his wonders. The divine 
 spark with which he is animated makes him participate in the 
 divine mysteries: it is by this light that he thinks and refleflsj 
 by it he sees and reads in the book of the universe, as in a 
 copy of the deity. 
 
 Nature is the exterior throne of divine magnificence : man, 
 who contemplates, who studies it, rises by degrees to the in- 
 terior throne of omnipotence. Made to adore the Creator, he 
 commands all creatures : vassal of heaven, king of the earth, 
 he ennobles, peoples, enriches it ; he establishes among the 
 living beings order, subordination, harmony : he embellishes 
 nature herself, he cultivates, extends and polishes it ; lops ofiF 
 the thistle and the briar, and multiplies the grape and th 
 .rose. 
 
 BVFFON. 
 
 IV, 
 
 THE INSCRIPTION. 
 
 AN EASTERN FABLE. 
 
 Cosroes had caused the following inscription to be engraven 
 on his diadem : " Many have possessed it ; many shall possess 
 •t. O posterity ! thou shalt imprint the traces of thy steps 
 upon the dust of my grave." 
 
 What are thrones, fortune and vif?tory, which glide away 
 with the rapidity of lightning ? Ye, arbiters of men, do good^ 
 if you wish to be happy -, do good, if you wish that your me-
 
 ( 375 ) 
 
 •mory should be honoured; do good, if you wish that h;aven 
 should open to you its eternal gates. 
 
 ST. LAMBERT. 
 V. 
 
 CULT J FATED NATURE. 
 How beaiuiful is that cultivated nature ! How, through the 
 cares of man, it is brilliant and pompously adorned. He 
 himself is its chief ornament, its noblest-prcduftion : by mul- 
 tiplying himself, he multiplies the most precious germ : she 
 also seems to muhiply herself with him : by his art he brings 
 forth to light all that she concealed in her bosom. How many 
 unknown treasures ! how many new riches ! flowers, fruits, 
 seeds brought to perfeftion, multiplied to infinity : the useful 
 species of animals transported, propagated, increated without 
 number ; the noxious species reduced, confined, banished : 
 gold, and iron more necessary thin gold, extracted from 
 the bowels of the earth; torrents confined, rivers direfted, 
 contrafted ; the sea itself subjefted, surveyed, crossed from 
 one hemisphere to the other ; the earth accessible in. 
 every part, andevcry-where rendered as lively as fruitful : ia 
 the vallies, delightful meadows ; in the plains, rich pasture^ 
 and still richer harvests ; hills covered with vines and fruits, 
 their summits crowned with useful trees and young forests; 
 deserts changed into cities inhabited by an immense people, 
 which continually circulating, spreads itself from those cen- 
 ters to the extremities ; roads opened and frequented, com- 
 munications established every-wherc, as so many witnesses of 
 the strength and union of society ; a tiiousand other monu- 
 ments of power and glory, sufficiently demonstrate that man, 
 possessing dominion over the earth, has changed, renewed the 
 whole of its surface, and that, at all times, he shares the empire 
 with nature. 
 
 Nevertheless, he only reigns by right of conquest ; he rather 
 enjoys than possesses, and he can preserve but by dint cf turci 
 K k >
 
 ( 376 ; 
 
 eontlnualfy renewed. If they cease, everything droops, every 
 thing alters, every thing changes and again returns under the 
 hand of nature : she reassumes her rights, erases the works 
 of man, covers with dust and moss his most pompous monu- 
 ments, destroys them in time, and leaves hira nothing but the 
 regret of having lost, through his fault, -tvhat his ancestors had 
 conquered by their labour. Those limes in which man 
 loses his dominion, those barbarous ages, during which every 
 thing is seen to perish, are always prepared by war, and 
 accompanied by scarcity and depopulation. Man, who can 
 do nothing but by number, \^ ho is strong only by reuni'in, 
 who can be happy but by peace, is mad enough to arm himself 
 for his misfortune, and to fight for his ruin. Impelled by 
 insatiable avidity, blinded by ambition still more insatiable, he 
 renounces all feelings of humanity, turns all his strength 
 against himself, seeks for mutual destruction, actually destroys 
 himself j and, after those days of blood and carnage, when 
 the smoke of glory has vanished, he contemplates with a sad 
 look the earth wasted, the arts buried, the nations dispersed, 
 the people weakened, his own happiness ruined, and his real 
 power annihilated. 
 
 BUFFON. 
 
 vr. 
 
 THE CONCERT. 
 
 AN EASTERiJ FABLE. 
 
 Divine mercy had brought a vicious man into a society of 
 sages whose morals were holy and pure. He was touched by 
 their virtues j it was not long before he imitated them and lost 
 •his old habits : he became just, sober, patient, laborious and 
 beneficent. His deeds nobody could deny, but they were at- 
 tributed to odious motives. They praised his good aftions^ 
 without loving his person : they would always judge him by 
 what he had lieen, not by what he was become. This injustice 
 penetrated him with grief; he shed tears into the bosom 
 of an ancient sage, more just and more humane than the others.
 
 ( 377 ) 
 
 «' O my son !" said the old man to him, " thou art better 
 than thy reputation ; be thankful to God for it, Happy the 
 man who can say : my enemies and my rivals censure in me 
 vices of which I am not guilty. What matters it, if thou art 
 good, that men pursue thee as wicked .- Hast thou not, to com- 
 fort thee, the two best witnesses of thy ai^ious, God and thy 
 conscience .-" 
 
 ST. LAMBERT. 
 
 vir. 
 
 AGITATION OF THE WICKED, SERENITY 
 OF THE JUST. 
 
 The wicked man dreads and avoids himself ; he diverts his 
 mind by throwing himself out of his own being ; he cast* 
 looks of uneasiness around him, and seeks for an objeft that 
 may amuse him ; without bitter satire, without insulting rail- 
 lery, he would always be sad ; mocking laughter is his sole 
 delight. On the contrary, the serenity of the just Is interna! ; 
 his smile is not of malignity, but of joy : he carries the source 
 of it in himself ; he is as lively, when by himself, as when ia 
 the midst of company ; he does Jiot draw his content from 
 those who approach him, he communicates it to them. 
 
 J. J-ROtSSEAC. 
 
 vjir. 
 
 GENERAL FIEIF OF NATURE. 
 Trees, shrubs aud plants are the ornament and clothing of 
 the earth. Nothing is so melancholy as the prospeft of a 
 country naked and bare, exhibiting to the eyes nothipg but 
 stones, mud and sand. But vivified, by nature and clad in in 
 nuptial robe, amidst the course of waters and the singing of 
 birds, the earth presents to man,. in the harmony pf the three 
 kingdoms, a spe<ftacle full of life, interest and charms, the 
 only spe(flacle in this worid of which his eyes and heart are 
 never v.eary. 
 
 Kk3
 
 ( 378 ) 
 
 The more a contemplative man's soul is fraught with sen- 
 sibility, the more he yields to the ecstacies which this harmony 
 produces in him. A soft and deep melancholy then takes pos- 
 session of his senses, and, in an ebriety of delights, loses him- 
 self in the immensity of that beautiful system, with which he 
 feels himself identified. Then, every particular obje£l escapes 
 him, he sees and feels nothing but in the whole. Some par- 
 ticular circumstance must contrail his ideas and circumscribe 
 his imagination, before he can observe by parcels that universe 
 which he was endeavouring to embrac-e. 
 
 J. J. ROUSSEAV^ 
 
 IX. 
 
 INorCATION TO THE GOD OF KJTURE. 
 
 Almighty God, whose presence alone supports nature and 
 maintains the harmony of the-laws of the universe; Thou, 
 ■who, from the immoveable throne of the empyrean, secst 
 the celestial spheres roll under thy feet, without shock and 
 ■without confusion ; who, from the bosom of repose, repro- 
 ducest every moment their immense movements, and alone 
 govcrnest, in profound peace, that infinite number of heavens 
 and worlds ; restore, restore at length tranquillity to the a""gi-- 
 tated earth !■ let it be silent ! at thy voice, let discord and war 
 cease the sound of their proud clamours ! God of goodness, 
 author of all beings, thy paternal looks take in all the'objefts 
 of the creation : bat man is thy chosen being ; thou hast en- 
 livened his soul with a ray of thy immortal light ; complete 
 the measure of thy kindness, by penetrating his heart with a 
 ray of thy love : this divine sentiment, diffusing itself every- 
 where, will reconcile opposite natures ; man will no longer 
 dread the sight of man ; his hand will no longer wield the 
 murderous steel ; the devouring fire of war will no longer dry 
 up the source of generations ; the human species now weak- 
 ened, mutilated, mowed down in its blossom, will spring anew 
 and multiply without number ; nature overwhelmed under the 
 weJgtu of stour^cs, wiU soon rcassiime, with a new life, its
 
 ( 379 ) 
 
 former friiitfulness ; and we, beneficent God, will secondly 
 
 we will cultivate it, we will contemplate it incessantly, that w© 
 
 may every moment offer thee a new tribute of gratitude 
 
 and admiration. 
 
 BUFFOM» 
 
 X. 
 
 THOUGHTS ON POETRY. 
 
 Wherever I went, I found that poetry was consideredas the 
 highest learning, 1 and regarded 2 with a veneration some- 
 what approaching to that which man would pay to angelic 
 nature. 
 
 It yet fills me with wonder that, in almost all countries, the 
 most ancient poets are considered as the best ; whether it be 
 that every other kind of knowledge is an acquisition gradually 
 attained, and poetry is a gift conferred at once ; or that the 
 first poetry of every nation surprised them as a novelty, and 
 retained the credit by consent, which it received by accident 
 at first : or whether, as the province 3 of poetry is to describe 
 nature and passion, which are alv/ays the same, the first wri- 
 ters took possession of the most striking objefts for descrip- 
 tion, and the most probable occurrences for fi£lion, and left 
 nothing to those that followed them, but transcription 4 of the 
 same events, and new combinations 3 of the same images. 
 Whatever be the reason, it is commonly observed that the 
 early writers are in possession of nature, and their followers of 
 art : that the fii-st excel in strength and invention, and the 
 latter in elegance and refinement. 
 
 I v/as desirous to add my name to this illustrious fraternity. 
 I read all the poets of Persia and Arabia, and was able to 
 repeat by memory the volumes that are suspended in the 
 mosque of Mecca. But I soon found that no man was ever 
 great by imitation. My desire of excellence impelled me to 
 transfer my attention to nature and to life. Nature was to be 
 
 1 Part of literature. 2 Was looked upon as a kind of 
 heavenly emanation. 3 TUe aim. 4 But to copy. 5 And to 
 jyake new combinations.
 
 ( 3So ) 
 
 my subje6l, and men to be my auditors : I could never describa 
 what I had not seen : I could not hope to move those with 
 delight or terror, 6 whose interests and opiniona i did not 
 understand. 
 
 Being now resolved to be a poet, I saw every thing with a 
 new purpose j my sphere of attention was suddenly magnified: 
 no kind of knowledge was to be overlooked. I ranged moun- 
 tains and deserts for images and resemblances, 7 and pifturcd 
 upon my mind every tree of the forest and flower of the val- 
 ley. I observed with equal care the crags of the rock and the 
 pinnacles of the palace. Sometimes, I wandered along the 
 mazes of the rivulet, and sometimes, watched the changes of 
 the summer-clouds. To a poet nothing can be useless. What- 
 ever is beautiful, and whatever is dreadful, must be familiar to 
 his imagination : he must be conversant 8 with all that is aw- 
 fully vast or elegantly little. The plants of the garden, the 
 animals of-the wood, the minerals of the earth, and the meteors 
 of the sky, must all concur to store his mind with inexhaust- 
 ible variety ; for, every idea is useful for the enforcement or 
 decoration y of moral or religious truth; and he who knows 
 most, will have most power of diversifying his scenes, and' 
 gratifying his reader with remote allusions and unexpected 
 instru6lion. 
 
 All the appearances of nature T was, therefore, careful to 
 study, 10 an.l every country which I have surveyed has con- 
 tributed some hing to my poetical powers. 
 
 In so wide a survey, interrupted the prince, you must 
 surely have left much unobserved. I have lived, till now, 
 within the circuit of these mountains, and yet cannot walk 
 abroad without the sight of something which I had never 
 beheld before, or never heeded. 
 
 6 To awake delight or terror in those, whose, Sec. 7 To 
 j;athcr images and resemblances. 8 He must observe. 9 To 
 enforce, or set off the moral, &c. iO I Nva& studying with 
 sare all the, &c.
 
 The business of a poet, said Imlac, is to examine, not the 
 jadividual, but the species; to remark general properties and 
 large appearances 11: he does not number the streaks of the 
 tulip, or describe the different shades in the verdure of the 
 forest. He is to exhibit, in his portraits of nature, such pro- 
 minent and striking features 1?, as recal the original to every 
 mind; and must negleft the minuter discriminations 13, which 
 oat may have remarked, and another neglefted, for those 
 charafreristics 14 which are alike obvious to vigilance and 
 carelessness. 
 
 But the knowledge of nature is only half the task of a poet: 
 he must be acquainted likewise with all the modes of Hfe ! 15 
 His charafter requires that he estimate the happiness and 
 misery of every condition ; observe the power of all the pas- 
 sions, in all their combinations, and trace the changes of the 
 human mind, as they are modified by various institutions and 
 accidental influences of climate or custom ; from the spright- 
 liness of infancy to the despondence of decrepitude. He must 
 divest himself of the prejudices of his age or country; he 
 must consider right and wrong in their abstrafted and inva- 
 riable state ; he must disregard present laws and opinions, and 
 rise to general and transcendental truths, which will always 
 be the same : he must, therefore, content himself with the 
 slow progress of his name, contemn the applause of his owa 
 time, and commit his claims to the justice of posterity. He 
 must write as the interpreter of nature, and the legislator of 
 mankind, and consider himself as presiding over the thoughts, 
 and manners of future generations, as a being superior to 
 time and place. 
 
 His labour is not yet at an end : he must know many lan- 
 guages and many sciences ; and, that his style may be worthy 
 
 1 1 And appearances at large. 
 
 12 Of those features prominent and striking, which, &c. 
 
 13 These smnll differences. 
 
 1 i And to apply himself to charafterize, &rc. 
 15 All the different aspects of human life, &c.
 
 ( 3^2 ) 
 
 of his thoui^brs, must, by incessant praftice, familiarize ta 
 himself evcy delicacy of speech and grace of harmony. 
 
 S, JOHNSON. 
 
 XI. 
 
 Observation. As it is chiefly in poetry that 
 the English language differs from the FVench, we 
 novv propose showing to the English learner how he 
 is to proceed in order to transport int(j tiie French 
 tongue the beauties of his poets. At the bottom of 
 the page, will be found the decomposition of the sen- 
 tences, accommodated to the genius of the French, so 
 as nearly to point out the very expressions to be made 
 use of in the translation. To look for elegance, per- 
 haps, even, for grammatical precision, would be 
 u;;eless; we never intended it. 
 
 First follow nature, and your judgment frame 
 By her just standard, which is still the same ; 
 Unerring nature, still divinely bright, 
 One clear, unchang'd, and universal light. 
 Life, force, and beauty, must to all impart j ! 
 
 At once the source, and end, and test of art. 2 
 
 Art, from that fund, each just supply provides; 
 Works without show, and without pomp presides: 
 In some fair body thus th' informing soul 
 With spirit feeds, with vigour filh the whole. 
 Each motion guides, and every nerve sustains ; 
 Itself unseen, but in th' cftefts remains. 5 
 
 Some, to whom heav'n in wit h;is been profuse. 
 Want as much mt're, to turn k to its use j 
 For, v/ii and judgment often are at strife, 
 
 1 Light clear, immutable and universal, nature, vvhch n-: cr 
 errs, and shines always with a divine splendour, uui.-t iuj] -ift 
 to all the does, life, force and beauty. 
 
 2 She is at oiice the source, See. 
 
 :'. So, in a fair body, unseen itself, but always ^.ensible 
 by its tffefts, the soul continually a<fling, feeds the whole 
 vith spirits, fills it with vigour, guides every uiotiou of it, 
 aiid sustains every nerve.
 
 C 3S3 ) 
 
 Tho' meant each others aid, 4 
 
 'Tis more to guide, than spur the muse's steed ; 
 Restrain his fury, than provoke his speed: 3 
 
 The winged courser, like a gen'rous horse, 
 Shows most true mettle, when you check its course. '> 
 
 POI't. 
 
 xir. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF THE GARDEN OF EDEN. 
 
 In this pleasant soil 
 His far more pleasant garden God ordain'd ; 7 
 
 Out of the fertile ground he caused to grow 
 All trees of noblest kind for sight, smell, taste; S 
 
 And all a -11 J li: n ^ ood the tree of life, 
 High eminent, L . nine ambrosial fruit 
 Of vegecable gold :■ ; and next to life. 
 Our di;atii, the tree of knowledge grew fast by, 
 KnoA ledge of good Dought dear, by knowing ill. 
 Southward thr ugh Eden went a river large, 
 Kor chang'd its course, but through the shaggy hill 10 
 
 i. Some, to whom p.eaven has given wit with profusion, 
 want as much yet, to know the use they ought to make of it ; 
 for, wit and jadgment, though made to aid each other, are 
 often in opposiiic/n. 
 
 5 It is more dlffi>.ult to guide than spur the courser of the 
 muses, and to rti'srrun us ardour than provoke its impetuosity. 
 
 6 Tne wing<d courser is like a generous horse : the' more 
 we strive to stop it in its rapid course, the more it shows 
 unconquerable vigour. 
 
 7 In the middle of hat pleasant landscape, a far more 
 charming gard.ii had h>-d God for its disposer. 
 
 8 Of the fertile gi'juad he had caused to come out all 
 the trees, the n /olesr. zv.d most proper to charm the eyes, and 
 flatter smell and tas; 
 
 9 In the mid t )i r ci.; rose, with majesty, the tree of life, 
 from which flowed the ambrosia of liquid gold. 
 
 10 Not far fiosc there was the tree of knowledge, of good 
 and ev 1, which <. :• - = ■■ 30 dear: fatal tree, the sprout uf 
 %\iaich has piou : . : . r . ' r.
 
 ( 384 ) 
 
 ?ass'd underneath ingulf 'd 1 ; for God had throw/ 
 That mountain as his garden mound high rais'd 
 Upon the rapid current, which through veins 
 Of porous earth, with kindly thirst up drawn. 
 Rose a fresh fountain, and with many 3 rill 
 Water'd the garden 2 j thence united fell 
 DowH die steep glade, and met the nether flood, 
 Which from its darksome passage now appears, 
 And now divided into four main streams, 
 Runs diverse, wand'ring many a famous realm 
 And country 3. 
 
 But rather to tell how, if art could tell. 
 How from that sapljir fount the crisped brooks, 
 Rolling on orient pearl and sands of gold, 
 With mazy error under pendant shades 
 Ran neftar, visiting each plant, and fed 
 Flow'rs worthy of Paradise 4, which not nice art 
 In beds and curious knots 5, but nature's boon 
 Pour'd forth profuse on hill and dale and plain, 
 Both where the morning sun first warmly smote 
 The open field, and where the unpierc'd shade 
 
 1 To the south of Eden flowed a large river, of which the 
 course never changed, but disappeared, ingulfed under a 
 mountain. 
 
 2 God having laid this mountain, which served («)/_) foun- 
 dation to his garden, upon this rapid wave, which softly 
 drawn up by the earth thirsty and porous, rose through its 
 veins till the top, whence it issued like a clear fountain, and 
 dividing into many rills, watered the garden. 
 
 3 United there, they fell from the steep mountain, and 
 met the nether waters, which issued from their dark passage, 
 divided now into four large rivers, which wandering, ran 
 through many famous realms and countries. 
 
 4 But how is it possible (to) art to describe that fountain of 
 saphir, of which the bright and sinuous brooks rolling on ori- 
 ental pearl and sands of gold, formed numberless labyrinths 
 under the shades that covered them, by pouring the neftar 
 into every plant, and feeding flowers worthy of Paradise. 
 
 5 They were ranged neither in symetrical compartments 
 nor in nosegays formed with art. 
 
 Im-
 
 ( 385 ) 
 
 Imbrdwn'd the noontide bow'rs 10. Thus was this place 
 
 A happy, rural seat, of various view 1 1 ; 
 
 Groves, whose rich trees wept odorous gum and balm, 
 
 Others whose fruit burnish'd with golden rind, 
 
 Hung amiable, Hesperian fables true. 
 
 If true, here only 12, and of delicious taste 13: 
 
 Betwixt them lawns, or level downs, and flocks 
 
 Grazing the tender herb, were intcrpos'd, 
 
 Or palmy hilloc 14 ; or the flow'ry lap 
 
 Of some irriguous valley spread her store, 
 
 Flovr'rs of all hue, and without thorn the rose 15 : 
 
 Another side, umbrageous grots and caves 
 
 Of cool recess 16, o'er which the mantling vine 
 
 Lays forth her purple grape, and gently creeps 
 
 Luxuriant 17 j meanwhile, murmuring waters fall 
 
 10 But bountiful nature h-.d poured forth numberless 
 beauties on hills, vallics i.r,d pl^tiiii ; its riches were protusely 
 spread over open plains, which the morning sun-beams 
 warmed softly, and under the bowers of which the thick 
 shades preserved, during the heat of the day, a delicious 
 coolness. 
 
 11 Tiius the happy and rural seat charmed the eyes by its 
 variety. » 
 
 12 Whatever fable s^-s of the garden of the^ Hespciides 
 W..S really to be seen in the admirable garden of Eden. 
 
 13 There v.cre to be seen, groves full of trees of the high- 
 est beauty, from which precious balms and odorous gums 
 flowed: (to) the others hung bright and golden fruits, which 
 charmed the eyes and delighted the taste. 
 
 14 Between these trees appeared carpets of green, and on 
 the declivity of the valiies and palmy hillocks, flocks grazed 
 the tender herb. 
 
 15 Here streams run winding about through the bottom of 
 an irriguous valley covered with flowers, which offered richcg 
 pf various colours, among which shone the rose without 
 thorn. V 
 
 Ip There appeared grot? impenetrable to the rays of the 
 sun, anci caves in which a delightful coolness reigned. 
 
 IT They were covered with vines, which spreading on 
 every side their flexible branches, offeicd, in abuu'laiicc, 
 giapts of purple, 
 
 Li
 
 ( 3S6 I 
 
 Dnwn the slope hills, dispers'd, or in a lake, 
 That to the fringed bank with myrtle crown'd' 
 Her crystal mirror holds, unite their streams 18^ 
 The birds their choir apply ; airs, vernal airs. 
 Breathing the smell cf field and grove, attune 
 The trembling leaves, while universal Pan 
 Knit with the graces and the hours in dance, 
 Led on th' eternal spring li>. 
 
 Here ends the task of tlie grammarian : the pupil is 
 now acquainted with the language, both in its meclia- 
 nism and in its genius, and has, besides, been initiated 
 into the first principles of rhetoric and taste. It now 
 rests with the rhetorician to complete what the gram- 
 marian could only begin : and this I intend to do^ 
 according to my promise, in a future work, but in 
 f'rench. 
 
 A FE IV D IR E CTIONS 
 FOR FINDING OUT THE GENDER OF NOUNS. 
 
 Observation, We give the name of y<';7z/;//«(r 
 to any termination in c mute, eitliej alone, or followed 
 by 5, as it happens to i>e esiher singular or plural, 
 and that of mascuUnc to every other tcimination. If 
 these two terminations were, in all cases, the marks of 
 the gender of nouns, nothing would be easier than to 
 diredi foreigners on a point so perplexing for them : 
 but this, far froni being a sure guide, is, on the con- 
 trary, the least certain. 
 
 18 The streams, flowing with a soft murmuring, formed 
 agreeable water-falls down the declivity of hills, and dispersed 
 afterwards, or united inio a beautiiul lake, which offered its. 
 mirror of chrystal to its sh. res c( vered with flowers and 
 crowned with myrtle. 
 
 ^6 Ihe bir(!s formed a melodious choir, and the zcphirs 
 hringing with them the odorous smell of the vallies and 
 gloves, were murmuring among the leaves gently agitated,- 
 ^hile P..n, danciui^ with the graces and the hours, led on tikc 
 .■«trna,l ■ pring.
 
 ( 3S7 ) 
 In order to treat this subjecSl v;ith some degree- of 
 precision, we shall divide it into four sedions. In 
 tlie first, we shall examine which are the substantives 
 of species which have a determinate gender, what- 
 ever be their terminations. In the second, which are 
 the substantives of species that follow the gender of 
 their termination. In the third, we shall speak of 
 substantives which have a masculine termination. 
 Lastly, in the fourth, of substantives that have a 
 feminine terminaiion. We shall avail ourselves of 
 the work of the Abbe Girard, who has treated this, 
 subjeil much better than any other grammarian,. 
 §. I. 
 
 SUBSTANTIVES OF SPECIES, WHICH HAVE A DE- 
 TERMINATE QENDER, WHATEVER BE THEIR 
 TERMINATIONS. 
 
 i'^. The names of days, months and seasons of tlie 
 year, are masculine. Automnc alone is of both gen- 
 ders, though more commonly feminine. 
 
 Observation^ When we join the diminutive 
 mi to the name of a monrh, this compound word be- 
 comes feminine : la ml-Jum. 
 
 1^. All the nanies ot trees, shrubs, tov*ns, colours, 
 and minerals, are also masculine. 
 
 Except, pUiime^ a raetaL; vigncy r.ance, cp'tncy. 
 shrubs. 
 
 Observation. If there are some names of 
 to\Y"s that are feminine, says the Abbe Girard, "they 
 arc but few, and even some of them show the gender 
 in an unequivocal maniu;r, being compound of the ar- 
 ticle, as of a necessary and insej)arahlc part, as~: la- 
 Rochclle, dec. However, when the termination is 
 feminine, it is more sale to subjoin to it the word 
 v'llle, as : la vilL'' dc Roms. 
 
 3". 'Vhe names of mountains and winds are also 
 masculine. ' We except Us Alpes^ les Pyrcnni-s, les 
 l^asges, les Coxdillicres., Sec. La bhe, the north wind. 
 
 4°. The nouns of number, ordi)ial, distributive and 
 proportional , adjedtivcs, inhnitivcs ot verbs 3 adverbs 
 L 1 2
 
 ( 38S ) 
 
 and prepositions taken substantively, are also mascu- 
 line. 
 
 We except, une mo'itie, line courbe, une tangente, une 
 diagonale, une prrpcndiculalre, une antique, 
 
 5°. All ihe n^iines of the letters are masculine in 
 the new spelling (Ac:vdemy), but, in the old, which 
 is now exploded, f, h, I, m, n, r, s, are feminine. 
 
 6°. All diminutives follow the gender of the nouns 
 from which they are derived. Globule is masculine, 
 because it is derived from globe, substantive masculine. 
 Pellicule IS, feminine, because it is derived from jS^^k, 
 substantive feminine. 
 
 7°. The names of virtues and qualities are feminine. 
 We except, courage, merite. 
 
 §. IL 
 
 SUBSTANTIVES OF SPECIES, WHICH FOLLOW 
 THE GENDER OF THEIR TERMINATION. 
 
 Observation. Here, says the Abbe Girard, 
 the rules are not so certain : when any doubt arises,, 
 the dictionary, not the grammar, ought to be con- 
 sulted. 
 
 The substantives of species, which, in general, fol- 
 low the gendei" of their termination, arc 
 
 10. Those of stares, empires, kingdoms, provinces 
 and rivers. 
 
 We except, le Alexique, kingdom ; k Perche, le 
 Maine, &c. provinces : le Rhone, le Tuge, le Da- 
 nube, &:c. rivers. 
 
 Observation. For the names of countries, says 
 the Abbe Girard, 1 do not see any exception that can 
 create a doubt. As to the names of rivers, the mas- 
 culine termination generally denotes their gender ; but 
 there are some exceptions, as: la Lis, a river in Bel- 
 gium. According to the same grammarian, the 
 feminine termination is divided between both genders. 
 
 2°. Those of grains, huit, flowers, vegetables and 
 stone;-. 
 
 Wq. except, Forge, le se'igle, le poivre, le sucre, 
 le girojle, le chevrc-fcuiUe^ le porphire, Irsable^ Vel-
 
 ( 3S9 ) 
 
 fc^hre, le gingemhc, ralbatre, ic j'aspc^ le marhre, 
 le platre, la noix, la chaux. 
 
 3°. All the parts and appurtenances of a house. 
 
 We except, I' office^ une cle^ un siege, tin coffre^ 
 ttn pupitre, le vestibule, imttage, la cour, unpo'ele,un 
 vcrre, un couvercle, un vase, un portique. 
 §. IIL 
 
 SUBSTANTIVES OF MASCULINE TER.MINAT ION. 
 
 We place among masculine substantives, 
 
 1°. Those v.'hich have the last syllable ending in «, 
 or the sound of «, or which have a naoai teroii'naiion. 
 
 We except : part, hart, dent. 
 
 1°. Those ending in ail, al, ell, el, cell, eull, eu, 
 tcu : travail, local, del, scl, cell, fautcull, jcu, lieu. 
 
 30. Those v.'hich have the last syllable in e open, or 
 e close, without being preceded by a f ; and in e mute, 
 followed by one or more consonants, except s. 
 
 We except : cle, culUer, nef, foret, mer. 
 
 4<^. Those in al, whether diis termination be or 
 be not followed by one or nrore consonants. 
 
 We except : chair, main, faim-. 
 
 5°. Those in ul or /, followed by consonants or 
 not. 
 
 We except : fourml, mcrcl, hnhls, nuit, fin, vis. 
 
 6°. Those in au and cau. 
 
 We except : eau, peau. 
 
 7«, 'i'hose mou, followed by consonants or not. 
 
 We except : cour, tour. 
 
 8°. Thoie in or ol, followed by consonants or 
 not. 
 
 We except : dot, mort, fol, lol, solf, volx, nolxy 
 croix, polx. 
 
 9°. Those in on, when dds nasal termination is 
 preceded neither by an I, a s, nor ani. 
 
 We except chanson, brisson, culsson, molsson, faqon^ 
 rangon, legon. 
 
 10°. Those in u, followed by a consonant or not. 
 
 We except : glu, trlbu, veriu. 
 1 10, Lasdy, all substantivci, Which do not end la 
 any of the following combinations, are masculine. 
 ■ Li^
 
 C 390 ) 
 
 But, we place among the feminine, 
 
 1°. Those in tic, without exception, and those in 
 te. 
 
 Among those of the latter termination, we except : 
 pate. He, arrete, cote, comite, the^ traite, comte, 
 bemdlcite. 
 
 2°. Those in eur. 
 
 We except : honheur, malheur, labeur, hormeur, 
 deshonneur, caeur, choeur, equ'ateur, exttrieur, inte~ 
 rjeur znd picurs. 
 
 3^. Those in hn, yon, son and zon. 
 
 We except : a/erian, bast':on, champion, crayon^ 
 embryon, gabion, gallion, horion, lampion, pion, psal-~ 
 terion, rayon, talion, blason, gason, horizon, oiiOn, 
 peson, poison, tison, septentrion and scion : to v/hich 
 may be added a few technical terms, others that are 
 obsolete, and some few which are nut used in good 
 company. 
 
 §. IV. 
 
 SUBSTANTIVES OF FEMININE TERMINATION. 
 
 Here, to look for any certain rules would be use- 
 less ; there is none. Pradlice alone, with the help of 
 a didlionary, when any doubt arises, is the only 
 way to distinguish the gender of substantives with 
 any degree of certainty. The feminine termina- 
 "tions are so numerous, and liable to so niany excep- 
 tions, that to endeavour to fix them in the memory 
 would be an irreparable loss of time. Suffice it to 
 say, that these terminations aie divided more or less 
 between the two genders, and that there is not one but 
 has as many exceptions as it has woids which come 
 tinder the rule. 
 
 FINIS.
 
 ADIHTIOKS AKD CORRECTIONS. 39I 
 
 Not having received the last edition of the di6lion- 
 arv of the French Academy, till some of the hrst 
 sheets of this grammar had been printed, I liave not 
 had an opportunity of speaking of a tew alterations 
 which are to he found in it. Those which I have 
 mentioned had been sent to me from Paris ; but 1 
 have not always found them so correct as I had rea- 
 son to expect, I shall mention them in these errata. 
 
 Page 2, 1. 36, for fl,,o, e, l, u, read : a, 0, e, «, /. 
 
 Page 4, 1. 26, for roidc, but not in roic/if, read : 
 roidc, roidcur, roidir m conversation: but in solemn 
 speaking, pronounce ad hbilum^ ro'idc^ roidcur^ roidir^ 
 or rede, rcdcnr, r'edir. 
 
 Page 12, Add at the bottom of the page : N.B.When 
 the noun of number ncvf is followed neither by a sub- 
 stantive, nor an adjective, this letter, is pronounced 
 ■with its proper sound ; v,e say : neuf et demi ; ih 
 ctoient neuf en tout ; les neuf arriverent a la fois. 
 
 Page 14, I. 24, dele yiv/.'V, in which the / has the 
 liquid sound. 
 
 Page 15, 1. 36, After annal and derivatives, add : 
 annate, annlhdation, annlhllcr, enneagone, inne, Inno'ja- 
 tion, innover. But the Academy does not mention that 
 pronunciation in annuel, annotation, annulcr : there- 
 fore, it does no longer take place in these words. 
 
 Page 16, after 1. 21, add : n. b. P is pronounced 
 in symptornatlque, whence we may conclude that it is 
 also sounded in symptome, although the Academy does 
 not mention it. But ic is mute in : ademption, redemp- 
 teur, redemption, dompter, and its deiivatives. Such 
 is the present usage, expressed by the Academv. 
 
 Ibid, after 1. 30, add: N. B. This letter is always 
 immediately followed by n, except in some "V^'crds 
 where it is final, as in coq, cinq. 
 
 Page iS, after 1. 35, add : N. B. " We are to ob- 
 serve," says tiic Academy, " that,, in general, the letter 
 s is but very little sonncied at the end of a word, ex- 
 cept when the following word begins with a vowe'. 
 Thus, in these words : mes propres irdO'Sts, we sound 
 the s of the last syllable in propres, as if the word j5/ . 
 pres ended with an ^ mute, and the nextbeganwirh a 2.'* 
 
 Ibid. After Oes£R.v AT ION, add: "Compound 
 wordiij " says the Academy, •' ' the simple ci •Aiiich be-
 
 r 392 ) 
 
 gins with the letter s, followed by a vowel, are gene- 
 rally spelt with ss, that they maybe pronounced hard, 
 and not as z : " Such are the words dcssus, dessous, des~ 
 servlr^ dessecher, 6cc. There are, however, some ex- 
 ceptions to this rule, such as, vraiscmblablc, vraiscm- 
 hlance, preseance ; but we spell with ss^ disscmhlable^ 
 resscmblant. We write bienseance with one j, bu^ 
 Tries seant with ss — another perplexity ! The e preced- 
 ing, &c. 
 
 Page 19, at the bottom of the page, read: It is 
 observed by the Academy that t is sounded in huh, 
 before a consonant, when that word is taken substan- 
 tively, as : Ic huh de Ma'i ; nn huh de chiffre ; but 
 this observation is not made about the word Sept. 
 
 Page 21, after 1. 20, add : This letter preserves its 
 ancient name %ede, in this proverbial expression only : 
 il est fuh comme un %. 
 Page 59 I. 25 for given up to, read: given up to 
 
 €0 1. 12 for of mankind, read oi (ail) mankind. 
 65 1. 12 for to be, read: to be 
 
 Ib'ulA. 22 for m. pi. read: finesie m. pi. 
 
 72 1. 34 for regardez, read : regarder 
 
 73 1, 17 for some winters, read: a winter 
 §9 1. 30 for of time, read ; of time 
 
 ■•;- -:;;■ * 
 
 Ibid.l. 31 for them his, read} them his 
 
 S3 1. 30 for as to, read: as to. 
 
 * * 
 
 .94 I. 10 /or of having kept truth, JYaaf: of 
 
 inf-1 tenu art. 
 having kept truth 
 
 jnf-1 tenu art. 
 
 166 1. 35. for they may,, read: they may 
 
 J70 1. 35 for to one another, read: to one aiioihcr, 01 
 
 * 
 
 to one another 
 
 * # •'■■ 
 
 178 1. 10 for on a, read: on 
 
 180 i. S8 /or ^pouvanter, rd'flrf: epouvantail 
 
 S102 I, 35 for besides, read : because 
 
 ^201 ]. 8 for the articleb are so far, read i the sub= 
 
 stantivesare so far 
 213 1. l\ for that Henry IV, read: that Henry VI. 
 >i.'j 1. 3i for it is we that, read; U is what we.
 
 -{ 393 ) 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 Pag-e 
 
 Introduction. - - - - L 
 
 PART I. 
 
 Of words considered as sounds - - ibid^ 
 
 Chap. I. of vowels - - - 2 
 
 Of simple vovvlIs - - - - ibid^. 
 
 A table of simple vowels - - - 3 
 
 Of nasal vowels - - - - 5 
 
 General principle - - - - ihid. 
 
 Am, an, ean, em, en . ^ - - Q 
 
 Im, in, aim, ain, ein - - -. - 7 
 
 Om, on, eon - - - - ibidk 
 
 Urn, un, eun - - - - ibid, 
 
 Qi diphthongs - - ^ - ibid^ 
 
 A tabic of d phthongs - - - 8 
 
 Chap. II. Of consonants - - - 9 
 
 Nam.es of consonants - - - 10. 
 
 A table of consonants according to thsir proper or accidental 
 
 sound - - ' - - 11 
 
 A table of soft and hard consonants - - i;3 
 
 Chap. III. Of syllables - - - ' 2i 
 
 €f the accent - - - - ibid. 
 
 l\ales_ of the accent - - - - 25 
 
 Of aspiration - - - - i,'6 
 
 A tabic of aspirated words - - - 27 
 
 Of quantity - - - , 29 
 
 Table I. A ~ - - - ibid. 
 
 T.^.ble II. E - - - - 35 
 
 Table III. I - - - 40 
 
 Table IV. O - - . - 4i^ 
 
 Table V. _ U - - - - 45 
 
 General principles ... - 4g 
 A table of words which have different meanings, as they 
 
 are pronounced either long or short - - 48 
 
 Three species of pronunciation - - 50 
 
 PART II. 
 
 Of words considered, as signs of our thoughts, - 52 
 
 Chap. I. Of the substantive - - ibid. 
 
 §. I. of the gender of substantives - - 53 
 
 §. 11. of the number of substantives - - 55 
 
 Chap, II. Of the article - - - 57 
 
 Elision - - - - - 58 
 
 Con-
 
 ( 394 ) 
 
 Page 
 Contraftion - - - - 59 
 Chap. II. Of the adjective - - - 61 
 How the French adjeftives form their feminine - iii/f. 
 How the plural is formed - - - 63 
 Degrees of signification - - - 64 
 Agreement of the adjeftive with the substantive 67 
 Government or regimen of adjeftives - - 68 
 Nouns and adjeftives of number - - - 70 
 Chap. IV. Of the pronoun - - - 71 
 §. I. of personal pronouns - _ - - Hid. 
 §, II. of possessive pronouns - - - 76 
 Of those, that are always joined to a noun - - 77 
 Of those that are never joined to a noun - - 78 
 §. HI. of relative pronouns - - - 80 
 §. IV. of absolute pronouns - - - 83 
 §. V. of demonstrative pronouns - - - 84. 
 §. VI. of indefiriue pronouns - - - 86 
 Of those which are never joined to a substantive - ii/iJ. 
 Of those which are always joined to nouns - - 90 
 Of those which are sometimes joined to nouns, and some- 
 times not - - - - - ?! 
 Of those which are followed by c^i^e - - 9-t 
 Chap. V. Of the verb - - - ^6 
 Of conjugations - - - -98 
 Conjugation of the auxiliary verb fl-vo/V - - 99 
 Coniugation of the auxiliary verb c/re - - lOG 
 rirst conjugation in i:r, a/wfT - - -114 
 Second conjugatiou in /')■, 4 branches - - 1'2J 
 Third conjugation in oir _ ^ . 128 
 Fourth conjugation in rti 5 branches - - 130 
 Conjugation of the reflected verb - - - 135 
 Conjugation of the impel sonal verb - - 137 
 Irregular verbs of the first conjugation - - 13i> 
 Irregular verbs of the second coi>jugation - - 1^1 
 Irregular verbs of the third conjugation - - 144 
 Irregular verbs of the fourth conjugation - - l'l-7 
 Of the formation of the tenses - - - 153 
 Agreement of the verb with the suhje£t - - 156 
 Of the government of verbs - - - 1^3 
 Of the nature and use of moods and tenses of the indica- 
 tive - - - " " ■'^;" 
 Of the conditional _ - - - 163 
 Of the imperative - - - - l64 
 Of the subjuntfive - _ - - :iid. 
 Of the infinitive - - . - " ^?^ 
 Of the participle present -. - " ^'J'^ 
 Of the participle past - . . " . ' .^^'"^ 
 Agreement of the participle past ^vith its subjeft ■> ibiJ'.
 
 ( 395 ) 
 
 Page 
 Agreement of the participle past with its regimen - 1*59 
 Chap. VI. Of prepositions - - H^ 
 
 Chap. YII. Of the adverb - - - 182 
 
 Formation of the adverbs . _ - ;^/W. 
 
 Chap. VIII. Of conjunaions - - 136 
 
 The different kinds of conjunctions - - 15^7 
 
 Of the conjunftion qi^e . _ , 190 
 
 Government of conjunftions - - - 1^2 
 
 Conjunftions which govern the infinitive - iii(^- 
 
 Those that govern the indicative - - 193 
 
 Tiiobe which govern the subjimctive - - l-'^^t 
 
 Crap. IX. Of interjc(ftions - - - 195 
 
 Chap. X. General and particular rules of syntax upon 
 
 e?xh sort of words - - - 'i-ii^- 
 
 Important preliminary observations - . - 19o 
 
 Hov\' to express in French the preposition fa - ibid. 
 
 Of the use of the participle present in English - ibid. 
 
 When are do, did, ivill, -would, should, can, cotdd, may 
 and might to be considered as mere signs of tenses, and 
 when are they real verbs ? - - - " 1^'' 
 
 §. I. of the substantive - - . - 200 
 
 Of the substantive as a siihje£l - - - 'l"f^' 
 
 Of the substantive in the form of apostrophe - - i^id» 
 
 Of the substantive as a regimen. - • 201 
 
 §. II. of the article - " - - " .^^ 
 
 General rules -• - - - ihid. 
 
 General principle on the use of the article - - 204 
 
 Cases in which Vv-e ougiit to make use of the article - ibid. 
 Cases in which the article is not used - - 211 
 
 A comparative table, in which the same words are used 
 according to circumstances, either with or without the 
 article - - - - 215 
 
 Soifle idiomatical diiFerences - - - 218 
 
 A table of nouns construed without either pronoun or 
 preposition, preceded by a verb of which they are the 
 complement - ' - - - 2 I'd 
 
 §. III. of the adjeftive - - - 222- 
 
 Of the adjedlive with the article - - ibid. 
 
 A difficulty cleared up . - - 225 
 
 The place of the adje6tives - - - 32T 
 
 Some idiomatical differences - - - 231 
 
 Adjectives of number _ - - 232 
 
 §. IV. of the pronouns . - - 234< 
 
 Personal pronouns - - - ibid. 
 
 Cases in which the pronouns <?//<?, eJ/cs, eiex, lui, latr, 
 
 may apply to things ... 23.') 
 
 The actual use of i&/ - - - - 241 
 
 A difficulty about the pronoun le cleared up - 243 
 
 Kepetition of the personal pronouns - - 244
 
 ( 39^ ) 
 
 Relation of the pronouns of the third persons to a noun 
 
 expressed before - _ - . 247 
 
 The place of personal pronouns - - 249 
 
 Possessive pronouns - - - 234 
 
 Difficulties upon the use of the possessive pronouns 
 
 cleared up, first difficulty - - - liid. 
 
 Second difficulty - _ - 25 > 
 
 Observations on the posscisive pronouns which are never 
 
 joined to nouns - - - 258 
 
 Relative pronouns _ . . 259 
 
 On qui . . _ - idid. 
 
 Important observation ~ - - 262 
 
 On gue - - - ' - 263 
 
 On /eque/ - ~ - - 265 
 
 On cfuoi and oii ~ ~ - - 267 
 
 Absolute pronouns - - - 268- 
 
 Demonstrative pronouns ... 270 
 
 On the use of ce employed for a person or thing before 
 
 mentioned - - -271 
 
 enjoined to relative pronouns qui, que, dont and quoi 272 
 Indefinite pronouns - - - 275 
 
 On 07i - - - ibid, 
 
 A difficulty about cliacun cleared up - - ibid, 
 
 A difficulty about ^»///;a/ cleared up - - 27S 
 
 On person7ie - - - 279 
 
 A difficulty about Vun et /'a/^/r^ cleared up - ibid, 
 
 A difficulty about tout cleared up - - 280 
 
 Use of qutique que - •» - 282 
 
 § V. of the verb - - - 283 
 
 On the use of the two auxiliaries - - ibid. 
 
 Agreement of the verb with its subjeft - - 275 
 
 txceptions - - . - ibid. 
 
 A difficulty on the colledive partitive cleared up 287 
 
 Place of the subjedl with regard to the verb - 291 
 
 Government of the verbs - - - 295 
 
 Of the use, proper or accidental, of moods and tenses 2J)8 
 
 Use of the present - - - ihid. 
 
 Use of the imperfeft _ - _ 2t y 
 
 Use of the definite and indefinite preterits . - 300 
 
 Use of the tu-o preterits anterior, and pluperfcft 30j 
 
 Refleftions on the usu of,those different preterits 303 
 
 Use of the two future tenses - - 306 
 
 Use of the conditional - - - 307 
 
 Observation on the use of the conditional and, future 30;^ 
 
 Use of the subjiindtive - - 3U 
 
 Relations which the tenses of the indicative have one to 
 
 another - - - 312 
 
 Relations which the tenses of the subjuncSlivc have to 
 those of the indicative - - 3l>
 
 ( 397 ) 
 
 Page 
 
 Cases in which we employ the subjunftive -• 31S 
 
 Observation on the intiiiitive - ;- 321 
 
 §. VI. of prepositions - - ■■ 32* 
 
 The use of tlie article with prepositions * - 32i 
 
 Repetition of prej^ositions - - 325 
 
 Of the governm(.nt of prepositions - - 326 
 
 §. VII. of the adverb - - - 327 
 
 On the negative >!£ - - - JiiJ. 
 
 Gross mistake of some grammarians on the negatives 328 
 
 1. Question. Which is the place of the negatives ? iiic^. 
 
 2. Question. When are we to make use oi pas in prefer- 
 ence to pointy and iiice ijersu? - - ibid, 
 
 3. Question. When may we omit both pas zwApoint ? 329 
 
 4. Question. When ought we to omit both/aj and point? ibid. 
 An important explanation - - 333 
 The place of the adverbs - - 33S 
 Chap. XI. Of grammatical construftion - 338 
 Of inversion - - - 343 
 Of the ellipsis - - ' - 343 
 Of the pleonasm - - - ibid. 
 Of the silLepsis . - - 344 
 Chap. XII. Of grammatical disagreements, amphibo- 
 logies, and, occasionally, of gallicisms - 3^5. 
 
 Of grammatical disagreemeats - - ibid. 
 
 Of amphibologies - - - 346 
 
 Of gallicisms ... 3.1.7 
 
 Chap. XIII. A treatise on orthography - 34f) 
 
 Of the printed accents - - - 3j0 
 
 Of the apostrophe - . - - 351 
 
 Of the hvphen - - - 3j2 
 
 Of the diarssis , - - - '3i)3 
 
 Of t.he cedille _ - . - 354 
 
 Of the parenthesi". - ■ - ibid. 
 
 Art. I. the orthography of substantives . - 355 
 
 Art. II. the orthography of adjectives - - 3G1 
 
 Art. II f. the orthographv of pronouns - 352 
 
 Art. IV. the orthography of verbs - - 363 
 
 Art. V. the orthography of adverbs - - 366 
 
 Chap. XIV, Of puni'tuation - - 368 
 
 Of the comma . . - ibid. 
 
 Of the semicolon - . - 370 
 
 Of the colon - - - ibid. 
 
 Of the period - - - 371 
 
 Krtc exerciics ... 372 
 
 A new direction for finding out the gender of nouns 387 
 
 Additions and corrections - - 31*1 
 
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